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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Lewis_Prize#:~:text=2016%20%E2%80%93%20Sir%20Martyn%20Poliakoff | Lord Lewis Prize | The Lord Lewis Prize is awarded by the Royal Society of Chemistry for distinctive and distinguished chemical or scientific achievements together with significant contributions to the development of science policy. The recipient receives a medal, a certificate and a prize of £5,000.
The Lord Lewis Prize is awarded every two years to mark the substantial contributions that Professor Lord Lewis made to chemistry and science policy. The inaugural Lord Lewis Prize was awarded to Lord May of Oxford, former president of the Royal Society and chief scientific advisor to the UK Government, in 2008.
== Recipients ==
Source: Royal Society of Chemistry
2008 – Lord Robert May
2010 – Sir John Cadogan
2012 – Sir David King
2014 – Sir John Holman
2016 – Sir Martyn Poliakoff
2018 – Luis Oro University of Zaragoza, CSIC
2020 – Vernon C. Gibson
2022 – Alastair Charles Lewis
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apharwat_Peak#:~:text=Apharwat%20Peak%20is%20a%20summit,for%20much%20of%20the%20year. | Apharwat Peak | Apharwat Peak is a summit, situated at a height of 4,390 metres (14,403 ft) above the sea level, in Gulmarg, India. It receives heavy snowfall and remains covered with snow for much of the year. The Line of Control (LOC) is barely a few kilometres away from here. Lying in the second phase of the cable car ride from Gulmarg, reaching this spot is highly dependent on the weather conditions.
Gulmarg has more than three acres of ski and snowboarding terrain. The beginner's slopes start at about 7000 feet, while more serious runs of Phase 1 are at 10,000 feet. A chairlift can take ski and snowboard enthusiasts up to 11,500 feet, while Phase 2 is the highest run at 14,000 feet.
The gondola on Apharwat Peak, one of the Asia's largest and highest cable car ringed by pine forests and snow capped Himalayan mountain peaks, takes skiers and snowboarders to the height of 3900 metres to 4100 metres on the mountain. Nearest Airport is Sheikh Ul Alam International airport Srinagar.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftab_Ghulam_Nabi_Kazi | Aftab Ghulam Nabi Kazi | Aftab Ghulam Nabi Kazi (Urdu: آفتاب غلام نبی قاضی; 6 November 1919 – 9 August 2016) SPk, SK, also known as AGN Kazi, was a Pakistani civil servant and a bureaucrat during the Cold War and during the post cold war. Kazi was born in Sindh, Bombay Presidency, in 1919 to an academic family. He started his career in the Indian Civil Service in 1944 and served as the Deputy Commissioner of Bihar and Orissa. After the partition of India, Kazi migrated to Pakistan and joined the Provincial Government of Sindh, and held positions such as Secretary of Finance and Secretary to the Governor of Sindh.
During the early 1960s, Kazi was Economic Minister in the Pakistan Embassy to the USA. After a brief stint as Additional Chief Secretary of West Pakistan, he was appointed Chairman of the Water and Power Development Authority. In that role, he was responsible for the completion of the Mangla Dam Project. In March 1969, he was appointed Secretary for Industries and Natural Resources and then a year later he became Finance Secretary, a post he held for over three years until his elevation as secretary general.
After the power struggle triggered by General Yahya Khan's general election, Zulfikar Bhutto became the new leader of Pakistan. In 1973, Kazi became Secretary General Finance and Economic Coordination. When Ghulam Ishaq Khan became Finance Minister, Kazi was appointed Economic Advisor to the President in July 1977. In 1978, Kazi was appointed Governor of State Bank of Pakistan until 1986. The Pakistan State Bank, under Kazi, was characterised by excellent financial discipline in the banking sector coupled with good relations with the Federal Government.
Kazi was the longest-serving civil servant in the history of Pakistan. As a leading civil servant, Kazi passed through several major events in the history of Pakistan, including the removal of Bhutto and the mysterious death of General Zia-ul-Haq. In 1993, he was appointed the chairman Privatization Commission and was again given the status of a Federal Minister as Chief Executive of the Pakistan Investment Board. In 1994, Kazi retired from office, at the age of 75, and led a quiet retired life in Islamabad. He died on 9 August 2016 after a prolonged illness. At his death, he was among the last living members of the old Indian Civil Service.
== Early life ==
Kazi was born into a Sindhi, working-class family consisting of his father Khan Bahadur Ghulam Nabi Kazi, an educationist, and his sibling Bashir Ghulam Nabi Kazi would later go on to become a senior Judge at the Sindh High Court and later the Federal Shariat Court. The family originated from Sindh, Bombay Presidency, British India. His father was a veteran educationist of Sindh who had been awarded the MBE by the British Government for his services to humanity and social development. Anybody who suggests that a Khan Bahadur and an MBE was a member of the middle class during British colonial rule of India is being modest. His family was a member of Indian aristocracy. On the separation of Sindh from Bombay, Khan Bahadur Ghulam Nabi Kazi was appointed the first Director of Public Instructions Sindh in 1936. Kazi received his education in Jamshoro, Sindh, and went on to attend the Cathedral and John Connon School in 1930.
== Education and academia ==
After graduating from school, Kazi attended the University of Bombay from 1937. He graduated with a BS in statistics in 1941, and later went on to gain MSc in physics and Master of Arts in mathematics from the University of Bombay. In 1943, he sat the last-ever Indian Civil Service examinations from there, becoming a member of the final cadre of the ICS. Before joining the civil service, Kazi worked in the Department of Mathematics of D. J. Science College, teaching courses in Mathematics and Statistics. In 1944, he was one of the three Muslims selected for the Indian Civil Service, the others being Agha Shahi and Mian Riazuddin Ahmed. Thus, Kazi started a career that would last for half a century making him the longest serving civil servant in the history of Pakistan.
== Civil service in India ==
The British Raj appointed Kazi as Deputy Commissioner in Bihar and Orissa where he served until 1947. He was asked by the British Government to stay in India, but he opted for Pakistan after partition in 1947. He arrived in his home town and joined the Government of Sindh, holding pivotal positions such as Secretary to Governor and Secretary Finance.
== Senior offices held ==
After the amalgamation of all provinces in the western wing of the country in 1955, Kazi was appointed Finance Secretary of West Pakistan. In the early 1960s he was posted as Economic Minister in the Pakistan Embassy in Washington DC USA where he served until 1965. On his return to Pakistan, he was appointed for a brief period as Additional Chief Secretary (Planning nd Development) West Pakistan and thereafter as Chairman of Pakistan's Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA). It was during his tenure as chairman WAPDA that the Mangla Dam was inaugurated and on this occasion he was awarded the high civil award of Sitara-e-Pakistan. Previously he had also been awarded the Sitara-e-Khidmat. In 1969, he was appointed Secretary for Industries and Natural Resources and a year later as Finance Secretary to the Government of Pakistan. He held this office during the crisis of 1971. In this capacity, he was also Chairman of the Federal Board of Revenue. In 1973, Kazi was assigned the highest grade in the civil service and made Secretary General, Finance and Economic Coordination in which capacity he had to supervise the working of all the economic and planning ministries of the government. He was appointed Advisor to the President on Economic Affairs in 1977 with the rank of a full Cabinet Minister on the imposition of martial law in July 1977. Thereafter he was appointed Governor of State Bank of Pakistan in 1978. He served there for eight years and this period was characterised by excellent financial discipline in the banking sector coupled with good relations with the federal government. During his tenure as Secretary General Finance, Kazi became involved in securing Pakistan's nuclear capability, along with Agha Shahi and Ghulam Ishaq Khan; the three constituting the co-ordination board to monitor the nuclear program. In 1986, he was appointed Deputy chairman Planning Commission, in which position he remained until 1993 until his induction as the chairman Privatisation Commission. In 1993 he was again given the status of a Federal Minister as chairman/Chief Executive of the Pakistan Investment Board.
== Retirement and death ==
In 1994, Kazi retired after 50 years of service. He lived in Islamabad with his wife Zakia, who died in 2009. They had two children. He died in Islamabad on 9 August 2016.
== Offices held ==
== See also ==
Allama I. I. Kazi
Elsa Kazi
Dr Ali Ahmed S Kazi
Ahmed Hussain A. Kazi
Roedad Khan
Rizwan Ahmed
Shaikh Nazrul Bakar
Mushtak Ali Kazi
Mutawakkil Kazi
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activision_Blizzard | Activision Blizzard | Activision Blizzard, Inc. is an American video game holding company based in Santa Monica, California. Activision Blizzard currently includes three operating units: Activision, Blizzard Entertainment and King.
Founded in July 2008 through the merger of Activision, Inc. and Vivendi Games, the company owns and operates additional subsidiary studios, as part of Activision, including Infinity Ward, Treyarch, and Sledgehammer Games. Among major intellectual properties produced by Activision Blizzard are Call of Duty, Crash Bandicoot, Guitar Hero, Skylanders, Spyro, Tony Hawk's, Diablo, Hearthstone, Heroes of the Storm, Overwatch, StarCraft, World of Warcraft, and Candy Crush Saga. Under Blizzard Entertainment, it invested in esports initiatives around several of its games, most notably Overwatch and Call of Duty. Activision Blizzard's titles have broken a number of release records. As of March 2018, it was the largest game company in the Americas and Europe in terms of revenue and market capitalization.
The company has also been involved in multiple notable controversies, including allegations of infringed patents and unpaid royalties. In late July 2021, it was sued by the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing on allegations of sexual harassment and employee discrimination. The suit triggered an investigation by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, multiple workplace walkouts, the resignation or dismissal of several employees, the loss of multiple company event sponsors, and hundreds of workplace harassment allegations.
Microsoft announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion on January 18, 2022. The acquisition was completed on October 13, 2023. Activision Blizzard is a subsidiary of Microsoft Gaming along with Xbox Game Studios and ZeniMax Media.
== History ==
=== Background and formation (2007–2008) ===
The original Activision company was founded in 1979, as a third-party developer for games on the Atari Video Computer System. In 1988 the company expanded into non-gaming software and renamed itself Mediagenic. This venture was not successful, incurring heavy losses. In 1991 a group of investors led by Bobby Kotick bought the company. Kotick instituted a large restructuring to reduce debt, including renaming the company back to Activision and moving it to Santa Monica, California. By 1997 the company was profitable again. Kotick spent the next decade expanding Activision's products through acquisitions of around 25 studios. This resulted in Activision publishing several successful series of games, including Tony Hawk's, Call of Duty, and Guitar Hero. However, by around 2006, the popularity of massively multiplayer online (MMO) games started to grow. Such games provide a constant revenue stream to their publishers, rather than only a single purchase, making them a more valuable proposition. None of Activision's subsidiaries had an MMO or the capability to make one quickly. Activision was also facing tougher competition from companies like Electronic Arts, as well as slowdowns in sales of their key game series.
Around 2006, Kotick reached out to Jean-Bernard Lévy, the CEO of the French media conglomerate Vivendi. Vivendi at that time had the games division Vivendi Games, a holding company principally for Sierra Entertainment and Blizzard Entertainment. Kotick wanted to get access to Blizzard's World of Warcraft, a successful MMO, and suggested a means to acquire this to Lévy. Lévy instead offered that he would be willing to merge Vivendi Games with Activision, but only if Vivendi kept majority control of the merged company. According to those close to Kotick, Kotick was concerned about this offer as it would force him to cede control of Activision. However, after talking to Blizzard's CEO Mike Morhaime, Kotick recognized that Vivendi would be able to give them inroads into the growing video game market in China.
Kotick proposed the merger to Activision's board, which agreed to it in December 2007. The new company was to be named Activision Blizzard and would retain its central headquarters in California. Bobby Kotick of Activision was announced as the new president and CEO, while René Penisson of Vivendi was appointed chairman. The European Commission permitted the merger to take place in April 2008, approving that there weren't any EU antitrust issues in the merger deal. On July 8, 2008, Activision announced that stockholders had agreed to merge, and the deal closed the next day for an estimated transaction amount of US$18.9 billion.
Vivendi became the combined company's majority shareholder at 54% of outstanding shares, equating to 52% if shares were to be fully diluted. The rest of the shares were held by institutional and private investors, and were to be left open for trading on the NASDAQ stock market for a time under the ticker symbol ATVID, and subsequently as ATVI (Activision's stock ticker). At this point, Lévy replaced René Penisson as chairman of Activision Blizzard. The merger was completed on July 9. While Blizzard retained its autonomy and corporate leadership in the merger, other Vivendi Games divisions such as Sierra ceased operation. With the merger, Kotick was quoted stating if a Sierra product did not meet Activision's requirements, they "won't likely be retained." Some of these games ultimately were published by other studios, including Ghostbusters: The Video Game, Brütal Legend, The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena, and 50 Cent: Blood on the Sand. However, a number of Sierra's games such as Crash Bandicoot, Spyro, and Prototype were retained and are now published by Activision.
=== New titles and sales records (2009–2012) ===
In early 2010, the independent studio Bungie entered into a 10-year publishing agreement with Activision Blizzard. By the end of 2010, Activision Blizzard was the largest video games publisher in the world. The 2011 release of Activision Blizzard's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 grossed $400 million in the US and UK alone in its first 24 hours, making it the biggest entertainment launch of all time. It was also the third consecutive year the Call of Duty series broke the biggest launch record; 2010's Call of Duty: Black Ops grossed $360 million on day one; and 2009's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 brought in $310 million. Call of Duty: Black Ops III grossed $550 million in worldwide sales during its opening weekend in 2015, making it the biggest entertainment launch of the year.
In 2011, Activision Blizzard debuted its Skylanders franchise, which led to the press crediting the company with inventing and popularizing a new toys-to-life category. The first release Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure was nominated for two Toy Industry Association awards in 2011: "Game of the Year" and "Innovative Toy of the Year". Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure and its sequels were released for major consoles and PC, and many were released on mobile devices as well.
=== Split from Vivendi and growth (2013–2014) ===
On July 25, 2013, Activision Blizzard announced the purchase of 429 million shares from owner Vivendi for $5.83 billion, dropping the shareholder from a 63% stake to 11.8% by the end of the deal in September. At the conclusion of the deal, Vivendi was no longer Activision Blizzard's parent company, and Activision Blizzard became an independent company as a majority of the shares became owned by the public. Bobby Kotick and Brian Kelly retained a 24.4% stake in the company overall. In addition, Kotick remained the president and CEO, with Brian Kelly taking over as chairman. On October 12, 2013, shortly after approval from the Delaware Supreme Court, the company completed the buyback, along the lines of the original plan. Vivendi sold half its remaining stake on May 22, 2014, reducing its ownership to 5.8%. and completely exited two years later.
Activision Blizzard released a new title, Destiny, on September 9, 2014. The game made over $500 million in retail sales on the first day of release, setting a record for the biggest first day launch of a new gaming franchise. On November 5, 2013, the company released Call of Duty: Ghosts, which was written by screenwriter Stephen Gaghan. On its first release day the game sold $1 billion into retail. In 2014, Activision Blizzard was the fifth largest gaming company by revenue worldwide, with total assets of US$14.746 billion and total equity estimated at US$7.513 billion.
=== S&P 500 and new divisions (2015–2021) ===
Activision Blizzard joined the S&P 500 stock index on August 28, 2015, becoming one of only two companies on the list related to gaming, alongside Electronic Arts. The company released the next iteration of the Skylanders franchise in September 2015, which added vehicles to the "toys to life" category. On September 15, 2015, Activision and Bungie released Destiny: The Taken King, the follow-up to the Destiny saga. Two days later, Sony announced that the game broke the record for the most downloaded day-one game in PlayStation history, in terms of both total players and peak online concurrency.
Activision Blizzard acquired social gaming company King, creator of casual game Candy Crush Saga, for $5.9 billion in November 2015.
In November 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the formation of Activision Blizzard Studios, a film production arm that would produce films and television series based on Activision Blizzard's franchises. The outfit is co-headed by producer Stacey Sher and former The Walt Disney Company executive Nick van Dyk.
In June 2017, Activision Blizzard joined the Fortune 500 becoming the third gaming company in history to make the list after Atari and Electronic Arts.
In its 2018 fiscal year earnings call to shareholders in February 2019, Kotick stated that while the company had seen a record year in revenue, they would be laying off around 775 people or around 8% of their workforce in non-management divisions, "de-prioritizing initiatives that are not meeting expectations and reducing certain non-development and administrative-related costs across the business", according to Kotick. Kotick stated that they plan to put more resources towards their development teams and focus on esports, Battle.net services, and the publisher's core games which include Candy Crush, Call of Duty, Overwatch, Warcraft, Diablo, and Hearthstone. Prior to this, Activision Blizzard and Bungie agreed to terminate their distribution deal with Destiny 2 as it was not bringing in expected revenue for Activision, with Bungie otherwise retaining all rights to Destiny. This transaction allowed Activision Blizzard to report US$164 million as part of its 2018 fiscal year filings. During 2018, Activision was one of 90 Fortune 500 companies to have "paid an effective federal tax rate of 0% or less" as a result of Donald Trump's Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.
The company announced that Daniel Alegre would replace Coddy Johnson as president of Activision Blizzard effective April 7, 2020, with Johnson transitioning to special advisory role.
During the second quarter of 2020, the company's net revenues from digital channels reached $1.44bn due to the growing demand for online games driven by COVID-19 lockdowns. By January 2021, the company's net value was estimated to be $72 billion based on its stock trading price due to the ongoing demand for video games from the COVID-19 pandemic.
The Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia acquired 14.9 million shares of Activision Blizzard, valued at $1.4 billion, in February 2021.
In April 2021, Fernando Machado, former Brazilian executive at Burger King, joined the company as chief marketing officer (CMO). The company also announced in April 2021 that Kotick will remain CEO through April 2023, through Kotick agreed to take a 50% cut of his pay, equal to $875,000. Kotick will remain eligible to receive annual bonuses, and while he agreed to reduce his target bonus by 50% as well, he potentially can earn up to 200% of his base pay based on the company's performance.
=== Workplace misconduct lawsuit and acquisition by Microsoft (2021–present) ===
On July 20, 2021, the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing (DFEH) filed a suit alleging sexual harassment, employment discrimination and retaliation on the part of Activision Blizzard. A second lawsuit was filed against the company by its shareholders asserting it falsified knowledge of these problems in their financial statements, though this suit was dismissed due to failure to meet thresholds for claims, The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission had also filed suit against Activision-Blizzard from their own investigation of the workplace conditions but the company had settled the same day it was filed, which included setting aside an $18 million relief fund for affected employees. Ultimately, the DFEH and Activision Blizzard agreed to a $54 million settlement in December 2023 to cover pay and promotion inequities at the company, both agreeing there was no substantial evidence of widespread harassment.
On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced that it would be acquiring Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion in an all-cash deal, or approximately $95 per share. Activision Blizzard's stock price jumped nearly 40% that day in pre-market trading. The deal would make Microsoft the third-largest gaming company in the world and the largest headquartered in the Americas, behind Chinese company Tencent and the Japanese conglomerate Sony. Activision Blizzard's shareholders approved of the acquisition near-unanimously in April 2022. While the deal has been approved by several countries ahead of the planned October 18, 2023, deal closure, including the European Union and China, both the United States' Federal Trade Commission and the United Kingdom's Competition and Markets Authority have challenged the merger as anticompetitive and have initiated legal procedures in their respective countries.
To resolve these issues, Microsoft agreed to outsource the cloud gaming rights of Activision Blizzard's games to Ubisoft, which was cleared by regulators. The acquisition was completed on October 13, 2023. The last time Activision Blizzard reported their annual financial results for its shareholders before Microsoft acquired them was on February 6, 2023. Activision Blizzard reported $7.54 billion in revenue and $1.52 billion in net income. As part of the acquisition deal, Kotick announced his resignation as CEO the same day, along with other high level executives, though Kotick will remain onboard through the end of 2023 to help with the transition. Bobby Kotick departed Activision Blizzard on December 29, 2023.
In May 2022, QA testers of Activision Blizzard subsidiary Raven Software went public as the Game Workers Alliance (GWA) with the support of Campaign to Organize Digital Employees-CWA and voted to unionize with a count of 19 – 2 in favor. The National Labor Relations Board recognized GWA as a union.
Following the Raven Software's successful unionization, the 20-member QA team of Blizzard Albany announced a unionization drive in July 2022 as GWA Albany. The vote passed (14–0), forming the second union at an Activision Blizzard subsidiary.
In February 2023, Activision Blizzard announced to employees that it would end its full-time remote policy starting between April and June that year. On November 30, quality assurance staffers were told that the company would end its hybrid work model and bring employees in Austin, Texas, Eden Prairie, Minnesota and El Segundo, California back to the office full time in 2024. ABK Workers Alliance accused the company of forcing out employees with this decision.
On March 8, 2024, 600 QA testers at 3 Activision studios in Austin, Eden Prairie, and El Segundo formed the union "Activision Quality Assurance United-CWA" and voted to unionize (390–8) in favor, making it the largest video game union in the United States. Microsoft voluntarily recognized the union. On July 24, 2024, 500 artists, designers, engineers, producers, and quality assurance testers who work on World of Warcraft also voted to unionize.
== Games ==
List of Activision video games
List of Blizzard Entertainment games
List of King games
== Corporate structure ==
Activision Blizzard is divided into three key business segments:
Activision, which handles the development, production, and distribution of video games from its subsidiary studios. It also houses the Call of Duty League.
Blizzard Entertainment, which handles the development, production, and distribution of Blizzard's games. It also maintains Battle.net, organizes BlizzCon, and houses the Overwatch League.
King, which handles the development and distribution of its mobile games.
== Esports initiatives ==
Activision Blizzard owns the Call of Duty and StarCraft franchises, both of which have been popular as esports. On October 21, 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the upcoming establishment of a new esports division. Named Activision Blizzard Media Networks, the division is led by sports executive Steve Bornstein and Major League Gaming (MLG) co-founder Mike Sepso, with assets from the acquisition of the now defunct IGN Pro League. Bornstein was appointed the new division's chairman. On December 31, 2015, it was reported that "substantially all" of Major League Gaming's assets would be acquired by Activision Blizzard. The New York Times reported that the acquisition was intended to bolster Activision Blizzard's push into esports, as well as its plan to develop an esports cable channel. Reports indicated that MLG would be shuttered and that the majority of the purchase price would go towards paying off the company's debt. Activision Blizzard acquired MLG on January 4, 2016 for $46 million.
In November 2016, Blizzard Entertainment, a subsidiary of Activision Blizzard, announced the launch of Overwatch League, a professional video gaming league. The league's first season began during the second half of 2017 with 12 teams. The league's structure is based on traditional sports structures, including recruiting traditional sports executives as team owners, such as Robert Kraft, owner of the New England Patriots, and Jeff Wilpon, COO of the New York Mets.
The inaugural Overwatch Grand Finals was played at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn in July 2018 and attracted 10.8 million viewers worldwide. The league hopes to have 18 teams competing during the second season in 2019, with the ultimate goal of 28 teams across the world.
In 2018, Activision Blizzard signed a multi-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to stream Overwatch League games on both ESPN and Disney XD cable channels. The company also secured an exclusive multi-year deal with Google to stream all subsequent Activision Blizzard esports events, including Call of Duty and Overwatch events, through YouTube, and to use Google's cloud services for its game hosting infrastructure; this came after a prior two-year deal with Twitch for the Overwatch League had concluded. The deal with YouTube was estimated to be valued at US$160 million, double what it had with Twitch.
Due to declining viewerships and profits during the COVID-19 pandemic, Activision eventually shuttered Major League Gaming by January 15, 2024.
== Call of Duty Endowment ==
Since 2009, when Kotick launched Call of Duty Endowment (CODE), over 50,000 veterans have been placed in high-quality jobs. In 2013 CODE started the "Seal of Distinction" program, which recognizes non-profit organizations that are successful in placing veterans in good jobs. Winners receive a $30,000 grant to use in their veteran job placement activities. The goal of CODE is to help 100,000 US and UK veterans find high-quality jobs by 2024. The endowment helps soldiers transition to civilian careers after their military service by funding nonprofit organizations and raising awareness of the value veterans bring to the workplace.
== Other legal disputes ==
=== Worlds, Inc. ===
Worlds, Inc. was issued several United States patents around 2009 related to "System and method for enabling users to interact in a virtual space", which generally described a method of server/client communications for multiplayer video games, where players would communicate through avatars. In early 2009, Worlds, Inc. stated its intent to challenge publishers and developers of MMOs, naming Activision as one of its intended targets. Worlds, Inc. had already challenged NCSoft for its MMOs in 2008. The companies ultimately settled out of court by 2010.
Worlds, Inc. launched its formal lawsuit against Activision Blizzard, including both Blizzard Entertainment and Activision Publishing, in March 2012, stating that Call of Duty and World of Warcraft infringed on their patents. Activision Publishing filed a separate patent infringement lawsuit in October 2013, asserting that Worlds, Inc. was using two Activision-owned patents in its Worlds Player software, but this suit was dismissed with prejudice by June 2014.
In Worlds, Inc. case against Activision, the judge issued a summary judgement in Activision's favor, as they had demonstrated that Worlds, Inc. had demonstrated the technologies of their patents in their client programs AlphaWorld and World Chat, released before the 1995 priority date, though this was related to filing irregularities that were subsequently corrected by the Patent Office. Activision did not challenge the updated patents through an inter partes review (IPR), and subsequently after a statutory one-year waiting period, Worlds, Inc. filed a subsequently lawsuit against Activision, asserting Call of Duty: Ghosts violated its resolved patents. Later, Worlds, Inc. stated the intent to add Bungie to the lawsuit contending that Destiny also fell afoul of their patents. Bungie subsequently filed three IPRs with the Patent Office for each of the three Worlds, Inc. patents at the core of the lawsuit. While Bungie initially won its IPR ruling at the USPTO, on appeal in September 2018, Worlds, Inc. won a ruling questioning whether Bungie had legal standing to file its IPRs.
The new Worlds, Inc. case against Activision Blizzard was heard on October 3, 2014. With Bungie's IPRs pending at the Patent Office, the judge put the trial on hold pending the outcome of the IPRs. Worlds, Inc. challenged the IPRs at the Patent Office, as they did not include Activision as an interested party, a requirement that would have been necessary given the publisher/developer relationship between Activision and Bungie. The Patent Office did not accept this argument, and subsequently agreed with the Bungie IPRs that portions of Worlds, Inc. patents were invalid. Worlds, Inc. appealed to the Federal Circuit Appeals Court, challenging the validity of the IPRs due to the lack of Activision's involvement. The Federal Circuit court ruled in favor of Worlds, Inc. in September 2018, invalidating the Patent Office's decision. Worlds, Inc.'s case presently remains at the Patent Office stage, which is re-reviewing the IPRs in consideration of the Federal Circuit's ruling. The lawsuit was dismissed in 2021, when a US district court ruled that "Worlds' patents were abstract ideas that were not sufficiently transformative to be legally patentable."
=== Infinity Ward ===
In early 2010, Activision fired Vince Zampella and Jason West, two of the founders of its studio Infinity Ward, on the basis of "breaches of contract and insubordination"; the move caused several other Infinity Ward staff to resign. Zampella and West created a new studio, Respawn Entertainment, with help from Electronic Arts' partner program, hiring the majority of those that departed Infinity Ward in their wake.
Zampella and West filed a lawsuit in April 2010 against Activision, claiming unpaid royalties on the studio's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. Activision filed a countersuit against the two, accusing the pair of being "self-serving schemers". Activision later sought to add Electronic Arts to their suit, discovering that Zampella and West had been in discussions with them while still working for Activision, and further added claims against Zampella and West that the two had not returned all material related to Call of Duty while they were working at Respawn. A separate lawsuit was filed against Activision in April 2010 by several current and former members of Infinity Ward on the same basis of lack of unpaid royalties.
All parties came to an undisclosed settlement to end all suits by May 2012. Electronic Arts and Activision had settled separately on Activision's charges of poaching employees, while the suits between Activision, Zampella, West, and the Infinity Ward employee group were settled by the end of May 2012. All settlements were made for undisclosed amounts.
=== Uvalde school shooting lawsuit ===
In May 2024, families affected by the 2022 Uvalde school shooting filed a lawsuit against Activision Blizzard, alongside Meta and the gun manufacturer Daniel Defense. The suit against Activision Blizzard alleged that they promoted specific brands of guns to teens through Call of Duty. Activision Blizzard defended its position that the Call of Duty games are protected by the First Amendment and sought to have the compliant dismissed under anti-SLAPP (Strategic lawsuit against public participation) protections from such lawsuits.
== See also ==
Lists of video game companies
List of video game publishers
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madie_Hall_Xuma#Life_after_meeting_A.B._Xuma | Madie Hall Xuma | Madie Hall Xuma (3 June 1894 – 10 September 1982) was an African American educator and social activist who emigrated to South Africa. She was called a 'mother of the nation'. Her husband, A. B. Xuma, was a president of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1940 to 1949.
== Early life and education ==
Xuma was born Madie Beatrice Hall in Winston-Salem, North Carolina in 1894. Xuma was one of four children of H. H. Hall, the only African-American medical doctor in the Winston-Salem at the time, and his wife Ginny Cowan Hall who was a real estate entrepreneur. At first, she intended to become a medical doctor like her father and her brother. She was admitted in Howard University College of Medicine after finishing normal school training at Shaw University. This admittance was rejected by her father because of sexual assault incident which happened to black female doctor. Then, she taught at Winston-Salem Public School and Mary Mcleod Bethune Daytona-Cookman College. She obtained a Bachelor of Science in education from Teachers' College in Winston-Salem in 1937 and a Master of Arts degree in education from Teachers College, Columbia University in 1938. She was also an executive secretary for the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) in North Carolina and Virginia
== Life after meeting A. B. Xuma ==
She was still studying towards a master's degree in education at Columbia University when she met the widowed Alfred Bitini Xuma who was visiting United States in 1937–1938. Despite her aching interest to depart to South Africa, her scheduled embarkation on 5 October 1939 was delayed indefinitely because of the war. Because of a suggestion from her husband, Xuma went on to study social work at Atlanta University to wait for the embarkation. She and A. B. Xuma married in Cape Town on 18 May 1940, a day after her arrival there.
Soon after her arrival, she produced a popular musical about the advancement of African American life to South African people and proposed a follow-up play entitled The Green Pastures about black liberation. During the 1940s, she often gave speeches about the history of slavery and the use of brainwashing to make black people believe that they are inferior and accept their servant status. These talks were usually given to groups, such as the Bantu Nurses Association and Daughters of Africa. She also created a play to gather funds for the ANC entitled American Negro Review: The Progress of a Race which based on a play in Winston-Salem, North Carolina with a cast that included Marion Anderson. This play was popular and raised over £200 for the ANC.
She was the first president of the African National Congress Women's League, serving from 1943 to 1949. She successfully advocated full membership and voting rights for women in the ANC. She assisted in the foundation of the Zenzele self-help movement clubs for women's enrichment, whose design she took from her experience with American clubs for black women. In 1951, she affiliated the Zenzele with the world YWCA, though with objection from the South African YWCA, which denied black women membership and the South African Government. She was elected as president of the national council of the South African Young Women's Christian Association on 1955.
In February 1963, a year after her husband's death in 1962, she returned to Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and lived there until her death on 10 September 1982.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Reyes | Judy Reyes | Judy Reyes (born November 5, 1967) is an American actress, model, and producer, best known for her roles as Carla Espinosa on the NBC/ABC medical comedy series Scrubs (2001–2009), as Zoila Diaz in the Lifetime comedy-drama Devious Maids (2013–2016), as Annalise "Quiet Ann" Zayas in the TNT crime comedy-drama Claws (2017–2022), and as Selena Soto in ABC crime drama series High Potential (2024–). Reyes also appeared in the films All Together Now (2020), Smile (2022), and Birth/Rebirth (2023), for which she received an Independent Spirit Award for Best Lead Performance nomination.
== Early life ==
Reyes was born on November 5, 1967, in the Bronx, New York City, to Dominican immigrants. She has three sisters, including a fraternal twin sister named Joselin Reyes, who played a paramedic on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Reyes grew up on Bainbridge Avenue, from the age of 13 to the age of 25–26. She attended Hunter College in Manhattan, where she began her acting career.
== Career ==
In the early 1990s, Reyes began her television career with guest starring roles in a number of shows, including Law & Order, NYPD Blue, and The Sopranos. She also had a recurring role in Oz as Tina Rivera. She is best known for her portrayal of nurse Carla Espinosa on the NBC comedy Scrubs from 2001 to 2009. She has starred in a number of made for television movies, primarily for Lifetime network, including Little Girl Lost: The Delimar Vera Story (2008), and The Pregnancy Project (2012).
After leaving Scrubs, Reyes guest-starred in several shows, including Castle, Medium, Off the Map, and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. In 2011, she starred as a mother dealing with her estranged husband's return into her life after his stint in prison in the independent drama Gun Hill Road. The film is set in Reyes' native Bronx, and its title refers to a real-life street that intersects Bainbridge Avenue on which Reyes herself grew up. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. Reyes also had small supporting roles in several films, including Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God... Be Back by Five (1998), Bringing Out the Dead (1999), Washington Heights (2002), and Dirty (2005).
In 2012, Reyes was cast as series regular Zoila Diaz, the senior maid, in the ABC comedy-drama pilot Devious Maids, created by Marc Cherry. On May 14, 2012, the series was not picked up by ABC, but on June 22, 2012, Lifetime ordered a run of thirteen episodes. The series premiered June 23, 2013. The Devious Maids finale episode aired on August 8, 2016. Two weeks following the show's cancellation, Reyes was cast opposite Niecy Nash in the TNT crime comedy-drama Claws playing the role of Annalise "Quiet Ann" Zayas. The series premiered on June 11, 2017 and ended in 2022 after four seasons. She also had the recurring roles as Dina Milagro in the CW comedy series Jane the Virgin (2015–19) and as Ramona in the Netflix comedy One Day at a Time (2017–2020). She played the role of Eva, executive producer of media conglomerate Waystar Royco's ATN news channel, in the HBO drama series Succession in 2018. Reyes also had a recurring roles in the comedy series Search Party and Better Things, and guest starred on Black-ish. In 2022, Reyes guest-starred in season 3 of Batwoman where she portrayed Kiki Roulette who was responsible for building Joker's joy buzzer.
Reyes starred in the independent films My Name Is David (2015) and Girl Flu. (2016), and had a supporting role in the thriller film The Circle (2017). She received Imagen Awards for Best Actress - Drama (Television) for her performance in the 2021 made-for-television film Torn from Her Arms. She appeared opposite her One Day at a Time co-star Justina Machado in the 2020 drama film, All Together Now. In 2022, she had a supporting role in the supernatural horror film, Smile, it was a box office success, grossing over $217 million worldwide. The following year, Reyes played the leading role in the psychological horror film, Birth/Rebirth. It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and Reyes received positive reviews for her performance. She received Independent Spirit Award for Best Lead Performance nomination for her performance. Also in 2023, Reyes had a recurring role in the horror-comedy series The Horror of Dolores Roach, appearing again opposite Justina Machado.
Reyes appeared as the mother of the lead character in the romantic drama film, Turtles All the Way Down based on the 2017 novel of the same name by John Green. She also was cast opposite Kaitlin Olson in a series regular role in the ABC comedy-drama series High Potential based on the French series HPI.
== Personal life ==
As of May 2002, Reyes was married to cinematographer Edwin Figueroa.
Reyes is in a relationship with director George Valencia. Together, they founded the non-profit Sound of GOL Foundation!, a "recreational past time charity for young girls."
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Judy Reyes at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrita_Sher-Gil#:~:text=In%201931%2C%20Sher%2DGil%20was,letters%20reveal%20same%2Dsex%20affairs. | Amrita Sher-Gil | Amrita Sher-Gil (30 January 1913 – 5 December 1941) was a Hungarian–Indian painter. She has been called "one of the greatest avant-garde women artists of the early 20th century" and a pioneer in modern Indian art. Drawn to painting from an early age, Sher-Gil started formal lessons at the age of eight. She first gained recognition at the age of 19, for her 1932 oil painting Young Girls. Sher-Gil depicted everyday life of the people in her paintings.
Sher-Gil traveled throughout her life to various countries including Turkey, France, and India, deriving heavily from precolonial Indian art styles as well as contemporary culture. Sher-Gil is considered an important painter of 20th-century India, whose legacy stands on a level with that of the pioneers from the Bengal Renaissance. She was also an avid reader and a pianist. Sher-Gil's paintings are among the most expensive by Indian women painters today, although few acknowledged her work when she was alive.
== Early life and education ==
Amrita Sher-Gil was born Dalma-Amrita on 30 January 1913, at 4 Szilágyi Dezső square, Budapest, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Her father was Umrao Singh Sher-Gil Majithia, a Punjabi Indian Jat Sikh aristocrat from the Majithia family and a scholar in Sanskrit and Persian, and her mother was Marie Antoinette Gottesman, a Hungarian-Jewish opera singer who came from an affluent bourgeois family. Her parents first met in 1912, while Marie Antoinette was visiting Lahore. Her mother came to India as a companion of Princess Bamba Sutherland, the granddaughter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Sher-Gil was the elder of two daughters; her younger sister was Indira Sundaram (née Sher-Gil; born in March 1914), mother of the contemporary artist Vivan Sundaram. The family were obliged to remain in Budapest until after the First World War. She was the niece of Indologist Ervin Baktay. Baktay noticed Sher-Gil's artistic talents during his visit to Shimla in 1926 and was an advocate of Sher-Gil pursuing art. He guided her by critiquing her work and gave her an academic foundation to grow on. When she was a young girl she would paint the servants in her house, and get them to model for her. The memories of these models would eventually lead to her return to India.
Her family faced financial problems in Hungary. In 1921, her family moved to Summer Hill, Shimla, India, and Sher-Gil soon began learning piano and violin. By age nine she, along with her younger sister Indira, was giving concerts and acting in plays at Shimla's Gaiety Theatre at Mall Road, Shimla. Though she had already been painting since the age of five, she started studying painting formally at age eight. Sher-Gil received formal lessons in art from Major Whitmarsh, who was later replaced by Hal Bevan-Petman. In Shimla, Sher-Gil lived a relatively privileged lifestyle. As a child, she was expelled from her Catholic school Convent of Jesus and Mary for declaring herself an atheist.
In 1923, Marie came to know an Italian sculptor, who was living in Shimla at the time. In 1924, when he returned to Italy, she too moved there, along with Amrita, and got her enrolled at Santa Annunziata, an art school in Florence. Though Amrita did not stay at this school for long and returned to India in 1924, it was here that she was exposed to works of Italian masters.
At sixteen, Sher-Gil sailed to Europe with her mother to train as a painter in Paris, first at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière under Pierre Vaillent and Lucien Simon (where she met Boris Taslitzky) and later at the École des Beaux-Arts (1930–1934). She drew inspiration from European painters such as Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin and Amedeo Modigliani, while working under the influence of her teacher Lucien Simon and through the company of artist friends and lovers like Taslitzky. While in Paris, she is said to have painted with a conviction and maturity rarely seen in a 16-year old.
In 1931, Sher-Gil was briefly engaged to Yusuf Ali Khan, but rumours spread that she was also having an affair with her first cousin and later husband Viktor Egan. Her letters reveal same-sex affairs.
== 1932–1936: Early career, European and Western styles ==
Sher-Gil's early paintings display a significant influence of the Western modes of painting, more specifically, the Post-Impressionism style. She practiced a lot in the Bohemian circles of Paris in the early 1930s. Her 1932 oil painting, Young Girls, came as a breakthrough for her; the work won her accolades, including a gold medal and election as an Associate of the Grand Salon in Paris in 1933. She was the youngest ever member, and the only Asian to have received this recognition. Her work during this time include a number of self-portraits, as well as life in Paris, nude studies, still life studies, and portraits of friends and fellow students. The National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi describes the self-portraits she made while in Paris as "[capturing] the artist in her many moods – somber, pensive, and joyous – while revealing a narcissistic streak in her personality".
When she was in Paris, one of her professors said that judging by the richness of her colouring Sher-Gil was not in her element in the west, and that her artistic personality would find its true atmosphere in the east. In 1933, Sher-Gil "began to be haunted by an intense longing to return to India feeling in some strange way that there lay her destiny as a painter". She returned to India at the end of 1934. In May 1935, Sher-Gil met the English journalist Malcolm Muggeridge, then working as assistant editor and leader writer for The Calcutta Statesman. Both Muggeridge and Sher-Gil stayed at the family home at Summer Hill, Shimla and a short intense affair took place during which she painted a casual portrait of her new lover, the painting now with the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. By September 1935 Amrita saw Muggeridge off as he traveled back to England for new employment. She left herself for travel in 1936 at the behest of art collector and critic Karl Khandalavala, who encouraged her to pursue her passion for discovering her Indian roots. In India, she began a quest for the rediscovery of the traditions of Indian art which was to continue till her death. She was greatly impressed and influenced by the Mughal and Pahari schools of painting and the cave paintings at Ajanta.
== 1937–1941: Later career, influence of Indian art ==
Later in 1937, Sher-Gil toured South India and produced her South Indian trilogy of paintings Bride's Toilet, Brahmacharis, and South Indian Villagers Going to Market following her visit to the Ajanta Caves, when she made a conscious attempt to return to classical Indian art. These paintings reveal her passionate sense of colour and empathy for her Indian subjects, who are often depicted in their poverty and despair. By now the transformation in her work was complete and she had found her 'artistic mission' which was, according to her, to express the life of Indian people through her canvas. While in Saraya, Sher-Gil wrote to a friend: "I can only paint in India. Europe belongs to Picasso, Matisse, Braque.... India belongs only to me." Her stay in India marks the beginning of a new phase in her artistic development, one that was distinct from the European phase of the interwar years when her work showed an engagement with the works of Hungarian painters, especially the Nagybánya school of painting.
Sher-Gil married her Hungarian first cousin, Viktor Egan when she was 25. He had helped Sher-Gil obtain abortions on at least two occasions prior to their marriage. She moved with him to India to stay at her paternal family's home in Saraya, Sardar nagar, Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. Thus began her second phase of painting, whose impact on Indian art rivals that of Rabindranath Tagore and Jamini Roy of the Bengal school of art. The 'Calcutta Group' of artists, which transformed the Indian art scene, was to start only in 1943, and the 'Progressive Artist's Group', with Francis Newton Souza, Ara, Bakre, Gade, M. F. Husain and S. H. Raza among its founders, lay further ahead in 1948. Sher-Gil's art was strongly influenced by the paintings of the two Tagores, Rabindranath and Abanindranath who were pioneers of the Bengal School of painting. Her portraits of women resemble works by Rabindranath while the use of 'chiaroscuro' and bright colours reflect the influence of Abanindranath.
During her stay at Saraya, Sher-Gil painted the Village Scene, In the Ladies' Enclosure, and Siesta, all of which portray the leisurely rhythms of life in rural India. Siesta and In the Ladies' Enclosure reflect her experimentation with the miniature school of painting while Village Scene reflects influences of the Pahari school of painting. Although acclaimed by art critics Karl Khandalavala in Bombay and Charles Fabri in Lahore as the greatest painter of the century, Sher-Gil's paintings found few buyers. She travelled across India with her paintings but the Nawab Salar Jung of Hyderabad returned them and the Maharaja of Mysore chose Raja Ravi Varma's paintings over hers.
Although from a family that was closely tied to the British Raj, Sher-Gil was a Congress sympathiser. She was attracted to the poor, distressed and the deprived and her paintings of Indian villagers and women are a meditative reflection of their condition. She was also attracted by Gandhi's philosophy and lifestyle. Nehru was charmed by her beauty and talent and when he went to Gorakhpur in October 1940, he visited her at Saraya. Her paintings were at one stage even considered for use in the Congress propaganda for village reconstruction. Despite befriending Nehru, she never drew his portrait, supposedly because she thought he was "too good looking". Nehru attended her exhibition held in New Delhi in February 1937. Sher-Gil exchanged letters with Nehru for a time, but those letters were burned by her parents when she was away getting married in Budapest.
In September 1941, Egan and Sher-Gil moved to Lahore, then in undivided India and a major cultural and artistic centre. She lived and painted at 23 Ganga Ram Mansions, The Mall, Lahore where her studio was on the top floor of the townhouse she inhabited. Sher-Gil was known for her many affairs with both men and women, and she also painted many of the latter. Her work Two Women is thought to be a painting of herself and her lover Marie Louise. Some of her later works include Tahitian (1937), Red Brick House (1938), Hill Scene (1938), and The Bride (1940) among others. Her last work was left unfinished just prior to her death in December 1941.
== Illness and death ==
In 1941, at age 28, just days before the opening of her first major solo show in Lahore, Sher-Gil became seriously ill and slipped into a coma. She later died around midnight on 5 December 1941, leaving behind a large volume of work. The reason for her death has never been ascertained. A failed abortion and subsequent peritonitis have been suggested as possible causes for her death. Her mother accused her doctor husband Egan of having murdered her. The day after her death, Britain declared war on Hungary and Egan was interned as an enemy alien. Sher-Gil was cremated on 7 December 1941 in Lahore.
== Artistic and cultural legacies ==
Sher-Gil's art has influenced generations of Indian artists from Sayed Haider Raza to Arpita Singh and her depiction of the plight of women has made her art a beacon for women at large both in India and abroad. The Government of India has declared her works as National Art Treasures, and most of them are housed in the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. Some of her paintings also hang at the Lahore Museum. A postage stamp depicting her painting Hill Women was released in 1978 by India Post, and the Amrita Shergil Marg is a road in Lutyens' Delhi named after her. Sher-Gil was able to prove to western societies that Indians were able to make fine art. Her work is deemed to be so important to Indian culture that when it is sold in India, the Indian government has stipulated that the art must stay in the country – fewer than ten of her works have been sold globally. In 2006, her painting Village Scene sold for ₹6.9 crores at an auction in New Delhi which was at the time the highest amount ever paid for a painting in India.
The Indian cultural centre in Budapest is named the Amrita Sher-Gil Cultural Centre. Contemporary artists in India have recreated and reinterpreted her works.
Amrita Sher-Gil (1969) is a documentary film about the artist, directed by Bhagwan Das Garga and produced by the Government of India's Films Division. It won the National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film.
Besides remaining an inspiration to many a contemporary Indian artists, in 1993, she also became the inspiration behind the Urdu play Tumhari Amrita.
UNESCO announced 2013, the 100th anniversary of Sher-Gil's birth, to be the international year of Amrita Sher-Gil.
Sher-Gil's work is a key theme in the contemporary Indian novel Faking It by Amrita Chowdhury.
Aurora Zogoiby, a character in Salman Rushdie's 1995 novel The Moor's Last Sigh, was inspired by Sher-Gil.
Claire Kohda refers repeatedly to Amrita Sher-Gil and to her painting the Three Girls in her 2022 novel Woman, Eating, which features a British main character of mixed Malaysian and Japanese origin. Struggling with alienation and with living between worlds as the vampire offspring of a vampire mother and human father, the protagonist, Lydia, identifies with the Three Girls and speculates that they were vampires: "I'm pretty sure that all of Sher-Gil's subjects were vampires and that maybe she was one, too..."
Sher-Gil was sometimes known as India's Frida Kahlo because of the "revolutionary" way she blended Western and traditional art forms.
On 30 January 2016, Google celebrated her 103rd birthday with a Google Doodle. In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her. That year, at a Sotheby's auction in Mumbai, her painting The Little Girl in Blue was sold at auction for a record-breaking 18.69 crores. It is a portrait of her cousin Babit, a resident of Shimla and was painted in 1934, when the subject was eight years old.
In 2021, Sher-Gil's painting Portrait of Denyse was put up for auction by Christie's with an estimated value to be between $1.8-2.8 million. The 1932 portrait features Denyse Proutaux, a Parisian art critic, whom Sher-Gil met in 1931. Proutaux was featured in other Sher-Gil paintings, including Young Girls and Denise Proutaux, which were both included in the exhibition "Amrita Shergil: The Passionate Quest" at the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi.
On 18 September 2023, Sher-Gil's 1937 painting The Story Teller fetched $7.4 million (Rs 61.8 crore) at a recent auction, setting a record for the highest price achieved by an Indian artist. SaffronArt, the auction house, organised the sale on Saturday night. This came just 10 days after modernist Syed Haider Raza's painting, Gestation, fetched ₹ 51.7 crore at Pundole auction house. In a page dedicated to the artwork, SaffronArt said the legendary artist sought to explore the realm of domestic life in The Story Teller.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of paintings by Amrita Sher-Gil
Amrita Sher-Gil's paintings at Lahore (1937)
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. Gurugram: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342026-2.
Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 1–417. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1.
Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 2. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 418–821. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1.
== Further reading ==
Ananth, Deepak (2007). Amrita Sher-Gil: An Indian Artist Family of the Twentieth Century. Munich: Schirmer/Mosel. ISBN 978-3-8296-0270-9. OCLC 166903259.
Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013) [2006]. Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-81-8475-921-1. OCLC 973928579 – via OverDrive.
Doctor, Geeta (2002). Amrita Sher Gil: A Painted Life. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-7167-688-0. OCLC 50728719.
Khandalavala, Karl J. (1945). Amrita Sher-Gil. Bombay: New Book Co. OCLC 2605226.
Gupta, Indra (2004) [2003]. India's 50 Most Illustrious Women (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Icon Publications. ISBN 978-81-88086-19-1. OCLC 858639936.
JRF, Dileep (22 November 2019). "अमृता शेरगिल 1913-1941" [Amrita Shergill 1913-1941] (in Hindi). History of Fine Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
NGMA. "Virtual Galleries - Amrita Sher-Gil". New Delhi: National Gallery of Modern Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
Sharma, Mahima (15 March 2022). "Amrita Sher Gil: A Bisexual Artist Who Even Spellbound Nehru". Simplykalaa Homepage.
Kapur, Geeta (2020) [2000]. When was Modernism: Essays on Contemporary Cultural Practice in India. New Delhi, India: Tulika Books. ISBN 978-81-89487-24-9. OCLC 1129791065.
Nandan, Kanhaiyalal; Shergil, Amrita (1987). Amrita Shergil (in Hindi). Delhi: Parag. OCLC 59068198.
Rahman, Maseeh (6 October 2014). "In the shadow of death". The Arts. India Today. 39 (40): 68–69.
Salim, Ahmad (1987). Amrita Sher-Gil: a personal view. Karachi: Istaʹarah Publications. OCLC 21297600.
Śarmā, Vishwamitra (2008). "Amirita Shergil, Maestro of Modern Art (1913–1941)". Famous Indians of the 20th Century. New Delhi: Pustak Mahal. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-81-920796-8-4. OCLC 800734508 – via Internet Archive.
Sen, Geeti (2002). "Chapter II: Woman Resting on a Charpoy". Feminine Fables: Imaging the Indian Woman in Painting, Photography and Cinema. Ahmedabad & Middletown, NJ: Mapin Pub. Grantha Corp. pp. 10, 14–16, 61–100, 136. ISBN 978-81-85822-88-4. OCLC 988874350 – via Internet Archive.
Sher-Gil, Amrita (1943). The art of Amrita Sher-Gil (ten coloured plates). Roerich Centre of Art and Culture. Allahabad: Allahabad Block Works. OCLC 699310.
Sher-Gil, Amrita; Appasamy, Jaya; Dhingra, Baldoon (1965). Sher-Gil. New Delhi: Lalit Kala Akademi. OCLC 837971308.
Singh, Narayan Iqbal (1984). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Biography. New Delhi: Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-2474-9. OCLC 12810037.
Sundaram, Vivan (1972). Amrita Sher-Gil; essays. Bombay: Marg Publications; sole distributors: India Book Centre, New Delhi. OCLC 643542124.
Sundaram, Vivan; Sher-Gil, Umrao Singh (2001). Re-Take of Amrita : Digital Photomontages Based on Photographs by Umrao Singh Sher-Gil (1870-1954) and Photographs from the Sher-Gil Family Archive. New Delhi: Tulika. ISBN 978-81-85229-49-2. OCLC 50004509.
Wojtilla, Gyula; Sher-Gil, Amrita (1981). Amrita Sher-Gil and Hungary. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. OCLC 793843789.
== External links ==
Media related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikiquote |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenkichi_Iwasawa | Kenkichi Iwasawa | Kenkichi Iwasawa (岩澤 健吉 Iwasawa Kenkichi, September 11, 1917 – October 26, 1998) was a Japanese mathematician who is known for his influence on algebraic number theory.
== Biography ==
Iwasawa was born in Shinshuku-mura, a town near Kiryū, in Gunma Prefecture. He attended elementary school there, but later moved to Tokyo to attend Musashi High School.
From 1937 to 1940 Iwasawa studied as an undergraduate at the University of Tokyo, after which he entered graduate school at the same institution and became an assistant in the Department of Mathematics. In 1945 he was awarded a Doctor of Science degree. However, this same year Iwasawa became sick with pleurisy, and was unable to return to his position at the university until April 1947. From 1949 to 1955 he worked as assistant professor at the University of Tokyo.
In 1950, Iwasawa was invited to Cambridge, Massachusetts to give a lecture at the International Congress of Mathematicians on his method to study Dedekind zeta functions using integration over ideles and duality of adeles; this method was also independently obtained by John Tate and is sometimes called Iwasawa–Tate theory. Iwasawa spent the next two years at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and in Spring of 1952 was offered a job at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he worked until 1967.
From 1967 until his retirement in 1986, Iwasawa served as Professor of Mathematics at Princeton. He returned to Tokyo with his wife in 1987.
Among Iwasawa's most famous students are Robert F. Coleman, Bruce Ferrero, Ralph Greenberg, Gustave Solomon, Larry Washington, and Eugene M. Luks.
== Research ==
Iwasawa is known for introducing what is now called Iwasawa theory, which developed from researches on cyclotomic fields from the later 1950s. Before that he worked on Lie groups and Lie algebras, introducing the general Iwasawa decomposition.
== List of books available in English ==
Lectures on p-adic L-functions / by Kenkichi Iwasawa (1972)
Local class field theory / Kenkichi Iwasawa (1986) ISBN 0-19-504030-9
Algebraic functions / Kenkichi Iwasawa; translated by Goro Kato (1993) ISBN 0-8218-4595-0
Iwasawa, Kenkichi (2001), Satake, Ichiro; Fujisaki, Genjiro; Kato, Kazuya; Kurihara, Masato; Nakajima, Shoichi; Coates, John (eds.), Collected papers. Vol. I, II, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-4-431-70314-3, MR 1851503
== See also ==
Iwasawa group
Anabelian geometry
Fermat's Last Theorem
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Coates, John (1999), "Kenkichi Iwasawa (1917--1998)", Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 46 (10): 1221–1225, MR 1715578, Zbl 1194.01081
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Kenkichi Iwasawa", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
== External links ==
Kenkichi Iwasawa at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolores_Fonzi#:~:text=During%202006%2C%20Fonzi%20starred%20and,by%20Canana%20Films%20in%20Mexico. | Dolores Fonzi | Dolores María Fonzi (born 19 July 1978) is an Argentine television, theatre and film actress. Several of her films have received critical acclaim such as Burnt Money (2000), Waiting for the Messiah (2000), Bottom of the Sea (2003), The Aura (2005), and Paulina (2015).
In 2023, she marked her directorial debut with the comedy-drama Blondi. Her second film, the legal drama Belén, is competing for the Golden Shell at the 73rd San Sebastian International Film Festival.
== Biography ==
Dolores Fonzi was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina. After the separation of her parents, her mother, María del Rosario Cárrega, returned with her children to Adrogué, a city where Dolores and her brothers Tomás and Diego grew up. She studied acting at the school of Carlos Gandolfo. Her brother Tomás Fonzi is also an actor in Argentina.
== Career ==
In 1996, when she was seventeen years old, Dolores Fonzi made her first television appearance in the series La nena. In 1998, Cris Morena chose her to play Clara Vázquez in Verano del '98 with her brother, who played Benjamín Vázquez. Thanks to this successful series and her character as a villain, she gained great popularity and success. At the end of 1999 she left Verano del '98 to be part of the cast of Marcelo Piñeyro's film Burnt Money, thereby landing her film debut with a role as a sex worker. She also appeared in Waiting for the Messiah. In 2001, she had great recognition by integrating the cast of El sodero de mi vida in Canal 13, where she played a girl with a slight mental retardation. Experimenting with Luis Ortega the tape Caja negra is born, where she acted and participated in the integral creation. She later acted in movies like Private Lives, Bottom of the Sea, The Aura, La mujer rota, Salamandra, El club de la muerte and El campo, for the latter she was nominated for the Silver Condor Awards for Best Actress. In 2003 she starred in the unitary series Disputas and in the adaptation of the play of John Ford, Lástima que sea una puta. The following year she starred with Mariano Martínez the terror unit, Sangre fría by Telefe.
During 2006, Fonzi starred and produced the miniseries Soy tu fan which in 2010 was adapted by Canana Films in Mexico. She also starred in the series El tiempo no para by Canal 9. From 2005 to 2008 she participated in three chapters of Mujeres asesinas. Her return to television was in 2012 with her participation in Graduados the new Underground production for Telefe. In addition, she was part of the unit of TV Pública En terapia with the actors Norma Aleandro, Diego Peretti, Leonardo Sbaraglia, Ailín Salas, Julieta Cardinali and Germán Palacios. She also resumed the theater as the protagonist of the play Isósceles. That year, she also made the filming of El Crítico by Hernán Guerschuny, a co-production between HC Films and Lagarto Cine where Dolores Fonzi had the lead alongside Rafael Spregelburd. On television she participated as a guest actress in two episodes of the series Aliados.
In 2015 Fonzi starred in the film Paulina, remake of the film starring Mirtha Legrand, in 1960. The film had a strong box office collection and favorable reviews, being praised at the Cannes Festival. For her work in the film, Fonzi was awarded the Havana Star Prize for Best Actress at the 17th Havana Film Festival New York. She also acted in Truman film starring Ricardo Darín. In 2016 she was part of the cast of the series of La Leona, she played Eugenia Leone.
== Personal life ==
From 2008 to 2014, Fonzi was in a relationship with actor Gael García Bernal, whom she met on the set of the 2001 film Private Lives. They had two children respectively born in 2009 and 2011. Afterwards, Fonzi entered a relationship with filmmaker Santiago Mitre, whom she met during the filming of Paulina in 2014.
== Filmography ==
=== Television ===
=== Movies ===
=== Theater ===
=== Videoclips ===
== Accolades ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Dolores Fonzi at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_Bridge | Abdullah Bridge | Abdullah Bridge is a concrete bridge located in the city of Srinagar in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It is a relatively new bridge replacing the nearby Zero Bridge to connect Sonwar Bagh and Rajbagh. It is named after Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, a prominent politician from Kashmir. The bridge was constructed by JKPCC under the supervision of Er Mohammed Amin Shah.
== See also ==
Zero Bridge
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Cunnell | Clifford Cunnell | Clifford "Cliff" James Cunnell (b 31 August 1944 - d 5 October 2016) was an English cricketer. He was a right-handed batsman who played for Suffolk. He was born in Ipswich.
Cunnell made his Minor Counties Championship debut during the 1965 season, and with one season's exception, continued to play for the team until 1972. Cunnell made a single List A appearance for the team, during the 1966 Gillette Cup, against Kent.
Cunnell's brother, Bob, made four appearances for Suffolk over a 13-year timespan.
== External links ==
Clifford Cunnell at Cricket Archive (subscription required) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adore_Delano_discography | Adore Delano discography | The discography of American drag performer and singer Adore Delano consists of three studio albums, one extended play, thirteen singles, one promotional single, and eleven music videos (including one as a featured artist).
== Studio albums ==
== Extended plays ==
== Singles ==
=== As lead artist ===
=== Promotional singles ===
=== As featured artist ===
== Music videos ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChromeOS | ChromeOS | ChromeOS (sometimes styled as chromeOS and formerly styled as Chrome OS) is an operating system designed and developed by Google. It is derived from the open-source ChromiumOS operating system (which itself is derived from Gentoo Linux), and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface.
Google announced the project in July 2009, initially describing it as an operating system where applications and user data would reside in the cloud. ChromeOS was used primarily to run web applications. The operating system first shipped with Chromebooks in 2011. It is also offered since 2020 as an installable Linux distribution as ChromeOS Flex.
ChromeOS supports progressive web applications, Android apps from Google Play and Linux applications.
In 2025, Google confirmed that ChromeOS will switch from the Linux kernel to the Android kernel. The reworked operating system will result in ChromeOS's development merging with that of Android.
== History ==
In 2006, Jeff Nelson, a Google employee, created the concept of what would become ChromeOS, initially codenamed "Google OS" as a Linux distribution focused on speed. Early versions of the Google operating system used Firefox as Chrome had not been released, though it switched to Chrome sometime in 2007 due to internal betas being passed around Google.
To ascertain marketing requirements, developers relied on informal metrics, including monitoring the usage patterns of 200 machines used by Google employees. Developers also noted their own usage patterns.
Google requested that its hardware partners use solid-state drives "for performance and reliability reasons" as well as the lower capacity requirements inherent in an operating system that accesses applications and most user data on remote servers. In November 2009, Matthew Papakipos, engineering director for the ChromeOS, announced that ChromeOS would only support solid-state storage (i.e. not mechanical hard-disks), and noted that ChromeOS only required one-sixtieth as much drive space as Windows 7. Ten years later, in 2019, the recovery images Google provided for ChromeOS were still only between 1 and 3 GB in size.
On November 19, 2009, Google released ChromeOS's source code as the ChromiumOS project. At a November 19, 2009 news conference, Sundar Pichai–at the time Google's vice president overseeing Chrome–demonstrated an early version of the operating system. He previewed a desktop which looked very similar to the desktop Chrome browser, and in addition to the regular browser tabs also had application tabs, which take less space and can be pinned for easier access. At the conference, the operating system booted up in seven seconds, a time Google said it would work to reduce. Additionally, Chris Kenyon, vice president of OEM services at Canonical Ltd, announced that Canonical was under contract to contribute engineering resources to the project with the intent to build on existing open-source components and tools where feasible.
Canonical was an early engineering partner on the project, and initially ChromiumOS could only be built on an Ubuntu system. In February 2010, the ChromiumOS development team switched to Gentoo Linux because Gentoo's package management system Portage was more flexible. The ChromiumOS build environment is no longer restricted to any particular distribution, but installation and quick-start guides use Debian's (and thus also Ubuntu's) apt syntax.
=== Early Chromebooks (2010) ===
In 2010, Google released the unbranded Cr-48 Chromebook in a pilot program. The launch date for retail hardware featuring ChromeOS was delayed from late 2010 until the next year.
On May 11, 2011, Google announced two Chromebooks from Acer and Samsung at Google I/O. The Samsung model was released on June 15, 2011, and the Acer model in mid-July. In August 2011, Netflix announced official support for ChromeOS through its streaming service, allowing Chromebooks to watch streaming movies and TV shows via Netflix. At the time, other devices had to use Microsoft Silverlight to play videos from Netflix. Later in that same month, Citrix released a client application for ChromeOS, allowing Chromebooks to access Windows applications and desktops remotely. Dublin City University became the first educational institution in Europe to provide Chromebooks for its students when it announced an agreement with Google in September 2011.
=== Expansion (2012) ===
By 2012, demand for Chromebooks had begun to grow, and Google announced a new range of devices, designed and manufactured by Samsung. In so doing, they also released the first Chromebox, the Samsung Series 3, which was ChromeOS' entrance into the world of desktop computers. Although they were faster than the previous range of devices, they were still underpowered compared to other desktops and laptops of the time, fitting in more closely with the Netbook market. Only months later, in October, Samsung and Google released a new Chromebook at a significantly lower price point ($250, compared to the previous Series 5 Chromebooks' $450). It was the first Chromebook to use an ARM processor, one from Samsung's Exynos line. To reduce the price, Google and Samsung also reduced the memory and screen resolution of the device. An advantage of using the ARM processor, however, was that the Chromebook did not require a fan. Acer followed quickly after with the C7 Chromebook, priced even lower ($199), but containing an Intel Celeron processor. One notable way Acer reduced the cost of the C7 was to use a laptop hard disk rather than a solid-state drive.
In April 2012, Google made the first update to ChromeOS's user interface since the operating system had launched, introducing a hardware-accelerated window manager called "Aura" along with a conventional taskbar. The additions marked a departure from the operating system's original concept of a single browser with tabs and gave ChromeOS the look and feel of a more conventional desktop operating system. "In a way, this almost feels as if Google is admitting defeat here", wrote Frederic Lardinois on TechCrunch. He argued that Google had traded its original version of simplicity for greater functionality. "That's not necessarily a bad thing, though, and may just help ChromeOS gain more mainstream acceptance as new users will surely find it to be a more familiar experience." Lenovo and HP followed Samsung and Acer in manufacturing Chromebooks in early 2013 with their own models. Lenovo specifically targeted their Chromebook at students, headlining their press release with "Lenovo Introduces Rugged ThinkPad Chromebook for Schools".
When Google released Google Drive, they also included Drive integration in ChromeOS version 20, released in July 2012. While ChromeOS had supported Adobe Flash since 2010, by the end of 2012 it had been fully sandboxed, preventing issues with Flash from affecting other parts of ChromeOS. This affected all versions of Chrome including ChromeOS.
=== Chromebook Pixel (2013) ===
Prior to 2013, Google had never made their own ChromeOS device. ChromeOS devices were designed, manufactured, and marketed by third-party manufacturers, with Google controlling the software side. This changed in February 2013 when Google released the Chromebook Pixel. The Chromebook Pixel was entirely Google-branded, and contained an Intel Core i5 processor, a high-resolution (2,560 × 1,700) touchscreen display, and a price competitive with business laptops.
=== 2013–2025 ===
By the end of 2013, analysts were undecided on the future of ChromeOS. Although there had been articles predicting the demise of ChromeOS since 2009, ChromeOS device sales continued to increase substantially year-over-year. In mid-2014, Time magazine published an article titled "Depending on Who's Counting, Chromebooks are Either an Enormous Hit or Totally Irrelevant", which detailed the differences in opinion. This uncertainty was further spurred by Intel's announcement of Intel-based Chromebooks, Chromeboxes, and an all-in-one offering from LG called the Chromebase.
Seizing the opportunity created by the end of life for Windows XP, Google pushed hard to sell Chromebooks to businesses, offering significant discounts in early 2014.
ChromeOS devices outsold Apple Macs worldwide for the year 2020.
Since July 2021, ChromeOS's embedded controller was changed to be based on a Google maintained fork of Zephyr, a real time operating system.
=== Pwnium competition ===
In March 2014, Google hosted a hacking contest aimed at computer security experts called "Pwnium". Similar to the Pwn2Own contest, they invited hackers from around the world to find exploits in ChromeOS, with prizes available for attacks. Two exploits were demonstrated there, and a third was demonstrated at that year's Pwn2Own competition. Google patched all of the issues within a week.
=== Material Design and app runtime for Chrome ===
Although the Google Native Client has been available on ChromeOS since 2010, there originally were few Native Client apps available, and most ChromeOS apps were still web apps. However, in June 2014, Google announced at Google I/O that ChromeOS would both synchronise with Android phones to share notifications and begin to run Android apps, installed directly from Google Play. This, along with the broadening selection of Chromebooks, laid the groundwork for future ChromeOS development.
At the same time, Google was also moving towards the then-new Material Design design language for its products, which it would bring to its web products as well as Android Lollipop. One of the first Material Design items to come to ChromeOS was a new default wallpaper. Google's Material Design experiment for ChromeOS were added to the stable version with Chrome 117.
=== Merger with Android ===
After some rumors, Google confirmed in July 2025 that ChromeOS will "merge" with Android under one unified platform. It was formally announced at the Snapdragon Summit in September 2025. Internally, it is known as codename Aluminium OS.
The existing Linux-based ChromeOS will be replaced by a desktop-optimized Android-based operating system. The same Android software would run on desktop and mobile and be adapted for the different display sizes. Like ChromeOS, the desktop version of Aluminium will work on both ARM and x86 processors. The latter port is expected be the first mainline maintained x86 architecture version of Android.
== Features ==
=== Functionality for small and medium businesses and Enterprise ===
==== Chrome Enterprise ====
Chrome Enterprise, launched in 2017, includes ChromeOS, Chrome Browser, Chrome devices and their management capabilities intended for business use. Businesses can access the standard ChromeOS features and unlock advanced features for business with the Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. Standard features include the ability to sync bookmarks and browser extensions across devices, cloud or native printing, multi-layered security, remote desktop, and automatic updates. Advanced features include Active Directory integration, unified endpoint management, advanced security protection, access to device policies and Google Admin console, guest access, kiosk mode, and whitelisting or blacklisting third-party apps managed on Google Play.
The education sector was an early adopter of Chromebooks, ChromeOS, and cloud-based computing. Chromebooks are widely used in classrooms and the advantages of cloud-based systems have been gaining an increased share of the market in other sectors as well, including financial services, healthcare, and retail. "The popularity of cloud computing and cloud-based services highlights the degree to which companies and business processes have become both internet-enabled and dependent." ICT managers cite a number of advantages of the cloud that have motivated the move. Among them are advanced security, because data is not physically on a single machine that can be lost or stolen. Deploying and managing cloud-native devices is easier because no hardware and software upgrades or virus definition updates are needed, and patching of OS and software updates are simpler. Simplified and centralized management decreases operational costs.
Employees can securely access files and work on any machine, increasing the shareability of Chrome devices. Google's Grab and Go program with Chrome Enterprise allows businesses deploying Chromebooks to provide employees access to a bank of fully charged computers that can be checked out and returned after some time.
==== From Chromebooks to Chromebox and Chromebase ====
In an early attempt to expand its enterprise offerings, Google released Chromebox for Meetings in February 2014. Chromebox for Meetings is a kit for conference rooms containing a Chromebox, a camera, a unit containing both a noise-cancelling microphone and speakers, and a remote control. It supports Google Hangouts meetings, Vidyo video conferences, and conference calls from UberConference.
Several partners announced Chromebox for Meetings models with Google, and in 2016 Google announced an all-in-one Chromebase for Meetings for smaller meeting rooms. Google targeted the consumer hardware market with the release of the Chromebook in 2011 and Chromebook Pixel in 2013, and sought access to the enterprise market with the 2017 release of the Pixelbook. The second-generation Pixelbook was released in 2019. In 2021 there are several vendors selling all-in-one Chromebase devices.
==== Enterprise response to Chrome devices ====
Google has partnered on Chrome devices with several leading OEMs, including Acer, ASUS, Dell, HP, Lenovo, and Samsung. In August 2019, Dell announced that two of its popular business-focused laptops would run ChromeOS and come with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. The Latitude 5300 2-in-1 Chromebook Enterprise and Latitude 5400 Chromebook Enterprise were the result of a two-year partnership between Dell and Google. The machines come with a bundle of Dell's cloud-based support services that would enable enterprise ICT managers to deploy them in environments that also rely on Windows. The new laptop line "delivers the search giant's ChromeOS operating system in a form tailored for security-conscious organizations." Other OEMs that have launched devices with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade include Acer and HP.
With a broader range of hardware available, ChromeOS became an option for enterprises wishing to avoid a migration to Windows 10 before Windows 7 support was discontinued by Microsoft.
== Hardware ==
Laptops running ChromeOS are known collectively as "Chromebooks". The first was the CR-48, a reference hardware design that Google gave to testers and reviewers beginning in December 2010. Retail machines followed in May 2011. A year later, in May 2012, a desktop design marketed as a "Chromebox" was released by Samsung. In March 2015 a partnership with AOPEN was announced and the first commercial Chromebox was developed.
In early 2014, LG Electronics introduced the first device belonging to the new all-in-one form factor called "Chromebase". Chromebase devices are essentially Chromebox hardware inside a monitor with a built-in camera, microphone and speakers.
The Chromebit is an HDMI dongle running ChromeOS. When placed in an HDMI slot on a television set or computer monitor, the device turns that display into a personal computer. The first device, announced in March 2015 was an Asus unit that shipped that November and which reached end of life in November 2020.
Chromebook tablets were introduced in March 2018 by Acer with their Chromebook Tab 10. Designed to rival the Apple iPad, it had an identical screen size and resolution and other similar specifications, a notable addition was a Wacom-branded stylus that does not require a battery or charging.
ChromeOS supports multi-monitor setups on devices with a video-out port, USB 3.0 Standard-A or USB-C, the latter being preferable.
On February 16, 2022, Google announced a development version of ChromeOS Flex—a distribution of ChromeOS that can be installed on conventional PC hardware to replace other operating systems such as Windows and macOS. It is similar to CloudReady, a distribution of ChromiumOS whose developers were acquired by Google in 2020.
== Software ==
ChromeOS automatic updates are available for 10 years for all Chromebook models manufactured in 2019 and onwards, these updates are for the operating system, browser and hardware. Google maintains a web page with their Auto Update policy and the end date for all ChromeOS devices manufactured.
Previously the automatic update period was 8 years, and shorter prior to that although the earlier models had continued to receive updates for longer.
== Applications ==
Initially, ChromeOS was a pure thin client operating system that relied primarily on servers to host web applications and related data storage. Google gradually began encouraging developers to create "packaged applications", and later, Chrome Apps by employing HTML5, CSS, Adobe Shockwave, and JavaScript to provide a user experience closer to a native application.
In September 2014, Google launched App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allowed certain ported Android applications to run on ChromeOS. Runtime was launched with four Android applications: Duolingo, Evernote, Sight Words, and Vine. In 2016, the second version, ARC++, was introduced, using Linux kernel features cgroups and namespaces to make containers that can run Android apps in an isolated environment. As ARC++ removed the need to recompile apps, Google made Google Play available for ChromeOS, making most Android apps available for supported ChromeOS devices. ARC++ was introduced with Android Marshmallow and upgraded to Android Nougat and Android Pie. ARCVM launched in 2021 with Android 11 and runs on Android 13 starting with ChromeOS 117. ARCVM uses virtual machines to enhance the isolation of the Android environment in order to improve security and maintainability.
In 2018, Google announced plans for Linux on ChromeOS, also known as Crostini, allowing for desktop Linux applications. This capability was released to the stable channel (as an option for most machines) with Chrome 69 in October 2018, but was still marked as beta. This feature was officially released with Chrome 91.
In 2023, with version 119, Google released Valve Corporation's Steam for Chromebook (Beta) for playing video games on Chromebooks meeting minimum hardware requirements. Steam for Chromebook was developed under the codename Borealis, building off work for SteamOS for the Steam Deck, similarly built using a modified version of Arch Linux, running as a virtual machine. In August 2025, Google announced that they will end Steam for Chromebook support in January 2026.
=== Chrome Apps ===
From 2013 until January 2020, Google encouraged developers to build not just conventional Web applications for ChromeOS, but Chrome Apps (formerly known as Packaged Apps). In January 2020, Google's Chrome team announced its intent to phase out support for Chrome Apps in favor of "progressive web applications" (PWA) and Chrome extensions instead. In March 2020, Google stopped accepting new public Chrome Apps for the web store. According to Google, general support for Chrome Apps on ChromeOS will remain enabled, without requiring any policy setting, through June 2022.
From a user's perspective, Chrome Apps resemble conventional native applications: they can be launched outside of the Chrome browser, are offline by default, can manage multiple windows, and interact with other applications.
==== Integrated media player, file manager ====
Google integrated a media player into both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser, enabling users to play back MP3s, view JPEGs, and handle other multimedia files without connectivity. The integration also supports DRM videos.
ChromeOS also includes an integrated file manager, resembling those found on other operating systems, with the ability to display directories and the files they contain from both Google Drive and local storage, as well as to preview and manage file contents using a variety of Web applications, including Google Docs and Box. Since January 2015, ChromeOS can also integrate additional storage sources into the file manager, relying on installed extensions that use the File System Provider API.
==== Remote application access and virtual desktop access ====
In June 2010, Google's software engineer Gary Kačmarčík wrote that ChromeOS would access remote applications through a technology unofficially called "Chromoting", which would resemble Microsoft's Remote Desktop Connection. The name has since been changed to "Chrome Remote Desktop", and is like "running an application via Remote Desktop Services or by first connecting to a host machine by using RDP or VNC". Initial roll-outs of ChromeOS laptops (Chromebooks) indicate an interest in enabling users to access virtual desktops.
=== Android applications ===
At Google I/O 2014, a proof of concept showing Android applications, including Flipboard, running on ChromeOS was presented. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of the App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications.
In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access to Google Play in its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allow the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with the Android Native Development Toolkit (NDK), and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.
=== Linux apps ===
All Chromebooks made since 2018, and some earlier models, can run Linux apps. As with Android apps, these apps can be installed and launched alongside other apps. Google maintains a list of devices that were launched before 2019 which support Linux apps.
Since 2013, it has been possible to run Linux applications in ChromeOS through the use of Crouton, a third-party set of scripts that allows access to a Linux distribution such as Ubuntu. However, in 2018 Google announced that desktop Linux apps were officially coming to ChromeOS. The main benefit claimed by Google of their official Linux application support is that it can run without enabling developer mode, keeping many of the security features of ChromeOS. It was noticed in the ChromiumOS source code in early 2018. Early parts of Crostini were made available for the Google Pixelbook via the dev channel in February 2018 as part of ChromeOS version 66, and it was enabled by default via the beta channel for testing on a variety of Chromebooks in August 2018 with version 69.
==== Architecture ====
Google's project for supporting Linux applications in ChromeOS is called Crostini, named for the Italian bread-based starter, and as a pun on Crouton. Crostini runs a virtual machine through a virtual machine monitor called crosvm, which uses Linux's built-in KVM virtualization tool. Although crosvm supports multiple virtual machines, the one used for running Linux apps, Termina, contains a basic ChromeOS kernel based on Gentoo, in which it runs containers based on LXD. In the interest of stability and recovery, no Linux apps run on the virtual machine itself; any installed Linux userland ecosystem runs in an isolated container, all of which are deployed and managed by the virtual machine. A Debian container with host system integration is provided by default. Users can install programs to this installation by using tools like APT within the container, or may grant access to .deb files stored on ChromeOS itself, which are copied and installed to the container. Users may also individually grant access to individual files or USB devices. Other distributions can be added using LXD, although not by default integrated with the Host System.
== Architecture ==
ChromeOS is built on top of the Linux kernel. Originally based on Ubuntu, its base was changed to Gentoo Linux in February 2010. For Project Crostini, as of ChromeOS 121, Debian 12 (Bookworm) is the default container base image. In preliminary design documents for the ChromiumOS open-source project, Google described a three-tier architecture: firmware, browser and window manager, and system-level software and userland services.
The firmware contributes to fast boot time by not probing for hardware, such as floppy disk drives, that are no longer common on computers, especially netbooks. The firmware also contributes to security by verifying each step in the boot process and incorporating system recovery.
System-level software includes the Linux kernel that has been patched to improve boot performance. Userland software has been trimmed to essentials, with management by Upstart, which can launch services in parallel, re-spawn crashed jobs, and defer services in the interest of faster booting.
The window manager handles user interaction with multiple client windows (much like other X window managers).
=== Shell access ===
ChromeOS includes the Chromium Shell, or "crosh", which documents minimal functionality such as ping at crosh start-up.
In developer mode, a full-featured bash shell (which is supposed to be used for development purposes) can be opened via VT-2, and is also accessible using the crosh command shell. It is also accessible via the key shortcut crtl+alt+t. To access full privileges in shell (e.g. sudo) a root password is requested. For some time the default was "chronos" in ChromeOS and "facepunch" in ChromeOS Vanilla and later the default was empty, and instructions on updating it were displayed at each login.
=== Open source ===
ChromeOS is partially developed under the open-source ChromiumOS project. As with other open-source projects, developers can modify the code from ChromiumOS and build their own versions, whereas ChromeOS code is only supported by Google and its partners and only runs on hardware designed for the purpose. Unlike ChromiumOS, ChromeOS is automatically updated to the latest version.
=== ChromeOS on Windows ===
On Windows 8, exceptions allow the default desktop web browser to offer a variant that can run inside its full-screen "Metro" shell and access features such as the Share charm, without necessarily needing to be written with Windows Runtime. Chrome's "Windows 8 mode" was previously a tablet-optimized version of the standard Chrome interface. In October 2013, the mode was changed on Developer channel to offer a variant of the ChromeOS desktop.
== Design ==
Early in the project, Google provided publicly many details of ChromeOS' design goals and direction, although the company has not followed up with a technical description of the completed operating system.
=== User interface ===
Design goals for ChromeOS' user interface included using minimal screen space by combining applications and standard Web pages into a single tab strip, rather than separating the two. Designers considered a reduced window management scheme that would operate only in full-screen mode. Secondary tasks would be handled with "panels": floating windows that dock to the bottom of the screen for tasks like chat and music players. Split screens were also under consideration for viewing two pieces of content side by side. ChromeOS would follow the Chrome browser's practice of leveraging HTML5's offline modes, background processing, and notifications. Designers proposed using search and pinned tabs as a way to quickly locate and access applications.
==== Version 19 window manager and graphics engine ====
On April 10, 2012, a new build of ChromeOS offered a choice between the original full-screen window interface and overlapping, resizable windows, such as found on Microsoft Windows and Apple's macOS. The feature was implemented through the Ash window manager, which runs atop the Aura hardware-accelerated graphics engine. The April 2012 upgrade also included the ability to display smaller, overlapping browser windows, each with its own translucent tabs, browser tabs that can be "torn" and dragged to new positions or merged with another tab strip, and a mouse-enabled shortcut list across the bottom of the screen. One icon on the task bar shows a list of installed applications and bookmarks. Writing in CNET, Stephen Shankland argued that with overlapping windows, "Google is anchoring itself into the past" as both iOS and Microsoft's Metro interface are largely or entirely full-screen. Even so, "ChromeOS already is different enough that it's best to preserve any familiarity that can be preserved".
=== Printing ===
In 2016, Google included "Native CUPS Support" in ChromeOS as an experimental feature that became stable in 2020. With CUPS support turned on, it becomes possible to use most printers even if they do not support Google Cloud Print.
Google Cloud Print was a Google service that helps any application on any device to print on supported printers. While the cloud provides virtually any connected device with information access, the task of "developing and maintaining print subsystems for every combination of hardware and operating system—from desktops to netbooks to mobile devices—simply isn't feasible." The cloud service required the installation of a piece of software called proxy, as part of the ChromeOS. The proxy registered the printer with the service, managed the print jobs, provided the printer driver functionality, and gave status alerts for each job.
Google announced that Google Cloud Print would no longer be supported after December 31, 2020, and that the online service would not be available as of January 1, 2021.
=== Link handling ===
ChromeOS was designed to store user documents and files on remote servers. Both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser may introduce difficulties to end-users when handling specific file types offline; for example, when opening an image or document residing on a local storage device, it may be unclear whether and which specific Web application should be automatically opened for viewing, or the handling should be performed by a traditional application acting as a preview utility. Matthew Papakipos, ChromeOS engineering director, noted in 2010 that Windows developers have faced the same fundamental problem: "Quicktime is fighting with Windows Media Player, which is fighting with Chrome."
=== Release channels and updates ===
ChromeOS uses the same release system as Google Chrome: there are three distinct channels: Stable, Beta, and Developer preview (called the "Dev" channel). The stable channel is updated with features and fixes that have been thoroughly tested in the Beta channel, and the Beta channel is updated approximately once a month with stable and complete features from the Developer channel. New ideas get tested in the Developer channel, which can be very unstable at times. A fourth canary channel was confirmed to exist by Google Developer Francois Beaufort and hacker Kenny Strawn, by entering the ChromeOS shell in developer mode, typing the command shell to access the bash shell, and finally entering the command update_engine_client -channel canary-channel -update. It is possible to return to the verified boot mode after entering the canary channel, but the channel updater disappears and the only way to return to another channel is using the "powerwash" factory reset. In 2022 2 New channels were added called LTC (Long-term support candidate) and LTS (Long-term support) Only available for Enterprise admins .LTC is for 3 months of support and then switched to LTS automatically
== Security ==
In March 2010, Google software security engineer Will Drewry discussed ChromeOS security. Drewry described ChromeOS as a "hardened" operating system featuring auto-updating and sandbox features that would reduce malware exposure. He said that ChromeOS netbooks would be shipped with Trusted Platform Module (TPM), and include both a "trusted boot path" and a physical switch under the battery compartment that activates a "developer mode". That mode drops some specialized security functions but increases developer flexibility. This switch is also reversible. Drewry also emphasized that the open-source nature of the operating system would contribute greatly to its security by allowing constant developer feedback.
At a December 2010 press conference, Google declared that ChromeOS would be the most secure consumer operating system due in part to a verified boot ability, in which the initial boot code, stored in read-only memory, checks for system compromises.
ChromeOS devices ship with full disk encryption by default, which cannot be disabled. The decryption password is stored in the device's TPM. Google allows the TPM to be updated manually via the settings. Updating the TPM will reset the device to factory defaults.
=== Login ===
ChromeOS devices utilize a user's Google Account password as the default sign-in method. To enhance security, users can implement additional authentication measures such as PINs, passwords, fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, or smart unlock (via a paired phone). These supplementary measures mitigate the risk of unauthorized access to the user's Google account via shoulder surfing, even if an attacker possesses the user's Google email address.
If multi-factor authentication (MFA) is enabled on the associated Google Account, the user may be prompted to use it during the initial setup of their ChromeOS device. By default, the device will be designated as "trusted," exempting it from MFA requirements for subsequent logins. For enhanced security, MFA can be mandated for each sign-in by utilizing hardware tokens (such as YubiKeys) linked to the Google Account.
== Reception ==
At its debut, ChromeOS was viewed as a competitor to Microsoft, both directly to Microsoft Windows and indirectly the company's word processing and spreadsheet applications—the latter through ChromeOS' reliance on cloud computing. But ChromeOS engineering director Matthew Papakipos argued that the two operating systems would not fully overlap in functionality because ChromeOS is intended for netbooks, which lack the computational power to run a resource-intensive program like Adobe Photoshop.
Some observers claimed that other operating systems already filled the niche that ChromeOS was aiming for, with the added advantage of supporting native applications in addition to a browser. Tony Bradley of PC World wrote in November 2009: We can already do most, if not all, of what ChromeOS promises to deliver. Using a Windows 7 or Linux-based netbook, users can simply not install anything but a web browser and connect to the vast array of Google products and other web-based services and applications. Netbooks have been successful at capturing the low-end PC market, and they provide a web-centric computing experience today. I am not sure why we should get excited that a year from now we'll be able to do the same thing, but locked into doing it from the fourth-place web browser.
In 2016, Chromebooks were the most popular computer in the US K–12 education market.
In 2020, Chromebooks became the second most-popular end-user oriented OS (growing from 6.4% in 2019 to 10.8% in 2020). The majority of growth came at Windows' expense (which fell from 85.4% in 2019 to 80.5% in 2021).
=== Relationship to Android ===
Google's offer of several open-source operating systems, of which Android and ChromeOS are the best known, has attracted some criticism, despite the similarity between this situation and that of Apple Inc.'s two operating systems, macOS and iOS. Steve Ballmer, Microsoft CEO at the time, accused Google of not being able to make up its mind. Steven Levy wrote that "the dissonance between the two systems was apparent" at Google I/O 2011. The event featured a daily press conference in which each team leader, Android's Andy Rubin and Chrome's Sundar Pichai, "unconvincingly tried to explain why the systems weren't competitive". Google co-founder Sergey Brin addressed the question by saying that owning two promising operating systems was "a problem that most companies would love to face". Brin suggested that the two operating systems "will likely converge over time". The speculation over convergence increased in March 2013 when ChromeOS chief Pichai replaced Rubin as the senior vice president in charge of Android, thereby putting Pichai in charge of both.
The relationship between Android and ChromeOS became closer at Google I/O 2014, where developers demonstrated native Android software running on ChromeOS through a Native Client-based runtime. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of the App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications. In October 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that ChromeOS would be folded into Android so that a single OS would result by 2017. The resulting OS would be Android, but it would be expanded to run on laptops. Google responded that while the company has "been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out ChromeOS".
In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access to Google Play in its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allows the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with the Android Native Development Toolkit (NDK), and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.
On November 18, 2024, Android Authority reported that Google is planning to completely merge ChromeOS into Android.
== See also ==
Comparison of operating systems
Fuchsia (operating system)
Light-weight Linux distribution
List of operating systems
QWERTY § ChromeOS for information on typing diacritics (accents) and special symbols
Timeline of operating systems
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Official blog
Release blog
ChromiumOS project page
Official announcement
Google Chrome OS Live Webcast; November 19, 2009
ChromeOS Flex |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Stank%C3%A9 | Alain Stanké | Alain Stanké (né Aloyzas-Vytas Stankevicius), (born June 11, 1934) is a Canadian francophone television and radio host and commentator, writer, editor, producer, interviewer and journalist. Born in Kaunas (Lithuania), he immigrated to Montreal in 1951.
== Honours ==
In 1998, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada in recognition for being a "multi-talented individual, who has both entertained and challenged us throughout his career". In 2003, he was made a Knight of the National Order of Quebec.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official site (In French)
Alain Stanké fonds (R15713) at Library and Archives Canada |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_Festival | Evolution Festival | Evolution Festival was a music festival held annually across Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead, England, from 2002 until 2013. The festival attracted tens of thousands of attendees every year and usually took place on the Quayside. Evolution Festival was briefly titled Orange Evolution due to a sponsorship deal with the mobile phone company Orange. It has been described as "the biggest festival Tyneside has ever staged".
Headline performers at Evolution Festival included Dizzee Rascal, The Wombats, Paolo Nutini and Maxïmo Park. Florence + The Machine, Amy Winehouse and Ellie Goulding all appeared at Evolution before the height of their fame.
In 2014 Evolution Festival did not take place, and although the organisers claimed it was only a "pause" the event has not been held since. A smaller event featuring local bands, Evolution Emerging, was held up until 2019, when it rebranded into Tipping Point live.
== History ==
Evolution Festival started in 2002. In 2003 the event took place on the Quayside for the first time, with performances from Moloko, Biffy Clyro and Inspiral Carpets. In 2004, due to funding restrictions, Evolution returned to its multi-venue format including a Shindig event headlined by Eric Morillo and Deep Dish. Evolution returned to the Quayside in 2005, sponsored by the mobile phone network Orange and featuring a three-stage event headlined by Dizzee Rascal and The Futureheads. Major Tyneside export Maxïmo Park headlined the 2007 event. In 2008, the festival ended its sponsorship with Orange and became known as Evolution Festival, and introduced an entry charge - of £3 - for the first time.
In 2009 the festival became a two-day event with performances from The Wombats, White Lies and Florence + The Machine. A folk stage was added in 2010. In 2012 the organisers of Evolution held a one-off edition of the festival at Avenham Park, Preston as part of the Preston Guild celebrations. The one-day event, titled GFest, featured performances from Maverick Sabre, Labrinth and Stooshe and attracted thousands of festival-goers. The 2013 edition of the main Newcastle event featured The Vaccines, Ellie Goulding, Paloma Faith and Jake Bugg.
In 2014 Evolution Festival did not take place, although promoters Jim Mawdsley and Dave Stone said that it was not the end of Evolution Festival. The festival has, however, not been held since 2013 and no news of a relaunch has been announced. The Evolution brand continues through Evolution Emerging, a multiple venue event that showcases new bands from the local region.
== Line-ups ==
=== Orange Evolution 05 ===
=== Orange Evolution 06 ===
=== Orange Evolution 07 ===
=== Evolution Festival 08 ===
=== Evolution Festival 09 ===
=== Evolution Festival 2010 ===
=== Evolution Festival 2011 ===
Note: Clare Maguire replaced Fenech Soler who were playing the Baltic Stage due to illness within the band.
Note: Toyger replaced Clare Maguire who was playing the Baltic Stage due to a last minute cancellation.
=== Evolution Festival 2012 ===
=== Evolution Festival 2013 ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Evolution Festival on Chronicle Live |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indu_Malhotra#:~:text=Her%20appointment%20was%20confirmed%20and,retired%20on%2013%20March%202021. | Indu Malhotra | Indu Malhotra is a former judge of the Supreme Court of India. Post retirement, she is practicing as a full-time arbitrator in international and domestic arbitrations. Prior to her elevation, she was practicing as a Senior Counsel in the Supreme Court of India, and various High Courts. In 2007, she was the second woman to be designated as a Senior Counsel by the Supreme Court, after more than three decades. In 2018, she was the first woman to be elevated directly from the Bar as a Judge of the Supreme Court of India. She demitted office in March 2021 on completion of her term. She has contributed significantly to arbitration jurisprudence, both as a counsel and as a judge.
She is currently a Member of the Court, Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), The Hague.
She is also a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators, London.
== Early life and education ==
Indu Malhotra is the daughter of Late Sh. Om Prakash Malhotra, a senior advocate of the Supreme Court and author, and Satya Malhotra.
She did her schooling from Carmel Convent School, New Delhi, Thereafter, she did her Bachelors and Masters in Political Science from Lady Shri Ram College, Delhi University. After obtaining her Masters Degree, she worked briefly as a lecturer in Political Science at Miranda House and Vivekananda College, Delhi University.
In 1982, she completed her Law Degree (LL.B.) from the Faculty of Law, University of Delhi and enrolled with the Bar Council of Delhi and took to the practice of Law as her profession.
== Career ==
She qualified as an advocate-on-record in the Supreme Court, and topped the examination in 1988, and was awarded the Mukesh Goswami Award.
In 2017, Justice Malhotra was appointed as a member of a High-Level Committee constituted by The Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India to make recommendations for institutionalization of arbitration in India, and suggest further legislative amendments to the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. The 2019 Amendments to the Indian Arbitration & Conciliation Act, 1996 are based on the recommendations of this Committee.
She has been appointed as an arbitrator by various arbitral institutions including the ICC International Court of Arbitration, Mumbai Centre for International Arbitration (MCIA), Singapore International Arbitration Centre (SIAC), Indian Council of Arbitration (ICA), Delhi International Arbitration Centre (DIAC), and Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM).
She is regularly invited to lecture on the law and practice of arbitration by institutions such as Delhi University, National Law University in Delhi, National Academy of Legal Studies and Research (NALSAR) in Hyderabad, Gujarat National Law University in Ahmedabad, ILS Law College in Pune, Symbiosis Law School, and Amity University in New Delhi.
Apart from her judicial career, she has been deeply engaged in academia. She has authored the 3rd and 4th edition of the well-known Commentary on the Arbitration Act, which has been cited by the Supreme Court and the High Courts in various judgments.
In 2005, she was nominated in the category of ‘eminent person’ by the then Chief Justice of India to the General Council of Gujarat National Law University.
In June 2023, Justice Malhotra was nominated by the Chief Justice of India as the Chairperson of the Advisory Board of the Consortium of National Law Universities in India.
In 2024, Justice Malhotra has established a Chair to conduct the 1st Post Graduate Diploma Course on International Commercial Arbitration & Investment Treaty Arbitration in the National Law University of Delhi. The object of conducting this course is for capacity building in this specialized area of arbitration.
She is also engaged in public service and is actively involved as a Trustee of the Save Life Foundation (“SLF”) which is a public charitable trust. SLF has pioneered various initiatives for improving road safety and emergency medical care to address the issue of the high number of fatalities caused by road crashes in India. SLF has also filed various PILs in the Supreme Court, including a PIL for the framing of guidelines for protection of Good Samaritans, which led to the insertion of Section 134-A in the Motor Vehicles Act to provide statutory protection to Good Samaritans from any civil or criminal proceedings. SLF has launched various initiatives such as the Zero Fatality Corridor on the Mumbai-Pune expressway. SLF has recently filed a PIL on the right to Trauma Care, being a constituent of the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution, and a part of the “minimum core obligations of the State”.
== Membership of committees and nominations ==
Nominated by the Chief Justice of India as the Chairperson of the Advisory Board of the Consortium of National Law Universities in India in June 2023.
Member of the Central Council of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, a statutory body established under the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 in 2016.
Member of the Indo-British Legal Forum held in January 2003 and March 2008.
Represented India at the Convention on the Rights of the Child, conducted by the Commonwealth Secretariat in May 1988 at Dhaka, Bangladesh.
== Publications and academic pursuits ==
Justice Malhotra has published the Third Edition (Thomson Reuters, 2014) and Fourth Edition (Wolters Kluwer, 2020) of the Commentary on the Law of Arbitration in India. The Commentary has been cited by the Supreme Court and High Courts in various landmark and seminal Judgments.
== Bibliography ==
The Law and Practice of Arbitration and Conciliation: The Arbitration and Conciliation Act (1996)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard | Statue of Søren Kierkegaard | The statue of Søren Kierkegaard is located in the Royal Library Garden on Slotsholmen in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It was unveiled in 1918 but is based on an older statuette by Louis Hasselriis.
== Description ==
Kierkegaard is depicted sitting on a chair in the process of writing something on a sheet of paper with a quill. Next to him are some books.
== History ==
The monument is based on a statuette created by Louis Hasselriis in 1878, 1879. It was enlarged by the sculptors Carl Aarsleff and H.P. Petersen-Dan and cast in bronze in Lauritz Tasmussen's Bronze Foundry in 1918.
== Other statues of Søren Kierkegaard ==
Hasselriis' original plaster statuette is located in the Danish National Gallery. The enlarged plaster copy was part of Aarsleff's private collection and later given to Østfyns Museum. It was for many years on display in the assembly hall of Nyborg Gymnasium but is now located outside the Søren Kierkegaard Auditorium in the University of Copenhagen's Department of Theology in Copenhagen.
A second Søren Kierkegaard statue in Copoenhagen is located on the exterior of Frederik's Church. It is from 1972 and was created by Knud Nellemose.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bachelorette_(American_TV_series)_season_16#Contestants | The Bachelorette (American TV series) season 16 | The sixteenth season of The Bachelorette premiered on October 13, 2020. It features Clare Crawley, a 39-year-old hairstylist from Sacramento, California, and Tayshia Adams, a 29-year-old phlebotomist from Corona del Mar, California.
The season was originally set to premiere on May 18, 2020, however the COVID-19 pandemic forced production to postpone indefinitely. The season also aired on Tuesday nights instead of its regular Monday night timeslot.
Crawley was the runner-up on the 18th season of The Bachelor featuring Juan Pablo Galavis. She also made appearances on seasons one and two of Bachelor in Paradise, and on Bachelor Winter Games. At 39, Crawley is the oldest Bachelorette in the show's history; the previous oldest Bachelorette was Rachel Lindsay, who was 32 on her season. Due to the pandemic, the entire season was filmed at La Quinta Resort & Club in La Quinta, California. Crawley departed the show in episode 4 after choosing 31-year-old Dale Moss as her fiancé. Moss became the first African American winner in the franchise's history. The couple broke up on January 19, 2021. They got back together soon after, but broke up for good on September 27, 2021.
Adams finished in third place on the 23rd season of The Bachelor featuring Colton Underwood. She also made an appearance on season 6 of Bachelor in Paradise. The season concluded on December 22, 2020, with Adams accepting a proposal from 36-year-old addiction specialist Zac Clark. They ended their engagement on November 22, 2021.
== Production ==
=== Casting and contestants ===
Clare Crawley was named as the Bachelorette on Good Morning America on March 2, 2020. Some of the other women who were considered for the role include season 22's Tia Booth and Kendall Long, season 23's Tayshia Adams and Katie Morton, previous Bachelorette Hannah Brown, and season 24's Kelsey Weier. Adams would eventually take the role after Crawley's dismissal from the show (see below).
Notable contestants for this season include football players Dale Moss, Jason Foster and Uzoma Nwachukwu; and Tyler Smith, who is the brother of country music singer Granger Smith.
=== Filming and development ===
For the first time since the second season of The Bachelorette in 2004, the dates and travel would have to take place entirely within the United States because of growing concerns about the COVID-19 due to the ongoing pandemic. Filming was scheduled to begin on March 13, 2020, at the traditional Villa de La Vina mansion in Agoura Hills, California and had been planned to conclude in mid-May in time for the original premiere date of May 18, but with the aforementioned pandemic growing rapidly, the season was forced to suspend production and filming was postponed to a later date. The initial destinations for the season including visits to Chattanooga (Tennessee), Reykjavík (Iceland), Rome (Italy) and Hvar (Croatia), but were called off by the production crew due to factors of the worsening outbreak, omitting international travel. Iceland and Croatia would eventually be revisited in the twenty-sixth season of The Bachelor.
On June 17, 2020, it was announced that the season was scheduled to premiere in fall 2020 as COVID viral transmission cases had gradually started to decline. The following day, it was announced that production was rescheduled to July, with the show becoming the first non-scripted American television program to begin production since the start of the pandemic. Production decided to change into an alternative single location to a lockdown-styled theme at La Quinta Resort & Club in La Quinta, California, a format which is similar to Big Brother franchise. It began in early July where contestants and crew being isolated with a two-week quarantine period before filming and regular COVID-19 testing is required to have their temperature checked, being resulted all of the contestants and crew were tested negative. Contestants were to have tested positive from COVID-19 that is either a subject of not being permitted on the show or having to wait an indefinite delay to join the cast. Due to enforced quarantine restrictions, all of the dates would be taking place entirely at the resort limits to reduce public interactions. This was for the first time since season eight being not filmed at Villa de La Vina mansion normally in the first few weeks of the competition. On August 27, the season announced to premiere on October 13, marking the first season that did not premiere in the usual May start since the series returned in 2008.
Due to the concerns surrounding in the current pandemic, the typical Men Tell All conducted in a remote format with Harrison hosting from Nemacolin Woodlands Resort in Farmington, Pennsylvania via video chatting and the eliminated contestants had invited at a secluded private house in La Quinta Resort, the typical After the Final Rose special did not take place.
=== Lead replacement ===
Crawley left the show in the fourth episode after she became engaged to Dale Moss. Tayshia Adams replaced Crawley as the Bachelorette, and the season proceeded. Given the unique parameters of this season due to the pandemic, Adams' season did not "restart" upon her arrival. Rather, all of the remaining contestants continued from this season plus an additional four men stayed to win over Adams' heart.
== Contestants ==
32 original potential contestants were revealed on March 11, 2020. Host Chris Harrison later revealed that they would likely be recasting the season due to the filming delay.
An updated cast list containing 42 potential contestants was released on July 15, 2020, including 17 from the original potential cast list of March 2020.
Four of the intended 32 original contestants were recast. Matt James was instead recast as the lead for season 25 of The Bachelor – becoming the first male African American lead and the second African American in the history of the franchise, following Rachel Lindsay from season 13 of The Bachelorette before Adams was named as the Bachelorette. Greg Grippo and Karl Smith were recast for the following season the following year, and James Clarke was recast for season 19 instead two years later.
The final cast list of 31 men was announced on September 29, 2020. Four new contestants arrived in the fifth episode when Adams became the Bachelorette, bringing a total number of contestants to 35.
=== Future appearances ===
==== The Bachelorette ====
Adams was named as the interim host for The Bachelorette for seasons 17 and 18 alongside season 11 lead Kaitlyn Bristowe, replacing Chris Harrison. Blake Moynes returned for season 17 of The Bachelorette, where he got engaged to Katie Thurston.
==== Bachelor in Paradise ====
Season 7
Brendan Morais, Ivan Hall, Kenny Braasch, Noah Erb, Riley Christian, Chasen Nick, Chris Conran, Blake Monar, Joe Park, Demar Jackson, and Ed Waisbrot returned for season 7 of Bachelor in Paradise. Nick was eliminated in week 2. Conran and Morais quit in week 3. Hall quit in week 4. Monar, Park, and Jackson were eliminated in week 4. Erb split from Abigail Heringer in week 5, although they later got back together. Waisbrot split from Mykenna Dorn in week 6. Braasch and Christian both got engaged in week 6 to Mari Pepin and Maurissa Gunn, respectively.
Season 9
Moynes returned for season 9 of Bachelor in Paradise. He quit in week 4.
Season 10
Dale Moss returned for season 10 of Bachelor in Paradise. He was eliminated and left in a relationship with Kat Izzo in the finale.
==== The Goat ====
Adams appeared on the first season of The Goat.
==== Got To Get Out ====
Crawley appeared on the first season of the Hulu show Got to Get Out.
== Call-out order ==
The contestant received the first impression rose
The contestant received a rose during a date
The contestant received a rose during the cocktail party
The contestant was eliminated
The contestant was still in the competition and moved on for a different bachelorette
The contestant was eliminated during a date
The contestant was eliminated outside the rose ceremony
The contestant moved on to the next week by default
The contestant quit the competition
The contestant won the competition
== Episodes ==
== Controversy and criticism ==
During a group date on Week 2, 10 of the men played a game of strip dodgeball and during each round, the contestants were asked to remove a layer of clothing. This date was met with widespread controversy and criticism from fans and alumni alike citing a "double standard".
J.P. Rosenbaum, winner of season 7 of The Bachelorette, wrote on Twitter, "I realize this 'date' is gonna have a lot of critics, but can you imagine the flak the show would get if this was [The Bachelor] and the girls were stripping down to their underwear?" Bachelor franchise podcast host Juliet Litman stated, "If it was women in that position, it would be completely unacceptable, absolutely scandalous and there would be this huge outcry. The double standard of objectifying men's bodies like that and asking men to be in that position really bothered me because I would not accept it for women." Former Bachelor Ben Higgins stated that, "If this was a Bachelor season, no way this happens, no way they get away with it, no way it's appropriate, no way this just becomes a weekly topic. I think the show is super smart. They knew this wouldn't shut down the show, but it's pushing the envelope a little bit here." Contestant Yosef Aborady admitted that if he was invited to the group date, he would not have played the dodgeball game, stating, "Number one value is to have respect for myself and my daughter. I don't want her turning on the TV and seeing dad's ass." Aborady ended up being sent home by Crawley later that week due to an argument with her concerning the appropriateness of that date. Many fans expressed disgust with the date on social media.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norodom_Ranariddh | Norodom Ranariddh | Norodom Ranariddh (Khmer: នរោត្តម រណឫទ្ធិ; 2 January 1944 – 28 November 2021, UNGEGN: Nôroŭttâm Rôṇârœ̆ddhĭ, ALA-LC: Narottam Raṇaṛddhi [nɔroːɗɑm rĕəʔnaʔrɨt]) was a Cambodian politician and law academic. He was the second son of King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia and a half-brother of King Norodom Sihamoni. Ranariddh was the president of FUNCINPEC, a Cambodian royalist party. He was also the first Prime Minister of Cambodia following the restoration of the monarchy, serving between 1993 and 1997, and subsequently as the President of the National Assembly between 1998 and 2006.
Ranariddh was a graduate of the University of Provence and started his career as a law researcher and lecturer in France. In 1983, he joined FUNCINPEC and in 1986 became the chief of staff and commander-in-chief of Armée nationale sihanoukiste. Ranariddh became Secretary-General of FUNCINPEC in 1989, and its president in 1992. When FUNCINPEC won the 1993 Cambodian general election, it formed a coalition government with the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), which was jointly headed by two concurrently serving prime ministers. Ranariddh became the First Prime Minister of Cambodia while Hun Sen, who was from the CPP, became the Second Prime Minister. As the First Prime Minister, Ranariddh promoted business interests in Cambodia to leaders from regional countries and established the Cambodian Development Council (CDC).
From early 1996, relations between Ranariddh and Hun Sen deteriorated as Ranariddh complained of unequal distribution of government authority between FUNCINPEC and the CPP. Subsequently, both leaders publicly argued over issues such as the implementation of construction projects, signing of property development contracts, and their rival alliances with the Khmer Rouge. In July 1997, major clashes between troops separately aligned to FUNCINPEC and the CPP took place, forcing Ranariddh into exile. The following month, Ranariddh was ousted from his position as First Prime Minister in a coup d'état.
He returned to Cambodia in March 1998, and led his party in the 1998 Cambodian general election. When FUNCINPEC lost the elections to the CPP, Ranariddh, after initially challenging the results, became President of the National Assembly in November 1998. He was seen as a potential successor to Sihanouk as the King of Cambodia, until in 2001 he renounced his interest in the succession. As the President of the National Assembly, Ranariddh was one of the nine members of the throne council which in 2004 selected Sihamoni as Sihanouk's successor.
In March 2006, Ranariddh resigned as the President of the National Assembly and in October 2006 was ousted as President of FUNCINPEC. The following month, he founded the Norodom Ranariddh Party (NRP). Accusations and a conviction of embezzlement drove him into exile again. He returned to Cambodia after being pardoned in September 2008 and retired from politics. Between 2010 and 2012 he unsuccessfully attempted a merger of his NRP with FUNCINPEC. In 2014, he launched the short-lived Community of Royalist People's Party (CRPP) before returning to FUNCINPEC in January 2015. He was subsequently re-elected to the FUNCINPEC presidency.
Ranariddh remained out of public view following a car accident during the 2018 election campaign, which saw the death of his second wife. He made frequent visits to France for medical treatment, and died in November 2021 in Aix-en-Provence.
== Early life ==
Ranariddh was born on 2 January 1944 in Phnom Penh to Sihanouk and his first wife, Phat Kanhol, who was a ballet dancer attached to the royal court. Ranariddh was separated from his mother at three years of age when she remarried, and subsequently grew up mostly under the care of his aunt, Norodom Ketkanya, and grandaunt, Norodom Sobhana. Ranariddh attended primary education at Norodom School and completed part of his high school studies at Lycee Descartes in Phnom Penh. During his childhood, he developed a close relationship with his grandparents, Norodom Suramarit and Sisowath Kossamak, but was distanced from his father.
In 1958, Ranariddh was sent to a boarding school in Marseille together with his half-brother Norodom Chakrapong. Ranariddh initially planned to pursue medical studies as he did well in science subjects, but was persuaded by Kossamak to study law. After finishing high school in 1961, he enrolled in the undergraduate law programme of the University of Paris. He struggled to focus on his studies in Paris, which he attributed to the social distractions that he encountered in the city.
In 1962, Ranariddh enrolled in the law school of the University of Provence. He obtained his bachelor's and master's degrees in 1968 and 1969 respectively, specialising in public law. After completing his master's, Ranariddh took the PhD qualifying examinations in 1969. He returned to Cambodia in January 1970, and worked briefly as a secretary at the Interior Ministry. When Lon Nol staged a successful coup against Sihanouk in March 1970, Ranariddh was dismissed from his job and fled into the jungle where he was a close associate of resistance leaders.
In 1971, Ranariddh was captured, along with several members of the royal family, and was held in prison for six months before being released. He was rearrested the following year, and spent a further three months in detention. In 1973, Ranariddh returned to the University of Provence, where he completed his PhD in 1975. Between 1976 and 1979, he worked as a research fellow at the CNRS, and was awarded a diploma of higher studies in air transport. In 1979 Ranariddh went back to the University of Provence as an associate professor, teaching courses in constitutional law and political sociology.
== Entry into politics ==
=== Initial years in FUNCINPEC ===
When Sihanouk formed FUNCINPEC in 1981, Ranariddh declined his father's invitation to join the party as he disagreed with its association with the Khmer Rouge. In June 1983, Sihanouk urged Ranariddh to leave his teaching career in France and join FUNCINPEC, and this time he agreed. Ranariddh was appointed a personal representative to Sihanouk, and relocated to Bangkok, Thailand, where he took charge of the party's diplomatic and political activities in Asia. In March 1985, Ranariddh was appointed inspector-general of the Armee Nationale Sihanoukiste (ANS), the armed force of FUNCINPEC, and in January 1986 became ANS commander-in-chief and chief-of-staff.
Ranariddh became secretary-general of FUNCINPEC in August 1989, when Sihanouk stepped down as its president. On 10 September 1990, Ranariddh joined the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC), an interim United Nations administrative body tasked with overseeing sovereign affairs of Cambodia. When the 1991 Paris Peace Accords were signed in October of that year, officially ending the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, Ranariddh was one of the SNC signatories. In February 1992, he was elected to the presidency of FUNCINPEC.
=== 1993 elections ===
When the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) – a parallel administrative body with the SNC – was formed in February 1992, Ranariddh was appointed one of its council members. He spent time travelling between Bangkok and Phnom Penh, and while in Phnom Penh led efforts in opening FUNCINPEC party offices across Cambodia. At the same time, FUNCINPEC began to criticise the ruling CPP, which retaliated with violent attacks by police against low-level FUNCINPEC officials.
The attacks prompted Ranariddh's close aides, Norodom Sirivudh and Sam Rainsy, to advise him against registering the party for the 1993 general elections. However, the chef-de-mission for UNTAC, Yasushi Akashi, encouraged Ranariddh to run in the elections. Persuaded by Akashi, he registered the party and the election campaign began in April 1993. Ranariddh, as well as other FUNCINPEC officials, wore T-shirts depicting Sihanouk on the campaign trail. This nominally complied with an election rule by the UNTAC administration not to use Sihanouk's name during the campaign, who now served as the politically neutral head of the SNC. Voting took place in May 1993; FUNCINPEC secured about 45 percent of the valid votes, winning 58 out of a total of 120 parliamentary seats. The CPP refused to recognise the election results and complained of electoral fraud.
On 3 June 1993, CPP leaders Chea Sim and Hun Sen met with Sihanouk and persuaded him to head an interim government with the CPP and FUNCINPEC as joint coalition partners. Ranariddh, who had not been consulted, expressed surprise. At the same time, the United States and China opposed the plan, prompting Sihanouk to rescind his decision the following day. On 10 June 1993, CPP leaders led by General Sin Song and Chakrapong threatened to secede eight eastern provinces from Cambodia. Ranariddh feared a civil war with the CPP, which had a much larger army than the ANS.
Accordingly, he accepted the idea of FUNCINPEC working with the CPP, and both parties agreed to a dual prime minister arrangement in the new government. On 14 June, Ranariddh presided over a parliamentary meeting which made Sihanouk the Head of State, with Hun Sen and Ranariddh serving as co-Prime Ministers in an interim government. A new constitution was drafted over the next three months, and was adopted in early September. On 24 September 1993, Sihanouk resigned as the head of state and was reinstated as King of Cambodia. In the new government, Ranariddh and Hun Sen were appointed the First Prime Minister and Second Prime Minister, respectively.
== Co-premiership (1993–1997) ==
=== Co-operation and co-administration with CPP ===
Benny Widyono, the UN secretary-general's representative in Cambodia from 1994 to 1997, has observed that although Ranariddh was nominally senior to Hun Sen, he held less executive power. Ranariddh initially viewed Hun Sen with suspicion, but the pair soon developed a close working relationship, agreeing on most policy decisions made until early 1996. In August 1993, while Cambodia was still under the administration of an interim government, Ranariddh and Hun Sen jointly applied to make the country a member in the International Organization of the Francophonie. The decision to enter the Francophonie sparked a debate among students in higher educational institutes, particularly those from the Institute of Technology of Cambodia who called for French to be replaced with English as the language of instruction. In response, Ranariddh encouraged students to simultaneously learn both English and French.
In August 1995, Ranariddh expressed admiration for the political and economic systems of Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. As he saw it, these countries, characterised by hybrid regimes, active economic interventionism and limited press freedom, served as good models to propel Cambodia's socio-economic growth. Ranariddh espoused the view that economic development should take precedence over democratic and human rights. In the initial months of the administration, he actively courted political leaders from various regional countries, including Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia, with a view to encouraging investment in Cambodia. In early 1994, Ranariddh established the Cambodian Development Council (CDC) to encourage foreign investment, and served as its chairperson. The Malaysian Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohamad, supported Ranariddh's plans, and encouraged Malaysian businessmen to invest and assist in developing the tourism, infrastructural development and telecommunications industries.
As the chairman of the CDC, Ranariddh gave his approval to at least 17 business contracts submitted by Malaysian businessmen between August 1994 and January 1995. The projects mostly covered infrastructural development, and included construction of a racing track, power plants and petrol stations. In November 1994, the CDC opened a tender to build a casino near Sihanoukville and proposals submitted by three companies were shortlisted; Ariston Berhad from Malaysia, Unicentral Corporation from Singapore and Hyatt International from the US. Ariston's proposal was valued at US$1.3 billion, and included bringing a luxury cruise ship with casino to Cambodia, to be used to accommodate tourists until the Sihanoukville resort was built. Before the tender was even concluded, Ariston's ship was brought to Phnom Penh in early December. The Tourism Minister, Veng Sereyvuth suspected that there was backroom dealing activities between CDC and Ariston, who were nevertheless awarded the contract, which Ranariddh signed in January 1995.
In 1992, the UNTAC administration had banned forest logging and timber exports, a major industry and source of foreign earnings. In October 1993, Ranariddh issued an order to lift the ban on a temporary basis so as to allow trees that were already felled to be exported for timber. The Khmer Rouge still controlled large tracts of forests in the regions of western and northern Cambodia bordering Thailand, and helped finance its operations by selling timber to Thai forestry companies. The Cambodian government was unable to impose its will in Khmer Rouge territory, and was eager to regain the logging revenues.
In January 1994, Ranariddh and Hun Sen signed a bilateral agreement with Thai Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai. The agreement provided for felled trees to be legally exported to Thailand on a temporary basis until 31 March 1994. The agreement also arranged for specially designated customs zones to be created within Thai territory, which allowed Cambodian custom officials to inspect the logs and collect export duties.
The logging ban went into force on 31 March 1994, but trees continued to be felled and a new stockpile of timber was created. Ranariddh and Hun Sen gave special authorisation for the lumber to be exported to North Korea. They would continue the practice of periodically lifting export bans and granting special approvals to clear stocks of fallen timber on an on-and off-basis until Ranariddh's ouster in 1997. According to Canadian geographer Philippe Le Billon, Ranariddh and Hun Sen tacitly supported continued Khmer Rouge logging activities as it provided a lucrative backdoor source of cash revenue to finance their own political activities. Under Ranariddh's co-administration, Malaysia's Samling Berhad and Indonesia's Macro-Panin were among the largest beneficiaries of government contracts, as these two logging companies, in 1994–1995, secured rights to log 805,000 hectares and 1.4 million hectares of forests, respectively.
=== Conflicts within the government ===
In October 1994, Ranariddh and Hun Sen dropped Sam Rainsy as Finance Minister during a cabinet reshuffle. Rainsy had been appointed by Ranariddh in 1993, but both prime ministers became uncomfortable working with Rainsy, because of his pursuit of allegations of government corruption. Rainsy's dismissal upset Norodom Sirivudh, who resigned as Foreign Minister the following month. In March 1995, during an academic forum on corruption in Cambodia, Rainsy publicly questioned Ranariddh's acceptance of a Fokker 28 airplane and a US$108 million commission from Ariston Berhad. This angered Ranariddh, who expelled him from FUNCINPEC in May 1995. The following month, Ranariddh introduced a parliamentary motion to remove Rainsy as a member of parliament (MP).
In 1995, Ranariddh made calls for capital punishment by calling for murderers and drug traffickers to be executed by the state.
From January 1996 onwards, Ranariddh's relations with Hun Sen began to show signs of tension. Hun Sen submitted a government circular to reinstate 7 January as a national holiday, the anniversary of Phnom Penh's liberation from the Khmer Rouge by Vietnamese forces. Ranariddh added his signature to the circular, which incurred the ire of Sihanouk and several FUNCINPEC leaders. A few days later, apparently to tone down dissatisfaction from party members, Ranariddh publicly accused the Army of Vietnam of encroaching into the territories of four Cambodian provinces bordering it. As Widyono saw it, Ranariddh intended to test Hun Sen's response to his accusations, of which the latter chose to remain quiet. During a closed-door FUNCINPEC meeting in the later part of January 1996, party members criticised Hun Sen and the CPP for monopolizing government power, and also chided Ranariddh for being too subservient to Hun Sen.
In February 1996, Ranariddh expressed concern over repeated delays in the construction of the resort-cum-casino complex at Sihanoukville, for which he had signed an agreement with Ariston in January 1995. Ariston blamed the lack of a governmental authority in Sihanoukville for the delay. At the end of April 1996, the government formed the Sihanoukville Developmental Authority (SDA) to oversee regulatory affairs and facilitate development. At a conference in May 1996, Ranariddh charged that CPP-controlled ministries were deliberately delaying the paperwork needed to complete the approval of Ariston's project.
According to Tioulong Saumura, the former deputy governor of Cambodia's Central Bank (and Sam Rainsy's wife), the delays were part of Hun Sen's strategy to undermine projects associated with Ranariddh. In an apparent act of retaliation, Ranariddh directed FUNCINPEC's co-minister of the interior, You Hockry to close down all casinos in the country, citing the absence of authorising legislation. Ranariddh also proposed the cancellation of Ariston's contracts due to the delays. Hun Sen responded by meeting with Mahathir, and assured him that agreements which Ranariddh had previously approved would be honoured.
At a FUNCINPEC congress in March 1996, Ranariddh expressed unhappiness over his relationship with Hun Sen and the CPP. He likened his position as prime minister, and those of the FUNCINPEC ministers, to "puppets". He also questioned the CPP over their delays in appointing FUNCINPEC local officials as district chiefs. Ranariddh threatened to dissolve the National Assembly before the end of 1996, should FUNCINPEC's concerns remain unresolved.
Several FUNCINPEC MPs, including Loy Sim Chheang and Ahmad Yahya, called on Ranariddh to reconcile with Sam Rainsy and work with the newly formed Khmer Nation Party (KNP) in the forthcoming general election. On 27 April 1996 Ranariddh, while vacationing in Paris, attended a meeting with Sihanouk, Rainsy, Chakrapong and Sirivudh. A few days later, Sihanouk issued a declaration praising Hun Sen and the CPP, while also stating that FUNCINPEC had no intention of leaving the coalition government. According to Widyono, Sihanouk's statement was an attempt to defuse the tension between Ranariddh and Hun Sen.
Hun Sen rejected the king's conciliatory overtures, and responded by publishing several public letters attacking Sihanouk, Ranariddh and FUNCINPEC. At a CPP party meeting on 29 June 1996, Hun Sen chided Ranariddh for not following through on his March threat to leave the coalition government and called him a "real dog". At the same time, Hun Sen urged provincial governors from the CPP not attend Ranariddh's rallies.
=== Conflict escalation and military clashes ===
In August 1996, Khmer Rouge leaders Pol Pot and Ieng Sary publicly split, with the former denouncing the latter in a radio broadcast. Ieng Sary responded by disassociating himself from the Khmer Rouge and went on to form his own political party, the Democratic National Union Movement. This prompted Ranariddh and Hun Sen to briefly set their political differences aside to jointly seek a royal pardon for Ieng Sary, who had been sentenced to death by the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) government in 1979. Subsequently, in October and December 1996, both Ranariddh and Hun Sen competed to win Ieng Sary's favour by separately visiting the leader at his fiefdom in Pailin. Hun Sen gained the upper hand, when he convinced Khmer Rouge soldiers under Ieng Sary's charge to join the CPP. Ranariddh canceled a follow-up visit to Samlout, another town located within Ieng Sary's fiefdom, when Sary's soldiers threatened to shoot down Ranariddh's helicopter if he went there.
In September 1996 Ariston Berhad signed three agreements with CPP's minister Sok An, without Ranariddh's knowledge or that of other FUNCINPEC ministers. The agreements provided for the leasing of land to Ariston to develop a golf course, holiday resort and an airport in Sihanoukville. These actions angered Ranariddh, who in a February 1997 letter to Ariston's president Chen Lip Keong, declared the agreements null and void. Subsequently, Ariston claimed that they had tried unsuccessfully to contact FUNCINPEC officials, with a view to getting them to jointly sign the agreements. Hun Sen was offended by Ranariddh's actions, and in April 1997 wrote to Mahathir assuring him of the validity of the agreements.
Ranariddh forged a political coalition by bringing FUNCINPEC to work together with the KNP, the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party and the Khmer Neutral Party. On 27 January 1997, the four political parties formalised their alliance, which became known as the "National United Front" (NUF). Ranariddh was nominated as the president of the NUF, and stated his intent to lead the alliance against the CPP, in the general elections scheduled to be held in 1998. The CPP issued a statement condemning NUF's formation, and formed a rival coalition consisting of political parties ideologically aligned to the former Khmer Republic.
Meanwhile, Ranariddh stepped up his attacks against Hun Sen, accusing him of harbouring plans to restore a Communist regime should the CPP win the next general election. At the same time Ranariddh attempted to persuade moderate leaders of the Khmer Rouge, including Khieu Samphan and Tep Kunnal, to join the NUF. Khieu Samphan accepted Ranariddh's overtures, and on 21 May 1997, put the support of his party, the Khmer National Solidarity Party (KNSP), behind the NUF. On 4 June 1997, Ranariddh and Samphan signed a communiqué pledging mutual support.
Five days later, customs officials at Sihanoukville discovered a three-ton shipment of rocket launchers, assault rifles and handguns, labelled "spare parts" and consigned to Ranariddh. The rocket launchers were seized by Cambodian Air Force officers aligned to the CPP, while Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF) officials aligned to FUNCINPEC were allowed to keep the light weapons. In mid-June, Khmer Rouge radio, controlled by Khieu Samphan, broadcast a speech praising the KNSP-NUF alliance and calling for an armed struggle against Hun Sen. Fighting subsequently broke out between Ranariddh's and Hun Sen's bodyguards.
In response Hun Sen issued an ultimatum, calling for Ranariddh to make a choice between siding with the Khmer Rouge or with the coalition government. Eleven days later, he stopped working with Ranariddh altogether. On 3 July 1997, while travelling to Phnom Penh, Ranariddh encountered troops aligned to the CPP. These troops persuaded his bodyguards to surrender their weapons, which prompted him to flee Cambodia the following day. On 5 July, fighting broke out between RCAF troops separately aligned to CPP and FUNCINPEC, after CPP-aligned generals unsuccessfully attempted to coax FUNCINPEC-aligned troops into surrendering their weapons. The FUNCINPEC-aligned units suffered major casualties the following day, and subsequently fled from Phnom Penh to the border town of O Smach in Oddar Meanchey Province.
== Continued leadership in FUNCINPEC (1997–2006) ==
=== Exile, return and 1998 elections ===
The defeat of FUNCINPEC-aligned troops in the military clashes on 6 July 1997 amounted to the effective ouster of Ranariddh. On 9 July 1997, the Cambodian Foreign Ministry issued a white paper labelling Ranariddh a "criminal" and a "traitor", as well as accusing him of conspiring with the Khmer Rouge to destabilise the government. Ranariddh travelled to the Philippines, Singapore and Indonesia, where he met with Fidel Ramos, Goh Chok Tong and Suharto to seek their help in his restoration. During his absence, at a party meeting on 16 July 1997, Ung Huot was nominated by FUNCINPEC MPs loyal to Hun Sen to replace Ranariddh as First Prime Minister.
Huot was subsequently endorsed as First Prime Minister during a National Assembly sitting on 6 August 1997. A few days later, Sihanouk expressed his unhappiness over the clashes, and threatened to abdicate the throne and take over the premiership. Sihanouk also claimed that Ranariddh's ouster was unconstitutional, and initially refused to endorse Ung Huot's appointment, but later relented when Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states supported Ung Huot's appointment.
In September 1997, the UN secretary general, Kofi Annan met separately with Ranariddh and Hun Sen, to mediate the return of FUNCINPEC politicians and prepare for the 1998 Cambodian general elections. The UN proposed that its representatives monitor the elections, to which both Ranariddh and Hun Sen agreed, but Hun Sen insisted that Ranariddh be prepared to face court charges, to which Ranariddh responded with a threat to boycott the election.
At O Smach, FUNCINPEC-aligned troops fought along with the Khmer Rouge forces against CPP-aligned troops until February 1998, when a ceasefire brokered by the Japanese government came into effect. In March 1998, Ranariddh was convicted in absentia by a military court of illegally smuggling ammunitions in May 1997, and of colluding with the Khmer Rouge to cause instability in the country. He was sentenced to a total of 35 years' imprisonment, but this was nullified by a pardon from Sihanouk. Ranariddh returned to Cambodia at the end of March 1998 to lead FUNCINPEC's election campaign, which focused on pro-monarchical sentiments and anti-Vietnamese rhetoric.
FUNCINPEC faced numerous obstacles, including lack of access to television and radio channels which had come under CPP's exclusive control following the 1997 clashes, and the difficulties of its supporters in getting to party rallies. In the vote on 26 July 1998, FUNCINPEC polled 31.7 percent and secured 43 out of a total of 122 parliamentary seats. The CPP won the elections by polling 41.4 percent of all votes and securing 64 parliamentary seats. The Sam Rainsy Party (SRP), Rainsy's renamed KNP, was in third place with 14.3 percent of the vote and 15 parliamentary seats.
Both Ranariddh and Rainsy protested against the election results, claiming that the CPP-led government had intimidated voters and tampered with ballot boxes. They filed petitions with the National Election Commission (NEC) and Constitutional Court; when these were rejected in August 1998, Ranariddh and Rainsy organised street protests to demand that Hun Sen relinquish power. The government responded on 7 September 1998, by banning street protests and cracking down on participants. At this point Sihanouk intervened, and arranged a summit meeting on 24 September 1998 in Siem Reap. He summoned Hun Sen, Ranariddh and Rainsy for discussions aimed at ending the political impasse.
On the day of the summit meeting, a B40 rocket was fired from an RPG-2 rocket launcher at the direction of Hun Sen's motorcade, who was travelling en route to Siem Reap. The rocket missed the motorcade, and Hun Sen escaped unhurt. The police accused FUNCINPEC and SRP leaders of plotting the attack, with Rainsy as its ringleader. Both Ranariddh and Rainsy denied any involvement, but fled to Bangkok the following day, fearing government crackdowns on their parties.
=== President of the National Assembly (1998–2006) ===
Following Ranariddh's departure, Sihanouk urged him to return with a view to joining the CPP in a coalition government, reckoning that FUNCINPEC faced the prospect of breaking up if Ranariddh refused. Ranariddh returned to Cambodia on 12 November 1998 to attend a summit meeting hosted by Sihanouk, at which Ranariddh negotiated with Hun Sen and Chea Sim over the structure of a new government. An agreement was reached whereby FUNCINPEC would be given the National Assembly presidency together with several low and mid-level cabinet posts, in exchange for its support for the creation of the Cambodian Senate. On 25 November 1998, Ranariddh was nominated as the President of the National Assembly. According to Mehta, the creation of the Senate was to provide an alternative platform to pass legislation in the event that Ranariddh exerted his influence as the President of the National Assembly to block legislation.
After his appointment, Ranariddh worked with Hun Sen to re-integrate the FUNCINPEC-aligned troops into the RCAF. He also participated in efforts to foster better relations with Vietnam, and liaised with the Vietnamese National Assembly president Nông Đức Mạnh to develop friendship and cooperation initiatives. This led to several mutual visits between Cambodian and Vietnamese political leaders, between 1999 and 2000, but relations between Cambodia and Vietnam deteriorated from September 2000 onwards amid renewed border clashes. Ranariddh steered FUNCINPEC towards political rapprochement with the CPP, and actively discouraged FUNCINPEC ministers and MPs from criticising their CPP counterparts. During the party's congress in March 2001, Ranariddh declared the CPP an "eternal partner".
As early as 1999, a sizeable minority of FUNCINPEC's politicians were unhappy with Ranariddh's leadership, as rumours began to circulate that he had accepted bribes from the CPP. In February 2002, FUNCINPEC performed poorly in the commune elections, winning 10 out of 1,600 commune seats. As a result of FUNCINPEC's poor performance in the commune elections, rifts within the party boiled into the open. In March 2002, the Deputy Commander-in-chief of the RCAF – Khan Savoeun, accused You Hockry, the co-Minister of the Interior, of corruption and nepotism, acts which Savoeun claimed had alienated voters.
When Ranariddh expressed support for Savoeun in May 2002, Hockry resigned. Around the same time, two new political parties, splintered from FUNCINPEC, were formed: the Khmer Soul Party, led by Norodom Chakrapong, and the Hang Dara Democratic Party, led by Hang Dara. Both new parties attracted sizeable numbers of FUNCINPEC defectors, who were apparently unhappy with Ranariddh's leadership. The defections caused Ranariddh to fear that FUNCINPEC would fare poorly in the 2003 general elections.
When general elections were held in July 2003, the CPP won, while FUNCINPEC polled 20.8 percent of the popular vote and secured 26 out of a total of 120 parliamentary seats. This marked an 11 percentage point drop in FUNCINPEC's share of the popular vote compared with 1998. Both Ranariddh and Sam Rainsy, whose SRP had also participated in the elections, expressed unhappiness with the outcome of the election, and once again accused the CPP of winning through fraud and voter intimidation. They also refused to support a CPP-led government, which needed the joint support of more MPs from FUNCINPEC or SRP to attain the two-thirds majority in forming a new government.
Subsequently, in August 2003, Ranariddh and Rainsy formed a new political alliance, the "Alliance of Democrats" (AD), and together they lobbied upon the CPP to form a three-party government consisting of the CPP, FUNCINPEC and the SRP. At the same time, they also called for Hun Sen to step down and a reform of the NEC, which they claimed was stacked with pro-CPP appointees. Hun Sen rejected their demands, bringing several months of political stalemate.
In March 2004, Ranariddh privately proposed to Hun Sen that FUNCINPEC should join CPP in the new government as a junior coalition partner. Discussions between CPP and FUNCINPEC began on the composition of the coalition government and legislative procedures. An agreement was reached in June 2004, when Ranariddh walked out of his alliance with Rainsy, dropped his demands to reform the NEC and once again pledged to support Hun Sen as Prime Minister. Hun Sen also pressured Ranariddh into supporting a constitutional amendment known as a "package vote", which required MPs to support legislation and ministerial appointments by an open show of hands.
While Ranariddh acquiesced to Hun Sen's demand, the "package vote" amendment was opposed by Sihanouk, Chea Sim, the SRP as well as several senior leaders within FUNCINPEC. After the "package vote" amendment was passed in July 2004, several FUNCINPEC leaders resigned in protest. Ranariddh, who remained as President of the National Assembly as part of the agreement, attempted to lure SRP leaders into defecting to FUNCINPEC with the promise of jobs within the government. At least one senior SRP leader, Ou Bun Long, caved into Ranariddh's enticements.
=== Exit from FUNCINPEC ===
On 2 March 2006, the National Assembly passed a constitutional amendment which required only a simple majority of parliamentarians to support a government, instead of the two-thirds majority that was previously stipulated. Rainsy had first proposed the amendment in February 2006, who had hoped that a simple majority would make it easier for his party to form a government should they win in future elections. The following day after the constitutional amendment was passed, Hun Sen relieved Norodom Sirivudh and Nhek Bun Chhay of their posts as FUNCINPEC's co-minister of interior and co-minister of defense respectively. Ranariddh protested against the dismissals, and resigned as the President of the National Assembly on 14 March. He then left Cambodia, to reside in France. Shortly after his departure, local tabloids published stories that Ranariddh had had an affair with Ouk Phalla, an Apsara dancer.
In early September 2006, a new law was passed to outlaw adultery, and Ranariddh responded by accusing the government of attempting to undermine FUNCINPEC. On 18 September 2006, Hun Sen and Nhek Bun Chhay called for Ranariddh to be replaced as FUNCINPEC's president, after party reports suggested that Phalla had lobbied Ranariddh to appoint her relatives to government posts. On 18 October 2006, Nhek Bun Chhay convened a party congress which dismissed Ranariddh from his position as FUNCINPEC's president. In turn, he was given the titular position of "Historic President". At the congress, Nhek Bun Chhay justified Ranariddh's ouster on the grounds of his deteriorating relations with Hun Sen as well as his practice of spending prolonged periods of time overseas.
== Later political activities (2006–2021) ==
=== Norodom Ranariddh Party, exile and retirement ===
Following Ranariddh's exit from FUNCINPEC, Nhek Bun Chhay filed a lawsuit in November 2006, accusing Ranariddh of pocketing $3.6 million from the sale of its headquarters to the French embassy in 2005. In mid-November, Ranariddh returned to Cambodia and formed the Norodom Ranariddh Party (NRP), of which he became its president. The following month, the National Assembly expelled Ranariddh as an MP. Within days his wife, Eng Marie, sued him for adultery. Ranariddh's half-brother Chakrapong was also expelled from the party, and joined the NRP as the party's deputy president.
In March 2007, Ranariddh was convicted by the Phnom Penh Municipal Court of embezzlement of the sale proceeds of FUNCINPEC headquarters, and sentenced to 18 months imprisonment. To avoid imprisonment, Ranariddh sought asylum in Malaysia shortly before the sentencing.
While living in exile in Malaysia, Ranariddh communicated to NRP party members and supporters through telephone and video conferencing. In November 2007, he proposed a merger between the NRP, SRP and the Human Rights Party, to better their prospects against the CPP in the 2008 general elections. Rainsy, the leader of the SRP, rejected his proposal. When the election campaign began in June 2008, Ranariddh, though not able to enter the country, raised issues such as border disputes with Cambodia's neighbours, illegal logging, and promised to lower petrol prices.
When voting took place in July, the NRP won two parliamentary seats. Immediately after the election, the NRP joined the SRP and the HRP in charging the Election Commission with irregularities. The NRP subsequently dropped their accusations, after Hun Sen brokered a secret deal with Ranariddh which allowed the latter to return from exile, in exchange for the NRP's recognition of the election results.
In September 2008, Ranariddh received a royal pardon from Sihamoni (who had succeeded to the throne in October 2004) for his embezzlement conviction, allowing him to return to Cambodia without risking imprisonment.
Following his return, Ranariddh retired from politics and pledged to support the CPP-led government. He dedicated most of his time to philanthropic work and supporting royal activities. In late 2010, NRP and FUNCINPEC leaders including Nhek Bun Chhay publicly called for Ranariddh to return to politics. Ranariddh initially resisted the calls, but changed his mind and returned in December 2010. For the next one-and-a-half years, Ranariddh and Nhek Bun Chhay negotiated a merger between NRP and FUNCINPEC. An agreement was formalised in May 2012, whereby Ranariddh would be made the president of FUNCINPEC, while Nhek Bun Chhay would become its vice-president. The merger agreement was rescinded a month later, when Nhek Bun Chhay accused Ranariddh of supporting other opposition parties. Two months later, Ranariddh retired from politics for a second time and resigned as the president of NRP.
=== Community of Royalist People's Party ===
In March 2014, Ranariddh came out of retirement to launch a new political party, the Community of Royalist People's Party (CRPP). Sam Rainsy, now president of the Cambodian National Rescue Party (CNRP), accused Ranariddh of intending to split the opposition vote to favour the ruling CPP in future elections. Ranariddh responded by accusing the CNRP of harbouring republican sentiments, while also stating that his motivation in launching CRPP was to reunite royalist supporters within the Cambodian electorate. The CRPP attracted support from some senior FUNCINPEC party members; in December 2014 an ex-secretary of state, a senator and a deputy police chief declared their support for the CRPP. Hun Sen then proposed to Ranariddh that he return to FUNCINPEC.
=== Return to FUNCINPEC ===
In January 2015, Ranariddh dissolved the CRPP and returned to FUNCINPEC. At a party congress on 19 January 2015, he was reappointed FUNCINPEC president; his half-sister and previous FUNCINPEC president, Norodom Arunrasmy, became the first vice-president, while Nhek Bun Chhay was appointed second vice-president. In March 2015, Ranariddh held another party congress where he appointed four more vice-presidents to the FUNCINPEC executive committee. He also convinced the congress to adopt a new party logo, which had a design almost identical that of the now-defunct CRPP.
Ranariddh supported the formation of the Cambodian Royalist Youth Movement in July 2015, a youth organisation aimed at garnering electoral support for FUNCINPEC from younger voters, of which he was appointed its honorary president. In November 2017, he returned to the National Assembly as a member of parliament, following the dissolution of the Cambodia National Rescue Party, after which the FUNCINPEC received 41 of the 55 vacated seats. The party performed poorly in the 2018 general election, failing to win a single seat in the National Assembly. Though they were runners-up behind the Cambodian People's Party, their tally of popular vote was fewer than the 594,659 invalid ballots cast by disenfranchised supporters of the former opposition.
== Palace relations ==
=== Awards and royal appointments ===
In June 1993 Ranariddh was granted the Cambodian royal title of "Sdech Krom Luong" (Khmer: ស្ដេចក្រុមលួង), which translates as "Senior Prince" in English. Five months later, in November 1993, he was elevated to the rank of "Samdech Krom Preah" (Khmer: សម្ដេចក្រុមព្រះ), or "Leading Senior Prince" in English, in recognition of his efforts to re-instate Sihanouk as the King of Cambodia. Ranariddh has been a recipient of several awards from the palace; in December 1992 he was decorated as the Grand Officer of the Royal Order of Cambodia. In May 2001 he received the Grand Order of National Merit and in October 2001 was awarded the Order of Sovatara, with the class of Mohasereivadh. He was also awarded the Grand Officer de l'Ordre de la Pleaide by the La Francophonie in March 2000.
In December 2008, Sihamoni appointed Ranariddh as President of the Supreme Privy Council of Cambodia, equivalent in rank to that of prime minister, and, during an interview in December 2010 Ranariddh revealed that this royal appointment entitled him to a monthly salary of three million riels (about United States dollar750).
=== Candidacy to the throne ===
Debates on the succession to the throne began in November 1993, shortly after Sihanouk was diagnosed with cancer. In a 1995 poll of 700 people conducted by the Khmer Journalists' Associations, 24 percent of respondents preferred Ranariddh to take the throne, although a larger proportion indicated no preference over any members of the royal family. In a March 1996 interview with the Cambodia Daily, Sihanouk encouraged Ranariddh to succeed him as king, but also expressed concern that a leadership vacuum within FUNCINPEC would occur, should Ranariddh accede.
Sihanouk repeated these concerns in an interview with the Phnom Penh Post in February 1997. Sihanouk mentioned Sihamoni as another potential candidate, despite the latter's view that the responsibilities attached to the throne were "frightening". Sihamoni's candidacy found favour with Hun Sen and Chea Sim, because of his non-involvement in politics.
In two reports from 1993 and 1996, Ranariddh rejected the notion of becoming the next king. In November 1997, Ranariddh suggested that his outspoken and passionate personality made him an unsuitable candidate for the throne. However, by March 1999 Ranariddh became more receptive to the idea of succeeding his father. In early 2001, in an interview to Harish Mehta, Ranariddh discussed his conflicting desires between taking the throne and staying in politics.
In November 2001, Ranariddh told the Cambodia Daily that he had decided to prioritize his political career over the throne. In the same interview, he added that Sihamoni had in the past supported him to become the next king. In September 2004, Ranariddh revealed that although he had been offered the throne by both Sihanouk and Monineath, who was Sihamoni's mother, he would prefer to see Sihamoni take the throne. When the throne council convened in October 2004 to select Sihanouk's successor, Ranariddh was part of the council which unanimously chose Norodom Sihamoni to be the next king.
== Personal life and death ==
Ranariddh was known for his physical resemblance to his father Sihanouk, inheriting his facial features, high-pitched voice and mannerisms. Contemporaries including Harish Mehta, Lee Kuan Yew and Benny Widyono (Oei Hong Lan) have so stated after meeting with him. An opinion poll conducted in July 1997 by the Cambodian Information Centre also supports similar observations of Ranariddh's physical resemblance to Sihanouk. Journalists such as those from the Phnom Penh Post have observed that Ranariddh had used his resemblance to canvass support for FUNCINPEC during the 1993 and 1998 general elections. Ranariddh acknowledged these observations during an interview with Mehta in 2001, saying:
People adore the king and I look like him. It is not my achievement they are remembering, but the deeds of my father. On the contrary, if I fail the people would say "Oh, you are the son, but you are not like your father". It's rather a burden.
Ranariddh spoke Khmer, French and English fluently. He also held dual Cambodian and French citizenship, having obtained the latter in 1979. He enjoyed listening to music and watching films, though in a 2001 interview he described himself as lacking the artistic talent which Sihanouk possessed. In 2002, Ranariddh produced and directed a 90-minute film, titled Raja Bori, which was shot at Angkor Wat.
On 28 November 2021, Minister of Information Khieu Kanharith announced that Ranariddh had died at the age of 77 in France.
=== Family ===
Ranariddh had 12 half-siblings from his father by different wives; Norodom Buppha Devi is his only full-sibling. Buppha Devi became a ballet dancer, like her mother Phat Kanhol had been during her younger days. Kanhol remarried in 1947 to a military officer, Chap Huot, and had five children with him. Phat Kanhol died from cancer in February 1969 at the age of 49, while Chap Huot was killed in an explosion a year later. Four of Ranariddh's half-siblings by his mother and Chap Huot were killed during the Khmer Rouge years, while one of them, Chap Nhalyvoud, survived. Chap Nhalyvoud served as the governor of Siem Reap Province between 1998 and 2004.
Ranariddh met his first wife, Eng Marie, in early 1968. Marie was the eldest child of Eng Meas, an Interior Ministry official of Sino-Khmer descent, and Sarah Hay, a Muslim of Cham ethnicity. Marie had nine younger siblings, and among them was Roland Eng, the former ambassador to Thailand and the United States. The couple married in September 1968 at the royal palace, and had three children: Chakravuth (born 1970), Sihariddh (born 1972) and Rattana Devi (born 1974).
The couple separated, and Marie filed for divorce in March 2006 when Ranariddh's relationship with Ouk Phalla became known. The divorce was not finalised until June 2010. Ranariddh had two sons with Ouk Phalla: Sothearidh (born 2003) and Ranavong (born 2011). Phalla was a descendant of King Sisowath and was a classical dancer. She met Ranariddh when the latter was producing and directing the film Raja Bori.
On 17 June 2018, Ranariddh and Ouk Phalla were both seriously injured in a car accident en route to Sihanoukville Province. Ouk Phalla died hours later as a result of her injuries. In 2019, Ranariddh went to Paris to receive medical treatment for a broken pelvis.
== Ancestry ==
== Citations ==
== Bibliography ==
Chin, Kin Wah (2005). Southeast Asian Affairs 2005. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9812303065.
Kiernan, Ben & Hughes, Caroline (2007). Conflict and Change in Cambodia. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415385923.
Mehta, Harish C. & Julie B. (2013). Strongman: The Extraordinary Life of Hun Sen. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-9814484602.
Mehta, Harish C. (2001). Warrior Prince: Norodom Ranariddh, Son of King Sihanouk of Cambodia. Singapore: Graham Brash. ISBN 9812180869.
Narong, Men S. (2005). Who's Who in Cambodia: Special Focus on the Royal Family 2005–2006. Phnom Penh: Media Business Networks. ISBN 2951352409.
Norodom, Ranariddh (2014). Mission to serve the Father of the Cambodian Nation (សកម្មភាពបំរើ ព្រះវររាជបិតាជាតិខ្មែរ) (in Khmer). Phnom Penh: Norodom Ranariddh Foundation.
Peou, Sorpong (2000). Intervention & Change in Cambodia: Towards Democracy?. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9813055391.
Strangio, Sebastian (2014). Hun Sen's Cambodia. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300210149.
Summers, Laura (2003). The Far East and Australasia 2003. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 227–43. ISBN 1857431332.
Widyono, Benny (2008). Dancing in Shadows: Sihanouk, the Khmer Rouge, and the United Nations in Cambodia. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742555532.
== External links ==
Quotations related to Norodom Ranariddh at Wikiquote
Media related to Norodom Ranariddh at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazzercise | Jazzercise | Jazzercise is a fitness franchise company founded by Judi Sheppard Missett in 1969 and headquartered in Carlsbad, California, United States. The franchise's name is a portmanteau of "jazz" and "exercise."
Jazzercise combines dancercise, martial arts and strength training with popular music for a full-body workout. The company currently has over 8,300 franchisees worldwide in 32 countries.
== Early history ==
Judi Sheppard Missett created Jazzercise in Evanston, Illinois in 1969 after graduating from Northwestern University. After receiving a degree in theater and dance, she signed up to study with renowned jazz choreographer Gus Giordano at his Evanston studios. She was teaching at a dance studio and noticed her classes had high dropout rates. Realizing students were attending for physical fitness and not for performance, Shepard Missett began to hold "just for fun" classes that began with a jazz warmup. These classes, originally named "Jazz Dance for Fun and Fitness," were eventually renamed "Jazzercise."
== Growth and franchising ==
Sheppard Missett's family moved to Carlsbad, California, where she taught classes in local rec centers. Jazzercise quickly took off in San Diego and Sheppard Missett trained new instructors herself. Many of those first instructors were in military families, so as they moved around the country, and the world, new populations were continually introduced to the program. Initially using VHS videos, Sheppard Missett was able to train franchisees from a distance and began to sell franchise rights for Jazzercise studios across the country. In addition to the franchised classes, Sheppard Missett produced recorded Jazzercise programs for home use, starting with an LP entitled Jazzercise in 1981 which was certified gold in 1982. Jazzercise was also introduced by Jerome somers to Campbell union sd in 1993 as newly incorporated in to school curriculum as physical education. Sheppard Missett produced a second LP in 1982 entitled More Jazzercise and released her first VHS Jazzercise workout called Let's Jazzercise a year later.
== In popular culture ==
On A Bit of Fry & Laurie, Jazzercise is claimed to be a portmanteau of the words "jazz" and "circumcise."
In Ron Howard's live-action movie adaptation of How the Grinch Stole Christmas, the Grinch's schedule has an hour booked for Jazzercise.
In the Taxi episode "Louie Goes Too Far," Latka Gravas (played by Andy Kaufman) suggests to Reverend Jim Ignatowski (played by Christopher Lloyd) that he take up Jazzercise as a way of meeting beautiful women.
On The Golden Girls, Dorothy Zbornak (played by Bea Arthur) admits taking up Jazzercise in the episodes "The Stan Who Came to Dinner" and "The Audit."
In Troop Beverly Hills, the lead character, Phyllis Nefler, mentions that she hasn't been to Jazzercise in three weeks after chasing one of her troop members, who suddenly runs off during a troop meeting.
In the Futurama episode "Parasite Lost," the parasitic worms are seen Jazzercising Fry's muscles.
The Flight of the Conchords season 2 episode "New Zealand Town" features the song "Fashion is Danger," which is a parody of 1980s music and style and contains a reference to Jazzercise.
"Jazzercise Instructor" is featured as a job in The Sims 2.
In the third series of The Mighty Boosh, Howard Moon goes to Jazzercise classes.
In the Glee episode "Bad Reputation," a tape is found of Sue Sylvester Jazzercising to Olivia Newton-John's "Physical." In the following season's episode "Sexy," Holly Holliday is shown teaching a Jazzercise class in which Will Schuester participates.
On The Goldbergs, Beverly Goldberg is frequently portrayed referencing or stepping to Jazzercise.
In the October 9, 2012 episode of The Daily Show, Jon Stewart referenced Jazzercise in his opening monologue.
Jazzercise was featured in both People magazine and Harper's Bazaar in 2018.
Jazzercise was featured at the fictional Starcourt Mall in season 3 of Stranger Things, where Dustin Henderson and Steve Harrington chase a suspicious-looking guy thinking he was from the Soviet Union, who turns out to be a Jazzercise instructor.
Jazzercise was mentioned in the song "Party with Your Body" (from the album All in a Night's Work) by KC and the Sunshine Band.
Jazzercise was mentioned in the Rick and Morty season 6 episode "Juricksic Mort" when the dinosaurs present a list of things humanity has accomplished.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Friedman, Danielle (2022). Let's Get Physical: How Women Discovered Exercise and Reshaped the World. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 9780593188422. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022.
== External links ==
Jazzercise official website
Instagram
Facebook |
'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Antonio_de_Arag%C3%B3n#:~:text=A%20cultured%20and%20educated%20man,Commander%20in%20chief%20of%20Catalonia.' | Pedro Antonio de Aragón | Pedro Antonio de Aragón (7 November 1611 – 1 September 1690) was a Spanish nobleman, military figure and politician who served under Kings Philip IV and Charles II of Spain. He was the brother of Cardinal Pascual de Aragón, Viceroy of Naples, 1664–1666 and the son of Enrique Ramón Folch de Cardona y Córdoba and Catalina Fernández de Córdoba y Figueroa.
He was born in Lucena, in what is now the Province of Córdoba. A cultured and educated man, he held different positions of high importance for the Court, acting as Viceroy of Catalonia from 1642 to 1644, as ambassador in Rome (1664–1666), and Viceroy of Naples (1666–1671), as well as Commander in chief of Catalonia.
He claimed in 1670 the joint titles of 8th Duke of Segorbe, and 9th Duke of Cardona, after the death of his brother Luis Raimundo Folch de Cardona (January 1670) and his infant son Joaquín (March 1670), leaving only 7 daughters.
He was brought before the Justice Courts by two of his nieces and their husbands, but he died in Madrid before the case was solved, creating some problems afterwards with the numbering of the titles of both Dukedoms since then, as apparently he had been too quick claiming "legal", self-appointed, succession to both Dukedoms.
During his period of ten years in Italy (1662–1672), he amassed a personal library of great value. Being one of the protectors and patrons of Poblet Monastery, he donated his library of approximately 3600 volumes in 1677 in exchange for being able to be buried amongst its venerated figures after his death. He sent back to Naples, from the Poblet Monastery, in 1671, the body of king Alfonso V of Aragon.
He was President of the Council of Aragon between 1677 and 1690.
He published a book on Geometria Militar in 1671.
== References ==
Biblioteca del virrey Pedro Antonio de Aragón (1611-1690)
"El gobierno de las imágenes. Ceremonial y mecenazgo en la Italia española de la segunda mitad del siglo XVII" |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am..._Sasha_Fierce#Year-end_charts | I Am... Sasha Fierce | I Am... Sasha Fierce is the third studio album by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé. It was released on November 12, 2008, by Columbia Records and Music World Entertainment. The album was recorded from November 2007 to August 2008, and its production was handled by Darkchild, Toby Gad, Jim Jonsin, Rico Love, Stargate, Tricky Stewart, Ryan Tedder of OneRepublic, and The-Dream, alongside others. Although there are no featured artists on the album's main track listing, fellow American singers Lady Gaga and Kanye West appear on deluxe editions of the album.
In its original release, I Am... Sasha Fierce was formatted as a double album, intending to market Beyoncé's dichotomous artistic persona. The first disc I Am... contains slow and midtempo pop and R&B ballads, while the second, Sasha Fierce—titled after Beyoncé's on-stage alter ego—focuses on more uptempo beats that blend electropop and Europop elements. In composing the songs' lyrics, Beyoncé worked with writers, with each session accompanied by live orchestration. She credited both her husband—rapper Jay-Z—and jazz singer Etta James for inspiring her to push the limits of her songwriting and artistry. Musically, I Am... drew inspiration from folk and alternative rock, while blending acoustic guitar elements into contemporary ballads, and its tracks were written and produced by Beyoncé, during collaborative efforts with Babyface, Tricky Stewart, The-Dream and Ryan Tedder. Meanwhile, Sasha Fierce boasted production from Darkchild and Sean Garrett.
I Am... Sasha Fierce received mixed to positive reviews from music critics and was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart with first-week sales of 482,000 units and earning Beyoncé her third consecutive US number-one solo album. The album has earned one diamond and over thirty platinum certifications in separate worldwide markets, being certified seven-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) after shipping over seven million units in the United States. I Am... Sasha Fierce has sold 10 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century. The album garnered seven Grammy Award nominations at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards ceremony (2010), including a nomination for Album of the Year, winning five. With a sixth win during the ceremony, Beyoncé broke the record for most awards won in one night by a female artist.
The album was marketed with the release of several singles, including "If I Were a Boy" and "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", both of which charted highly internationally. The former topped the charts in over ten countries and reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100, with the latter becoming her fifth number-one single on the Hot 100 chart. "Diva" and "Ego" were released exclusively in the United States, while "Halo" and "Sweet Dreams" were promoted internationally as the third and fourth singles, respectively. "Broken-Hearted Girl" was released internationally as the fifth single, while "Video Phone" was released in September 2009 as the overall eighth, and "Why Don't You Love Me" was released in July 2010 as the ninth and final single. To further promote the album, Beyoncé made several award show and televised appearances across Europe and America, and embarked on the worldwide I Am... Tour (2009–10).
== Recording and production ==
The recording of the album took place over a nine-month period. Beyoncé recorded the album in sessions at Bangladesh Studios, PatchWerk Recording Studios, Silent Sound Studios and Tree Sound Studios in Atlanta, Georgia; Chung King Studios, Electric Lady Studios, Roc the Mic Studios and Strawberrybee Productions in New York City, New York; GAD Studios in Ibiza, Spain; Mansfield Studios and The Campground in Los Angeles, California; South Beat Studios in Miami Beach, Florida; and The Boom Boom Room in Burbank, California. Beyoncé either co-wrote or co-produced all material on I Am... Sasha Fierce. She collaborated with several record producers and songwriters, including Babyface, Stargate (production duo composed of Tor Erik Hermansen and Mikkel Storleer Eriksen), Tricky Stewart, The-Dream, Darkchild, Sean Garrett, Solange Knowles, Jim Jonsin, Rico Love, Ryan Tedder, Bangladesh, Ian Dench, Dave McCracken, Wayne Wilkins and Blac Elvis. Beyoncé also collaborated with some musicians she had never worked with in the past, such as Toby Gad and BC Jean on "If I Were a Boy"; she also worked again with Amanda Ghost on "Disappear".
For the I Am... disc, Beyoncé was influenced by folk and alternative rock genres, while incorporating other instruments she had not normally used previously, such as the acoustic guitar. Tedder specifically assisted Beyoncé with crafting the album's balladry. The ballads were crafted in a way to combine "the best elements" of pop and soul music, while simultaneously "expanding the possibilities of both genres". Beyoncé attempted something different as people had strong expectations from her; she experimented with stronger lyrics. Beyoncé worked with Ghost to re-write Franz Schubert's "Ave Maria" after having co-written "Disappear" in London, England. Ghost told The Daily Telegraph that they were both inspired by their then-recent marriages and had walked down the aisle to "Ave Maria". The song "Smash Into You", featured on the deluxe edition of the album, was originally slated to appear on Jon McLaughlin's sophomore album OK Now under the name "Smack Into You", but was cut from the finalized tracklist after it was leaked online and was subsequently given to Knowles.
During the nine-month period between November 2007 and August 2008, Beyoncé recorded over seventy songs and decided during the editing process that she did not want to reconcile the two approaches into one disc. If a song was meaningless to her, she would cut it off during the process of elimination for the final track listing. After a process of elimination, twelve tracks were selected to be placed on the standard edition of the album, while five additional tracks were chosen to make the final cut for the deluxe edition of the album. Beyoncé later revealed that songs from established producers like The Neptunes and Danja were not able to make the final cut.
== Music and lyrics ==
In an interview for Billboard magazine, Beyoncé described I Am... Sasha Fierce as a double album. She said, "One side has songs that are more mainstream and another has my more traditional R&B songs for my fans who've been there the whole time. Some of it sounds like Barbra Streisand, Karen Carpenter and The Beatles around the 1970s." Music writer Andy Kellman of AllMusic viewed its first disc as "essentially a small set of adult contemporary ballads. Acoustic guitars, pianos, strings, contemplative soul searching, and grand sweeping gestures fill it out, with more roots in '[19]70s soft rock than soul." The second disc, Sasha Fierce, contains consistent electronic influences, which are displayed in songs like "Radio" and "Sweet Dreams". Kellman said in his review that "Diva" resembles B'Day's "Freakum Dress" or "Ring the Alarm" in terms of audacity. Despite being on the Sasha Fierce disc, "Ego", "Why Don't You Love Me" and "Scared of Lonely" were noted to be a meeting ground between the album's halves. According to Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News, they resemble Sasha Fierce musically, but thematically and lyrically, they are vulnerable like Beyoncé on the I Am... disc. The album formally introduces Beyoncé's alter ego Sasha Fierce. She revealed that Sasha was born during the making of her hit single "Crazy in Love" (2003). In an interview with Emmet Sullivan of People magazine, Beyoncé affirmed that her alter ego is strictly for the stage, with the editor describing Sasha Fierce as the singer's sensual, aggressive alter ego.
"If I Were a Boy", the first single of I Am..., stands as the only song on either disc that Beyoncé did not co-write. BC Jean, who wrote most of the song's lyrics, took inspiration from a poor relationship. Beyoncé explained in Essence that "If I Were a Boy" is different from her previous songs in the sense that it is not a traditional R&B song. Music critics remarked that the song seemed to be a mixture of her hit single "Irreplaceable" (2006), Fergie's single "Big Girls Don't Cry" (2007), and Ciara's single "Like a Boy" (2007). Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times saw the song's theme of female empowerment as an expansion on that of "Irreplaceable". Musically, "Single Ladies" is an upbeat-dance-pop and R&B song, and features dancehall and bounce influences. According to Jonah Weiner of Blender, the song makes a clear reference to marriage while Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt that the lyrics had a connection with "post-breakup". "Halo", composed by Ryan Tedder and Evan Bogart, was initially intended for Beyoncé but was almost recorded by Leona Lewis due to Beyoncé's schedule. According to Christian Williams of Billboard, "Halo" has a mainstream pop sound, with subtle R&B undertones.
"Ave Maria" samples Franz Schubert's "Ave Maria". Critics noted "Diva" as a variation on Lil Wayne's "A Milli" and coined it as its female counterpart. "Diva" carries a stuttering beat.
"Sweet Dreams" was critically acclaimed for its use of electronic bassline, which some critics compared to Michael Jackson's "Beat It" because of its electropop sound. "Sweet Dreams" is derived from contemporary R&B and incorporates influences from the classic 1980s funk. "Broken-Hearted Girl" is a midtempo piano ballad. Its production and melody is backed by strings and a drum machine beat. According to Spence D. of IGN Music, "Hello" comes off like another ballad that "populate[s] the first part of the album." It contains the Jerry Maguire line – "You had me at hello" – as part of its chorus. It essentially consists of "sweet guitar-picking and delicate harmonies." According to critics, "Video Phone" contains lyrics that are in reference to "a celebration of Skype sex and putting on a solo show, on camera, for a guy you just met at the club". The remixed version featured both Beyoncé and Lady Gaga trading verses with one another. Musically the song consists of simple lyrics, with hidden innuendos, and is backed by thin-spread beats; Beyoncé and Gaga uttering gasps and groans while singing the song. "Disappear" consists of "sweet guitar-picking and delicate harmonies". "That's Why You're Beautiful" is a slow-tempo soft rock and rock power ballad, which consists of a "grungy" guitar riff and stuterring drums. Critics compared the song with the materials by Alice in Chains and Jill Scott. The platinum edition of the album also included a cover version of Billy Joel's song "Honesty" (1979).
== Title and artwork ==
The album was titled I Am... Sasha Fierce to showcase the difference between Beyoncé and her alter ego Sasha Fierce; the first disc is titled I Am... while the second is titled Sasha Fierce.
Making comparisons to a magazine, Beyoncé elaborated that I Am... Sasha Fierce was a double album and it had two covers. The I Am... cover artwork, described as "underneath all the makeup", is a portrait of Beyoncé with no visible clothing or makeup on, while the Sasha Fierce cover artwork shows Beyoncé wearing heavy makeup, a leotard, tall pointed heels, and a "cyborg"-esque metallic glove. The cover artworks for the standard, deluxe and platinum editions of I Am... Sasha Fierce were all shot by German photographer Peter Lindbergh.
In a 2021 interview for Harper's Bazaar, Beyoncé revealed that she based the entire project on black and white photography after being told in a meeting discussing analytics that a research discovered that her fans did not like when her photography was black and white, stating, "It pissed me off that an agency could dictate what my fans wanted based on a survey." She pointed out that she was "so exhausted and annoyed with these formulaic corporate companies" and highlighted the album's subsequent commercial success.
== Release and promotion ==
Beyoncé promoted I Am... Sasha Fierce through various televised appearances and awards ceremonies by performing songs featured on the album from late 2008 until early 2010. Beyoncé's father and then-manager Mathew Knowles held a listening party for the album in New York City on October 22, 2008. Beyoncé first promoted "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" in a concert organized by the Power 105.1 radio station on October 29. Beyoncé first performed "If I Were a Boy" on October 31, on the Japanese music television program Music Station. She later performed “If I Were a Boy” on November 6, at the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards. Soon after, she sang "If I Were a Boy" and "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" on November 9, at the 2008 World Music Awards in Monaco. She then took to the stage of The Oprah Winfrey Show to perform "If I Were a Boy" on November 13. She appeared on Saturday Night Live on November 15, where she sang "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)". On November 16, Beyoncé sang a medley of "If I Were a Boy", "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", and "Crazy in Love" during the final episode of Total Request Live.
I Am... Sasha Fierce was released in the United States on November 18, 2008, and previously in Japan on November 12, in Australia and Germany on November 14, and in France and the United Kingdom on November 17; deluxe edition of the album was released simultaneously with the standard edition. Beyoncé performed "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" on BET's 106 & Park on November 18, at the 2008 American Music Awards on November 23, on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on November 25, on Today the following day, and on The Tyra Banks Show with two male dancers, on January 9, 2009. Beyoncé's first live performance of "Halo" was at the 40th NAACP Image Awards on February 12, 2009. She later performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman after an interview on April 22, 2009. Beyoncé performed "Sweet Dreams" at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards on November 5. Beyoncé performed "If I Were a Boy" on January 31, 2010, at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards ceremony, along with a cover of Alanis Morissette's song "You Oughta Know" (1995). In February 2010, the bonus track "Why Don't You Love Me" from the album's multiple reissues, climbed up the US Dance Club Songs, eventually taking the top spot and becoming Beyoncé's thirteenth number-one hit on the chart. On May 4, 2010, a full-length music video appeared online after its release as a promotional single.
On June 16, 2009, Above and Beyoncé: Video Collection & Dance Mixes was released, composed of a CD of dance remixes to the singles from the album, including the remix of "Ego" with rapper Kanye West, and a DVD featuring music videos previously released for those singles, as well as behind-the-scenes footage. Beyoncé was due to perform "Sweet Dreams" at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards on September 13; however, she only performed the bridge from the song at the beginning of her performance, before switching to "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)". The platinum edition of I Am... Sasha Fierce was released in Australia on Beyoncé's twenty-eighth birthday on September 4, 2009, and in the United States on October 20, 2009; it included a cover version of Billy Joel's song "Honesty" (1979), as well as a DVD containing various music videos from the album's singles. The deluxe edition of I Am... Sasha Fierce was reissued in the United States on November 23, 2009, including all of the previously released songs in addition to the new songs "Poison" and the remix of "Video Phone" with Lady Gaga. An extended play (EP) titled I Am... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks was released the same day for digital download in the United States, featuring the latter songs, along with "Why Don't You Love Me".
To further promote the album, Beyoncé embarked on the I Am... Tour, which started in Edmonton, Canada on March 26, 2009. The European leg of the tour started on April 26 in Zagreb, Croatia, and ended on June 9 in London, England. On June 21, she began the third leg of the tour in the United States and finished in August with the I Am... Yours four-day revue at Encore Las Vegas on the Las Vegas Strip. Starting on September 15, 2009, the fourth leg began in Melbourne, Australia and finished on September 24 in Perth, Australia. Beyoncé then went on to perform in Asia, the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and the United Kingdom, before finishing the 2009 portion of the tour on November 24 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The tour had its final leg in February 2010, visiting Latin America. Starting on February 4 in Florianópolis, Brazil, she visited five other places before ending in Trinidad on February 18. According to Pollstar, the 2010 shows earned $17.2 million, which added to the total of $86 million for the first 86 concerts in 2009, bringing the tour total to $103.2 million for 97 shows. The I Am... Yours residency at the Encore Theater in Las Vegas was recorded on August 2, 2009, and later released as a DVD, audio CD and television special in late November 2009 titled I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas. Various performances on the tour were filmed worldwide for a live DVD, I Am... World Tour, which was released on November 30, 2010.
== Singles ==
On October 8, 2008, Beyoncé premiered two lead singles from the album. "If I Were a Boy" peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100, topped eight charts worldwide and reached the top ten on many other charts. "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" was the second lead single and peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Beyoncé's fifth number-one single, and was also successful in other international markets, peaking within the top ten around the world. The singles were certified double platinum and quadruple platinum, respectively, by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Diva" was released exclusively in the United States and peaked at number nineteen on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Beyoncé's twelfth top-twenty single, and at number three on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. It was certified gold by the RIAA. The next single, "Halo", was released internationally and peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100, proving to be commercially successful and reaching top ten around the world. It was certified double platinum by the RIAA on January 5, 2010.
Following announcements of the I Am... Tour two more singles were initially lined up, namely "Broken-Hearted Girl" and "Sweet Dreams"—though they switched order to become the sixth and seventh singles, respectively. "Sweet Dreams" reached the top ten in most countries, including the United States, managing to top the New Zealand Singles Chart, and was certified platinum by the RIAA on January 5, 2010. "Broken-Hearted Girl", the seventh single, reached the top forty on charts around the world, despite never being certified nor released in the United States. "Video Phone" was released as the eighth single from I Am... Sasha Fierce on September 22, 2009, with an accompanying music video and digital download release, taking form as an extended remix featuring American recording artist Lady Gaga. Like its predecessor, it reached the top-forty on charts around the world, peaking at number sixty-five on the US Billboard Hot 100. It also became Beyoncé's fourteenth number-one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs. "Why Don't You Love Me" was released as the ninth and final single on July 2, 2010, and peaked atop the US Hot Dance Club Songs, before its official single release. As of July 2010, the digital tracks from the album had sold a combined total of 12.3 million units in the United States; and according to Columbia Records the album has sold fifteen million digital singles worldwide.
== Critical reception ==
I Am... Sasha Fierce received mixed reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 62 (indicating "generally favorable reviews"), based on 24 reviews. Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani wrote that the album's "strength" is "its individual songs ... a testament to Beyoncé as one of today's most reliable singles artists", but felt that "the real disparity is her inability to reconcile the adult-contemporary schmaltz of I Am with the more modern, edgy sounds of Sasha Fierce." Adam Mattera of The Observer felt that both discs lack depth, observing that the first is "too busy chasing radio formats to expose any genuine soul", and criticizing the second disc's "succession of independent woman anthems such as 'Single Ladies' and 'Diva', which will no doubt inspire drag queens the world over but leave most others bemused."
AllMusic's Andy Kellman called its double-disc "gimmick" "flimsy" and favored its second disc's "decent, if easily forgettable, upbeat pop." He expressed that on the I Am... disc, "Beyoncé feels each line to the fullest extent, which almost rescues the set's staidness." In his consumer guide for MSN Music, Robert Christgau named it the "dud of the month", indicating "a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought". He found its "split-personality bit" to be "deeply vapid", only observing "three good songs on this 11-track artifact". Jonah Weiner of Blender commented that "Beyoncé is still a beauty-shop feminist, quick with the smack-downs, and she still describes the rattling rush of love with preternatural poise". Stacey Anderson of Spin commented that its first disc "meanders over [...] down-tempo cuts" and called ... Sasha "an intriguing but diluted direction".
The Village Voice's Nana Ekua Brew-Hammond felt that the I Am... disc lacks cohesion, but complimented "Sasha Fierce as "brassy, big-headed, confrontational, and witty," and stated, "each incendiary track challenges you to leave your inhibitions at coat-check." Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone noted that its slow songs are "full of bland self-affirmation and saggy lines", but wrote that "the "Sasha" disc boasts Beyoncé's most adventurous music yet". Colin McGuire of PopMatters called the album "a little rough around the edges at times" and viewed its Sasha Fierce disc as "a far more compelling trip down dance-lane". Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the album offers "two compelling sides" of Beyoncé and stated: "The collection might have been better served had she edited it down to one disc, rather than belabor what ultimately seems like a marketing gimmick. And while fans will surely speculate, there's little in the lyrics that feels more revealing than previous emotional fire-starters." Sasha Frere-Jones from The New Yorker found the album to be "something of a mess", mostly because the alter ego "trips on the idea of redefinition".
== Accolades ==
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly ranked I Am… Sasha Fierce at number two on her list "10 Best CDs of 2008", stating that "'If I Were a Boy' and 'Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)' are undoubtedly album highlights; still, the surprise here is how consistently satisfying the rest of it is – even the less showy tracks blossom on repeated listening." Mark Edward Nero of About.com ranked it at the ninth place on his list of the Best R&B Albums of 2008. Christian Gerard of NBC Washington placed I Am... Sasha Fierce on his list of "Honorable Mentions" while writing the list "Best Albums of 2008". Agence France-Presse, as reported by ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs, recognized I Am... Sasha Fierce as the twelfth best-selling album of 2008. On The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop year-end lists, I Am... Sasha Fierce was ranked at numbers three-hundred-and-thirty-three and five-hundred-and-eighty in 2008 and 2009, respectively. The album was ranked at number twelve on the list of the best albums of the 2000s decade in Rolling Stone's Reader's Poll. The writers of Entertainment Weekly ranked I Am... Sasha Fierce at number eight on their list "10 Best Albums of the Decade".
I Am... Sasha Fierce won a Soul Train Music Award for Best Album of the Year at the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards. Beyoncé won the American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Female Artist at the American Music Awards of 2009, while I Am... Sasha Fierce garnered a nomination for Favorite Soul/R&B Album. Beyoncé also won a BET Award for Best R&B Artist at the BET Awards 2009. However, she lost the same award to Alicia Keys at the following ceremony. Similarly, Beyoncé was nominated for Brit Award for International Female Solo Artist at the 2009 Brit Awards, for a Meteor Music Award for Best International Female at the 2009 Meteor Awards, and for International Dance Music Awards for Best Artist (Solo) and Best R&B/Urban Dance Track for "Sweet Dreams" at the 25th Annual International Dance Music Awards (2010). At the MOBO Awards 2009, Beyoncé won the MOBO Award for Best International Act and I Am... Sasha Fierce was nominated for Best Album. Beyoncé won an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Female, "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" won Best Video and "Halo" won Best Song at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards.
I Am... Sasha Fierce was nominated for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Album at the 40th NAACP Image Awards (2009), and for an NRJ Music Award for International Album of the Year at the NRJ Music Awards 2010. Beyoncé was also nominated for a People's Choice Award for Favorite Female Artist and Favorite R&B Artist at the 36th People's Choice Awards (2010), as well as winning a Teen Choice Award for Choice Music: R&B Artist at the 2010 Teen Choice Awards, and being nominated for World's Best R&B Artist at the 2010 World Music Awards. I Am... Sasha Fierce and its singles earned Beyoncé seven Grammy Award nominations at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards (2010), including Album of the Year. She won five Grammy Awards out of those seven nominations, as well as a record-breaking sixth for her rendition of the classic Etta James song "At Last", from the Cadillac Records soundtrack. Her wins made her the most decorated female artist in one night in Grammy Award history.
== Commercial performance ==
I Am... Sasha Fierce debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling 482,000 copies in its first week and giving Beyoncé her third consecutive number-one album in the United States, fourth overall, including Destiny's Child's Survivor (2001). With this, Beyoncé became the third female artist of the 2000s to have her first three solo albums debut atop the US Billboard 200. Having sold 1,459,000 copies in six weeks of release by the end of 2008, I Am... Sasha Fierce emerged as the tenth best-selling album of the year according to Billboard. With this achievement, Beyoncé eventually equaled Garth Brooks, Mariah Carey, and Shania Twain for placing an album in Nielsen SoundScan's year-end top ten for the fifth time. The album later emerged as the second best-selling album of 2009 in the United States itself. It has been certified six-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). As of July 2022, I Am... Sasha Fierce has sold 8.12 million album-equivalent units in the United States. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number ten on November 29, 2008, becoming Beyoncé's lowest-debuting album despite having higher first-week sales than her previous album, B'Day (2006). Following her performance at The X Factor fifth season finale with winner Alexandra Burke, the album moved up to number nine on December 27, 2008. Due to the success of its singles in the United Kingdom, particularly "Sweet Dreams", I Am... Sasha Fierce rose from number five to its highest peak of number two in its thirty-ninth week on the chart, which was the week of August 16, 2009. It is her best-selling album in the United Kingdom, having sold over 1.5 million units. It was certified six times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry.
In Australia, I Am... Sasha Fierce debuted at number nine on November 24, 2008 and climbed to number eight on January 5, 2009. Following the success of singles "Sweet Dreams" and "Broken-Hearted Girl", the album rebounded to a new peak of number three on two separate occasions in October 2009. It was later certified quintuple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) in 2023. In New Zealand, the album debuted at number sixteen on November 24, 2008 and initially peaked at number six on March 2, 2009. After growing popularity of its singles, especially "Sweet Dreams", the album upped to a new peak of number three on September 21, 2009. The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) on April 26, 2009 (after twenty-three weeks on the chart), shipping over 15,000 copies to retailers. In Spain, the album debuted and peaked at number seven on November 26, 2008, and was certified double platinum by the Productores de Música de España (PROMUSICAE) for shipments of over 160,000 copies. The album was also the best-selling international album of 2009 in Turkey. The album experienced massive success in Brazil, topping the country's year-end chart and being certified double diamond for sales in excess of 500,000 copies by Pro-Música Brasil. The album has sold over ten million copies worldwide. As of February 2017, the album has generated over 1 billion streams.
== Track listing ==
=== I Am... (disc one) ===
==== Track listing variants ====
Japanese platinum edition includes all nine tracks listed above, plus "If I Were a Boy (Maurice Joshua Mojo UK Remix)", "Halo (Dave Audé Club Remix)", and "Broken-Hearted Girl (Catalyst Remix)".
iTunes Store and international digital standard editions include "Save the Hero".
Latin American standard edition includes "Si Yo Fuera un Chico", the Spanish version of "If I Were a Boy".
iTunes Store deluxe edition includes the music video for "If I Were a Boy".
=== Sasha Fierce (disc two) ===
==== Track listing variants ====
Japanese platinum edition includes all nine tracks listed above, plus "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) (DJ Escape & Tony Coluccio Remix; Club Version)", "Diva (Karmatronic Club Remix)", "Ego (OK DAC Remix)", "Sweet Dreams (Harlan Pepper & AG III Remix)", and "Ego (Remix featuring Kanye West)".
United States Walmart standard edition includes "Why Don't You Love Me".
iTunes Store deluxe edition includes the music video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)".
=== Single-disc releases ===
==== Track-listing variants ====
International digital platinum edition includes "Ego (Slang "Big Ego" Club Mix)" and "Diva (Karmatronic Club Mix)".
International iTunes Store platinum edition includes "Sweet Dreams (Steve Pitron and Max Sanna Club Remix)".
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from the liner notes of I Am... Sasha Fierce.
== Charts ==
== Certifications and sales ==
== Release history ==
== See also ==
Album era
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2008
List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2008
List of number-one urban albums of 2008 (Australia)
List of number-one albums of 2009 (Ireland)
List of number-one albums of 2011 (Poland)
List of best-selling albums in Brazil
List of top 25 albums for 2009 in Australia
List of albums which have spent the most weeks on the UK Albums Chart
List of best-selling albums by women
List of best-selling albums of the 21st century
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
I Am... Sasha Fierce at Discogs (list of releases) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_O%27Connor | Johnson O'Connor | Johnson O'Connor (January 22, 1891 – July 1, 1973) was an American psychometrician, researcher, and educator. He is most remembered as a pioneer in the study of aptitude testing and as an advocate for the importance of vocabulary.
== Early life and education ==
O’Connor came from a prosperous and well-rooted Chicago family. His parents were John O’Connor and Nelie Johnson O’Connor. O'Connor's mother descended from ancestors who were among the first Puritan settlers of Massachusetts, while his father was an attorney who at one time shared an office with the famous lawyer Clarence Darrow. O'Connor received a progressive primary and secondary education with John Dewey at Dewey's famous University of Chicago Laboratory School. He was graduated from Harvard University in 1913 with a degree in Philosophy. After graduation he conducted research in astronomical mathematics under famed astronomer Percival Lowell, brother of the poet Amy Lowell and worked in electrical engineering at American Steel and Wire and General Electric.
== Aptitude research at General Electric ==
In a visionary experiment, the General Electric leadership decided that if employees could be matched to positions that best suited their natural abilities and retrained in those areas, it would benefit both company and employees. In 1922 F.P. Cox of GE asked O’Connor to develop an in-house program called the "human" engineering project that would find the proper positioning for each employee and retrain them within that field. This led O’Connor into a study of inborn aptitudes and to the development of aptitude tests that he called "work samples." Using empirical research, O'Connor developed classifications for specific human abilities, to which he gave labels such as "Graphoria," "Ideaphoria," and "Structural Visualization." O’Connor became one of the first researchers to offer documentation that aptitudes are in fact innate. For example, one who is mathematically inclined can learn much more quickly and easily about mathematics than can one whose aptitudes in this area are low. Similarly, if one were to take two groups, one that possessed a high aptitude for finger dexterity and one that did not, with practice, both groups performance would improve, but the group that possessed the higher aptitude would continue to outperform the other despite identical training.
== Later research ==
O'Connor sought to expand his efforts in researching human aptitudes and in 1930 he founded the Human Engineering Laboratory at Stevens Institute of Technology This organization evolved into the Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation, a non-profit organization with branches in several major U.S. cities.
In addition to gathering data on skills specific to various vocations, O’Connor also gathered various general data on his subjects. After establishing the link between specific aptitudes and performance in certain positions, O’Connor decided to take a second look at his data and see if there were any aptitudes which were more important than others in determining general success and advancement. It was during the course of this testing that O’Connor stumbled upon an unexpected discovery: A person’s vocabulary level was the best single measure for predicting occupational success in every area. Furthermore, vocabulary is not innate, and can be acquired by everybody. Because acquisition of vocabulary was not, in O'Connor's view, determined by innate aptitudes, it became a major focus of his later writings. O'Connor considered vocabulary augmentation a major key to unlocking human potential. His later research included an effort to catalogue the most important words for English-speaking people to know and to order these words by difficulty. O’Connor used his findings to improve vocabulary in American students. By first isolating a student’s vocabulary level through a carefully researched multiple choice diagnostic test, O' Connor believed that students could enter a vocabulary program of study that matches their skill level. It is at this level, and just beyond, where learning is most efficient. O'Connor himself dedicated several books to the topic of learning vocabulary including: "The Johnson O'Connor English Vocabulary Builder" and "The Johnson O'Connor Science Vocabulary Builder" as well as the "Ginn Vocabulary Building Program" which he co-authored. His own extensive vocabulary served him well when he was a guest on Groucho Marx's You Bet Your Life television program. Groucho joked about his guest having two last names.
The final years of O'Connor's life were spent researching, lecturing, and writing about human aptitudes and ways for people to maximize their mental potential. On these subjects he authored numerous books, including "Structural Visualization", "The Unique Individual", and "Psychometrics." He also devoted much of his later research to studying vocabulary and the processes by which people acquired word knowledge. O'Connor died in Mexico City, D.F., in July 1973 and is buried beside his wife, the architect Eleanor Manning O'Connor, in Newport Beach, California. He was survived by his son, Chadwell O'Connor, an engineer and Academy Award winner who designed the O'Connor Fluid-Head camera tripod.
== Writings ==
Born That Way, 1928
Psychometrics, 1934
Too Many Aptitude Woman, 1941
Ideaphoria, 1945
Aptitudes and Languages, 1944
Structural Visualization, 1948
The Unique Individual, 1948
English Vocabulary Builder, 1948
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation
== Bibliography ==
Broadley, Margaret E., "Your Natural Gifts", EPM Publication, Inc., 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-939009-56-0)
Wyatt, George. Johnson O’Connor: A Portrait From Memory. EPM Publications, Inc., 2002.
Who's Was Who in America, vol VI, 1974-1976. Marquis Who's Who Inc. 1977. Chicago Ill.
Atlantic Monthly, February, 1934, Atlantic Monthly Company, Boston, 1934 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Rafiq_Tarar | Muhammad Rafiq Tarar | Muhammad Rafiq Tarar (2 November 1929 – 7 March 2022) was a Pakistani politician and jurist who served as the ninth president of Pakistan from 1998 until his resignation in 2001 following the military coup by Pervez Musharraf. He also served as a senator from Punjab in 1997; and, before entering politics, as a senior justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan from 1992 to 1994 and as the chief justice of the Lahore High Court from 1989 to 1991.
Tarar was born in Mandi Bahauddin, and graduated with LLB from University of the Punjab in 1951, before starting practice as a lawyer in Lahore High Court the following year. In 1966, he pursued a career as a jurist. Tarar later served as a justice in Pakistan's highest courts. After his retirement at 65, he started a political career as a legal advisor to Nawaz Sharif. Tarar became a senator from Punjab in 1997 and the same year nominated as presidential candidate by PML-N, but his nomination paper was rejected by the Acting Chief Election Commissioner. Barrister Ijaz Husain Batalvi assisted by M. A. Zafar and Akhtar Aly Kureshy Advocate, challenged his rejection in Lahore High Court and the Full Bench set aside the rejection order of the Election Commission and he was elected president of Pakistan in the presidential election by a margin of 374 out of 457 votes of the Electoral College.
Tarar assumed office in January 1998 with heavy criticism by opposition especially from former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto who accused him of illegally legitimizing dismissal of her government as a judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. As head of state, Tarar shifted Pakistan's system of government from semi-presidential system to parliamentary democratic system by signing the Thirteenth Constitutional Amendment. He surrendered his reserve power of dismissing the Prime Minister, triggering new elections and dissolving the National Assembly. He also signed the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendment to the constitution that limited the powers of the presidency from executive to a figurehead.
Tarar resigned as President in 2001 in the wake of the 1999 Pakistani coup d'état. He resisted and did not endorse the 12 October 1999 military coup. He was forced to step down by then Chief Executive Pervez Musharraf and ultimately succeeded by Musharraf through a referendum held in 2002. Twenty months after seizing power in a coup, General Musharraf took the head of state's oath and became the fourth military ruler to become president.
== Early life and education ==
Muhammad Rafiq Tarar was born in Mandi Bahauddin, British India, on 2 November 1929 to a Tarar family. Tarar was influenced by Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari and he took a part in political sessions of Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam during British colonial rule. In his college years, he was also an activist for the All-India Muslim League and was a follower of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. During the partition of India, Tarar performed voluntary duty as a relief worker in camps set up by the All India Muslim Students Federation for Indian emigrants. He graduated with BA in Islamic Studies from Government Islamia College, Gujranwala in 1949. He acquired LLB degree in 1951 from Punjab University Law College.
== Judicial and political career ==
Tarar started a career as a lawyer, soon after completion of his studies. In 1951, he enrolled as a pleader in the Lahore High Court. He started practicing as an advocate in the same court, in later years. He established a Gujranwala-based legal aid firm in 1960s and excelled at advocacy. In 1966, Tarar started a judicial career after he appeared and passed the competitive exams to be elevated as session judge in District Courts. In 1971, he became Chairman of the Punjab Labor Court. Tarar was appointed a judge at Lahore High Court, highest appellate judicial court of Punjab province, in October 1974.
Tarar served in the Lahore High Court as a justice for decades. He was also a member of the Election Commission of Pakistan where he represented Punjab. He was appointed the 28th Chief Justice of Lahore High Court where he served from 1989 to 1991 until his appointment as a judge in the Supreme Court of Pakistan. His appointment was made by then president Ghulam Ishaq Khan with the consent of Supreme Judicial Council. He served as a senior justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan from January 1992 to November 1994. He was also an awaiting candidate of the Chief Justice of Pakistan but he retired earlier on attaining the age of 65 years and started a political career. In 1994, following his retirement from the judiciary, Tarar entered into politics and started a political career as a legal adviser and close aide to then opposition leader Nawaz Sharif. In March 1997, he became a senator and represented Punjab in the upper-house of Pakistan until his resignation in December 1997. He was nominated as the presidential candidate by the PML(N) in the same year and secured a historical victory in the presidential election.
== Presidency (1998–2001) ==
=== Initial days ===
After Farooq Leghari's resignation in 1997, he was nominated as a candidate for the president of Pakistan. On 31 December 1997, in an indirect election, Tarar was elected by a huge margin, getting 374 of 457 votes of the Electoral College against Aftab Mirani of PPP (a PML(N)'s rival) who got 31 votes, and Muhammad Khan Shirani of JUI(S) who got 22 votes. This was the largest margin in such elections. Upon his election, former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto delivered a speech in London to the Commonwealth Ethnic Bar Association and criticized his election. She accused him of being dishonest by saying "A former judge [Tarar] who dishonestly legitimized the overthrow of my first government was elected president of Pakistan. This same man stands accused by a former President Farooq Leghari of taking briefcases of money to bribe other judges in the famous 1997 case. The Election Commission rejected Justice Tarar's nomination for the presidency. Justice Qayyum, on leave for his mother's funeral, rushed back to grant a stay, and Tarar was elected. As for the bribery charges, Tarar, as a former judge, like former generals, is immune to prosecution in real terms."
=== Nuclear Program ===
During his tenure as President, Tarar played a significant role in Pakistan's nuclear program. Advised by his brother, Colonel Muzafar Tarar, Tarar pursued policies aimed at enhancing the country's nuclear capabilities. Colonel Tarar's insights and expertise, particularly regarding Bhutto's nuclear program, became instrumental in guiding Pakistan's nuclear policy during their tenure. The successful continuation and advancement of Pakistan's nuclear program became one of the highlights of their joint efforts. In addition to his contributions to the nuclear program, Tarar focused on issues related to law and order, education, and social welfare during his presidency. He advocated for the strengthening of democratic institutions and the rule of law, promoting harmony and understanding among different segments of Pakistani society. His family remains influential in the country's political landscape. Colonel Tarar served in the Pakistan Army and held various command positions during his military career. Colonel Tarar is renowned for his invaluable contributions to Pakistan's national security, particularly in the realm of the nuclear program. Colonel Tarar's strategic advice and expertise were pivotal in shaping Pakistan's nuclear policy, ensuring the successful continuation and advancement of the program. His insights into Bhutto's nuclear art program, shared with President Tarar, played a crucial role in guiding Pakistan's nuclear strategy during their tenure. After retiring from the military, Colonel Tarar has been involved in philanthropic activities, supporting initiatives aimed at the welfare of veterans and their families.
=== Constitutional reforms ===
Upon becoming President, Tarar was an unassuming and merely ceremonial figurehead who kept a low profile, and avoided news media, and he remained a devoted servant and loyalist of the Sharif family. He readily signed the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the Constitution of Pakistan that limited the powers of the presidency.
The President of Pakistan's powers had thus been slowly removed over the years, culminating in the 1997 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan which removed virtually all remaining reserve powers, making the office almost entirely symbolic in nature as per the true spirit of the Pakistani constitution.
=== Resignation ===
Tarar did not endorse the 1999 Pakistani coup d'état by the Pakistani military which elevated General Pervez Musharraf, Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, since he was an appointee of Nawaz Sharif. The Pakistani military thus decided not to retain Tarar as the President for his full term of five years, given his partisan attitude. On 21 June 2001, General Musharraf who acted as Chief Executive in capacity, enforced the Legal Framework Order, 2002; Musharraf removed Tarar as he read the paragraph: "Mr. Muhammad Rafiq Tarar has ceased to hold the office of the President with immediate effect."
== Death ==
Tarar retired from politics and settled in Lahore, where he died after a long illness on 7 March 2022, at the age of 92.
== See also ==
Supreme Court of Pakistan
Supreme Court Bar Association of Pakistan
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Cited works and general bibliography === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto | Zulfikar Ali Bhutto | Zulfikar Ali Bhutto NPk (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister, politician and statesman who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth prime minister of Pakistan from 1973 until his overthrow in 1977. He was also the founder and first chairman of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) from 1967 until his execution in 1979.
Born in Sindh and educated at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Oxford, Bhutto trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn before entering politics. He was a cabinet member during president Iskandar Mirza's tenure, holding various ministries during president Ayub Khan's military rule from 1958. Bhutto became the foreign minister in 1963, advocating for Operation Gibraltar in Kashmir, leading to the 1965 war with India. Following the Tashkent Declaration, he was dismissed from the government. Bhutto established the PPP in 1967, focusing on a left-wing and socialist agenda, and contested the 1970 general election, arising as the largest political party in Western Pakistan with a landslide victory in Punjab and Sindh; and a coalition victory with National Awami Party in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier. The Awami League, victorious with a landslide in East Pakistan, and the PPP were unable to agree on power transfer, leading to civil unrest in the east — further intensified by military action under Yahya Khan's military government — followed by a civil war and a war with India, resulting in the creation of Bangladesh. After Pakistan's loss in the east, Yahya resigned amidst a military revolt against him and Bhutto assumed the presidency in December 1971, imposing emergency rule and securing a ceasefire on the western front.
Bhutto secured the release of 93,000 prisoners of war through the Delhi Agreement, a trilateral accord signed between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh on 28 August 1973, and ratified only by India and Pakistan. He also reclaimed five thousand square miles (13,000 km2) of Indian-held territory through the Simla Agreement, signed between India and Pakistan in July 1972. He strengthened diplomatic ties with other Muslim countries, as well as China; and recognised Bangladesh in 1974 while hosting the historic Islamic Summit in Lahore, attended by leaders from across the Muslim world. In collaboration with the parliamentary opposition, Bhutto's government drafted and promulgated Pakistan’s current constitution in 1973, with the approval of 97 percent of the parliament — bringing an end to emergency rule and restoring parliamentary democracy across the country, with Bhutto assuming office as prime minister. He brought in Abdul Qadeer Khan, strengthened the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, and initiated the country's nuclear program which he regarded as a 'national priority'. Bhutto also introduced a policy of extensive nationalisation under his socialist agenda.
Despite winning the 1977 parliamentary elections, the Peoples Party faced allegations of vote rigging by the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), the populist opposition, sparking violence across the country. In an effort to resolve the crisis, Bhutto's government reached an agreement with the opposition to hold fresh elections under a neutral caretaker administration in October of the same year, but Bhutto was deposed two days later in a military coup by army chief Zia-ul-Haq on 5 July 1977. Controversially tried and executed in 1979, his trial — widely described, both in Pakistan and internationally, as a 'judicial murder' — was later declared 'unfair' by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in a mea culpa.
Bhutto's legacy remains contentious, praised for nationalist and a secular internationalist agenda, yet criticised for economic challenges, political repression and human rights abuses. He is often considered one of Pakistan's greatest leaders and referred to as the Quaid-e-Awām ("the People's Leader"). He was posthumously awarded the Nishan-e-Pakistan, the highest civilian award of the country. His party, the PPP, continues to be a significant political force in Pakistan, with his daughter Benazir Bhutto serving twice as prime minister, and his son-in-law, Asif Ali Zardari, becoming president.
== Early life and education ==
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto belonged to a Sindhi family; Owen Bennett-Jones writes that the family traces its ancestry back to a 9th-century Rajput prince of the Bhati clan who ruled the town of Tanot (in current-day Rajasthan, India), Bhutto's ancestors later appearing in different Rajasthani chronicles in prominent roles, the family converting to Islam mostly around the 17th century before moving to Sindh.
He was born to Shah Nawaz Bhutto and Khursheed Begum near Larkana. His father was the dewan of the princely state of Junagadh and enjoyed an influential relationship with the officials of the British Raj. His mother, Khursheed Begum, was born Lakhi Bai, and had been a professional dance girl from a Hindu family but converted to Islam when she married Shah Nawaz. Reportedly, Shah Nawaz Bhutto had seen her dancing and had proposed, eventually marrying her. Zulfikar was their third child — the first, Sikandar Ali, had died from pneumonia at age seven in 1914, and the second, Imdad Ali, died of cirrhosis at age 39 in 1953.
As a young boy, Bhutto moved to Worli Seaface in Bombay, where he studied at the Cathedral and John Connon School and later at St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. He then also became an activist in the Pakistan Movement. In 1943, his marriage was arranged with Shireen Amir Begum. In 1947, Bhutto was admitted to the University of Southern California to study political science.
In 1949, as a sophomore, Bhutto transferred to the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned a B.A. (honours) degree in political science in 1950. A year later on 8 September 1951, he married a woman of Iranian Kurdish origin—Nusrat Ispahani, popularly known as Begum Nusrat Bhutto. During his studies at the University of California, Berkeley, Bhutto became interested in the theories of socialism, delivering a series of lectures on their feasibility in Islamic countries. During this time, Bhutto's father played a controversial role in the affairs of Junagadh. Coming to power in a palace coup, he secured the accession of his state to Pakistan, which was ultimately negated by Indian intervention in December 1947. In June 1950, Bhutto travelled to the United Kingdom to study law at Christ Church, Oxford and received a BA in jurisprudence, followed by an LLM degree in law and an M.Sc. (honours) degree in political science. Upon finishing his studies, he served as a lecturer in international law at the University of Southampton in 1952, and he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1953.
== Political career ==
In 1957, Bhutto became the youngest member of Pakistan's delegation to the United Nations. He addressed the UN Sixth Committee on Aggression that October and led Pakistan's delegation to the first UN Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958. That year, Bhutto became Pakistan's youngest cabinet minister, taking up the reins of the Ministry of Commerce by President Iskander Mirza, pre-coup d'état government. Bhutto became a trusted ally and advisor of Ayub Khan, rising in influence and power despite his youth and relative inexperience. Bhutto was a junior minister in Ayub Khan administration at the time of signing the Indus Waters Treaty with India in 1960 and was not part of the negotiating team. Bhutto was against this treaty due to yielding too much of water resources to India. Later he vehemently talked publicly against the IWT during his campaign against Ayub Khan regime. Bhutto negotiated an oil-exploration agreement with the Soviet Union in 1961, which agreed to provide economic and technical aid to Pakistan.
=== Foreign Minister ===
Bhutto, a Pakistani nationalist and socialist, held distinctive views on the democracy required in Pakistan. Upon becoming foreign minister in 1963, his socialist stance led to a close relationship with neighboring China, challenging the prevailing acceptance of Taiwan as the legitimate government of China when two governments each claimed to be "China". In 1964, the Soviet Union and its satellite states broke off relations with Beijing over ideological differences, with only Albania and Pakistan supporting the People's Republic of China. Bhutto staunchly supported Beijing in the UN and the UNSC, while also maintaining connections with the United States.
Bhutto's strong advocacy for closer ties with China drew criticism from the United States, with President Lyndon B. Johnson cautioning him about potential repercussions on congressional support for aid to Pakistan. Bhutto, known for his demagogic speeches, led the foreign ministry assertively, rapidly gaining national prominence. During a visit to Beijing, Bhutto and his staff received a warm welcome from the Chinese leadership, including Mao Zedong. Bhutto contributed to negotiating trade and military agreements between Pakistan and China, fostering collaboration on various military and industrial projects.
Bhutto signed the Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement on 2 March 1963, transferring 750 square kilometers of territory from Gilgit Baltistan to Chinese control. Bhutto embraced non-alignment, making Pakistan an influential member in non-aligned organisations. Advocating pan-Islamic unity, Bhutto developed closer relations with Indonesia and Saudi Arabia. Bhutto significantly transformed Pakistan's pro-West foreign policy. While maintaining a role in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization and the Central Treaty Organization, Bhutto asserted an independent foreign policy for Pakistan, free from U.S. influence. Bhutto also visited Poland in 1962, establishing diplomatic relations and fostering mutual cooperation, reaching out to the Polish community in Pakistan. Using Pakistan Air Force's Brigadier-General Władysław Turowicz, Bhutto initiated military and economic links between Pakistan and Poland.
In 1962, as territorial differences escalated between India and China, Beijing considered staging an invasion in northern Indian territories. Premier Zhou Enlai and Mao invited Pakistan to join the raid to reclaim the State of Jammu and Kashmir from India. Bhutto supported the plan, but Ayub opposed it due to fears of Indian retaliation. Instead, Ayub proposed a "joint defense union" with India, shocking Bhutto, who felt Ayub Khan lacked understanding of international affairs. Bhutto, aware of China's restraint from criticising Pakistan despite its membership in anti-communist western alliances, criticised the U.S. for providing military aid to India during and after the 1962 Sino-Indian War, seen as a breach of Pakistan's alliance with the United States.
On Bhutto's counsel, Ayub Khan launched Operation Gibraltar in an attempt to "liberate" Kashmir. The operation failed, leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. This war followed brief skirmishes between March and August 1965 in the Rann of Kutch, Jammu and Kashmir, and Punjab. Bhutto joined Ayub in Uzbekistan to negotiate a peace treaty with Indian prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri. Ayub and Shastri agreed to exchange prisoners of war and withdraw respective forces to pre-war boundaries. The agreement, deeply unpopular in Pakistan, caused significant political unrest against Ayub's regime. Bhutto's criticism of the final agreement created a major rift with Ayub. Initially denying rumors, Bhutto resigned in June 1966, expressing strong opposition to Ayub's regime.
During his term, Bhutto formulated aggressive geostrategic and foreign policies against India. In 1965, Bhutto received information from his friend Munir Ahmad Khan about the status of India's nuclear program. Bhutto stated, "Pakistan will fight, fight for a thousand years. If India builds the (atom) bomb, Pakistan will eat grass or leaves, even go hungry, but we (Pakistan) will get one of our own (atom bomb).... We (Pakistan) have no other choice!" In his 1969 book The Myth of Independence, Bhutto argued for the necessity of Pakistan acquiring a fission weapon and starting a deterrence program to stand up to industrialised states and a nuclear-armed India. He developed a manifesto outlining the program's development and selected Munir Ahmad Khan to lead it.
== Creation of the Pakistan People's Party ==
After resigning as foreign minister, large crowds gathered to hear Bhutto's speech upon his arrival in Lahore on 21 June 1967. Riding a wave of anger against Ayub, Bhutto traveled across Pakistan, delivering political speeches. In October 1966, Bhutto explicitly outlined the beliefs of his new party: "Islam is our faith, democracy is our policy, socialism is our economy. All power to the people."
On 30 November 1967, at the Lahore residence of Mubashir Hassan, a gathering including Bhutto, political activist Sufi Nazar Muhammad Khan, Bengali communist J. A. Rahim, and Basit Jehangir Sheikh founded the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), establishing a strong base in Punjab, Sindh, and among the Muhajirs.
Mubashir Hassan, an engineering professor at UET Lahore, played a pivotal role in the success and rise of Bhutto. Under Hassan's guidance and Bhutto's leadership, the PPP became part of the pro-democracy movement involving diverse political parties from all across Pakistan. PPP activists staged large protests and strikes in different parts of the country, increasing pressure on Ayub to resign.
Asghar Khan recalls Bhutto asking him to join his party, the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). Asghar Khan declined, stating he had no interest in politics. After Dr. Hassan and Bhutto's arrest on 12 November 1968, Asghar Khan held a press conference in Lahore on 17 November 1968. Asghar Khan led protests calling for Bhutto's release, which ultimately led to his freedom and grew so close to Bhutto that many saw him as a potential successor. After his release, Bhutto, joined by key leaders of PPP, attended the Round Table Conference called by Ayub Khan in Rawalpindi but refused to accept Ayub's continuation in office and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Six point movement for regional autonomy.
=== 1970 elections ===
Following Ayub's resignation, his successor, General Yahya Khan, promised to hold parliamentary elections on 7 December 1970. Under Bhutto's leadership, the democratic socialists, leftists, and Marxist-communists gathered and united into one party platform for the first time in Pakistan's history. The Socialist-Communist bloc, under Bhutto's leadership, intensified its support in Muhajir and poor farming communities in West Pakistan, working through educating people to cast their vote for their better future. Gathering and uniting the scattered socialist-communist groups in one single center was considered Bhutto's greatest political achievement and as a result, Bhutto's party and other leftists won a large number of seats from constituencies in West-Pakistan. However, Sheikh Mujib's Awami League won an absolute majority in the legislature, receiving more than twice as many votes as Bhutto's PPP. Bhutto strongly refused to accept an Awami League government and infamously threatened to "break the legs" of any elected PPP member who dared to attend the inaugural session of the National Assembly. On 17 January 1971, President Yahya visited Bhutto at his baronial family estate, Al-Murtaza, in Larkana, Sindh, accompanied by Lt. General S. G. M. Pirzada, Principal Staff Officer to President Yahya, and General Abdul Hamid Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army and Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrator.
On 22 February 1971, the generals in West Pakistan took a decision allegedly to crush the Awami League and its supporters. Capitalising on West Pakistani fears of East Pakistani separatism, Bhutto demanded that Sheikh Mujibur Rahman form a coalition with the PPP. And at some stage proposed "idhar hum, udhar tum", meaning he should govern the West and Mujib should Govern the East. President Yahya postponed the meeting of the national assembly which fueled a popular movement in East Pakistan. Amidst popular outrage in East Pakistan, on 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib called the Bengalis to join the struggle for "Bangladesh". According to historical references and a report published by the leading Pakistani newspaper The Nation, "Mujib no longer believed in Pakistan and is determined to make Bangladesh". Many also believed that Bhutto wanted power in the West even at the expense of the separation of the East. However, Mujib still kept doors open for some sort of settlement in his speech of 7 March.
=== Fall of East Pakistan ===
Yahya started a negotiating conference in Dhaka, presumably to reach a settlement between Bhutto and Mujib. The discussion was expected to be "fruitful" until the president left for West Pakistan on the evening of 25 March. On that night of 25 March 1971, the army initiated Operation Searchlight, which had been planned by the military junta of Yahya Khan, presumably to suppress political activities and movements by the Bengalis. Mujib was arrested and imprisoned in West Pakistan. Genocide and atrocities by the military against the Bengali population were alleged during the operation.
Bhutto stayed in Dhaka on the night of 25 March and commented that Pakistan had been saved by the army before leaving on the 26th. While supportive of the army's actions and working to rally international support, Bhutto distanced himself from the Yahya Khan regime and began to criticise Yahya Khan for mishandling the situation. He refused to accept Yahya Khan's scheme to appoint Bengali politician Nurul Amin as prime minister, with Bhutto as deputy prime minister. Soon after Bhutto's refusal and continuous resentment toward General Yahya Khan's mishandling of the situation, Khan ordered Military Police to arrest Bhutto on charges of treason, quite similar to Mujib. Bhutto was imprisoned in the Adiala Jail along with Mujib, where he was set to face the charges. The army crackdown on the Bengalis of East Pakistan fueled an armed resistance by the Mukti-Bahini (a guerrilla force formed for the campaign of an independent Bangladesh and trained by the Indian army). Pakistan launched an air attack on India in the western border that resulted in the Indian intervention in East Pakistan, which led to the very bitter defeat of Pakistani forces, who surrendered on 16 December 1971. Consequently, the state of People's Republic of Bangladesh was born, and Bhutto and others condemned Yahya Khan for failing to protect Pakistan's unity. Isolated, Yahya Khan resigned on 20 December and transferred power to Bhutto, who became president, commander-in-chief, and the first civilian chief martial law administrator.
Bhutto was the country's first civilian chief martial law administrator since 1958, as well as the country's first civilian president. With Bhutto assuming control, the leftists and democratic socialists entered the country's politics and later emerged as power players in the country's politics. And, for the first time in the country's history, the leftists and democratic socialists had a chance to administer the country with the popular vote and widely approved exclusive mandate, given to them by the West's population in the 1970s elections.
In a reference written by Kuldip Nayar in his book Scoop! Inside Stories from the Partition to the Present, Nayar noted that "Bhutto's releasing of Mujib did not mean anything to Pakistan's policy as in [sic] if there was [sic] no liberation war." Bhutto's policy, and even as of today, the policy of Pakistan continues to state that "she will continue to fight for the honor and integrity of Pakistan. East Pakistan is an inseparable and unseverable part of Pakistan".
== Leader of Pakistan (1971–1977) ==
A Pakistan International Airlines flight was sent to fetch Bhutto from New York City, where he was presenting Pakistan's case before the United Nations Security Council on the East Pakistan Crisis. Bhutto returned home on 18 December 1971. On 20 December, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi, where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one as president and the other as the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator. Thus, he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan. By the time Bhutto had assumed control of what remained of Pakistan, the nation was completely isolated, angered, and demoralised. Bhutto addressing the nation through radio and television said:My dear countrymen, my dear friends, my dear students, labourers, peasants... those who fought for Pakistan... We are facing the worst crisis in our country's life, a deadly crisis. We have to pick up the pieces, very small pieces, but we will make a new Pakistan, a prosperous and progressive Pakistan, a Pakistan free of exploitation, a Pakistan envisaged by the Quaid-e-Azam.
As president, Bhutto faced mounting challenges on both internal and foreign fronts. The trauma was severe in Pakistan, a psychological setback and emotional breakdown for Pakistan. The two-nation theory—the theoretical basis for the creation of Pakistan—lay discredited, and Pakistan's foreign policy collapsed when no moral support was found anywhere, including long-standing allies such as the U.S. and China. However, this is disputed even by Bangladeshi academics who insist that the two-nation theory was not discredited. Since her creation, the physical and moral existence of Pakistan was in great danger. On the internal front, Baloch, Sindhi, Punjabi, and Pashtun nationalisms were at their peak, calling for their independence from Pakistan. Finding it difficult to keep Pakistan united, Bhutto launched full-fledged intelligence and military operations to stamp out any separatist movements. By the end of 1978, these nationalist organisations were brutally quelled by Pakistan Armed Forces.
Bhutto immediately placed Yahya Khan under house arrest, brokered a ceasefire, and ordered the release of Mujib, who was being held prisoner by the Pakistan Army. To implement this, Bhutto overturned the verdict of Mujib's earlier court-martial trial, in which Brigadier Rahimuddin Khan had sentenced him to death. Bhutto aimed to prevent East Pakistan's secession through dialogue and sought to create a loose confederation within the framework of one Pakistan. Stanley Wolpert writes that he sent Mujib to a bungalow in Rawalpindi, where Mujib swore upon the Quran to retire and hand over the nation to him. Bhutto also offered him 50,000, which Mujib declined. Mujib informed Bhutto that he would make this decision once he arrived in Bangladesh. On 8 January, he was flown to London, from where he was taken to Delhi, where Indira Gandhi and her cabinet greeted him. From there, he was taken to Dhaka, as a direct flight to Bangladesh was not possible. There, he delivered a speech at the Ramna Racecourse, completely rejecting Bhutto's offer and severing ties with West Pakistan, saying, "You live in peace and let us live in peace."
Appointing a new cabinet, Bhutto appointed Lieutenant-General Gul Hasan as Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army in 20 December 1971. On 2 January 1972 Bhutto announced the nationalisation of all major industries, including iron and steel, automobiles, heavy engineering, heavy electricals, petrochemicals, cement, and public utilities. Bhutto had named his economic policies Islamic Socialism or as he called "Mussawat-e Muhammadi". 31 industries across 10 sectors were nationalised including 13 banks, 10 shipping companies, 26 Vegetable Oil Companies, Two petroleum companies and 43 insurance companies which were tied together into State Life Insurance Corporation of Pakistan. Ayub Khan's Ghandhara Industries, Sharif owned Ittefaq Foundry, National Bank of Pakistan and Habib Bank Limited were also nationalised. This wave of nationalisation didn't effect textile production light and food industries. In addition to foreign owned companies, Such as the British Attock Petroleum Company and American owned Esso Fertilizers.
In June 1972, Bhutto visited India to meet Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and negotiated a formal peace agreement and the release of 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war. The two leaders signed the Simla Agreement, which committed both nations to establish a new-yet-temporary Line of Control in Kashmir and obligated them to resolve disputes peacefully through bilateral talks. Bhutto also promised to hold a future summit for the peaceful resolution of the Kashmir dispute and pledged to recognise Bangladesh. Although he secured the release of Pakistani soldiers held by India, Bhutto was criticised by many in Pakistan for allegedly making too many concessions to India. It is theorised that Bhutto feared his downfall if he could not secure the release of Pakistani soldiers and the return of territory occupied by Indian forces. Bhutto established an atomic power development program and inaugurated the first Pakistani atomic reactor, built in collaboration with Canada in Karachi on 28 November. On 30 March, 59 military officers were arrested by army troops for allegedly plotting a coup against Bhutto, who appointed then-Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq to head a military tribunal to investigate and try the suspects. The National Assembly approved the new 1973 Constitution, which Bhutto signed into effect on 12 April. The constitution proclaimed an "Islamic Republic" in Pakistan with a parliamentary form of government. On 10 August, Bhutto turned over the post of president to Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, assuming the office of prime minister instead.
=== Nuclear weapons program ===
Bhutto, the founder of Pakistan's atomic bomb program, earned the title "Father of Nuclear Deterrence" due to his administration and aggressive leadership of this program. Bhutto's interest in nuclear technology began during his college years in the United States, attending a political science course discussing the political impact of the U.S.'s first nuclear test, Trinity, on global politics.
While at Berkeley, Bhutto witnessed the public panic when the Soviet Union first exploded their bomb, codenamed First Lightning in 1949, prompting the U.S. government to launch their research on 'hydrogen' bombs. However, in 1958, as Minister for Fuel, Power, and National Resources, Bhutto played a key role in setting up the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) administrative research bodies and institutes. Soon, Bhutto offered a technical post to Munir Ahmad Khan in PAEC in 1958 and lobbied for Abdus Salam to be appointed as Science Adviser in 1960. Before being elevated to Foreign Minister, Bhutto directed funds for key research in nuclear weapons and related science.
In October 1965, as the foreign minister, Bhutto visited Vienna, where nuclear engineer Munir Ahmad Khan held a senior technical post at the IAEA. Munir Khan briefed him on the status of the Indian nuclear programme and the options for Pakistan to develop its own nuclear capability. Both agreed on the necessity for Pakistan to establish a nuclear deterrent against India. Although Munir Khan had failed to convince Ayub Khan, Bhutto assured him, "Don't worry, our turn will come." Shortly after the 1965 war, Bhutto declared at a press conference, "Even if we have to eat grass, we will make a nuclear bomb. We have no other choice," observing India's progress toward developing the bomb. In 1965, Bhutto advocated for Salam, successfully appointing him as the head of Pakistan's delegation at the IAEA, and assisted Salam in lobbying for nuclear power plants. In November 1972, Bhutto advised Salam to travel to the United States to avoid the war and encouraged him to return with key literature on nuclear weapons history. By the end of December 1972, Salam returned to Pakistan with suitcases loaded with literature on the Manhattan Project. In 1974, Bhutto initiated a more aggressive diplomatic offensive on the United States and the Western world over nuclear issues. Writing to world and Western leaders, Bhutto conveyed:
Pakistan was exposed to a kind of "nuclear threat and blackmail" unparalleled elsewhere.... If the world's community failed to provide political insurance to Pakistan and other countries against nuclear blackmail, these countries would be constrained to launch atomic bomb programs of their own!... Assurances provided by the United Nations were not 'Enough!'...
Roughly two weeks after the 1971 winter war, on 20 January 1972, Bhutto convened a conference of nuclear scientists and engineers at Multan. While at the Multan meeting, scientists wondered why the President, who had much on his hands in those trying days, was paying so much attention to scientists and engineers in the nuclear field. At the meeting, Bhutto slowly discussed the recent war and the country's future, emphasising the great mortal danger the country faced. As the academicians listened carefully, Bhutto stated, "Look, we're going to have the bomb". He asked them, "Can you give it to me? And how long will it take to make a bomb?"
Before the 1970s, nuclear deterrence was well-established under the government of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, but it was entirely peaceful and dedicated to civilian power needs. Bhutto, in his book The Myth of Independence in 1969, wrote:If Pakistan restricts or suspends her nuclear deterrence, it would not only enable India to blackmail Pakistan with her nuclear advantage but would impose a crippling limitation on the development of Pakistan's science and technology.... Our problem in its essence is how to obtain such a weapon in time before the crisis begins...
After India's nuclear test—codenamed Smiling Buddha—in May 1974, Bhutto sensed and saw this test as the final anticipation for Pakistan's death. In a press conference held shortly after India's nuclear test, Bhutto said, "India's nuclear program is designed to intimidate Pakistan and establish "hegemony in the subcontinent". Despite Pakistan's limited financial resources, Bhutto was so enthusiastic about the nuclear energy project that he is reported to have said "Pakistanis will eat grass but make a nuclear bomb".
The militarisation of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission was initiated on 20 January 1972 and, in its initial years, was implemented by Pakistan Army's Chief of Army Staff General Tikka Khan. The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP-I) was inaugurated by Bhutto during his role as the president of Pakistan at the end of 1972. The nuclear weapons program was set up loosely based on the Manhattan Project of the 1940s under the administrative control of Bhutto.
Senior academic scientists had direct access to Bhutto, who kept him informed about every inch of the development. Bhutto's Science Advisor, Abdus Salam's office was also set up in Bhutto's prime minister secretariat. On Bhutto's request, Salam had established and led the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) that marked the beginning of the nuclear deterrent program. The TPG designed and developed the nuclear weapons as well as the entire program. Later, Munir Ahmad Khan had him personally approved the budget for the development of the programme.
Wanting a capable administrator, Bhutto sought Lieutenant-General Rahimuddin Khan to chair the commission, which Rahimuddin declined, in 1971. Instead, in January 1972, Bhutto chose a U.S.-trained nuclear engineer, Munir Khan, as chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). Bhutto realised he wanted an administrator who understood the scientific and economic needs of this technologically ambitious program. Since 1965, Munir Khan had developed an extremely close and trusted relationship with Bhutto, and even after his death, Benazir and Murtaza Bhutto were instructed by their father to keep in touch with Munir Khan. In the spring of 1976, Kahuta Research Facility, then known as Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL), as part of codename Project-706, was also established by Bhutto and brought under nuclear scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan and the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers' Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali Akbar.
Because Pakistan, under Bhutto, was not a signatory or party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), Commissariat à l'énergie atomique (CEA), and British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL) had immediately cancelled fuel reprocessing plant projects with PAEC. According to Causar Nyäzie, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission officials had misled Bhutto, and he embarked on a long journey to try to obtain a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant from France. It was on the advice of A. Q. Khan that no fuel existed to reprocess and urged Bhutto to follow his pursuit of uranium enrichment. Bhutto tried to show he was still interested in that expensive route and was relieved when Kissinger persuaded the French to cancel the deal. Bhutto had trusted Munir Ahmad Khan's plans to develop the programme ingeniously, and the mainstream goal of showing such interest in the French reprocessing plant was to give time to PAEC scientists to gain expertise in building its own reprocessing plants. By the time France's CEA cancelled the project, the PAEC had acquired 95% of the detailed plans of the plant and materials.
Munir Ahmad Khan and Ishfaq Ahmad believed that, since PAEC had acquired most of the detailed plans, work, and materials, the PAEC, based on that 95% work, could build the plutonium reprocessing reactors on its own. Pakistan should stick to its original plan, the plutonium route. Bhutto did not disagree but saw an advantage in establishing another parallel programme, the uranium enrichment programme under Abdul Qadeer Khan. Both Munir Khan and Ahmed had shown their concern over Abdul Qadeer Khan's suspected activities, but Bhutto backed Khan when Bhutto maintained that: "No less than any other nation did what Abdul Qadeer Khan (is) doing; the Soviets and Chinese; the British and the French; the Indians and the Israelis; stole the nuclear weapons designs previously in the past and no one questioned them but rather tend to be quiet. We are not stealing what they (illegally) stole in the past (as referring the nuclear weapon designs) but we're taking a small machine which is not useful for making the atomic bomb but for a fuel". International pressure was difficult to counter at that time, and Bhutto, with the help of Munir Ahmad Khan and Aziz Ahmed, tackled the intense heated criticism and diplomatic war with the United States at numerous fronts—while the progress on nuclear weapons remained highly classified.
During this pressure, Aziz Ahmed played a significant role by convincing the consortium industries to sell and export sensitive electronic components before the United States could approach them and try to prevent the consortium industries from exporting such equipment and components. Bhutto slowly reversed and thwarted the United States' any attempt to infiltrate the programme as he had expelled many of the American diplomatic officials in the country, under Operation Sun Rise, authorised by Bhutto under ISI. On the other hand, Bhutto intensified his staunch support and blindly backed Abdul Qadeer Khan to quietly bring the Urenco's weapon-grade technology to Pakistan, keeping the Kahuta Laboratories hidden from the outside world. Regional rivals such as India and the Soviet Union had no basic intelligence on Pakistan's nuclear energy project during the 1970s, and Bhutto's intensified clandestine efforts seemed to pay off in 1978 when the programme was fully matured.
In a thesis presented in The Myth of Independence, Bhutto argued that nuclear weapons would enable India to deploy its Air Force warplanes with small battlefield nuclear devices against the Pakistan Army cantonments, armoured and infantry columns, PAF bases, and nuclear and military industrial facilities. The Indian Air Force would not face adverse reactions from the world community as long as civilian casualties could be minimised. This strategy aimed to lead India to defeat Pakistan, compel its armed forces into a humiliating surrender, and annex the Northern Areas of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Subsequently, India would partition Pakistan into smaller states based on ethnic divisions, marking the resolution of the "Pakistan problem" once and for all.
By the time Bhutto was ousted, this crash programme had fully matured in terms of technical development and scientific efforts. By 1977, PAEC and KRL had constructed their uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing plants, and the selection for test sites at Chagai Hills was completed by the PAEC. In 1977, the PAEC's Theoretical Physics Group had completed the design of the first fission weapon, and KRL scientists succeeded in electromagnetic isotope separation of Uranium fissile isotopes. Despite this, little progress had been made in the development of weapons, and Pakistan's nuclear arsenal was actually created during General Zia-ul-Haq's military regime, overseen by several Naval admirals, Army and Air Force generals, including Ghulam Ishaq Khan. In 1983, Bhutto's decision was posthumously vindicated when PAEC conducted a cold test near Kirana Hills, evidently made from non-fissioned plutonium. Recent press speculation suggests that Dr. Khan's uranium enrichment designs were exchanged with the Chinese for uranium hexafluoride (UF6) and some highly enriched weapons-grade uranium. Later, this weapons-grade uranium was offered back to the Chinese as the Pakistanis used their own materials.
We (Pakistan)...know that (Israel) and (South Africa) have full nuclear capability — a Christian, Jewish and Hindu civilization have this [nuclear] capability ... the Islamic civilization is without it, but the situation (is) about to change!...
=== Transition to premiership ===
Bhutto was sworn in as the prime minister of the country on 14 August 1973, after securing 108 votes in a house of 146 members. Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was elected as the president under the new constitution. During his five years of government, the Bhutto administration implemented extensive reforms at every level of governance. Capital and Western reforms initiated and built in 1947 were transformed and replaced with a socialist system throughout the 1970s. Bhutto's policies were perceived as people-friendly but failed to yield long-lasting effects, and civil disorder against Bhutto began to escalate in 1977.
=== Constitutional reforms ===
Bhutto is considered the main architect of the 1973 constitution as part of his vision to lead Pakistan toward parliamentary democracy. One of the major achievements in Bhutto's life was the drafting of Pakistan's first-ever consensus constitution for the country. Bhutto supervised the promulgation of the 1973 constitution, triggering an unstoppable constitutional revolution through his politics wedded to the emancipation of the downtrodden masses, giving them a voice in Parliament and introducing radical changes in the economic sphere for their benefit.
During his time in office, the government carried out seven major amendments to the 1973 Constitution. The First Amendment led to Pakistan's recognition of and diplomatic ties with Bangladesh. The Second Amendment in the constitution declared the Ahmadis as non-Muslims and defined the term non-Muslim. The rights of the detained were limited under the Third Amendment, while the powers and jurisdiction of the courts for providing relief to political opponents were curtailed under the Fourth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment, passed on 15 September 1976, focused on curtailing the power and jurisdiction of the Judiciary. This amendment was highly criticised by lawyers and political leaders. The main provision of the Sixth Amendment extended the term of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and the High Courts beyond the age of retirement. This amendment was made in the Constitution to favour the then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, who was supposed to be a friend of Bhutto.
=== Industrial reforms ===
The Bhutto government implemented a series of reforms in the industrial sector, focusing on nationalisation and improving workers' rights. The initial phase, in 1972, involved the nationalisation of basic industries such as steel, chemical, and cement. A significant move occurred on 1 January 1974, when Bhutto nationalised all banks. The final step in this sequence was the nationalisation of all flour, rice, and cotton mills across the country. However, this nationalisation process didn't meet Bhutto's expectations and faced challenges. Many nationalised units were small businesses that didn't qualify as industrial units, leading to adverse consequences for numerous small businessmen and traders who were either ruined, displaced, or left unemployed. In hindsight, nationalisation resulted in significant losses to both the national treasury and the people of Pakistan.
The Bhutto government established an extensive network of both rural and urban schools, including approximately 6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate colleges, and 21 junior colleges. Departing from the Western education system, Bhutto returned most literature to the Western world and encouraged local academicians to publish books in their respective fields. Although these local books were made more affordable to the public, these reforms stirred controversy. Bhutto's government mandated the inclusion of Islamic and Pakistan studies in school curricula. Book banks were introduced in most institutions, and over 400,000 copies of textbooks were supplied to students.
Bhutto is credited with establishing the world-class Quaid-e-Azam University and Allama Iqbal Open University in Islamabad in 1974, along with founding Gomal University in Dera Ismail Khan in 1973. During his tenure as foreign minister, he collaborated with Abdus Salam in 1967 to set up the Institute of Theoretical Physics. As prime minister, Bhutto made groundbreaking efforts to enhance the education system, founding the Allama Iqbal Medical College in 1975.
In 1974, with Abdus Salam's assistance, Bhutto authorised the International Nathiagali Summer College on Contemporary Physics (INSC) at Nathiagali. To this day, the INSC conference continues to be held in Pakistan, attracting thousands of scientists worldwide to interact with Pakistan's academic community. In 1976, Bhutto established the Engineering Council, Institute of Theoretical Physics, Pakistan Academy of Letters, and Cadet College Razmak in North Waziristan. Additionally, he inaugurated four new universities in Multan, Bahawalpur, and Khairpur. The People's Open University, another innovative venture, commenced operations in Islamabad. The government's Education Policy included fee remission and the provision of numerous scholarships for higher education to the children of low-paid employees. After the 1977 election, plans were in place to add seven thousand new hostel seats to the existing accommodation. In 1975, Bhutto acknowledged the challenges and shortcomings faced by college students in many existing hostels. Consequently, he directed the provision of fans, water coolers, and pay telephones in each hostel as quickly as physically possible.
=== Land, flood, and agriculture reforms ===
During his tenure as prime minister, several land reforms were introduced. The significant land reforms included the reduction of land ceilings and the introduction of tenancy security for tenant farmers. The land ceiling was fixed at 150 acres (0.61 km2) of irrigated land and 300 acres (1.2 km2) of non-irrigated land. Another step that Bhutto took was to democratise Pakistan's Civil Service. In Balochistan, the pernicious practice of Shishak and Sardari System was abolished. In 1976, the Bhutto government established the Federal Flood Commission (FFC), tasked with preparing national flood protection plans, flood forecasting, and research to harness floodwater. Bhutto later went on to upgrade a number of dams and barrages built in Sindh Province.
Bhutto strongly advocated empowering small farmers, asserting that a weak and demoralised farming community would jeopardise Pakistan's agricultural strength. He believed that farmers needed to feel psychologically secure for the country to achieve self-sufficiency in food. Consequently, the Bhutto government launched programmes to lead the country towards self-sufficiency in rice hulling, sugar milling, and wheat husking industries. Bhutto's government increased control over rice hulling, sugar mills, and wheat husking factories, initially believing that public sector involvement would diminish the influence of multinational corporations and prevent monopolies. The government sponsored schemes to address waterlogging and salinity issues. Tax exceptions were introduced for small landowners to promote agricultural growth. While his nationalisation of Sindh-based industries benefited the poor, it caused discontent among influential feudal lords.
=== Economic policy ===
Bhutto implemented socialist economics while working to prevent any further division of the country. Major heavy mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineering industries were immediately nationalised by Bhutto, and all of the industries came under direct control of government. Industries, such as Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KSEC), were under complete government control with no private influence in KESC decision. Bhutto abandoned Ayub Khan's state capitalism policies and introduced socialist policies in a move to reduce income inequality. Bhutto also established the Port Qasim, Pakistan Steel Mills, the Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC), and several cement factories. However, the growth rate of the economy relative to that of the 1960s when East Pakistan was still part of Pakistan and large generous aid from the United States declined after the global oil crises in 1973, which also had a negative impact on the economy. Despite the initiatives undertaken by Bhutto's government to boost the country's economy, the economical growth remained at an equilibrium level. But Bhutto's policy largely benefited the poor and working class when the level of absolute poverty was sharply reduced, with the percentage of the population estimated to be living in absolute poverty falling from 46.5% by the end of 1979–80, under General Zia-ul-Haq's military rule, to 30.8%. The land reform programme provided increased economic support to landless tenants, and development spending was substantially increased, particularly on health and education, in both rural and urban areas, and provided "material support" to rural wage workers, landless peasants, and urban wage workers.
Bhutto's nationalisation policies aimed to empower workers, giving them control over the means of production and protecting small businesses. However, economic historians argued that the nationalisation program initially affected small industries and had devastating effects on Pakistan's economy, diminishing Bhutto's credibility. Conservative critics believed the nationalisation policies damaged investor confidence, and government corruption in nationalised industries grew, although no serious corruption cases were ever proven against Bhutto by the military junta. In 1974, Bhutto maintained that foreign companies and industries in Pakistan were exempt from nationalisation policies, and his government would welcome foreign investment to establish factories. Commenting on his policies in 1973, Bhutto told a group of investors from the Lahore Chamber of Commerce and Industry (LCCI) that "activity of the public sector or state sector prevents the concentration of economic power in a few hands and protects small and medium entrepreneurs from the clutches of giant enterprises and vested interests."
Bhutto's departure from certain socialist policies greatly displeased his democratic socialist alliance and many in the Pakistan Peoples Party. Notably, Malik Meraj Khalid and other colleagues, resigned from Bhutto and left for the Soviet Union. Ongoing disagreements eventually led to the collapse of the government's socialist alliance, which later united with the secular Independence Movement led by Asghar Khan.
As part of his investment policies, Bhutto established the National Development Finance Corporation (NDFC) in July 1973, with an initial government investment of 100 million PRs. Initially aimed at financing public sector industrial enterprises, its charter was later modified to provide finance to the private sector as well. The NDFC is currently the largest development finance institution in Pakistan, engaging in diversified activities in industrial financing and investment banking. Forty-two projects financed by NDFC have contributed Rs. 10,761 million to Pakistan's GDP, generating Rs. 690 million in after-tax profits and creating 40,465 jobs. By the mid-1990s, NDFC had a pool of resources amounting to US$878 million. The Bhutto government increased the level of investment, both private and public, in the economy from less than Rs. 7,000 million in 1971–72 to more than Rs. 17,000 million in 1974–75.
=== Banking and Export expansion ===
Banking reforms were introduced to provide more opportunities to small farmers and businesses, such as mandating that 70% of institutional lending should be for small landholders of 12.5 acres or less—a revolutionary idea at a time when banks primarily served privileged classes. The number of bank branches increased by 75% from December 1971 to November 1976, rising from 3,295 to 5,727. This move by Bhutto was one of the most radical, expanding bank infrastructure to cover all towns and villages with a population of 5,000, following the nationalisation of banks.
By the end of Bhutto's government, the concentration of wealth had declined compared to the height of the Ayub Khan era when 22 families owned 66% of industrial capital and controlled banking and 97% of insurance.
Measures taken in the first few months of 1972 set a new framework for the revival of the economy. The diversion of trade from East Pakistan to international markets was completed within a short period. By 1974, exports exceeded one billion dollars, showing a 60% increase over the combined exports of East and West Pakistan before separation. This growth was achieved and benefited from during the major 1973 oil crisis and in the middle of a global recession. The national income of Pakistan increased by 15%, and industrial production rose by as much as 20% in four years.
=== Balochistan ===
==== Military operation ====
Following the secession of East Pakistan, calls for the independence of Balochistan by Baloch nationalists grew immensely. Surveying the political instability, Bhutto's central government sacked two provincial governments within six months, arrested the two chief ministers, two governors, and forty-four MNAs and MPAs, obtained an order from the Supreme Court banning the National People's Party on the recommendation of Akbar Bugti, and charged everyone with high treason to be tried by a specially constituted Hyderabad tribunal of hand-picked judges.
In January 1973, Bhutto ordered the Pakistan Armed Forces to suppress a rising insurgency in the province of Balochistan. He dismissed the governments in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province once more. Following the alleged discovery of Iraqi arms in Islamabad in February 1973, Bhutto dissolved the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan. The operation, under General Tikka Khan, soon took shape in a five-year conflict with the Baloch separatists. The sporadic fighting between the insurgency and the army started in 1973, with the largest confrontation taking place in September 1974. Later on, Pakistan Navy, under Vice-Admiral Patrick Julius Simpson, also jumped into the conflict as it had applied naval blockades to Balochistan's port. The Navy began its separate operations to seize the shipments sent to aid Baloch separatists. Pakistan Air Force also launched air operations, and with the support of navy and army, the air force had pounded the mountainous hidden havens of the Separatists. The Iranian military, also fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran, aided the Pakistani military as well. Among Iran's contributions were 30 Huey cobra attack helicopters and $200 million in aid.
==== Iraqi intervention ====
Iraq under Sunni President Saddam Hussein sent Iraqi-made weapons to Pakistan's warm water ports. Pakistan's navy mounted an effective blockade. Saddam's government provided support for Baloch separatists in Pakistan, hoping their conflict would spread to rival Iran. In 1973, Iraq provided the Balochs with conventional arms, and it opened an office for the Baluchistan Liberation Front (BLF) in Baghdad. This operation was supposed to be covert, but in 1973, the operation was exposed by M.I. when senior separatist leader Akbar Bugti defected to Bhutto, revealing a series of arms stored in the Iraqi Embassy.
On the midnight of 9 February 1973, Bhutto launched an operation to seize control of the Iraqi Embassy, and preparation for the siege was hastily prepared. The operation was highly risky, and a wrong step could have started a war between the two countries. The operation was carefully analysed and at 00:00 hrs (12:00 am), the SSG Division accompanied by Army Rangers stormed the Embassy. Military Police arrested the Iraqi Ambassador, the military attaché, and Iraq's diplomatic staff. Following the incident, authorities discovered 300 Soviet sub-machine guns with 50,000 rounds of ammunition and a large amount of money that was to be distributed amongst Baloch separatist groups. Bhutto was angered and frustrated. Without demanding an explanation, he ordered the Military Police to immediately expel the Iraqi Ambassador and his staff as persona non grata on the first available flight. The government announced the Iraqi plan to further dismember the country, and Bhutto's successful diplomatic offensive against Iraq isolated Saddam internationally with global condemnation. This incident caused Pakistan to support Iran during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.
=== Passport reforms ===
The Bhutto government granted the right of a passport to every citizen of Pakistan, facilitating millions of skilled and non-skilled Pakistanis to seek employment in Gulf countries through a series of bilateral agreements. From Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, alone, 35,000 workers were given the opportunity to work in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. Bhutto utilised the Pakistani community of London to lobby and influence European governments to improve the rights of expatriate Pakistani communities in Europe. The remittances from overseas Pakistanis, now totaling around $US25 billion per annum, constitute a dependable source of foreign exchange for Pakistan.
=== Labour policy and social security ===
Bhutto's government implemented comprehensive labour reforms, introducing conditions on worker dismissals and establishing Labour Courts for swift grievance redressal. A scheme for workers' participation in management was introduced, ensuring 20% participation at the factory level. The government abolished workers' contribution to the Social Security Fund, shifting the burden to employers. Compensation rates under the Worker's Compensation Act were increased.
In 1972, the government initially provided old age benefits through group insurance, enhanced compensation rates, and gratuity. To address immediate needs, a pension scheme was introduced, offering Rs. 75 per month after retirement at 55 for men and 50 for women with 15 years of insurable employment. This applied to establishments employing ten or more workers with monthly wages up to Rs. 1,000, including benefits for skilled workers invalid after five years of insurable employment. Contrary to the Western model, Bhutto's government aimed to relieve workers of the financial burden, funding the scheme through a 5% contribution from employers based on the wage bill.
=== Foreign policy ===
After assuming power, Bhutto aimed to diversify Pakistan's relations, leading to its exit from CENTO and SEATO. He strengthened Arab relations and developed Sino-Pakistani relations. Bhutto believed in an independent Foreign Policy, distinct from Western influence, particularly the United States' sphere of influence. With Bhutto as foreign minister and prime minister, Pakistan and Iran formed a special relationship, as Iran provided military assistance.
Sino-Pakistani relations were immensely improved, and Pakistan, under Bhutto, had built a strategic relationship with the People's Republic of China, when PRC was isolated. In 1974, Bhutto hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1974 where he delegated and invited leaders from the Muslim world to Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan. Bhutto was a strong advocate of Afro-Asian Solidarity and had cemented ties with Afro-Asian and Islamic countries and by 1976 had emerged as the Leader of the Third World.
Bhutto pursued a peace agreement, the Simla Agreement, with Indira Gandhi, the premier of India. He successfully brought back 93,000 P.O.Ws to Pakistan and secured 5,000 sq mi (13,000 km2) held by India without compromising on the Kashmir stance or recognising Bangladesh, which were key Indian demands. Negotiating with a power that had dismembered the country was a significant challenge for Bhutto, but he smoothly convinced India to return the territory and the POWs to Pakistan. Before the conference, Bhutto and his colleagues thoroughly prepared, considering that the Arabs had not succeeded in regaining territory lost in the 1967 war with Israel. Bhutto understood that capturing land does not attract the same international attention as the plight of prisoners. According to Benazir Bhutto, Bhutto demanded control of the territory in the first stage of the Agreement, surprising and shocking the Indian delegation. From Bhutto's perspective, the POW problem was more of a humanitarian problem that could be addressed at any time, but the territorial problem could become integrated into India over time. Indian premier Gandhi was stunned and astonished at Bhutto's demand but eventually agreed to give the territory back to Bhutto in the first stage of the agreement after Bhutto negotiated with economic packages. Bhutto's knowledge and intellectualism impressed Gandhi personally, making this agreement, with Pakistan paying a small price, one of Bhutto's most significant diplomatic successes.
Bhutto's extensive knowledge, intelligence, and keen awareness of post-World War II and the nuclear history enabled him to shape foreign policy, resulting in unparalleled unity in Pakistan's foreign policy history. Elements of his policy were continued by successive governments, playing a vital role in world politics. In 1974, Bhutto and his Foreign Minister Aziz Ahmed brought a U.N. resolution, recommending the establishment of a nuclear-weapon-free zone in South Asia. They aggressively criticised the Indian nuclear program. While Abdul Qadeer Khan was tasked with acquiring gas-centrifuge technology through atomic proliferation, the resolution's goal was achieved when Bhutto put India on the defensive and promoted Pakistan as a non-proliferationist.
==== East Asia ====
Since the 1960s, Bhutto had been anti-SEATO and preferred a non-aligned policy. Soon after assuming office, Bhutto took a lengthy foreign trip to Southeast Asia, seeking closer relations with Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, and North Korea. His policy largely followed tight relations with China, normalised relationships with the Soviet Union, built an Islamic bloc, and advocated the creation of a new economic alliance benefiting third and second world countries.
All of these initiatives and implications had disastrous effects on Japan, prompting Japan to oppose Bhutto, although Bhutto was a great admirer of Japan, even though Japan was not a constituent part of Bhutto's foreign policy. In the 1970s, Japan made several attempts to get close to Bhutto, sending its military officials, scientists, and parliamentary delegations to Pakistan. Hence Japan went far by condemning India for carrying out a nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974, and publicly supported Pakistan's non-nuclear weapon policy and pledged to build several new nuclear power plants. In 1970, Bhutto advised Japan not to be a party to NPT, but Japan signed it but later regretted not being properly progressed.
In Bhutto's view, Japan had been under the United States' influence, and a much bigger role of Japan in Asia would only benefit American interests in the region. By the 1970s, Japan completely lost its momentum in Pakistan as Pakistan followed a strict independent policy. Bhutto envisioned Pakistan's new policy as benefiting economic relations rather than the military alliance, which also affected Japan's impact on Pakistan. However, much of the foreign policy efforts were reverted by General Zia-ul-Haq, and ties were finally restored after Bhutto's execution.
==== Arab world and Israel ====
Bhutto sought to improve Pakistan's ties with the Arab world and sided with the Arab world during the Arab-Israeli conflict. Colonel Gaddafi of former Socialist Libya considered Bhutto one of his greatest inspirations and was said to be very fond of Bhutto's intellectualism. In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, Pakistan's relations with the Arab world represented a watershed. In both Pakistan and the Arab world, Pakistan's swift, unconditional, and forthright offer of assistance to the Arab states was deeply appreciated.
In 1974, pressured by other Muslim nations, Pakistan eventually recognised Bangladesh as Mujib stated he would only go to the OIC conference in Lahore if Pakistan recognised Bangladesh. Pakistan established full diplomatic relations with Bangladesh on 18 January 1976, and relations improved in the following decades. Bhutto aided the Syrian and Egyptian Air Force by sending the Pakistan Air Force and Navy's top fighter pilots, where they flew combat missions against Israel. However, Iraq did not benefit from Bhutto's policies.
In early 1977, Bhutto decided to use the ISI to provide credible intelligence on the Iraqi nuclear program that Pakistan and the ISI had secretly gained. The government passed intel that identified the Iraqi nuclear program and the Osirak Nuclear Reactor at Osirak to Israel's Mossad. Helping Israel infiltrate the Iraqi nuclear program was also continued by General Zia-ul-Haq as their policy to teach Iraq and Saddam Hussein a lesson for supporting the Baloch liberation fronts and movements.
==== United States and Soviet Union ====
In 1974, India carried out a nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha, near Pakistan's eastern border. Bhutto unsuccessfully lobbied for the United States to impose economic sanctions on India. However, at the request of Bhutto, Pakistan's ambassador to the United States convened a meeting with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Kissinger told Pakistan's ambassador to Washington that the test is "a fait accompli and that Pakistan would have to learn to live with it", although he was aware this was "a little rough" on the Pakistanis. In 1976, ties were further strained as Bhutto had continued to administer the research on weapons, and in 1976, in a meeting with Bhutto and Kissinger, Kissinger had told Bhutto, "that if you [Bhutto] do not cancel, modify, or postpone the Reprocessing Plant Agreement, we will make a horrible example of you". The meeting was ended by Bhutto as he had replied: For my country's sake, for the sake of the people of Pakistan, I did not succumb to that blackmailing and threats.
After this meeting, Bhutto intensified Pakistan's foreign policy towards a more neutral stance, aligning with the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, and sought to develop relations with both the Soviet Union and the United States. Bhutto was keenly aware of Great Britain's policy of "divide and rule" and American policy of "unite and rule." In 1974, Bhutto, as prime minister, visited the Soviet Union. Prime Minister Bhutto deliberately worked to improve relations with the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc. The foundation stone for Pakistan Steel Mills was laid on 30 December 1973 by Bhutto. The Soviet Union sent advisors and experts to supervise the construction of the mega-project.
Though Richard Nixon maintained amicable relations with Bhutto, Pakistan's ties with the United States soured during Jimmy Carter's presidency as the US opposed Pakistan's nuclear program. Carter intensified the embargo on Pakistan and exerted pressure through the United States Ambassador to Pakistan, Brigadier-General Henry Byroade. Bhutto's socialist orientation irked the United States, concerned about losing Pakistan as an ally in the Cold War. When Carter was elected in 1976, he declared in his inaugural speech his intent to pursue a nuclear weapons ban. With Carter's election, Bhutto lost the connections to the United States administration that he had enjoyed during Nixon's term. Despite Carter's embargo on Pakistan, Bhutto persisted in acquiring materials for Pakistan's atomic bomb project, ultimately contributing to the breakdown of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
==== Afghanistan and Central Asia ====
In 1972, Bhutto initially attempted to forge friendly ties with Afghanistan, but these efforts were rebuffed in 1973. By 1974, Afghanistan covertly engaged in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, causing increasing concern for Bhutto's government. Afghan President Dawood Khan's controversial Pashtunisation policies led to gruesome violence and civil disturbances in Pakistan. The ISI highlighted President Daud's support for anti-Pakistan militants, including backing Baloch separatists in the conflict. Consequently, Bhutto's government opted to retaliate, launching a covert counter-operation in 1974 under Major-General Naseerullah Babar, then Director-General of the M.I. Directorate-General for Western Fronts (DGWI). General Babar deemed it an excellent idea, with a significant impact on Afghanistan. The operation aimed to arm Islamic fundamentalists and instigate attacks across Afghanistan. In 1974, Bhutto authorised a covert operation in Kabul, where the Pakistan Air Force, AI, and the ISI successfully extradited Burhanuddin Rabbani, Jan Mohammad Khan, Gulbadin Hekmatyar, and Ahmad Shah Massoud to Peshawar. Fearful of Rabbani's potential assassination, this move took place amid heightened tensions.
By the end of 1974, Bhutto had given final authorisation for a covert operation to train Afghan mujaheddin, ultimately proving successful.
By 1976, Daud grew concerned about his country's overdependence on the Soviet Union and the rising insurgency. Bhutto's three-day state visit to Afghanistan in June 1976 was followed by Daud Khan's five-day visit to Pakistan in August 1976. An agreement on the resumption of air communications between Afghanistan and Pakistan was reached on 2 March 1977, signaling improved relations. Bhutto and Daud exchanged official visits to pressure Afghanistan to accept the Durand Line as the permanent border. However, these developments were interrupted by Bhutto's removal and Daud Khan's overthrow in a military coup shortly after. Western experts considered Bhutto's policy astute in addressing the border question, increasing pressure on Afghanistan and likely contributing to the Afghan government's move towards accommodation. Deputy Afghan Foreign Minister Abdul Samad Ghaus also admitted that, before the compromise, Afghanistan had been heavily involved inside Pakistan.
== Downfall and overthrow ==
=== Popular unrest ===
Bhutto faced mounting criticism and growing unpopularity during his term. Initially targeting opposition leader Abdul Wali Khan and his National Awami Party (NAP), a democratic socialist party, the socialist and communist masses under Bhutto's leadership began to disintegrate. Despite ideological similarities, clashes between them became increasingly farcical. The federal government ousted the NAP provincial government in Balochistan for alleged secessionist activities, leading to the ban on the NAP. Subsequently, much of the NAP top leadership was arrested, following the killing of Bhutto's confidant Hayat Khan Sherpao in a Peshawar bomb blast. Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman also died of a cardiac arrest while in office. Between 1974 and 1976, many of Bhutto's original members left due to political differences or natural causes. In 1974, Bhutto's trusted Science Advisor Abdus Salam left Pakistan when Parliament declared Ahmadis as non-Muslims. Salam's departure slowed down nuclear weapons research as Dr. Mubashir Hassan, now Bhutto's appointed Science Advisor, focused more on politics than scientific research. Many civil bureaucrats and military officers loyal to Bhutto were replaced by new faces, leaving Bhutto with new advisers and collaborators.
Dissidence grew within the PPP, and the murder of dissident leader Ahmed Raza Kasuri's father triggered public outrage and intra-party hostility. Bhutto faced accusations of masterminding the crime. Prominent PPP leaders, including Ghulam Mustafa Khar, former governor of Punjab, openly condemned Bhutto, urging protests against his regime. The political crisis in the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan escalated, with civil liberties suspended. An estimated 100,000 deployed troops faced accusations of human rights abuses and large-scale civilian casualties.
On 8 January 1977, the opposition coalesced into the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), a nine-party coalition against Bhutto's government. Despite Bhutto calling for fresh elections, the PNA failed to secure a clear majority and disputed the results, accusing their opponents of rigging the election. Claiming that 40 seats in the national assembly were rigged, the dissidents boycotted the provincial elections, leading to low voter turnout. The PNA declared the newly elected Bhutto government illegitimate, with hard-line Islamist leaders like Maulana Maududi calling for Bhutto's overthrow. Bhutto's Science Advisor, Mubashir Hassan, feared a possible coup and unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the PNA. A crackdown on the conservative Pakistan Muslim League followed, initiated by Bhutto's government.
The president of the People's National Party and former Leader of the Opposition, Khan Abdul Wali Khan, viewed Bhutto's actions as his last stand against the PNA, leaving Bhutto and his colleagues isolated. In a public seminar, Vali Khan quoted, "There is one possible grave for two people ... let us see who gets in first." The Federal Security Force allegedly arrested or extrajudicially killed members of the Muslim League, leading to protest and civil unrest in Lahore, resulting in the People's Party losing administrative control over the city.
=== Military coup ===
On 3 July 1977, General Khalid Mahmud Arif secretly met with Bhutto, revealing that a coup was being planned in the General Combatant Headquarters (GHQ). General Arif urged Bhutto to "rush the negotiation with the PNA before it's too late." Growing political and civil disorder led Bhutto to engage in talks with PNA leaders, resulting in an agreement to dissolve the assemblies and hold fresh elections under a government of national unity. However, on 5 July 1977, Bhutto and his cabinet members were arrested by troops under the command of General Zia. Despite Bhutto reaching an agreement with the opposition, the coup took place on the pretext of unrest.
Bhutto had intelligence within the Army, and officers like Major-General Tajamül Hussain Malik remained loyal to him until the end. Nevertheless, General Zia-ul-Haq initiated a training program with officers from the Special Air Service (SAS). Many of Bhutto's loyal officers were ordered to attend the first course. Senior officers' classes were delayed until midnight, and none were allowed to leave until late in the evening before the coup, during which arrangements were made.
General Zia declared martial law, suspended the constitution, dissolved all assemblies, and promised elections within ninety days. Zia ordered the arrest of senior PPP and PNA leaders but assured elections in October. Bhutto was released on 29 July and received a warm welcome from supporters in Larkana. He toured Pakistan, delivering speeches to large crowds and planning his political comeback. Bhutto was arrested again on 3 September and released on bail on 13 September. Fearing another arrest, he appointed his wife, Nusrat, as president of the Pakistan People's Party. Bhutto was imprisoned on 16 September, and many PPP leaders, including Mubashir Hassan, were arrested and disqualified from contesting elections. Observers noted that when Bhutto was removed from power in July 1977, thousands of Pakistanis cheered and celebrated.
== Trial and execution ==
On 5 July 1977, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq led a military coup, removing Bhutto from power and detaining him for a month. Zia promised new elections within 90 days but continuously postponed them, asserting that Bhutto's party wouldn't return to power if he participated.
Upon release, Bhutto toured the country, addressing adulatory crowds of PPP supporters. Banned from train travel due to delays caused by these gatherings, Bhutto's last visit to Multan marked a turning point. Despite administration efforts to block the gathering, the crowd's size led to disorder, providing a pretext for Bhutto's arrest, claiming it was necessary for his safety.
On 3 September, Bhutto was arrested again, charged with authorising the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan Kasuri in March 1974. The charges were deemed "questionable" by some scholars, including Vali Nasr. A politician, Ahmed Raza Kasuri, claimed he was the target of the attack orchestrated by Bhutto. Bhutto's wife, Nusrat Bhutto, assembled a defense team, securing his release after ten days due to contradictory evidence. However, Bhutto was arrested again under martial law, leading to the cancellation of upcoming elections.
Arraigned before the Lahore High Court, Bhutto was denied a lower court appeal level. The trial, lasting five months, began on 24 October 1977, with key witness testimony from Masood Mahmood, director general of the Federal Security Force. Irregularities, alleged torture, and inconsistent confessions marred the trial. Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark observed numerous irregularities and lack of corroborating evidence. When Bhutto began testifying on 25 January 1978, Chief Justice Maulvi Mushtaq, presiding over the trial, closed the courtroom to observers. Bhutto, alleging bias, demanded a retrial, but the court refused.
=== Death sentence and appeal ===
On 18 March 1978, Bhutto was pronounced guilty of murder and was sentenced to death. Bhutto's former Legal Minister, Abdul Hafiz Pirzada petitioned the Supreme Court for the release of Bhutto's Science Adviser, Mubashir Hassan, and to review Bhutto's death sentence based on the split decision. The Supreme Court denied Hassan's release because he was held by Military Police, but the court agreed to hear the arguments. After 12 days of proceedings, the Supreme Court concluded that the president of Pakistan can change a death sentence into life imprisonment. Pirzada filed an application to then-chief martial law administrator. However, General Zia-ul-Haq did not act immediately and claimed that the application had gone missing.
Devastated, Pirzada relayed the news to Bhutto, disclosing General Zia-ul-Haq's intentions. Consequently, Bhutto chose not to pursue an appeal. As he was transferred to a cell in Rawalpindi central jail, his family appealed on his behalf, leading to a Supreme Court hearing in May. Bhutto was granted one week to prepare, issuing a comprehensive rejoinder to the charges, although Zia impeded its publication. Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq adjourned the court until the end of July 1978, purportedly because five of the nine appeal court judges were inclined to overturn the Lahore verdict, with one pro-Bhutto judge set to retire in July.
Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq, despite his close ties to Zia, presided over the trial and even served as Acting President when Zia was abroad. Bhutto's legal team successfully secured his right to conduct his own defense before the Supreme Court. On 18 December 1978, Bhutto appeared in public before a crowded courtroom in Rawalpindi. Having spent 9 months on death row, he had allegedly endured 25 days without fresh water at that point. Bhutto addressed the court for four days, delivering his statements without the aid of notes.
The appeal concluded on 23 December 1978. On 6 February 1979, the Supreme Court voted 4–3, delivering a guilty verdict. Bhutto's defender, Ramsey Clark, noted that during the appeal, "not one witness was re‐examined, nor did the court rectify" what he called "the glaring defects of the lower court's proceedings." Clark also highlighted that two of the Supreme Court's nine justices were absent from the decision, both showing signs of having been forced to not participate. One judge who had earlier remarked that he would not succumb to pressure retired in the fall of 1978 even though judicial propriety demanded that his leaving the Court be deferred until the conclusion of the case. The other judge was prevented from sitting in the Court from November because of an illness pronounced by a government‐appointed medical board. If they had been present and voted not guilty in a 5–4 decision, Bhutto would have gone free. The Bhutto family had seven days to appeal, and the court granted a stay of execution while studying the petition. Appeals for clemency arrived from many heads of state by 24 February 1979 when the next court hearing began, but Zia dismissed them as "trade union activity" among politicians.
On 24 March 1979, the Supreme Court dismissed the appeal, and Zia upheld the death sentence. Bhutto was hanged at Central Jail Rawalpindi on 4 April 1979, after enduring severe torture in jail, leading to vomiting and intense chest pain, and he was laid to rest at his family mausoleum in Garhi Khuda Baksh.
During his imprisonment, Bhutto's children Murtaza and Benazir worked tirelessly to garner international support for their father's release. Libya's Colonel Gaddafi dispatched his Prime Minister Abdus Salam Jalloud on an urgent mission to Pakistan for talks with the military establishment to secure Bhutto's release. In a press conference, Jalloud revealed that Gaddafi had proposed to exile Bhutto to Libya, and the Presidential aircraft awaited Bhutto at the Islamabad International Airport. However, after a week at the airport, General Zia rejected Jalloud's request and upheld the death sentence. Bhutto's execution shocked much of the Muslim world. In his final speech before being hanged, Bhutto's last words were: "Oh Lord, help me for... I am innocent".
=== Re-opening of the Bhutto trial ===
On 2 April 2011, 32 years after Bhutto's trial and execution, the PPP (the ruling party at that time) filed a petition at the Supreme Court of Pakistan (SCP) to reopen Bhutto's trial. Senior journalist Iftikhar Ahmad aired a series of televised interviews on Geo News with those who played significant and often controversial roles in Bhutto's death. Prime Minister Yusuf Raza Gilani's cabinet organised a legal team to seek the reopening of the trial. President Asif Ali Zardari consented to the resulting presidential order under Article 186 of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court took up the petition on 13 April 2011. Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry eventually presided over the three-judge bench (expanded with law experts from four provinces of Pakistan), while Minister of Law Babar Awan counseled Bhutto's case.
Immediately, Babar Awan resigned from his position as Law Minister, opting to leave the Justice Ministry entirely to independently counsel Bhutto's case. Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry commended this move by the senior PPP leadership, labeling it as "historic" in his noting remarks. In a significant development, the Supreme Court transferred the decision on the legal status of Bhutto's execution to a larger bench yet to be formed.
Following a series of hearings at the Supreme Court, the case was adjourned and eventually dismissed after the PPP sanctioned the suspension of Babar Awan on 2 May 2012.
On 6 March 2024, a nine-member SCP bench, headed by Chief Justice of Pakistan, Qazi Faez Isa, in response to the presidential reference provided an opinion that Bhutto was not provided a fair trial as mentioned in Article 4 and 9 of the Constitution of Pakistan.
== Personal life ==
In 1943, he entered into his first marriage with his cousin Shireen Amir Begum, from whom he later separated. On 8 September 1951, Zulfiquar Ali Bhutto married Nusrat Ispahani, also known as Begum Nusrat Bhutto, of Iranian Kurdish origin in Karachi. Their first child, Benazir, was born in 1953, followed by Murtaza in 1954, Sanam in 1957, and Shahnawaz in 1958.
== Reception and legacy ==
Bhutto remains a complex and debated figure in Pakistan. While lauded for his nationalism, he faced criticism for suppressing political opponents. In 1971, when he assumed control, Pakistan was in disarray after a brutal civil war. Critics blamed his socialist policies for economic setbacks, but Bhutto argued he addressed inequality from previous regimes.
Controversially, some attribute Bhutto for the Bangladesh Liberation War. General Zia-ul-Haq released General Yahya Khan in 1977, who accused Bhutto of breaking Pakistan in 1971. Bhutto also faces criticism for human-rights abuses in Baluchistan.
Internationally, Bhutto is viewed positively as a secular internationalist. Despite domestic criticism, he remains Pakistan's most popular leader. Bhutto successfully united parties for the 1973 constitution and pursued nuclear weapons, earning him the title of the father of Pakistan's nuclear program.
While his legacy is contested, Bhutto is hailed for his accomplishments. Some, like former statesman Roedad Khan, commend his early achievements but note a decline later on. His family, active in politics, faced tragedy with the assassinations of Benazir Bhutto in 2007 and Murtaza Bhutto in 1996.
Despite criticisms, Bhutto remains a revered figure in Pakistan's collective memory, symbolising influence in public, scientific, and political spheres. His family continues its political legacy, with Bilawal Bhutto Zardari serving as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan from April 2022 to August 2023.
== Honours ==
Pakistan: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Pakistan (awarded posthumously in March 2025)
=== Eponyms ===
These institutions stand as tributes to Bhutto's legacy:
Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Karachi, Sindh.
ZA Bhutto Agricultural College, Larkana, Sindh.
Zulfiqarabad, a planned city in Larkana District, named in memory of Bhutto.
== Books ==
== See also ==
Ghinwa Bhutto
Nusrat Bhutto
List of presidents of Pakistan
List of prime ministers of Pakistan
Movement for the Restoration of Democracy
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (1969). The Myth of Independence. Oxford University Press.
Raza, Syed Rasul (2008). Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto; The Architect of New Pakistan. Karachi, Sindh Province, Pakistan: Printwise publication. ISBN 978-969-8500-00-9.
== External links ==
Official web site of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Biography with brief video clip from TV address on 18 November 1970
Manifestos of Pakistan Peoples Party 1970 & 1977 Archived 10 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto at Encyclopedia Sindhiana
Farewell speech to the UN Security Council on 15 December 1971 on YouTube
Interview of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_(satellite) | Türksat (satellite) | Türksat is the name of a series of Turkish communications satellites operated or projected by the state-owned Türksat A.Ş.
Satellite telecommunication is provided by the Gölbaşı Ground Station in Ankara, Turkey.
== Missions ==
== Satellites ==
=== Türksat 1A ===
Türksat 1A was the first attempt of the project and launched by Ariane 4 from Centre Spatial Guyanais in Kourou, French Guiana on 24 January 1994. Due to the failure of the launcher, the satellite exploded in the atmosphere before reaching its orbit.
=== Türksat 1B ===
After the loss of Turksat 1A, Türksat 1B was successfully located at 42°E orbit on 11 August 1994. After the orbital tests, Turksat 1B was put into service on 10 October 1994. Turksat 1B has three different coverage areas, Turkey, Central Europe and Central Asia. The satellite carries 16 transponders, 10 of 36 MHz, 6 of 72 MHz operating in Ku-band (11–14 GHz). There are 4 transponder switching capability between Turkey and Central Europe, and 3 between Turkey and Central Asia. Turksat 1B provides TV and radio broadcasting, data and telephone transmissions. On the other hand, TES (Telephony Earth Station) Project and Internet Broadcasting Systems (including 40 southeast rural area IBS) are also transmitting from Türksat 1B.
=== Türksat 1C ===
After the Turksat 1A launch failure, Aérospatiale Company started building a new satellite under the insurance terms of the Turkey system contract. Modifying the contract with Aérospatiale, Türksat 1C coverage area was enlarged by two big zones different from Turksat 1B coverage areas. Turksat 1C was designed for covering Turkey on west spot and Europe on east spot so as to serve simultaneously between Turkey and Europe with Turkey and Central Asia and to provide direct connection between Europe and Central Asia. Turksat 1C was successfully launched at 31.3°E position on 10 July 1996. Completing the orbital tests, this satellite shifted from longitude 31.3°E to 42°E. After this process which took 17 days, the broadcast traffic of the Turksat 1B was transferred to Turksat 1C. Finally when these processes finished Turksat 1B was shifted with similar orbital manoeuvres to 31.3°E position. On 16 July 2008, all traffic on Turksat 1C was transferred to Turksat 3A. After this date Turksat 1C was shifted at 31.3°E. It is being used in inclined orbit.
=== Türksat 2A ===
Turksat Satellite Systems continued progress regarding the need of new satellites having multiple channels, larger coverage, and backup capability like the other satellite operator satellites in the international market. To serve with a larger coverage area for resident customers and to compete with the other satellite operators in the literal sense, the new satellite would be located at the same position with Turksat 1C. Türk Telekom set up a joint venture company with Aérospatiale (merged by Alcatel Space, then Thales Alenia Space), called EurasiaSat, which would be in charge of purchasing a new-generation satellite named Turksat 2A (also known as Eurasiasat 1). Turksat 2A started commercial service on 1 February 2001, with the same 42°E location as Turksat 1C.
Turksat 2A satellite carries a payload of 34 high-powered transponders consisting of 22 - 33 MHz fixed-beam transponders and 12 36 - MHz transponders with two steerable beams.
Turksat 2A BSS Band fixed-beam transponders have two coverage zones like Turksat 1C:
West Zone covers the British Isles in the west, Scandinavian countries in the north, North Africa in the south, and Caspian Sea in the east.
East Zone covers the Balkan Peninsula in the west, Russian Federation in the north, Pakistan in the south, and China national boundary in the east.
Inside of the footprint such as south Asia and Republic of South Africa can be accessed over the Turksat 2A FSS Band steerable-beam transponders.
On 18 September 2014, all traffic on Turksat 2A was transferred to Turksat 4A. However, Turksat 2A will broadcast a few TV channels until its end of mission in 2016.
=== Türksat 3A ===
Turksat 3A satellite will enable Turksat to offer telecommunication services as well as direct TV broadcasting services through a broader area than its existing satellites covering Turkey, Europe, Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia. With the help of its switchable transponders, Turksat 3A will act as a bridge between Europe and Asia. Türksat 3A's Turkey coverage has been specially designed to provide very efficient gain for broadband applications like VSAT services giving customers low-cost, up-link systems.
Based on Thales Alenia Space Spacebus 4000B2, Turksat 3A is fitted with 24 Ku-band transponders and offers beginning of life power of about 8 kW. Positioned at 42°E, Turksat 3A will weight 3060 kg at launch and will replace Turksat 1C satellite.
Turksat 3A was launched by Arianespace atop an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle, along with the British Skynet 5C satellite, in a dual-payload launch on 12 June 2008 at 22:05:02 UTC, from ELA-3 at the Centre Spatial Guyanais.
=== Türksat 4A ===
Turksat 4A was successfully launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 23:09 UTC on 14 February 2014. After three months of orbital and subsystem tests, Turksat 4A was successfully transferred from its temporary orbit at 50°E to a position at 42°E. The satellite started broadcasting on 15 July 2014.
With Turksat 4A, Turksat AS offers telecommunication and direct TV broadcasting services throughout Turkey, as well as in Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Turksat 4A provides Ku-band high-power direct TV broadcasting channels and both C- and Ka-band communications channels.
=== Türksat 4B ===
Turksat 4B was successfully launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 20:40 UTC on 16 October 2015.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
(in French and English) Guy Lebègue, Aérospatiale, Cannes, France, (trad. Robert J. Amral), « Turksat: A Turnkey Satellite », in Revue aerospatiale, N°72, October 1990, ISSN 0994-9003
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention | 1972 Republican National Convention | The 1972 Republican National Convention was held from August 21 to August 23, 1972, at the Miami Beach Convention Center in Miami Beach, Florida. It nominated then President of the United States Richard Nixon and then Vice President of the United States Spiro Agnew for reelection. The convention was chaired by House minority leader and future Nixon successor Gerald Ford of Michigan. It was the fifth time that Nixon had been nominated on the Republican ticket for vice president (1952 United States presidential election and 1956 United States presidential election) or president (1960 United States presidential election and 1968 United States presidential election). Nixon's five appearances on his party's ticket matched the major-party American standard of Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat who had been nominated for vice president once (in the 1920 United States presidential election) and president four times (in the 1932 United States presidential election, the 1936 United States presidential election, the 1940 United States presidential election and the1944 United States presidential election). Nixon was the first Republican to be nominated three times for president.
The convention was the first Republican convention scheduled for only three days since 1944, joining the 2012 Democratic National Convention as the only conventions in modern convention history to be scheduled for three days.
== Site selection ==
San Diego, California, had originally been selected as host city for the convention on July 23, 1971, with the event expected to take place at the San Diego Sports Arena. Columnist Jack Anderson discovered a memo written by Dita Beard, a lobbyist for the International Telephone and Telegraph Corp., suggesting that the company could pledge $400,000 for the San Diego bid if the Department of Justice would settle its antitrust case against ITT. Fearing scandal, and citing labor and cost concerns, the GOP transferred the event—scarcely three months before it was to begin—to Miami Beach, Florida, also the host city of the Democratic National Convention. It was the sixth and last time that both national party conventions were held in the same city; Chicago had hosted double conventions in 1884, 1932, 1944 and 1952, and Philadelphia in 1948. The Republican convention did not come to San Diego until 1996.
== Speeches ==
The convention set a new standard, as it was scripted as a media event to an unprecedented degree.
The keynote address by Anne Armstrong of Texas, was the first national convention keynote delivered by a woman.
First Lady Pat Nixon became the first Republican First Lady, and the first First Lady in over 25 years, to address a party's national convention. Her speech set the standard for future convention speeches by political spouses. Republican First Ladies Nancy Reagan, Barbara Bush, Laura Bush and Melania Trump, among others, have all followed in this tradition. Democratic First Ladies Hillary Clinton, Michelle Obama, and Jill Biden have also followed in this tradition
== Balloting ==
Nixon easily turned back primary challenges from the right, in the person of Representative John M. Ashbrook of Ohio and, from the left, Representative Pete McCloskey of California. However, under New Mexico state law, McCloskey had earned one delegate, which the convention refused to seat, fearing that the delegate might put McCloskey's name in nomination and deliver an anti-war speech. Congressman (and delegate) Manuel Lujan of New Mexico, a staunch Nixon supporter, honored state law by voting for McCloskey himself. The final result was that Nixon received 1,347 votes to one for McCloskey and none for Ashbrook. Throughout the precisely scripted convention, delegates chanted "Four more years! Four more years!"
Spiro Agnew was renominated for vice president with 1,345 votes against one vote for NBC television journalist David Brinkley and two abstentions.
== Protest activity ==
The convention was targeted for widespread protests, particularly against the Vietnam War, and the Nixon administration made efforts to suppress it. This tension was captured by Top Value Television in the independent documentary Four More Years, which juxtaposes shots of the protests outside the convention with the internal politics of the convention. A day after the convention, The New York Times reported that 900 demonstrators had been arrested, and the police reported that 52 people, including 12 policemen, had been injured.
In 2005, files released under a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit revealed that the Federal Bureau of Investigation monitored former Beatle John Lennon after he was invited to play for Yippie protests. The surveillance of Lennon later concluded that he was not a dangerous revolutionary, as he was "constantly under the influence of narcotics." The Justice Department indicted Scott Camil, John Kniffen, Alton Foss, Donald Perdue, William Patterson, Stan Michelsen, Peter Mahoney and John Briggs—collectively known as the Gainesville Eight—on charges of conspiracy to disrupt the convention, but all were exonerated.
Oliver Stone's film Born on the Fourth of July, based on Ron Kovic's autobiography of the same name, depicts Kovic and fellow Vietnam Veterans Against the War activists Bobby Muller, Bill Wieman and Mark Clevinger being spat upon at the convention. The scene did not appear in Kovic's autobiography but was taken almost directly from a documentary film created the 1972 Republican Convention titled Operation Last Patrol by filmmaker and actor Frank Cavestani and photo journalist Catherine Leroy.
== See also ==
History of the United States Republican Party
List of Republican National Conventions
U.S. presidential nomination convention
1972 Democratic National Convention
1972 United States presidential election
Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Republican Party platform of 1972 at The American Presidency Project
Nixon nomination acceptance speech for President at RNC (transcript) at The American Presidency Project
Nixon, Richard "Remarks on Accepting the Presidential Nomination of the Republican National Convention," August 23, 1972. Provided by the American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara.
Four More Years, TVTV Documentary MediaBurn.org: Video Preview
Video of Nixon nomination acceptance speech for President at RNC (via YouTube)
Audio of Nixon nomination acceptance speech for President at RNC
Video of Agnew nomination acceptance speech for Vice President at RNC (via YouTube) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purmandal | Purmandal | Purmandal (also called Chhota Kashi) is a village located on the Devika River in Samba district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The village and its temples are a pilgrimage site for Hindus, who believe bathing in the river cleanses the soul.
== Geography ==
Purmandal is located on the banks of the Devika River in the hills about 30 kilometres (19 mi) southeast of Jammu and about 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of Samba by road via Vijaypur.
== Around ==
Devika runs down from Purmandal to Uttarvehni through village Mandal. Uttarvehni in local language (i.e., Dogri) means flowing towards north. It is one of the rare places where a river flows from south to north. Rameshwaram and Bhuteshawar are ancient temples in Mandal.
== Points of interest ==
Purmandal Temple, dedicated to Parvati, is built on the west bank of the river. A number of other temples are dedicated to Shiva. There is a large haveli (mansion) dating from about 1830, in good condition, and several dharamshalas (rest-houses for pilgrims), mostly severely deteriorated. Many of these structures are decorated with murals dating from between 1813 and 1898.
== Transport ==
Buses connect the village to Jammu.
== Events ==
Every month a Mela is organized here. The devotees take a holy dip in the Devak river and seek blessings. There are total 12 Mela in a year. Every Mela has assigned a unique name corresponding to the month, i.e. Chaitra Chaudish, Shivraatri Mela, etc.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brophy_Award | John Brophy Award | The John Brophy Award goes to the ECHL coach judged to have contributed the most to his team's success as voted by the coaches of each of the ECHL teams. The John Brophy Award has been awarded since 1989. The award is named after John Brophy, who coached in the league for 13 seasons and won 575 regular and postseason games, an ECHL record. The award, founded in 1989 and originally named Coach Of The Year, was renamed in his honor in 2003.
Bob Ferguson is the only multiple winner of the award, having won it in 1999 and 2000.
== Awardees ==
== See also ==
ECHL awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Intotheboards.net Playoffs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale_Biscoe_School#:~:text=The%20first%20principal%20was%20Reverend,Knowles. | Tyndale Biscoe School | Tyndale Biscoe School is a school in the Sheikh Bagh neighbourhood, in the Lal Chowk area of Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. The school was founded in 1880 CE and is one of the oldest schools in Jammu and Kashmir, the oldest being S.P school which was founded in 1874 CE. The school was started by Christian missionaries and was named after Canon Cecil Tyndale-Biscoe (1863–1949). It still has affiliations with the Church Mission Society. The first principal was Reverend J. H. Knowles.
== Departments ==
The school has five departments.
== Activities ==
Tyndale Biscoe School is known for its extra-curricular activities, especially swimming, skiing, mountain climbing, camping and regatta. School placed emphasis on physical activities including mountaineering, trekking, boating, football, cricket, and swimming stimulating sense of courage, masculinity and physical fitness.
When football was introduced in the Valley by Missionary School, there was resistance initially. Students felt the cow leather was holy and touching the ball, made out of it, was blasphemous. Instead they played football with a wooden clog (known as Khraav in Kashmiri) in their feet. Similarly, when boating was introduced in Mission School students did not like boating because, in Kashmiri society, boatmen weren't consider respectable members of the society. But later it was adopted and the Mission School boys became efficient paddlers and rowers.
== History ==
Rev. J.H. Knowles, in 1880, laid the foundation of the C.M.S. (Church Mission Society) School on the hospital premises (Modern Chest Disease Hospital, Drugjan) in Srinagar. The school was started with 5 pupils. In 1883, the number of boys in the school increased to 30.
In 1890, the Government permitted the C.M.S. to shift the school to downtown, and it was moved from the hospital premises (Drugjan) to a large house and compound on the river bank in the middle of the city at Fateh Kadal. As a result of this, the number of students increased to about 200 in 1890.
Canon C.E. Tyndale-Biscoe joined the school in 1891, there were 250 pupils on the school roll. The primary school grew into a middle school and eventually into a high school. The high school was designated the Hadow Memorial School after the name of its honorary treasurer for 40 years. Eventually, five other mission schools were set up, one each in different parts of the capital city and one in Anantnag.
== Notable alumni ==
Farooq Abdullah – (born 1937) politician and former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
Aga Syed Ruhullah Mehdi - (born 1976) politician and Member of parliament
Ishfaq Ahmed – (born 1983), a professional footballer and the head coach of I-League club Real Kashmir
Agha Shaukat Ali – (1920–2013) Kashmiri civil servant turned Pakistani politician after partition
Imran Raza Ansari – (born 1972) politician and religious scholar
Dr. Anil Bhan – a cardiologist at Medanta who performed the first successful heart transplant in India. He was awarded the certificate of Honor as "Best All Round Boy" in school
Masarat Alam Bhat – (born 1971), Kashmiri separatist leader, chairman of the Jammu Kashmir Muslim League and also serving as chairman of the Hurriyat Conference
Thupstan Chhewang (born 1947), Indian politician
Durga Prasad Dhar – (1918–1975), Kashmiri politician and an Indian diplomat
P. N. Dhar (1919–2012), economist and the head of Indira Gandhi's secretariat
Khurshid Drabu CBE (1946–2018), English judge, law lecturer and Muslim community leader; first Muslim to be a judge in Britain
Shah Faesal – (born 1983), IAS civil servant, social activist, politician
Bhagwan Gopinath – (1898 – 1968), born Gopinath Bhan, was a mystic saint of early 20th century Kashmir
Eliezer Joldan – (1916-2001), an educationist who was the first trained graduate to profess teaching as a profession in Ladakh
Iqbal Khan – (born 1981) is a Bollywood actor
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad – (1907–1972), politician and former Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
Mohammad Shafi Qureshi (1929–2016), advocate, Indian politician and statesman from Kashmir, founder of the Congress Party in Jammu and Kashmir
S. L. Sadhu – (1917-2012), a UNESCO award winning Kashmiri writer
Tanvir Sadiq, Chief Spokesperson of Jammu and Kashmir National Conference
Ashfaq Majeed Wani – (1966–1990), first commander-in-chief of Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baleka_Mbete | Baleka Mbete | Baleka Mbete (born 24 September 1949) is a South African politician who was the Deputy President of South Africa from September 2008 to May 2009. She was also the Speaker of the National Assembly for two non-consecutive terms from 2004 to 2008 and from 2014 to 2019. She also served as Deputy Speaker between 1996 and 2004. A member of the African National Congress (ANC), she was first elected to the National Assembly in 1994 and stepped down from her seat in 2019.
Born in KwaZulu-Natal, Mbete is a teacher by training and a former anti-apartheid activist, initially through the Black Consciousness Movement. Between 1976 and 1990, she was stationed with the ANC in exile outside South Africa; during this period, she was also a prominent cultural activist as a poet and the head of the Medu Art Ensemble. Upon her return to South Africa, she represented the ANC at the negotiations to end apartheid and was a central figure in the relaunch of the ANC Women's League, serving as the league's secretary-general from 1991 to 1993.
Mbete was elected to the National Assembly in the first post-apartheid elections in 1994 and served in her seat until 2019, with the exception of a hiatus from 2009 to 2014. Her rise through the institution began in 1996, when she was elected as Deputy Speaker, and continued during the third democratic Parliament, when she succeeded Frene Ginwala as the second Speaker. In the last year of the third Parliament, she ascended to the Deputy Presidency during the reshuffle occasioned by the resignation of President Thabo Mbeki in September 2008; she held the office during the brief term of Mbeki's successor, President Kgalema Motlanthe.
Although she declined to return to Parliament after the 2009 general election, Mbete returned in May 2014 in her former office as Speaker of the National Assembly. She left her parliamentary seat again after the 2019 general election, though she remained active in the ANC Women's League.
A member of the ANC since 1976, Mbete served as the party's National Chairperson from December 2007 to December 2017 during Jacob Zuma's presidency. She was a member of the ANC National Executive Committee from 1994 to 2022.
== Early life and education ==
Mbete was born on 24 September 1949 to a Hlubi family in Clermont, a township in Durban in the former Natal Province. She spent part of her childhood with her grandmother in the Northern Transvaal, where she attended pre-school. In 1958, her family moved to the Cape Province so that her father could take up work as a librarian at Fort Hare University. He later lost his job because of his affiliation with the South African Communist Party. Her mother was a nurse, and she was the second child and eldest daughter in the family.
After matriculating from the Inanda Seminary in 1968, Mbete enrolled in Eshowe Training College in Eshowe and later – after she was expelled from Eshowe – in the teaching college at Lovedale in Alice. She qualified as a teacher in 1973 and returned to Durban to teach at a high school in KwaMashu.
== Anti-apartheid activism ==
While teaching in Natal, Mbete became involved in the Black Consciousness Movement, which at the time was ascendant in the struggle against apartheid. In early 1976, Mbete and her brother were detained for their political activism. Upon her release, she went into exile, leaving South Africa for Swaziland on 10 April 1976.
=== Exile: 1976–1990 ===
In exile, Mbete joined the anti-apartheid African National Congress (ANC). She also taught at a high school in Mbabane, Swaziland until 1977, when she moved to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In Dar es Salaam, she pursued her ANC work with earnest, joining the party's Department of Information and Publicity – specifically, she worked on Radio Freedom – as well as its Women's Section, the department that substituted for the then-defunct ANC Women's League. Mbete was regional secretary for the Women's Section in Tanzania from 1978 to 1981.
From 1981 to 1983, she was an ANC public relations officer in Nairobi, Kenya, where her husband worked. Later she took posts in Gaborone, Botswana (1983 to 1986); Harare, Zimbabwe (1986 to 1987); and Lusaka, Zambia (1987 to 1990). In addition to her work with the Women's Section, she was involved in cultural activism and education, including as head of the Medu Art Ensemble; she was also a published poet, writing under her married name, Baleka Kgositsile.
=== Transition: 1990–1994 ===
Mbete returned to South Africa from exile in June 1990. In subsequent years, she was a member of the ANC's delegation to the negotiations to end apartheid. In addition, the ANC Women's League was relaunched in August 1990, and Mbete served on the interim leadership corps that oversaw its re-establishment. At the league's first elective conference in April 1991, held in Kimberley, Mbete was elected as secretary-general of the league, serving under president Gertrude Shope. She served a single term in the position: at the second elective conference in December 1993, Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula was elected to succeed her.
== Career in government ==
In South Africa's first post-apartheid elections in April 1994, Mbete was elected to represent the ANC in the National Assembly – the beginning of her 25-year tenure in the lower house of the South African Parliament. In addition, at the ANC's 49th National Conference in December 1994, she was elected to her first of several terms in the ANC's National Executive Committee; by number of votes received, she was ranked 17th of the 60 ordinary members elected to the committee.
In 1995, Mbete was appointed as chair of the ANC's parliamentary caucus and as a member of the Presidential Panel on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
=== Deputy Speaker: 1996–2004 ===
In May 1996, she was promoted to deputise Frene Ginwala as Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly; she succeeded Bhadra Ranchod, who was appointed as an ambassador. On 14 June 1999, after that year's general election, she was re-elected to a full term as Deputy Speaker; she beat the opposition candidate, Dene Smuts of the Democratic Party, in a vote, receiving 326 votes against Smuts's 47.
During this period, in April 1997, it transpired that Mbete had received an improperly issued driver's license at a testing centre in Mpumalanga. Mbete was quoted as saying that she was too busy to wait in a queue for her driving test, although she later denied having said this. The scandal led to a broader investigation into corruption into the Mpumalanga traffic department and to the dismissal of a provincial minister, though Mbete was not charged with wrongdoing and maintained that she had been "caught up in a web of impropriety of which I was unaware".
=== First term as Speaker: 2004–2008 ===
In the aftermath of the 2004 general election, the ANC announced that it would nominate Mbete to replace Frene Ginwala as Speaker of the National Assembly. She was elected unopposed to the office on 23 April 2004, with Gwen Mahlangu as her deputy.
Mbete's term as Speaker coincided with the Travelgate scandal, which pertained to the abuse of parliamentary travel vouchers by politicians. The Mail & Guardian said that she was at the forefront of the ANC's "damage limitation exercise" in that regard. She also publicly demonstrated support for Tony Yengeni, an ANC politician who was convicted of defrauding Parliament in 2003; she even accompanied Yengeni to Pollsmoor Prison in 2006 when he reported to serve his prison sentence. However, Mbete maintained that she was committed to strengthening Parliament and its committees, saying that she had an inherited "an institution that was a rubber stamp". Her efforts in this regard apparently led her into conflict with Zingile Dingani, the Secretary to Parliament, who sought an expanded mandate for his own office.
In January 2006, Mbete chartered a jet, at a cost of R471,900 (around $60,000), to attend the inauguration of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as President of Liberia. The only other passenger on the plane was a member of her staff. Ferial Haffajee criticised the expenditure as wasteful.
==== Election to ANC chairmanship ====
In the middle of her term as Speaker, Mbete was nominated to stand for an ANC leadership position during the party's 52nd National Conference, which was held in Polokwane in December 2007. She was initially nominated for the position of deputy secretary-general, but she withdrew from that race when she was unexpectedly nominated, from the floor of the conference, to stand for the party chairmanship; Tokyo Sexwale had been nominated for the chair, but he announced that he would withdraw in Mbete's favour in order to promote "the empowerment of women".
The following day, on 18 December 2007, Mbete won election to a five-year term as ANC national chairperson. Aligned to winning presidential candidate Jacob Zuma, she defeated Joel Netshitenzhe – who was aligned to outgoing president Thabo Mbeki – in a landslide, receiving 61% of the vote.
=== Deputy President: 2008–2009 ===
On 20 September 2008, the ANC announced that it had asked Mbeki to resign as President of South Africa. He tendered his resignation to Mbete's office the following day.
It had been speculated that Mbete would succeed Mbeki as President, which would have made her the first female head of state in South Africa's history; however, the ANC announced that Kgalema Motlanthe, Deputy President of the ANC, would assume that position. On 23 September, Mbete was announced by the SABC as the most likely candidate for Deputy President of South Africa following Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka's resignation from the position.
On 25 September 2008, she was appointed by Motlanthe as Deputy President.
=== Hiatus from Parliament: 2009–2014 ===
In the next general election in April 2009, Mbete was re-elected to her parliamentary seat but, somewhat dramatically, declined to be sworn in as a Member of Parliament on 6 May, despite being present at the inauguration. Incoming President Jacob Zuma announced that Kgalema Motlanthe would replace her as Deputy President, and the ANC said that she would move to Luthuli House to pursue her party work full-time instead of returning to Parliament. Mbete denied that the confusion over her swearing-in had arisen because she was holding out for reappointment as Deputy President, saying, "It was always an interim arrangement."
By December 2009, the Daily Maverick observed that Mbete had "departed the public political stage" for reasons that remained mysterious to the public. However, she completed her term as ANC national chairperson, and she was comfortably re-elected to a second term in that office on 18 December 2012, at the ANC's 53rd National Conference; she beat Thandi Modise with 76% of the vote.
=== Second term as Speaker: 2014–2019 ===
Mbete returned to an ANC seat in the National Assembly in the 2014 general election, and the party nominated her to return to her prior office as Speaker of the National Assembly. During the assembly's first sitting on 21 May 2014, she easily defeated the opposition candidate, receiving 260 votes compared to the 88 cast for Nosimo Balindlela of the Democratic Alliance.
==== Allegations of bias ====
On 10 September 2014, five opposition parties, including the Democratic Alliance and Economic Freedom Fighters, stated that they planned to submit a motion of no confidence in Mbete, and claimed that she could not simultaneously serve as chairwoman of the ANC and as Speaker of the National Assembly. A debate held in Parliament on 16 September resulted in the motion being rejected by 234 votes to none. This was a result of opposition parties collectively walking out of the house after the ANC tried to change the vote into one of confidence in Mbete instead.
More generally, Mbete has faced accusations, over the course of several years, that she is biased in favour of the ANC and a puppet of President Zuma. In March 2016, the Constitutional Court held, in Economic Freedom Fighters v Speaker of the National Assembly, that the National Assembly under Mbete's stewardship had breached the South African Constitution by undermining rather than implementing the Public Protector's Nkandla report.
==== ANC presidential campaign ====
In the run-up to the ANC's 54th National Conference, which would elect Zuma's successor as ANC president, Mbete identified herself as a presidential contender as early as April 2016. The ANC Women's League endorsed another candidate – Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma – and Mbete was not viewed as a frontrunner, but she continued to campaign, under the banner #BM17, until the conference was held in December 2017. On the first night of the conference, however, Mbete endorsed Cyril Ramaphosa – Dlamini-Zuma's main rival – for the presidency. It was reported that she supported Ramaphosa because she was disappointed that Zuma had not supported her campaign.
Mbete did not run for re-election as national chairperson at the conference and did not appear on the ballot paper for any top leadership position, but she was re-elected to the National Executive Committee. In the assessment of the Mail & Guardian, Mbete's influence in the party declined after her failed presidential campaign.
==== Succession and aftermath ====
Ahead of the 2019 general election, Mbete told the Sowetan that she did not know "what's coming in the next couple of months". When the election was held in May, she was re-elected to her parliamentary seat, but, on 20 May, the ANC announced that it would nominate Thandi Modise, the outgoing head of the National Council of Provinces, to succeed Mbete as Speaker. The following day, the ANC confirmed rumours that Mbete had withdrawn her name from the party list, meaning that she would not return to her parliamentary seat.
In March 2022, Mbete told Radio 702 that she was "done with politics". However, two months later, she was appointed as the interim convener of the ANC Women's League after the league's incumbent leadership was disbanded by the National Executive Committee. In that capacity she led the league, with interim coordinator Maropene Ramokgopa, until a new leadership corps was elected. At the mainstream ANC's 55th National Conference in December 2022, she was not re-elected to the National Executive Committee, losing her seat for the first time since 1994.
== Commercial interests ==
Mbete's links to business have been questioned. She and provincial secretary of the ANC in the Northern Cape Dr K M Seimelo are shareholders in Dyambu Holdings, which is involved in building the massive Gautrain public transport project in the province of Gauteng. Dyambu Holdings is reported to have had links with slain magnate Brett Kebble. In 2010, she was implicated in a R25 million Gold Fields bribe under the guise of a "BEE" transaction by US investigators.
== Personal life ==
Mbete married Keorapetse Kgositsile, an exiled writer and poet, in 1978. They divorced in 1992, and she remarried to Nape Khomo, a businessman, in 2016. She has three sons and two daughters.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ms Baleka Mbete at People's Assembly |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Copa_Libertadores_top_scorers | List of Copa Libertadores top scorers | This is a year-by-year and all-time list of top scorers in the Copa Libertadores football tournament. Alberto Spencer is the all-time top goalscorer of the Copa Libertadores with 54 goals, while Daniel Onega is the record top goalscorer in a single season, with 17 goals in 1966.
The data below does not include the 1948 South American Championship of Champions, as it is not listed by CONMEBOL either as a Copa Libertadores edition or as an official competition. It must be pointed out, however, that at least in the years 1996 and 1997, CONMEBOL entitled equal status to both the Copa Libertadores and the 1948 tournament, in that the 1948 champions (Vasco da Gama) were allowed to participate in the Supercopa Libertadores, a CONMEBOL official competition that allowed participation for former Libertadores champions only (for example, not admitting participation for champions of other CONMEBOL official competitions, such as the Copa CONMEBOL).
== By tournament ==
== All-time top scorers ==
As of 28 November 2025
Players in bold played in 2025 Copa Libertadores.
== See also ==
History of the Copa Libertadores
Records and statistics of the Copa Libertadores
List of Copa Libertadores winning managers
== References ==
== External links ==
Copa Libertadores Topscorers at RSSSF
CONMEBOL Website: Libertadores Topscorers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Frees#:~:text=Frees%20voiced%20Disney's%20Professor%20Ludwig,Color%20on%20September%2024%2C%201961. | Paul Frees | Solomon Hersh Frees (June 22, 1920 – November 2, 1986), better known as Paul Frees, was an American actor, comedian, impressionist, and vaudevillian. He is known for his work on Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Walter Lantz, Rankin/Bass and Walt Disney theatrical cartoons during the Golden Age of Animation, and for providing the voice of Boris Badenov in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Frees was sometimes known as "The Man of a Thousand Voices", an appellation more commonly bestowed on Mel Blanc.
== Early life ==
Solomon Hersh Frees was born to a Jewish family in Chicago, on June 22, 1920. He grew up in the Albany Park neighborhood and attended Von Steuben Junior High School.
== Career ==
In the 1930s, Frees first appeared in vaudeville as an impressionist, under the name Buddy Green. He began his career on radio in 1942 and remained active for more than 40 years. During that time, he was involved in more than 250 films, cartoons, and TV appearances; as was the case for many voice actors of the time, his appearances were often uncredited.
Frees's early radio career was cut short when he was drafted into the United States Army during World War II, where he fought at Normandy, France, on D-Day. He was wounded in action and was returned to the United States for a year of recuperation. He attended the Chouinard Art Institute under the G.I. Bill. When his first wife's health failed, he decided to drop out and return to radio work.
He appeared frequently on Hollywood radio series, including Escape, playing lead roles and alternating with William Conrad as the opening announcer. He announced the dramatic signature on Suspense in the late 1940s, and parts on Gunsmoke (filling in for Howard McNear as Doc Adams in the episode "The Cast"), and Crime Classics. One of his few starring roles in this medium was as Jethro Dumont/Green Lama in the 1949 series The Green Lama, as well as a syndicated anthology series The Player, in which Frees narrated and played all the parts. He starred as Larry Mitchell on Crime Correspondent on CBS Radio.
He did dubbing for live-action films including Midway, dubbing Toshiro Mifune's performances as Admiral Yamamoto; and Some Like It Hot, in which Frees provides much of the falsetto voice for Tony Curtis' female persona Josephine and the voice of funeral director Mozzarella. Frees dubbed the entire role of Eddie in the Disney film The Ugly Dachshund, replacing actor Dick Wessel, who had died of a sudden heart attack after completion of principal photography. Frees also dubbed some of Humphrey Bogart’s lines in his final film The Harder They Fall. Bogart was suffering at the time from what was later diagnosed as esophageal cancer, thus could barely be heard in some takes, hence the need for Frees to dub in his voice.
Frees worked extensively with at least nine of the major animation production companies of the 20th century: Walt Disney Productions, Warner Bros. Cartoons, Walter Lantz Productions, UPA, Hanna-Barbera Productions, Filmation, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, DePatie-Freleng Enterprises, Jay Ward Productions, Rankin/Bass, and Ruby-Spears.
=== Disney ===
Some of Frees's most memorable voices were for various Disney projects. Frees voiced Disney's Professor Ludwig Von Drake in 18 episodes of the Disney anthology television series, beginning with the first episode of the newly renamed Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color on September 24, 1961. The character also appeared on many Disneyland Records. Von Drake's introductory cartoon, An Adventure in Color, featured "The Spectrum Song", sung by Frees as Von Drake. A different Frees recording of this song appeared on a children's record, and was later reissued on CD.
In addition to voicing characters, Frees narrated a number of Disney cartoons, including the Disney educational short film Donald in Mathmagic Land. This short originally aired in the same television episode as Von Drake's first appearance.
Frees also provided voices for numerous characters at Disney parks. He voiced the unseen "Ghost Host" at Haunted Mansion Attraction at Disneyland and Walt Disney World.
For the Pirates of the Caribbean, Frees recorded the ghost voice saying the iconic "dead men tell no tales" used in the ride, as well as lending his voice to several audio-animatronic characters, including the Auctioneer, Magistrate Carlos, and the "Pooped Pirate" in the ride. Disney eventually issued limited edition compact discs commemorating The Haunted Mansion and Pirates of the Caribbean, featuring some outtakes and unused audio tracks by Frees and others. Frees also provided narration for the Tomorrowland attraction Adventure Thru Inner Space (1967–1985, later replaced by Star Tours) and the original Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln. Audio clips from the attractions in Frees's distinctive voice have been included in fireworks shows at Disneyland.
An animated singing bust in Frees's likeness appeared in the 2003 film The Haunted Mansion as a tribute. Similarly, audio recordings of Frees from the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction can be heard in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End in an homage to the ride.
Frees also had a small on-camera role for Disney in the 1959 film The Shaggy Dog, playing Dr. Galvin, a police psychiatrist who attempts to understand why Mr. Daniels believes a shaggy dog can uncover a spy ring. He also speaks the film's opening narration.
His other Disney credits, most of them narration for segments of the Disney anthology television series, include:
The "Man in Space" series of shows (TV, 1954)
From Aesop to Hans Christian Andersen (TV, 1955)
Mars and Beyond (film, 1957)
The Nine Lives of Elfego Baca (TV miniseries, 1958)
Tales of Texas John Slaughter (TV miniseries, 1958)
The Absent-Minded Professor (film, 1961)
Moochie of Pop Warner Football (TV, 1960)
The Monkey's Uncle (film, 1965)
For his contributions to the Disney legacy, Frees was honored posthumously as a Disney Legend on October 9, 2006.
=== Jay Ward Productions ===
Frees was a regular presence in Jay Ward cartoons, providing the voices of Boris Badenov (from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show), Inspector Fenwick (from Dudley Do-Right, impersonating Eric Blore), Ape (impersonating Ronald Colman), District Commissioner Alistair and Weevil Plumtree in George of the Jungle, Baron Otto Matic in Tom Slick, Fred in Super Chicken, and the Hoppity Hooper narrator, among numerous others.
=== Rankin/Bass ===
Frees is well-remembered for providing the voices for many characters in Rankin/Bass cartoons and stop-motion animated TV specials, most notably for a number of holiday-themed specials. In 1968, he appeared as Captain Jones in the Thanksgiving special The Mouse on the Mayflower, and that Christmas he appeared as the father of the Drummer Boy, Ali, and as the three Wise Men in The Little Drummer Boy. He was also Hocus Pocus, the traffic cop, the ticket-taker, and Santa Claus in Frosty the Snowman in 1969 and played the central villain, Burgermeister Meisterburger, and his assistant Grimsley in Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town in 1970. He provided several voices, including Aeon the Terrible, for Rudolph's Shiny New Year in 1976.
Frees also voiced King Haggard's wizard Mabruk and the Cat in The Last Unicorn and provided several voices for the Jackson Five cartoon series between 1971 and 1973. He provided the voices for several J. R. R. Tolkien characters (most notably the dwarf Bombur) in Rankin/Bass animated versions of The Hobbit and The Return of the King.
Rankin/Bass TV specials or films featuring Paul Frees:
Cricket on the Hearth (TV special) (1967) Voice of the Sea Captain and others
The Mouse on the Mayflower (1968) Voice of Captain Jones
The Little Drummer Boy (1968) Voices of Ali, Aaron's Father, Three Wise Men
Frosty the Snowman (1969) Voices of Hocus Pocus, Traffic Cop, Ticket Taker, Santa Claus
The Mad, Mad, Mad Comedians (1970) Voices of Chico Marx, Zeppo Marx, and W.C Fields (uncredited)
Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town (1970) Voices of Burgermeister Meisterburger, Grimsley, Topper, Kringle brothers, Sombertown Civilian, Burgermeister's soldiers, Physician
Here Comes Peter Cottontail (1971) Voices of Colonel Bunny's assistant, Fireman, Man at Thanksgiving Table, Santa Claus
The First Easter Rabbit (1976) Voices of Santa, Zero, and Spats
Frosty's Winter Wonderland (1976) Voices of Jack Frost and Traffic Cop
Rudolph's Shiny New Year (1976) Voices of Santa Claus, General Ticker, Aeon the Terrible, Humpty Dumpty, 1776 (aka Sev)
The Hobbit (1977) Voices of Bombur and Troll #1
Nestor, the Long-Eared Christmas Donkey (1977) Voices of Santa Claus, Olaf and Donkey Dealer
Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July (1979) Voices of Jack Frost, Policeman, Winterbolt
Jack Frost (1979) Voices of Father Winter, Kubla Kraus
The Return of the King (1980) Voices of Orc, Uruk-hai, Elrond (replacing the deceased Cyril Ritchard who voiced Elrond in The Hobbit)
The Last Unicorn (1982) Voices of Mabruk and the Cat
The Flight of Dragons (1982) Voice of Antiquity
The Legend of Frosty the Snowman (2005) Voice of Hocus Pocus (Archive Recordings)
=== George Pal ===
Frees portrayed the Orson Welles sound-alike radio reporter in George Pal's film The War of the Worlds (1953), where he is seen dictating into a tape recorder as the military prepares the atomic bomb for use against the invading Martians. Memorably, his character says the recording is being made "for future history ... if any". Frees also provided the film's dramatic opening narration, prior to Sir Cedric Hardwicke's voice-over tour of the Solar System.
Frees subsequently provided the apocalyptic voice for the "talking rings" in Pal's later film The Time Machine (1960), in which he explains the ultimate fate of humanity from which the time traveler realizes the origin of the Morlocks and Eloi.
Producer Pal later put Frees to work again in his fantasy film Atlantis, the Lost Continent (also 1960) and doing the opening voice-over narration for Pal's Doc Savage (1975) film.
Frees did the narration for the George Pal documentary The Fantasy Film Worlds of George Pal (1985), written, produced, and directed by Arnold Leibovit. Two years later, Frees provided the voice for Arnie the Dinosaur and the Pillsbury Doughboy in The Puppetoon Movie (1987), also produced and directed by Leibovit.
=== Other voice work ===
The versatile actor voiced several characters, including three of the main characters in the US versions of Belvision's Hergé's Adventures of Tintin cartoons, based on the books by Hergé.
He did work for Hanna-Barbera in their Tom and Jerry shorts at MGM. In the 1956 Cinemascope Tom and Jerry cartoon, Blue Cat Blues, he was Jerry's voice who narrated the short; he voiced Jerry's cousin Muscles in Jerry's Cousin five years earlier and the cannibals in His Mouse Friday where he said the lines "Mmmmm, barbecued cat!" and "Mmmmm, barbecued mouse!"
At the MGM Animation studio, he also did multiple voice roles for Tex Avery's short films, notably playing every role in Cellbound in 1955.
Frees worked with Spike Jones on his 1960 album Omnibust, heard as announcer "Billy Playtex" and several other characters on "The Late Late Late Late Movies, Part I and II".
From October 1961 through September 1962, Paul Frees provided the voice for the shady lawyer named Judge Oliver Wendell Clutch, a weasel on the animated program Calvin and the Colonel starring the voices of Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll. The series was an animated television remake of their radio series Amos 'n Andy.
For the 1962 Christmas special Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol, produced by UPA, Paul Frees voiced several characters, including Fezziwig, the Charity Man, and two of the opportunists who steal from the dead Scrooge (Eyepatch Man and Tall Tophat Man) and Mister Magoo's Broadway theatre director. He subsequently provided numerous voices for the follow up series The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo.
Frees provided the voices of both John Lennon and George Harrison in the 1965 The Beatles cartoon series, the narrator, Big D and Fluid Man in the 1966 cartoon series, Frankenstein Jr. and The Impossibles, and The Thing in the 1967 series Fantastic Four, as well as President James Norcross in the 1967 cartoon series Super President. He played several roles – narrator, Chef of State, the judges and the bailiff – in the George Lucas / John Korty animated film, Twice Upon a Time.
Frees provided the voice-over for the trailer to the 1971 Clint Eastwood thriller, Play Misty for Me.
In television commercials, he was the voice of the Pillsbury Doughboy, the 7-Up bird Fresh-Up Freddie, Froot Loops spokesbird Toucan Sam (previously voiced by Mel Blanc, later voiced by Maurice LaMarche), Boo-Berry in the series of monster cereal commercials, and The Farmer who helps The Little Green Sprout, (voiced by Ike Eisenmann), by demonstrating the Jolly Green Giant's sweet and tender vegetables. He also played a British detective in a 1971 non-animated television commercial for Taster's Choice coffee.
Frees narrated many live action films and television series, including Naked City (1958–1963). Frees also provided the voice of the eccentric billionaire John Beresford Tipton, always seated in his chair with his back to the viewer while talking to his employee Michael Anthony (fellow voice-artist Marvin Miller), on the dramatic series The Millionaire.
He was the narrator at the beginning of the film The Disorderly Orderly starring Jerry Lewis. He also looped an actor's voice in the film The Ladies Man, also starring Jerry Lewis.
In 1980, Frees was hired by Program Director Hy Lit to be the voice of radio station WKXW (Kicks 101 1/2).
Frees had a wide range of other roles, usually heard but not seen, and frequently without screen credit. The resonance of his natural voice was similar to that of Orson Welles, and he performed a Welles impression several times. Some highlights of his voice work:
Narrator for The Manchurian Candidate
Narrated 16 episodes of the NBC military television series Steve Canyon, starring Dean Fredericks (1958–1959), and appeared on-screen as an RAF officer attached to a USAF command in the pilot episode, "Operation Towline."
Narrated the documentary about J. Robert Oppenheimer, The Day After Trinity (1980)
The Peter Lorre voice in the 1947 Spike Jones RCA Victor recording of the song "My Old Flame". When talking softly, the voice sounds much like Lorre. When the character segués into a manic rant for a few lines, the voice anticipates the Ludwig Von Drake characterization. Frees appeared on several other Spike Jones recordings including "Pop Corn Sack" also from 1947 in which he provided the voices of Charles Boyer, Edward G. Robinson, Katharine Hepburn and Al Jolson.
Dialog looping for French actor Jacques Roux, among other uncredited voice work, in the 1963 film The List of Adrian Messenger
The Orson Welles sound-alike narrator in Stan Freberg Presents The United States of America Vol. 1: The Early Years. When Vol. 2 came out after his death, he was replaced by Corey Burton.
The voice of Peter Tishman who purchases Manhattan from the Indians on Stan Freberg Presents the United States of America Volume One: The Early Years (sounding very much like Ludwig Von Drake)
Another Orson Welles sound-alike as the voice of the aliens in Earth vs. the Flying Saucers
Yet another Orson Welles sound-alike opening the film Burn, Witch, Burn!, the American release of Night of the Eagle (1962), where for over two minutes he talks about witchcraft and invokes a banishing spell over the audience
Yet again, as an Orson Welles sound-alike narrator in the 1967 film The St. Valentine's Day Massacre
Uncredited voice of a reporter trying to get a quote from General George S. Patton in the 1970 film Patton
Screen credit for multiple voices in the 1971 animated television film The Point!
Uncredited voice of the sentient supercomputer Colossus in the film Colossus: The Forbin Project
Narration for the spoof short film Hardware Wars (1977), which was styled as a mock film trailer specifically parodying Malachi Throne's narration of the original Star Wars trailer
Second Voice of KARR in "K.I.T.T. vs. K.A.R.R." – a 3rd-season episode of Knight Rider
Voice of "Josephine" (the female persona of Tony Curtis's character Joe) in the Billy Wilder film Some Like It Hot
The voice of Dr. Hu in the English-language version of King Kong Escapes
The voices of "Antoine" and "Alecto" in the English-language version of Atoll K (aka Utopia)
The voice of the hermit crab Crusty in The Incredible Mr. Limpet, a Warner Bros. feature that mixed live action with animation
Intro voice for the 1967 sitcom Mister Terrific
Intro voice for Bradbury 13, a series of thirteen radio dramas featuring Ray Bradbury short stories, originally produced for National Public Radio by Michael McDonough at Brigham Young University, 1984
Credited with singing "Darktown Strutters' Ball" in the 1971 film The Abominable Dr. Phibes (as heard on the film's soundtrack album, along with several other songs performed in character but not used in the film)
Voice of the title character in the 1957 film The Cyclops
Narrator of extended recap title sequence in early first-season episodes of I Dream of Jeannie in 1965 (and the show's sponsor I.D. announcer during season one)
Featured on the 1959 Spike Jones album Spike Jones in Hi-Fi, A Spooktacular in Screaming Sound in recordings "Poisen to Poisen", "My Old Flame", "Everything Happens to Me" and "This is your Death", doing the vocal and voices. "Tammy": vocal by Paul Frees, "Two Heads are Better than One": vocal by George Rock and Paul Frees.
The uncredited voice of the radio news announcer in the 1964 musical film Robin and the 7 Hoods
The uncredited voice of Levi Calhoun (played by Robert Tessier) in the 1975 Western Breakheart Pass
The uncredited English voice of Japanese Admiral Yamamoto in the 1976 film Midway
Narrator and Voice of Satan (visualized in the film as a snake) in the 1962 film The World's Greatest Sinner
=== Other credits ===
Although Frees was primarily known for his voice work (like Mel Blanc, he was known in the industry as "The Man of a Thousand Voices"), he was also a songwriter and screenwriter. His most notable screenwriting work was the little-seen 1958 film The Beatniks, a screed against the then-rising Beat counterculture in the vein of Reefer Madness. In 1992, the film was mocked on an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000.
On rare occasions, Frees appeared on-camera, usually in minor roles. In 1954, he appeared in the film noir classic Suddenly starring Frank Sinatra and Sterling Hayden. He played a scientist in The Thing from Another World, a death-row priest in A Place in the Sun, and French fur trader McMasters in The Big Sky. In 1955, he appeared as an irate husband suing his wife (played by Ann Doran) for alimony in an episode of CBS's sitcom The Ray Milland Show; and, in 1957, in an uncredited role as a helicopter pilot in the 1957 science-fiction movie, Beginning of the End.
In Jet Pilot, Frees plays a menacing Soviet officer whose job is to watchdog pilot Janet Leigh, but instead manages to eject himself from a parked jet, enabling Leigh to rescue John Wayne and fly back to the West. He is also credited with narrating the opening of the 1958-1959 series Rescue 8 starring Jim Davis and Lang Jefferies. In the 1970 film Patton, Frees provided the voices of a war correspondent interviewing Patton while Patton rides his horse, and of a member of Patton's staff, as well as voice-overs for several other actors, including the Moroccan official hosting a troop review for Patton. Frees is also heard in Tora! Tora! Tora! as the English-language voice of the Japanese ambassador to the United States. He also does the final narration in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, the first sequel to Planet of the Apes.
== Legacy ==
Since Frees's death, voice actor Corey Burton has often re-recorded dialogue for some Disneyland attractions originally recorded by Frees. In some cases, Frees's original, pre-digital recordings had simply deteriorated over time, and in others the dialogue had been rewritten to reflect plot changes or introduce new characters, such as the "Stuffed Pirate" replacing Frees's "Pooped Pirate" in the Pirates of the Caribbean ride in 1997. Dialogue that was slightly rewritten to reflect newer safety standards is performed by actors Joe Leahy (English) and Fabio Rodriguez (Spanish). In 2001, Burton provided a Paul Frees impression for the new "Ghost Host" of Haunted Mansion Holiday, a seasonal, holiday-themed overlay for the Haunted Mansion attraction. Burton also recorded Frees's Ghost Host lines for Walt Disney Pictures' 2003 film adaptation of the ride.
== Personal life ==
Frees was married five times. His first marriage was to Anelle McCloud, from 1943 until her death in 1945. He then married Kleda June Hansen in 1947, and they divorced in 1950. His third wife was Joyce Schultz. They married in 1951 and had two children before divorcing. His fourth marriage was to Jeri J. Cole in 1967; they divorced in 1969. Beverly T. Marlow was Frees's fifth wife. They married in 1971 and were estranged at the time of his death fifteen years later.
== Death ==
For the last two years of his life Frees suffered from multiple ailments, including arthritis, diabetes, and loss of vision, and had mentioned to friends that he was in near constant pain. Frees died at his home in Tiburon, California, on November 2, 1986, at the age of 66, from a self-administered overdose of pain medication. His death was considered a suicide; his agent issued a press release stating that he died from heart failure.
His body was cremated and his ashes scattered over the Pacific Ocean.
== Filmography ==
=== Live-action ===
==== Film ====
==== Television ====
=== Voice roles ===
==== Film ====
==== Television ====
==== Theme parks ====
=== Radio ===
=== Commercials ===
== Crew work ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Frees, Paul, The Writings of Paul Frees (2004) (Albany: BearManor Media) ISBN 1-59393-011-9
Frees, Paul, You'd Be So Nice To Come Home To: The Letters of Paul "Buddy" Frees and Annelle Frees (2011) (Albany: BearManor Media) ISBN 1-59393-646-X.
Ohmart, Ben, Welcome ... Foolish Mortals – The Life & Voices of Paul Frees (2004) (Albany: BearManor Media) ISBN 1-59393-004-6
Young, Jordan R. (2005) Spike Jones Off the Record: The Man Who Murdered Music (3rd edition) (2005) (Albany: BearManor Media) ISBN 1-59393-012-7
== External links ==
Paul Frees at IMDb
Paul Frees at the TCM Movie Database
What a Character!
Voice Chasers "voiceography" Archived 2006-07-18 at the Wayback Machine
Disney Legends profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Philippines | List of presidents of the Philippines | Under the Constitution of the Philippines, the president of the Philippines (Filipino: Pangulo ng Pilipinas) is both the head of state and government, and serves as the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces. The president is directly elected by qualified voters to a six-year term and must be "a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election". No elected president can seek re-election. Upon resignation, or removal from the office, the vice president assumes the post. A president's successor who hasn't served for more than four years can still seek a full term for the presidency.
The incumbent president is Bongbong Marcos, who assumed office on June 30, 2022.
== History ==
Emilio Aguinaldo became the inaugural president of the Philippines under the Malolos Republic, which was considered the First Philippine Republic. He held that office until 1901 when he was captured by United States forces during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902). The American colonization of the Philippines abolished the First Republic, which led to an American governor-general exercising executive power.
In 1935, the United States, pursuant to its promise of full Philippine sovereignty, established the Commonwealth of the Philippines following the ratification of the 1935 Constitution, which also restored the presidency. The first national presidential election was held, and Manuel L. Quezon (1935–1944) was elected to a six-year term with no provision for re-election as the second Philippine president and the first Commonwealth president. In 1940, however, the Constitution was amended to allow re-election but shortened the term to four years. However, a change in the government occurred three years later when the Second Philippine Republic was organized with the enactment of the 1943 Constitution, which Japan imposed after the occupied the Philippines in 1942 during World War II. José P. Laurel acted as puppet president of the new Japanese-sponsored government; his de facto presidency, not legally recognized until the 1960s, overlapped with that of the president of the Commonwealth, which went into exile. The Second Republic was dissolved after the Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945; the Commonwealth was then restored in the Philippines in the same year with the election of Sergio Osmeña (1944–1946) as president.
Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) then followed Osmeña when he won the first post-war election in 1946. He became the first president of the independent Philippines when the Commonwealth ended on July 4 of that year. The Third Republic was ushered in and would cover the administrations of the next five presidents, the last of which was Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1986), who performed a self-coup by imposing martial law in 1972. The dictatorship of Marcos saw the birth of the New Society (Filipino: Bagong Lipunan) and the Fourth Republic. His tenure lasted until 1986 when he was deposed in the People Power Revolution. The current constitution came into effect in 1987, marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic.
Of the individuals elected as president, three died in office: two of natural causes (Manuel L. Quezon and Manuel Roxas) and one in a plane crash (Ramon Magsaysay, 1953–1957). The longest-serving president is Ferdinand Marcos with 20 years and 57 days in office; he is the only president to have served more than two terms. The shortest is Sergio Osmeña, who spent 1 year and 300 days in office.
Two women have held the office: Corazon Aquino (1986–1992), who ascended to the presidency upon the successful People Power Revolution of 1986, and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010), who, as vice president, ascended to the presidency upon Estrada's resignation and was elected to a full six-year term in 2004.
== Presidents ==
=== Timeline ===
== Unofficial presidents ==
Andrés Bonifacio is considered by some historians to be the first president of the Philippines. He was the third Supreme President (Spanish: Presidente Supremo; Tagalog: Kataastaasang Pangulo) of the Katipunan secret society. Its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan went into open revolt in August 1896 (the Cry of Balintawak), Bonifacio transformed it into a revolutionary government with him as president. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacio's government was also known as the Tagalog Republic (Tagalog: Republika ng Katagalugan; Spanish: Republica Tagala). (Although the word Tagalog refers to a specific ethnicity, Bonifacio used it to denote all indigenous people in the Philippines in place of Filipino which had colonial origins.)
Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sakay and Miguel Malvar should also be included. Malvar continued Emilio Aguinaldo's leadership of the First Philippine Republic after the latter's capture until his own capture in 1902. Macario Sakay revived the Tagalog Republic in 1902 as a continuation of Bonifacio's Katipunan. They are still both considered by some scholars as "unofficial presidents". Along with Bonifacio, Malvar and Sakay are not recognized as presidents by the Philippine government.
Emilio Aguinaldo is officially recognized as the first president of the Philippines, but this is based on his term of office during the Malolos Republic, later known as the First Philippine Republic. Prior to this Aguinaldo had held the presidency of several revolutionary governments which are not counted in the succession of Philippine republics.
Manuel L. Quezon delegated his presidential duties to José Abad Santos, the then-Chief Justice, when the former fled the Philippines amidst Japanese occupation of the islands to establish a government-in-exile. He is believed to have in effect become the acting president of the Philippine Commonwealth though no legal document has been retrieved detailing the official transfer of the title of President to Abad Santos.
=== List ===
== List of presidents by age ==
== List of presidents by offices held before presidency ==
=== Executive branch ===
==== Vice presidents ====
3 other former vice presidents (S. Laurel, Binay, and Robredo) all made unsuccessful runs for the presidency.
==== Cabinet secretaries ====
The following list includes only cabinet secretaries who served full-time. Vice presidents who served concurrently as cabinet secretaries are not included.
==== Other positions ====
=== Legislative ===
==== Senators ====
==== Congressman/Representatives/Assemblyman ====
=== Local government ===
==== Governors ====
==== Mayors ====
==== Municipal/City Councilors ====
=== Judiciary ===
=== International Affairs-related ===
=== Presidents who had not previously held elective office ===
==== Without previous experience in government, but served in the military ====
==== Without previous experience in government or in the military ====
== List of presidents by military service ==
== Notes ==
Subnotes
Other notes
== See also ==
List of vice presidents of the Philippines
== References ==
=== Works cited ===
== External links ==
Presidential Website
Office of the President of the Philippines
Presidential Museum and Library
Philippines at worldstatesmen.org+ |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyro_monorail | Gyro monorail | A gyro monorail, gyroscopic monorail, or gyro-stabilized monorail is a single-rail land vehicle that uses the gyroscopic action of one or more spinning wheels to overcome the inherent instability of balancing atop a single rail. For a similar steerable vehicle, see Gyrocar.
The monorail is associated with the names Louis Brennan, August Scherl and Pyotr Shilovsky, who each built full-scale working prototypes during the early part of the twentieth century. A version was developed by Ernest F. Swinney, Harry Ferreira and Louis E. Swinney in the US in 1962.
The gyro monorail was never developed beyond the prototype stage.
The principal advantage of the monorail cited by Shilovsky is the suppression of hunting oscillation, a speed limitation encountered by conventional railways at the time. Also, sharper turns are possible compared to the multi-kilometre radius of turn typical of modern high-speed trains such as the TGV, because the vehicle will bank automatically on bends, like an aircraft, so that no lateral centrifugal acceleration is experienced on board.
A major drawback is that many cars – including passenger and freight cars, not just the locomotive – would require a powered gyroscope to stay upright.
Unlike other means of maintaining balance, such as lateral shifting of the centre of gravity or the use of reaction wheels, the gyroscopic balancing system is statically stable, so that the control system serves only to impart dynamic stability. The active part of the balancing system is therefore more accurately described as a roll damper.
== History ==
=== Brennan's monorail ===
Louis Brennan developed a 22-tonne (22-long-ton; 24-short-ton) (unladen weight) prototype vehicle. Brennan filed his first monorail patent in 1903.
His first demonstration model was just a 30.0-by-11.8-inch (762 by 300 mm) box containing the balancing system. However, this was sufficient for the Army Council to recommend a sum of £10,000 for the development of a full-size vehicle. This was vetoed by their Financial Department. However, the Army found £2,000 from various sources to fund Brennan's work.
Within this budget Brennan produced a larger model, 6.0 by 1.5 feet (1.83 by 0.46 m), kept in balance by two 5.0-inch (127 mm) diameter gyroscope rotors. This model is still in existence in the London Science Museum. The track for the vehicle was laid in the grounds of Brennan's house in Gillingham, Kent. It consisted of ordinary gas piping laid on wooden sleepers, with a 50-foot (15 m) wire rope bridge, sharp corners and slopes up to one in five. Brennan demonstrated his model in a lecture to the Royal Society in 1907 when it was shown running back and forth "on a taught and slender wire" "under the perfect control of the inventor".
Brennan's reduced scale railway largely vindicated the War Department's initial enthusiasm. However, the election in 1906 of a Liberal government, with policies of financial retrenchment, effectively stopped the funding from the Army. However, the India Office voted an advance of £6,000 (equivalent to £801,733 in 2023) in 1907 to develop the monorail for the North West Frontier region, and a further £5,000 (equivalent to £659,406 in 2023) was advanced by the Durbar of Kashmir in 1908. This money was almost spent by January 1909, when the India Office advanced a further £2,000 (equivalent to £263,333 in 2023).
On 15 October 1909, the railcar ran under its own power for the first time, carrying 32 people around the factory. The vehicle had a 20-horsepower (15 kW) petrol engine with a speed of 22 miles per hour (35 km/h). The transmission was electric, with the petrol engine driving a generator, and electric motors located on both bogies. This generator also supplied power to the gyro motors and the air compressor. The balancing system used a pneumatic servo, rather than the friction wheels used in the earlier model. The gyros were located in the cab, although Brennan planned to re-site them under the floor of the vehicle before displaying the vehicle in public, but the unveiling of Scherl's machine forced him to bring forward the first public demonstration to 10 November 1909. There was insufficient time to re-position the gyros before the monorail's public debut.
In December 1909, the Brennan demonstrated the railcar to the Royal Society. It carried 40 people at a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) on a single-rail circular track that was 200 m (660 ft) in circumference. The length, height, and width of the vehicle was 12.2 m × 4.0 m × 3.0 m (40 ft × 13 ft × 10 ft).
The public debut for Brennan's monorail was the Japan-British Exhibition at the White City, London in 1910. The monorail car carried 50 passengers at a time around a circular track at 20 miles per hour (32 km/h). Passengers included Winston Churchill, who showed considerable enthusiasm. Interest was such that children's clockwork monorail toys, single-wheeled and gyro-stabilised, were produced in England and Germany. Although a viable means of transport, the monorail failed to attract further investment. Of the two vehicles built, one was sold as scrap, and the other was used as a park shelter until 1930.
=== Scherl's car ===
Just as Brennan completed testing his vehicle, August Scherl, a German publisher and philanthropist, announced a public demonstration of the gyro monorail which he had developed in Germany. The demonstration was to take place on Wednesday 10 November 1909 at the Berlin Zoological Gardens.
Scherl's machine, also a full-size vehicle, was somewhat smaller than Brennan's, with a length and width of only 5.5 by 1.2 m (18 by 4 ft). It could accommodate four passengers on a pair of transverse bench seats. While Brennan used a pair of horizontal axis gyros, Scherl's gyros had vertical axes. They consisted of the 57 kg (125 lb) flywheels that were located under the seats, and rotated at 8,000 revolutions per minute. The servomechanism was hydraulic, and propulsion electric.
Scherl's railcar had two additional safety features. The first is that the gyroscopes would keep rotating several hours without power before they stopped completely, allowing the vehicle to be stopped long before it lost its balance. The second was small wheels at each corner that could be lowered to the ground to stabilize the vehicle before the gyros stopped.
Strictly speaking, August Scherl merely provided the financial backing. The righting mechanism was invented by Paul Fröhlich, and the car designed by Emil Falcke.
A Scientific American editorial questioned its practicality due to possible changes to rails and bridges. Although well received and performing perfectly during its public demonstrations, the car failed to attract significant financial support, and Scherl wrote off his investment in it.
=== Shilovsky's work ===
Following the failure of Brennan and Scherl to attract the necessary investment, the practical development of the gyro-monorail after 1910 continued with the work of Pyotr Shilovsky, a Russian aristocrat residing in London. His balancing system was based on slightly different principles to those of Brennan and Scherl, and permitted the use of a smaller, more slowly spinning gyroscope.
=== Post-World War I developments ===
In 1922, the Soviet government began construction of a Shilovsky monorail between Leningrad and Tsarskoe Selo, but funds ran out shortly after the project was begun.
In 1929, at the age of 74, Brennan also developed a gyrocar. This was turned down by a consortium of Austin/Morris/Rover, on the basis that they could sell all the conventional cars they built.
=== 21st century: Monocab ===
In October 2022 the Technische Hochschule OWL, the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, the Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung and the Landeseisenbahn Lippe e. V. presented a gyro-stabilized monorail based on Brennan's system on a section of the Extertal railway in Germany.
The system called Monocab is meant to permit bi-directional service on a single track since the vehicles use only one rail. The cabins that shall operate autonomously on-demand are designed accordingly narrow.
In September 2020 Monocab was funded from the European Regional Development Fund and by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia with 3.6 million euros combined.
== Principles of operation ==
=== Basic idea ===
The vehicle runs on a single conventional rail, so that without the balancing system it would topple over.
A spinning wheel is mounted in a gimbal frame whose axis of rotation (the precession axis) is perpendicular to the spin axis. The assembly is mounted on the vehicle chassis such that, at equilibrium, the spin axis, precession axis and vehicle roll axis are mutually perpendicular.
Forcing the gimbal to rotate causes the wheel to precess resulting in gyroscopic torques about the roll axis, so that the mechanism has the potential to right the vehicle when tilted from the vertical. The wheel shows a tendency to align its spin axis with the axis of rotation (the gimbal axis), and it is this action which rotates the entire vehicle about its roll axis.
Ideally, the mechanism applying control torques to the gimbal ought to be passive (an arrangement of springs, dampers and levers), but the fundamental nature of the problem indicates that this would be impossible. The equilibrium position is with the vehicle upright, so that any disturbance from this position reduces the height of the centre of gravity, lowering the potential energy of the system. Whatever returns the vehicle to equilibrium must be capable of restoring this potential energy, and hence cannot consist of passive elements alone. The system must contain an active servo of some kind.
=== Side loads ===
If constant side forces were resisted by gyroscopic action alone, the gimbal would rotate quickly on to the stops, and the vehicle would topple. In fact, the mechanism causes the vehicle to lean into the disturbance, resisting it with a component of weight, with the gyro near its undeflected position.
Inertial side forces, arising from cornering, cause the vehicle to lean into the corner. A single gyro introduces an asymmetry which will cause the vehicle to lean too far, or not far enough for the net force to remain in the plane of symmetry, so side forces will still be experienced on board.
In order to ensure that the vehicle banks correctly on corners, it is necessary to remove the gyroscopic torque arising from the vehicle rate of turn.
A free gyro keeps its orientation with respect to inertial space, and gyroscopic moments are generated by rotating it about an axis perpendicular to the spin axis. But the control system deflects the gyro with respect to the chassis, and not with respect to the fixed stars. It follows that the pitch and yaw motion of the vehicle with respect to inertial space will introduce additional unwanted, gyroscopic torques. These give rise to unsatisfactory equilibria, but more seriously, cause a loss of static stability when turning in one direction, and an increase in static stability in the opposite direction. Shilovsky encountered this problem with his road vehicle, which consequently could not make sharp left hand turns.
Brennan and Scherl were aware of this problem, and implemented their balancing systems with pairs of counter rotating gyros, precessing in opposite directions. With this arrangement, all motion of the vehicle with respect to inertial space causes equal and opposite torques on the two gyros, and are consequently cancelled out. With the double gyro system, the instability on bends is eliminated and the vehicle will bank to the correct angle, so that no net side force is experienced on board.
Shilovsky claimed to have difficulty ensuring stability with double-gyro systems, although the reason why this should be so is not clear. His solution was to vary the control loop parameters with turn rate, to maintain similar response in turns of either direction.
Offset loads similarly cause the vehicle to lean until the centre of gravity lies above the support point. Side winds cause the vehicle to tilt into them, to resist them with a component of weight. These contact forces are likely to cause more discomfort than cornering forces, because they will result in net side forces being experienced on board.
The contact side forces result in a gimbal deflection bias in a Shilovsky loop. This may be used as an input to a slower loop to shift the centre of gravity laterally, so that the vehicle remains upright in the presence of sustained non-inertial forces. This combination of gyro and lateral cg shift is the subject of a 1962 patent. A vehicle using a gyro/lateral payload shift was built by Ernest F. Swinney, Harry Ferreira and Louis E. Swinney in the US in 1962. This system is called the Gyro-Dynamics monorail.
== Comparison to two-rail vehicles ==
Shilovsky gave a number of claimed benefits including reduced right-of-way problems because steeper gradients and sharper corners may be negotiated in theory. In his book, Shilovsky describes a form of on-track braking, which is feasible with a monorail, but would upset the directional stability of a conventional rail vehicle. This has the potential of much shorter stopping distances compared with conventional wheel on steel, with a corresponding reduction in safe separation between trains. The result is potentially higher occupancy of the track, and higher capacity.
Shilovsky claimed his designs were actually lighter than the equivalent duo-rail vehicles. The gyro mass, according to Brennan, accounts for 3–5% of the vehicle weight, which is comparable to the bogie weight saved in using a single track design.
Considering a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve, the most serious problems arise if the gyro axis is vertical. There is a component of turn rate
Ω
{\displaystyle \Omega }
acting about the gimbal pivot, so that an additional gyroscopic moment is introduced into the roll equation:
A
d
2
ϕ
d
t
2
+
H
(
d
θ
d
t
+
Ω
ϕ
)
=
W
h
ϕ
{\displaystyle A{\frac {d^{2}\phi }{dt^{2}}}+H({\frac {d\theta }{dt}}+\Omega \phi )=Wh\phi }
This displaces the roll from the correct bank angle for the turn, but more seriously, changes the constant term in the characteristic equation to:
(
W
h
−
H
Ω
)
k
A
J
{\displaystyle {\frac {(Wh-H\Omega )k}{AJ}}}
Evidently, if the turn rate exceeds a critical value:
Ω
=
W
h
H
{\displaystyle \Omega ={\frac {Wh}{H}}}
The balancing loop will become unstable.
However, an identical gyro spinning in the opposite sense will cancel the roll torque which is causing the instability, and if it is forced to precess in the opposite direction to the first gyro will produce a control torque in the same direction.
In 1972, the Canadian Government's Division of Mechanical Engineering rejected a monorail proposal largely on the basis of this problem. Their analysis was correct, but restricted in scope to single vertical axis gyro systems, and not universal.
Gas turbine engines are designed with peripheral speeds as high as 400 metres per second (1,300 ft/s), and have operated reliably on thousands of aircraft over the past 50 years. Hence, an estimate of the gyro mass for a 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons), with a center-of-gravity height of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), assuming a peripheral speed of half what is used in jet engine design, is a mere 140 kilograms (310 lb). Brennan's recommendation of 3–5% of the vehicle mass was therefore highly conservative.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
"Gyro-Dynamics Monorail". The Monorail Society. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
"Oddities - Gyroscope Railroad - Louis Brennan's Mono-rail Car". Catskill Archive-Welcome. 11 July 2007. Archived from the original on 8 January 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
The Self Balancing Monorail on YouTube
Cunningham, Ewan (22 December 2023). "The Brennan Gyro Monorail from 1910". Primal Nebula. Retrieved 7 December 2025. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Europe_Meeting#ASEM_Ministerial_Conference_on_Energy_Security_(ASEMESMC) | Asia–Europe Meeting | The Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) is an Asian–European political dialogue forum to enhance relations and various forms of cooperation between its partners.
It was officially established on 1 March 1996 at the 1st ASEM Summit (ASEM1) in Bangkok, Thailand, by the then 15 Member States of the European Union (EU) and the European Commission, the then 7 Member States of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the individual countries of China, Japan, and South Korea. A series of enlargements saw additional EU Member States join as well as India, Mongolia, Pakistan and the ASEAN Secretariat in 2008, Australia, New Zealand and Russia in 2010, Bangladesh, Norway, and Switzerland in 2012, as well as Croatia, and Kazakhstan in 2014.
The main components of the ASEM Process rest on the following 3 pillars:
Political Pillar
Economic & Financial Pillar
Social, Cultural & Educational Pillar
In general, the ASEM Process is considered by the Partners involved to be a way of deepening the relations between Asia and Europe at all levels, which is deemed necessary to achieve a more balanced political and economic world order. The process is enhanced by the biennial meetings of Heads of State and Government, alternately in Asia and Europe, and biennial meetings of Foreign Ministers as well as other Ministerial Meetings, and other political, economic, and socio-cultural events at various levels.
== Partners ==
The ASEM Partnership currently has 53 Partners: 51 countries and 2 regional organisations. The countries are Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cambodia, China, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Kingdom and Vietnam while the European Union and the ASEAN Secretariat are the regional organisations involved.
== Meetings ==
=== ASEM Summits ===
Biennial Summits are held alternating between Asia and Europe, attended by the Heads of State and Government of the respective partner countries and organisations:
ASEM13: 25–26 November 2021, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
ASEM12: 18–19 October 2018, Brussels, Belgium
ASEM11: 15–16 July 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEM10: 16–17 October 2014, Milan, Italy
ASEM9: 05–06 November 2012, Vientiane, Laos
ASEM8: 04–05 October 2010, Brussels, Belgium
ASEM7: 24–25 October 2008, Beijing, China
ASEM6: 10–11 September 2006, Helsinki, Finland
ASEM5: 08–09 October 2004, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEM4 Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEM3: 20–21 October 2000, Seoul, South Korea
ASEM2: 03–04 April 1998, London, United Kingdom
ASEM1: 01–02 March 1996, Bangkok, Thailand
=== ASEM Ministerial Meetings ===
Aside from Summits, regular Ministerial Meetings are held on foreign affairs, financial, cultural, economic, educational, labor and employment, transport, or environmental issues, attended by the relevant ministers:
==== ASEM Foreign Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFMM) ====
ASEMFMM14 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 December 2019, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFMM13: 20–21 November 2017, Naypyidaw, Myanmar
ASEMFMM12: 05–06 November 2015, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
ASEMFMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 November 2013, New Delhi, India
ASEMFMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2011, Gödöllő, Hungary
ASEMFMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMFMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 28–29 May 2007, Hamburg, Germany
ASEMFMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 May 2005, Kyoto, Japan
ASEMFMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2004, Kildare, Ireland
ASEMFMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–24 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMFMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2002, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 24–25 May 2001, Beijing, China
ASEMFMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29 March 1999, Berlin, Germany
ASEMFMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 February 1997, Singapore
==== ASEM Finance Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFinMM) ====
ASEMFinMM14: 2020, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ASEMFinMM13 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26 April 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMFinMM12 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 09–10 June 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEMFinMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 September 2014, Milan, Italy
ASEMFinMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 October 2012, Bangkok, Thailand
ASEMFinMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2010, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFinMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 16 June 2008, Jeju, South Korea
ASEMFinMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 08–09 April 2006, Vienna, Austria
ASEMFinMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 June 2005, Tianjin, China
ASEMFinMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMFinMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMFinMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 13–14 January 2001, Kobe, Japan
ASEMFinMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15–16 September 1999, Frankfurt, Germany
ASEMFinMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19 September 1997, Bangkok, Thailand
==== ASEM Culture Ministers' Meetings (ASEMCMM) ====
ASEMCMM9: 2020, Asia
ASEMCMM8: 01-02 March 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMCMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 June 2016, Gwangju, South Korea
ASEMCMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 20–21 October 2014, Rotterdam, Netherlands
ASEMCMM5: 18–19 September 2012, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
ASEMCMM4: 08–10 September 2010, Poznań, Poland
ASEMCMM3: 21–24 April 2008, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ASEMCMM2: 06–07 June 2005, Paris, France
ASEMCMM1: 03 December 2003, Beijing, China
==== ASEM Economic Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEMM) ====
ASEMEMM7: 21–22 September 2017, Seoul, South Korea
High-level Meeting: 16-17 September 2005, Rotterdam, Netherlands
ASEMEMM5: 23–24 July 2003, Dalian, China
ASEMEMM4: 18–19 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMEMM3: 10–11 September 2001, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMEMM2: 09–10 October 1999, Berlin, Germany
ASEMEMM1: 27–28 September 1997, Makuhari, Japan
==== ASEM Education Ministers' Meetings (ASEMME) ====
ASEMME9: 25-26 January 2024, Valletta, Malta
ASEMME8: 15 December 2021, Bangkok (online), Thailand
ASEMME7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 May 2019, Bucharest, Romania
ASEMME6: 21–22 November 2017, Seoul, South Korea
ASEMME5: 27–28 April 2015, Riga, Latvia
ASEMME4: 12–14 May 2013, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ASEMME3: 09–10 May 2011, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMME2: 14–15 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMME1: 05–06 May 2008, Berlin, Germany
==== ASEM Labour & Employment Ministers' Conferences (ASEMLEMC) ====
ASEMLEMC5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 03–04 December 2015, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMLEMC4: 24–26 October 2012, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMLEMC3: 12–14 December 2010, Leiden, Netherlands
ASEMLEMC2: 13–15 October 2008, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMLEMC1: 03 September 2006, Potsdam, Germany
==== ASEM Transport Ministers' Meetings (ASEMTMM) ====
ASEMTMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11-12 December 2019, Budapest, Hungary
ASEMTMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26–28 September 2017, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMTMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29–30 April 2015, Riga, Latvia
ASEMTMM2: 24–25 October 2011, Chengdu, China
ASEMTMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19–20 October 2009, Vilnius, Lithuania
==== ASEM Environment Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEnvMM) ====
ASEMEnvMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–23 May 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEMEnvMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–26 April 2007, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMEnvMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 12–13 October 2003, Lecce, Italy
ASEMEnvMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17 January 2002, Beijing, China
==== ASEM Ministerial Conference on Energy Security (ASEMESMC) ====
ASEMESMC1: 17–18 June 2009, Brussels, Belgium
== See also ==
ASEM Education Process
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework
European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean Summit
== References ==
== External links ==
ASEM InfoBoard, the official information platform of the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM)
Introduction to the Asia-Europe Meeting
ASEM in Its Tenth Year: Looking Forward, Looking Back Archived 21 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Asia-Europe People's Forum (AEPF)
Asia-Europe Labour Forum (AELF)
ASEM Education Secretariat (AES)
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework
ASEF Classroom Network (ASEF ClassNet)
Asia-Europe Museum Network (ASEMUS) Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
ASEF University Alumni Network (ASEFUAN)
Asia-Europe Institute (AEI) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutter_Prize | Hutter Prize | The Hutter Prize is a cash prize funded by Marcus Hutter which rewards data compression improvements on a specific 1 GB English text file, with the goal of encouraging research in artificial intelligence (AI).
Launched in 2006, the prize awards 5,000 euros for each one percent improvement (with 500,000 euros total funding) in the compressed size of the file enwik9, which is the larger of two files used in the Large Text Compression Benchmark (LTCB); enwik9 consists of the first 109 bytes of a specific version of English Wikipedia. The ongoing competition is organized by Hutter, Matt Mahoney, and Jim Bowery.
The prize was announced on August 6, 2006 with a smaller text file: enwik8 consisting of 100MB. On February 21, 2020 both the dataset and the total prize pool were expanded by a factor of 10: from enwik8 of 100MB to enwik9 of 1GB; from 50,000 to 500,000 euros.
== Goals ==
The goal of the Hutter Prize is to encourage research in artificial intelligence (AI). The organizers believe that text compression and AI are equivalent problems. Hutter proved that the optimal behavior of a goal-seeking agent in an unknown but computable environment is to guess at each step that the environment is probably controlled by one of the shortest programs consistent with all interaction so far. However, there is no general solution because Kolmogorov complexity is not computable. Hutter proved that in the restricted case (called AIXItl) where the environment is restricted to time t and space l, a solution can be computed in time O(t2l), which is still intractable.
The organizers further believe that compressing natural language text is a hard AI problem, equivalent to passing the Turing test. Thus, progress toward one goal represents progress toward the other. They argue that predicting which characters are most likely to occur next in a text sequence requires vast real-world knowledge. A text compressor must solve the same problem in order to assign the shortest codes to the most likely text sequences.
Models like ChatGPT are not ideal for the Hutter Prize for a variety of reasons, they might take more computational resources than those allowed by the competition (computational and storage space).
== Rules ==
The contest is open-ended. It is open to everyone. To enter, a competitor must submit a compression program and a decompressor that decompresses to the file enwik9 (formerly enwik8 up to 2017). It is also possible to submit a compressed file instead of the compression program. The total size of the compressed file and decompressor (as a Win32 or Linux executable) must be less than or equal 99% of the previous prize winning entry. For each one percent improvement, the competitor wins 5,000 euros. The decompression program must also meet execution time and memory constraints.
Submissions must be published in order to allow independent verification. There is a 30-day waiting period for public comment before awarding a prize. In 2017, the rules were changed to require the release of the source code under a free software license, out of concern that "past submissions [which did not disclose their source code] had been useless to others and the ideas in them may be lost forever."
== Winners ==
== See also ==
List of computer science awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaserDisc#:~:text=In%20March%201984%2C%20Pioneer%20introduced,front%20and%20not%20the%20top. | LaserDisc | LaserDisc (LD) is a home video format and the first commercial optical disc storage medium. It was developed by Philips, Pioneer, and the movie studio MCA. The format was initially marketed in the United States in 1978 under the name DiscoVision, a brand used by MCA. As Pioneer took a greater role in its development and promotion, the format was rebranded LaserVision. While the LaserDisc brand originally referred specifically to Pioneer's line of players, the term gradually came to be used generically to refer to the format as a whole, making it a genericized trademark. The discs typically have a diameter of 300 millimeters (11.8 in), similar in size to the 12-inch (305 mm) phonograph record. Unlike most later optical disc formats, LaserDisc is not fully digital; it stores an analog video signal.
Many titles featured CD-quality digital audio, and LaserDisc was the first home video format to support surround sound. Its 425 to 440 horizontal lines of resolution was nearly double that of competing consumer videotape formats, VHS and Betamax, and approaching the resolution later achieved by DVDs. Despite these advantages, the format failed to achieve widespread adoption in North America or Europe, primarily due to the high cost of players and their inability to record.
In contrast, LaserDisc was significantly more popular in Japan and in wealthier regions of Southeast Asia, including Singapore, and Malaysia, and it became the dominant rental video format in Hong Kong during the 1990s. Its superior audiovisual quality made it a favorite among videophiles and film enthusiasts throughout its lifespan.
The technologies and concepts developed for LaserDisc laid the groundwork for subsequent optical media formats, including the compact disc (CD) and DVD. LaserDisc player production ended in July 2009 with Pioneer's exit from the market.
== History ==
The origins of optical recording date back to 1963, when David Paul Gregg and James Russell developed a transparent disc-based system, later patented in 1970. MCA acquired the rights to this technology in 1968. Separately, by 1969, Philips had developed a videodisc using reflective technology, which offered advantages over the transparent method. MCA and Philips began collaborating in the early 1970s and publicly demonstrated the videodisc format in 1972. Internally, the technology was known by several names, including Optical Videodisc System, Reflective Optical Videodisc, Laser Optical Videodisc, and Video Long Play.
The format was commercially introduced as MCA DiscoVision on December 11, 1978, in a test market launch in Atlanta, Georgia, two years after the debut of VHS and four years before the introduction of the CD, which is based on laser disc technology. The first LaserDisc title released in North America was the MCA DiscoVision edition of Jaws on December 15, 1978. Philips produced the players, while MCA manufactured the discs; however, the partnership ultimately proved unsuccessful and was dissolved after several years.
In 1980, Pioneer acquired a majority stake in the format and began marketing it as both LaserVision (as the format name) and LaserDisc (as the brand). Some releases informally referred to it as Laser Videodisc. Pioneer's LaserDisc players debuted in Japan in October 1981.
By 1984, Philips and Sony had introduced LV-ROM, a version of the format designed to store digital data, offering a capacity of 3.28 GB, foreshadowing the capabilities of later formats such as CD-ROM or DVD-ROM.
Although LaserDisc never achieved mass-market success, the format gained modest popularity in select markets and developed a niche following. In Japan, market penetration reached approximately 10% of households by 1999. In the United States, about 2% of households (roughly two million) owned a player. As of 2021, LaserDisc retains a small collector community in the United States and Japan. In Europe, the format remained obscure, though it saw limited institutional use. Notably, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) employed LaserDisc for the BBC Domesday Project in the mid-1980s, and from the early 1990s through the late 1990s, also used Sony's CRVdisc variant to broadcast television idents.
LaserDisc was largely supplanted by the DVD format by the early 2000s. The last LaserDisc title released in North America was Paramount's Bringing Out the Dead on October 3, 2000. In Japan, new titles continued to be released until September 21, 2001, with the final film being the Hong Kong action movie Tokyo Raiders from Golden Harvest. The last known LaserDisc release of any kind was Onta Station vol. 1018, a karaoke title issued exclusively in Japan on March 21, 2007.
Pioneer ceased production of LaserDisc players in July 2009. The company continued to offer maintenance services until September 30, 2020, when the remaining parts inventory was exhausted. A total of 16.8 million LaserDisc players were sold worldwide, including 9.5 million units sold by Pioneer.
== Design ==
A standard LaserDisc used for home video was 300 millimeters (11.8 in) in diameter, roughly the same size as a 12-inch (305 mm) phonograph record. Each disc consisted of two single-sided aluminum platters bonded together with plastic. At a basic level, LaserDiscs used a series of tiny pits and flat areas (called lands) etched into the disc surface. These core technologies would later be reused in CDs and DVDs. As a result, all three formats appear similar in physical design. However, LaserDisc differed significantly in how it stored information.
LaserDiscs stored analog video using a composite signal format, offering picture quality comparable to the 1-inch (25 mm) Type C videotape format, with approximately 425 to 440 horizontal lines of resolution. A carrier frequency was modulated by the video signal, and this signal was physically represented by the pattern of pits and lands on the disc. During playback, a laser read these patterns, enabling the player's circuitry to reconstruct the original analog signal.
Audio was originally recorded as analog stereo using frequency modulation. Later discs introduced digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), and by the 1990s, some titles supported digital surround sound formats such as Dolby Digital and DTS. These digital tracks were typically output through optical (TOSLINK) or coaxial (S/PDIF) connections to an external digital-to-analog converter. Digital PCM audio was encoded by directly summing its baseband signal with the FM-modulated video and analog audio carriers. This combined signal was then clipped, creating a square wave whose transitions are recorded as the pattern of pits and lands on the disc. The frequency of these transitions represented the high-frequency video information. Meanwhile, the lower-frequency digital and analog audio signals caused variations in the signal's duty cycle, which can be visualized as relative changes in pit length.
Because digital compression techniques were not yet available or practical in the late 1970s, three different playback formats were developed based on the disc's rotation speed:
CAV
Constant angular velocity (CAV), also known as Standard Play, offered several advanced playback features, including freeze-frame, variable slow motion, and reverse playback. CAV discs were played at a constant rotational speed, 1,800 rpm for NTSC or Hi-Vision and 1,500 rpm for PAL, with one video frame read per revolution. This allowed for 54,000 individual frames to be stored on a single side, equating to 30 minutes of video for NTSC and Hi-Vision, or 36 minutes for PAL. A key advantage of CAV was reduced visibility of crosstalk between adjacent tracks, as any interference would occur at the same point in adjacent frames. Although less common than constant linear velocity (CLV) discs, CAV was often used for special edition releases to showcase bonus features and effects. Notably, each frame on a CAV disc could be referenced by number, a feature valued by film scholars and enthusiasts for studying continuity, staging, and production details.
CLV
Constant linear velocity (CLV), also known as Extended Play, did not support the advanced playback features of CAV discs, except when used with high-end LaserDisc players equipped with a digital frame store, which could simulate functions like freeze-frame and variable-speed playback. CLV discs gradually slowed their rotational speed during playback to increase storage capacity, ranging from 1,800 to 600 rpm for NTSC, and 2,470 to 935 rpm for Hi-Vision. This allowed up to 60 minutes of video per side for NTSC and Hi-Vision formats (64 minutes for PAL), or up to two hours per disc. For films under two hours, the entire feature could fit on a single disc, which reduced production costs and removed the need to change discs mid-movie, especially convenient for users with dual-sided players. Most LaserDisc titles were released in CLV format, though some used a mix, with one side in CLV and the other in CAV. This allowed selected scenes, such as the climax or bonus features, to be presented in CAV, enabling frame-accurate navigation and highlighting special effects.
CAA
Constant angular acceleration (CAA) was introduced in the early 1980s to address crosstalk distortion and tracking issues found in CLV discs. Unlike CLV, which slows the disc gradually, CAA changes the rotation speed in controlled steps, improving playback while remaining compatible with existing players. Most disc manufacturers switched to CAA, though the term rarely appeared on consumer packaging. When digital audio was added to LaserDisc in 1985, it created bandwidth issues with CAA, reducing playback time to 55 minutes per side. As a result, some movies included only analog audio to fit the entire film on one disc. By 1987, Pioneer improved the CAA format to support a full 60 minutes of video with digital audio. Pioneer also extended CAA disc playback to 65 minutes per side for a few titles and developed a 70-minute format, though this longer version was never used commercially.
=== Audio ===
Sound could be stored in either analog or digital format and in a variety of surround sound formats; NTSC discs could carry a stereo analog audio track, plus a stereo CD-quality uncompressed PCM digital audio track, which were (EFM, CIRC, 16-bit and 44.1 kHz sample rate). PAL discs could carry one pair of audio tracks, either analog or digital and the digital tracks on a PAL disc were 16-bit, 44.1 kHz as on a CD; in the UK, the term "LaserVision" is used to refer to discs with analog sound, while "LaserDisc" is used for those with digital audio. The digital sound signal in both formats is EFM-encoded, as in CD.
Dolby Digital (also called AC-3) and DTS, which are now common on DVD releases, first became available on LaserDisc, and Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) which was released on LaserDisc in Japan, was among the first home video releases ever to include 6.1 channel Dolby Digital EX Surround (along with a few other late-life releases from 1999 to 2001). Unlike DVDs, which carry Dolby Digital audio in digital form, LaserDiscs stored Dolby Digital in a frequency modulated form within a track normally used for analog audio. Extracting Dolby Digital from a LaserDisc required a player equipped with a special "AC-3 RF" output and an external demodulator in addition to an AC-3 decoder. The demodulator was necessary to convert the 2.88 MHz modulated AC-3 information on the disc into a 384 kbit/s signal that the decoder could handle.
In the mid to late 1990s, many higher-end AV receivers included the demodulator circuit specifically for the LaserDisc player's RF-modulated Dolby Digital AC-3 signal. By the late 1990s, with LaserDisc players and disc sales declining due to DVD's growing popularity, the AV receiver manufacturers removed the demodulator circuit. Although DVD players were capable of playing Dolby Digital tracks, the signals out of DVD players were not in a modulated form and were not compatible with the inputs designed for LaserDisc AC-3. Outboard demodulators were available for a period that converted the AC-3 signal to the standard Dolby Digital signal that was compatible with the standard Dolby Digital/PCM inputs on capable AV receivers. Another type marketed by Onkyo and Marantz converted the RF AC-3 signal to 6-channel analog audio.
The two FM audio channels occupied the disc spectrum at 2.3 and 2.8 MHz on NTSC formatted discs and each channel had a 100 kHz FM deviation. The FM audio carrier frequencies were chosen to minimize their visibility in the video image, so that even with a poorly mastered disc, audio carrier beats in the video would be at least ‑35 dB down, and thus, invisible. Due to the frequencies chosen, the 2.8 MHz audio carrier (Right Channel) and the lower edge of the chroma signal were very close together, and if filters were not carefully set during mastering, there could be interference between the two. In addition, high audio levels combined with high chroma levels could cause mutual interference, leading to beats becoming visible in highly saturated areas of the image. To help deal with this, Pioneer decided to implement the CX Noise Reduction System on the analog tracks. By reducing the dynamic range and peak levels of the audio signals stored on the disc, filtering requirements were relaxed and visible beats greatly reduced or eliminated. The CX system gives a total NR effect of 20 dB, but in the interest of better compatibility for non-decoded playback, Pioneer reduced this to only 14 dB of noise reduction (the RCA CED system used the "original" 20 dB CX system). This also relaxed calibration tolerances in players and helped reduce audible pumping if the CX decoder was not calibrated correctly.
At least where the digital audio tracks were concerned, the sound quality was unsurpassed at the time compared to consumer videotape. However, the quality of the analog soundtracks could vary greatly depending upon the disc and, sometimes, the player. Many early and lower-end LaserDisc players had poor analog audio components, and in turn, many early discs had poorly mastered analog audio tracks, making digital soundtracks in any form more desirable to serious enthusiasts. Early DiscoVision and LaserDisc titles lacked the digital audio option, but many of those movies received digital sound in later re-issues by Universal, and the quality of analog audio tracks generally improved greatly as time went on. Many discs that had originally carried old analog stereo tracks received new Dolby Stereo and Dolby Surround tracks instead often in addition to digital tracks, which helped boost sound quality. Later analog discs also applied CX noise reduction, which improved the signal-to-noise ratio of the audio.
DTS audio, when available on a disc, replaced the digital audio tracks; hearing DTS-encoded audio required only an S/PDIF compliant digital connection to a DTS decoder.
On a DTS disc, digital PCM audio was not available, so if a DTS decoder was also not available, the only option was to fall back to the analog Dolby Surround or stereo audio tracks. In some cases, the analog audio tracks were further made unavailable through replacement with supplementary audio such as isolated scores or audio commentary. This effectively reduced playback of a DTS disc on a non-DTS equipped system to mono audio, or in a handful of cases, no film soundtrack at all.
Only one 5.1 surround sound option existed on a given LaserDisc (either Dolby Digital or DTS). As such, if surround sound was desired, the disc must be matched to the capabilities of the playback equipment (LaserDisc player and receiver/decoder) by the purchaser. A fully capable LaserDisc playback system included a newer LaserDisc player that was capable of playing digital tracks; had a digital optical output for digital PCM and DTS encoded audio; was aware of AC-3 audio tracks; and had an AC-3 coaxial output, an external or internal AC-3 RF demodulator and AC-3 decoder, and a DTS decoder. Many 1990s A/V receivers combined the AC-3 decoder and DTS decoder logic, but an integrated AC-3 demodulator was rare both in LaserDisc players and in later A/V receivers.
PAL LaserDiscs have a slightly longer playing time than NTSC discs, but have fewer audio options. PAL discs only have two audio tracks, consisting of either two analog-only tracks on older PAL LaserDiscs, or two digital-only tracks on newer discs. In comparison, later NTSC LaserDiscs are capable of carrying four tracks (two analog and two digital). On certain releases, one of the analog tracks is used to carry a modulated AC-3 signal for 5.1 channel audio (for decoding and playback by newer LaserDisc players with an "AC-3 RF" output). Older NTSC LaserDiscs made before 1984 (such as the original DiscoVision discs) only have two analog audio tracks.
== LaserDisc players ==
The earliest players employed gas helium–neon laser tubes to read discs and had a red-orange light with a wavelength of 632.8 nm, while later solid-state players used infrared semiconductor laser diodes with a wavelength of 780 nm.
In March 1984, Pioneer introduced the first consumer player with a solid-state laser, the LD-700. It was also the first LaserDisc player to load from the front and not the top. One year earlier, Hitachi introduced an expensive industrial player with a laser diode, but the player had poor picture quality (due to an inadequate dropout compensator), and was made only in limited quantities. After Pioneer released the LD-700, gas lasers were no longer used in consumer players, despite their advantages, although Philips continued to use gas lasers in their industrial units until 1985.
Most LaserDisc players required the user to manually turn the disc over to play the other side. A number of players (all diode laser based) were made that were capable of playing both sides of the disc automatically, using a mechanism to physically flip a single laser pickup.
Pioneer produced some multi-disc models which held more than 50 LaserDiscs. For a short time in 1984, one company offered a "LaserStack" unit that added multi-disc capability to existing players: the Pioneer LD-600, LD-1100, or the Sylvania/Magnavox clones. It required the user to physically remove the player lid for installation, where it then attached to the top of the player. LaserStack held up to 10 discs and could automatically load or remove them from the player or change sides in around 15 seconds.
The first mass-produced industrial LaserDisc player was the MCA DiscoVision PR-7820, later rebranded the Pioneer PR7820. In North America, this unit was used in many General Motors dealerships as a source of training videos and presentation of GM's new line of cars and trucks in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Most players made after the mid-1980s were capable of also playing Compact Discs. These players included a 4.7 in (12 cm) indentation in the loading tray, where the CD was placed for playback. At least two Pioneer models (the CLD-M301 and the CLD-M90) also operated as a CD changer, with several 4.7 in indentations around the circumference of the main tray.
The Pioneer DVL-9, introduced in 1996, was both Pioneer's first consumer DVD player and the first combination DVD/LD player.
The first high-definition video player was the Pioneer HLD-X0. A later model, the HLD-X9, featured a superior comb filter, and laser diodes on both sides of the disc.
=== Notable players ===
Pioneer PR7820, first industrial LaserDisc player, capable of being controlled by an external computer.
Pioneer CLD-900, first combination player capable of reading Compact Discs. Released in 1985.
Pioneer CLD-1010, first player capable of playing 5-inch (130 mm) CD-Video discs. Released in 1987.
Pioneer LaserActive players: The Pioneer CLD-A100 and NEC PCE-LD1 provided the ability to play Sega Genesis (Mega Drive) and TurboGrafx16 (PC Engine) video games when used in conjunction with additional components.
Pioneer DVL series, capable of playing both LaserDiscs and DVDs
== Branding ==
During its development, MCA (which co-owned the technology), referred to it as the Optical Videodisc System, "Reflective Optical Videodisc" or "Laser Optical Videodisc", depending on the document. They changed the name once in 1969 to Disco-Vision and then again in 1978 to DiscoVision (without the hyphen), which became the official spelling. Technical documents and brochures produced by MCA Disco-Vision during the early and mid-'70s also used the term "Disco-Vision Records" to refer to the pressed discs. MCA owned the rights to the largest catalog of films in the world during this time, and they manufactured and distributed the DiscoVision releases of those films under the "MCA DiscoVision" software and manufacturing label; consumer sale of those titles began on December 11, 1978, with the aforementioned Jaws.
Philips' preferred name for the format was "VLP", after the Dutch words Video Langspeel-Plaat ("Video long-play disc"), which in English-speaking countries stood for Video Long-Play. The first consumer player, the Magnavox VH-8000 even had the VLP logo on the player. For a while in the early and mid-1970s, Philips also discussed a compatible audio-only format they called "ALP", but that was soon dropped as the Compact Disc system became a non-compatible project in the Philips corporation. Until early 1980, the format had no "official" name. The LaserVision Association, made up of MCA, Universal-Pioneer, IBM, and Philips/Magnavox, was formed to standardize the technical specifications of the format (which had been causing problems for the consumer market) and finally named the system officially as "LaserVision".
After its introduction in Japan in 1981, the format was introduced in Europe in 1983 with the LaserVision name, although Philips used "VLP" in model designations, such as VLP-600. Following lackluster sales there (around 12–15,000 units Europe-wide), Philips tried relaunching the entire format as "CD-Video" in 1987, with the name appearing not just on the new hybrid 12 cm discs, but also on standard 20 and 30 cm LaserDiscs with digital audio. While this name and logo appeared on players and labels for years, the "official" name of the format remained LaserVision. In the early 1990s, the format's name was changed again to LaserDisc.
=== Pioneer ===
Pioneer Electronics also entered the optical disc market in 1977 as a 50/50 joint venture with MCA called Universal-Pioneer and manufacturing MCA-designed industrial players under the MCA DiscoVision name (the PR-7800 and PR-7820). For the 1980 launch of the first Universal-Pioneer player, the VP-1000 was noted as a "laser disc player", although the "LaserDisc" logo was displayed clearly on the device. In 1981, "LaserDisc" was used exclusively for the medium itself, although the official name was "LaserVision" (as seen at the beginning of many LaserDisc releases, just before the start of the film). Pioneer reminded numerous video magazines and stores in 1984 that LaserDisc was a trademarked word, standing only for LaserVision products manufactured for sale by Pioneer Video or Pioneer Electronics. A 1984 Ray Charles ad for the LD-700 player bore the term "Pioneer LaserDisc brand videodisc player". From 1981 until the early 1990s, all properly licensed discs carried the LaserVision name and logo, even Pioneer Artists titles.
On single-sided LaserDiscs mastered by Pioneer, playing the wrong side would cause a still screen to appear with a happy, upside-down turtle that has a LaserDisc for a belly (nicknamed the "LaserDisc Turtle"). The words "Program material is recorded on the other side of this disc" are below the turtle. This also appears on Japanese releases, with the text in Japanese.
=== MCA ===
During the early years, MCA also manufactured discs for other companies including Paramount, Disney and Warner Bros. Some of them added their own names to the disc jacket to signify that the movie was not owned by MCA. After DiscoVision Associates shut down in early 1982, Universal Studio's videodisc software label (called MCA Videodisc until 1984), began reissuing many DiscoVision titles. Unfortunately, quite a few, such as Battlestar Galactica and Jaws, were time-compressed versions of their CAV or CLV DiscoVision originals. The time-compressed CLV re-issue of Jaws no longer had the original soundtrack, having had incidental background music replaced for the videodisc version due to high licensing costs (the original music would not be available until the THX LaserDisc box set was released in 1995). One Universal/Columbia co-production issued by MCA Disco Vision in both CAV and CLV versions, The Electric Horseman, is still not available in any other home video format with its original score intact; even the most recent DVD release has had substantial music replacement of both instrumental score and Willie Nelson's songs. An MCA release of Universal's Howard the Duck shows only the start credits shown in widescreen before changing to 4:3 for the rest of the film. For many years, this was the only disc-based release of the film, until widescreen DVD formats were released with extras. Also, the 1989 and 1996 LaserDisc releases of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial are the only formats to include the cut scene of Harrison Ford, in the role of the school principal, telling off Elliott for letting the frogs free in the biology class.
== Comparison with other formats ==
=== VHS ===
LaserDisc had several advantages over VHS. It featured a far sharper picture with a horizontal resolution of 425 television lines (TVL) for NTSC and 440 TVL for PAL discs, while VHS featured only 240 TVL with NTSC. Super VHS, released in 1987, reduced the quality gap, having horizontal luma resolution comparable to LaserDisc. But horizontal chroma resolution of Super VHS remained as low as that of standard VHS, about 40 TVL, while LaserDisc offered about 70 TVL of chroma resolution.
LaserDisc could handle analog and digital audio where VHS was mostly analog only (VHS could have PCM audio in professional applications but it was uncommon), and the NTSC discs could store multiple audio tracks. This allowed for extras such as director's commentary tracks and other features to be added onto a film, creating "Special Edition" releases that would not have been possible with VHS. Disc access was random and chapter-based, like the DVD format, meaning that one could jump to any point on a given disc very quickly. By comparison, VHS would require tedious rewinding and fast-forwarding to get to specific points.
Initially, LaserDiscs were cheaper than videocassettes to manufacture, because they lacked the moving parts and plastic outer shell which were necessary for VHS tapes to work, and the duplication process was much simpler. A VHS cassette had at least 14 parts (including the actual tape) while LaserDisc had one part with five or six layers. A disc could be stamped out in a matter of seconds, whereas duplicating videotape required a complex bulk tape duplication mechanism and was a time-consuming process. By the end of the 1980s, average disc-pressing prices were over $5.00 per two-sided disc, due to the large amount of plastic material and the costly glass-mastering process needed to make the metal stamper mechanisms. Due to the larger volume of demand, videocassettes quickly became much cheaper to duplicate, costing as little as $1.00 by the beginning of the 1990s.
LaserDiscs potentially had a much longer lifespan than videocassettes. Because the discs were read optically instead of magnetically, no physical contact needed to be made between the player and the disc, except for the player's clamp that holds the disc at its center as it is spun and read. As a result, playback would not wear the information-bearing part of the discs, and properly manufactured LaserDiscs could theoretically last beyond a lifetime. By contrast, a VHS tape held all of its picture and sound information on the tape in a magnetic coating which was in contact with the spinning heads on the head drum, causing progressive wear with each use (though later in VHS's lifespan, engineering improvements allowed tapes to be made and played back without contact). The tape was also thin and delicate, and it was easy for a player mechanism, especially on a low quality or malfunctioning model, to mishandle the tape and damage it by creasing it, frilling (stretching) its edges, or even breaking it.
=== DVD ===
By the advent of DVD, LaserDisc had declined considerably in popularity, so the two formats never directly competed with each other.
LaserDisc was a composite video format: the luminance (black and white) and chrominance (color) information were transmitted in one signal, separated by the receiver. While good comb filters could separate the signals adequately, the two signals could not be completely separated. On DVD-Video, images are stored in the YCbCr format, with the chroma information being entirely discrete, which results in far higher fidelity, particularly at strong color borders or regions of high detail (especially if there is moderate movement in the picture) and low-contrast details such as skin tones, where comb filters almost inevitably smudge some detail.
In contrast to the entirely digital DVD, LaserDiscs used only analog video. As the LaserDisc format was not digitally encoded and did not make use of compression techniques, it was immune to video macroblocking (most visible as blockiness during high motion sequences) or contrast banding (subtle visible lines in gradient areas, such as out-of-focus backgrounds, skies, or light casts from spotlights) which could be caused by the MPEG-2 encoding process as video is prepared for DVD. Early DVD releases held the potential to surpass their LaserDisc counterparts, but often managed only to match them for image quality, and in some cases, the LaserDisc version was preferred. Proprietary human-assisted encoders manually operated by specialists could vastly reduce the incidence of artifacts, depending on playing time and image complexity. By the end of LaserDisc's run, DVDs were living up to their potential as a superior format.
DVDs use compressed audio formats such as Dolby Digital and DTS for multichannel sound. Most LaserDiscs were encoded with stereo (often Dolby Surround) CD quality audio 16bit/44.1 kHz tracks as well as analog audio tracks.
DTS-encoded LaserDiscs have DTS soundtracks of 1,235 kbit/s instead of the reduced bitrate of 768 kbit/s commonly employed on DVDs with optional DTS audio.
=== Advantages ===
LaserDisc players could provide a greater degree of control over the playback process. Unlike many DVD players, the transport mechanism always obeyed commands from the user: pause, fast-forward, and fast-reverse commands were always accepted (barring malfunctions). There were no "User Prohibited Options" where content protection code instructed the player to refuse commands to skip a specific part (such as fast forwarding through copyright warnings). (Some DVD players, particularly higher-end units, do have the ability to ignore the blocking code and play the video without restrictions, but this feature is not common in the usual consumer market.)
With CAV LaserDiscs, the user could jump directly to any individual frame of a video simply by entering the frame number on the remote keypad, a feature not common among DVD players. Some DVD players have a cache feature, which stores a certain amount of the video in RAM, which allows the player to index a DVD as quickly as an LD, even down to the frame in some players.
Damaged spots on a LaserDisc could be played through or skipped over, while a DVD will often become unplayable past the damage. Some newer DVD players feature a repair+skip algorithm, which alleviates this problem by continuing to play the disc, filling in unreadable areas of the picture with blank space or a frozen frame of the last readable image and sound. The success of this feature depends upon the amount of damage. LaserDisc players, when working in full analog, recover from such errors faster than DVD players.
Similar to the CD versus LP sound quality debates common in the audiophile community, some videophiles argue that LaserDisc maintains a "smoother", more "film-like", natural image while DVD still looks slightly more artificial. Early DVD demo discs often had compression or encoding problems, lending additional support to such claims at the time. The video signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth of LaserDisc are substantially less than those of DVDs, making DVDs appear sharper and clearer to most viewers.
Another advantage, at least to some consumers, was the fact that any sort of anti-piracy technology was purely optional. It was claimed that Macrovision's Copyguard protection could not be applied to LaserDisc, due to the format's design. The vertical blanking interval, where the Macrovision signal would be implemented, was used for timecode and frame coding as well as player control codes on LaserDisc players. Due to its relatively small market share, there was never a push to redesign the format despite the obvious potential for piracy. The industry simply decided to engineer it into the DVD specification.
LaserDisc's support for multiple audio tracks allowed for vast supplemental materials to be included on-disc and made it the first available format for "Special Edition" releases; the 1984 Criterion Collection edition of Citizen Kane is generally credited as being the first "Special Edition" release to home video (King Kong being the first release to have an audio commentary track included), and for setting the standard by which future "Special Edition" discs were measured. The disc provided interviews, commentary tracks, documentaries, still photographs, and other features for historians and collectors.
=== Disadvantages ===
Despite the advantages over competing technology at the time (namely VHS and Betamax), the discs were heavy—weighing about 250 grams (8.8 oz) each—and cumbersome, were more prone than a VHS tape to damage if mishandled, and manufacturers did not market LaserDisc units with recording capabilities to consumers. Also, because of their size, greater mechanical effort was required to spin the discs at the proper speed, resulting in much more noise generated than other media.
The space-consuming analog video signal of a LaserDisc limited playback duration to 30/36 minutes (CAV NTSC/PAL) or 60/64 minutes (CLV NTSC/PAL) per side, because of the hardware manufacturer's refusal to reduce line count and bandwidth for increased playtime, (as was done in VHS; VHS tapes had a 3 MHz video bandwidth, while LaserDisc preserves the full 6 MHz bandwidth and resolution used in NTSC broadcasts). After one side finished playing, a disc had to be flipped over to continue watching a movie, and some titles filled two or more discs, depending on the film's runtime and whether or not special features are included. Many players, especially units built after the mid-1980s, could "flip" discs automatically (by rotating the optical pickup to the other side of the disc), but this was accompanied by a pause in the movie during the side change.
In the event the movie was longer than what could be stored on two sides of a single disc, manually swapping to a second disc was required at some point during the film (one exception to this rule was the Pioneer LD-W1, which featured the ability to load two discs and to play each side of one disc and then to switch to playing each side of the other disc). In addition, perfect still frames and random access to individual still frames was limited only to the more expensive CAV discs, which only had a playing time of approximately 30 minutes per side. In later years, Pioneer and other manufacturers overcame this limitation by incorporating a digital memory buffer, which "grabbed" a single field or frame from a CLV disc.
The analog information encoded onto LaserDiscs also did not include any form of built-in checksum or error correction. Because of this, slight dust and scratches on the disc surface could result in read errors which caused various video quality problems: glitches, streaks, bursts of static, or momentary picture interruptions. In contrast, the digital MPEG-2 format information used on DVDs has built-in error correction which ensures that the signal from a damaged disc will remain identical to that from a perfect disc right up until the damage to the disc surface prevents the laser from being able to identify usable data.
In addition, LaserDisc videos sometimes exhibited a problem known as "crosstalk". The issue could arise when the laser optical pickup assembly within the player was out of alignment or because the disc was damaged or excessively warped. But it could also occur even with a properly functioning player and a factory-new disc, depending on electrical and mechanical alignment problems. In these instances, the issue arose due to the fact that CLV discs required subtle changes in rotating speed at various points during playback. During a change in speed, the optical pickup inside the player might read video information from a track adjacent to the intended one, causing data from the two tracks to "cross"; the extra video information picked up from that second track shows up as distortion in the picture which looks reminiscent of swirling "barber poles" or rolling lines of static.
Assuming the player's optical pickup was in proper working order, crosstalk distortion normally did not occur during playback of CAV-format LaserDiscs, as the rotational speed never varied. If the player calibration was out of order, or if the CAV disc was faulty or damaged, other problems affecting tracking accuracy could occur. One such problem was "laser lock", where the player read the same two fields for a given frame over and over, causing the picture to look frozen as if the movie were paused.
Another significant issue unique to LaserDisc involved the inconsistency of playback quality between different makers and models of player. On the majority of televisions, a given DVD player will produce a picture that is visually indistinguishable from other units; differences in image quality between players only becomes easily apparent on larger televisions, and substantial leaps in image quality are generally only obtained with expensive, high-end players that allow for post-processing of the MPEG-2 stream during playback.
In contrast, LaserDisc playback quality was highly dependent on hardware quality, and major variances in picture quality appeared between different makers and models of LaserDisc players, even when tested on low- to mid-range televisions. The obvious benefits of using high-quality equipment helped keep demand for some players high, while also keeping pricing for those units comparably high: in the 1990s, notable players sold for anywhere from US$200 to well over $1,000, while older and less desirable players could be purchased in working condition for as little as $25.
==== Laser rot ====
Many early LaserDiscs were not manufactured properly. The adhesive that was used contained impurities which were able to penetrate the lacquer seal layer and chemically attack the metalized reflective aluminum layer, altering its reflective characteristics. This, in turn, deteriorated the recorded signal. This was a problem that was termed "laser rot" among LaserDisc enthusiasts (also called "color flash" internally by LaserDisc pressing plants). Some forms of laser rot could appear as black spots that looked like mold or burned plastic which caused the disc to skip and the video to exhibit excessive speckling noise. But, for the most part, rotted discs could actually appear perfectly fine to the naked eye.
Later optical standards have also been known to suffer similar problems, including a notorious batch of defective CDs manufactured by Philips-DuPont Optical at their Blackburn, Lancashire facility in England during the late 1980s/early 1990s.
== Impact and decline ==
LaserDisc did not have high market penetration in North America due to the high cost of the players and discs (which were far more expensive than VHS players and tapes), and due to marketplace confusion with the technologically inferior CED, which also went by the name Videodisc. While the format was not widely adopted by North American consumers, it was received well among videophiles due to the superior audio and video quality compared to VHS and Betamax tapes, thus finding a place in nearly one million American homes by the end of 1990. The format was more popular in Japan than in North America because prices were kept low to ensure adoption, resulting in minimal price differences between VHS tapes and the higher quality LaserDiscs, which helped ensure that it quickly became the dominant consumer video format in Japan. Anime collectors in every country in which the LaserDisc format was released (which included both North America and Japan) also quickly became familiar with this format, and sought the higher video and sound quality of LaserDisc and the availability of numerous titles not available on VHS. (They were also encouraged by Pioneer's in-house production of anime which made titles specifically with the format in mind.) LaserDiscs were also popular alternatives to videocassettes among movie enthusiasts in the more affluent regions of South East Asia, such as Singapore, due to their high integration with the Japanese export market and the disc-based media's superior longevity compared to videocassette, especially in the humid conditions endemic to that area of the world.
The format also became quite popular in Hong Kong during the 1990s before the introduction of VCDs and DVD. While people rarely bought the discs (because each LaserDisc was priced around US$100), high rental activity helped the video rental business in the city grow larger than it had ever been previously. Due to integration with the Japanese export market, NTSC LaserDiscs were used in the Hong Kong market, in contrast to the PAL standard used for broadcast (this anomaly also exists for DVD). This created a market for multi-system TVs and multi-system VCRs which could display or play both PAL and NTSC materials in addition to SECAM materials (which were never popular in Hong Kong). Some LaserDisc players could convert NTSC signals to PAL during playback so that TVs used in Hong Kong could display the LaserDisc materials.
Despite the relative popularity, manufacturers refused to market recordable LaserDisc devices on the consumer market, even though the competing VCR devices could record onto cassette. This had a negative impact on sales worldwide. The inconvenient disc size, the high cost of both the players and the media and the inability to record onto the discs combined to take a serious toll on sales, and contributed to the format's poor adoption figures.
Although the LaserDisc format was supplanted by DVD by the late 1990s, many LaserDisc titles are still highly coveted by movie enthusiasts (for example, Disney's Song of the South which is unavailable in the US in any format, but was issued in Japan on LaserDisc.) This is largely because there are many films that are still only available on LaserDisc and many other LaserDisc releases contain supplementary material not available on subsequent DVD versions of those films. Until the end of 2001, many titles were released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD in Japan.
== Further developments and applications ==
=== Computer control ===
In the early 1980s, Philips produced a LaserDisc player model adapted for a computer interface, dubbed "professional." In 1985, Jasmine Multimedia created LaserDisc jukeboxes featuring music videos from Michael Jackson, Duran Duran, and Cyndi Lauper. When connected to a PC this combination could be used to display images or information for educational or archival purposes, for example, thousands of scanned medieval manuscripts. This device could be considered a very early equivalent of a CD-ROM.
In the mid-1980s Lucasfilm pioneered the EditDroid non-linear editing system for film and television based on computer-controlled LaserDisc players. Instead of printing dailies out on film, processed negatives from the day's shoot would be sent to a mastering plant to be assembled from their 10-minute camera elements into 20-minute film segments. These were then mastered onto single-sided blank LaserDiscs, just as a DVD would be burnt at home today, allowing for much easier selection and preparation of an edit decision list (EDL). In the days before video assist was available in cinematography, this was the only other way a film crew could see their work. The EDL went to the negative cutter who then cut the camera negative accordingly and assembled the finished film. Only 24 EditDroid systems were ever built, even though the ideas and technology are still in use today. Later EditDroid experiments borrowed from hard-drive technology of having multiple discs on the same spindle and added numerous playback heads and numerous electronics to the basic jukebox design so that any point on each of the discs would be accessible within seconds. This eliminated the need for racks and racks of industrial LaserDisc players since EditDroid discs were only single-sided.
In 1986, a SCSI-equipped LaserDisc player attached to a BBC Master computer was used for the BBC Domesday Project. The player was referred as an LV-ROM (LaserVision Read Only Memory) as the discs contained the driving software as well as the video frames. The discs used the CAV format, and encoded data as a binary signal represented by the analog audio recording. These discs could contain in each CAV frame video/audio or video/binary data, but not both. "Data" frames would appear blank when played as video. It was typical for each disc to start with the disc catalog (a few blank frames) then the video introduction before the rest of the data. Because the format (based on the ADFS hard disc format) used a starting sector for each file, the data layout effectively skipped over any video frames. If all 54,000 frames are used for data storage an LV-ROM disc can contain 324 MB of data per side. The Domesday Project systems also included a genlock, allowing video frames, clips and audio to be mixed with graphics originated from the BBC Master; this was used to great effect for displaying high-resolution photographs and maps, which could then be zoomed into.
During the 1980s in the United States, Digital Equipment Corporation developed the standalone PC control IVIS (Interactive VideoDisc Information System) for training and education. One of the most influential programs developed at DEC was Decision Point, a management gaming simulation, which won the Nebraska Video Disc Award for Best of Show in 1985.
Apple's HyperCard scripting language provided Macintosh computer users with a means to design databases of slides, animation, video and sounds from LaserDiscs and then to create interfaces for users to play specific content from the disc through software called LaserStacks. User-created "stacks" were shared and were especially popular in education where teacher-generated stacks were used to access discs ranging from art collections to basic biological processes. Commercially available stacks were also popular with the Voyager company being possibly the most successful distributor.
Commodore International's 1992 multimedia presentation system for the Amiga, AmigaVision, included device drivers for controlling a number of LaserDisc players through a serial port. Coupled with the Amiga's ability to use a Genlock, this allowed for the LaserDisc video to be overlaid with computer graphics and integrated into presentations and multimedia displays, years before such practice was commonplace.
Pioneer also made computer-controlled units such as the LD-V2000. It had a back-panel RS-232 serial connection through a five-pin DIN connector, and no front-panel controls except Open/Close. (The disc would be played automatically upon insertion.)
Under contract from the U.S. military, Matrox produced a combination computer/LaserDisc player for instructional purposes. The computer was a 286, the LaserDisc player only capable of reading the analog audio tracks. Together they weighed 43 lb (20 kg) and sturdy handles were provided in case two people were required to lift the unit. The computer controlled the player via a 25-pin serial port at the back of the player and a ribbon cable connected to a proprietary port on the motherboard. Many of these were sold as surplus by the military during the 1990s, often without the controller software. Nevertheless, it is possible to control the unit by removing the ribbon cable and connecting a serial cable directly from the computer's serial port to the port on the LaserDisc player.
=== Video games ===
The format's instant-access capability made it possible for a new breed of LaserDisc-based video arcade games. Several companies saw potential in using LaserDiscs for video games in the 1980s and 1990s, beginning in 1983 with Sega's Astron Belt. Cinematronics and American Laser Games produced elaborate arcade games that used the random-access features to create interactive movies such as Dragon's Lair and Space Ace. Similarly, the Pioneer Laseractive and Halcyon were introduced as home video game consoles that used LaserDisc media for their software.
=== Hi-Vision LD ===
In 1991, several manufacturers announced specifications for what would become known as Hi-Vision LD, representing a span of almost 15 years until the feats of this HD analog optical disc system would finally be duplicated digitally by HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Encoded using NHK's MUSE "Hi-Vision" analog HDTV system, MUSE discs would operate like standard LaserDiscs but would contain high-definition 1,125-line (1,035 visible lines; Sony HDVS) video with a 16:9 aspect ratio. The MUSE players were also capable of playing standard NTSC format discs and are superior in performance to non-MUSE players even with these NTSC discs. The MUSE-capable players had several noteworthy advantages over standard LaserDisc players, including a red laser with a much narrower wavelength than the lasers found in standard players. The red laser was capable of reading through disc defects such as scratches and even mild disc rot that would cause most other players to stop, stutter or drop-out. Crosstalk was not an issue with MUSE discs, and the narrow wavelength of the laser allowed for the virtual elimination of crosstalk with normal discs.
To view MUSE-encoded discs, it was necessary to have a MUSE decoder in addition to a compatible player. There are televisions with MUSE decoding built-in and set-top tuners with decoders that can provide the proper MUSE input. Equipment prices were high, especially for early HDTVs which generally eclipsed US$10,000, and even in Japan the market for MUSE was tiny. Players and discs were never officially sold in North America, although several distributors imported MUSE discs along with other import titles. Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Lawrence of Arabia, A League of Their Own, Bugsy, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Bram Stoker's Dracula and Chaplin were among the theatrical releases available on MUSE LDs. Several documentaries, including one about Formula One at Japan's Suzuka Circuit were also released.
LaserDisc players and LaserDiscs that worked with the competing European HD-MAC HDTV standard were also made.
=== Picture discs ===
Picture discs have artistic etching on one side of the disc to make the disc more visually attractive than the standard shiny silver surface. This etching might look like a movie character, logo, or other promotional material. Sometimes that side of the LD would be made with colored plastic, rather than the clear material used for the data side. Picture disc LDs only had video material on one side as the "picture" side could not contain any data. Picture discs are rare in North America.
=== LD-G ===
Pioneer Electronics—one of the format's largest supporters/investors—was also deeply involved in the karaoke business in Japan, and used LaserDiscs as the storage medium for music and additional content such as graphics. This format was generally called LD-G. While several other karaoke labels manufactured LaserDiscs, there was nothing like the breadth of competition in that industry that exists now, as almost all manufacturers have transitioned to CD+G discs.
=== Anamorphic LaserDiscs ===
With the release of 16:9 televisions in the early 1990s, Pioneer and Toshiba decided that it was time to take advantage of this aspect ratio. Squeeze LDs were enhanced 16:9-ratio widescreen LaserDiscs. During the video transfer stage, the movie was stored in an anamorphic "squeezed" format. The widescreen movie image was stretched to fill the entire video frame with less or none of the video resolution wasted to create letterbox bars. The advantage was a 33% greater vertical resolution compared to letterboxed widescreen LaserDisc. This same procedure was used for anamorphic DVDs, but unlike all DVD players, very few LD players had the ability to unsqueeze the image for 4:3 sets, If the discs were played on a standard 4:3 television the image would be distorted. Some 4:3 sets (such as the Sony WEGA series) could be set to unsqueeze the image. Since very few people outside of Japan owned 16:9 displays, the marketability of these special discs was very limited.
There were no anamorphic LaserDisc titles available in the US except for promotional purposes. Upon purchase of a Toshiba 16:9 television viewers had the option of selecting a number of Warner Bros. 16:9 films. Titles include Unforgiven, Grumpy Old Men, The Fugitive, and Free Willy. The Japanese lineup of titles was different. A series of releases under the banner "Squeeze LD" from Pioneer of mostly Carolco titles included Basic Instinct, Stargate, Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Showgirls, Cutthroat Island, and Cliffhanger. Terminator 2 was released twice in Squeeze LD, the second release being THX certified and a notable improvement over the first.
=== Recordable formats ===
Several recordable variants of the LaserDisc format were developed for professional and industrial applications, but none were marketed to consumers. Their limited availability contributed to the common perception that LaserDisc lacked recording capability.
The Recordable Laser Videodisc (RLV), introduced by the Optical Disc Corporation in 1984, was a write-once, read-many format that was fully compatible with standard LaserDisc players. Compared to conventional LaserDiscs, RLVs were distinguished by a red/purple tint of the dye used in the reflective layer that is burned by the laser.
The Component Recordable Video disc (CRVdisc), developed by Sony, was another write-once, read-many format intended for professional use. Housed in a protective caddy, the disc resembled an oversized floppy disk. The CRVdisc was used by the BBC for many years to playout idents.
The LaserRecorder, introduced by Pioneer in fall 1991, was a rewritable LaserDisc system designed for professional video production. It used CAV mode and protective caddies, with discs, which could hold 32 minutes of video per side, were rated for up to one million record/erase cycles. The dual-laser design enabled real-time, frame-accurate non-linear editing by allowing one laser to read while the other searched. The system's rapid access made it useful for editing workflows, including its integration into EditDroid, an early digital film editing system. The recorder sold for around US$39,950 (equivalent to $89,516 in 2024), with blank discs priced at approximately US$1,295 (equivalent to $2,902 in 2024).
== LaserDisc sizes ==
=== 30 cm (Full-size) ===
The most common size of LaserDisc was 30 cm (11.8 in), approximately the size of 12 in (30.5 cm) LP vinyl records. These discs allowed for 30/36 minutes per side (CAV NTSC/PAL) or 60/64 minutes per side (CLV NTSC/PAL). The vast majority of programming for the LaserDisc format was produced on these discs.
=== 20 cm ("EP"-size) ===
A number of 20 cm (7.9 in) LaserDiscs were also published. These smaller "EP"-sized LDs allowed for 20 minutes per side (CLV). They are much rarer than the full-size LDs, especially in North America, and roughly approximate the size of 45rpm (7 in (17.8 cm)) vinyl singles. These discs were often used for music video compilations (e.g. Bon Jovi's "Breakout" and Bananarama's "Video Singles") as well as Japanese karaoke machines.
=== 12 cm (CD Video and Video Single Disc) ===
There were also 12 cm (4.7 in) (CD size) "single"-style discs produced that were playable on LaserDisc players. These were referred to as CD Video (CD-V) discs, and Video Single Discs (VSD).
CD-V was a hybrid format launched in the late 1980s, and carried up to five minutes of analog LaserDisc-type video content with a digital soundtrack (usually a music video), plus up to 20 minutes of digital audio CD tracks. The original 1989 release of David Bowie's retrospective Sound + Vision CD box set prominently featured a CD-V video of "Ashes to Ashes", and standalone promo CD-Vs featured the video, plus three audio tracks: "John, I'm Only Dancing", "Changes", and "The Supermen".
Despite the similar name, CD Video is entirely incompatible with the later all-digital Video CD (VCD) format, and can only be played back on LaserDisc players with CD-V capability or one of the players dedicated to the smaller discs. CD-Vs were somewhat popular for a brief time worldwide but soon faded from view.
In Europe, Philips also used the "CD Video" name as part of a short-lived attempt in the late 1980s to relaunch and rebrand the entire LaserDisc system. Some 20 and 30 cm discs were also branded "CD Video", but unlike the 12 cm discs, these were essentially just standard LaserDiscs with digital soundtracks and no audio-only CD content.
The VSD format was announced in 1990, and was essentially the same as the 12 cm (4.7 in) CD-V, but without the audio CD tracks, and intended to sell at a lower price. VSDs were popular only in Japan and other parts of Asia and were never fully introduced to the rest of the world.
== Footnotes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Isailovic, Jordan. Videodisc and Optical Memory Systems. Vol. 1, Boston, MA: Prentice Hall, 1984. ISBN 978-0-13-942053-5.
Lenk, John D. Complete Guide to Laser/VideoDisc Player Troubleshooting and Repair. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985. ISBN 0-13-160813-4.
== External links ==
LaserDisc Database
LaserDisc Technical Page
BLAM Entertainment Group
LaserDisc Planet (archived)
LaserDisc Archive (archived)
1980 video on Tomorrow's World
Optical disc formats at Total Rewind
Laser Disc Review #2-5 at LaserDisc Database
LaserDisc Player Formats and Features on eBay (archived)
Digital Audio Modulation in the PAL and NTSC Laservision Video Disc Coding Formats essay |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Channel_(Russian_TV_channel)#:~:text=Disney%20Channel%20(Russian%3A%20%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%20Disney,to%20problems%20with%20content%20licensing. | Disney Channel (Russian TV channel) | Disney Channel (Russian: Канал Disney, romanized: Kanal Disney) was a Russian free-to-air television channel, serving as a local version of the American Disney Channel. It was launched as a pay television channel on 10 August 2010. On 31 December 2011, after acquiring the Russian free-to-air television network Semyorka, Disney Channel was launched in its place, becoming the second Disney Channel feed to be broadcast on free-to-air national television, after Spain and before Turkey and Germany. The channel ceased broadcasting on 14 December 2022, due to content licensing issues.
The channel targeted viewers aged 10 to 45 and aired popular animated series, live-action shows, and films, including both Disney originals and Russian-produced content.
== History ==
=== Background (1991–2004) ===
Before the creation of Disney Channel in Russia, Disney content, including animated series, TV shows, and films, was broadcast on several Russian channels through blocks such as "Walt Disney Presents" (1991-1992), "Disney Club" (1998-2014), and "The Magical World of Disney" (2007-2013). These blocks aired on major networks like Channel One, RTR, STS, and REN TV. After Disney Channel launched, these blocks were discontinued.
Despite having its own channel, Disney films and animated features continued to premiere on larger federal channels like Channel One until 2017, with STS becoming Disney’s primary partner for premieres. Since 2016, REN TV has aired Disney-owned action and horror films.
In 1999, Fox Kids, a joint venture between News Corporation and Saban Entertainment, launched in Russia. It primarily aired animated series and films from Saban Entertainment, DIC Entertainment, and Marvel. In 2001, The Walt Disney Company acquired Fox Family Worldwide and a controlling stake in Fox Kids Europe, leading to the eventual rebranding of Fox Kids as Jetix.
=== Jetix (2005–2009) ===
On 1 January 2005, Fox Kids was rebranded as Jetix. The channel continued to air programs from Fox Kids alongside new shows such as W.I.T.C.H., A.T.O.M., and Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go.
On 1 January 2006, Jetix introduced the "Jetix Max" block, a three-hour segment aimed at older audiences featuring comedies, anime, and classic Marvel shows. The channel's broadcast hours were extended to 2:00 AM, and ESPN Classic Sports was removed from the lineup. Later in April 2006, the "Jetix Play" block was launched, featuring animated series from Saban Entertainment and DIC Entertainment.
A proposal to launch a separate Disney Channel in Russia began in January 2007 but was postponed and faced regulatory challenges. A second attempt in early 2009 was blocked by the Federal Antimonopoly Service.
On 1 July 2008, Jetix switched to 24-hour broadcasting. Disney increased its stake in Jetix Europe to 99.8% by February 2009. On 19 September 2009, Jetix Russia launched, operating exclusively from Moscow, with The Walt Disney Company CIS as the owner and Telco Media providing technical support.
=== Launch (2010–2015) ===
On 31 March 2010, Disney received a license from Roskomnadzor for broadcasting Disney Channel in Russia, and the channel officially launched on 10 August 2010, replacing Jetix. Disney Channel began with the animated film Finding Nemo and initially mirrored the Eastern European Disney Channel feed.
On 20 December 2010, Disney Channel started broadcasting with a +2 time shift for Eastern Russia. The channel offered a mix of Disney content, Jetix series, and domestic productions like Disney 365 and As the Bell Rings. The "Uznavaika" block for preschoolers, akin to Playhouse Disney, was featured until 2020.
On 27 October 2011, Disney acquired a 49% stake in Seven TV to launch Disney Channel on federal frequencies, officially starting on 31 December 2011, with Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas. The channel was managed by LLC 7TV, a joint venture between Disney and UTV Holding. The Disney Channel began airing ABC series, Russian animations, and feature films in various time slots.
From mid-2013, the channel incorporated Russian cartoons and features from studios like Pixar and DreamWorks. It also introduced local children's programming such as Through the Mouth of a Baby and Mom for 5+.
By early 2014, feature films and TV series were reduced, with most programming shifting to nighttime slots. On 1 August 2014, the network underwent a global rebranding and increased the "Big Animation" block to daily. The "Uznavaika" block expanded to 7 hours, and new programs like Everything Interesting: Cinema replaced previous projects.
=== Reorganization and closure (2016–2022) ===
In January 2016, following amendments to Russian media laws limiting foreign ownership to 20%, UTV Holding increased its stake in Disney Channel Russia to 80%, while The Walt Disney Company retained a 20% share. Despite this, Disney's economic involvement remained at 49%, overseeing content, rights management, and production, while UTV handled technical support and distribution.
In 2017, AF Media sold its stake in UTV Holding, and by 2019, all UTV Holding assets, including Disney Channel, were transferred to Media-1. Disney and Media-1 became the sole founders of LLC 7TV.
The channel underwent a rebranding in late 2018, updating its design and logo placement. In early 2020, game series returned to nighttime slots, with daytime broadcasts resuming briefly in June 2020 before being removed again in August 2021. The "Uznavaika" (Russian: Узнавайка, lit. 'Learn more') block was rebranded to "Dobroe ytro s Mickey" (Russian: Добро утро с Микки, lit. 'Good morning with Mickey') on 1 May 2020, with reduced airtime.
On 11 March 2022, Disney suspended operations in Russia after the country invaded Ukraine. By summer 2022, Disney ceased dubbing content in Russian, and the channel's website and social media were shut down by 30 September 2022. The channel ceased broadcasting on 14 December 2022, with its last program being Gravity Falls. Disney exited LLC 7TV, and Media-1 launched a new channel, Solntse, on the former Disney Channel frequencies. Disney ended its association with Media-1 entirely.
== Aftermath and replacement ==
Solntse (Russian: Солнце, lit. '[The] Sun') is a Russian free-to-air television channel launched on 14 December 2022 as the replacement for Disney Channel following the mutual termination of the joint venture agreement between Disney and Media1 which had operated Disney Channel in the country since 21 August 2010. The channel focuses on family entertainment through animated shows, family-oriented shows, films and all-Russian TV shows.
== Programming ==
Disney Channel Russia primarily targeted younger audiences with its programming. From 2010, the channel featured Playhouse Disney content, which was later rebranded to Disney Junior on 1 May 2020. Initially, the programming block aired from early morning until 12:00 p.m., but its airtime gradually decreased over the years.
Early on, Disney Channel Russia mirrored the Eastern European Disney Channel feed and included former Jetix programming. The lineup featured a mix of Disney Channel and Disney XD live-action series, such as Jessie, Austin & Ally and Lab Rats, alongside animated series from Disney Channel and Jetix like Phineas and Ferb and Kid vs. Kat.
Starting in 2014, the channel shifted focus to children's animation, incorporating Disney XD and Disney Junior series such as Gravity Falls, Star vs. the Forces of Evil and DuckTales. Live-action programming declined due to cultural differences and financial challenges. A new evening block, "Большая Анимация" ("Great Animation"), replaced the earlier "Your Bright Night!" block, showcasing Disney’s theatrical movies nightly at 7:30 p.m. In 2020, live-action series made a brief return, with the premiere of Gabby Duran & the Unsittables.
=== Disney Channel Russia Original Productions ===
Boljšie semejnye igry ("The Great Family Game", Большие семейные игры)
Èto moj rebenok?! ("Is this my child?!", Это мой ребенок?!)
Èto moja komnata! ("This is my room!", Это моя комната!)
Mama na 5+ ("Mama 5+", Мама на 5+)
Pravila stilja ("Style rules", Правила стиля)
Posle školy ("After School", После школы)
Prikoly na peremenke: Novaja škola ("As the Bell Rings: A New School", Приколы на переменке. Новая школа)
Ustami mladenca ("The mouth of the baby", Устами младенца)
Vsio interesnoje: Kino ("Everything interesting: Movies", Всё интересное: Кино)
== Logos ==
== See also ==
Jetix
Jetix Play
Seven TV
Disney Channel (Central and Eastern Europe)
== References ==
== External links ==
Disney Channel Russia official website
Official news release by Walt Disney Company CIS |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_%C5%8Ckuma_Cabinet | First Ōkuma Cabinet | The First Ōkuma Cabinet was the eighth Cabinet of Japan, and was led by Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu from June 30 to November 8, 1898.
== Cabinet ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_World_Series | 2004 World Series | The 2004 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2004 season. The 100th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between the American League (AL) champion Boston Red Sox and the National League (NL) champion St. Louis Cardinals. The series was played from October 23 to 27, 2004, at Fenway Park and Busch Memorial Stadium. The Red Sox swept the Cardinals in four games, earning their first title since 1918 and ending the Curse of the Bambino.
The Cardinals earned their berth into the playoffs by winning the NL Central division title, and had the best win–loss record in the NL. The Red Sox won the AL wild card to earn theirs. The Cardinals reached the World Series by defeating the Los Angeles Dodgers in the best-of-five NL Division Series and the Houston Astros in the best-of-seven NL Championship Series. The Red Sox defeated the Anaheim Angels in the AL Division Series. After trailing three games to none to the New York Yankees in the AL Championship Series, the Red Sox came back to win the series, advancing to their first World Series since 1986. The Cardinals made their first appearance in the World Series since 1987. With the New England Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXVIII, the World Series victory made Boston the first city to have Super Bowl and World Series championship teams in the same year (2004) since Pittsburgh in 1979. The Red Sox became the third straight wild card team to win the World Series; the Anaheim Angels won in 2002 and the Florida Marlins won in 2003.
The Red Sox had home-field advantage in the World Series by virtue of the AL winning the 2004 All-Star Game. In game one, Mark Bellhorn helped the Red Sox win with a go-ahead home run in the 8th, while starter Curt Schilling led the team to a game two victory by pitching six innings and allowing just one run. The Red Sox won the first two games despite committing four errors in each. The Red Sox won game three, aided by seven shutout innings by Pedro Martínez. A leadoff home run by Johnny Damon in the first inning gave the Sox a lead they never relinquished in game four for the Red Sox to secure the series. The Cardinals did not lead in any of the games in the series; the sixth and eighth innings of the first game was the only time that the two teams were tied. Manny Ramírez was named the series' Most Valuable Player.
The 2004 World Series was broadcast on Fox, and watched by an average of just under 25.5 million viewers. While not a particularly competitive series, the series is ranked as one of the most memorable World Series of all time, and one of the most iconic professional sports moments from the 2000s due to its historical significance for Boston. The Red Sox and Cardinals faced each other again in the 2013 World Series, which the Red Sox also won, this time 4 games to 2.
== Route to the series ==
This was the ninth meeting between teams from Boston and St. Louis for a major professional sports championship. This previously happened in two World Series (1946, 1967), four NBA Finals (1957, 1958, 1960, 1961), Super Bowl XXXVI two years prior, and the 1970 Stanley Cup Final. It was also the third World Series between the Red Sox and Cardinals. The previous two meetings in 1946 and 1967 were both won by the Cardinals in seven games.
=== Boston Red Sox ===
The Red Sox had lost in the previous season's ALCS against the New York Yankees. The loss was mainly blamed on the decision by then-manager Grady Little to keep starting pitcher Pedro Martínez in the game in the 8th inning of Game 7. The Yankees won the game and series after Aaron Boone hit a walk-off home run off Tim Wakefield. Little was fired two weeks later.
During the off-season, the Red Sox hired Terry Francona as their new manager. They also signed Keith Foulke as their closer and traded for Curt Schilling as a starting pitcher. The Red Sox played two particularly notable games against the Yankees during the regular season. A game on July 1, in which they came back from a 3-run deficit to force extra innings, is best remembered for an incident in the 12th inning, when Yankees shortstop Derek Jeter made a catch on the run before hurling himself head-first into the stands. The Yankees won the game in the next inning to take an 8-game lead in the American League East. In the 3rd inning of a game on July 24, Red Sox pitcher Bronson Arroyo hit Yankees batter Alex Rodriguez with one of his pitches. As Rodriguez walked towards first base, he began shouting profanities at Arroyo. Red Sox catcher Jason Varitek positioned himself between the two players. After a brief argument, Varitek pushed his glove into Rodriguez' face, causing a bench-clearing brawl. The Red Sox eventually won the game thanks to a home run by Bill Mueller in the 9th inning. On July 31, the Red Sox traded shortstop Nomar Garciaparra to the Chicago Cubs after he had spent eight years with the team. They acquired shortstop Orlando Cabrera and first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz in this trade. They won the wild card to earn a place in the post-season for the second year in a row.
In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Red Sox faced the second-seeded Anaheim Angels in a best-of-five series. They won Game 1 largely thanks to a 7-run 4th inning, and went on to sweep the series. In the 7th inning of Game 3, with the Red Sox leading by 4, Vladimir Guerrero tied the game for the Angels with a grand slam. However, David Ortiz won the series with a game-winning home run in the 10th. In the American League Championship Series, the Red Sox lost the first three games against the top-seeded New York Yankees, including a 19–8 drubbing in Game 3, and were trailing 4–3 in Game 4 when they began the 9th inning. Kevin Millar was walked by Yankees closer Mariano Rivera. Dave Roberts then came into the game to pinch run for Millar and stole second base. Mueller then singled to enable him to tie the game. Another game-winning home run by Ortiz won the game 6–4 for the Red Sox in the 12th inning. Ortiz' single in the 14th inning of Game 5 scored the winning run for the Red Sox, in what was, then, the longest post-season game in baseball history. Despite having a dislocated ankle tendon, Schilling started Game 6 for the Red Sox. He pitched for seven innings, and allowed just one run, during which time his sock became soaked in blood. In the eighth inning, Yankees third baseman Rodriguez slapped a ball out of pitcher Arroyo's hand, allowing the Yankees to score a run. However, after a discussion the umpires called Rodriguez out for interference and canceled the run. Fans then threw debris onto the field in protest and the game was stopped for ten minutes. The Red Sox won the game 4–2 and became the first baseball team to ever force a Game 7 after having been down 3 games to none. A 10–3 win in Game 7 brought the Red Sox to the World Series for the first time in 18 years.
=== St. Louis Cardinals ===
Having failed to make the playoffs the season before, and with their division rivals (the Chicago Cubs and Houston Astros) expected to be strong, the Cardinals were generally expected to finish 3rd in the National League Central. However, strong offensive seasons from Albert Pujols, Scott Rolen, and Jim Edmonds—during which they each hit more than 30 home runs and 100 runs batted in (RBI)—helped them to lead the league in runs scored. They also allowed the fewest runs of any team in the league. Four of their starters recorded at least 15 wins and closer Jason Isringhausen recorded a league-best 47 saves. They added outfielder Larry Walker in August and finished the regular season with the best win–loss record in the league at 105-57.
The top-seeded Cardinals faced the #3 seed Los Angeles Dodgers in the divisional round of the playoffs. Five home runs in Game 1 and no runs allowed by the bullpen in Game 2 helped the Cardinals to win the first two games. A complete game by Dodgers pitcher José Lima enabled the Dodgers to force a Game 4, during which a home run by Pujols won the series for the Cardinals. In the National League Championship Series, the Cardinals faced the #4 seed Houston Astros and won the first two games in St. Louis. However, the Astros tied the series in the next two games in Houston, before a combined one-hitter by Astros pitchers Brandon Backe and Brad Lidge gave them the series lead. An RBI single by Jeff Bagwell in the 9th inning of Game 6 tied the game and forced extra innings. In the 12th, Edmonds won the game for the Cardinals with a walk-off home run. Trailing in the sixth inning of Game 7, a game-tying RBI double by Albert Pujols followed by a Scott Rolen two-run home run and then an RBI single by Larry Walker in the 8th inning helped the Cardinals to a 5–2 win and their first World Series berth in 17 years.
By reaching the World Series with the Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the sixth manager to win pennants in both leagues. This was after La Russa had managed the Oakland Athletics to three straight pennants between 1988 and 1990 and winning the 1989 World Series. He would attempt to join Sparky Anderson as the only men to have managed teams to World Series championships in both leagues. He wore #10 in tribute to Anderson (who wore 10 while manager of the Cincinnati Reds) and to indicate he was trying to win the team's 10th championship.
== Series build-up ==
The coming series was heavily discussed and analyzed by the American media. The Star-News of Wilmington, North Carolina, compared the Red Sox and Cardinals position by position and concluded that the Cardinals were stronger in eight positions, the Red Sox in four and both teams even in one. They predicted that the Cardinals would win the series in seven games. Andrew Haskett of E-Sports.com praised the two teams' starting pitchers but also said that the Cardinals "took a serious blow" when Chris Carpenter was forced out of the series due to an injury to his arm. He noted the teams' power hitters, especially the Red Sox's David Ortiz and the Cardinals' Albert Pujols, Scott Rolen and Jim Edmonds. While he praised the Red Sox defense, he called the Cardinals "one of the best defensive teams to ever walk onto a baseball field". Ultimately he concluded that the series would be close and that the Red Sox would win it.
John Donovan of Sports Illustrated noted the team's expected ascent to the championship, writing that they were "not supposed to be here". He called the series a "blast from the past" because both teams were very old franchises and had twice previously met in the World Series. He wrote that the Red Sox had the edge in pitching and the Cardinals in defense and batting. He concluded that Schilling and Martinez would be the "key to [the] Series" and that the Red Sox would win in six games. Jim Molony of MLB.com, said he expected the series to play out differently from the last time the two teams met in the World Series in 1967 because both team offenses had been some of the best in the league during the season, while pitching had been very dominant in 1967.
Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe said that "Bally's in Las Vegas set the Red Sox as 8–5 favorites to win the Series" and that there was "some sentiment in St. Louis that the NL champions have been disrespected". but also that Red Sox General Manager Theo Epstein "Did not want to dis[respect] the Cardinals". Shaughnessy also quoted Schilling as having said: "There's a lot of good players in that [visitors] clubhouse over there. This isn't the time for us to be thinking about history. If we get three wins and 26 outs into the fourth win, I'm pretty sure it will hit us." Before the series began, Shaughnessy wrote that although the Red Sox had beaten the Yankees, the series needed to be won, as it was the only way to end the Curse of the Bambino, which he had publicized based on the book of the same title in 1990, and demeaning chants of "1918!" would no longer echo at Yankee Stadium. During the series, he wrote that people in New England were thinking about loved ones who had spent their entire lives hoping that they would see their Red Sox win a World Series.
Both teams had lost in their previous World Series appearances in seven games. The Red Sox lost to the New York Mets in 1986, while the Cardinals lost in 1987 to the Minnesota Twins. The Cardinals and Red Sox had not won the World Series since 1982 and 1918 respectively. When the two teams had previously played each other in the 1946 and 1967 World Series, the Cardinals won both series in seven games. Having won the All-Star Game, the AL had been awarded home-field advantage, which meant the Red Sox had the advantage at Fenway Park in four of the seven games in the series.
== Summary ==
Boston won the series, 4–0.
== Matchups ==
=== Game 1 ===
Local band Dropkick Murphys performed "Tessie", and a moment of silence was observed to remember local student Victoria Snelgrove, who had been accidentally killed by police two days earlier as Sox fans had celebrated winning the American League pennant. Steven Tyler, the lead singer of Aerosmith, another local band, performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" and Red Sox legend Carl Yastrzemski threw the ceremonial first pitch. Kelly Clarkson sang "God Bless America" during the seventh-inning stretch.
Tim Wakefield made his first start of the 2004 postseason for the Red Sox, becoming the first knuckleball pitcher to make a World Series start since 1948, while Woody Williams, who had won his previous two starts in the post-season, was the Cardinals' starting pitcher. In the bottom of the first inning, Williams gave up a lead-off double to Johnny Damon, and then hit Orlando Cabrera in the shoulder with one of his pitches. After Manny Ramírez flied out, Ortiz hit a three-run home run in his first-ever World Series at bat. Kevin Millar then scored by virtue of a single by Bill Mueller to put the Red Sox up 4–0.
The Cardinals scored one run in the second on a sacrifice fly by Mike Matheny to score Jim Edmonds, then one in the third innings on a solo home run to right field by Walker. In the bottom of the third, the Red Sox scored three runs after seven consecutive batters reached base, giving them a five-run lead. Dan Haren came in from the Cardinals' bullpen to replace Williams during the inning.
In the top of the fourth inning, Bronson Arroyo was brought in to replace Wakefield after he had walked four batters. Those walks, combined with a throwing error by Millar and a passed ball by Doug Mirabelli, allowed the Cardinals to reduce the lead to two runs. In the sixth inning, So Taguchi reached first on an infield hit and was allowed to advance to second when Arroyo threw the ball into the stands. Doubles by Édgar Rentería and Walker tied the game at seven. In the bottom of the seventh inning, Ramírez singled with two men on base, and a poor throw by Edmonds allowed Mark Bellhorn to score. Ortiz then hit a line drive that appeared to skip off the lip of the infield and hit Cardinals' second baseman Tony Womack with "considerable force". Womack immediately grabbed his clavicle as a second Red Sox run scored. He was attended to once play had ended and replaced by Marlon Anderson. A precautionary X-ray revealed that there was no damage.
In the top of the eighth inning, with one out and two men on base, Red Sox closer Keith Foulke came in to pitch. Rentería singled towards Ramírez in left field, who unintentionally kicked the ball away, allowing Jason Marquis to score. Walker also hit the ball towards Ramírez in the next at bat. Ramírez slid in an attempt to try to catch the ball, but tripped and deflected the ball for his second error in two plays, and the fourth Red Sox error in the game. Roger Cedeño scored on the play to tie the game at nine. In the bottom of the eighth inning, however, Jason Varitek reached on an error, and Bellhorn then hit a home run off the right field foul pole, also known as Pesky's Pole, for his third home run in as many games to give the Red Sox a two-run lead. In the ninth inning, Foulke struck out Cedeño to win the game for the Red Sox 11–9.
With a total of 20 runs, it was the highest-scoring opening game of a World Series ever. With four RBI, Ortiz also tied a franchise record for RBI in a World Series game. Walker, making his World Series debut in Game 1, collected four hits in five at bats with a home run and two doubles. His four-hit outing tied a Cardinals World Series record, becoming the seventh overall and first to do so since Lou Brock in 1967, also against Boston.
=== Game 2 ===
Boston native James Taylor performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" before Game 2 and singer Donna Summer, also a Boston native, performed "God Bless America" during the seventh-inning stretch. The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by the surviving three members of the famous Red Sox quartet that had faced the Cardinals in 1946: Bobby Doerr, Dom DiMaggio and Johnny Pesky (Ted Williams had died two years earlier).
Despite having a torn tendon in his right ankle, similar to Game 6 of the ALCS against the Yankees, Schilling started Game 2 for the Red Sox. Schilling had four stitches in the ankle the day before, causing him "considerable discomfort". He was not sure on the morning of Game 2 if he would be able to play, but after one of the stitches was removed, he was treated with antibiotics and was able to pitch.
Morris started for the Cardinals on three days' rest (one day fewer than is orthodox rest for a starting pitcher).
In the first inning, Albert Pujols doubled with two out, and Scott Rolen hit a line drive towards Mueller, who caught it to end the inning. Morris walked Ramírez and Ortiz in the bottom of the inning. Varitek then tripled to center field to give the Red Sox a 2–0 lead.
In the fourth inning, Pujols doubled again and was able to score on an error by Mueller. The Red Sox also scored in the bottom of the inning when Bellhorn doubled to center with two runners on base, to give them a three-run lead. Cal Eldred came in to relieve Morris in the fifth inning, after he had walked the leadoff hitter, having already given up four runs in the previous four innings. Mueller committed his World Series record-tying third error of the game, in the sixth inning; however, the Cardinals failed to capitalize. In the bottom of the inning, Trot Nixon led off with a single to center, and two more singles by Johnny Damon and Orlando Cabrera enabled two more runs to score to make it 6–1.
After six innings of allowing no earned runs – which gave him a total of 13 innings against the Yankees and Cardinals with only one earned run allowed on a torn ankle tendon – Schilling made way for Alan Embree, who pitched a scoreless seventh. Mike Timlin replaced Embree in the eighth, in which a sacrifice fly by Scott Rolen reduced the Red Sox lead to four. Keith Foulke then came in to strike out Jim Edmonds to end the inning and also pitched the ninth to end the game. For the second game in a row, the Red Sox won despite committing four fielding errors.
With the win, Schilling became only the fifth pitcher to ever win a World Series game with a team from both leagues, having previously done it with National League teams, the Philadelphia Phillies in 1993, and the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2001. He later donated the bloody sock he wore during the game to the Baseball Hall of Fame museum. Much of the blame for the Cardinals' losses in the first two games was directed at the fact that Rolen, Edmonds and Reggie Sanders, three of the Cardinals' best batters, had combined for one hit in 22 at-bats.
=== Game 3 ===
Seattle Mariners designated hitter Edgar Martínez was presented with the 2004 Roberto Clemente Award, having announced his retirement one month before. The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by arguably the Cardinals' best-ever position player, Stan Musial, and caught by arguably their best-ever pitcher, Bob Gibson. "The Star-Spangled Banner" and "God Bless America" were sung by country music singer Martina McBride and singer–songwriter Amy Grant respectively. During the game, a sign for the fast-food restaurant Taco Bell that measured 12 by 12 feet (3.7 m × 3.7 m) and read "Free Taco Here", was hung approximately 420 feet (130 m) from home plate, over the left-center field bullpen. Taco Bell promised that, if the sign was hit by a home run ball, they would give a free "Crunchy Beef Taco" to everyone in the United States.
Once again, the Red Sox took the lead in the first inning when Ramírez hit a home run off former Red Sox pitcher Jeff Suppan. Pedro Martínez was the starting pitcher for the Red Sox, and in the bottom of the first inning, he allowed the Cardinals to load the bases with one out. Edmonds then hit a fly ball towards Ramírez in left field, who caught it on the run and threw to catcher Jason Varitek at home plate. Varitek tagged out Walker, who was attempting to score from third, ending the inning.
In the bottom of the third inning, the Cardinals had two runners on base with no one out. Walker hit a ground ball towards first base, and Cardinals third base coach José Oquendo signalled to Suppan on third to run to home plate. However, halfway towards home, Suppan "suddenly stopped". Édgar Rentería, who had been running from second base towards third, was forced to return to second when he saw Suppan had stopped. After stepping on first base, David Ortiz began moving toward Suppan, who had turned back toward third, Ortiz threw to third baseman Mueller, who tagged Suppan out. After the next batter, Albert Pujols, grounded to Mueller, the inning ended.
Trot Nixon extended the Red Sox lead to two in the top of the fourth, hitting a single to right field that scored Mueller, who had started the rally with a two-out double to left-center. Johnny Damon then led off the Red Sox's fifth inning with a double to right. Singles by Orlando Cabrera and Ramírez, to right and left respectively, scored Damon to make it 3–0. With two out, Mueller singled along the first base line, enabling Cabrera to score the Red Sox's fourth run. Suppan was replaced by Al Reyes, which meant none of the Cardinals three starting pitchers had finished five innings during the series.
Mike Timlin relieved Martinez in the bottom of the eighth inning. He finished with six strikeouts, three hits allowed and retired the last 14 batters he faced. The Cardinals avoided a shutout when Walker hit a home run to center field off Foulke in the ninth inning, but Foulke retired the other three batters he faced in the inning to secure the win for the Red Sox 4–1.
On the same day the Red Sox won Game 3, The Boston Globe's Dan Shaughnessy wrote that, as this win brought the Red Sox on the verge of winning a World Series, he wondered how many people in New England were thinking about loved ones who had spent their entire lives rooting for the Red Sox and hoping that one day, they would see the Red Sox win a World Series.
=== Game 4 ===
Country music singer Gretchen Wilson, a lifelong Cardinals fan, performed "The Star-Spangled Banner". Creed lead singer Scott Stapp sang "God Bless America" during the seventh-inning stretch. Barry Bonds and Manny Ramírez received the Hank Aaron Award for the National and American Leagues, respectively. Former Cardinals players Lou Brock and Red Schoendienst threw out ceremonial first pitches along with Rashima Manning, from the Herbert Hoover Boys & Girls Clubs of America. A lunar eclipse was visible during the game – the first lunar eclipse to take place during a World Series game. The game was also played on the 18th anniversary of Game 7 of the 1986 World Series, which the Red Sox had lost at Shea Stadium to the New York Mets, despite taking a 3–0 lead into the sixth inning.
Damon hit a home run to right field in the first at-bat of the game on a 2–1 count to give the Red Sox the lead in the first inning for the fourth straight game; it proved to be the game-winning run. Ramírez singled in the third inning to give him a hit in 17 consecutive postseason games. Doubles to right by David Ortiz and to center by Trot Nixon, who narrowly missed a grand slam after swinging on a 3–0 count, scored two more runs for the Red Sox to give them a three-run lead. Cardinals starter Jason Marquis went six innings and allowed just the three runs. Marquis was the only Cardinal pitcher who went past five innings, but would be saddled with the loss with no run support.
In the top of the eighth, Mueller led off with a single to right and Nixon followed with his third double of the game. Jason Isringhausen came in to pitch for the Cardinals with the bases loaded and nobody out, and was able to finish the inning without allowing a run to score. Kevin Millar pinch hit for the Red Sox starting pitcher Derek Lowe during this inning. Lowe pitched seven scoreless innings, allowing just three hits, and was the second Boston starter in as many days to pitch seven scoreless innings. It was the third straight game in which the Red Sox starting pitcher had not allowed an earned run.
Red Sox closer Foulke came in to pitch the bottom of the ninth. Pujols led off the inning by hitting a single through Foulke's legs and into center field. After Foulke induced Rolen into a fly out and struck out Edmonds, Pujols took second base, but no stolen base due to fielder's indifference. Édgar Rentería then hit a ground ball that bounced back to Foulke on the mound. Foulke threw it underhand to Doug Mientkiewicz at first base to end the game, and the Red Sox drought.
The series win was the Red Sox's first title in 86 years. They were also the fourth team to win a World Series without trailing in any of the games in the series, and the seventh to win it having previously been three outs away from elimination. With the win, pitcher Lowe became the first pitcher to ever win three series-clinching games in a single postseason having also won Game 3 of the ALDS against the Angels and Game 7 of the ALCS against the Yankees. Although the series was won in St. Louis, 3,000 Red Sox fans were present at the game, and many stayed after the final out to celebrate with the team, including going on the field when the team came back out of their dugout with the World Series trophy. Ramírez, who was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the series, said afterwards "I don't believe in curses, I believe you make your own destination. [sic]" Kevin Millar said that it was important to finish off the Cardinals in four and not let it go to a fifth game given the team's history.
The Cardinals offense struggled to find spark in the final three games. Pujols, Rolen, and Edmonds, the normally fearsome 3-4-5 hitters for the Cardinals, were six-for-45 with one RBI. The club batted .190 with a .562 OPS overall. Walker was one of very few exceptions, batting .357 with a 1.366 OPS. His two home runs accounted for the only two home runs hit by the entire Cardinals team. In the 2004 postseason, Walker scored 21 percent (14 of 68) of Cardinal runs.
== Composite line score ==
2004 World Series (4–0): Boston Red Sox (A.L.) beat St. Louis Cardinals (N.L.).
== Series statistics ==
=== Boston Red Sox ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
==== Fielding ====
Note: G=Games Played; INN=Innings Played; PO=Putouts; A=Assists; ERR=Errors; DP=Double Plays; TP=Triple Plays; PB=Passed Balls; SB=Stolen Bases Allowed; CS=Caught Stealing; PKO=Pickoffs; AVG=Fielding Average
=== St. Louis Cardinals ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
== Broadcasting ==
The series was broadcast by Fox, and the announcers were Joe Buck and Tim McCarver. Jeanne Zelasko covered the pre-game build up to all four games and the presentation of the World Series trophy.
An average of 23.1 million people watched Game 1. This was the highest television ratings for the opening game of a World Series in five years and had the highest average number of viewers since 1996. It was also the highest rated broadcast on any network in the past ten months. The ratings for the first two games were also the highest average since 1996, and the average for the first three games was the highest since 1999. Game 3 had the highest average number of viewers with 24.4 million, since 1996 when 28.7 million watched the Atlanta Braves and New York Yankees. It was also the Fox network's highest rating for a Game 3 of a World Series ever. Game 4 posted an 18.2 national rating giving the series an overall average of 15.8. This was the highest average in five years, and the average number of viewers of 25.4 million was the highest since 1995.
In terms of local radio, Joe Castiglione and Jerry Trupiano called the series for WEEI in Boston while Mike Shannon and Wayne Hagin announced for KMOX in St. Louis.
== Aftermath ==
With the win coming eight months after the New England Patriots victory in Super Bowl XXXVIII, the event made Boston the first city to have a Super Bowl and World Series winner in the same year since Pittsburgh in 1979. A number of players from both teams won awards for their performances during the season. Manny Ramírez won the Hank Aaron Award and, along with Albert Pujols, a Silver Slugger Award, while Gold Glove awards were won by Mike Matheny, Scott Rolen and Jim Edmonds. The American sports magazine Sports Illustrated honored the Red Sox with their Sportsman of the Year award a month later, making them the first professional team to ever win the award. For pitcher Curt Schilling, it was the second time he had won the award, having shared it with then-Arizona Diamondbacks teammate Randy Johnson in 2001.
This World Series win by the Red Sox continued a history of Boston teams beating St. Louis teams to win championships. Previously, in Super Bowl XXXVI, the New England Patriots had upset the St. Louis Rams' "Greatest Show on Turf" to win their first Super Bowl and herald a dynasty led by Tom Brady and Bill Belichick, the Boston Bruins had swept the St. Louis Blues in the 1970 Stanley Cup Finals (with Game 4 being remembered for Bobby Orr's Cup-winning overtime goal that sent him flying), and the Boston Celtics (as led by Bill Russell) met the St. Louis Hawks four times from 1957 to 1961 for the NBA championship and won three times, which included the first in a dynasty in 1957. With championship showdowns between teams from Boston and St. Louis seen in Major League Baseball, the NFL, NBA and NHL, it is the only showdown between teams from two specific locations, that has been seen in each of these four leagues. St. Louis would finally end Boston's dominance against them when the St. Louis Blues defeated the Boston Bruins in the 2019 Stanley Cup Finals.
Game 4 is the last World Series game to take place in what is known as a multi-purpose stadium, ending the cookie-cutter era of MLB stadiums from the 1960s-1970s.
=== Red Sox ===
The Red Sox's win in the World Series ended the "Curse of the Bambino", which supposedly had afflicted the team ever since the Red Sox sold Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees in 1919. Pitcher Derek Lowe and other players said that the team would no longer hear "1918!" at Yankee Stadium ever again. Kevin Millar said to all Red Sox fans: "We wanted to do it so bad for the city of Boston. To win a World Series with this on our chests, it hasn't been done since 1918. So rip up those '1918!' posters right now." Members of previous Red Sox teams who had fallen short immediately acclaimed the 2004 team, including Pesky – who had been the shortstop responsible for a fatal checking error that had allowed the Cardinals' Enos Slaughter to complete his "Mad Dash" to score the winning run in Game 7 at the old Sportsman's Park in 1946. Pesky watched the game from the visiting clubhouse and was immediately embraced by Millar, Wakefield, Schilling and others as a living representative of those previous teams as he joined the celebrations.
It also added to the recent success of Boston-area teams, following the Patriots wins in Super Bowls XXXVI and XXXVIII. With the Patriots having won Super Bowl XXXVIII the previous February, the Red Sox winning the World Series marked the first time since 1979 that the same city had a Super Bowl and World Series winner in the same year – the last city to accomplish the feat had been Pittsburgh, when the Steelers and Pirates had won Super Bowl XIII and the World Series respectively. The city gained seven championships in the next decade in the four major North American sports leagues (MLB, the NFL, the NBA and the NHL), including one in each league after the Patriots won two more Super Bowls, the Celtics won the 2008 NBA championship and the Bruins won the Stanley Cup in 2011. Following the Bruins winning the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, Boston Globe columnist Dan Shaughnessy ranked all seven championships and chose the Red Sox' 2004 World Series win as the greatest Boston sports championship during the ten-year span.
Red Sox manager Terry Francona became the third manager in four years to win a World Series in his first year as manager, following Bob Brenly of the 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks and Jack McKeon of the 2003 Florida Marlins.
Massachusetts US Senator, Boston resident and future Secretary of State John Kerry, who had been named Democratic presidential nominee in Boston that summer, wore a Red Sox cap the day after the series ended. He also said that the Red Sox had "[come] back against all odds and showed America what heart is". His Republican opponent, incumbent President George W. Bush, made a phone call from the White House to congratulate the team's owner John W. Henry, president Larry Lucchino and manager Terry Francona. The team also visited Bush at the White House the following March, where he gave a speech honoring their presence, in which he asked "what took [them] so long?" A future Presidential candidate, Mitt Romney, at the time Massachusetts Governor, ceremonially helped remove the Reverse Curve road sign on Storrow Drive that had been famously spray-painted to read "Reverse the Curse" as a further marking of the end of the Curse.
The day after the Red Sox win, the Boston Globe more than doubled its daily press run, from 500,000 to 1.2 million copies, with the headline, "YES!!!" right across the front page.
The Red Sox held their World Series victory parade on the following Saturday, October 30. The team was transported around on 17 duck boats equipped with loudspeakers so the players could talk to the spectators. Due to large interest in the parade, it was lengthened by officials the day before to include the Charles River, so that fans could watch from the Boston and Cambridge river banks. The parade did not however, include a staged rally. The parade began at 10 a.m. local time at Fenway Park, turned east onto Boylston Street, then west onto Tremont Street and Storrow Drive before entering the river. One of the lanes on Massachusetts Avenue had to be closed to accommodate members of the media filming the parade as it passed under the Harvard Bridge. Ramírez was handed a sign by one of the spectators part of the way through the parade, which read, "Jeter is playing golf today. This is better!" He held on to this sign for the rest of the parade, in a similar way to what Tug McGraw said after the Philadelphia Phillies won the 1980 World Series. Over three million people were estimated to have attended the parade, making it the largest gathering ever in the city of Boston.
The Red Sox were presented with their World Series rings on April 11, 2005, at a ceremony before the team's first home game of the 2005 season. Former Red Sox players Bobby Doerr, Dom DiMaggio, Johnny Pesky, and Carl Yastrzemski were all present, as were the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Boston Pops Orchestra. During the ceremony, five red pennants were first unfurled at the top of the Green Monster, showing the years of each of the Red Sox' previous World Series wins. A much larger banner was unfurled that covered the entire wall and read "2004 World Series Champions". James Taylor, himself a Boston native and a Red Sox fan, performed "America the Beautiful", and 19 members of the United States Army and Marine Corps who had fought in the Iraq War walked onto the field. Moments of silence were held to honor the deaths of Pope John Paul II, who had died nine days earlier, and former Red Sox relief pitcher, Dick Radatz. The rings were handed out by the team's owner, John W. Henry. Former Red Sox players Lowe and Dave Roberts, who had joined the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Diego Padres respectively during the off-season, were also present to collect their rings. The ceremony, which lasted around an hour, ended with stars from other Boston sports teams, including the Celtics' Bill Russell, the Bruins' Bobby Orr and the Patriots' Tedy Bruschi and Richard Seymour, throwing ceremonial first pitches. The presence of Bruschi and Seymour made evident the recent success of Boston-area teams. The day after the Red Sox won the Series, Shaughnessy and the rest of the news media said of the Red Sox home opener: "The team in the third-base dugout? The New York Yankees, Sweet." In a sign of respect, the Red Sox rivals came to the top step of the visitors dugout and gave the Red Sox a standing ovation. The Fenway Park crowd burst into cheers when Yankees pitcher Mariano Rivera was introduced, breaking from the tradition of fans booing opposing players, due to him having blown save opportunities in Games 4 and 5 of the 2004 ALCS. Rivera was a good sport about it and laughed while waving his arms in mock appreciation of the fans.
The following August, Simon & Schuster published Faithful, a book which collected e-mails about the Red Sox between American writers and Red Sox fans Stephen King and Stewart O'Nan during the 2004 season. In March 2005, Houghton Mifflin Company published Reversing the Curse, a book by Shaughnessy, author of the bestselling The Curse of the Bambino, chronicling the 2004 Red Sox season. ESPN's Bill Simmons published Now I Can Die In Peace, a collection of his columns with updated annotations and notes, including columns for each of the last four games of the ALCS and each World Series game – with Game 4 being a running diary. The Farrelly Brothers altered the ending of their 2005 film Fever Pitch – which includes appearances by Damon, Nixon and Varitek – to coincide with the actual end of the series. They and their crew, plus stars Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon, flew to St. Louis and Barrymore and Fallon attended Game 4 in character, complete with the two of them running onto the field at Busch Stadium and kissing once the final out was made.
On May 28, 2014, the team reunited at Fenway Park as the Red Sox celebrated the 10-year anniversary of the historic championship as they hosted the Atlanta Braves. Ramirez threw out the first pitch to Varitek but was cut off by Damon in a reversal of Ramirez once cutting off Damon's throw from center field during a game.
On April 9, 2024, the team reunited again for their 20-year anniversary of the 2004 championship as the Red Sox hosted the Baltimore Orioles on Opening Day at Fenway Park. The pregame ceremony was also in memory of Wakefield, who had died of brain cancer on October 1st at the age of 57, Wakefield's wife Stacy, who had died of pancreatic cancer on February 29th at the age of 53, and Lucchino, who had died of heart failure on April 2nd at the age of 78. Tim and Stacy's children – their son Trevor and daughter Brianna – led the 2004 team in from left field, and Brianna threw the ceremonial first pitch to Varitek.
=== Cardinals ===
On the Cardinals' side, the media expressed disappointment at the team's failure to win a game in the Series after recording the team's best regular season in over 60 years. Many reporters believed that the Cardinals had not played up to their usual standard, and much of the blame was directed at Rolen, Edmonds and Reggie Sanders, three of the Cardinals' best hitters, who had combined for one hit in 39 at bats in the series.
It also marked the last time that Busch Memorial Stadium hosted a World Series. The Cardinals moved to the new Busch Stadium in their championship season of 2006, which was their first since 1982.
=== 2005 season and beyond ===
Both the Red Sox and Cardinals made the playoffs the following season. The Red Sox lost to the eventual champions the Chicago White Sox, in the American League Division Series, who would go on to end their own curse in the Curse of the Black Sox. The Cardinals, in a repeat meeting of the previous season's National League Championship Series, lost to the Houston Astros. However, the city of Boston would see more success when the New England Patriots won Super Bowl XXXIX, three months after the Red Sox won the World Series, giving the greater Boston area its third championship in 12 months, making it the first time since 1980 that any city had two Super Bowl winners and a World Series winner in a period of the same length.
Both teams also won one of the next three World Series in successive years; the Cardinals, as noted above, in 2006, beating the Detroit Tigers in five games, becoming the first team since the New York Yankees in 1923, to win a World Series championship in their first season in a new stadium (which the Yankees themselves would also do in 2009). Tony La Russa would achieve the distinction that he could not achieve in 2004 of managing World Series winners in both leagues. He would continue to wear number 10 to pay tribute to Sparky Anderson afterwards.
The Red Sox won the World Series the following year, sweeping the Colorado Rockies in four games. Tom Werner, chairman of the Red Sox, and team president Larry Lucchino said that the 2004 championship was "for the parents and grandparents who had suffered through the Curse of the Bambino", while 2007 was "for children, grandchildren, and for Red Sox Nation".
Both teams would meet again in the 2013 World Series, with the Red Sox winning the championship in six games. It was the first time Boston clinched the World Series at its home field, Fenway Park, since 1918. Boston would win an additional title in 2018 when they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers 4 games to 1.
Twelve years after this World Series, the Chicago Cubs would end their own championship drought at 108 years, defeating the Cleveland Indians in seven games in their first World Series appearance in 71 years. In doing this, Theo Epstein is now credited with helping to end two of the most famous curses in all of professional sports. Coincidentally, the losing manager in that year's World Series was Terry Francona, who had managed the Red Sox to both the 2004 and 2007 championships. The winning manager in that World Series, Joe Maddon, like La Russa, managed pennant winning teams in both leagues having managed the 2008 Tampa Bay Rays.
In the 2021 National League Division Series, 2004 Red Sox members faced off against each other as managers, as Dave Roberts' Los Angeles Dodgers beat Gabe Kapler's San Francisco Giants in five games. Four years later, Terry Francona, by then managing the Cincinnati Reds, loss to Roberts' Dodgers in the 2025 National League Wild Card Series.
== See also ==
2004 Japan Series
List of World Series sweeps
== Sources ==
2004 World Series (DVD). Major League Baseball Productions. 2004.
Shaughnessy, Dan (2005). Reversing the Curse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-51748-0.
Shaughnessy, Dan (1990). The Curse of the Bambino. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-24887-0.
== References ==
== External links ==
2004 World Series at Baseball Almanac
2004 World Series at Baseball-Reference.com
The 2004 Post-Season Games (box scores and play-by-play) at Retrosheet
History of the World Series - 2004 at The Sporting News. Archived from the original in May 2006. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_M._Karp#:~:text=Richard%20Karp%20was%20awarded%20the,his%20insights%20into%20computational%20complexity. | Richard M. Karp | Richard Manning Karp (born January 3, 1935) is an American computer scientist and computational theorist at the University of California, Berkeley. He is most notable for his research in the theory of algorithms, for which he received the 1985 ACM Turing Award, The Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science in 2004, and the Kyoto Prize in 2008.
Karp was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering (1992) for major contributions to the theory and application of NP-completeness, constructing efficient combinatorial algorithms, and applying probabilistic methods in computer science.
== Biography ==
Born to parents Abraham and Rose Karp in Boston, Massachusetts, Karp has three younger siblings: Robert, David, and Carolyn. His family was Jewish, and he grew up in a small apartment, in a then mostly Jewish neighborhood of Dorchester in Boston.
Both his parents were Harvard graduates (his mother eventually obtaining her Harvard degree at age 57 after taking evening courses), while his father had had ambitions to go to medical school after Harvard, but became a mathematics teacher as he could not afford the medical school fees. He attended Harvard University, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1955, his master's degree in 1956, and his Ph.D. in applied mathematics in 1959. He started working at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center.
In 1968, he became professor of computer science, mathematics, and operations research at the University of California, Berkeley. Karp was the first associate chair of the Computer Science Division within the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. Apart from a 4-year period as a professor at the University of Washington, he has remained at Berkeley. From 1988 to 1995 and 1999 to the present he has also been a research scientist at the International Computer Science Institute in Berkeley, where he currently leads the Algorithms Group.
Richard Karp was awarded the National Medal of Science, and was the recipient of the Harvey Prize of the Technion and the 2004 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science for his insights into computational complexity. In 1994 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. He was elected to the 2002 class of Fellows of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences. He is the recipient of several honorary degrees and a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society.
In 2012, Karp became the founding director of the Simons Institute for the Theory of Computing at the University of California, Berkeley.
== Work ==
Karp has made many important discoveries in computer science, combinatorial algorithms, and operations research. His major current research interests include bioinformatics.
In 1962 he co-developed with Michael Held the Held–Karp algorithm, an exact exponential-time algorithm for the travelling salesman problem.
In 1971 he co-developed with Jack Edmonds the Edmonds–Karp algorithm for solving the maximum flow problem on networks, and in 1972 he published a landmark paper in complexity theory, "Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems", in which he proved 21 problems to be NP-complete.
In 1973 he and John Hopcroft published the Hopcroft–Karp algorithm, the fastest known method for finding maximum cardinality matchings in bipartite graphs.
In 1980, along with Richard J. Lipton, Karp proved the Karp–Lipton theorem (which proves that if SAT can be solved by Boolean circuits with a polynomial number of logic gates, then the polynomial hierarchy collapses to its second level).
In 1987 he co-developed with Michael O. Rabin the Rabin–Karp string search algorithm.
=== Turing Award ===
His citation for the (1985) Turing Award was as follows:
For his continuing contributions to the theory of algorithms including the development of efficient algorithms for network flow and other combinatorial optimization problems, the identification of polynomial-time computability with the intuitive notion of algorithmic efficiency, and, most notably, contributions to the theory of NP-completeness. Karp introduced the now standard methodology for proving problems to be NP-complete which has led to the identification of many theoretical and practical problems as being computationally difficult.
== References ==
== External links ==
ACM Crossroads magazine interview/bio of Richard Karp
Karp's Home Page at Berkeley
Biography of Richard Karp from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_146 | Gliese 146 | Gliese 146 is a star with an orbiting exoplanet in the constellation Horologium. Gliese 146 is also catalogued as HD 22496, HIP 16711, SAO-216392, and LHS 1563. With an apparent visual magnitude of 8.64, it is too faint to be visible to the naked eye. Gliese 146 is located at a distance of 44.4 light years based on parallax measurements, and is drifting further away with a heliocentric radial velocity of +21 km/s.
This is an ordinary K-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of K6.5V. It has 68% of the mass of the Sun and 67% of the Sun's girth. Gliese 146 is radiating 12% of the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 4,385 K. Classified as a suspected variable star, Gliese 146 was found to be a flare star, with average flare frequency 0.23 flares per day.
Its velocity relative to the Sun is 38.1 km/second, and its galactic orbit ranges between 20,800 and 25,400 light years from the center of the Galaxy, placing it within a thin disk. It belongs to the Hyades supercluster of stars, and is one of 155 K-type stars within 50 light years.
== Planetary system ==
It is one of 500 stars selected in 2009 for the SCUBA-2 All Sky Survey for stars with debris disks. The debris disk was not detected by any survey as in 2015 though.
In 2021, a Sub-Neptune planet HD 22496b was discovered utilizing a Doppler spectroscopy method. It is orbiting very close to the host star at a separation of 0.0510 AU (7.63 Gm) and an orbital period of five days. The planet is not known to be transiting. As the inclination of the orbital plane is unknown, only a rough lower bound on the mass of this planet can be established: it has at least ~5.6 times the mass of the Earth.
== See also ==
Stars between 13 and 15 parsecs
Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems
== References ==
== External links ==
Gliese 146 at the SIMBAD Astronomical Database.
Ids - Bibliography - Siblings - Image - B&W Image. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davyd_Whaley#:~:text=Davyd%20Whaley%20was%20born%20in,a%20Los%20Angeles%2Dbased%20painter. | Davyd Whaley | Davyd Whaley (December 6, 1967 – October 15, 2014) was an American abstract painter known for expressing in his paintings Jungian themes related to the world of the subconscious.
== Biography ==
Davyd Whaley was born in Bristol, Tennessee, in 1967. He was a Los Angeles-based painter. He was a United States Navy Veteran of four years. Previous to his career as a painter, he was an electrical engineer for twenty years. He met television director Norman Buckley in 2004, and they were married (as soon as they were legally able) from 2008 until Whaley's death on October 15, 2014, in Los Angeles.
== Painter ==
Whaley was primarily self-taught, but he also studied painting at the Art Students League of New York from 2008 to 2011, working with mentors Ronnie Landfield and Larry Poons. His painting style is known for using brilliant colors and for its Jungian themes, reflecting his interest in dream analysis and in the world of the subconscious.
His work appeared on numerous television shows, including CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Californication and Pretty Little Liars.
He later moved his studio out of his home and into the Santa Fe Art Colony in downtown Los Angeles.
== Foundation ==
In 2016, The Davyd Whaley Foundation was established by Whaley's husband Norman Buckley to honor Whaley's legacy of service, through the awarding of grants to artists to follow their own creative paths. Whaley was a philanthropist. He taught art to the underprivileged, counseled grieving families in hospitals, and taught terminally-ill and war-scarred children to paint. He was honored as volunteer of the year by Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors in 2012. Davyd's goals were always evident: make art; buy the art of others; help people whenever possible; grow in consciousness. The mission of the foundation was designed around these tenets.
== Monograph ==
A monograph of Davyd Whaley's work was published in 2016 with an essay called "A Hero's Journey" by Peter Clothier.
== Exhibitions ==
Galerie Michael, Beverly Hills, California, "Davyd Whaley", February 2013
UCLA Design & Arts It's Your Show, Award of Distinction, "Heaven & Hell", May 2013
Aqua Art Miami, Miami Beach, Florida, Galerie Michael, "Davyd Whaley", December 3, 2013 – December 8, 2013
Florence Biennale, Florence, Italy, "Revelations", November 30, 2013 – December 8, 2013
Galerie Michael, Beverly Hills, California, "Davyd Whaley: Subconscious Tendencies", February 2014
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribenboim_Prize | Ribenboim Prize | The Ribenboim Prize, named in honour of Paulo Ribenboim, is awarded by the Canadian Number Theory Association for distinguished research in number theory by a mathematician who is Canadian or has close connections to Canadian mathematics. Normally the winner will have received their Ph.D. in the last 12 years. The winner is expected to give a plenary talk at the award ceremony.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020, 2022, and 2024 Ribenboim Prizes were all awarded in 2024.
== Winners ==
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Early_life | Louis Armstrong | Louis Daniel Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed "Satchmo", "Satch", and "Pops", was an American jazz and blues trumpeter and vocalist. He was among the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of jazz. Armstrong received numerous accolades including the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance for Hello, Dolly! in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972. His influence crossed musical genres, with inductions into the DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame, among others.
Armstrong was born and raised in New Orleans. Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and cornet player, he was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. Around 1922, Armstrong followed his mentor, Joe "King" Oliver, to Chicago to play in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong earned a reputation at "cutting contests", and his fame reached band leader Fletcher Henderson. Armstrong moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an international musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film. Apart from his music, he was also beloved as an entertainer, often joking with the audience and keeping a joyful public image at all times.
Armstrong's best known songs include "What a Wonderful World", "La Vie en Rose", "Hello, Dolly!", "On the Sunny Side of the Street", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", "When You're Smiling" and "When the Saints Go Marching In". He collaborated with Ella Fitzgerald, producing three records together: Ella and Louis (1956), Ella and Louis Again (1957), and Porgy and Bess (1959). He also appeared in films such as A Rhapsody in Black and Blue (1932), Cabin in the Sky (1943), High Society (1956), Paris Blues (1961), A Man Called Adam (1966), and Hello, Dolly! (1969).
With his instantly recognizable, rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser. He was also skilled at scat singing. By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music. He was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to "cross over" to wide popularity with white and international audiences. Armstrong rarely publicly discussed racial issues, sometimes to the dismay of fellow black Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock crisis. He could access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for black men.
== Early life ==
Armstrong is believed to have been born in New Orleans on August 4, 1901, but the date has been heavily debated. Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900. His parents were Mary Estelle "Mayann" Albert and William Armstrong. Mary Albert was from Boutte, Louisiana and gave birth at home when she was about 16. Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice "Mama Lucy" Armstrong (1903–1987), who Albert raised. William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly after that.
Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother. Armstrong spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield, on the southern section of Rampart Street. At the age of six, Armstrong started attending the Fisk School for Boys, a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans.
Armstrong lived with his mother and sister during this time and worked for the Karnoffskys, a family of Lithuanian Jews, at their home. Armstrong helped their sons Morris and Alex collect "rags and bones" and deliver coal. In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the Year of 1907, describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family.
Armstrong writes about singing "Russian Lullaby" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed and credits the family with teaching him to sing "from the heart." Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the "Russian Lullaby", copyrighted by Irving Berlin in 1927, about 20 years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child. Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir. This inaccuracy may be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described. Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong exceptionally well. Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured Armstrong.
In his memoir, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907, he described his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by "other white folks" who felt that they were better than Jews: "I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for." Armstrong wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination." His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon. Armstrong tried playing a tin horn to attract customers to distinguish them from other hawkers. Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward purchasing a cornet from a pawn shop.
Later, as an adult, Armstrong wore a Star of David given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him.
When Armstrong was 11, he dropped out of school. His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons. Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. Cornetist Bunk Johnson said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk. In his later years, Armstrong credited King Oliver. Armstrong said about his youth, "Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ... It has given me something to live for."
Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, Armstrong fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912. He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's [sic] Home. Life at the home was spartan. Mattresses were absent, and meals were often little more than bread and molasses. Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment.
Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band. Peter Davis, who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones, became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as the bandleader. With this band, the 13-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of Kid Ory.
On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude. Armstrong lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months. After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so Armstrong returned to his mother, Mary Albert. Armstrong had to share a bed in her small home with his mother and sister. His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving Armstrong open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician.
Armstrong found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime. He met the six-foot tall drummer Black Benny, who became Armstrong's guide and bodyguard. Around the age of 15, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy. However, that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder, and his mother choked her nearly to death.
Armstrong briefly studied shipping management at the local community college but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees. While selling coal in Storyville, he heard spasm bands, groups that played music out of household objects. Armstrong listened to the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls, such as Pete Lala's, where King Oliver performed.
== Career ==
=== Riverboat education ===
Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and riverboats in New Orleans, in the late 1910s. He traveled with the band of Fate Marable, which toured on the steamboat Sidney with the Streckfus Steamers line up and down the Mississippi River. Marable was proud of Armstrong's musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn sight reading. Armstrong described his time with Marable as "going to the University" since it gave him a wider experience working with written arrangements. In 1918, Armstrong's mentor, King Oliver, decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. Armstrong also became the second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band.
Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At age 20, he could read music. Armstrong became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style. Armstrong also started singing in his performances.
=== Chicago period recordings ===
In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver, although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life. Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the South Side of Chicago, Armstrong could make enough money to quit his day jobs. Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming. The city had jobs for blacks, who made good wages at factories, with some left for entertainment.
Oliver's band was among Chicago's most influential jazz bands in the early 1920s. Armstrong lived luxuriously in his apartment with his first private bath. Excited to be in Chicago, Armstrong began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans. Armstrong could blow 200 high Cs in a row. As his reputation grew, Armstrong was challenged to cutting contests by other musicians.
Armstrong's first studio recordings were with Oliver for Gennett Records on April 5–6, 1923. They endured several hours on the train to remote Richmond, Indiana, and the band was paid little. The quality of the performances was affected by a lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio. These early recordings were true acoustic, the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording. The much improved Electrical recording system with a better dynamic range was not invented until 1926. Initially, because Armstrong's playing was so loud, Oliver could not be heard on the recording when he played next to Oliver. Armstrong had to stand 15 feet from Oliver in a far corner of the room to remedy this.
Lil Hardin, whom Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver. At her suggestion, Armstrong began playing classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills and dressing more stylishly to offset his girth. Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong's mother, Mayann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was "out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed.
=== Fletcher Henderson Orchestra ===
Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong was invited to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. Armstrong's influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.
Armstrong adapted to Henderson's tightly controlled style, playing the trumpet and experimenting with the trombone. The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style. His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the Roseland Ballroom, with arrangements by Don Redman. Duke Ellington's orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances.
During this time, Armstrong recorded with Clarence Williams (a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five, Sidney Bechet, and blues singers Alberta Hunter, Ma Rainey, and Bessie Smith.
=== The Hot Five ===
In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago largely at the insistence of Lil, who wanted to expand his career and income. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed Armstrong as "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player." For a time, he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and worked for his wife. Armstrong formed Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five and recorded the hits "Potato Head Blues" and "Muggles". The word "muggles" was a slang term for marijuana, something Armstrong often used during his life.
The Hot Five included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer. Over a 12-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records. Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted: "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual."
Among the Hot Five and Seven records were "Cornet Chop Suey", "Struttin' With Some Barbecue", "Hotter Than That", and "Potato Head Blues", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. According to Thomas Brothers, recordings such as "Struttin' with Some Barbeque" were so superb, "planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness", that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines, their famous 1928 "Weather Bird" duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in "West End Blues", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history. Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos.
Armstrong was now free to develop his style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "Whip That Thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!"
Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Symphony, mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as "Madame Butterfly", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began scat singing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it on the Hot Five recording "Heebie Jeebies" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.
After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers. However, Hines was the music director, and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. It was at the Sunset Café that Armstrong accompanied singer Adelaide Hall. During Hall's tenure at the venue, she experimented, developed, and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement.
In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al "Baby" Dodds and tuba player Pete Briggs while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup. John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on the trombone. Later that year, Armstrong organized a series of new Hot Five sessions, which resulted in nine more records. In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group: Zutty Singleton (drums), Earl Hines (piano), Jimmy Strong (clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo).
=== The Harlem Renaissance ===
Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s Harlem Renaissance. His music touched well-known writer Langston Hughes. Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era. Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture. The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer. Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz.
Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. As "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player" during this time, Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career. His popularity brought together many black and white audiences.
=== Emerging as a vocalist ===
Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical Hot Chocolates, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist Fats Waller. Armstrong made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "Ain't Misbehavin'." Armstrong's version of the song became his biggest-selling record yet.
Armstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the "crooning" sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's "Stardust" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards.
Armstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's "Lazy River", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo. Then, the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh"..."Sure"..."Way down, way down." In the first verse, Armstrong ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza, he breaks into an almost entirely improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong's scat singing.
As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated. Armstrong's scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" greatly influenced younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.
=== Work during hard times ===
The Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. After a long downward spiral, the Cotton Club closed in 1936, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died, and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor, later moving to Paris, and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.
Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish nightlife, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame. He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence.
Armstrong returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein, and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town, Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team called Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him. However, Armstrong was on the road again soon. After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe.
After returning to the United States, Armstrong undertook several exhausting tours. His agent, Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Armstrong hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer who began straightening out his legal mess, mob troubles, and debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, Armstrong branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. Armstrong appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored national broadcast.
=== Reviving his career with the All-Stars ===
After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York, in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, Armstrong continued to develop his playing.
Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes. Ballrooms closed, and competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, became more popular than big band music. Under such circumstances, it became impossible to finance a 16-piece touring band.
A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles, produced by Leon Hefflin Sr., on October 12, 1946. Armstrong also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring him with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden. During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's "Rockin' Chair" they then recorded for Okeh Records.
Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club.
This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All-Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid "Buddy" Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Mort Herbert, Joe Darensbourg, Eddie Shu, Joe Muranyi and percussionist Danny Barcelona.
On February 28, 1948, Suzy Delair sang the French song "C'est si bon" at the Hotel Negresco during the first Nice Jazz Festival. Armstrong was present and loved the song. On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by Jerry Seelen) in New York City with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra. When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success, and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers.
Armstrong was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine on February 21, 1949. He and his All-Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. held on June 7, 1953, along with Shorty Rogers, Roy Brown, Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, Earl Bostic, and Nat "King" Cole.
Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in more than 30 films.
=== A jazz ambassador ===
By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase. However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era, such as Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, and Sonny Rollins. The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and Uncle Tomism. "... he seemed a link to minstrelsy that we were ashamed of." Armstrong called bebop "Chinese music". While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop. "'Bebop?' he husked. 'I just play music. Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms.'"
After finishing his contract with Decca Records, Armstrong went freelance and recorded for other labels. He continued an intense international touring schedule, but suffered a heart attack in 1959 while in Italy and had to rest.
In 1964, after more than two years without setting foot in a studio, Armstrong recorded his biggest-selling record, "Hello, Dolly!", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing. Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1, making him the oldest person to accomplish that feat at 62 years, nine months, and five days. Armstrong's hit dislodged The Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.
Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the Communist Bloc in 1965. Armstrong also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors. His travels included performances in Egypt, Ghana and Nigeria.
By 1968, Armstrong was approaching 70, and his health was failing. His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring, though he continued to record, including "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home. Meanwhile, his longtime manager, Joe Glaser, died. By the summer of 1970, Armstrong's doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances. Armstrong embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months.
Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album Disney Songs the Satchmo Way.
== Personal life ==
=== Pronunciation of name ===
The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:
Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops".
In a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, "All white folks call me Louie", suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops. That said, Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the 1920 U.S. census. On various live records, he is called "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1. The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song "Chloe", where the choir in the background sings "Louie ... Louie", with Armstrong responding, "What was that? Somebody called my name?". "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana.
=== Family ===
Armstrong was performing at the Brick House in Gretna, Louisiana when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client. Armstrong returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her. He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work. There, Armstrong found out she had a common-law husband. Not long after that, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street and they checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening. On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall. They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age. Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him. His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923.
On February 4, 1924, Armstrong married Lil Hardin Armstrong, King Oliver's pianist. She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier. Armstrong's second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938. Armstrong then married Alpha Smith. His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after. Armstrong's marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942. He then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club in New York, in October 1942. They remained married until his death in 1971.
Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring. However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 ($5,869 in 2024 dollars) to mother and child.
=== Personality ===
Armstrong was colorful and charismatic. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because Armstrong had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency.
In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality. He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the most significant black performers, and Armstrong was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other black Americans during that era.
Armstrong generally remained politically neutral, which sometimes alienated him from other black Americans who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the civil rights movement. However, Armstrong criticized President Eisenhower for not acting forcefully on civil rights.
=== Health problems ===
The trumpet is notoriously hard on the lips, and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life. This was due to Armstrong's aggressive playing style and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily but tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip. During his 1930s European tour, Armstrong suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year. Eventually, Armstrong took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve.
During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong was advised to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies. However, Armstrong did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing, and the doctors considered surgery too risky.
In 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for pneumonia while on tour in Italy. Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by the end of June, Armstrong rallied on.
=== Nicknames ===
The nicknames "Satchmo" and "Satch" are short for "Satchelmouth". The nickname origin is uncertain. The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies. He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them. Someone dubbed Armstrong "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, Armstrong was nicknamed "satchel mouth", which was shortened to "Satchmo."
Early on, Armstrong was also known as "Dipper", short for "Dippermouth", a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure.
The nickname "Pops" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "Pops" instead. The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.
After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed "King Menelik", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying "ofay jazz demons."
=== Race ===
Armstrong celebrated his heritage as a black man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called "putting on airs." Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the American civil rights movement. When Armstrong did speak out, it made national news. In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota, shortly after the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas. Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, saying the President had "no guts" and was "two-faced." Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department, saying, "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people. The FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration. Armstrong’s outburst drew both praise and backlash; figures like Jackie Robinson and Lena Horne publicly supported him, while a Mississippi radio station banned his records. His longtime road manager, Pierre Tallerie, attempted to walk back Armstrong’s comments to the press, prompting a sharp public rebuke from Armstrong, who nearly fired Tallerie and insisted on speaking for himself going forward.
=== Religion ===
When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet. Armstrong was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met Pope Pius XII and Pope Paul VI.
=== Personal habits ===
Armstrong was concerned with his health. Armstrong used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss, he became an enthusiastic convert, extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British royal family.
Armstrong also appeared in humorous risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends. The cards bore a picture of Armstrong sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'" The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. In a live recording of "Baby, It's Cold Outside" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour." Armstrong's laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect dandelions and peppergrass around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health.
Armstrong was a heavy marijuana smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession. Armstrong described marijuana as "a thousand times better than whiskey."
Armstrong's concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey", and "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food. Armstrong kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours ...".
A fan of Major League Baseball, Armstrong founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's "Secret Nine Baseball."
=== Writings ===
Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. Armstrong avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy "medicinal" marijuana use, and even his bowel movements, which Armstrong gleefully described.
=== Social organizations ===
Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a Freemason. Although he has been cited as a Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) member in New York, no such lodge ever existed. In his autobiography, Armstrong stated that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia, an African American non-Masonic fraternal organization. During the krewe's 1949 Mardi Gras parade, Armstrong presided as King of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club, for which he was featured on the cover of Time magazine.
== Music ==
=== Horn playing and early jazz ===
In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. Along with his "clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos", Armstrong was also known for his "intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns. The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies. Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song "Potato Head Blues" has long been considered his best solo of that series.
Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensembles playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. He was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.
Often, Armstrong re-composed pop tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, Armstrong's oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. His playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone, and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a piece of collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.
Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. Armstrong enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, Armstrong had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.
=== Vocal popularity ===
As Armstrong's music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, "Heebie Jeebies." At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor, and the music began before Armstrong could pick up the pages, he simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs. On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas."
Such records were hits, and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, and using his voice as creatively as his trumpet. Armstrong once told Cab Calloway that his scat style was derived "from the Jews rockin", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer.
=== Composing ===
Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than 50 songs, some of which have become jazz standards (e.g., "Gully Low Blues", "Potato Head Blues", and "Swing That Music").
=== Colleagues and followers ===
During his long career, Armstrong played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith, and Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music. Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:
Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a head voice at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct enunciation, singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of appoggiaturas, mordents, and slurs to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers.
Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald, Ella and Louis and Ella and Louis Again, for Verve Records. The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio with drummer Buddy Rich on the first album and Louie Bellson on the second. Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record Porgy and Bess.
Armstrong's two recordings for Columbia Records, Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955), were both considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961, the All-Stars participated in two albums, The Great Summit and The Great Reunion (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington. The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. Armstrong's participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed and features "Summer Song", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.
In the week beginning May 9, 1964, Armstrong's recording of the song "Hello, Dolly!" went to number one. An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart. The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going "Gold" (500,000). His performance of "Hello, Dolly!" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards.
=== Hits and later career ===
Armstrong had 19 "Top Ten" records including "Stardust", "What a Wonderful World", "When The Saints Go Marching In", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", "Ain't Misbehavin'", "You Rascal You", and "Stompin' at the Savoy". "We Have All the Time in the World" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a Guinness advertisement. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.
In 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with "Hello, Dolly!", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film Bewitched.
In February 1968, Armstrong appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel, where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track Armstrong sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.
In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit "Ramblin' Rose" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9".
=== Stylistic range ===
Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of "St. Louis Blues" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions.
== Film, television, and radio ==
Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical High Society, starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly, Frank Sinatra, and Celeste Holm. Armstrong appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet "Now You Has Jazz" with Crosby. In 1947, Armstrong played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film The Five Pennies, Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers. He performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" with Danny Kaye, during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story.
In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show. In 1969, he had a cameo role in Gene Kelly's film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. Armstrong's solo recording of "Hello, Dolly!" is one of his most recognizable performances. Armstrong was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.
In 1949, Armstrong's life was dramatized by scriptwriter Richard Durham in the Chicago WMAQ radio series Destination Freedom.
Argentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio).
There is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's "Stardust" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany.
In 2022, Armstrong was subject of the documentary film Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues.
== Death ==
Against his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a heart attack. Armstrong was released from the hospital in May and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing. Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971. Armstrong was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death.
Armstrong was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City.
His honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Benny Goodman, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost. Peggy Lee sang "The Lord's Prayer" at the services while Al Hibbler sang "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.
== Awards and honors ==
=== Grammy Awards ===
Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the recording field.
=== Grammy Hall of Fame ===
Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."
=== Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ===
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's "West End Blues" on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.
=== Inductions and honors ===
In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp.
=== Film honors ===
In 1999, Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Stars.
== Legacy ==
In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America." Duke Ellington, DownBeat magazine in 1971, said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong. He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz." Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to Gary Giddins and others.
According to literary critic Harold Bloom, "The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ... If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't. I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong".
In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Armstrong at No. 39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
In 1991, an asteroid was named 9179 Satchmo in Armstrong's honor. In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of his birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport. The entrance to the airport's former terminal building houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet. In 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. The US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.
Congo Square was a common gathering place for blacks in New Orleans for dancing and performing music. The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed Louis Armstrong Park. Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand.
A Wonderful World, a musical based on his life story, had its world premiere run at Miami New Drama from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021, after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020 and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns. Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars James Monroe Iglehart and makes "pre-Broadway" stops in New Orleans on October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago on October 11–29, 2023. The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives. It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee Christopher Renshaw and novelist Andrew Delaplaine, and directed by Renshaw, A Wonderful World features an original book by Aurin Squire. The show will debut on Broadway in 2024.
== The Louis Armstrong House Museum ==
The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark and opened to the public for guided tours in 2003. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is administered by the Queens College, City University of New York, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will and is operated by the nonprofit Louis Armstrong House Museum. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in the summer of 2023. The Museum website also includes the digitized Armstrong Archives, searchable to the public 24 hours a day.
== Essential discography ==
The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings
The Complete Louis Armstrong Decca Sessions (1935–1946) (Mosaic Records, 2009)
All Stars (Louis Armstrong's Town Hall Concert) (1947)
Struttin' (1947)
Satchmo Serenades (1950)
Satchmo at Pasadena (1951)
Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1955)
Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1 (1955)
Satch Plays Fats (1955)
The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve – contains Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, Porgy and Bess (1997)
Louis and the Angels (1957)
Louis and the Good Book (1958)
Satchmo In Style (1959)
Hello, Dolly! (1964)
== See also ==
Black and tan clubs
Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations
Little Satchmo, 2022 documentary film
== References ==
== Works cited ==
Armstrong, Louis (1954). Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans. ISBN 0306802767.
Bergreen, Laurence (1997). Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life. ISBN 0553067680.
Cogswell, Michael (2003). Armstrong: The Offstage Story. ISBN 1888054816.
Elie, Lolis Eric. A Letter from New Orleans. Originally printed in Gourmet. Reprinted in Best Food Writing 2006, ed. by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006. ISBN 1569242879.
Teachout, Terry (2009). Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong. ISBN 978-0151010899.
== Further readings ==
Brothers, Thomas (2006). Louis Armstrong's New Orleans, New York, N.Y. W. W. Norton & Company
Brothers, Thomas (2014). Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism. New York: W. W. Norton & Company
Giddins, Gary (1988). Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong. Da Capo Press
Jones, Max, and Chilton, John (1988). Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306803246.
Riccardi, Ricky (2012). What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong's Later Years. New York: Vintage. ISBN 9780307473295. OCLC 798285020.
—— (2020). Heart Full of Rhythm: The Big Band Years of Louis Armstrong. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190914110. OCLC 1137836373.
—— (2025). Stomp off, Let's Go: The Early Years of Louis Armstrong. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197614488. OCLC 1427941152.
Storb, Ilse (1999). Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography. ISBN 0820431036.
Willems, Jos (2006). All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810857308.
== External links ==
Louis Armstrong House Museum
Louis Armstrong at IMDb
Louis Armstrong discography at Discogs
Louis Armstrong collected news and commentary at The New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf | Vint Cerf | Vinton Gray Cerf (; born June 23, 1943) is an American Internet pioneer and is recognized as one of "the fathers of the Internet", sharing this title with TCP/IP co-developer Robert Kahn.
He has received honorary degrees and awards that include the National Medal of Technology, the Turing Award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Marconi Prize, and membership in the National Academy of Engineering.
== Life and career ==
Vinton Gray Cerf was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on June 23, 1943, the son of Muriel (née Gray) and Vinton Thruston Cerf. His mother was born in Canada and was of British, Irish, and French Canadian descent. His paternal ancestors emigrated from Alsace–Lorraine to Kentucky. Cerf attended Van Nuys High School with Steve Crocker and Jon Postel. While in high school, Cerf worked at Rocketdyne on the Apollo program for six months and helped write statistical analysis software for the non-destructive tests of the F-1 engines.
Cerf received a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics from Stanford University. After college, Cerf worked at IBM as a systems engineer supporting QUIKTRAN for two years.
Cerf and his wife Sigrid both have hearing deficiencies; they met at a hearing aid agent's practice in the 1960s, leading him to advocate for accessibility. They later joined a Methodist church and had two sons, David and Bennett.
He left IBM to attend graduate school at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he earned his M.S. degree in 1970 and his PhD in 1972. Cerf studied under Professor Gerald Estrin and worked in Professor Leonard Kleinrock's data packet networking group that connected the first two nodes of the ARPANET, the first node on the Internet, and "contributed to a host-to-host protocol" for the ARPANET.
While at UCLA, Cerf met Bob Kahn, who was working on the ARPANET system architecture. Cerf chaired the International Network Working Group. He wrote the first TCP with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, called Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program (RFC 675), published in December 1974.
Cerf worked as assistant professor at Stanford University from 1972 to 1976 where he conducted research on packet network interconnection protocols and co-designed the DoD TCP/IP protocol suite with Kahn.
From 1973 to 1982, Cerf worked at the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and funded various groups to develop TCP/IP, packet radio (PRNET), packet satellite (SATNET) and packet security technology. These efforts were rooted in the needs of the military. In the late 1980s, Cerf moved to MCI where he helped develop the first commercial email system (MCI Mail) to be connected to the Internet, in 1989.
Cerf is active in a number of global humanitarian organizations. Cerf typically appears in a three-piece suit; a rarity in an industry known for its casual dress norms.
As vice president of MCI Digital Information Services from 1982 to 1986, Cerf led the engineering of MCI Mail, which became the first commercial email service to be connected to the Internet in 1989. In 1986, he joined Bob Kahn at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives as its vice president, working with Kahn on Digital Libraries, Knowledge Robots, and gigabit speed networks. Since 1988 Cerf lobbied for the privatization of the internet. In 1992, he and Kahn, among others, founded the Internet Society (ISOC) to provide leadership in education, policy and standards related to the Internet. Cerf served as the first president of ISOC. Cerf rejoined MCI in 1994 and served as Senior Vice President of Technology Strategy. In this role, he helped to guide corporate strategy development from a technical perspective. Previously, he served as MCI's senior vice president of Architecture and Technology, leading a team of architects and engineers to design advanced networking frameworks, including Internet-based solutions for delivering a combination of data, information, voice and video services for business and consumer use.
During 1997, Cerf joined the board of trustees of Gallaudet University, a university for the education of the deaf and hard-of-hearing. Cerf himself is hard of hearing. He has also served on the university's Board of Associates.
Cerf, as leader of MCI's internet business, was criticized due to MCI's role in providing the IP addresses used by Send-Safe.com, a vendor of spamware that uses a botnet in order to send spam. MCI refused to terminate the spamware vendor. At the time, Spamhaus also listed MCI as the ISP with the most Spamhaus Block List listings.
Cerf has worked for Google as a vice president and Chief Internet Evangelist since October 2005. In this function he has become well known for his predictions on how technology will affect future society, encompassing such areas as artificial intelligence, environmentalism, the advent of IPv6 and the transformation of the television industry and its delivery model.
Cerf has served as a commissioner for the Broadband Commission for Digital Development, a UN body which aims to make broadband internet technologies more widely available
Cerf helped fund and establish ICANN, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. He joined the board in 1999 and served until November 2007. He was chairman from November 2000 to his departure from the board.
Cerf was a member of Bulgarian President Georgi Parvanov's IT Advisory Council (from March 2002 to January 2012). He is also a member of the advisory board of Eurasia Group, the political risk consultancy.
Cerf is also working on the Interplanetary Internet, together with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and other NASA laboratories. It will be a new standard to communicate from planet to planet, using radio/laser communications that are tolerant of signal degradations including variable delay and disruption caused, for example, by celestial motion.
On February 7, 2006, Cerf testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation's hearing on net neutrality. Speaking as Google's Chief Internet Evangelist, Cerf noted that nearly half of all US consumers lacked meaningful choice in broadband providers and expressed concerns that without network neutrality government regulation, broadband providers would be able to use their dominance to limit options for consumers and charge companies like Google for their use of bandwidth.
Cerf currently serves on the board of advisors of Scientists and Engineers for America, an organization focused on promoting sound science in American government. He also serves on the advisory council of CRDF Global (Civilian Research and Development Foundation) and was on the International Multilateral Partnership Against Cyber Threats (IMPACT) International Advisory Board.
Cerf was elected as the president of the Association for Computing Machinery in May 2012 and joined the Council on CyberSecurity's Board of Advisors in August 2013.
From 2011 to 2016, Cerf was chairman of the board of trustees of ARIN, the Regional Internet Registry (RIR) of IP addresses for the United States, Canada, and part of the Caribbean. Until Fall 2015, Cerf chaired the board of directors of StopBadware, a non-profit anti-malware organization that started as a project at Harvard University's Berkman Center for Internet & Society. Cerf is on the board of advisors to The Liquid Information Company Ltd of the UK, which works to make the web more usefully interactive and which has produced the Mac OS X utility called 'Liquid'. Vint Cerf is a member of the CuriosityStream Advisory Board.
During 2008, Cerf chaired the Internationalized domain name (IDNAbis) working group of the IETF. In 2008 Cerf was a major contender to be designated the first U.S. Chief Technology Officer by President Barack Obama. Cerf is the co-chair of Campus Party Silicon Valley, the US edition of one of the largest technology festivals in the world, along with Al Gore and Tim Berners-Lee.
From 2009 to 2011, Cerf was an elected member of the governing board of the Smart Grid Interoperability Panel (SGIP). SGIP is a public-private consortium established by NIST in 2009 and provides a forum for businesses and other stakeholder groups to participate in coordinating and accelerating development of standards for the evolving Smart Grid.
Cerf was elected to a two-year term as president of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) beginning July 1, 2012. On January 16, 2013, U.S. President Barack Obama announced his intent to appoint Cerf to the National Science Board. Cerf served until May 2018 when his six-year term expired. In 2015 Cerf co-founded (with Mei Lin Fung) and until December 2019 chaired the People-Centered Internet (PCI).
Cerf is also among the 15 members of governing council of International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad.
In June 2016, his work with NASA led to delay-tolerant networking being installed on the International Space Station with an aim towards an Interplanetary Internet.
Since at least 2015, Cerf has been raising concerns about the wide-ranging risks of digital obsolescence, the potential of losing much historic information about our time – a digital "Dark Age" or "black hole" – given the ubiquitous digital storage of text, data, images, music and more. Among the concerns are the long-term storage of, and continued reliable access to, our vast stores of present-day digital data and the associated programs, operating systems, computers and peripherals required to access such.
Cerf has been a member of the Board of Governors of the Folger Shakespeare Library since 2015.
== Awards and honors ==
Cerf has received a number of honorary degrees, including doctorates, from the University of the Balearic Islands, ETHZ in Zurich, Switzerland, Capitol College, Gettysburg College, Yale University, George Mason University, Marymount University, Bethany College (Kansas), University of Pisa, University of Rovira and Virgili (Tarragona, Spain), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Luleå University of Technology (Sweden), University of Twente (Netherlands), Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Tsinghua University (Beijing), Brooklyn Polytechnic, UPCT (University of Cartagena, Spain), Zaragoza University (Spain), University of Reading (United Kingdom), Royal Roads University (Canada), MGIMO (Moscow State University of International Relations), Buenos Aires Institute of Technology (Argentina), Polytechnic University of Madrid, Keio University (Japan), University of South Australia (Australia), University of St Andrews (Scotland), University of Pittsburgh and Gallaudet University (United States). Other awards include:
Edward A. Dickson Alumnus of the Year Award from UCLA
Prince of Asturias award for science and technology
Life Member IEEE
Fellow of the IEEE for contribution and leadership in the design, development, and application of internet protocols.
Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, 1994
Elected as a member into the National Academy of Engineering in 1995 for contributions to the design and development of network protocols and leadership in the evolution of the Internet.
Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award, 1996
SIGCOMM Award for "contributions to the Internet [spanning] more than 25 years, from development of the fundamental TCP/IP protocols".
Certificate of Merit from The Franklin Institute, in 1996.
In December 1997 he, along with his partner Robert E. Kahn, was presented with the National Medal of Technology by President Bill Clinton, "for creating and sustaining development of Internet Protocols and continuing to provide leadership in the emerging industry of internetworking."
Stibitz-Wilson Award from the American Computer & Robotics Museum in 1999.
In 2000, he received the honorary doctorate degree from URV, Spain.
He received the Living Legend Medal from the Library of Congress in April 2000.
In 2000, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for his contributions to computer architecture, operating systems, and software engineering."
Cerf was selected as a Fellow of the Association for Women in Science (AWIS) in 2000.
Cerf was awarded the Award of Technology from the Telluride Tech Festival in 2002, also known as the Tesla Festival since the world's first AC hydro-power power plant was built in Telluride in 1891 by L.L. Nunn who purchased the generator and plans from George Westinghouse and Tesla.
Cerf and Kahn were the winners of the Turing Award for 2004, for their "pioneering work on internetworking, including .. the Internet's basic communications protocols .. and for inspired leadership in networking."
In November 2005, Vinton Cerf and Kahn were awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush for their contributions to the creation of the Internet.
He and Robert Kahn were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in May 2006.
Vinton Cerf was awarded the St. Cyril and Methodius in the Coat of Arms Order in July 2006
Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn were each inducted as an Honorary Fellow of the Society for Technical Communication (STC) in May 2006
He and Robert Kahn were awarded the Japan Prize in January 2008.
Cerf was inducted into the Worshipful Company of Information Technologists and given the Freedom of the City of London in April 2008.
Cerf was awarded an honorary membership in the Yale Political Union after keynoting a lively debate on the subject "Resolved: Online Communities are Real Communities." The motion passed.
In celebration of the five year-anniversary of YouTube he was selected as a guest curator by the site, and chose the six videos on YouTube he found most memorable.
IEEE-HKN Eta Kappa Nu Eminent Member, 2010
In May 2011, he was awarded an HPI Fellowship as "...a tribute to his work for a new medium which influenced the everyday life of our society like no other one."
In September 2011 he was made a distinguished fellow of British Computer Society, in recognition of his outstanding contribution and service to the advancement of computing.
In 2012 he was inducted as a Pioneer into the Internet Hall of Fame
In 2013, Cerf was one of five Internet and Web pioneers awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering.
In 2013, Cerf presented the Bernard Price Memorial Lecture
In 2014, Cerf was awarded the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st class for his role in invention of TCP/IP by president of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves
In 2014, Cerf was awarded Officer of the French Légion d'honneur
In 2015, Cerf received an honorary doctorate from the University of Reading, UK.
Cerf was elected a Foreign Member of The UK Royal Society in 2016
In 2018, Cerf was named a recipient of the Benjamin Franklin Medal
In 2018, Cerf was awarded Catalonia's International Award
In 2023, Cerf was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor for co-creating the Internet architecture and providing sustained leadership in its phenomenal growth in becoming society's critical infrastructure
In 2024, Cerf was inducted into the California Hall of Fame.
== Partial bibliography ==
=== Author ===
=== Co-author ===
Cerf writes under the column name "CERF'S UP", and Cerf's car has a vanity plate (registration) "CERFSUP".
== See also ==
History of the Internet
List of Internet pioneers
List of pioneers in computer science
Paul Baran and Donald Davies, independently invented packet-switched networks
Protocol Wars
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Cerf, Vinton G. (April 24, 1990), Oral history interview with Vinton G. Cerf, Minnesota, Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute
Cerf, Vinton (May 17, 1999), Dr. Vinton Cerf: An Interview Conducted by David Hochfelder, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Cerf, Vinton G. (2020). "Vinton Cerf: An Oral History". Stanford Historical Society Oral History Program (Interview). Interviewed by Suzanne Butler Gwiazda. Stanford, California: Stanford University.
== External links ==
Bio at Google
Vint Cerf on the ICANN wiki
Dr. Vint Cerf on "Reinventing the Internet" (YouTube). Internet Society. (May 13, 2013)
Vint Cerf at TED
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery#:~:text=On%2012%20June%202003%2C%20the,well%20as%20hormone%20replacement%20therapy. | Gender-affirming surgery | Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) is a surgical procedure, or series of procedures, that alters a person's physical appearance and sexual characteristics to resemble those associated with their gender identity. The phrase is most often associated with transgender health care, though many such treatments are also pursued by cisgender individuals. It is also known as sex reassignment surgery (SRS), gender confirmation surgery (GCS), and several other names.
Professional medical organizations have established Standards of Care, which apply before someone can apply for and receive reassignment surgery, including psychological evaluation, and a period of real-life experience living in the desired gender.
Feminization surgeries are surgeries that result in female-looking anatomy, such as vaginoplasty, vulvoplasty and breast augmentation. Masculinization surgeries are those that result in male-looking anatomy, such as phalloplasty and breast reduction.
In addition to gender-affirming surgery, patients may need to follow a lifelong course of masculinizing or feminizing hormone replacement therapy to support the endocrine system.
Sweden became the first country in the world to allow transgender people to change their legal gender after "reassignment surgery" and provide free hormone treatment, in 1972. Singapore followed soon after in 1973, being the first in Asia.
== Terminology ==
Gender-affirming surgery is known by many other names, including gender-affirmation surgery, sex reassignment surgery, gender reassignment surgery, and gender confirmation surgery. It is also sometimes called a sex change, though this term is usually considered offensive. Top surgery and bottom surgery refer to surgeries on the chest and genitals respectively.
Some transgender people who want medical assistance to transition from one sex to another identify as "transsexual".
Trans women and others assigned male at birth may undergo one or more feminizing procedures: genital surgeries such as penectomy (removal of the penis), orchiectomy (removal of the testes), vaginoplasty (construction of a vagina), vulvoplasty (construction of a vulva); as well as breast augmentation, tracheal shave (reduction of the Adam's apple), facial feminization surgery, and voice feminization surgery among others.
Trans men and others assigned female at birth may undergo one or more masculinizing procedures; such as chest reconstruction, breast reduction, hysterectomy (removal of the uterus), oophorectomy (removal of the ovaries). A penis can be constructed through metoidioplasty or phalloplasty, and a scrotum through scrotoplasty.
As knowledge of non-binary genders expands in the medical community, more surgeons are willing to tailor operations to individual needs. Bigenital operations allow individuals to construct a penis or vagina and retain their original organs. Gender nullification is the removal of all external genitalia except the urethral opening, typically pursued by people assigned male at birth.
Gender-affirming surgery can also refer to operations pursued by cisgender people, such as mammaplasty, penile implant, or testicular implants following orchiectomy.
Gender-affirming surgery is often sensationalized and misrepresented by anti-trans activists through terms such as genital-mutilation surgery.
== Surgical procedures ==
The best-known gender-affirming procedures are those that reshape the genitals, which are also known as genital reassignment surgery, genital reconstruction surgery, sex reassignment surgery, and bottom surgery (the latter is named in contrast to top surgery, which is surgery to the breasts). However, the meaning of "sex reassignment surgery" has been clarified by the medical organization, the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH), to include any of a larger number of surgical procedures performed as part of a medical treatment for gender dysphoria.
WPATH says medically necessary gender-affirming surgeries include "complete hysterectomy, bilateral mastectomy, chest reconstruction or augmentation ... including breast prostheses if necessary, genital reconstruction (by various techniques which must be appropriate to each patient ...)... and certain facial plastic reconstruction." Other non-surgical procedures are also considered medically necessary treatments by WPATH, including facial hair electrolysis.
=== Genital surgery ===
==== Feminizing ====
For trans women and transfeminine people, genital reconstruction usually involves surgical construction of a vagina. The most common techniques are penile inversion, rectosigmoid vaginoplasty and peritoneal pullthrough vaginoplasty (PPT). Another technique, the non-penile inversion technique, uses perforated scrotal tissue to construct the vaginal canal. A less invasive procedure with reduced postoperative care requirements is vulvoplasty, which creates external female genitalia without a vaginal canal. The downside of this procedure is that it does not allow for penetrative sex.
==== Masculinizing ====
For trans men and transmasculine people, genital reconstruction may involve the construction of a penis through either phalloplasty or metoidioplasty, which is less invasive but results in a smaller penis.
==== Non-binary people ====
Non-binary people may elect to get any of the surgeries listed above, depending on their sex assignment. They may also opt for bigenital or gender nullification surgeries. Bigenital operations include androgynoplasty, a vaginoplasty procedure that retains the penis, or vagina-preserving phalloplasty. These procedures tend to be rarely performed. In 2017, one of the leading UK trans surgeons, James Bellringer, commented that he had never received a request for it.
==== Other considerations ====
Genital surgery may also involve other medically necessary procedures, such as orchiectomy, penectomy, or vaginectomy. Complications of penile inversion vaginoplasty are mostly minor; however, rectoneovaginal fistula (abnormal connection between the neovagina and the rectum) can occur in about 1–3% of patients. These require further surgery to correct.
=== Other surgeries ===
As underscored by WPATH, gender transition may entail a variety of non-genital surgeries that change primary or secondary sex characteristics, any of which are considered "gender-affirming surgery" when done to affirm a person's gender identity. For trans men, these may include mastectomy (removal of the breasts) and chest reconstruction (the shaping of a male-contoured chest), or hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (removal of ovaries and fallopian tubes). For some trans women, facial feminization surgery, hair transplants, and breast augmentation are also aesthetic components of their surgical treatment. Voice feminizing surgery is a procedure in which the overall pitch range of the patient's voice is reduced. Adam's apple reduction surgery (chondrolaryngoplasty) or tracheal shaving is a procedure in which the most prominent part of the thyroid cartilage is reduced.
There is also Adam's apple enhancement therapy, in which cartilage is used to bring out the Adam's apple in female-to-male patients.
== History ==
Reports of people seeking gender-confirming surgery (vaginoplasty) go back to the 2nd century, such as Roman Emperor Elagabalus.
=== 20th century ===
In the US in 1917, Alan L. Hart, an American tuberculosis specialist, became one of the first trans men to undergo hysterectomy and gonadectomy as treatment of what is now called gender dysphoria.
Dora Richter is the first known trans woman to undergo complete male-to-female genital surgery. She was one of several transgender people in the care of sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld at Berlin's Institute for Sexual Research. In 1922, Richter underwent orchiectomy. In early 1931, a penectomy, followed in June by vaginoplasty.
In 1930-1931, Lili Elbe underwent four sex reassignment surgeries, including orchiectomy, an ovarian transplant, and penectomy. In June 1931, she underwent her fourth surgery, including an experimental uterine transplant and vaginoplasty, which she hoped would allow her to give birth. However, her body rejected the transplanted uterus, and she died of post-operative complications in September, at age 48.
A previous sex reassignment surgery patient was Magnus Hirschfeld's housekeeper, but their name has not been discovered.
Elmer Belt may have been the first U.S. surgeon to perform gender affirmation surgery, in about 1950.
In 1951, Harold Gillies, a plastic surgeon active in World War II, worked to develop the first technique for female-to-male gender-affirming surgery, producing a technique that has become a modern standard, called phalloplasty. Phalloplasty is a cosmetic procedure that produces a visual penis out of grafted tissue from the patient.
In 1971, Roberto Farina performed Brazil's first male-to-female gender-affirming surgery.
In 1984, Jalma Jurado developed a new surgical technique, which he used in surgeries for more than 500 trans women in Brazil and from around the world.
Following phalloplasty, in 1999, the procedure for metoidioplasty was developed for female-to-male surgical transition by the doctors Lebovic and Laub. Considered a variant of phalloplasty, metoidioplasty works to create a penis out of the patient's present clitoris. This allows the patient to have a sensation-perceiving penis head. Metoidioplasty may be used in conjunction with phalloplasty to produce a larger, more "cis-appearing" penis in multiple stages.
=== 21st century ===
On 12 June 2003, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in favor of Carola van Kück, a German trans woman whose insurance company denied her reimbursement for sex reassignment surgery as well as hormone replacement therapy. The legal arguments related to the Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights as well as the Article 8. This affair is called van Kück vs Germany.
In 2011, Christiane Völling won the first successful case brought by an intersex person against a surgeon for non-consensual surgical intervention described by the International Commission of Jurists as "an example of an individual who was subjected to sex reassignment surgery without full knowledge or consent".
As of 2017, some European countries require forced sterilization for the legal recognition of sex reassignment. As of 2020, Japan also requires an individual to undergo sterilization to change their legal sex.
The early history of gender-affirming surgery in trans people has been reviewed by various authors.
== Prevalence ==
The prevalence of transgender-related surgeries is difficult to measure and likely underestimated. In 2015, the largest survey of transgender people in the United States reported that 25% of respondents reported had undergone such a surgery.
== Prior to surgery ==
=== Medical considerations ===
Some medical conditions, including diabetes, asthma, and HIV, can lead to complications with future therapy and pharmacological management. Typical gender-affirming surgery procedures involve complex medication regimens, including sex-hormone therapy, throughout and after surgery. Typically, a patient's treatment involves a healthcare team consisting of a variety of providers including endocrinologists, whom the surgeon may consult when determining if the patient is physically fit for surgery. Health providers including pharmacists can play a role in maintaining safe and cost-effective regimens, providing patient education, and addressing other health issues including smoking cessation and weight loss.
People with HIV or hepatitis C may have difficulty finding a surgeon able to perform successful surgery. Many surgeons operate in small private clinics that cannot treat potential complications in these populations. Some surgeons charge higher fees for HIV and hepatitis C-positive patients; other medical professionals assert that it is unethical to deny surgical or hormonal treatments to transgender people solely on the basis of their HIV or hepatitis status.
Fertility is also a factor considered in gender-affirming surgery, as patients are typically informed that if an orchiectomy or oöphoro-hysterectomy is performed, it will make them irreversibly infertile.
=== Gender dysphoric children ===
Gender-affirming surgery is generally not performed on children under 18, though in rare cases may be performed on adolescents if health care providers agree there is an unusual benefit to doing so or risk to not performing it. Preferred treatments for children include puberty blockers and gender affirming hormone therapy, which reduces the need for future surgery. Medical protocols typically require long-term mental health counseling to verify persistent and genuine gender dysphoria before any intervention, and consent of a parent or guardian or court order is legally required in most jurisdictions.
=== Intersex children and cases of trauma ===
Infants born with intersex conditions might undergo interventions at or close to birth. This is controversial because of the human rights implications.
There can be negative outcomes (including PTSD and suicide) when the surgically assigned gender does not match the person's gender identity, which will be realized by the person only later in life. Milton Diamond at the John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii recommended that physicians not perform surgery on children until they are old enough to give informed consent and to assign such infants in the gender to which they will probably best adjust. Diamond believed introducing children to others with differences of sex development could help remove shame and stigma. Diamond considered the intersex condition as a difference of sex development, not as a disorder.
=== Standards of care ===
Gender-affirming surgery can be hard to obtain due to financial barriers, insurance coverage, and lack of providers. A growing number of surgeons are now training to perform such surgeries. In many regions, a person's pursuit of gender-affirming surgery is often governed, or at least guided, by documents called Standards of Care for the Health of Transgender and Gender Diverse People (SOC). The most widespread SOC in this field is published and often revised by the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH, formerly the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association or HBIGDA). Many jurisdictions and medical boards in the US and other countries recognize the WPATH Standards of Care for the treatment of transgender individuals. Some treatment may require a minimum duration of psychological evaluation and living as a member of the target gender full-time, sometimes called the real life experience (RLE) (sometimes mistakenly called the real life test [RLT]) before sex reassignment surgeries are covered by insurance.
Standards of Care usually give certain very specific "minimum" requirements as guidelines for progressing with treatment, causing them to be highly controversial and often maligned documents among transgender patients seeking surgery. Alternative local standards of care exist, such as in the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. Much of the criticism surrounding the WPATH/HBIGDA-SOC applies to these as well, and some of these SOCs (mostly European SOC) are actually based on much older versions of the WPATH SOC. Other SOCs are entirely independent of the WPATH. The criteria of many of those SOCs are stricter than the latest revision of the WPATH-SOC. Many qualified surgeons in North America and many in Europe adhere almost unswervingly to the WPATH SOC or other SOCs. However, in the United States many experienced surgeons are able to apply the WPATH SOC in ways which respond to an individual's medical circumstances, as is consistent with the SOC.
Many surgeons require two letters of recommendation for gender-affirming surgery. At least one of these letters must be from a mental health professional experienced in diagnosing gender identity disorder (now recognized as gender dysphoria), who has known the patient for over a year. Letters must state that sex reassignment surgery is the correct course of treatment for the patient.
Many medical professionals and many professional associations have stated that surgical interventions should not be required for transsexual individuals to change sex designation on identity documents. However, depending on the legal requirements of many jurisdictions, transsexual and transgender people are often unable to change the listing of their sex in public records unless they can furnish a physician's letter attesting that sex reassignment surgery has been performed. In some jurisdictions legal gender change is prohibited in any circumstances, even after genital or other surgery or treatment.
=== Insurance ===
A growing number of public and commercial health insurance plans in the US now contain defined benefits covering sex reassignment-related procedures, usually including genital reconstruction surgery (MTF and FTM), chest reconstruction (FTM), breast augmentation (MTF), and hysterectomy (FTM). For patients to qualify for insurance coverage, certain insurance plans may require proof of the following:
a written initial assessment by a qualified licensed mental health professional
persistent, well-documented gender dysphoria
months of prior physician-supervised hormone therapy
In June 2008, the American Medical Association (AMA) House of Delegates stated that the denial to patients with gender dysphoria or otherwise covered benefits represents discrimination, and that the AMA supports "public and private health insurance coverage for treatment for gender dysphoria as recommended by the patient's physician." Other organizations have issued similar statements, including WPATH, the American Psychological Association, and the National Association of Social Workers.
In 2017, the United States Defense Health Agency for the first time approved payment for sex reassignment surgery for an active-duty U.S. military service member. The patient, an infantry soldier who is a trans woman, had already begun a course of treatment for gender reassignment. The procedure, which the treating doctor deemed medically necessary, was performed on 14 November at a private hospital, since US military hospitals lack the requisite surgical expertise.
== Post-procedural effects ==
=== Mental health and quality of life ===
Clinical research on long-term quality-of-life outcomes following surgery is limited and confounded by various factors, including small sample sizes, and baseline rates of mental health issues and suicide among transgender people compared to the general population.
A 2020 meta-analysis found "evidence of low quality" that gender-affirming surgery, particularly chest reconstruction for trans men, improves quality of life. A 2022 systematic review found that gender-affirming surgical procedures led to "reduced rates of suicide attempts, anxiety, depression, and symptoms of gender dysphoria along with higher levels of life satisfaction, happiness and QoL after gender-affirming surgery." A 2024 systematic review found that genital surgeries significantly improved depression and dissociation in trans and gender-diverse individuals, with "mixed results" for other mental health outcomes. It concluded there was "less conclusive evidence" of mental health improvement after trans surgical procedures compared to hormonal therapy, though expressed tentative support for both.
A secondary analysis of the U.S. Transgender Survey found that gender-affirming surgery was significantly associated with lower rates of psychological distress, smoking, and suicidal ideation, compared to rates among respondents who desired surgery but had not undergone it. This was the largest controlled study on the subject to date (N=19,960), though the design of the survey and self-reported responses introduced some limitations and possible response bias.
Gender-affirming surgery can be seen as human enhancement.
==== Social obstacles ====
Transgender people often fall victim to different social obstacles which may hinder their experiences with care, such as discrimination, prejudice, harassment, and other stigmatizing behaviours. The rejection faced by trans people is much more severe than what is experienced by lesbians, gays, and bisexuals. Due to these minority stressors, gender-affirming surgery may result in only limited quality of life improvements, and transgender individuals receiving it may not be fully alleviated of mental health disparities after the procedure.
Regret after gender-affirming surgery may also be an outcome of the discrimination transgender individuals face. According to a systematic review published in 2021, "poor social and group support, late-onset gender transition, poor sexual functioning, and mental health problems are factors associated with regret." Nevertheless, it found the prevalence of regret after gender-affirming surgery to be quite low, at around 1% of the 7.928 transgender patients studied.
=== Sexuality ===
Looking specifically at transsexual people's genital sensitivities, both trans men and trans women are capable of maintaining their genital sensitivities after gender-affirming surgery. However, these are counted upon the procedures and surgical tricks which are used to preserve the sensitivity. Considering the importance of genital sensitivity in helping transsexuals to avoid unnecessary harm or injury to the genitals, allowing trans men to obtain erection by inserting a penile implant after phalloplasty, the ability of trans people to experience erogenous and tactile sensitivity in their reconstructed genitals is one of the essential objectives surgeons want to achieve in gender-affirming surgery. Moreover, studies have also found that the critical procedure for genital sensitivity maintenance and achieving orgasm after phalloplasty is to preserve both the clitoral hood and the clitoris underneath the reconstructed phallus.
Erogenous sensitivity is measured by the abilities to reach orgasm in genital sexual activities, like masturbation and intercourse. Many studies reviewed that both trans men and trans women have reported an increase of orgasms in both sexual activities, implying the possibilities to maintain or even enhance genital sensitivity after gender-affirming surgery.
Most trans persons report enjoying better sex lives and improved sexual satisfaction after gender-affirming surgery. The enhancement of sexual satisfaction was positively related to the satisfaction of new primary sex characteristics. Before gender-affirming surgery, trans patients had unwanted sex organs which they were eager to remove. Hence, they were not enthusiastic about engaging in sexual activity. Transsexual individuals who have undergone gender-affirming surgery are more satisfied with their bodies and experienced less stress when participating in sexual activity.
Most of the individuals report that they have experienced sexual excitement during sexual activity, including masturbation. The ability to obtain orgasm is positively associated with sexual satisfaction. Frequency and intensity of orgasm are substantially different for trans men and trans women. Almost all female-to-male individuals revealed an increase in sexual excitement and can achieve orgasm through sexual activity with a partner or via masturbation, whereas only 85% of the male-to-female individuals are able to achieve orgasm after gender-affirming surgery. A study found that both trans men and trans women reported qualitative change in their experience of orgasm. The female-to-male trans individuals reported that they had been experiencing intensified and stronger excitements and orgasm while male-to-female persons have been encountering longer and more gentle feelings.
Rates of masturbation have also changed after gender-affirming surgery for both trans women and trans men. A study reported an overall increase of masturbation frequencies in most transsexuals and 78% of them were able to reach orgasm by masturbation after gender-affirming surgery. A study showed that there were differences in masturbation frequency between trans men and trans women; female-to-male individuals masturbated more often than male-to-female. The possible reasons for the difference in masturbation frequency could be associated with the surge of libido, which was caused by the testosterone therapies, or the withdrawal of gender dysphoria.
Concerning trans people's expectations for different aspects of their life, the sexual aspects have the lowest level of satisfaction among all other elements (physical, emotional and social levels). When comparing trans with cisgender persons of the same gender, trans women had a similar sexual satisfaction to cis women, but trans men had a lower level of sexual satisfaction to cis men. Moreover, trans men also had a lower sexual satisfaction with their sexual life than trans women.
== Legal status ==
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Gender-affirming surgery at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_367 | Gliese 367 | Gliese 367 (GJ 367, formally named Añañuca) is a red dwarf star in the constellation of Vela. It is relatively nearby, with a distance of 30.7 light-years (9.4 parsecs) from Earth as measured from its parallax. It hosts three known exoplanets, Gliese 367 b, c & d.
== Characteristics ==
A red dwarf star, Gliese 367 is smaller, cooler, and much fainter than the Sun. It has 0.457 times the Sun's radius, an effective temperature of 3522 K, and a luminosity just 2.88% that of the Sun.
Initial measurements from stellar isochrones suggested a young age of less than 60 million years old, but its orbit around the Milky Way is highly eccentric, unusual for a young star. It may have been forced into such an orbit via a gravitational encounter. However, a 2023 study, based on spectroscopic observations, found that its age should be much higher. Estimates from gyrochronology give an age in the range of 4.6 to 4.8 billion years. Rotation-age relations suggest a value of 7.95±1.31 billion years.
It is suspected to be a variable with amplitude 0.012 stellar magnitude and period 5.16 years. A stellar multiplicity survey in 2015 failed to detect any stellar companions to Gliese 367.
== Nomenclature ==
The designation Gliese 367 comes from the Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars. This was the 367th star listed in the first edition of the catalogue.
In August 2022, this planetary system was included among 20 systems to be named by the third NameExoWorlds project. The approved names, proposed by a team from Chile, were announced in June 2023. Gliese 367 is named Añañuca and its innermost planet is named Tahay, after names for the endemic Chilean wildflowers Phycella cyrtanthoides and Calydorea xiphioides.
== Planetary system ==
The star Gliese 367 was observed by TESS in February-March 2019, leading to its designation as an object of interest, and by January 2021 additional radial velocity data suggested the existence of a short-period planet, albeit with low certainty. The planet's existence was confirmed by both ground-based and satellite-based transit photometry data by December 2021.
Gliese 367 b is a close-orbiting sub-Earth that takes just 7.7 hours to orbit its star, one of the shortest orbits of any planet. Due to its close orbit, the exoplanet gets bombarded with radiation over 500 times what Earth receives from the Sun. Dayside temperatures on GJ 367b are around 1,500 °C (1,770 K; 2,730 °F). Due to its close orbit, it most likely is tidally locked. The atmosphere of Gliese 367 b, due to the extreme temperatures, would have boiled away along with signs of life. The core of GJ 367b is likely composed of iron and nickel, making its core similar to Mercury's core. The core of GJ 367b is extremely dense, making up most of the planet's mass.
A direct imaging study in 2022 failed to find any additional planets or stellar companions around Gliese 367. This rules out any companions at distances greater than 5 AU with masses greater than 20 MJ (for an age of 5 billion years). The discovery of two additional super-Earth-mass planets with periods of 11.5 and 34 days was published in 2023.
== See also ==
List of nearest exoplanets
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Hopkins_Field | Lloyd Hopkins Field | Lloyd Hopkins Field is a baseball stadium in Alton, Illinois. Owned and operated by the city of Alton, it is the home field for the Alton River Dragons, a collegiate summer baseball team in the Prospect League, and for American Legion Baseball. Hopkins Field hosted American Legion teams from 1981 to 2015, and they returned in 2020. Hopkins Field was also the home of the Bluff City Bombers in the Central Illinois Collegiate League from 1998 to 2004.
In January 2020 the city of Alton signed a 10-year lease with the River Dragons. The deal called for upgrades to Hopkins Field, including the addition of a locker room, batting cages, a new scoreboard and video board, concession amenities, and seating for 1,800 people. Hopkins Field had been renovated in 2015 with updated dugouts and new batting cages, lights, siding, netting, fencing, and turf.
== References ==
== External links ==
Prospect League
Alton River Dragons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Esteve-Coll | Elizabeth Esteve-Coll | Dame Elizabeth Anne Loosemore Esteve-Coll (née Kingdon; 14 October 1938 – 16 September 2024) was a British academic, museum director and librarian.
== Early life and education ==
Esteve-Coll was born in Ripon, West Riding of Yorkshire, the daughter of Percy Kingdon, a bank clerk, and his wife Nora Rose. She was educated at Darlington High School and read English and Spanish at Trinity College, Dublin and Art History at Birkbeck College (now Birkbeck, University of London).
== Career ==
Esteve-Coll was head of learning resources at Kingston Polytechnic (now Kingston University London) from 1977 to 1982. In 1982 she became the first female director of the University of Surrey Library. In 1985 she became the Keeper of the National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum. She then instigated various changes to make the library more accessible to a broader audience. Esteve-Coll became the UK's first woman director of a national arts collection when she was appointed director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1987, succeeding Sir Roy Strong. She resigned in 1994, midway through her second term as director, to take up the Vice-Chancellorship of the University of East Anglia. Alan Borg succeeded her as its new director, taking the post on 1 October 1995.
Esteve-Coll served as Vice-Chancellor of the University of East Anglia from 1995 to 1997, but was forced to step down after being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. She said at the time: "It is with real sadness and disappointment that I must acknowledge that I am not able to lead the university into the 21st century." She served as Chancellor of University of Lincoln for seven years, as well as being a Trustee of the Sainsbury Institute for the Study of Japanese Arts and Cultures since its foundation in January 1999.
== Marriage ==
At the age of 21, she married Spanish refugee sea captain José Esteve-Coll, 30 years her senior. He died in 1980.
== Honours ==
Esteve-Coll was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours list in 1995.
She received the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon (3rd class) in November 2005 in recognition of her "outstanding contribution to the promotion of Japanese culture and studies to British people".
In November 2008, she was presented with an honorary doctorate of arts and made Chancellor Emerita by the University of Lincoln during her farewell ceremony at Lincoln Cathedral.
== Death ==
Esteve-Coll died on 16 September 2024, at the age of 85.
== Bibliography ==
Books by My Bedside (1989)
== References ==
== External links ==
IFLA Section of Art Libraries Annual Report — September 1997 – August 1998
Interview with Dame Elizabeth Esteve-Coll
Elizabeth Esteve-Coll on Desert Island Discs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me_at_the_zoo | Me at the zoo | "Me at the zoo" is a YouTube video uploaded on April 23, 2005, recognized as the first video uploaded to the platform. The 19-second video features Jawed Karim, one of the co-founders of YouTube, being recorded by his high school friend, Yakov Lapitsky. In the video, Karim is seen standing in front of two elephants at the San Diego Zoo in California, where he briefly comments on the length of their trunks. Multiple journalists thought the video represented YouTube as a whole and stated it was a milestone of the platform's history. Karim has later updated the video's description several times. As of December 2025, the video has received more than 376 million views.
== Background ==
YouTube was founded in 2005 by three former PayPal employees – Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim. Hurley studied design at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania, while Chen studied computer science at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Karim stated that inspiration for the platform came from the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. He was unable to find video clips of these events online, which gave him the idea to start a video-sharing website.
=== Release ===
"Me at the zoo" was uploaded on April 23, 2005, at 8:27 (UTC−7) p.m. It shows Karim at the San Diego Zoo in California, in front of two elephants. In the 19-second video, he notes the length of their trunks. His high school friend Yakov Lapitsky recorded the video. In it, Karim states:
Alright, so here we are in front of the, uh, elephants, and the cool thing about these guys is that, is that they have really, really, really long, um, trunks, and that's, that's cool. And that's pretty much all there is to say.
== Retrospective reception ==
Multiple publications agreed that the video embodies YouTube as a whole. Business Insider ranked it the most important YouTube video of all time, stating that it is emblematic of YouTube's user-generated nature. The New York Observer also ranked it as the most important video in YouTube history, noting its historical significance. BuzzFeed News listed it among the 20 most important online videos of all time. As the first video on YouTube, it has also been described as the first YouTube vlog.
Reviewers thought that "Me at the zoo" was a monumental part of YouTube's history. Aaron Duplantier, in his book Authenticity and How We Fake It: Belief and Subjectivity in Reality TV, Facebook and YouTube, stated that the ordinary nature of "Me at the zoo" set the tone for the type of original, amateur content that would become typical of YouTube, especially among YouTubers and vloggers. The Los Angeles Times explained in 2009 that "Me at the zoo" made a significant change in how media was consumed, establishing an era of short videos. Digital Trends deemed it set a standard for future videos on YouTube. Film critic Peter Bradshaw listed the video as one of the key releases of the 2000s.
Greg Jarboe, in his book YouTube and Video Marketing: An Hour a Day, describes the video's representation of an ordinary moment to be "extraordinary" for its time, demonstrating YouTube co-founder Jawed Karim's vision of what YouTube would become. According to Jarboe, "Me at the zoo" showed that YouTube was not simply about trying to "capture special moments on video," but rather trying to empower YouTube users to become the "broadcasters of tomorrow". This led YouTube to become the world's most popular online video-sharing community.
The official San Diego Zoo YouTube account left a now-pinned comment on the video in 2020, stating “We're so honored that the first ever YouTube video was filmed here!“ As of April 1, 2025, it is the most-liked comment on the platform, with 4.2 million likes.
== Changes to original video ==
Karim has repeatedly used the video's description to criticize YouTube's business actions. In response to Google requiring YouTube users to use Google+ accounts to comment on videos, he updated the description in November 2013 to say, "I can't comment here anymore, since I don't want a Google+ account." He changed the video's description again in November 2021 in response to YouTube's decision to remove video dislikes from public view, stating, "When every YouTuber agrees that removing dislikes is a stupid idea, it probably is. Try again, YouTube." A few days later, he again updated the description to include a longer condemnation of YouTube's decision. On December 16, 2023, the video thumbnail was changed to a MrBeast-style image of Karim with fiery eyes and pointing at a background image of stampeding elephants. It was reverted to the original thumbnail two weeks later. In February 2025, Jawed updated the description to refer to the danger of microplastics to the brain. The description also contains timestamps for chapters: "Intro", "The cool thing" and "End".
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Me at the zoo on YouTube
Me at the zoo at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson | Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson | Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a British Royal Navy officer whose leadership, grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics brought about a number of decisive British naval victories during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest admirals in history and, by many, as the greatest.
Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle Maurice Suckling, a high-ranking naval officer. Nelson rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command at the age of 20 in 1778. He developed a reputation for personal valour and a firm grasp of tactics, but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean Sea. He fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica, where he was wounded and partially lost sight in one eye, and subsequently performed diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while commanding HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after this battle, Nelson took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where the attack failed and he lost his right arm, forcing him to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion.
In 1801, Nelson was dispatched to the Baltic Sea and defeated neutral Denmark at the Battle of Copenhagen. He commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelson's fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle became Britain's greatest naval victory, but Nelson, aboard HMS Victory, was fatally wounded by a French marksman. His body was brought back to England, where he was accorded a state funeral, and considered a hero.
Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. His signal just prior to the commencement of the battle, "England expects that every man will do his duty", is regularly quoted and paraphrased. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory. In 2002, Nelson was named among the 100 Greatest Britons of all time.
== Early life ==
Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 at a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England; the sixth of eleven children of the Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine Suckling. He was named "Horatio" after his godfather Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford. Horatio Walpole was a nephew of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first prime minister of Great Britain. Nelson retained a strong Christian faith throughout his life. Nelson's uncle Maurice Suckling was a high-ranking naval officer, and is believed to have had a major impact on Nelson's life.
Nelson attended Paston Grammar School in North Walsham until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI's Grammar School in Norwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate HMS Raisonnable as an ordinary seaman and coxswain under his maternal uncle Captain Maurice Suckling, who commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered he experienced seasickness, a chronic issue he experienced for the rest of his life.
== East and West Indies, 1771–1780 ==
Raisonnable was commissioned during a period of tension with Spain, but when it passed, Suckling was transferred to the Nore guardship HMS Triumph. Nelson was dispatched to serve aboard the West Indiaman Mary Ann of the merchant shipping firm Hibbert, Purrier and Horton, in order to gain experience at sea. He sailed from Medway, Kent, on 25 July 1771, heading to Jamaica and Tobago, and returning to Plymouth on 7 July 1772. He twice crossed the Atlantic before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of his longboat, which carried sailors and dispatches to and from shore. Nelson then learnt of a planned expedition commanded by Constantine Phipps, intended to survey a passage in the Arctic by which it was hoped India could be reached: the fabled North-East Passage.
At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain, to Commander Skeffington Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel, HMS Carcass. The expedition reached within ten degrees of the North Pole, but unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, was forced to turn back. By 1800, Lutwidge had begun to circulate a story that Nelson had spotted and pursued a polar bear while the ship was trapped in the ice, before being ordered to return to the ship. Later, in 1809, Lutwidge said Nelson and a companion gave chase to the bear and upon being questioned why, replied: "I wished, Sir, to get the skin for my father." Nelson briefly returned to Triumph after the expedition returned to Britain in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer to HMS Seahorse; one of two ships about to sail for the East Indies.
Nelson sailed for the East Indies on 19 November 1773, and arrived at the British outpost at Madras on 25 May 1774. Nelson and Seahorse spent the rest of the year cruising off the coast and escorting merchantmen. With the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War, the British fleet operated in support of the East India Company. In early 1775, Seahorse was dispatched to carry a cargo of the company's money to Bombay. On 19 February, two of Hyder Ali's ketches attacked Seahorse, which drove them off after a brief exchange of fire. This was Nelson's first experience of battle. Nelson spent the rest of the year escorting convoys and continued to develop his navigation and ship handling skills. In early 1776, he contracted malaria and became seriously ill. He was discharged from Seahorse on 14 March and returned to England aboard HMS Dolphin. Nelson spent the six-month voyage recuperating and had almost recovered by the time he arrived in Britain in September. His patron Suckling had risen to the post of Comptroller of the Navy in 1775, and used his influence to help Nelson gain further promotion. Nelson was appointed acting lieutenant aboard HMS Worcester, which was about to sail to Gibraltar.
Worcester, commanded by Captain Mark Robinson, sailed as a convoy escort on 3 December, and returned with another convoy in April 1777. Nelson then travelled to London to take his lieutenant's examination on 9 April; his examining board consisted of Captains John Campbell, Abraham North, and his uncle Suckling. Nelson passed the examination, and the next day received his commission and an appointment to HMS Lowestoffe, which was preparing to sail to Jamaica under Captain William Locker. She sailed on 16 May, arrived on 19 July, and after reprovisioning, carried out several cruises in Caribbean waters. After the outbreak of the American War of Independence, Lowestoffe took several prizes, one of which was taken into Navy service as Little Lucy. Nelson asked for and was given command of her, and took her on two cruises of his own.
As well as giving him his first command, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his fledgling interest in science. During his first cruise commanding Little Lucy, Nelson led an expedition to the Caicos Islands, where he made detailed notes of the wildlife, and in particular a bird now believed to be the white-necked jacobin. Locker, impressed by Nelson's abilities, recommended him to the new commander-in-chief at Jamaica, Sir Peter Parker. Parker duly took Nelson onto his flagship HMS Bristol. The entry of the French into the war in support of the Americans meant further targets for Parker's fleet. It took many prizes towards the end of 1778, which brought Nelson an estimated £400 (equivalent to £64,400 in 2023) in prize money. Parker appointed him as master and commander of the brig HMS Badger on 8 December.
Nelson and Badger spent most of 1779 cruising off of the Central American coast, ranging as far as the British settlements at British Honduras (now Belize), and Nicaragua, but without much success at interception of enemy prizes. On his return to Port Royal, he learnt Parker had promoted him to post-captain on 11 June, and intended to give him another command. Nelson handed over the Badger to Cuthbert Collingwood while he awaited the arrival of his new ship: the 28-gun frigate HMS Hinchinbrook, newly captured from the French. While Nelson waited, news reached Parker of a French fleet commanded by Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing approaching Jamaica. Parker hastily organised his defences and placed Nelson in command of Fort Charles, which covered the approaches to Kingston. D'Estaing instead headed north, having received orders to lay siege to Savannah, and the anticipated invasion never materialised.
Nelson took command of the Hinchinbrook on 1 September 1779. Hinchinbrook sailed from Port Royal on 5 October and, in company with other British ships, proceeded to capture a number of American prizes. On his return to Jamaica in December, Nelson began to be troubled by recurrent attacks of malaria. Nelson remained in the West Indies in order to take part in Major-General John Dalling's attempt to capture the Spanish colonies in Central America, including an assault on the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception on the San Juan River in Nicaragua. In February 1780, Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the San Juan River, Nelson's expeditionary force obtained the surrender of the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception and its 160 Spanish defenders after a two-week siege. Despite this initial success, the British forces never reached Lake Nicaragua and, decimated by yellow fever, were forced to return to Jamaica. The British destroyed the fortress when they evacuated in January 1781. The failed campaign led to more than 2,500 casualties, making it the costliest British disaster of the entire war. Despite this, Nelson was praised for his efforts.
Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigate HMS Janus. In 1780, Nelson fell seriously ill with what seemed to be dysentery, and possibly yellow fever, in the jungles of Costa Rica, and was unable to take command. He was taken to Kingston, Jamaica, to be nursed by "doctoress" Cubah Cornwallis, a rumoured mistress of fellow captain William Cornwallis. He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboard HMS Lion, arriving in late November. Nelson gradually recovered over several months, and soon began agitating for a command. He was appointed to the frigate HMS Albemarle on 15 August 1781.
== Command, 1781–1796 ==
=== Captain of Albemarle ===
Nelson received orders on 23 October 1781 to take the newly refitted Albemarle to sea. He was instructed to collect an inbound convoy of the Russia Company at Elsinore and escort them back to Britain. For this operation, the Admiralty placed the frigates HMS Argo and HMS Enterprise under his command. Nelson successfully organised the convoy and escorted it into British waters. He then left the convoy to return to port, but severe storms hampered him. Gales almost wrecked Albemarle, as she was a poorly designed ship and an earlier accident had left her damaged, but Nelson eventually brought her into Portsmouth in February 1782. There, the Admiralty ordered him to fit Albemarle for sea and join the escort for a convoy collecting at Cork to sail for Quebec. Nelson arrived off Newfoundland with the convoy in late May, then detached on a cruise to hunt American privateers. Nelson was generally unsuccessful; he succeeded only in retaking several captured British merchant ships and capturing a number of small fishing boats and assorted craft.
In August 1782, Nelson had a narrow escape from a far superior French force under Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, only evading them after a prolonged chase. Nelson arrived at Quebec on 18 September. He sailed again as part of the escort for a convoy to New York. He arrived in mid-November and reported to Admiral Samuel Hood, commander of the New York station. At Nelson's request, Hood transferred him to his fleet and Albemarle sailed in company with Hood, bound for the West Indies. On their arrival, the British fleet took up positions off Jamaica to await the arrival of de Vaudreuil's force. Nelson and the Albemarle were ordered to scout the numerous passages for signs of the enemy, but by early 1783 it became clear the French had eluded Hood.
During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to attack the French garrison of the Turks Islands. Commanding a small flotilla of frigates and smaller vessels, he landed a force of 167 sailors and marines early on the morning of 8 March under a supporting bombardment. The French were found to be heavily entrenched and, after several hours, Nelson called off the assault. Several officers involved criticised Nelson, but Hood does not appear to have reprimanded him. Nelson spent the rest of the war cruising in the West Indies, where he captured a number of French and Spanish prizes. After news of the peace reached Hood, Nelson returned to Britain in late June 1783.
=== Island of Nevis, marriage and peace ===
Nelson visited France in late 1783 and stayed with acquaintances at Saint-Omer, briefly attempting to learn French during his stay. He returned to England in January 1784 and attended court as part of Lord Hood's entourage. Influenced by the factional politics of the time, he contemplated standing for Parliament as a supporter of William Pitt, but was unable to find a seat.
In 1784, Nelson received command of the frigate HMS Boreas, with the assignment to enforce the Navigation Acts in the vicinity of Antigua. Nelson hated Antigua and the only consolation was (Mrs) Mary Moutray whom he greatly admired. The Acts were unpopular with both the Americans and the colonies. Nelson served on the station under Admiral Sir Richard Hughes, and often came into conflict with his superior officer over their differing interpretation of the Acts. The captains of the American vessels Nelson had seized sued him for illegal seizure. Because the merchants of the nearby island of Nevis supported the American claim, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment; he remained sequestered on Boreas for eight months until the courts ruled in his favour.
Meanwhile, Nelson met Frances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow from a Nevis plantation family. Nelson developed an affection for her. In response, her uncle John Herbert offered him a massive dowry. Both Herbert and Nisbet concealed the fact that their famed riches were a fiction, and Fanny did not disclose the fact she was infertile due to a womb infection. Once they were engaged, Herbert offered Nelson nowhere near the dowry he had promised. During the Georgian era, breaking a marital engagement was seen as quite dishonourable, and so Nelson and Nisbet were married at Montpelier Estate in Nevis on 11 March 1787, shortly before the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean. The marriage was registered at Fig Tree Church in St John's Parish on Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, with Fanny following later. Following the marriage, he became the stepfather of Nisbet's 7-year-old son Josiah Nisbet.
Nelson remained with Boreas until she was paid off in November 1787. He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788, they settled at Nelson's childhood home at Burnham Thorpe. Now in reserve and on half-pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty—and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood—to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful, as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy, and Hood did not intercede on his behalf. Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792, the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun HMS Agamemnon in January 1793. Nelson took his stepson Josiah with him as a midshipman. On 1 February, France declared war.
=== Mediterranean service ===
In May 1793, Nelson sailed as part of a division commanded by Vice Admiral William Hotham, joined later that month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet. The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and—with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean—made their way to Toulon, anchoring off the port in July. Toulon was largely controlled by moderate republicans and royalists, but threatened by the forces of the National Convention marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested Hood take it under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced, and sent Nelson to carry dispatches to Sardinia and Naples, requesting reinforcements. After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia, Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There, Nelson met King Ferdinand IV of Naples, followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom, William Hamilton. During the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson was introduced to Hamilton's new wife Emma Hamilton.
The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 sailors and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed for Leghorn and then Corsica. He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari.
=== Corsica ===
Early on 22 October 1793, Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson closed with them and discovered they were a French squadron. He promptly gave chase, firing on the 40-gun Melpomene. During the action of 22 October 1793, he inflicted considerable damage, but the remaining French ships turned to join the battle. Realising he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued to Cagliari, arriving on 24 October. After making repairs, Nelson and Agamemnon sailed for Tunis on 26 October with a squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee. On arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of Agamemnon, three frigates and a sloop, and ordered to blockade the French garrison on Corsica. The fall of Toulon at the end of December 1793 severely damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provisions for a withdrawal and 18 French ships-of-the-line fell into republican hands. Nelson's mission to Corsica took on added significance, as it could provide the British a naval base close to the French coast. Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with extra ships in January 1794.
A British assault force landed on the island on 7 February, after which Nelson moved to intensify the blockade off Bastia. For the rest of the month, he carried out raids along the coast and intercepted enemy shipping. By late February, San Fiorenzo had fallen, and British troops under Lieutenant-General David Dundas had entered the outskirts of Bastia. However, Dundas merely assessed the enemy positions and then withdrew, arguing the French were too well entrenched to risk an assault. Nelson convinced Hood otherwise, but a protracted debate between the army and naval commanders meant Nelson did not receive permission to proceed until late March. Nelson began to land guns from his ships and emplace them in the hills surrounding the town. On 11 April, the British squadron entered the harbour and opened fire while Nelson took command of the land forces and commenced bombardment. After 45 days the town surrendered. Nelson then prepared for an assault on Calvi, working in company with Lieutenant-General Charles Stuart.
British forces landed at Calvi on 19 June, and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. While Nelson directed a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's soldiers began to advance. On the morning of 12 July, Nelson was at one of the forward batteries when a shot struck one of the nearby sandbags protecting the position, spraying stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and forced to retire from the position. However, his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action. By 18 July, most enemy positions had been disabled, and that night Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British brought Calvi under constant bombardment, and the town surrendered on 10 August. Nelson did regain partial sight in his damaged eye, but said he could only "...distinguish light from dark but no object."
=== Genoa and the fight of the Ça Ira ===
After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city-state of Genoa, a strategically important potential ally. Soon after, Hood returned to England and was succeeded by Admiral William Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson put into Leghorn and, while Agamemnon underwent repairs, met with other naval officers at the port and entertained a brief affair with local Adelaide Correglia. Hotham arrived with the rest of the fleet in December, whereupon Nelson and Agamemnon sailed on a number of cruises with them in late 1794 and early 1795. On 8 March, news reached Hotham of the French fleet at sea heading for Corsica. He immediately set out to intercept them, and Nelson eagerly anticipated his first fleet action. The French were reluctant to engage, and the two fleets shadowed each other on 12 March. The following day, two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger 84-gun Ça Ira. This engagement went on for two and a half hours, until the arrival of two French ships forced Nelson to veer away, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage.
The fleets continued to shadow each other, before making contact again on 14 March at the Battle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the battered Ça Ira, now under tow from Censeur. Heavily damaged, the two French ships were forced to surrender, and Nelson took possession of Censeur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port.
=== Skirmishes and the retreat from Italy ===
Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout summer 1795. On 4 July, Agamemnon sailed from San Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops bound for Genoa. On 6 July, Nelson ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several, much larger ships-of-the-line. He retreated to San Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbour. Hotham pursued the French to the Hyères Islands, but failed to bring them to a decisive action. Several small engagements were fought, but to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action. Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchantmen and cutting-out suspicious vessels in enemy and neutral harbours. Nelson formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to frustrate the progress of the French Army of Italy now advancing on Genoa, but could excite little interest in Hotham. In November, Hotham was replaced by Sir Hyde Parker, but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating for the British: the French were raiding around Genoa and strong Jacobin sentiment was rife within the city.
A large French assault at the end of November broke the allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the withdrawing army and prevent them from being surrounded, but he had too few ships and soldiers to materially alter the strategic situation. The British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed with the British failure, and questioning his future in the navy.
=== Jervis and the evacuation of the Mediterranean ===
In January 1796, the new commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean was Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as a commodore. Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite minor successes in intercepting small French warships—like at the action of 31 May 1796, when Nelson's squadron captured a convoy of seven small vessels—he began to feel British presence on the Italian peninsula was becoming useless. In June, Agamemnon was sent to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed to the 74-gun HMS Captain.
The same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transport them to Corsica. After this, Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port. In July, he oversaw the occupation of Elba, but by September the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French. By October, the Genoese position and continued French advances led the British to decide the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied. They ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica, and by December 1796 was aboard the frigate HMS Minerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed for Gibraltar.
During the passage, Nelson captured the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina, and placed Lieutenants Jonathan Culverhouse and Thomas Hardy in charge of the captured vessel; taking the frigate's Spanish captain on board Minerve. Santa Sabina was part of a larger Spanish force, and the next morning two Spanish ships-of-the-line and a frigate were sighted closing fast. Unable to outrun them, Nelson was initially determined to fight, but Culverhouse and Hardy raised the British colours and sailed northeast, drawing the Spanish ships after them until being captured, giving Nelson the opportunity to escape. Nelson went on to rendezvous with the British fleet at Elba, where he spent Christmas. He sailed for Gibraltar in late January, and after learning the Spanish fleet had sailed from Cartagena, stopped just long enough to collect Hardy, Culverhouse, and the rest of the prize crew captured with Santa Sabina, before pressing on through the straits to join Jervis off Cadiz.
=== Battle of Cape St Vincent ===
Nelson joined Sir John Jervis' fleet off Cape St Vincent and reported the Spanish movements. Jervis decided to engage and the two fleets met on 14 February 1797. Nelson found himself towards the rear of the British line and realised it would be a long time before he could bring Captain into action. Nelson disobeyed orders and wore ship, breaking from the line and heading to engage the Spanish vanguard of the 112-gun San Josef, the 80-gun San Nicolas, and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. Captain engaged all three, assisted by HMS Culloden, which had come to Nelson's aid. After an hour of exchanging broadsides left Captain and Culloden badly damaged, Nelson found himself alongside San Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, crying "Westminster Abbey or glorious victory!" and forced her to surrender. San Josef attempted to come to San Nicolas' aid, but became entangled with her compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck of San Nicolas onto San Josef and captured her as well. As night fell, the Spanish fleet broke off and sailed for Cadiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were Nelson's. It was the first time in 300 years when a British flag officer led a boarding party.
Nelson was victorious, but had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and so did not officially reprimand him, but did not mention Nelson's actions in his official report of the battle. He did write a private letter to First Lord of the Admiralty, George Spencer, where he said Nelson "contributed very much to the fortune of the day". Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory and reported his action was being referred to amongst the fleet as "Nelson's Patent Bridge for boarding first rates". Nelson's account was later challenged by Rear Admiral William Parker, who was aboard HMS Prince George. Parker claimed Nelson was supported by several more ships than he had acknowledged, and San Josef had already struck her colours by the time Nelson boarded her. Nelson's account of his role prevailed and the victory was well received in Britain; Jervis was made Earl St Vincent and on 17 May, Nelson was made a Knight of the Bath. On 20 February, in a standard promotion according to his seniority and unrelated to the battle, Nelson was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue.
== Admiral, 1797–1801 ==
=== Action off Cadiz ===
Nelson was given HMS Theseus as his flagship and ordered to lie off Cadiz on 27 May 1797; monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies. He carried out a bombardment and personally led an amphibious assault on 3 July. During the action, Nelson's barge collided with that of the Spanish commander, and a hand-to-hand struggle ensued between the two crews. Nelson was nearly cut down twice, and both times his life was saved by a sailor named John Sykes, who took the blows himself and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed her back to Theseus. During this period, Nelson developed a scheme to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity of specie from the treasure ship Principe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.
=== Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife ===
The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardments and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost. Nelson immediately ordered another assault, but was beaten back. He prepared for a third attempt to take place during the night. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure as the Spanish were better prepared than expected and had secured strong defensive positions. Several of the boats failed to land at the correct positions in the confusion, while those that did were swept by gunfire and grapeshot. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point, but as he stepped ashore, he was hit in the right arm by a musketball which fractured his humerus in multiple places. He was rowed back to Theseus to be attended by its surgeon Thomas Eshelby. Upon arriving at his ship, he refused to be helped aboard, declaring:
"Let me alone! I have yet legs left and one arm. Tell the surgeon to make haste and get his instruments. I know I must lose my right arm and the sooner it is off, the better".
A tourniquet saved him from exsanguinating, and Eshelby amputated most of his right arm. Within half an hour, Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains. Years later, he would excuse himself to Commodore John Thomas Duckworth for not writing longer letters as he was not naturally left-handed. Later on, he developed the sensation of phantom limb in the area of his amputation and declared he had "found the direct evidence of the existence of soul". Meanwhile, a force under Sir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because their boats had sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander, and the British were allowed to withdraw. The expedition failed to achieve any of its objectives and left a quarter of the landing force dead or wounded. The squadron remained off Tenerife for a further three days, and by 16 August had rejoined Lord John Jervis' fleet off Cadiz. Despondent, Nelson wrote to Jervis:
"A left-handed Admiral will never again be considered as useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble cottage the better, and make room for a better man to serve the state".
Post operative pain was such that Nelson had to return to England accompanied by Thomas Eshelby, and he returned to England aboard HMS Seahorse, arriving at Spithead on 1 September. He was met with a hero's welcome; the British public had lionised Nelson after Cape St Vincent, and his wound earned him sympathy. They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St Vincent, the Secretary at War, William Windham, or even Prime Minister William Pitt.
=== Return to England ===
Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October 1797 to seek expert medical attention for his amputation wound. While in London, news reached him of Admiral Duncan having defeated the Dutch fleet at the Battle of Camperdown. Nelson exclaimed he would have given his other arm to be present there. He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which time he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London and a pension of £1,000 (equivalent to £130,800 in 2023) a year. He used this money to buy Round Wood Farm near Ipswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny. Despite his plans, Nelson was never to live there.
Although surgeons were unable to remove the central ligature from his amputation site which had caused considerable inflammation and infection, it came out of its own accord in early December, and Nelson rapidly began to recover. Eager to return to sea, he began agitating for a command and was promised the 80-gun HMS Foudroyant. As she was not yet ready for sea, Nelson was instead given command of the 74-gun HMS Vanguard, and he appointed Edward Berry as his flag captain. French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were raising concern in the Admiralty, as Napoleon was gathering forces in Southern France but the destination of his army was unknown. Nelson and Vanguard were to be dispatched to Cadiz to reinforce the fleet. On 28 March 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to join Earl St Vincent. St Vincent sent him on to Toulon with a small force to reconnoitre French activities.
=== Hunting the French ===
Nelson passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and took up position off Toulon by 17 May, but his squadron was dispersed and blown southwards by a strong gale which struck the area on 20 May. While the British were battling the storm, Napoleon sailed with his invasion fleet commanded by Vice Admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. Nelson, reinforced with a number of ships from St Vincent, went in pursuit. Nelson began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already arrived at Malta and secured the island's surrender after a show of force. Nelson followed him there, but the French had already left by the time he arrived. After a conference with his captains, he decided Napoleon's most likely destination now was Egypt and headed for Alexandria. However, upon Nelson's arrival on 28 June, he found no sign of the French. Dismayed, he withdrew and began searching to the east of the port. During this time, Napoleon's fleet arrived in Alexandria on 1 July and landed their forces unopposed. Brueys anchored his fleet in Aboukir Bay, ready to support Napoleon if required.
Meanwhile, Nelson had crossed the Mediterranean again in a fruitless attempt to locate the French, and returned to Naples to re-provision. When he again set sail, his intentions were to search the seas off Cyprus, but he decided to pass Alexandria again for a final check. Along the way, his force found and captured a French merchant ship, which provided the first news of the French fleet: they had passed south-east of Crete a month prior—heading to Alexandria. Nelson hurried to the port, but again found it empty of the French. Searching along the coast, he finally discovered the French fleet in Aboukir Bay on 1 August 1798.
=== Battle of the Nile ===
Nelson immediately prepared for battle, repeating a sentiment he had expressed at the battle of Cape St Vincent: "Before this time tomorrow, I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey." It was late by the time the British arrived, and the French, anchored in a strong position and possessing a combined firepower greater than Nelson's fleet, did not expect them to attack. However, Nelson immediately ordered his ships to advance. The French line was anchored close to a line of shoals, believing this would secure their port side from attack; Brueys had assumed the British would follow convention and attack his centre from the starboard side. However, Captain Thomas Foley aboard HMS Goliath discovered a gap between the shoals and the French ships, and took Goliath into this channel. The unprepared French found themselves attacked on both sides; the British fleet split, with some following Foley and others passing down the starboard side of the French line.
The British fleet was soon heavily engaged, passing down the French line and engaging their ships one by one. Nelson, on Vanguard, personally engaged Spartiate, while also coming under fire from Aquilon. At about eight o'clock, he was with Edward Berry on the quarterdeck when a piece of French shot struck him in the forehead. He fell to the deck, with a flap of torn skin obscuring his good eye. Blinded and half-stunned, he felt sure he would die and cried out, "I am killed. Remember me to my wife." He was taken below to be seen by the surgeon. After examining Nelson, the surgeon pronounced the wound non-threatening and applied a temporary bandage. The French van, pounded by British fire from both sides, had begun to surrender, and the victorious British ships continued to move down the line, bringing Brueys' 118-gun flagship Orient under constant, heavy fire. Orient caught fire under this bombardment and later exploded. Nelson briefly came on deck to direct the battle, but returned to the surgeon after watching the destruction of Orient.
The Battle of the Nile was a major blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. His fleet was destroyed; Orient, another ship and two frigates were burnt, while seven 74-gun ships and two 80-gun ships were captured. Only two ships-of-the-line and two frigates escaped. The forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded. Napoleon attacked north along the Mediterranean coast, but Turkish defenders supported by Captain Sir Sidney Smith defeated his army at the Siege of Acre. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships. Given its strategic importance, historians such as Ernle Bradford regard Nelson's achievement at the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than Trafalgar seven years later.
==== Rewards ====
Nelson wrote dispatches to the Admiralty and oversaw temporary repairs to the Vanguard before sailing to Naples, where he was met with enthusiastic celebrations. King Ferdinand IV of Naples, accompanied by the Hamiltons, greeted him in person when he arrived at port, and Sir William Hamilton invited Nelson to stay at his home. Celebrations were held in honour of Nelson's birthday in September 1798, and he attended a banquet at the Hamiltons' house, where other officers had begun to notice his attentions to Emma, Lady Hamilton.
Lord Jervis himself had begun to grow concerned about reports of Nelson's behaviour, but in early October, word of Nelson's victory reached London and overshadowed the matter. The First Lord of the Admiralty, George Spencer, fainted upon hearing the news. Celebrations erupted across the country; balls and victory feasts were held and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson and his captains swords, while the King ordered they be presented with special medals. Emperor Paul I of Russia sent Nelson a gift, and Sultan Selim III of the Ottoman Empire awarded Nelson the Order of the Turkish Crescent, as well as the diamond chelengk from his own turban, for Nelson's role in restoring Ottoman rule to Egypt.
Samuel Hood, after a conversation with the prime minister, told Nelson's wife Fanny her husband would likely be given a viscountcy, similarly to Jervis' earldom after Cape St Vincent, and Adam Duncan's viscountcy after Camperdown. However, Lord Spencer demurred, arguing such an award would create an unwelcome precedent as Nelson was only detached in command of a squadron, rather than being commander in chief of the fleet. Instead, Nelson received the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile.
=== Neapolitan campaign ===
Nelson was dismayed by the decision of George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer, and declared he would rather have received no title than a mere barony. However, he was cheered by the attention showered on him by the citizens of Naples, the prestige accorded to him by the kingdom's elite, and the comforts he received at the Hamilton residence. He frequently visited their residence to attend functions in his honour, or tour nearby attractions with Emma, who was almost constantly at his side and with whom he had fallen deeply in love. Orders arrived from the Admiralty to blockade the French forces in Alexandria and Malta, a task Nelson delegated to his captains Samuel Hood and Alexander Ball. Despite enjoying his lifestyle in Naples, even while judging it to be a "country of fiddlers and poets, whores and scoundrels", which he found less than desirable, Nelson began to think of returning to England. However, King Ferdinand IV had just faced an extended period of pressure from his wife Maria Carolina of Austria, who was advocating for an aggressive foreign policy towards France, a country which had beheaded her sister and its queen Marie Antoinette five years ago. Sir William Hamilton was joined in agreement with Queen Maria Carolina, and the King finally agreed to declare war on France.
The Neapolitan Army led by Austrian General Karl Mack von Leiberich and supported by Nelson's fleet retook Rome from the French in late November 1798. The French regrouped outside Rome and, after being reinforced, routed the Neapolitans. In disarray, the Neapolitan army fled to Naples, with the pursuing French close behind. Nelson hastily organised the evacuation of the Royal Family, several nobles, and British nationals, including the Hamiltons. The evacuation started on 23 December and sailed through heavy gales before reaching the safety of Palermo on 26 December. With the departure of the Royal Family, Naples descended into anarchy, and news reached Palermo in January of the French entering the city under General Championnet and proclaiming the Parthenopaean Republic. Nelson was promoted to Rear-Admiral of the Red on 14 February 1799, and was occupied for several months blockading Naples, while a popular counter-revolutionary force under Cardinal Ruffo known as the Sanfedisti marched to retake the city. In late June, Ruffo's army entered Naples, forcing the French and their supporters to withdraw to the city's fortifications, as rioting and looting broke out amongst the ill-disciplined Neapolitan troops.
Dismayed by the bloodshed, Ruffo agreed to a capitulation with the Jacobin forces which allowed them safe conduct to France. Nelson arrived off Naples on 24 June to find the treaty put into effect. His subsequent role is still controversial. Nelson, aboard Foudroyant, was outraged, and backed by King Ferdinand IV, he insisted the rebels must surrender unconditionally. They refused. Nelson appears to have relented and the Jacobin forces marched out to the awaiting transports. Nelson then had the transports seized. He took those who surrendered under the treaty under armed guard, as well as the former Admiral Francesco Caracciolo. Nelson ordered his trial by court-martial and refused Caracciolo's request for its conduct by British officers. Caracciolo was also not allowed to summon witnesses in his defence and was tried by royalist Neapolitan officers. He was sentenced to death. Caracciolo requested to be shot rather than hanged, but Nelson, following the wishes of Queen Maria Carolina, a close friend of Lady Hamilton, also denied this request, and even ignored the court's request to allow 24 hours for Caracciolo to prepare himself. Caracciolo was hanged aboard the Neapolitan frigate Minerva at 5 o'clock the same afternoon.
Nelson kept most of the Jacobins on the transports and began to hand hundreds over for trial and execution, refusing to intervene, despite pleas for clemency from both the Hamiltons and Queen Maria Carolina. When the transports were finally allowed to carry the Jacobins to France, less than one-third were still alive. On 13 August 1799, in reward for his support of the monarchy, King Ferdinand IV gave Nelson the newly created title of Duke of Bronte in the peerage of the Kingdom of Sicily as his perpetual property, as well as the estate of the former Benedictine abbey of Santa Maria di Maniace—which he later transformed into the Castello di Nelson—situated between the comunes of Bronte and Maniace, later known as the Duchy of Nelson. In 1799, Nelson opposed the mistreatment of slaves held in Portuguese galleys off Palermo and intervened to secure their release. Nelson petitioned the Portuguese commander Marquiz de Niza to hand over the slaves. The marquis acquiesced to the unusual request, allowing 24 slaves to be transferred to HMS Bonne Citoyenne, their blessings to Nelson ringing out across the harbour as their names were added to the sloop's already crowded muster book.
=== Siege of Malta ===
Nelson returned to Palermo in August, and in September became the senior officer in the Mediterranean after Lord John Jervis' successor, George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith, left to chase the French and Spanish fleets into the Atlantic. Nelson spent most of 1799 at the Neapolitan court, but put to sea again in February 1800 after Lord Keith's return. Keith ordered Nelson to assist in the siege of Malta, where the Royal Navy was conducting a tight blockade. On 18 February, Généreux—a survivor of the Battle of the Nile—was sighted and Nelson gave chase, capturing her after a short battle and winning Keith's approval. Nelson and the Hamiltons sailed aboard Foudroyant from Naples on a brief cruise around Malta in April 1800 and anchored at Marsa Sirocco. Here Nelson and Emma lived together openly, and were hosted by Thomas Troubridge and Thomas Graham. It was during this time when Nelson and Lady Emma Hamilton's illegitimate daughter Horatia Nelson was likely conceived.
Nelson had a difficult relationship with his superior officer; he was gaining a reputation for insubordination, having initially refused to send ships when Keith requested them, and on occasion returning to Palermo without orders, pleading poor health. Keith's reports and rumours of Nelson's close relationship with Emma Hamilton were now circulating around London, and Lord Spencer wrote a pointed letter suggesting he return home.
=== Return to England ===
The recall of Sir William Hamilton to Britain was a further incentive for Nelson to return. In June, Nelson left Malta and conveyed Queen Maria Carolina and her suite to Leghorn. Upon his arrival, Nelson shifted his flag to HMS Alexander, but again disobeyed Lord Keith's orders by refusing to join the main fleet. Keith travelled to Leghorn to demand an explanation in person, and refused to be moved by the Queen's pleas to allow her to be conveyed in a British ship. In the face of Keith's demands, Nelson reluctantly struck his flag and bowed to Lady Hamilton's request to return to England over land. Nelson, the Hamiltons, and several other British travellers left Leghorn for Florence on 13 July. They made stops at Trieste and Vienna, spending three weeks there, where they were entertained by the local nobility and heard the Missa in Angustiis by Haydn, which now bears Nelson's name. Haydn would meet them that August when they visited Eisenstadt. By September they were in Prague, and later called at Dresden, Dessau and Hamburg; from there they caught a packet ship to Great Yarmouth, arriving on 6 November. Nelson was given a hero's welcome, and after being sworn in as a freeman of the borough, received the crowd's applause. He then made his way to London, arriving on 9 November.
He attended court and was guest of honour at a number of banquets and balls. During this period, Fanny Nelson and Lady Emma Hamilton met for the first time; Nelson was reported being cold and distant to his wife, while his attentions to Lady Hamilton and her obesity became the subject of gossip. With the marriage breaking down, Nelson began to hate even being in the same room as Fanny. Events came to a head around Christmas, when according to Nelson's solicitor, Fanny issued an ultimatum on whether he was to choose her or Lady Hamilton. Nelson replied that he loved Fanny but could not "forget his obligations" to Lady Hamilton. Nelson and Fanny never lived together again.
=== The Baltic ===
Shortly after his arrival in England, Nelson was appointed second-in-command of the Channel Fleet under Lord John Jervis. He was promoted to Vice-Admiral of the Blue on 1 January 1801, and travelled to Plymouth, where he was granted the freedom of the city on 22 January. On 29 January 1801, Lady Emma Hamilton gave birth to their daughter Horatia. Nelson was delighted, but subsequently disappointed when he was instructed to move his flag from HMS San Josef to HMS St George, in preparation for a planned expedition to the Baltic. Tired of British ships imposing a blockade against French trade and stopping and searching their merchantmen, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. On their arrival, Parker was inclined to blockade Denmark and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a pre-emptive attack on the Danish fleet in Copenhagen harbour. He convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault and was given significant reinforcements. Parker himself would wait in the Kattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in case of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets.
=== Battle of Copenhagen ===
On the morning of 2 April 1801, Nelson began to advance into Copenhagen harbour. The battle began badly for the British, with HMS Agamemnon, Bellona and Russell running aground, and the rest of the fleet encountering heavier fire from the Danish shore batteries than anticipated. Sir Hyde Parker sent the signal for Nelson to withdraw. Nelson, directing action aboard HMS Elephant, was informed of the signal by the signal lieutenant Frederick Langford, but angrily responded: "I told you to look out on the Danish commodore and let me know when he surrendered. Keep your eyes fixed on him." He then turned to his flag captain Thomas Foley, and said "You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes." He raised the telescope to his blind eye, and said "I really do not see the signal."
The battle lasted three hours, leaving both the Danish and British fleets heavily damaged. At length, Nelson dispatched a letter to the Danish commander Crown Prince Frederick calling for a truce, which the Prince accepted. Parker approved of Nelson's actions in retrospect, and Nelson was given the honour of going into Copenhagen the next day to open formal negotiations. At a banquet that evening, he told Prince Frederick the battle was the most severe he had ever participated in. The outcome of the battle and several weeks of ensuing negotiations was a 14 week armistice, with Nelson becoming commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea upon Parker's recall in May. As a reward for the victory, he was created Viscount Nelson of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk on 19 May 1801. In addition, on 4 August 1801, he was created Baron Nelson of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk, with a special remainder to his father and sisters. Nelson sailed to the Russian naval base at Reval in May, and there learnt the pact of armed neutrality was to be disbanded. Satisfied with the outcome of the expedition, he returned to England, arriving on 1 July.
== Leave in England, 1801–1803 ==
In France, Napoleon was amassing forces to invade Great Britain. After a brief spell in London, where he again visited the Hamiltons, Nelson was placed in charge of defending the English Channel to prevent the invasion. He spent the summer of 1801 reconnoitring the French coast, but saw little action apart from a failed attack on Boulogne in August. On 1 October, the Peace of Amiens was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson—in poor health again—retired once more to Britain, where he stayed with Sir William and Lady Hamilton. On 30 October, Nelson spoke in support of the Addington government in the House of Lords, and afterwards made regular visits to attend sessions.
=== Grand tour ===
In the summer of 1802, Nelson and the Hamiltons embarked on a tour of England and Wales, visiting Oxford, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, Blenheim Palace, Gloucester, Forest of Dean, Ross-on-Wye, then Monmouth, Abergavenny, Brecon, Carmarthen, Milford Haven (New Inn), Tenby and Swansea. At Merthyr Tydfil, he visited Cyfarthfa Ironworks to see the place where the 104 guns were made for his flagship HMS Victory. The party then visited Nelson, Caerphilly, Monmouth (Beaufort Arms), Hereford, Ludlow, Worcester, Birmingham, Warwick, Althorp and returned to Merton Place on 5 September, passing through numerous other towns and villages along the way. Nelson often found himself received as a hero, (except at Woodstock) and was the centre of celebrations and events held in his honour. In September, Lady Hamilton purchased Merton Place, a country estate in Merton, Surrey, for Nelson, where he lived with the Hamiltons until William's death on 6 April 1803. The following month, war broke out once again and Nelson prepared to return to sea.
=== Witness at the treason trial of Edward Despard ===
In January 1803, Nelson appeared as a character witness in the treason trial of his former comrade-in-arms, Colonel Edward Despard. Despard, who was moving in radical circles in London—a member both of the London Corresponding Society and the United Irishmen—was the alleged ringleader of a conspiracy to assassinate King George III and seize the Tower of London as part of the so-called Despard Plot. In court, Nelson recollected his service with Despard in the Caribbean during the American War. Under cross-examination, however, Nelson had to concede to having "lost sight of Despard for the last twenty years". Nelson directed a further plea for clemency to Prime Minister Henry Addington, who later told Nelson "he and his family had sat up after supper, weeping over the letter".
== Return to sea, 1803 ==
Nelson was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet and given the first-rate HMS Victory as his flagship. He joined her at Portsmouth, where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there before joining the blockade of Toulon. Nelson arrived off Toulon in July 1803 and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade. He was promoted to Vice-Admiral of the White while still at sea on 23 April 1804. In January 1805, the French fleet under the command of Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve escaped Toulon and eluded the blockading British. Nelson set off in pursuit, but after searching the eastern Mediterranean learnt the French were blown back into Toulon. Villeneuve managed to break out a second time in April, and this time succeeded in passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Atlantic—bound for the West Indies.
Nelson gave chase, but spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet after arriving in the Caribbean. Villeneuve briefly cruised around the islands before heading back to Europe in contravention of Napoleon's orders. The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder and engaged in the Battle of Cape Finisterre, but managed to reach Ferrol with only minor losses. Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July and travelled to England, dismayed at his failure to bring the French to battle and expecting to be censured. To his surprise, he was given a rapturous reception from crowds who had gathered to view his arrival. Senior British officials congratulated him for sustaining the close pursuit, crediting him with saving the West Indies from a French invasion. Nelson briefly stayed in London, where he was cheered wherever he went, before visiting Merton Place to see Lady Hamilton, arriving in late August. He entertained a number of his friends and relations there over the coming month, and began plans for a grand engagement with the enemy fleet, one that would surprise his foes by forcing a pell-mell battle on them.
Captain Henry Blackwood arrived at Merton early on 2 September, bringing news of the French and Spanish fleets having combined and were currently at anchor in Cádiz. Nelson hurried to London, where he met with cabinet ministers and was given command of the fleet blockading Cádiz. While awaiting one of these meetings on 24 September with Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, Nelson and Major General Arthur Wellesley—the future Duke of Wellington—met briefly in a waiting area. Wellington was waiting to be debriefed on his Indian operations, and Nelson on his chase and future plans. Wellington later recalled, "[Nelson] entered at once into conversation with me, if I can call it conversation, for it was almost all on his side and all about himself and, in reality, a style so vain and so silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". After a few minutes, Nelson left the room, but then being informed who his companion was, returned and entered into a more earnest and intelligent discussion with the young Wellesley. This lasted for a quarter of an hour, and encompassed topics such as the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation. On this second discussion, Wellesley recalled, "I don't know I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only meeting between the two.
Nelson returned briefly to Merton to set his affairs in order and bid farewell to Emma before travelling back to London and then on to Portsmouth; arriving there early on the morning of 14 September. He had breakfast at the George Inn with his friends George Rose, the Vice-President of the Board of Trade, and George Canning, the Treasurer of the Navy. Word spread of Nelson's presence at the inn and a large crowd of well-wishers gathered. They accompanied Nelson to his barge and cheered him off, which Nelson acknowledged by raising his hat. He was recorded as having turned to his colleague and stated: "I had their huzzas before; I have their hearts now." The English Romantic poet Robert Southey reported on the onlookers for Nelson's walk to the dock: "Many were in tears and many knelt down before him and blessed him as he passed."
Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz on 27 September, and Nelson took over from Vice Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood. Nelson spent the following weeks preparing and refining his tactics for the anticipated battle and dining with his captains to ensure they understood his intentions. He devised a plan of attack which anticipated the allied fleet would form up in a traditional line of battle. Drawing on his own experience from the Nile and Copenhagen, and the examples of Duncan at Camperdown and Rodney at the Saintes, Nelson decided to split his fleet into squadrons rather than form it into a similar line parallel to the enemy. These squadrons would then cut the enemy's line in a number of places, allowing a pell-mell battle to develop. The British ships could overwhelm and destroy parts of their opponents' formation before unengaged enemy ships could come to their aid.
== Battle of Trafalgar, 1805 ==
=== Preparation ===
The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered 33 ships of the line. Napoleon intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover a planned invasion of Britain. However, the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off this invasion and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve was reluctant to risk engagement with the British, and this reluctance made Napoleon send Vice-Admiral François Rosily to Cádiz in order to take command of the fleet. Rosily was then to sail into the Mediterranean and land troops at Naples before making port at Toulon. Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor could arrive. On 20 October 1805, the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour by patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed they appeared to be heading west.
At four o'clock on the morning of 21 October, Nelson ordered Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations. He then went below deck and made out his will before returning to quarterdeck to carry out an inspection. Despite having 27 ships against Villeneuve's 33, Nelson was confident of success, declaring he would not be satisfied with taking fewer than 20 prizes. He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer, after which he joined Victory's signal lieutenant John Pasco and said: "Mr Pasco, I wish to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty". You must be quick, for I have one more signal to make, which is for close action".
Pasco suggested changing confides to expects which, being in the Signal Book, could be signalled by the use of a single code (three flags), whereas confides would have to be spelt out letter by letter. Nelson agreed, and the signal was hoisted. As the fleets converged, Victory's Captain Thomas Hardy suggested Nelson remove the decorations on his coat so he would not be easily identified by enemy sharpshooters. Nelson replied it was too late "to be shifting a coat", adding they were "military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy". Captain Henry Blackwood of the frigate HMS Euryalus suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also turned down Hardy's suggestion to let Admiral Sir Eliab Harvey's HMS Temeraire come ahead of Victory and lead the line into battle.
=== Battle is joined ===
Victory came under fire, initially passing wide, but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased. A cannonball struck and killed Nelson's secretary John Scott, nearly cutting him in two. Hardy's clerk then took over, but he too was almost immediately killed. Victory's wheel was shot away; another cannonball cut down eight marines. Standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, Hardy's shoe buckle was suddenly dented by a splinter. Victory had reached the enemy line by now, and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first. Nelson told him to take his pick, whereupon Hardy moved Victory across the stern of the 80-gun French flagship Bucentaure. Victory then came under fire from the 74-gun Redoutable lying off Bucentaure's stern, as well as the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. As enemy sharpshooters fired onto Victory's deck from their rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued directing and giving orders.
=== Wounding and death ===
At quarter-past one in the afternoon, Hardy realised Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with his hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy rushed to him, at which point Nelson smiled: "Hardy, I do believe they have done it at last [...] my backbone is shot through".
He was hit by a musket ball fired from the mizzen-top of Redoutable at a range of 50 feet (15 m). The ball entered his left shoulder, passed through a lung, then his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged 2 inches (51 mm) below his right shoulder blade in the back muscles. In return, signal midshipman John Pollard, possibly together with his fellow-midshipman Francis Edward Collingwood, is said to have shot down the French marksman responsible for Nelson's death. Nelson was carried below to the cockpit by the sergeant major of marines Robert Adair, and two sailors. As he was being carried down, he asked them to pause while he gave advice to a midshipman on the handling of the tiller. He then draped a handkerchief over his face to avoid causing alarm amongst the crew. He was taken to the ship surgeon William Beatty, telling him: "You can do nothing for me. I have but a short time to live. My back is shot through".
Nelson was made comfortable, fanned, and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He asked several times to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma, his daughter, and his friends. Hardy came belowdeck to see Nelson just after half-past two, and informed him a number of enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told him he was sure to die and begged him to pass his possessions on to Emma. Those with Nelson at this point were chaplain Alexander Scott, purser Walter Burke, Nelson's steward, Chevalier and Beatty. Nelson, fearing a gale was blowing up, instructed Hardy to be sure to anchor. After reminding him to "take care of poor Lady Hamilton", Nelson said: "Kiss me, Hardy". Beatty records Hardy knelt and kissed Nelson on the cheek. He then stood for a minute or two, before kissing Nelson on the forehead. Nelson asked, "Who is that?" On hearing it was Hardy, he replied, "God bless you, Hardy."
By now very weak, Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott, "fan, fan [...] rub, rub [...] drink, drink." Beatty had heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty", and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak. Nelson looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country". Nelson died at half-past four in the afternoon, three hours after he had been shot. He was 47 years old.
== Return to England ==
Nelson's body was placed in a cask of brandy mixed with camphor and myrrh, which was then lashed to the Victory's mainmast and placed under guard. This was a controversial decision, with the public later believing it would have been better for him to have been put in rum instead to better preserve him. Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle, and on arrival his body was transferred to a lead-lined coffin filled with spirits of wine. His effects, uniforms and papers were sent separately. Collingwood's dispatches about the battle were carried to England aboard HMS Pickle, and when the news arrived in London, a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson's death to Emma Hamilton.
King George III, on receiving the news, is alleged to have said in tears, "We have lost more than we have gained." The Times reported: "We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice. The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England; but it has been dearly purchased".
== Funeral ==
Nelson's body was unloaded from Victory at the Nore. It was conveyed upriver in Sir George Grey's yacht Chatham to Greenwich and placed inside a lead coffin. The lead coffin was then placed inside a wooden one made from the mast of L'Orient, which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile and given to Nelson as an ironic gift by captain Hallowell of HMS Swiftsure. He lay in state for three days in the Painted Hall of Greenwich Hospital, where the surrounding arrangements all but disintegrated under the crush of crowds far greater than authorities had anticipated. His body was then taken upriver aboard a barge originally used as King Charles II's state barge; accompanied by Lord Samuel Hood, chief mourner Sir Peter Parker, and the Prince of Wales. The Prince of Wales at first announced his intention of attending the funeral as chief mourner. However, he ultimately attended in a private capacity along with his brothers, when his father King George III reminded him it was against protocol for the heir to the throne to attend the funerals of anyone except members of the royal family.
On 8 January 1806, the coffin was taken into the Admiralty for the night, attended by Nelson's chaplain Alexander Scott. The following day, 9 January, a funeral procession consisting of 32 admirals, over 100 captains, and an escort of 10,000 soldiers took the coffin from the Admiralty to St Paul's Cathedral. After a four-hour service, he was interred within a crypt in a sarcophagus originally carved for Cardinal Wolsey; the sarcophagus and its base had been previously taken over for the tomb of Henry VIII, which was never completed. The sailors were charged with folding the flag and then placing on Nelson's coffin after it had been lowered through the floor of the nave, they instead tore it into fragments, each taking a piece as a memorial of their fallen commander.
== Assessment ==
Nelson was regarded as a highly effective leader and someone who was able to sympathise with the needs of his sailors. He based his command on love rather than authority, inspiring both his superiors and subordinates with his considerable courage, commitment and charisma—dubbed "the Nelson touch". Nelson combined this talent with an adept grasp of strategy and politics, making him a highly successful naval commander. Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, himself often called "the Nelson of the East", placed Nelson as among the greatest naval commanders in history—second only to Admiral Yi Sun-sin. The memorandum Nelson wrote before Trafalgar expresses his attitude well: "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy."
Nelson's personality was complex, often characterised by a desire to be noticed both by his superiors and the public. He was easily flattered by praise, and dismayed when he felt he was not given sufficient credit for his actions. This led him to take risks and enthusiastically publicise his resultant successes, which was not always considered acceptable at the time. Nelson was also highly confident in his abilities, determined and able to make important decisions. His active career meant he was considerably experienced in combat and a shrewd judge of his opponents, able to identify and exploit his enemies' weaknesses. However, he was often prone to insecurities and violent mood swings, and was extremely vain; he loved to receive decorations and tributes. Despite his personality, he remained a highly professional leader and was driven all his life by a strong sense of duty. Nelson's fame reached new heights after his death and he came to be regarded as one of Britain's greatest military heroes, ranked alongside John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. In the BBC's 100 Greatest Britons programme in 2002, Nelson was voted the ninth-greatest Briton of all time.
Aspects of Nelson's life and career were controversial, both during his lifetime and after his death. His affair with Emma Hamilton was widely remarked upon and disapproved of, to the extent that Emma was denied permission to attend his funeral. She and their daughter Horatia were also subsequently ignored by the government, which awarded Nelson's money and titles only to his legitimate family. Nelson's actions during the reoccupation of Naples have also been the subject of debate. His approval of the wave of reprisals against the Jacobins who had surrendered under the terms agreed by Cardinal Ruffo, as well as his personal intervention in securing the execution of Francesco Caracciolo, are considered by some biographers such as Robert Southey to have been a shameful breach of honour. A prominent contemporary, politician Charles James Fox, was among those who attacked Nelson for his actions at Naples. Other pro-republican writers produced books and pamphlets decrying the events in Naples as atrocities. Later assessments, including by Andrew Lambert, have stressed the armistice was not authorised by the King of Naples, and the retribution meted out by the Neapolitans was not unusual for the time. Lambert also suggests Nelson, in fact, acted to put an end to the bloodshed; using his ships and men to restore order in the city.
=== Views on slavery ===
While Nelson served in the West Indies, he came into contact with prominent white colonists residing there, forming friendships with many of them. These relationships led Nelson to absorb their proslavery views, particularly that slavery was necessary to the islands' economic prosperity. According to Grindal, Nelson later used his social influence to counter the emerging abolitionist movement in Britain. University of Southampton academic Christer Petley contextualises this view:
The debate over the future of slavery divided Britons. Wilberforce personified one type of British patriotism—arguing for an end to slave-trading on the basis that it was a blot on the reputation of a proud and Christian nation. Slaveholders offered their own patriotic arguments—maintaining that the trade was so instrumental to the imperial economy that Britain could ill-afford to stop it. Nelson had befriended several slaveholding colonists during his time in the Caribbean. Privately, he came to sympathise with their political outlook. It is clear that, by the time of his death at Trafalgar, he despised Wilberforce and stood in staunch opposition to the British abolitionist campaign.
Over the course of his life, Nelson came into contact numerous times with aspects of slavery and the people involved in that institution. These included his relationships with Caribbean plantation owners and his marriage to Fanny, a slave owner born into a family which belonged to the Antiguan plantocracy. One of his friends in the West Indies was Simon Taylor, one of the richest plantation-owners in Jamaica who owned hundreds of slaves. In 1805 Taylor wrote to Nelson, requesting he publicly intervene in favour of the pro-slavery side in Britain's debate over abolition. Nelson replied to Taylor, writing "while [he had] ... a tongue", he would "launch [his] voice against the damnable and cursed (sic) doctrine of Wilberforce and his hypocritical allies". In the same letter, Nelson wrote he had always "[endeavoured] to serve the Public weal, of which the West India Colonies form so prominent and interesting a part. I have ever been, and shall die, a firm friend to our present Colonial system. I was bred, as you know, in the good old school, and taught to appreciate the value of our West India possessions."
This letter was published in 1807 by the anti-abolitionist faction 18 months after Nelson's death, and out of context, in an apparent attempt to bolster their cause prior to the parliamentary vote on the Abolition Bill. Many of Nelson's actions indicate his position on the matter of slavery, most notably:
Any West Indian slave escaping to a navy ship, including Nelson's, were signed on, paid, and treated the same as other crew members. At the end of their service they were discharged as free men. In fact, the bronze relief at the base of Nelson's column clearly shows the black George Ryan, aged 23, with musket shooting the French alongside the dying Admiral.
In 1799, Nelson intervened to secure the release of 24 slaves being held in Portuguese galleys off Palermo.
In 1802, when it was proposed West Indian plantation slaves be replaced by free, paid industrious Chinese workers—Nelson supported the idea.
In 1805, Nelson rescued black Haitian General Joseph Chretien and his servant from the French. They asked if they could serve with Nelson, and Nelson recommended to the Admiralty they be paid until they could be discharged and granted passage to Jamaica. The General's mission was to end slavery, a fact of which Nelson was well aware. The general and his servant were well treated and paid.
The Nelson family used to have a free black servant called Price. Nelson said of him he was "as good a man as ever lived" and suggested to Emma she invite the elderly Price to live with them. In the event, Price declined.
=== Legacy ===
Nelson's influence continued long after his death and saw periodic revivals of interest, especially during times of crisis in Britain. His tragic death at the legendary Battle of Trafalgar solidified his status as a hero. In the 1860s, Poet Laureate Alfred Tennyson appealed to the image and tradition of Nelson in order to oppose the defence cuts being made by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher was a keen exponent of Nelson during the early 20th century, and often emphasised his legacy during his period of naval reform. Winston Churchill also found Nelson to be a source of inspiration during the Second World War. Nelson has been frequently depicted in art and literature; appearing in paintings by Benjamin West and Arthur William Devis, and in books and biographies by John McArthur, James Stanier Clarke and Robert Southey. Nelson is also celebrated and commemorated in numerous songs, written both during his life and following his death. Thomas Attwood's "Nelson's Tomb: A Favourite Song" commemorates Nelson's death at the Battle of Trafalgar.
The city of Nelson in New Zealand is named after him. A number of monuments and memorials were constructed across Britain and abroad to honour his memory and achievements. Dublin's monument to Nelson, Nelson's Pillar, completed in 1809, was destroyed by Irish republicans in 1966. In Montreal, a statue was started in 1808 and completed in 1809. In Great Yarmouth, on the coast in his home county of Norfolk, the Britannia Monument dedicated to Nelson was erected in 1819, with dedications at the base to his four main naval victories. Others followed around the world, with London's Trafalgar Square being created in his memory in 1835 and the centrepiece Nelson's Column finished in 1843. A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque was unveiled in 1876 to commemorate Nelson at 147 New Bond Street. The architect of the Britannia Royal Naval College in Dartmouth, Sir Aston Webb, placed a window high in the chapel such that annually, on 21 October at the time of Nelson's death, the light from it falls on the statue of Christ behind the altar.
Nelson and his monuments are seen more critically in countries that felt the negative aspects of colonialism and who may seek to revise their public history. Major public memorials in primary locations in some cities have been subject to protest and removal as conscious acts. In 1966, the Nelson Pillar in Dublin was blown up by Irish Republicans: a novelty folk song, "Up Went Nelson", topped the Irish pop charts in the wake of the explosion, while a newspaper article marking the 55th anniversary noted: "For many, the biggest surprise about the blowing up of Nelson's Pillar...is why it took 157 years." Across the Atlantic, in the Caribbean in 2020, after years of campaigning, the Nelson Statue in National Heroes Square, Bridgetown, Barbados, was removed and placed in a museum. It had stood since 1813 in a central public space of the capital known until 1999 as Trafalgar Square. The Barbadian Prime Minister Mia Mottley said at the ceremony marking the statue's removal:
National Heroes Square must reflect our heroes. And ... while we accept that the statue of the vice admiral Lord Horatio Nelson is an important historic relic, it is not a relic to be placed in the National Heroes Square of a nation that has had to fight for too long to shape its destiny and to forge a positive future for its citizens.
== Titles ==
Nelson's titles, as inscribed on his coffin and read out at the funeral by the Garter King at Arms, Sir Isaac Heard, were: The Most Noble Lord Horatio Nelson, Viscount and Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson of the Nile and of Hilborough in the said County, Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Vice Admiral of the White Squadron of the Fleet, Commander in Chief of his Majesty's Ships and Vessels in the Mediterranean, Duke of Bronte in the Kingdom of Sicily, Knight Grand Cross of the Sicilian Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit, Member of the Ottoman Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of Saint Joachim.
Nelson received large Naval Gold Medals for the battles of St Vincent, the Nile and (posthumously) Trafalgar, one of very few recipients of three such medals. Nelson was granted a royal licence in 1802 to receive and wear the foreign Order of Saint Joachim. Following his victory at the Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797), on 27 September 1797, he was knighted and received the Order of the Bath. He was a Colonel of Marines from 1795 to 1797, and voted a Freeman of the cities and boroughs of London (10 March 1797), Bath, Salisbury, Exeter (15 January 1801), Plymouth, Monmouth, Sandwich, Oxford (22 July 1802), Hereford, Haverfordwest (in 1802), and Worcester (30 August 1802). The University of Oxford, in full Congregation, bestowed the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law upon Nelson on 30 July 1802. He also received other awards from various persons, governments and institutions, such as a sword with the gold hilt shaped like a crocodile from the captains who fought alongside him at the Nile.
In 1799, Nelson was created Duke of Bronte of the Kingdom of Sicily by King Ferdinand III of Sicily, and after briefly experimenting with the signature "Brontë Nelson of the Nile", he signed himself "Nelson & Brontë" for the rest of his life. Nelson had no legitimate children; his daughter Horatia married the Reverend Philip Ward, with whom she had ten children before her death in 1881. Since Nelson died without legitimate issue, his viscountcy and his barony created in 1798, both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk", became extinct upon his death. However, the barony created in 1801, "of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk", passed by a special remainder which included Nelson's father and sisters and their male issue to Nelson's older brother William Nelson. In November 1805, William Nelson was created Earl Nelson and Viscount Merton, of Trafalgar and of Merton in the County of Surrey, in recognition of his late brother's services, and he also inherited the dukedom of Bronte.
=== Armorial bearings ===
Arms were granted and confirmed on 20 October 1797. Nelson's paternal arms (Or, a cross flory sable over all a bendlet gules) were augmented to honour his naval victories. After the Battle of Cape St Vincent (14 February 1797), Nelson was granted heraldic supporters of a sailor and a lion. In honour of the Battle of the Nile in 1798, the Crown granted him an augmentation of honour blazoned On a chief wavy argent a palm tree between a disabled ship and a ruinous battery all issuant from waves of the sea all proper (deemed a notorious example of debased heraldry – comparatively uncommon in European heraldry). The grant added the Latin motto Palmam qui meruit ferat ("let him who has earned it bear the palm"), and added to his supporters a palm branch in the hand of the sailor and in the paw of the lion, and a "tri-colored flag and staff in the mouth of the latter".
After Nelson's death, his elder brother and heir William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson, was granted a further augmentation: On a fess wavy overall azure the word TRAFALGAR or. This additional augmentation was not used by those who succeeded him in the earldom, including the present Earl Nelson.
== See also ==
Bibliography of 18th–19th century Royal Naval history
Nelson hold – grappling hold sometimes attributed to Nelson's tactics
Turning a blind eye – pertaining to Nelson's use of a telescope to not see a signal
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by the Viscount Nelson
Works by Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at the Internet Archive
Works by Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Collections related to Nelson held by the National Maritime Museum
The Nelson Society
Norfolk Nelson Museum
Original Letters Written by Horatio Nelson Archived 25 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Shapell Manuscript Foundation
An essay on Nelson in The Oxonian Review of Books
Nelson, history
Review of A. T. Mahan's biography Archived 4 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persina_Nature_Park | Persina Nature Park | Persina Nature Park (Bulgarian: Природен парк Персина) is a wetland area along the Bulgarian side of the Danube that was established on December 4, 2000. Situated on the territory of three municipalities (Nikopol, Belene and Svishtov), it covers 21,762 ha (53,780 acres). The designation of the park aims at conservation and restoration of Danube wetlands. Special attention is paid to the numerous islands and their natural status. The park is named after Persin Island, which is part of the Belene Islands Complex. It is 15 km (9.3 mi) long and 6 km (3.7 mi) wide, making it the fourth largest Danube island and the largest in Bulgaria. Another island group is located near Nikopol. Because of its uniqueness and high importance, the island group was proclaimed a Ramsar site on September 24, 2002. At 18,330 ha (45,300 acres), it is the largest such site in Bulgaria. The most significant ecosystems within the park are the flooded forests along the Danube and the inland marshes. In order to protect these habitats, several protected areas have been established. A visitor centre for the park is located in Belene.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Bulgaria Natural reserves | Belene - Persina Nature Park Archived 2020-06-30 at the Wayback Machine
danubemap.eu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Parkers | The Parkers | The Parkers is an American television sitcom created by Ralph Farquhar, Sara V. Finney and Vida Spears. The series ran for five seasons from August 30, 1999, to May 10, 2004, on UPN as a spin-off to Moesha. It stars Mo'Nique, Countess Vaughn, Mari Morrow, Dorien Wilson, Jenna von Oÿ, Ken L. and Yvette Wilson. The show centers on the relationship between a mother and daughter, Nikki and Kim Parker, who reside outside of Los Angeles in Santa Monica, California, with both attending Santa Monica College. The series was produced by Big Ticket Television, in association with Saradipity Productions and Regan Jon Productions, with Bill Boulware, Ralph Farquhar, Sara V. Finney, Vida Spears and Andrea Wiley serving as executive producers. 110 episodes were produced.
== Premise ==
This comedy series centers around a mother and daughter who both attend Santa Monica College. Nikki Parker was forced to drop out of high school, nearly 20 years earlier, when she discovered she was pregnant. As the time arrived for her daughter to go to college, Nikki decided to go as well as a way to get an experience and education that was taken from her so many years earlier. Through a series of hilarious situations, Nikki has to adjust to the fact that her daughter is growing up, while Kim realizes that Nikki has a lot more going on in her life beyond being a mother.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Kim Parker (Countess Vaughn): A ditzy college student and Nikki's daughter. Although she can be shallow, Kim has a kind heart and is close with Nikki. Kim is also a lead singer in the music group Free Style Unity, which also includes Stevie and T. At the end of the series, she fails out of Santa Monica College but becomes a successful fashion designer.
Nikki Parker, née Alexander (Mo'Nique): A boisterous, confident single mother, who embraces college life to the fullest. She is in love with Professor Oglevee, despite his apparent hatred of her. In the series finale, she eventually wins him over after five years of chasing him and they get married.
Desiree Littlejohn (Mari Morrow): Initially, the Parkers' neighbor and Nikki's friend. She only appears in the first season and is uncredited as a regular after six episodes. She is not seen after episode 13. It was stated that creator, Ralph Farquhar, wrote her off because he wanted a stronger dynamic with another one of his characters. She was replaced by Yvette Wilson.
Professor Stanley Oglevee (Dorien Wilson): A handsome professor at Santa Monica College. Although he prides himself on his intelligence, he often becomes embroiled in hare-brained schemes, often due to his own foolishness. Although he is initially repulsed by Nikki's affections, he eventually declares his love for her, and they marry in the series finale.
Stevie Alison Van Lowe (Jenna von Oÿ): A sarcastic, intelligent white college student as well as Kim's best friend. Stevie is from an affluent family and has a tempestuous relationship with her mother. She is also a member of the music group Free Style Unity, alongside Kim and T. Upon graduating from Santa Monica College, Stevie attends UCLA and goes into business with Kim.
Thaddeus Tyrell "T" Radcliffe (Ken Lawson): A flirtatious, attractive college student as well as friend to Kim and Stevie. He is also a member of the music group Free Style Unity. At the end of the series, T goes on to attend Berklee College of Music.
Andell Wilkerson (Yvette Wilson): Nikki's level-headed best friend. Andell originated as a regular character on Moesha and appears on The Parkers in a recurring role during the first season; she became a main character in the middle of Season 1. From Season 3 onward, she is the owner of a restaurant called Andell's. At the end of the series, she marries her boyfriend, Lester.
=== Recurring ===
Mel Parker (Thomas Mikal Ford): Nikki's rich ex-husband and Kim's father
Erica Willis (Porscha Coleman)
Regina Foster (Kara Brock): A snobbish and stuck-up colleague of Nikki, Kim, and Stevie's at Santa Monica College and also a member of the Triple-A Sorority.
Joe Woody (Dwight Woody): Works in the cafeteria at Santa Monica College. He previously played Coach Vines on Moesha.
Veronica Cooper (Paulette Braxton): On-and-off girlfriend of Professor Oglevee and occasional nemesis of Nikki.
Sophia Van Lowe (Shannon Tweed): Stevie's mother.
Gertrude "Gertie" Lowe (Kym Whitley): The organ player at Mount Zion, where Nikki is the choir director. She is occasionally a nemesis of Nikki. She has also known Nikki and Andell since high school.
Frederick "Freddy" Jones (Kel Mitchell): A flamboyant fashion design student who often has a conflict with Kim.
Hakeem Campbell (Lamont Bentley): Kim's longtime friend and former crush. He was previously on Moesha.
Niecy Jackson (Shar Jackson): Kim's best friend. She was also on Moesha.
Symone (Samantha Becker): A backup singer in the group Free Style Unity in Season 1.
Chandra Carrington (Lark Voorhies): Colleague of Nikki and Kim's at Santa Monica College and also a member the Triple A Sorority.
Jerel Goodrich (Trent Cameron): Kim's boyfriend turned fiancé; later ex-husband.
George and Shirley West/Alexander (Earl Billings and Aloma Wright): Nikki's adoptive parents.
Constance McFarland (Suzzanne Douglas): Nikki's haughty older sister.
Tiffany McFarland (Cherie Johnson): Nikki's niece.
Quincy DeJohn (George Wallace): Nikki's biological father.
Camille Oglevee (Veronica Redd): Professor Oglevee's mother. She tried to convince Kim to drop out of college to work for her.
Aunt Rita (Nancy Wilson): Nikki's aunt, who turned out to be her biological mother. She explained that she was unable to raise Nikki due to her career.
Evelyn "Nana" Smith (Isabel Sanford): Nikki's grandmother, who comes onto Professor Oglevee while visiting Nikki.
== Episodes ==
== Broadcast ==
=== Syndication ===
The Parkers has aired in syndication on BET, Centric (previously BET J), Fuse, UP, TV One, VH1, and MTV2.
Currently, the series airs reruns on Cleo TV and Dabl.
The series started streaming on Netflix on October 1, 2020.
=== International airings ===
In Europe, the show has aired in Ireland and the UK. In Ireland, it aired on RTÉ Two from 2000 to 2005, usually airing Thursdays at 7.00 pm. The first four seasons were aired in this evening time slot, with season five beginning in this timeslot and with the few remaining episodes moved to a late-night timeslot on Fridays. After the series finished on RTÉ Two, there have been no re-runs and no current plans to run the show again. It was also shown on UK channel Trouble, which was also available in Ireland. It usually aired weekdays from 2000 to 2004 but after it was completely removed, it was shown on a one-off weekend in late 2006, with episodes airing all day. In Australia, it aired on Fox8 and in Jamaica on TVJ.
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
Although The Parkers premiered to mixed reviews and was criticized for its outrageous characters, the series was a ratings success for UPN. Its debut season ranked as the number one comedy on the network; it was the most popular show among black audiences, ahead of The WB’s The Steve Harvey Show. The success of the series has been credited to its ability to relate to many audiences, especially young people.
=== Ratings ===
The Parkers series finale aired on May 10, 2004, and drew in 3.6 million viewers.
=== Awards and nominations ===
=== Reunion ===
In 2009, cast members Countess Vaughn, Jenna von Oÿ, Ken Lawson, and Dorien Wilson appeared on The Mo'Nique Show for a full-length episode, "The Parkers Reunion." Series creator Sara V. Finney was part of the audience for the episode. Yvette Wilson didn't appear due to her busy work schedule.
=== Home media ===
The Parkers: The Complete Collection, containing all five seasons, was released on region 1 DVD in Canada via Visual Entertainment in a 14-disc set on 18 March 2016.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
The Parkers at IMDb
The Parkers at epguides.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenesano | Jenesano | Jenesano is a town and municipality in the Márquez Province, part of the Colombian Department of Boyacá. The urban centre is located at an altitude of 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. Jenesano borders Nuevo Colón in the west, Ramiriquí in the east, Boyacá, Boyacá in the north and Tibaná in the south.
== Etymology ==
Jenesano was called Piranguata at time of foundation. The name was changed in 1833 to Genazzano, referring to the province in Italy. Later, it became Jenesano, meaning "healthy people" or "healthy village".
== History ==
The area of Jenesano before the Spanish conquest was inhabited by the Muisca, organised in their loose Muisca Confederation. Jenesano was part of the rule of the zaque of Hunza.
Modern Jenesano was not founded until 1828, after the independence of Colombia from the Spanish Empire.
== Economy ==
Main activity of Jenesano is agriculture, predominantly fruits as uchuva, tree tomatoes, cucumbers, peas, beans, maize, peaches, pears and apples.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Anderson_Emerson | Gladys Anderson Emerson | Gladys Ludwina Anderson Emerson (July 1, 1903 – January 18, 1984) was an American historian, biochemist and nutritionist who researched the impact of vitamins on the body. She was the first person to isolate Vitamin E in a pure form, and won the Garvan–Olin Medal in 1952.
== Early life and education ==
Gladys Anderson was born on July 1, 1903, in Caldwell, Kansas; she was the only child of Otis and Louise (Williams) Anderson. She attended grade school in Fort Worth, Texas, and high school in El Reno, Oklahoma.
She received her Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree in chemistry and physics and her Artium Baccalaureatus (A.B.) degree in English from the Oklahoma College for Women. In 1926, she earned her Master of Arts (M.A.) degree in history and economics from Stanford.
After being a department head at a junior high school, teaching geography and history, she accepted a fellowship in biochemistry and nutrition at the University of California, Berkeley. She completed her Ph.D. in animal nutrition and biochemistry at Berkeley in 1932. In 1932, she married her colleague, Dr. Oliver Huddleston Emerson. Immediately following, they both were accepted as postdoctoral fellows at the University of Göttingen, Germany, where she worked with Nobel Prize winners Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus and Adolf Butenandt.
== Research career ==
From 1933 to 1942, Anderson was a research associate at the Institute of Experimental Biology at the University of California at Berkeley, working with Herbert McLean Evans. Herbert Evans had identified and named Vitamin E in 1922, but Gladys Emerson was the first person to isolate it, by obtaining alpha-tocopherol from wheat germ oil. In 1940, she and her husband divorced.
In 1942, she went to work for Merck & Co. as a staff researcher, where she remained for 14 years culminating in her role as head of the department of animal nutrition. She worked with rhesus monkeys, studying Vitamin b complex. At Merck, she identified the impact of withholding B6 as contributing to the development of arteriosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries.
From 1950 to 1953, she worked at the Sloan-Kettering Institute, researching the link between diet and cancer.
In 1956, she became a professor of nutrition at the College of Letters and Sciences at the University of California, Los Angeles. In 1961, she moved to the division of nutritional sciences in the University's School of Public Health, where she served as vice-chairman from 1962 to 1970.
In 1969, President Richard M. Nixon appointed Emerson as vice president of the Panel on the Provision of Food as It Affects the Consumer (The White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health). In 1970, she served as an expert witness before the Food and Drug Administration's hearing on vitamins and mineral supplements and additives to food.
== Personal life ==
According to a close friend and colleague of hers, she was a practical joker. Shortly after earning garage privileges at Merck, Karl Folkers was working late. Emerson obtained a parking ticket, which she placed on the windshield of his car on her way out. Folkers called her when he got home at 2 am to accuse her of being a prankster.
She died January 18, 1984, in Santa Monica, California. She was buried near her parents in El Reno, Oklahoma, on January 24, 1984.
== References ==
== External links ==
Emerson, Gladys Anderson 1972 Archived 2016-03-21 at the Wayback Machine — Alumni Hall of Fame at University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma
Folkers, Karl (1985). "Gladys Anderson Emerson" (PDF). The Journal of Nutrition. 115 (7): 837–41. doi:10.1093/jn/115.7.835. PMID 3891927.
== Further reading ==
Haber, Louis (1979). Women pioneers of science (1st ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 9780152992026. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Changer_(game_show) | Game Changer (game show) | Game Changer is an American comedy panel game show on Dropout created and hosted by Sam Reich which started in 2019. The show follows players, typically three comedians, who participate in a new game every episode, with the players kept unaware of the premise and rules of the game beforehand. According to Polygon, the show "combines improv comedy, puzzle solving, fierce competition, and a prankster ethos." Episodes of Game Changer have led to four spinoff shows on Dropout: Dirty Laundry, Make Some Noise, Play It By Ear, and Crowd Control. As of August 2025, the show has released seven seasons.
== Premise ==
The show is based on one central theme: the players start the game knowing nothing about it. Most episodes follow three contestants playing against each other by following prompts and tasks put out by the host of the show, Sam Reich. It also sometimes parodies other shows like Survivor and The Bachelor.
Occasionally, special guests will participate in the game. The very first episode featured the participants' significant others, and the inclusion of guests outside of the Dropout/CollegeHumor community began with the virtually filmed third season, which featured guests such as Tony Hawk, Michael Winslow, and Giancarlo Esposito. Other guests have included Jewel, Ty Mitchell, Bob the Drag Queen, Laganja Estranja, Howie Mandel, Victor Yerrid, Sarah Natochenny, Eric Wareheim, Paul F. Tompkins, and Robert Reich.
== Production ==
Game Changer was created as an original show for the streaming service Dropout, in response to internal pressure to create more inexpensive, unscripted content compared to CollegeHumor's previous output. Early in development, the show was titled What the What and based loosely on the party game "Scissors". The show was announced on August 29, 2019 and released on September 20, 2019.
After CollegeHumor was sold by IAC and restructured in 2020, the company temporarily halted production of all shows. Game Changer, which was affected by this, released their already-completed second season in January. The third season of the show was recorded via video conference to comply with lockdown restrictions in California during the COVID-19 pandemic; the show returned to being recorded in the studio for its fourth season. Originally, nine episodes were announced as being a part of the fifth season ahead of the season premiere in November 2022, with a 10th episode being a cut-for-time special. However, in March 2023, a special 4-part season finale titled "Game Changer: Battle Royale" was announced, with the mini-series being a sequel to season 4's Survivor-style season finale. Beginning with the fifth season, behind-the-scenes videos are uploaded for each episode the week after their release. Seasons 4 and 5 each concluded with "cut for time" specials featuring moments that were cut from the episodes; these moments were later integrated into the behind-the-scenes videos from season 6 onward.
During the 2023 SAG-AFTRA strike, production on the sixth season of Game Changer as well as most Dropout programming shut down, as the show fell "under SAG's Electronic Media contract". In July 2023, Sam Reich stated that as Dropout is not "associated with the AMPTP, it's possible we may be able to reach an interim agreement with SAG that allows us to continue to produce content during the strike. But we'll only do that, obviously, if we get the blessing of the union and the buy-in of our performers. If not, we have enough content in the can to last us a little past the end of the year". In August 2023, Reich announced that all Dropout shows had resumed production, as it was determined that their "New Media Agreement for Non-Dramatic Programming" was actually a non-struck SAG-AFTRA contract.
Game Changer editor Sam Geer, who also directed season 6's episodes, was promoted to executive producer in 2024. The set was expanded for the filming of season 7. Reich commented that one of the production limitations of the previous set was the stage curtain entrance so this set expansion featured a new "grand entrance" to "wheel the most elaborate stuff out onto that stage". Reich stated, "the open play space and the distance between the cameras and us are so massive that to be on the stage this season, it felt a little bit like there weren't cameras in the room. ... I think that contributed to a bit of just how free we felt as performers".
Season 7 featured off-set filming and two episodes with studio audiences. Belen Edwards of Mashable explained that "multiple Season 7 episodes have made fans a part of the game" and that "either unknowingly or knowingly, Game Changer is bringing its fans into the game". Edwards highlighted a challenge in "One Year Later" which "involved creating the most profitable piece of Dropout merchandise, something fans only realized while watching the episode", the live audience for "Crowd Control", and the goal of creating the most viral videos in "Fool's Gold" where the "viewers will be able to keep affecting the episode's outcome" in the month after the episode aired. The season also featured an alternate reality game (ARG) component, with clues hidden in the episodes, in response to a mistaken belief by fans that an ARG was hidden in season 6. The game was solved by fans within 48 hours, ultimately unlocking the final episode of the season, one which had been planned by Brennan Lee Mulligan and other Dropout cast and crew members in secret to surprise Reich following the end of production on the other episodes.
=== Spin-offs ===
Episodes of Game Changer have become the basis for a number of other shows on Dropout. In 2022, Dropout produced three spin-offs based on previous episodes: Dirty Laundry, a panel game about guessing each others' secret facts based on the season 3 episode "Never Have I Ever"; Make Some Noise, a short form improv show based on the season 1 episode and recurring game of the same name; and Play It by Ear, a musical improv show based on the season 4 episode "The Official Cast Recording." In 2025, Dropout premiered Crowd Control, a stand-up crowd work series based on the season 7 episode of the same name.
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2019) ===
=== Season 2 (2020) ===
=== Season 3 (2020–2021) ===
Season 3 was filmed remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
=== Season 4 (2021–2022) ===
=== Season 5 (2022–2023) ===
=== Season 6 (2024) ===
=== Season 7 (2025) ===
== Reception ==
Margaret Lyons, for The New York Times, wrote, "if you've watched a lot of arena comedy specials recently, and you want something at the far other end of the spectrum, or if you've had more than one discussion about whether long-form improv could ever be effective on television, watch this". Polygon's Susana Polo called the show "one of the funniest, nicest, cleverest pieces of TV you can put your eyeballs on right now".
Emmanuel Ronquillo of Collider opined that Game Changer is a blend of "all the fun of a game show, all the humor of a comedy show, and all the excitement of live improvisation" where "each new premise and set of rules are satisfyingly executed". He commented that the show pushes "beyond the traditional limitations of a game show" due to the "flexibility" of its design. He also viewed the show's contestants as "some of the most improv savvy, comically talented, and endearingly competitive players you'll see on any contest show". Belen Edwards of Mashable highlighted that "Fool's Gold" in season 7 is an episode which "doubles as the perfect Game Changer marketing campaign" since "Dropout's primary marketing strategy is social media clips" and "the entire episode has been reverse-engineered to market the show".
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Game Changer at IMDb
Game Changer at TheTVDB |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jose_Cuisia_Jr. | Jose Cuisia Jr. | Jose Lampe Cuisia Jr. (born 16 July 1944) is a Filipino banker, business executive, and diplomat. He was the seventh Governor of the Central Bank of the Philippines, serving from 1990 to 1993, and formerly the Ambassador of the Republic of the Philippines to the United States of America. He is vice-chairman in the Philippine American Life and General Insurance Co., in which he had been CEO for a decade until its American owners, AIG, went bankrupt and had to sell out to Asian investors. He is also vice chairman of SM Prime Holdings. He is also a director of the Ayalas' Manila Water Co., in cement conglomerate Holcim Philippines, in call-center firm Integra Business Processing Solutions, in property firm ICCP Holdings, and in Beacon Property Ventures. Likewise, Cuisia is chairman of The Covenant Car Co.
Ambassador Cuisia is an alumnus of De La Salle University, where he graduated in 1967 with degrees in Bachelor of Arts in Social Science and Bachelor of Science in Commerce (magna cum laude). He also finished his Masters in Business Administration-Finance at The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania in 1970 as a University Scholar.
== Awards and honors ==
: The Order of the Knights of Rizal - Knight Grand Cross of Rizal, KGCR (2015).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_DX1#Notable_features | Yamaha DX1 | The Yamaha DX1 is the top-level member of Yamaha's prolific DX series of FM synthesizers. The DX1 has two sets of the synthesizer chipset used in the DX7, allowing either double the polyphony, split of two voices, or dual (layered) instrument voices. It also has double the voice memory of the DX7. It has an independent voice bank for each of two synthesizer channels ("sound engines"). Each of 64 performance combinations can be assigned a single voice number, or a combination of two voice numbers - one from channel A and one from channel B.
== Notable features ==
=== Visual ===
The DX1 was enclosed in a handmade Brazilian rosewood case and was played with a 73-key weighted wooden keyboard with polyphonic aftertouch. On the left side of the front panel, a printed algorithm chart provided an overview of the 32 selectable algorithms and their associated operator structuring.
The DX1 also used solid push-buttons rather than the membrane buttons found on the DX7, with them containing individual LEDs to indicate current status.
=== Controls ===
Compared to the DX5 and the DX7, the DX1 had more displays that enhanced accessibility and programmability.
==== Performance section ====
The performance section had a backlit LCD display (40 × 2 characters) which displayed selected programs in Single, Dual, or Split mode, as well as LFO settings and other voice-specific parameters.
==== Algorithm panel ====
The algorithm panel had a thirteen single-character 7-segment numeric displays for indicating the selected algorithm, by providing position and relationships of all active operators, as each on these displays were linked to neighbouring ones via individual stripe-style LEDs; the top display showed the of feedback and the bottom one showed the algorithm number.
==== Oscillator panel ====
The oscillator panel contained two LEDs for indicating frequency ratio (top) or fixed frequency (bottom) in Hz mode, a single LED to indicate positive or negative detune, one single-character numeric display (top) for detune amount, and one four-character numeric display (bottom) for value (ratio or exact frequency) of the selected frequency mode.
==== Envelope panel ====
The envelope panel had two LEDs for indicating either centre pitch (left) or amplitude level mode (right), eight double-character numeric displays for showing each individual envelope parameter, and four 16-segment bar-style LEDs that graphically displayed either rates (in centre pitch mode) or levels (in amplitude mode).
==== Keyboard scaling panel ====
The keyboard scaling panel had eight individual LEDs indicating selected curve response, three double-character numeric displays showing (from left to right) left depth, break point, and right depth values. The panel also had a single-character numeric display for showing rate scaling.
==== Sensitivity panel ====
The sensitivity panel had two single-character numeric displays showing key velocity (top) and amplitude modulation (bottom), one double-character numeric display showing output level, and one 16-segment bar-style LED that graphically displayed the output level.
== Sales ==
During its production year in 1985, only 140 DX1 units were produced with a retail value of US $13,900 (US$40,600 adjusted with inflation).
== Legacy ==
=== Notable users ===
Vince Clarke
Depeche Mode
Dire Straits
Herbie Hancock
Elton John
Kitarō
New Order (notably on their tracks "True Faith" and "1963")
Tears for Fears
=== Derivatives ===
The Yamaha DX5 is a derivative of the DX1, introduced in 1985 with a list price of US$3,495. It has the same synth engine, but lacks the DX1's fully weighted keys, polyphonic aftertouch, aesthetics (rosewood case and wooden keyboard), and user interface features (parameter displays). It includes 76 keys with channel aftertouch and slightly improved MIDI features. Programming on a DX1 is still a little easier than on a DX5 because of its extensive parameter displays, but in general both are easier to program than a DX7, because they have larger displays as well as dedicated buttons for some programming tasks.
=== Reissues ===
In 2019, the software instrument company UVI released the plugin bundle FM Suite containing recreations of multiple FM synths, including the DX1, DX21, DS-8, TQ5, FVX-1, TX81Z, DX100, and the GS2.
At NAMM 2025, Behringer announced the BX1, an unofficial reissue of the DX1 that added CS-80 inspired analog filters, modern effects, and 32-voice polyphony.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"[Chapter 2] FM Tone Generators and the Dawn of Home Music Production". Yamaha Synth 40th Anniversary - History. Yamaha Corporation. 2014. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014.
The development outline of Yamaha FM sound synthesizer; especially, the prototypes of GS1 (TRX-100), DX series (PAMS: Programmable Algorithm Music Synthesizer), DX1 (prototype DX1), and these tentative programming interfaces are seen.
== External links ==
Yamaha DX1 Worldwide Information Center |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_of_Joy_(album)#Background | Band of Joy (album) | Band of Joy is English rock singer Robert Plant's ninth solo album and the first with his new backing group, the Band of Joy. It was released on 13 September 2010 in the UK and 14 September in the US.
== Background ==
In addition to the song "Satan Your Kingdom Must Come Down", which is the opening theme for the Starz television series Boss, the credits of BBC One's Luther for an episode aired on 16 July 2013 and the season two finale of the Syfy series Defiance, the album is notable for the song "Monkey". The song, originally by the band Low, is slowed down to a grinding, spooky gothic rock tempo and mood that is different from Low's version. It is arguably the least similar to other tracks on the album (except for "Satan"), which for the most part carry folk rock or progressive rock moods. Although it is not a staple at Plant's live performances, there have been instances where he has performed it.
The album debuted at #5 on the Billboard 200 chart and at #3 on the UK Albums Chart. The first single released from the album was "Angel Dance".
== Track listing ==
== Personnel ==
Robert Plant – vocals, backing vocals (1, 2, 3, 5, 11), arrangements (9, 11, 12)
Band of Joy
Darrell Scott – accordion, acoustic guitars, mandolin, octave mandolin, banjos, pedal steel guitar, lap steel guitar, backing vocals (1–4, 6, 7, 10, 11)
Buddy Miller – electric guitars, baritone guitar, mando-guitar, 6-string bass, backing vocals (2, 3, 6), arrangements (9, 11, 12)
Byron House – bass
Marco Giovino – drums, percussion, backing vocals (3)
Bekka Bramlett – backing vocals (1, 2)
Patty Griffin – vocals, backing vocals (2–5, 8, 10, 11)
=== Production ===
Buddy Miller – producer
Robert Plant – producer, sleeve design
Mike Poole – recording, mixing, editing, reconstructions
Gordon Hammond – assistant engineer
Tim Mitchell – recording assistant
Ted Wheeler – studio assistant
Jim DeMain – mastering at Yes Master (Nashville, Tennessee)
Alex McCollough – mastering assistant
Richard Evans – character audition, compilation and assembly
Michael Wilson – photography
Bill Curbishley – management
Nicola Powell – management
== Critical reaction ==
Band of Joy was received positively. Metacritic's aggregate score for the album is 80 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Rolling Stone, while only giving the album a three-and-a-half-star review, ranked it #8 on its list of the 30 Best Albums of 2010. Q Magazine in its January 2011 edition ranked Band of Joy as the second best album of 2010, stating that, "free from having to imitate his 20-year-old self in Zeppelin, the sexagenarian sings to his strengths here, with Miller and Griffin his not-so secret weapons on an album that pinwheels between gentlemanly country-blues ("Cindy, I'll Marry You Some Day"), spooky lo-fi ("Silver Rider") and charming '60s pop ("You Can't Buy My Love")."
== Awards ==
The album was nominated for two Grammy Awards, including Best Americana Album and the song "Silver Rider" for Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance. Frontman and vocalist Robert Plant was nominated for best British Male Solo Artist at the Brit Awards 2011.
== Charts ==
=== Weekly charts ===
=== Year-end charts ===
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Young_and_the_Restless_characters_(2000s)#Tyra_Hamilton | List of The Young and the Restless characters (2000s) | This is a list of notable characters from the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless that significantly impacted storylines and debuted between January 2000 and December 2009, in order of first appearance.
== Alex Perez ==
Alex Perez first appeared on November 29, 2000, later becoming the fiancée of Malcolm Winters and lover of his brother, Neil. The role, portrayed by Alexia Robinson, was created to fill the void left by Victoria Rowell. Prior to her debut, the character was only known as "Erin". In 2002, it was announced that Robinson was to exit The Young and the Restless after the expiration of her contract, and departed onscreen on May 9, 2002.
History
Alex arrived in Genoa City to work on an important case for Newman Enterprises and the firm's boss Victor Newman was immediately impressed by the way she was doing business. She was working together with Neil Winters and the attraction between them was high even though they were constantly fighting. Olivia Winters helped Alex win the case however, the two were never friends because Olivia was constantly afraid of losing Neil to Alex.
Meanwhile, Neil's brother Malcolm Winters fell for Alex and they started dating. Neil was extremely bothered by this because he was in love with Alex and he was about to reveal the truth when Alex finally decided to accept Malcolm's proposal of marriage. Alex desperately tried to hide any sign of involvement with Neil, while Neil was going through a rough time due to a death of his close friend. In a moment of depression, Neil admitted his feelings for Alex to Malcolm, but Alex reassured Malcolm that she did not care for Neil, and the couple went back to planning their life together.
Malcolm, Alex and Neil ended up a trip to Kenya where Malcolm overheard Alex talking about her feelings for Neil, but did not hear that Alex decided to fully commit to Malcolm. Malcolm ended up in an accident, as Alex and Neil returned to Genoa City. They realized that Malcolm must have overheard their conversation and that's why he left. Alex decided to move back to Minneapolis after she wasn't able to deal with the guilt.
== Sean Bridges ==
Sean Bridges first appeared on March 20, 2001, portrayed by Christopher Douglas. He would later become a prominent boyfriend of both Phyllis Summers and Jill Abbott. In July 2001, it was announced that Douglas had been let go from the role, and that it would be recast. The recast was "due more to the way that character had been written than the performer's work" and that the writers wanted to take the character in a different direction. He was last seen in the role on July 27, 2001. The role was recast with David Lee Russek, who debuted on August 6, 2001. In June 2002, it was announced that Russek was to exit in a "storyline dictated" departure, and was last seen on July 1, 2002.
I was caught in the middle of a power struggle between [executive producer Edward] Scott and [head writer Kay] Alden. Everyone at the show has been more than supportive of my situation, and I do realize that this decision has less to do with Chris Douglas, per say [sic] and more to do with a difference of opinion between an executive producer and head writer.
—Douglas on his firing from the soap opera (2001)
History
According to Sean, he dropped out of MIT as an 18-year-old junior, and began traveling the country for five years with a backpack as his only possession. He stopped long enough to get involved on the ground floor with a web company and made a killing on his stock options before the company made their down fall. He lived in a 35-room Long Island Victorian mansion, filled with great art, furniture from around the world, and all the "toys." When he realized that he was living to maintain his possessions instead of enjoying his life, he left it all behind and took a job in Genoa City. At some point along the way he had a relationship with Phyllis Summers.
Sean arrived in Genoa City coincidentally to replace Phyllis as Jabot Website Designer, complete with nose ring and laid back wardrobe. He lives in a high rise apartment with no furnishings but a card table, two chairs and a futon, in an attempt to return to a minimalist way of life from his younger years. But he does still keep a Picasso in the closet. Sean seems to have a lot of connections in his past, counting entertainers Lionel Richie and B.B. King among his friends.
The mysterious Sean seemed to have scoped out the options and chose "older woman" Jill Abbott as his companion. While Jill remained wary of this hot younger man and his motives, he managed to sweep her off her feet. Sean was a good influence on the embittered Jill, showing us a bit of the fun-loving innocent woman she once was. Sean moved into the Chancellor Estate and lived with Jill. But Sean pressured her to get married, and Jill balked one too many times. Sean quit Jabot and returned to New York City.
== Amanda Browning ==
Amanda Browning first appeared on August 31, 2001, as the mother of Mackenzie Browning, portrayed by Denice Duff. In June 2002, it was announced that Duff would exit The Young and the Restless after the expiration of her contract, departing onscreen on July 5, 2002.
History
Amanda Browning, and her former lover, Brock Reynolds, had a daughter together named Mackenzie. As part of her history, Amanda and Brock fell in love off screen while working together in India. The relationship ended when Amanda left the country with their baby. Amanda married Ralph, who abused Mackenzie. She did not believe her daughter, so Mac ran away.
In 2001, Amanda arrived in Genoa City looking for her daughter after Brittany Hodges set out looking to locate Mac's mother. After realizing the truth about the abuse, Amanda divorces Ralph and returns to town to become closer to her daughter again. She begins volunteering at the homeless shelter where Mac used to stay. Ralph tracks her down in Genoa City. Knowing she is close to Katherine Chancellor, Ralph takes advantage of this and blackmails Amanda into stealing things from the Chancellor house. Ralph's terrorizing of Amanda is stopped by Larry Warton, with whom Amanda has developed a relationship. Amanda chooses to leave town after Jill Abbott shows her the security camera footage of Amanda stealing jewels from the mansion and nearly getting people killed.
== Ralph Hunnicutt ==
Ralph Hunnicutt first appeared on December 7, 2001, as the ex-husband of Amanda Browning, portrayed by Angelo Tiffe, who was last seen in the role on January 6, 2002. In March 2002, it was announced that the role had been recast with Daniel Quinn, who assumed the role on April 18, 2002, as his first daytime role. By June, it was announced that Quinn, along with Denice Duff, would exit in a storyline dictated departure. He was last seen on July 5, 2002.
History
Ralph was married to Amanda Browning and played stepfather to her daughter, Mackenzie. Amanda left Ralph when she found out that he was abusing Mac. Amanda did not believe her daughter at first; thus, Mac ran away from home to Genoa City. Amanda came to Genoa City to find Mac, resulting in her leaving Ralph. Angered, Ralph tracked Amanda down, and he began to stalk Mac. He started blackmailing Amanda into stealing things from the Chancellor mansion, where Mackenzie lived with her paternal grandmother, Katherine Chancellor. Mac was shocked to realize that Ralph was in town, and Mac's one-time love, Billy Abbott, jumped to her rescue when Mac came face-to-face with Ralph. Billy hit Ralph in the head, and he thought that he had killed him, but Ralph recovered. He then kidnapped Katherine, but Amanda's new boyfriend, Larry Warton, rescued her. Ralph had plans to get his revenge on Mac, but Larry stopped him in time. Ralph left town, and he was never seen again.
== Hank Weber ==
Hank Weber was a detective who appeared in and around Genoa City, first seen in 2002 and last seen in 2005. The recurring role was portrayed by Sherman Augustus.
History
Detective Hank Weber arrived on the scene when Diane Jenkins was involved in a fire at the Abbott poolhouse. The fire was believed to be caused by Phyllis Abbott at the time but was revealed to be in fact caused by Diane. Detective Weber was seen in serious crimes on and off in Genoa City in the years following this incident.
== Anita and Frederick Hodges ==
Anita and Frederick Hodges first appeared on August 14, 2002, as the parents of Brittany Hodges. Anita was portrayed by Mitzi Kapture, and Frederick by John Martin. They were last seen on February 22, 2005.
Anita and Frederick Hodges are the parents of Brittany. Their marriage was not going well because Anita needed more attention, and Frederick was more focused on his job as a banker. Anita had an affair with the young J.T. Hellstrom, who once dated Brittany. The affair caused a conflict with J.T. and his girlfriend at-the-time, Colleen Carlton. Meanwhile, Frederick sought comfort in the arms of Jill Abbott, but their relationship did not evolve. Frederick was the first family member to see Brittany stripping in Bobby Marsino's strip club. Neither Frederick nor Anita had much of a story aside from being included in their daughter's story lines. Both parents mostly disapproved of Brittany's relationship with Raul Guittierez, but they were not happy when she was dating Bobby either. Anita and Frederick were last seen in early 2005, when Brittany told them that she was pregnant; neither parent offered her any support. They then moved to New York City.
== Wesley Carter ==
Wesley Carter first appeared on August 26, 2002. He later became the fiancé of Olivia Winters after being involved with her sister, Drucilla. He was portrayed by Ben Watkins.
History
When Drucilla Winters returned to Genoa City from Paris with her rebellious teenage daughter Lily, Dru's boyfriend Wesley, a psychiatrist, appeared when Lily called him to take her and Dru back to Paris. After Lily persuaded Wesley to fly out to Genoa City, Dru was surprised by Wesley's arrival. Wesley then met and introduced himself to Dru's ex-husband, Neil Winters, who was dealing with his alcoholism issue. Wesley tried to convince Neil to let Lily and Dru move back to Paris. During this time, Neil's companion, Serena, asked Wesley for help in keeping Neil and Dru apart. Wesley later told Neil about Serena's feelings for him. Wesley began questioning Dru about her feelings for Neil. When Neil insisted he and Dru should live together for Lily to have a sense of family, Wesley wasn't happy about the idea other than Lily having a real family; then, Wes proposed to Dru.
To keep Wesley out of his way of getting back with Dru, Neil asked Dru's sister, Olivia, to keep Wesley busy. Wesley started to realize the extent of Dru's feelings for Neil by the end of the year when she changed her mind about spending the holidays with Wesley in Paris. She later told him she and Lily were moving in with Neil. Even though he and Dru were growing apart, Wesley remained close with Lily and occasionally gave her advice for her problems. Wesley decided to stay in town despite his separation from Dru.
When Olivia and Wesley confided in each other about their relationship situations, they became close and began a romantic relationship. Afterwards, Wesley and Dru officially ended their relationship. Olivia was afraid of moving too fast with Wes, but he later surprised her with a candlelight dinner and explained he wanted a chance to be with her. Months later, Wesley proposed to a hesitant Olivia, who weeks later, finally accepted his proposal. While in town, Wesley helped Christine Blair by hypnotizing her after she presumably had killed Isabella Brana, who was actually alive. After a few months, Olivia and Wesley called off their engagement, and he moved back to Paris.
== Damon Porter ==
Damon Porter first appeared on May 23, 2003, portrayed by Keith Hamilton Cobb. His casting in the role was announced in April 2003. Viewers reportedly accused the soap of using Cobb to fill the void left by Shemar Moore. In May 2005, it was announced that Cobb was to exit, departing onscreen on May 23, 2005.
Character history
Intending to live a life of solitude, chemist Damon Porter found himself going back on his word when he received a phone call from Drucilla Winters in 2003. Dru found out that Damon used to work for Satine Cosmetics, and she managed to bring him to work at her company, Jabot, much to the displeasure of Neil Winters, who tried to get Damon to work at his company, Newman Enterprises. At Jabot, Damon replaced Ashley Abbott, who went on maternity leave. She reluctantly allowed Damon to take her place. Damon was a calm man who refused to get involved in the war between Newman and Jabot, especially after Brad Carlton asked Damon to seduce Phyllis Abbott, the wife of Jabot employee Jack Abbott. Phyllis and Damon were attracted to each other, and they shared a kiss even though Phyllis was married to Jack.
Drucilla was also attracted to Damon, but he did not seem to care for her. She then moved on to Neil Winters, where she found true love. One night, Damon shared a private conversation with Victoria Newman, who poured her heart out to him, only to realize later that Damon was the new chemist for her family's greatest rival. Victoria's family was against their relationship, but Victoria and Damon began to get closer. Damon was also getting close to Vanessa Lerner, his old girlfriend. He traveled to Japan with Vanessa to find a rare orchid that could help Jabot. He found himself sharing the trip with Dru and Neil, who were going to get married, and Jack and Sharon Newman, who went along with the couple. Phyllis broke up with Jack after a fight over the orchid, and she started a relationship with Damon. Vanessa was upset over Damon's relationship with Phyllis, and she decided to give her project to Newman. Damon was fired by Jack after learning about his relationship with Phyllis, but his sister, Ashley Abbott, rehired Damon.
Damon helped Phyllis cope with her problems, but even he wasn't perfect. Phyllis' son, Daniel Romalotti, had just arrived in town. He didn't tolerate Damon, and he preferred to spend his time with Jack. Damon's fights with Daniel helped him open up to Phyllis about his past. Years earlier, Damon's young son, Elias, was murdered by Dominic Hughes with a bullet that was intended for Damon. Since then, Damon had been meditating to find inner peace. The animosity between Damon and Daniel wore off after Damon had saved Daniel and his friend, Kevin Fisher, from a thug named Alex that was blackmailing them.
Phyllis visited Dominic Hughes in prison in hopes of keeping him away from Damon, who was keen on getting revenge one day. Dominic, however, showed up in Genoa City claiming to be a changed man, which even Damon believed, but Phyllis discovered that Dominic was setting up Damon, and she went to confront him. Dominic tried to rape Phyllis, but she was saved by Damon, who was then shot by Dominic. Damon injured Dominic with a sword, and they both ended up in the hospital. Damon's spirit left his body at the hospital, and he reunited with his son, but then he had to go back. Phyllis and Damon were under investigation for a possible murder, and they had to find a way to free themselves. Phyllis even contacted her sworn enemy, Christine Blair, to help them, but Christine accepted only after Daniel asked her to. Dominic managed to get the upper hand on Christine, so Phyllis hired Michael Baldwin to defend her, and both Phyllis and Damon were cleared of all charges. Damon reunited with his ex-wife, Adrienne Markham, and they moved to Atlanta together in 2005.
== Bobby Marsino ==
Bobby Marsino first appeared on June 9, 2003, portrayed by John Enos III. In June 2005, it was announced that Enos was to exit the soap due to budget cuts, departing onscreen on August 10, 2005.
Character history
Bobby Marsino entered the series as the owner of the strip club, Marsino's. He gave Brittany Hodges a job at the club, allowing her to sing and eventually strip. Brittany's new occupation caused problems in her relationship with her boyfriend, Raul Guittierez. He attempted to get the club shut down with the help of Brittany's father, Fredrick Hodges. Brittany was electrocuted and scarred by one of Bobby's business associates out of revenge for her father and boyfriend's actions against the strip club. Bobby, who developed feelings for Brittany, was there for her after the incident. He turned his associates in to the police, and he eventually married Brittany.
Bobby's past was brought into light after a body was discovered behind the Genoa City Rec Center. The body was that of Joshua Cassen, who was childhood friends with Nikki Newman. Joshua and Nikki were fighting over Nikki's father's gun, and it went off by accident, killing Joshua. Nikki's father buried the body until it was found many years later. When Nikki tried to find Joshua's family, she discovered that Bobby was actually Charlie Cassen, the younger brother of Joshua Cassen. Eventually, Bobby found out what happened to his brother, and Nikki and Bobby grew close after their revelation. Brittany, meanwhile, was pregnant, and she gave birth to a baby boy. They named their son Joshua Marsino, after Bobby's late older brother. Brittany had many complications during her pregnancy, and to pay for the medical bills, Bobby got involved with the mob. When the mob tried to recruit him, he found evidence to incriminate the members that he knew of, and he was forced to go into the Witness Protection Program. Brittany and Joshua were going to join Bobby in the Witness Protection Program once Joshua was in good health, but Bobby died in a hit and run accident in 2005, before they could reunite as a family.
== Cameron Kirsten ==
Cameron Kirsten first appeared on November 21, 2003, portrayed by Linden Ashby. Ashby departed from the role on August 12, 2004. After nearly twenty years, Ashby reprised the role on May 26, 2023. Ashby departed a month later when Cameron was killed off in the episode that aired on June 16 of that year. In 2024, Ashby was shortlisted for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Performer in a Drama Series for his role as Cameron. On July 30, 2024, it was announced that Ashby would reprise the role of Cameron, beginning August 1, 2024, and exited once more on January 27 of the following year.
In 2003, when Sharon Newman fled Genoa City after kissing Victor Newman, she went to Denver to find herself. While in a bar, she met Cameron Kirsten, and he instantly fell in love with her. He followed her up to her motel room, offering her wine all the while. They made love, and apparently, immediately afterwards he started abusing her by punching her in the face and trying to suffocate her with a pillow. However, before he could finish the beating, he fell asleep. Given this chance of escape, Sharon left Denver and came back to her family in Genoa City.
A year after these events, Cameron came to Genoa City to do a business deal with Newman Enterprises, Victor's company, now turned over to Nick Newman, Sharon's husband. While he was there, Cameron taunted and threatened Sharon, telling her that he would reveal to Nick what happened in Denver the year before unless she gave in to his wishes. Cameron then announced that he was planning a New Year's party and wanted Sharon to help him with it. Sharon said that she definitely would not do this, but, as Cameron had already told Nick about the party, there was nothing she could do. During the party, Cameron wrote down the address of a motel on the south side of Genoa City on the back of one of his business cards. He then gave it to Sharon, telling her that he wanted to meet her there after the party was over. Sharon felt that she had no choice but to do this, seeing as Cameron could tell Nick about Denver at any time.
After putting a long, black hooded coat on to disguise herself, Sharon went to the motel, apparently known as the Seedy Side. Once she got there, she met Cameron and told him that nothing would ever happen between them again, and that she wanted each of them to go their separate ways and forget all about Denver. Cameron, infuriated, started to beat her up again, pushing her onto the bed. Sharon then kicked him and sent him sprawling to the floor. As he tried to get up, Sharon looked for any sort of weapon she could find. Seeing an opened champagne bottle, she grabbed it and walked over to Cameron. He looked up, horrified, to see the bottle she was holding, and brought up a hand to try to shield himself from the blow that would undoubtedly come, but it was too late. The champagne bottle came crashing down on his head.
Sharon thought he was dead, but he was only knocked unconscious. So, Sharon dragged him out behind a dumpster in the alley. A few hours later, Cameron awakened, snow-covered and angrier than he had ever been in his life. After he got up, Cameron returned, his face bleeding, to his "stand-in Sharon" lover, Grace Turner, who had been there the whole time. Grace then attended to Cameron's wounds, and right there Cameron vowed to take his revenge on Sharon for almost killing him. And so, for the next few months, Cameron put on makeup and pretended that he was his own ghost, haunting Sharon by looking into her windows, chasing her in her house on the Newman ranch and even kissing her. All the while, Sharon believed that she was going insane, seeing gruesome hallucinations of the man she thought she killed.
Finally, she couldn't take it anymore, and went into the sewer, where Larry Warton had put "Cameron's" body after finding it in her car while she was trying to move it to see the body, and make sure that Cameron was really dead. She actually did find a body, but it, of course, wasn't Cameron's. For some strange reason, Cameron actually had killed Frank Barritt, the biological father of Sharon's daughter Cassie; apparently, for the sole purpose of driving Sharon out of her mind.
At the Mother's Day Brunch at the Genoa City Athletic Club, Cameron made the fact that he was alive known, surprising not only Sharon but also Nick and Nikki Newman, who, at this point, thought that Cameron was dead for sure, although the former had no idea that Sharon could have been involved in the disappearance, as Sharon had told Nikki of her ordeal. When asked about his whereabouts, Cameron made up a fake story about finding an old girlfriend of his in a bar and flying away with her to an island in the Caribbean. When Sharon confronted him later on, Cameron denied that the events of New Year's Eve even occurred.
Later on, Cameron arrived at the Newman ranch to give Nick a job offer; to be the COO of Kirsten Incorporated. Cameron even said that sooner or later, he might hand the entire company over to Nick, as at the time, didn't think he wouldn't have any heirs. Nick said he'd think about the offer. Upon hearing about this, Sharon decided that she would tell Nick about everything that had happened between her and Cameron. Immediately going to Cameron's hotel suite, Nick demanded that Grace tell him everything. She said that she didn't know what he was talking about, and wondered why he believed the lies that Sharon had told him. Before leaving, Nick punched Cameron in the face, and told him that that was for what he did to Sharon in Denver.
Nick then repeatedly came to the hotel suite and tried to interrogate Cameron, but to no avail.
Near the end of his stay in Genoa City, Sharon began to visit him and it was only then that he started to open up. During one of those visits, he told her about his mother and father and his history, which he had never told anyone before. When asked if there was anything he could do to help her escape murder charges for killing Frank, as the body had been found by now and Sharon was the prime suspect, he said that the only way it was possible was if she would be with him the rest of his life; and fly in his jet to one of the islands he owned. That way, she couldn't be brought back to the United States to face the criminal charges. Faced with no other choice, Sharon reluctantly accepted. She told Cameron that she would be ready to leave on the following night, but he said that that wasn't going to work. He told her that either they would leave then, or he would go it alone. Although Sharon wasn't expecting this, she went along with him to the airport and boarded the jet. Nicholas, however, was following them and somehow boarded his jet.
At one point during the flight, Sharon attempted to kill herself by jumping out of the door of the jet. Cameron restrained her and told her that she had so much to live for and that her life had just begun. He comforted her and held her in his arms. Sharon finally calmed down and returned to her seat. Just as Cameron tried to kiss Sharon, Nick rushed out of the curtain behind them and pushed Cameron to the floor. He delivered blow after blow to Cameron, who, at this point was too shocked by Nick's appearance to try to defend himself. Sharon jumped out of her seat and stood, watching in horror as the abuse continued.
Finally, Nick knocked Cameron unconscious and dragged him to the door, strapping a parachute onto him. He roughly pushed Cameron out of the jet, and he began his plummet to the ground. Meanwhile, in the jet, Nick strapped parachutes to him and Sharon too, and they followed Cameron. In the morning, Cameron awoke to find himself in a cornfield, where, incidentally, Nicholas and Sharon had also landed. When he woke up, Cameron had noticed a horrible pain in his right leg, but he didn't realize the severity of his wound until Nicholas tried to move the leg and Cameron screamed. Although they knew about this, Nicholas and Sharon forced Cameron to walk until they found civilization. If Cameron made any moves, Nicholas threatened to beat him with a large stick he found in the field.
As they walked down the dirt road, Nicholas and Sharon treated Cameron very cruelly, with Sharon even pushing him and telling him to move faster. Soon, they came upon a stand selling sweet corn, and there they called the police. Those police believed Nicholas and Sharon's story and put Cameron into a police car. Cameron Kirsten was last seen on the show being hauled away in that police car, with a look of cold fury and determination upon his face.
In May 2023, Sharon received a mysterious bottle of champagne, with a note which made her reminisce about the past. The champagne bottle had blood marks on it. Soon after, Sharon informed Nick of other gifts that she mysteriously received and that relate to Cameron, without any sender address or information. Concerned that the gifts are connected to Cameron, Sharon informs Detective Chance Chancellor of the mysterious gifts and their connection to her previous assailant, who then finds out that Cameron has indeed been released from prison. At that same moment, Cameron checks into the Athletic Club in Genoa City.
== Arthur Hendricks ==
Arthur Hendricks appeared from January 20 to November 29, 2004, as an ex-lover of Katherine Chancellor, portrayed by David Hedison.
History
In her early days, Katherine Chancellor had an affair with her husband's golfing partner, Arthur Hendricks, which resulted in a pregnancy. Kay had a baby, whom she gave away for adoption and later was thought to be Jill Abbott (Jess Walton). In early 2004, Arthur came to Genoa City to visit Kay, and Jill hoped that Arthur would find a way to give Katherine hope for life, being that she was in a downward spiral of alcoholism at that time. Arthur moved into the Chancellor Mansion and got to know his "daughter" better. Arthur, along with several other family members, did an intervention to prevent Kay from drinking anymore, which eventually helped her realize that she needed to go to rehab.
Arthur and Kay became closer again after all of the time that they spent apart. Arthur planned to propose to Kay, but his stepson, Harrison Bartlett, came into town during that time, claiming that Arthur had killed his mother, Eleanor Hendricks, to get his hands on her fortune. Arthur was investigated in the case, but he was never charged. Jill and Kay confronted Arthur about his stepson, but Arthur did not want to get into it. He just said that Harrison had a big hand in ruining his life. Kay decided to trust Arthur and marry him, but he wasn't able to handle the suspicious minds, so he decided to leave town, which prompted yet another feud between Kay and Jill.
While Arthur was still out of town, it was discovered that Jill was not Kay and Arthur's daughter. It later came out that Arthur and Katherine's baby was actually a boy; Tucker McCall (Stephen Nichols). Arthur also has a grandson Devon Hamilton (Bryton James).
== Tom Fisher ==
Tom Fisher first appeared on April 9, 2004, as the abusive father of Kevin Fisher, initially portrayed by Jonathan Fraser. The role was then assumed by Roscoe Born on April 7, 2005, but within nine months, it was announced that Born was to exit the soap, with his last appearance on January 13, 2006.
History
The infamous Terrible Tom, the abusive father of Kevin Fisher and stepfather of Michael Baldwin, who had been violent towards them and their mother, Gloria Fisher, when they were young, arrived in Genoa City. Having learned that Kevin had won in the lottery, Tom visited his estranged son, hoping to scare him into giving him money. Kevin, who had dreaded his father's return for years, bravely told him to go away, but Tom promised he would return. Tom went to see Michael, who was now a highly successful lawyer, and asked for $10,000, in exchange for his leaving town. Michael reluctantly agreed, threatening to kill him if he ever returned.
The money didn't last long, and Tom soon came back, trying to embezzle more from Michael. When that was unsuccessful, Tom paid a visit to Gloria, who was now happily married to the wealthy John Abbott Sr. Gloria believed that Tom was dead, and realized that she is still legally married to him, invalidating her marriage to John. Tom threatened to tell John about this if she didn't pay him indefinitely. Fearful that the revelation could cause John to leave her, Gloria gave in and began to give Tom money, despite Michael's warnings not to.
Tom and Gloria legally ended their marriage, and John and Gloria remarried. John and his daughter, Ashley Abbott, who Tom had been dating, found out that he was Gloria's abusive ex-husband and warned him to stay away from their family. When Gloria refused to pay him anymore, Tom threatened to kill John, so Gloria kept giving him money, being careful not to let John find out.
Tom met psychotic Sheila Carter, whom he knew only as the alias Brenda Harris. They teamed up to exact revenge on the Abbotts and on Michael and his fiancé, Lauren Fenmore, who Sheila had wanted dead for years. Sheila told Tom that her plan was to kidnap Lauren on her honeymoon with Michael and then ransom her. However, her real plan was much more sinister; Sheila planned to kill Lauren and Tom. Upon learning of his ally's deception, Tom saved Lauren's life and dragged her to safety when her honeymoon yacht exploded.
Lauren was presumed dead, but was actually stranded in a bomb shelter with Sheila and Tom. Tom had both women tied up in the shelter, and decided to go back to Genoa City to extort money from Gloria in return for Lauren's safe return. While Gloria agreed to meet Tom, Ashley instead headed to meet Tom in an alley, but John, who overheard Tom's phone call to Gloria, got there first and shot Tom. Tom was taken to the hospital and, with his last strength, tried to tell an angry Michael and Kevin that Lauren was not dead, but died before he could do so. The doctors tried to revive him, but to no avail and it was the classic blanket over the head. Days later, Paul Williams arrived at the bomb shelter and rescued Lauren, who had managed to work with Sheila to escape. However, Sheila fell behind and disappeared once again. John was sentenced to seven years in prison for killing Tom, where he resided until his death from a stroke in August of that year. After John's death, it was revealed that Tom and Gloria's divorce was never finalized, therefore again invalidating Gloria and John's second marriage.
Three years after his death, Kevin saw a ghost of Tom and said goodbye and good riddance to him. Kevin then had him cremated and the ashes down Michael's sink. A safe deposit box key was one of the few things Tom left to Kevin in his will, though neither he nor Michael could determine where the box was located.
Years after Tom's death, it was revealed that his affair with Sheila had resulted in the birth of twins; Daisy Carter and Ryder Callahan.
== Dominic Hughes ==
Dominic Hughes appeared from October 14, 2004, to January 25, 2005, as a nemesis of Damon Porter. He was portrayed by Kevin Alejandro.
History
Damon Porter and his son, Elias Porter, lived in Atlanta, Georgia. Elias loved horses and wanted to be an Olympic champion. Damon and Elias had been riding horses, stopped at a fast food joint and were eating their burgers when they were harassed by some street kids. Damon put them straight. As he was using the encounter as a lesson to Elias on the way home in the car, a car drove up and Dominic Hughes fired a shot. The shot meant for Damon hit Elias and the boy died in his father's arms.
Damon changed, bought a gun and was consumed with revenge hunting down his killer. Hughes was finally captured, tried, convicted and sent to prison but the rage was still there for Damon. He wasn't there for his grieving wife, Adrienne Markham, and she couldn't bear to be around him so they were divorced. Years later, reality finally set in that mourning wouldn't bring Elias back. Damon learned to build a facade of control through meditation to cover the rage that was always still there.
In 2004, Damon got word that Hughes was up for parole and began spending his time contemplating his Samurai sword so Damon's girlfriend, Phyllis Summers, visited Hughes in prison to warn him to stay away because Damon still wanted to kill him. Dominic told her he already knew that Damon lived in Genoa City and he fully intended to head there upon his release. He claimed he was born again and had to see Damon to plead for his forgiveness. Phyllis left and Dominic sneered behind her back.
Dominic got paroled and showed up in Genoa City immediately. Phyllis met him and brought him to Damon hoping to help Damon keep his cool. Damon didn't believe a word until Dominic showed him the tattoo on his inner arm in memory of Elias. Later Damon felt sorry for the guy spending his parole money on a trip to see him so he sent Phyllis to deliver some cash to Dominic. As Phyllis approached his motel room door, another thug was leaving discussing a heist they were going to pull and how they had suckered Damon.
Phyllis made a call on her cell phone then daringly burst into Dominic's room. Dominic pulled a gun and threw her on the bed intending to rape her. Damon broke down the door wielding his Samurai sword. Hughes was knocked down and his gun flew across the floor. Phyllis convinced Damon not to kill him but, when she stepped between them, Hughes went for the gun. Damon jumped between them as Hughes fired and Damon took the bullet. With a last surge of rage, Damon ran Dominic through with the sword.
Both were rushed to the hospital where Phyllis said to Dominic that she wishes he'll die as his gurney passed. Damon was near death in the ER and his spirit left his body and stood by Phyllis as she frantically watched them work over him. The spirit of Elias appeared, told Damon it wasn't his time and to return to Phyllis who needed him. Elias forgave Damon for not protecting him and told Damon that he would always be in Damon's heart. Damon lived. While still in the hospital recovering, Damon and Phyllis were questioned for suspicion of conspiracy to murder Dominic thanks to the lies Hughes told the Genoa City police.
Phyllis had to beg Christine Blair to represent her and, although Christine said no, Phyllis's son Daniel Romalotti talked her into taking the case. Phyllis decided it was time for drastic measures, dressed up as a man, got thrown in jail for drunk driving and attempted to get Dominic to confess. But Dominic recognized her. Phyllis was arrested then later Damon was arrested for conspiracy to commit attempted murder. Phyllis hired Michael Baldwin to be her lawyer instead. Things were looking bleak so Phyllis pulled another disguise as Atlanta reporter Sandra King.
Her interview questions of District Attorney Glenn Richards helped him doubt that the felon Dominic was telling the truth. Paul Williams called Hank Weber into his office to talk to him about Damon's case. Paul wondered if Hank was as gung-ho about going after Damon as Glenn was. Later, Hank met Glenn at the Genoa City Athletic Club's restaurant to tell him that Dominic wasn't changing his story. When Michael walked up to the two men, Glenn spotted "Saundra," Phyllis's alter ego, talking to Christine.
Michael pretended not to know what was going on and, as Glenn complained about the publicity she could cause, Hank said there was something about "Saundra" he wasn't buying. Michael took over the case and broke Dominic's story in questioning before the DA and the charges against Damon and Phyllis were dropped. By 2005, Dominic left Genoa City.
== Yolanda Hamilton ==
Yolanda Hamilton (also Harmony Hamilton) first appeared on June 30, 2005, as the biological mother of Devon Hamilton, and later Ana Hamilton. The role was originated by Chene Lawson until January 24, 2006. The character later returned on October 7, 2011, portrayed by Debbi Morgan, who remained until her firing the following year. She made her onscreen exit on October 30, 2012.
All My Children actress Debbi Morgan confirmed via her official website that she would be joining the cast of The Young and the Restless. The actress expressed her excitement about joining the new role, and it was good to play another character other than her All My Children iconic character, Angie Hubbard for a change. She also denied rumors that she would be resurrecting the role of Drucilla Winters (Victoria Rowell).
On what to expect with the character upon her return in an interview with TV Guide, Morgan stated "She has no idea what's been happening with Devon – that his father, Tucker [Stephen Nichols], is the son of Katherine Chancellor [Jeanne Cooper]." Morgan jokingly stated in addition, "Who knows? Maybe Harmony will turn out to be the black Erica Kane! People have already been connecting the dots and are assuming that Harmony will wind up with Neil (Kristoff St. John)." A commercial aired promoting Morgan's joining The Young and the Restless. In September 2012, Morgan confirmed on Twitter that she had been let go from the soap. She taped her final scenes on October 5, exiting onscreen on October 30.
In April 2023, it was announced Lawson would reprise the role, beginning May 5.
When Devon Hamilton finally gained enough courage to see his homeless mother, Yolanda, he found her living in a park, anorexic and dirty, addicted to drugs. It was revealed that any money she earned she spent on drugs. She explained to Devon that she would never accept any ones money (including his) due to her addiction. She told Devon to return to Genoa City, and he did. Devon occasionally would go back and check on his troubled mother. She refused time and time again to go to a rehab facility. Yolanda later went to live with Devon and his adoptive parents, Neil and Drucilla. She stole a watch from Neil and sold it to buy drugs. She later attended rehab and got a job at Jabot Cosmetics. She came on to Neil, and later left Genoa City due to her troubled ways.
Years later, (Yolanda had not been seen) however Devon found out he had a sister (Yolanda's daughter) Ana Hamilton, who Yolanda gave to her adoptive sister Tyra Hamilton to raise due to her drug addiction. Later, Yolanda had contacted Genoa City wanting custody of Ana back due to her cleaning her act, however never acted on this. Years later, it was revealed that Tucker McCall (a wealthy businessman) had a son, and around this time it was revealed that Yolanda had written a letter to her "lover" from years ago. Katherine Chancellor (Tucker's mother) hired Paul Williams to find her grandson. It was revealed that Devon in fact was Tucker's son, and Yolanda and Tucker had an affair twenty years prior, and Tucker had forgotten. He referred to Yolanda as "Candy Cane" during their affair.
Yolanda came back to Genoa City five years later under the alias Harmony Hamilton. When news broke that Tucker was Devon's biological father, she returned to Genoa City to support her son. She came face to face with Tucker for the first time since she was pregnant with Devon. After a confrontation with Devon, Harmony claimed she was leaving town because her son didn't want her in Genoa City any longer.
Still, Harmony surfaced again when she arrived to see Tucker renew his wedding vows to Ashley Abbott. Neil caught Harmony before she could enter the church, and he told her that it wasn't her place to be at the wedding and that she should leave. Soon after, Harmony was invited to have Thanksgiving dinner with Katherine Chancellor. Although Jill Abbott Fenmore strongly disliked Harmony's presence in her house, Katherine encouraged her to stay. Katherine's generosity ruined her chances of reconciling with her son. He stopped by with a peace offering of red hot candies because he knew that they were both his and her favorite. He told her that for Devon to accept him, he needed to accept her. While their reunion was taking place, Tucker saw Harmony in Katherine's house and became enraged that Katherine was using Harmony to get to Devon.
With Harmony's constant presence in Genoa City, she began to grow on Neil, Devon and Tucker. She organized the Children's Christmas Pageant, which pleasantly surprised Devon, where she got to reunite with her daughter. He started to appreciate her effort to get to know him better. In addition, Neil apologized for being so rude to Harmony when they ran into each other after Neil's wedding to Sofia Dupre. Tucker also apologized to Harmony for his rude behavior upon her return to Genoa City. Harmony persuaded both Devon and Tucker to talk to Katherine after she told them how pure and kind she was. Both Neil and Harmony began to have increasing romantic feelings for each other, despite his marriage to Sofia, who began to see the connection between the two. Harmony also began a friendship with Sarge, a physiotherapist. However, after Ashley left Tucker during an argument, he got drunk and fell into bed with Harmony in which Ashley walked in on them, leaving her guilt ridden, especially when Katherine then told her to leave her house; Katherine came to her senses and said she could stay. After Neil confessed his true feelings for Harmony to Sofia, they decided to divorce. After it was finalized, Neil asked Harmony out on a real date, and they pursued a relationship. However, it ended when Harmony announced she was leaving Genoa City to help daughter Ana in another town.
In 2023, Harmony returned to Genoa City for Neil Winters’ memorial service at the Jazz Lounge in the Genoa City Athletic Club. Upon Harmony's arrival, Ashley Abbott felt a bit uncomfortable seeing her considering all that had happened the last time she was in town, but ended up reconciling with her. Harmony then apologized to Neil's immediate family for not attending his funeral and gave her condolences.
== William Bardwell ==
William Bardwell first appeared on February 2, 2006, portrayed by former Knots Landing star Ted Shackelford. His run lasted until July 18, 2007, when the character died after complications from a stroke. Weeks later, Shackelford returned to portray William's identical twin brother, Jeffrey Bardwell.
History
In 2006, John Abbott Sr. finally remembered what happened the night Tom Fisher was shot. He went to D.A. Will Bardwell to tell him the truth to free his daughter, Ashley Abbott, who was taking the blame for his crime. John told Will that he was the one who shot and killed Tom Fisher. Will thought that John was lying, but a lie detector test proved him wrong. John was then sentenced to seven years in prison. Will then moved on to investigate the tainted Glo-Again face cream, which resulted in a consumer death. Since no new evidence and leads were found, the case became cold.
In 2006, Jill Abbott decided to join an online dating agency, and she was shocked to discover that Will was her anonymous date. Will's wife, Miranda, a well-known fashion editor, had died several years earlier. Jill was his first physical relationship after his wife's death. Will was involved in a love triangle between Jill and Gloria Bardwell, whom he met at a grieving spouse support group. Gloria's husband was John Abbott, who had recently died of a stroke. Gloria's interest in Will was certainly strengthened by her knowledge that he was the sole heir to a multibillion-dollar oil fortune.
In 2007, William and Gloria were married. Soon after, new evidence arose in the Glo-Again scandal, and most of Jabot Cosmetics employees were subject to DNA testing. Will suspected that Gloria was the culprit. She was very hesitant to give a DNA sample for the case. After much persuasion, Gloria finally gave her DNA sample. She got her son (Kevin Fisher) to get a fake sample. Upon handing her sample over, she performed a sleight of hand trick, switching her sample with the fake. Of course, her test came back negative. However, when dining out, William watched Gloria's friend, Evan Owen, do the same trick. He discovered his wife's secret, and he set out to prove the truth. Upon meeting Gloria at the Athletic Club, William staged a hug in which his watch got caught in her hair. Pulling the hairs he needed for her DNA sample, he ran the test anonymously; it was positive.
Will confronted Gloria with the test results, and she admitted her secret to him. During their argument, Will suffered a stroke. While he was in hospital, Gloria's other son, Michael Baldwin, and Kevin were able to get Gloria's test results. An unknown copy, however, remained at the lab, where Detective Maggie Sullivan found it. She then took over William's cases, and she was determined to find out who was the positive match. William died of complications from the stroke. Shortly after, Gloria found a letter saying that Will's uncle's company had recently left $50 million to him, which was then given to Gloria. She decided to use some of the money to throw him a wonderful celebration of his life. At his wake, his identical twin brother, Jeffrey Bardwell, arrived to express his condolences to Gloria. He regretted not spending more time with his brother.
== Carmen Mesta ==
Carmen Mesta first appeared on May 8, 2006, portrayed by former General Hospital actress Marisa Ramirez. The Young and the Restless has issued a casting call and by April 11, 2006, it was announced that Ramirez had secured the role as "Carmen, a businesswoman whose storyline would be tied to Jack Abbott." She filmed her first scenes on April 4. By September 2006, it was announced that Carmen was to depart only four months after a debut. The show cited a lack of chemistry between her and her co-star, Kristoff St. John (as Neil Winters). The character was found murdered on October 27, 2006, and a "Who Killed Carmen Mesta?" storyline followed. Carmen's killer was Jana Hawkes (Emily O'Brien), who was initially never considered a suspect.
History
Carmen is a freelance public relations consultant that Katherine Chancellor hires for Jabot Cosmetics in 2006 because of Jack Abbott's handling of a scandal that results from Jabot's test release of tainted face cream. Jack resents her involvement but soon becomes attracted to her and eventually he and Carmen have a one-night stand. Afterward, Carmen is hired by Victor Newman to work for Newman Enterprises' new cosmetics division, Beauty Of Nature.
While at Newman Enterprises, Carmen begins an emotional affair with Neil Winters, who is estranged from his wife Drucilla. The physical extent of Carmen's relationship with Neil is a kiss. Believing that the two are having an affair, Drucilla ransacks Carmen's room and cuts her clothing with scissors. Carmen has Drucilla arrested for aggravated burglary and gets a restraining order. Dru violates the restraining order on more than one occasion, even attacking Carmen in Newman Enterprises' break room. Unbeknownst to Dru, the attack is captured on a hidden video camera accidentally left on by Noah Newman. The footage is discovered by Dru's enemy Phyllis Newman, who alerts Carmen, who in turn takes the tape to the police, which lands Dru in more trouble.
During these events Neil helps Dru deal with her feelings towards Carmen and tries to act as peacemaker. Carmen can not understand how he can condone Dru's actions. She informs him she is going to ask the District Attorney William Bardwell to prosecute Dru. Neil believes that Carmen is overzealous in wanting revenge on Drucilla. Dru hires Michael Baldwin as her attorney, and Michael asks Paul Williams to investigate Carmen's background. Paul discovers that at Carmen's previous job, prior to her arrival in Genoa City, she had an affair with a married executive, and that she left the job after being paid a large settlement. Michael confronts Carmen with this information in an attempt to get her to drop her lawsuit against Dru, but she refuses. Carmen is found dead behind Neil's jazz club, Indigo, on the club's opening night. William Bardwell believes that she was murdered and, out of numerous possible suspects, arrests Devon for her murder. Michael becomes Devon's defense attorney and looks for other plausible suspects, particularly Brad Carlton and Jack, so that he can establish reasonable doubt as part of Devon's defense. Carmen's murderer turns out to be Jana Hawkes. Jana killed her because Carmen saw Jana looking through a folder containing pictures and facts about the Grugeon Reliquary, a fictional piece of medieval art with foreign letters engraved on it, revealed to be the keys to a massive fortune, which Jana stole from Victoria Newman's car.
== Rebecca Kaplan ==
Rebecca Kaplan first appeared on July 28, 2006, portrayed by Millie Perkins (known for her role in the film adaptation of The Diary of Anne Frank). By September 19, Lorna Raver at joined the role. The character wasn't seen past February 2007.
Rebecca was introduced prior to her first appearance as "a woman who holds a key to the mystery of Brad's past." She is the mother of the late Brad Carlton and the grandmother of the late Colleen Carlton.
History
In 1943, Rebecca's family members were killed by Nazis during World War II, and Rebecca was put to work in a concentration camp, cataloging stolen Jewish artworks. Rebecca escaped and testified at war crime trials against the commandant, who was sentenced to death. She also returned all of the stolen artworks to their rightful owners. After receiving death threats, Rebecca and her sister, Isabel, immigrated from Rome to the United States, where Rebecca met and married Arturo "Arthur" Kaplan. The couple had two children, George and Stephanie, and the family lived in Ohio. When George and Stephanie were teenagers, the Nazis managed to track the Kaplan family down, and Arthur, Stephanie and Isabel were thus killed. The Nazis mistakenly took Isabel to be her sister, Rebecca, who was spared.
Later, Rebecca and George were forced to go on the run from the Nazis, and when George's friend, Brad Carlton, was killed, George took his identity and moved to Genoa City, with Rebecca still in hiding. In July 2006, "Brad," now in his forties, finally told his then-wife, Victoria Newman, and his daughter Colleen, about his past and his true identity, and introduced them to Rebecca, whom they had believed to be dead. Rebecca continues to stay in hiding, even during Brad's untimely death, when she could not leave hiding to come to his funeral.
== Adrian Korbel ==
Adrian Korbel first appeared on September 18, 2006, portrayed by Eyal Podell. He departed nearly two years later on August 5, 2008. He is described by the official website as ––
"An opinionated professor at Genoa City University, Adrian may have met his match in outspoken student Colleen Carlton."
The character has been described as a "Hunk" teacher. On his working with the cast, Podell said during an interview with Soap Opera Digest "It's fun, it's challenging. It's just great to come in and work." In a later September 2007 interview he talked about his character's status and the storylines at The Young and the Restless " It's been great. There's been a bit of a lull, but they've been setting up storylines. Adrian's still writing the book about Brad and somewhere in the future that's going to blow up. Then this thing with Heather could blow up things between him and Colleen."
History
Colleen Carlton found herself being drawn to her college art history professor, Adrian Korbel, and she became his research assistant in 2006. They started off on the wrong foot, but the two shared a one-night stand at Genoa City University when they were stuck there during an ice storm. A guilty Colleen decided to stop things with Adrian to salvage her relationship with her then-boyfriend, J.T. Hellstrom. Adrian seemed to move on from Colleen, and he became bed buddies with Amber Moore. Still, he found himself sketching pictures of Colleen, and he often reminisced about their night together during the storm.
Meanwhile, Colleen's father, Brad Carlton, distrusted Adrian, and he hired J.T. to investigate Adrian. Brad's mother, Rebecca Kaplan, worked in a concentration camp cataloging stolen Jewish artwork during World War II. The Nazis who were involved began to track Rebecca and her family. They were looking for a piece of artwork, the Grudgeon Reliquary. After Brad acquired the artwork, Rebecca found an inscription in the artwork that was in code. Colleen gave the inscription to Adrian, and he solved the code that revealed a treasure worth millions hidden in the catacombs of the Czech Republic. Then, Jana Hawkes kidnapped Colleen and Kevin Fisher to get to the treasure before Brad. Luckily, JT and Adrian saved them from a fiery blaze before they were seriously hurt.
Adrian and Colleen resumed their secret relationship. Once Brad found out about his daughter's secret affair, he forbade her from seeing Adrian. Colleen was forced to move in with her uncle Jack Abbott, who also paid for her college tuition after her father cut her off. Adrian received a job offer at a museum in Paris, and he and Colleen were going to move to France together. Brad donated a piece of art to the museum, and he persuaded the museum to take back their job offer to Adrian. With nowhere to go, Colleen moved in with Adrian at his apartment while he wrote a tell-all about Brad's past. Jana and Colleen helped Adrian reveal the secrets of Brad's past. Colleen was unaware that by revealing her family's secrets, she was putting them in danger. Adrian gave Colleen an advanced copy of the book, entitled SAVED: From The Ashes. After reading the book, Colleen's fear for her family's safety escalated. She gave the book to her father, and he used his money to stop the book's publication. Adrian was furious with Colleen for betraying him, and their relationship soon crumbled. Colleen then left Genoa City for Beijing, China to take a work study position. Adrian was offered a position as a writer for Restless Style magazine, and he was in charge of writing an article about Victor Newman's most recent wife, Sabrina Costelana. Colleen's uncle, Jack Abbott, edited Adrian's work to increase magazine sales, which upset Adrian. Upon Colleen's return from China, Adrian was willing to forgive her, but she refused his advances. In 2008, Adrian relocated to Maine because he had no reason to stay in Genoa City any longer. In 2009, Collen tragically died after drowning in a lake. Adrian was unable to attend the funeral, but he sent flowers to the family to express his condolences.
== Ji Min Kim ==
Ji Min Kim first appeared on October 2, 2006, portrayed by Eric Steinberg. He last appeared on September 5, 2007, after being murdered. On working with the cast, Steinberg said "Jess is one of the pillars of the show and this is the first soap I have ever done. I have done a lot of other things but not a soap. It is an extraordinarily, technically speaking as an actor, difficult."
History
Ji Min entered the picture as the owner of House of Kim, a dummy corporation that Jack Abbott had set up so that he could secretly buy back Jabot Cosmetics from Katherine Chancellor. Ji Min quickly became embroiled in the corporate intrigue surrounding Katherine, Jack and Victor Newman.
Ji Min had recently become interested in Jill Abbott, and was consistent in asking her out for drinks and meals. Gloria Bardwell, with the help of her son Kevin Fisher, had been monitoring the security cameras in Ji Min's office, determined to prove that Jack was the one pulling the strings at Jabot. Gloria had also been slipping Jill sexual enhancement drugs to ensure that she and Ji Min had sex in the office, thus destroying Jill's relationship with William Bardwell.
Although Gloria's plan ended any possibility of a Jill and William pairing, it also united Jill and Ji Min, who found they had an attraction to each other outside of a libido enhancer. Jill and Ji Min stumbled upon Gloria's scheme, when Jill's routine physical showed an abnormal amount of hormones. Ji Min, a self-professed chemist, and Jill figured out what Gloria had done and were last seen plotting their payback while at the Extreme Catwalk shoot. Jill spiked Gloria's and Evan's coffee, trying to do to her what she had done to them. Evan and Gloria did have a tryst, but unfortunately, William came by too late to catch them in the act. Katherine, Jill's mother and CEO of Chancellor Industries, was not a fan of Ji Min. Due to his involvement with Jack's Jabot scheme Katharine distrusted Ji Min and did not like his involvement with her daughter. Katherine bought Jabot back from Jack and wanted Ji Min to leave Genoa City. Although Ji Min confessed that he had always found his calling as that of an evil math teacher, he nevertheless stayed in town. Trying to make her daughter end her relationship with Ji Min, Katherine gave Jill an ultimatum: either she remained Jabot's CEO and gave up her relationship with Ji Min or she stepped down as CEO, which would allow Ji Min to be CEO, and therefore keep her man. Jill decided to keep her man. He proposed to Jill and the two were engaged. Katherine fired him from Jabot and he began working with Jill to start their own company, which would compete with Jabot.
Ji Min was found dead in his room at the Genoa City Athletic Club. The cause of death was strangulation; it was not known who the killer was, but evidence suggested that it was either Jack Abbott or Victor. Later video footage suggested it was Victor and he was arrested. In 2008, Paul Williams concluded that Ji Min had been murdered after discovering that Walter and David had mob connections. He had been silenced when he attempted to break free of their influence.
== Maggie Sullivan ==
Maggie Sullivan first appeared on October 30, 2006, portrayed by actress Tammy Lauren. She was last seen on February 21, 2008, without a proper exit.
On her character, Lauren stated "Women who act as tough as Maggie are probably more scared of things than others". Lauren also said that when the character joined, she was only for the purpose of the Carmen Mesta murder case.
History
Maggie Sullivan first came onto the scene in Genoa City to investigate the murder of Carmen Mesta, whose body was found behind the club Indigo. Throughout the case, she remained a force to be reckoned with and continued to search for the truth as to who killed Carmen, where she was murdered and why. She also began a relationship with Paul Williams, but it had a rocky start when she tracked him to an abandoned warehouse and found what she believed to be Phyllis Newman imprisoned in a cage, but it was actually the psychotic Sheila Carter, who had undergone plastic surgery to look like Phyllis. Maggie let "Phyllis" out, only to be choked by her and left for dead. Sheila then imprisoned Paul in the cage with Maggie and shot Maggie.
After Sheila-as-Phyllis was killed, Paul visited Maggie in the hospital and told her that when questioned, she should leave Lauren and Michael out of the story, as they too, like Maggie, had "stumbled into this themselves." Then, a fellow detective came to ask Maggie about her shooting and Paul was asked to step outside. Maggie never told anyone of Michael, Paul, or Lauren's involvement and she and Paul resumed dating. Months later, Paul gave Maggie another shock when he revealed that the new Assistant D.A. in town was his daughter Heather Stevens that he'd had with his ex-wife, April. The only thing was Heather did not know Paul was her biological father. This led Maggie to encourage him to tell Heather the truth.. She and Paul did not break up on camera, and no mention was made of her when Paul began seeing Nikki.
== David Chow ==
David Chow first appeared on January 9, 2007, portrayed by Vincent Irizarry, investigating the murder of ex-fiancée Carmen Mesta. Later marrying Nikki Newman, David was a mobster hit man who later died in a car accident with Sabrina Costelana.
Casting
Irizarry's casting for the role was announced by multiple sources in November 2006. He taped his first scenes on November 21, 2006, and was to "tackle the role of David Chow, a character who is connected to the recently-murdered Carmen Mesta." In 2008, it was reported that Irizarry was to exit The Young and the Restless. After the announcement of his departure, news broke that Irizarry was to reprise his All My Children alter-ego, David Hayward.
History
David Chow was a savvy political operative who arrived in Genoa City to avenge the murder of his former fiancée, Carmen Mesta. He quickly zeroed in on Drucilla Winters as the chief suspect in her murder, and gave a tape of a heated argument between the two to the press, which elevated further suspicions on Dru, who was extremely angry with Carmen for her involvement with her husband, Neil Winters. David waged an ugly campaign to drive Dru crazy by hiring Carmen's look-alike cousin, Ines, to appear around town and haunt Dru. After Jana Hawkes confessed to killing Carmen, David and Ines came to Dru's competency hearing to prove her sanity.
Meanwhile, Victor Newman made David a lucrative offer to work on Jack Abbott's Wisconsin state senate campaign. David then released a video of Jack's competition, Victor's then-wife Nikki Newman, stripping to make her look bad, leading to his firing. Nikki saw this move as an opportunity to get David to work for her, and she then had two campaign managers in the forms of him and Karen Taylor. David and Nikki connected, even after her son Nicholas Newman was hurt by him. When Victor was out of town looking for his estranged son, Nikki and David shared a kiss, which unbeknownst to them was recorded by Sharon Abbott and Phyllis Newman. Victor discovered their kiss online, which caused more marital problems for the couple and ruined Nikki's senate campaign. She lost the election to Jack, but continued to see David afterward.
Soon after, Nikki hired David to work for her company, N.V.P. Following an accident, Nicholas was presumed dead and then found alive, and an accident left Nikki's daughter Victoria Newman in a coma. These events brought Nikki and Victor back together, and Nikki insisted that David get out of her life. Evidently, this didn't last long as her reunion with Victor was shattered, and she and David became engaged. However, Nikki lost N.V.P. in her divorce settlement. Later on, David and Nikki became co-CEOs of Jabot Cosmetics. Victor warned her about David's eventful past, which included three previous marriages. He believed David was after Nikki's money, but she didn't listen to Victor and they continued their engagement.
Walter Palin then arrived in town, a loan shark who David paid off his debt to. Walter was the only person who knew David's true identity, "Clark". After a heated fight between the two men, David agreed to tell Nikki about his gambling problem and debt, which she chose to pay off and tried to commit him to help with his addiction, which he refused. However, Brad Carlton set David up to relapse with the help of Skye Lockhart, as he did not believe David was worthy of his CEO position. Skye ended up taking money from David in a poker game.
Victor became engaged to Sabrina Costelana, which made Nikki jealous, and she and David thus eloped to Mexico to "one-up" him. Paul Williams then investigated David's previous marriages, which revealed that both of them were extremely wealthy and had been met with untimely, suspicious ends. David's third wife Bitsy Hartford told Paul that he got away with killing his first wife Janelle by saying she committed suicide after he cheated on her. Paul then met Mina King, the daughter of David's second wife, Angela Perkins, who, convinced that he murdered her, told Paul that David told Angela to cut her out of the will, leaving him the sole beneficiary, and that he cut the brakes in her car, causing the fatal car accident that killed her. When Paul confronted David with this information, he said Mina was cut from the will because of her drug addiction. Eventually, David had no choice but to tell Nikki of his eventful past.
David said Janelle died of a sleeping pill overdose while they were traveling the world on humanitarian missions, and that he was never charged for her murder. Angela supposedly crashed her car into a telephone pole and died after a heated argument with him, and Bitsy was supposedly extremely paranoid which led to an affair with Carmen, a divorce and allegations against David.
Brad continued to feed his gambling addiction, debts began to appear again and David became desperate for money. Eventually, he asked Nikki for a divorce as he feared he'd gamble all her money away. Nikki refused to give up on him; however Paul continued to search through his past and discovered his real name was Angelo Sarafini, and was in fact a mobster hit man for Walter, or Tony Amato. He was then involved in the death of Ji Min Kim acting on Walter's behalf, and then Mina died under suspicious circumstances. Learning of all these events, Nikki left David and planned to divorce him.
At a charity gala, David spiked Nikki's drinks with dangerous amounts of morphine; however, she was rescued and brought to hospital before it affected her. At the same time, Sabrina insisted that she and David ride home together as she didn't feel well. Their limousine crashed; Victor got a call about a Mrs. Newman in distress and arrived on the scene, expecting it to be Nikki, when in reality, it was Sabrina. Victor was confused as to why she was with David, but they both ended up dying from their severe injuries. Later revelations state that Walter was responsible for the accident. After his death, David was continually suspected in the murder of Ji Min Kim and then Skye, which proved to be a fake-out.
== Karen Taylor ==
Karen Taylor first appeared on April 18, 2007, portrayed by actress Nia Peeples. Initially a small guest role, she departed on May 13, 2008. However, Peeples returned to the role on June 13, 2008. In March 2009, it was announced that Peeples had been let go from the role, and her last airdate was May 14, 2009. A month before her final airdate, Peeples spoke out about her firing from the role, blasting her fellow cast members such as Kristoff St. John who played her onscreen husband, and Eva Marcille. The character was described as "a savvy political operative who, after managing Nikki Newman's senatorial campaign, landed a powerful executive position at Newman Enterprises."
History
Karen arrived in Genoa City as Nikki Newman's campaign manager for her Wisconsin state senate campaign; however Nikki lost the campaign and Karen was fired. She dated Neil Winters after his wife's death. His children, Lily Winters and Devon Hamilton, didn't approve of Karen after their mother's death, however later began to give her a chance. Karen and Neil moved in together; Lily then found herself pregnant by her boyfriend, Cane Ashby; Neil proposed to raise the child with Karen, but Karen was extremely against Neil's proposal, and subsequently moved out. Realizing he was still mourning over his late wife, Drucilla, Karen left town.
A month later, Neil traveled to New York to win Karen back; and proposed marriage. She rejected him however she returned to Genoa City and they got back together. She started to show a different side of herself when a woman named Tyra Hamilton came to town and began to spend time with Neil. Tyra was Devon's adoptive aunt and his birth mother Yolanda Hamilton's adoptive sister. Drucilla's sister, Dr. Olivia Winters, returned to Genoa City, and she recognized Karen as a past patient. After meeting, they agreed to keep the secret between them hidden. Shortly after, Karen confessed to Neil that she had a hysterectomy after learning that she could give her child cancer. She asked him to decide if he still wanted to be with her even though she could not bear children. Neil quickly reassured an uneasy Karen that he still wanted to be with her.
Upon hearing the news of Katherine Chancellor's "death", Neil started to think about his life, and he decided to again propose to Karen, who happily accepted after a little reluctance. They planned to get married, but when Devon's biological sister, Ana Hamilton, was taken away from her aunt Tyra's custody, they decided to get married sooner so that they could become foster parents for Ana. The couple married on New Year's Eve 2008. Karen quickly became jealous of Tyra and Neil's relationship. She decided that she wanted to adopt Ana to start a family with Neil. Neil was reluctant yet open to the idea. Meanwhile, Tyra kissed Neil on two separate occasions. The second time, Karen witnessed the kiss; she kept them apart by making it appear as though Neil was attempting to adopt Ana behind Tyra's back. Karen was deeply distraught upon learning that Neil had a one-night stand with Tyra, but she managed to collect herself and continue battling to become a foster parent for Ana. In a turn of events, Neil testified on Tyra's behalf, and Tyra was then granted custody of Ana once again. Appalled, Karen packed her bags and left town, telling Neil that she hated him before she left.
== Ben Hollander ==
Ben Hollander first appeared on May 7, 2007, portrayed by veteran actor, Billy Warlock. Casting was announced on March 29, 2007. Warlock is known for his previous roles on Days of Our Lives and General Hospital. The character appeared from May to August 2007, with brief appearances from November 29 to December 10; and two episodes in 2008.
History
When Jack Abbott decided to run for the Wisconsin State Senate seat, he fired David Chow as his campaign manager and hired Ben to take over the position. Jack's opponent, Nikki Newman, hired David Chow, and the two campaign managers began their battle for a better campaign. Ben stayed as Jack's manager after Jack had won the election, but he lost his job after Jack had to step down from his seat due to a scandal. Since then, Ben has been working on the John Abbott Memorial Foundation.
== Jeffrey Bardwell ==
Jeffrey Bardwell first appeared on August 8, 2007, as the identical twin brother of William Bardwell, portrayed by Ted Shackelford on a recurring status. In 2011, Shackelford briefly stepped out of the role and it was temporarily assumed by Kin Shriner. Shackelford has since returned to the role.
Casting
Ted Shackelford has portrayed the role since 2007, and previously portrayed the role of William Bardwell for over a year. In 2011, it was announced that Shackelford would briefly vacate the role and it would be temporarily assumed by Kin Shriner, who briefly appeared on The Young and the Restless as Harrison Bartlett in 2004. He began airing on April 20, 2011, and was last seen in the role on September 16. Shackelford returned to the role on December 6 for a brief appearance, and then returned for additional appearances beginning January 11, 2012.
History
Jeffrey is the identical twin brother of the late William Bardwell, first appearing in Genoa City at his wake. Gloria Bardwell, William's widow, was confused to as who Jeffrey was, and later revelations stated that Jeffrey came to town after receiving a package from William with a sample of a face cream called Glo'Again, with a note telling him to not let "her" (Gloria) get away with it. In reality, Gloria had tampered with the cream at Jabot Cosmetics causing several customers' faces to be burned. Jeffrey blackmailed Gloria into marrying him, threatening to tell the police about the incident. In reality, Jeffrey just wanted to inherit the money left to Gloria by his brother and even Gloria's other late husband John Abbott Sr. They eloped to Las Vegas, and lived in the Abbott mansion together. Jeffrey wanted to have sex with Gloria to make the marriage fun, but he was teaming up with Jack Abbott and Sharon Newman to get Gloria to leave the mansion by hiring a man named Alistair Wallingford, who was identical to John, in an effort to scare her away. However, Alistair was smitten by Gloria, and he confessed to the entire endeavor. Afterward, Jeffrey's Korean mistress, Kyon, arrived at the mansion, and after Gloria caught them together, she left him, and afterward Jeffrey became involved with Jill Abbott and asked Gloria for a divorce.
Their divorce left Gloria penniless, forcing her to work at Crimson Lights coffeehouse. She decided to get back at Jeffrey and Jill by pouring hot sauce into their coffees, not realizing Jeffrey was in fact highly allergic to such which sent him to the hospital. Jeffrey nearly died from the incident, and as an act of revenge Jill told Gloria he had died. Jeffrey was really recuperating at the Chancellor estate, where he wrote a note to Gloria which he tore up. When Gloria discovered Jeffrey was alive, she went to the estate to apologize, where Jill spoke about her scheming history, leading Gloria to believe Jeffrey told her about the face cream incident. Gloria felt betrayed by Jeffrey and decided to cut him out of her life, while at the same time Katherine Chancellor discovered the torn up note he wrote to her. Realizing he loved Gloria, she found him in the arms of Alistair. Eventually, Jeffrey confessed his love for her and they made love, but she discovered his passport with a stamp from the Cayman Islands, accusing him of stealing her missing diamonds. Jeffrey ended things with Gloria and returned to Jill. However, despite returning to Jill's arms, he confessed his affair with Gloria and thus their relationship ended. Jeffrey begged Gloria for a second chance, and they married for a second time in Vegas. He also confessed to taking the missing diamonds which was met with forgiveness from Gloria.
Jeffrey and Gloria then wanted to acquire all the shares in Jabot, enlisting the help of Gloria's son Michael Baldwin to set up a dummy corporation. He agreed to do so if Jeffrey gave him the face cream, which he believed Kyon took by mistake. Jeffrey went to Korea to find Kyon and the face cream, returned to reveal he was unsuccessful but in reality he had it in his briefcase. Soon after, Gloria's ex-husband and Michael's father River Baldwin came to town, making Jeffrey jealous. River was a longtime fugitive, so Jeffrey reported him to the police for Gloria's safety. She ended up helping River with his daughter Eden Baldwin, causing Jeffrey to leave her. However, he returned weeks later and they reunited, but Jeffrey told Gloria that he indeed has the face cream with a written letter he will send to the police to report her if she ever crosses him again. He then found a photo of Gloria and River which he tore up, and told her that their marriage was now nothing more but a business arrangement. Gloria told Jeffrey she loved him and only him, which Jeffrey chose not to believe, and they divorced again.
When Katherine was believed to be dead, it was revealed that she left 5% of her Jabot stock to Gloria, and she and Jeffrey decided to then take over Jabot with Jack, which was unsuccessful. Despite two divorces, Gloria and Jeffrey remained on good terms, and eventually they reunited. However, Jeffrey supposedly left Genoa City to go to Vegas, where it was revealed that he had gambled away all of Gloria's money, leaving her broke. In reality, Angelo Veneziano had Jeffrey kidnapped and stole her money so he could make a move on Gloria and help her run her nightclub, Gloworm. Jeffrey was later seen on a deserted island trying to make a fire, and eventually Gloria's other son Kevin Fisher and Angelo's daughter Angelina Veneziano found him living in Angelo's fishing cabin, and supposedly suffered memory loss. He stole their motor boat and eventually made it back to Genoa City, where Jill brought him to an extremely angry Gloria. Still having no memory of the last few months, Gloria made him a bus boy, where he met Anita Lawson, who was astounded that he had no memory of her. Gloria and Angelo became engaged, and he locked Jeffrey in a dumpster behind Gloworm when he realized he'd regained his memory and what Angelo did to him. After breaking free, Jeffrey told Gloria what Angelo had done causing him to leave, and the ceremony was given to him and Gloria. However, Anita's daughter Chelsea Lawson claimed that Jeffrey was his father, which was confirmed by a DNA test. Anita then revealed to Jeffrey that they were still legally married, and he sent her on a trip around the world. Since then, she has returned and revealed to Gloria and Chelsea that she and Jeffrey were married.
There was initially some hostility, but Jeff and Gloria were able to work through this. Later, Jeff was able to convince Chelsea to come spend time with him at Gloworm. Although she initially suspected him of trying to scheme money out of her, he surprised her with pleasant company and giving her money to buy a present for her expecting child in his name.
== Roxanne ==
Roxanne first appeared on September 17, 2007, portrayed by former The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air actress Tatyana Ali as the love interest for Devon Hamilton. The role was initially a guest meant to air only on September 17 and 18, but Ali's stint on the show was extended and eventually upgraded to a recurring status.
For her recurring work on The Young and the Restless, Ali won an NAACP Image Award in 2011, beating out the likes of Debbi Morgan for the award, surprising the public. The award was for Outstanding Actress in a drama series despite her on and off role and lack of airtime. She was nominated for the same award in 2012.
History
Roxanne was introduced during Lily Winters' divorce party, where she hooked up with Lily's brother, Devon Hamilton. The two began a relationship, with Roxanne making occasional, brief appearances on the show.
In August 2009, after a particularly vicious argument, Devon and Tyra Hamilton had sex, unaware that Roxanne had walked in and discovered them in the act. The day after, Roxanne confronted Devon and Tyra, and she eventually broke up with Devon for his infidelity. Later, Lily was diagnosed with ovarian cancer, and Roxanne came back to town to visit her.
She revealed to Lily that she and Devon had broken up because of his relationship with Tyra. Lily confronted Devon about what she had heard, and he revealed his secret tryst with Tyra to her. Lily encouraged Devon to make things right with Roxanne. Initially, Roxanne resisted Devon's sincere attempts to apologize, but eventually she accepted and they resumed their relationship. Roxanne then went on an extended stay to Paris, France, while Devon stayed back in Genoa City to work on his music producing career.
Devon did not see anyone while Roxanne was away. One of her last appearances was at the christening of Moses Winters, before Devon later ended their relationship. She hasn't been seen since.
== Reed Hellstrom ==
Reed Hellstrom is the son of J.T. Hellstrom and Victoria Newman. He was born on December 3, 2007; however, his birth year was later changed to 2005.
Character History
Reed was born prematurely on November 29, 2007, after an accident left his mother, Victoria, in a coma. Victoria was exiting a partially destroyed parking garage in Clear Springs when a piece of falling debris struck her in the head. Victoria did not know Reed's paternity during the pregnancy. His biological father could have been Victoria's estranged husband, Brad Carlton, or her lover and future husband, J.T. Hellstrom. With Victoria and the unborn child's life at stake, the Newman Family went to court to determine whose life should be saved. That decision, thankfully, did not have to be made as both Reed and Victoria survived. J.T. was revealed to be the father after Reed was born, and he and Victoria married in February 2008 after she woke up from her coma. Soon after the marriage, Reed contracted a staph infection, but he recovered. After his parents separated, J.T. and Victoria shared joint custody of their son.
Reed traveled back and forth between Genoa City, where he stays with Victoria, and Washington, D.C., where he stays with J.T. Reed is nine years old as of 2014. In 2016, he is now a teenager, portrayed by Tristan Lake Leabu. He moved back to Genoa City to live with Victoria. The duo suffered a strained relationship due to Reed's rebellious nature and Victoria's strict love and inattentiveness due to work. Reed grew close to Victoria's ex-husband Billy Abbott, who helped the two grow closer together and advised Victoria to encourage Reed's burgeoning musical talent. During this time, Reed also begins a relationship with Mattie Ashby that ends when Reed is arrested for a DUI.
J.T., separated from Mackenzie, returns to Geona City; to Reed's delight, he and Victoria reunite romantically. Unbeknownst to him, J.T. returned to town to investigate Victor, and later begins physically and emotionally abusing Victoria, culminating in J.T. attempting to murder Victor and later relocate the family internationally. Victoria takes a stand and kicks J.T. out, upsetting Reed, who was left in the dark about his father's corrupt side. J.T. returned to attack Victoria, leading to his murder, in self-defense, by Nikki, with Victoria, Sharon Newman, and Phyllis Summers. As the women cover up the murder, Reed feels abandoned by his father's sudden disappearance, and he and Victoria grow closer as she consoles him. Reed ultimately leaves town in 2018 to engross himself in a music program, focusing on his music instead of his missing father. Reed returned to Genoa City in December 2018.
== Sabrina Costelana Newman ==
Sabrina Costelana Newman appeared from February 28 to August 5, 2008, portrayed by Raya Meddine. She was introduced as a friend of Victoria Newman (Amelia Heinle), later pursuing a romance with her father Victor Newman (Eric Braeden). Despite the character dying onscreen, Meddine reprised the role numerous times after Sabrina's death.
History
Sabrina was introduced as a friend of Victoria Newman, whom she had met while she was living in Florence. She arrived in Genoa City in February 2008 to visit Victoria after Victoria had contacted her via e-mail and instantly found herself attracted to Victoria's recently divorced father, Victor Newman, with whom she shared an interest in art. It was soon revealed to viewers that Sabrina had worked as an art curator in Florence, and that she had recently broken up with a man named Phillipe.
Before she was about to leave Genoa City, she shared a kiss with Victor Newman. Their attraction soon turned into a relationship, leaving both Victor and Sabrina worried over Victoria's reaction. After learning about it, Victoria furiously confronted her friend, leaving their friendship shattered. Meanwhile, Sabrina accepted Victor's proposal to manage an art gallery that Victor was going to open up for her in Genoa City. Sabrina revealed she was pregnant, and afterward they married.
Zara Costelana, Sabrina's mother, arrived in Genoa City the day before the wedding, even though she was not invited. Victoria later explained to Nick and Phyllis that the reason mother and daughter have a strained relationship is because Zara was not a nurturing parent, preferring instead to treat Sabrina as more of a sister or friend following Mr. Costelana's assassination, rather than a daughter. Sabrina's father was a diplomat who was killed while performing his job, which shattered Sabrina and her mother's relationship.
Sabrina agreed to be in an article in the new magazine, Restless Style, which was started by Jack Abbott, Nicholas Newman, Sharon Newman Abbott and Phyllis Newman. The article was to be approved by Victor and Sabrina and show her in a good light. However, Jack was intent on selling more magazine copies, so he got in contact with sources, including Sabrina's recent ex-boyfriend, and made changes that portrayed her as a woman who would do anything to get ahead – including sexual favors. Sabrina was livid and embarrassed over the article, and especially angry at Victoria because of her accusations. However, she did not let it get to her and she kept her head held up high. In July 2008, she was helping to plan a charity gala that would soon be taking place in Genoa City.
On August 1, 2008, she was involved in a fatal car crash along with David Chow and a limo driver, and subsequently miscarried her child. The crash was an intentional attack on David, as a hit had been put out by the mob. Sabrina had asked David to take her home from the charity gala because she was not feeling well. David and the driver were killed instantly but Sabrina was soon found by police alive and was rushed to the hospital. The doctors at the hospital, including experts and specialists brought in at Victor's request by attorney Michael Baldwin, said she did not have much time to live. She needed a liver transplant, as hers was lacerated. However, according to the doctors, there were more needy and longtime transplant candidates ahead of her and she could not be moved up the list quickly enough. Towards the end of her life, Victoria made peace with her and they were friends again. On August 5, she died soon after going into cardiac arrest and could not be resuscitated. After her death, her possessions were given to charity. Her funeral was being planned by Jana Hawkes at Victor's request, but was unexpectedly canceled by Victor so that he could attend Sabrina's burial alone.
Several weeks after Sabrina's death, Nikki Newman had numerous dreams that Sabrina and a little girl, presumably Sabrina and Victor's miscarried child, were talking with her, causing her to feel extremely guilty about Sabrina's death. David Chow also appeared in some of the dreams, telling Nikki that she was at fault for Sabrina's death, despite her having nothing to do with it in reality. Victor also accused Nikki of having a hand in her death because he felt that she had brought David into their lives by marrying him. This caused Nikki to become extremely upset several times, but eventually the dreams and accusations from Victor stopped.
Sabrina appeared as a ghost on September 24, 2008, when an emotional Victor asked her to come and take him, but Sabrina refused to take Victor along. Sabrina reappeared as a ghost on June 1, 2009, when Ashley Abbott Newman dreamed that she was in front of a statue of Sabrina on the Newman Ranch, which Victor had paid someone to create before her death. Ashley asked Sabrina to give her and her baby peace. Sabrina told Ashley not to be afraid, that she was completely sane, and did not need to worry anymore because as long as Victor was happy that is all that matters to her. Sabrina also tells Ashley that she is giving Victor what she had hoped to give him (a baby) before she was "called away."
Sabrina made subsequent appearances to Ashley in her mind (hallucinations) over the course of the next several months in 2009 while Ashley was having mental problems and believed Sabrina to somehow be alive and trying to "take her baby." Ashley's mental distress eventually resulted in her having a miscarriage when she fell down the staircase at the Newman Ranch after thinking she saw Sabrina and trying to run away from her. However, she had actually seen Victor's son, Adam Newman, who was wearing a dress similar to the one Sabrina was wearing the night of the car accident that killed her and playing an audio recording of Sabrina's voice to scare Ashley and cause her further mental anguish. After the miscarriage, Ashley's visions of Sabrina eventually stopped and Ashley's mind tricked her body into thinking it was still pregnant, which a doctor later deemed was a "hysterical pregnancy." Sabrina did not make any further appearances to Ashley after August 2009.
On December 23, 2010, Sabrina appeared to Victor in a dream he had along with Hope Wilson and Colleen Carlton as the "ghost" who was showing Victor the present, while Hope showed him the past and Colleen (whose face was not shown) showed what the future would be like if Victor continued treating his family badly. This dream prompted Victor to go see his family and friends on Christmas, despite the fact he was planning on spending Christmas alone.
== Alistair Wallingford ==
Alistair Wallingford first appeared on March 18, 2008, portrayed by Jerry Douglas, who portrayed the late John Abbott Sr. The character departed on June 11, 2008. His character was announced to interact with Jack and Sharon Abbott, and Jeffrey Bardwell. When asked to describe his character in an interview, Douglas stated ––
He is a devoted stage artist in his own mind. He has no qualms about telling you how great he is. And he is very charming! Now that I have portrayed him for a few weeks, I think he is genuinely a good person with a good heart. He is a bit of a lost soul. He has no roots. A kind of wandering minstrel from theater to theater for most of his life but he loves the stage and he loves performing. I find him fascinating.
Douglas also said it was very fun to play a character other than the "ghost" John. Alistair was a down-on-his-luck actor who happened to be a lookalike of the late John Abbott Sr.
History
Alistair enjoyed his beer and wine and was usually drunk, causing problems with Jack and Sharon's plans. They finally fired him and tried to keep him hidden away in a room at the Genoa City Athletic Club, but he escaped from Sharon and returned to the Abbott mansion to pursue his attraction for Gloria. When he entered the house, Lauren was about to walk down the stairs when she saw him and, thinking he was John Abbott, fainted and fell down the stairs.
Alistair later ran into Katherine Chancellor at Crimson Lights Coffeehouse, and she was surprised at how similar Alistair looked to John. She then saw Alistair near her house and invited him inside, where she learned more about Alistair. Jill Foster Abbott, her daughter, was also shocked when she first saw Alistair. The two women later learned more about Jack's plot against Gloria, and the fact that Alistair had fallen in love with Gloria. Eventually, Jack and Sharon decided that it was time to be rid of Alistair.
The Abbotts made a $50,000 donation to a struggling, out-of-area theater group in exchange for Alistair being cast in both their summer and fall productions (the latter being the role of "Felix" in The Odd Couple). Before he could leave, however, Alistair insisted on saying goodbye to Gloria.
== Skye Lockhart ==
Skye Lockhart first appeared on April 29, 2008, as a friend from Adam Newman's past. She was portrayed by Laura Stone. She left on July 11, 2008, returning briefly on March 3, 2010, and again for a final stint beginning June 7, 2010.
By November 2010, it was speculated that Skye was to leave The Young and the Restless permanently. Skye fell into a volcano and died; the character's last air date was December 29, 2010.
History
Shortly after Adam Newman returned to Genoa City as an adult, his old Harvard friend, Skye, came to visit. Skye graduated first from Harvard Business School while Adam was second. Skye arrived to catch up for old times' sake. She spent a few days in town playing poker with David Chow, and she won a large amount of money. Then, she disappeared after she was last seen at the airport. A few months later, a body was found in one of the horse stalls at the Newman ranch, dismembered into little pieces. The body was identified as Skye Newman after her Harvard ring was discovered at the scene. In March 2010, Adam had a vision of Skye giving him life advice. Three months later, Adam faked his own death and fled town as a part of a con that he and Skye were involved with. Skye, revealed to be alive, appeared in Brazil lying in bed with Adam. Skye provided for the couple, winning large sums of money by gambling. Soon, the couple was tracked down. The body believed to be Adam Newman was actually discovered to be that of Richard Hightower, and Adam was a suspect in his murder. Skye stayed behind in Brazil, and the authorities took Adam back to Wisconsin. After Adam was brought back to Genoa City, Skye appeared at his arraignment, much to Adam's surprise. Adam was sentenced to prison with bail. Skye agreed to pay Adam's bail if he married her.
Once married to Adam, Skye decided to hire Vance Abrams, a skilled attorney, to take on his case. Because of this, Adam won his case and became a free man, much to the shock of everyone in town. Skye and Adam then started "The Newman Fund", a company designed to spite her father-in-law, Victor Newman, and also to make them millions. It was quickly obvious that Skye had the upper hand in their relationship, as she ordered Adam around and told him what he could and could not do. Later, Skye accepted Jack Abbott's proposal to invest in the Newman Fund. She continued to promote the Newman hedge fund, and she persuaded Billy Abbott to let her appear on the front cover of his magazine, Restless Style, which upset Victor. She also slept with Jack Abbott to make Adam jealous.
Adam was jealous of Skye and Jack's relationship, but he was also suspicious of Jack, fearing that he and Victor were working together on a plan to bring him down. Skye was aware that Adam was paranoid about Victor and Jack, but she soon became furious after Billy's article damaged The Newman Fund. She then found Jack attempting to access her computer. Each time, Jack was able to talk his way out of the sticky situation, and he and Skye slept together several times. Victor managed to destroy The Newman Fund, and Skye was left in a state of shock after she lost everything, including Adam. After another intense confrontation with Adam, Skye turned up missing, leading Genoa City residents to believe that Adam killed Skye. However, Skye was later seen flying on the Newman jet with Victor. Skye called Victor, who arranged to help her by trashing her room and flying her off to Hawaii to again fake her death for Adam to be arrested and locked up. Over the following weeks, Adam was arrested and jailed while his new love interest, Sharon Newman, tried to help prove that Adam did not kill Skye.
In December 2010, Sharon got a lead as to where Skye might be. She headed to Hawaii, and she came face-to-face with Skye on top of an active volcano during a hike which Skye was participating in. She took a photo of her to prove that she was alive. They had a heated argument, which ended when Skye fell back towards a cliff. Sharon attempted to hang on to Skye, but she was not strong enough to pull her up. Skye lost her grip and fell over into the volcano itself, presumably dying once she hit the lava. Victor had been watching the entire argument unfold from a distance, and he watched as Skye fell, without attempting to help her. After Sharon left the volcano, Victor approached the area, and he threw Skye's glove into the volcano, destroying any evidence of her being there. He then proceeded to burn the hut in which Skye had been living, and he burned all of her clothes. Sharon, having lost the camera with Skye's picture in it, was unable to prove to Hawaiian police that she had seen Skye. She returned to Genoa City empty-handed, and she informed Adam of the incident. Soon after, Adam was freed on all charges while Sharon was now accused of murdering Skye. After several months, Sharon was finally acquitted, and neither she nor Adam was found to be guilty of murdering Skye.
== Ana Hamilton ==
Ana Hamilton is the daughter of Harmony Hamilton and sister of Devon Hamilton, first seen on June 25, 2008, portrayed by Jamia Simone Nash. She departed in 2009, returning for guest appearances in both 2011 and 2012. In November 2018, it was announced that Loren Lott had been cast as Ana; she made her debut during the November 28, 2018, episode.
History
Ana Hamilton came to Genoa City in the summer of 2008 with her "mother", Tyra Hamilton. They surprised her "cousin", Devon Hamilton, with her singing ability. Tyra revealed to Devon's adopted father, Neil Winters, that Ana was actually her sister, Yolanda's daughter, which meant she was Devon's sister. Ana was afraid that Tyra would send her to school in New Hampshire to get rid of her, but Tyra convinced her otherwise when she decided to go to New Hampshire along with Ana. She and Tyra were on their way to Chicago after Ana dropped out of school. Ana ran away from Tyra to be with Devon, but Tyra followed her back. The two reunited and stayed in Genoa City. Soon after their arrival, Yolanda filed a missing persons report on Ana. Ana was put in temporary foster care while the Winters family and Tyra tried to find a way to bring her home. Rafe Torres was working on the case for Ana. Tyra ended up getting legal custody of Ana.
In September 2011, Devon brought up his sister's singing ability to his boss at the time, Tucker McCall. Devon worked for Tucker's record label with Noah Newman until Noah left, and Tucker gave Devon 24 hours to find a replacement act. Tucker later fired Devon because he was unable to find a replacement. It is unknown whether Ana will come back to Genoa City once the news breaks that Devon is the biological son of Tucker McCall and the biological grandson of Katherine Chancellor. She returned on December 21, 2011, after Katherine flew her in for Genoa City's Christmas pageant and surprised both Devon and her biological mother Yolanda, now going by Harmony, whom she hasn't seen since she was a little girl. She returned again on June 27, 2012, to reunite with Harmony and Devon at the birthday party of Charlie and Mattie Ashby and has been working with Devon to produce a single for her.
Ana returned to Genoa City in November 2018, accepting a job offer to become Devon's assistant at Hamilton-Winters.
== Tyra Hamilton ==
Tyra Hamilton first appeared on June 25, 2008, and was portrayed by American fashion model and actress Eva Marcille until August 17, 2009.
The characters Tyra and Ana have met with negative reactions from viewers, especially due to the fact that her character has disappeared several times for more than a week. However, the producers have given Marcille a commitment to develop her character and she has been nominated for NAACP Image award.
History
Tyra arrives in Genoa City with her daughter Ana during Lily Winters' birthday party to surprise her nephew Devon Hamilton. Devon's father Neil Winters is worried about the sudden arrival of Devon's aunt and decides to find out more about why Tyra has come to town. After learning that Tyra has lost her job, Neil offers her a job as the manager of Indigo.
Tyra surprises Neil when she confesses that Ana is in fact her sister's daughter and Devon's sister. She then applies for her to get in a private school in New Hampshire, funded by Katherine Chancellor but it backfires when Ana intercepts the call and finds out that Yolanda is her biological mother. Ana accepts to go to New Hampshire and Tyra decides to go with her, but their absence becomes a problem when Devon learns that Ana does not like the school. Kay informs Neil that Ana and Tyra left the school. Tyra comes back to Genoa City looking for Ana, who has run away, and they reunite the same day. Neil tries to convince Tyra to stay in town, much to Karen's displeasure. Tyra begins dating a cop named Gil and develops feelings for Neil. Neil's sister-in-law, Olivia, pushes Tyra to go after Neil even though he is in a relationship with Karen Taylor.
Ana is taken away from Tyra when Yolanda decides to claim her. It is revealed that Yolanda filed a missing child report on Ana. Though Tyra has raised Ana for years, Yolanda has retained custody of her daughter. Neil and Karen marry to become Ana's foster parents. Karen wants to formally adopt Ana, which infuriates Tyra, who can only see her daughter during supervised visits. In a moment of weakness, Tyra kisses Neil, and then runs away from him. They later kiss again, which Karen witnesses. Karen tries to keep them apart by making it appear as though Neil also wants to adopt Ana without Tyra's knowledge. Tyra and Ana run away. Ana texts Neil before it's too late and they make up an excuse to prevent Tyra being stripped from visitation rights. Later on Neil tries to fire Tyra to avoid marital trouble and Tyra accepts both this and Ana being adopted and proceeds to leave telling Neil he is her hero and has been good to her. Neil stops her and they begin to have sex.
They both regret it but are confronted by Devon, Lily and Karen on separate occasions. Neil then helps Tyra get custody of Ana, even though his marriage blows up as a result. They then begin a new relationship but decide to take things slow. Soon thereafter at Lily's wedding to Cane Ashby, Tyra's aunt Virginia reveals to Devon that Tyra is not his biological aunt, having been left with Devon's grandmother as a baby. This revelation leads to a widening rift between Tyra and Devon, who still blames her for the end of Neil and Karen's marriage. However, Devon finds that he is actually quite attracted to Tyra. After a particularly vicious argument, Devon and Tyra have sex with each other, unaware that his girlfriend Roxanne has walked in and discovered them in the act. Roxanne later confronts Devon and breaks up with him, while Tyra hopes that Neil won't find out. However, Devon tells Neil about the one-night stand. Tyra asks Neil for another chance, but he tells her that Lily has his attention at the moment, leading Tyra to announce that she is leaving town.
== River Baldwin ==
Lowell "River" Baldwin first appeared on August 15, 2008, notably portrayed by former Family Ties actor Michael Gross.
TV Guide announced his casting in August 2008, as Michael Baldwin's father, "the one whom he thinks is a low-life, reprobate. A guy who refused to go to Vietnam and left Gloria to raise their son alone."
History
As part of his back story, he and Gloria were anti-establishment hippies, and Lowell left Gloria in 1975, while Michael was still a child, because he was accused of terrorist activity. He stayed on the run for 40 years. Before the character's first appearance, Michael searched for him without success. He accidentally found Lowell, going by the name River, at an Ashram in Malibu.
After coming in contact with Michael and his family, River was arrested for the crimes he was accused of 40 years prior. This arrest led his 15-year-old daughter, Eden Gerick Baldwin, to come to Genoa City to support him. River was put on trial and found innocent after Gloria testified on his behalf. Michael discovered though that River was, in fact, guilty of the crimes of which he was accused, and tried to turn him in. River went on the run again, leaving Eden in Genoa City with Michael.
== Rafe Torres ==
Rafael "Rafe" Torres is a lawyer who first appeared on December 1, 2008. He is portrayed by Yani Gellman. Rafe is the first and only openly gay character to appear on The Young and the Restless since it began airing in 1973. During an interview with Michael Fairman on Advocate.com, Gellman talked about his character, and the fact that he didn't know about Rafe's sexuality going into The Young and the Restless. He also stated he had no reservations about portraying a gay character.
I did not know it going in. It was something that the producers ran by me a little later on in the filming process. It took me maybe all of two milliseconds to respond. I thought it was a great idea and we jumped right in. No hesitancy whatsoever. I had some questions about the story line and where they saw it going and really standard questions you would have for any character you play. They assured me that the role was going to be written in a way that would be quite sensitive and conscientiously written, so that really appealed to me. I gravitated toward it and having this great new character to play. I am just like the viewer, wanting to know what's it going to be and what they are going to throw my way. I am ready for any of the great twists that come my way in the story. –– Yani Gellman on his character
History
Rafael Torres was a lawyer introduced during Ana Hamilton's foster care battle. He was a longtime friend of Billy Abbott. Rafe also worked as Adam Wilson's lawyer when he was prosecuted for forging the incriminating diary of his father, Victor Newman, and helped out Billy in the custody battle for his daughter with Chloe, Delia. It was also revealed that the Newman's housekeeper, Estella Muñoz, was Rafe's aunt.
Rafe was revealed to be gay when Lily Winters, unaware of his sexual orientation, attempted to set him up on a date with Colleen Carlton. After a matter of fact revelation of his being gay, the two agreed to be friends. After his aunt, Estella, was accused of gaslighting Ashley Abbott, he became determined to prove his aunt's innocence. After talking with Nikki Newman about who might really be behind the gaslighting, he became suspicious of his friend and former client Adam. However, when Rafe went to the Newman Ranch to accuse a house-arrested Adam, Adam tried to distract Rafe by seducing him. He lied to Rafe telling him he had feelings for him. A conflicted Rafe decided to believe him, revealing that he had actually been feeling the same way about Adam. It wasn't what Adam expected to hear, but this did not stop his seduction. Later, the two men had a sexual encounter.
Though it was not shown onscreen, the seduction scene stopped just before a kiss between them and then, when their scene later resumed, Adam and Rafe were shown putting back on their clothes. Post-sexual encounter, Rafe told Adam that he understood that Adam was in love with Heather and knew how negatively Genoa City viewed him, so perhaps Adam was just sexually confused. Rafe explained that he needed to leave, but told Adam that he would stay with Adam (presumably to have more sex) if it was what he wanted. Adam, who was visually shaken by the entire homosexual encounter he'd initiated just to keep Rafe from discovering his lies, tried to remain calm and told Rafe to go citing that because Adam was on house-arrest at the Ranch, Victor would often walk into his bedroom without knocking. As soon as Rafe had left, Adam immediately called Heather and asked her to come over. Once she arrived, he almost immediately initiated sex with her—seemingly to get his mind off what had just happened between him and Rafe.
As the story of Ashley's gaslighting continued (and was seemingly resolved—with his Aunt Estella being proven innocent and insane Patty Williams being wrongly accused instead of the guilty Adam), Rafe was not seen as often. Rafe has recently been acting as Billy Abbott's attorney, and has been helping Billy write an article to expose Adam. In July 2012, Rafe reappeared as Abby Newman's legal counsel after her publicity stunt involving a staged kidnapping with Carmine Basco. Abby wanted Rafe to take Carmine's case as well, but he was unable to handle both cases as well. Rafe was able to get Abby to accept a deal including a fine and community service offered by District Attorney Michael Baldwin and Ronan Malloy. After Abby's deal, he was convinced to take on Carmine's case as well, explaining to Abby that the circumstances make it very unlikely Carmine will be able to get a deal like hers, if at all.
== Patrick Murphy ==
Patrick Murphy, better known as simply Murphy, first appeared on October 29, 2008, portrayed by Michael Fairman on a recurring status.
History
Patrick Murphy was a long-time friend of Marge Cotrooke, with whom he often talked at Joe Jr.'s diner. His son Francis Murphy died after an accident and his wife Betty died not too long afterward. When Marge ended up in a car accident with her look-alike Katherine Chancellor, Murphy found Kay at the edge of a lake and nursed her back to health, without realizing that 'Marge' was actually Kay. When her health got better, Kay realized who she really was and Murphy accepted her as a friend, but romance also started blooming between the two. They had been trying to prove Kay's identity for a few weeks with help from Amber Moore, Michael Baldwin, Kevin Fisher and others.
Murphy was shocked when he returned home one day to find a goodbye note from Katherine claiming that she wasn't really Marge and that she had to leave. Murphy, heartbroken when Katherine could not remember who he was after the explosion (Kay was kidnapped and caught in an explosion by criminals who thought that she was Marge), decided to leave Katherine alone. However, Katherine returned to Murphy after another DNA test showed she was not Katherine, and they reconciled. At the diner, Murphy expressed his happiness that Katherine had brought to him. He proposed to Katherine and she accepted. He had planned to propose on Christmas Eve but Kay had slipped and fallen on some ice, so had Murphy decided to wait. Kay and Murphy later married. A year later Murphy falls gravely ill after he came face to face with Meggie McClaine, a woman from his past. Though mainly it's because as he was about to call Victor to warn him about Meggie, Meggie corners him in his car, thus causing him to have a heart attack. When Murphy attempts to take his medication, Meggie cruelly takes his medication from him and sadistically watches him groan in pain and is later found unconscious from his heart attack.
As a result, he was a prisoner in his own body at the Genoa City hospital, unable to talk or move; however he could blink his eyes, and was attempting to communicate via morse code with his eyelids. He has since made a full recovery and turned Meggie in.
In 2011, Katherine had a stroke, and Murphy found himself in the same position, needing to decide life or death for his comatose wife. Luckily Katherine came-to.
While fishing in Genoa City Park, in August 2011, Murphy found Diane Jenkins' lifeless body. He called the authorities.
In November 2011, Murphy supported Katherine during the reveal of Devon being her grandson.
On May 1, 2012, Katherine and Murphy celebrated their third wedding anniversary back with the old gang at Joe's Diner.
The theme of the 2012 annual Chancellor July 4 pool party/barbeque turned out to be forgiveness. While Murphy tended the grill, Devon forgave Katherine and Tucker, with Roxanne and Ana beaming their approval.
Katherine came out of retirement and became co-CEO of Chancellor again with Jill. Murphy tried not to resent all the time that Chancellor took from their lives.
In April 2013, when Katherine realized she had forgotten to go to Victor and Nikki's remarriage, she was shocked, but fearing Alzheimer's, she did her best to keep it secret. Cane finally realized her problem and coaxed Katherine to see a doctor. She was diagnosed with a brain tumor. Although he tried to persuade her to tell her loved ones, Katherine swore Cane to secrecy. Katherine went in for her surgery to remove the tumor and have it biopsied. Jill and Murphy showed up out of the blue, and offered to call Brock, Devon, Nina and Esther. With good news that the tumor had been benign, Devon, Murphy, Cane, and Jill assembled around Katherine's hospital bed until she finally awakened, feisty as ever. She announced that she was stepping down as CEO, and named Cane as her successor.
Cane gets Katherine home and tells her to close her eyes. She opens them to Murphy, Esther, Chloe, and Kevin shouting, "Surprise!" Murphy wishes her a happy anniversary. Later, Murphy tells Kay he could marry her all over again – but without the drama. "If I lost ya'..." Kay says she plans to be there for quite a while.
During the summer of 2013, Murphy and Katherine leave Genoa City (offscreen), to do a trip around the world (Murphy helps Katherine secretly finalizing her bucket list). On August 19, at the Chancellor estate, the gathered group continues to try to understand what's going on with the postcards they received from Katherine. Murphy arrives and informs them that Katherine died. Murphy says they must now take Katherine on her final journey. Murphy tells them to think about love when they think about Katherine; to think about life, not death. Champagne is passed around. They each flash to a memory of Katherine. They toast. "To Katherine."
Katherine's Memorial is held on September 3. Murphy takes the podium with an urn. He says Katherine wants everyone to participate in remembering her. Murphy tells them there is one more surprise – today is the dedication of Chancellor Park, Katherine's place for now and for always. Then Murphy revealed a plaque saying Chancellor Park. In loving memory of Katherine Chancellor.
Days later, on September 11, when Katherine's will was read, Murphy was bequeathed her vintage automobile collection, one quarter of her money, the cabin on Lake Michigan, and a fishing pole that she never could master.
During periods of being unseen, Patrick's absences were usually explained as having "gone fishing."
== Owen Pomerantz ==
Detective and District Attorney Owen Pomerantz first appeared on January 13, 2009, portrayed by Albie Selznick. His last airdate was September 17, 2010.
History
He first appeared when Adam Wilson was being convicted for forging a diary framing his own father, Victor Newman for murder. He is later seen taking care of a case aiming to find Patty Williams and put her in jail.
Again, after Adam Newman teamed up with and drugged Patty and escaped from the hospital he was staying at, Adam was at the Policeman's Ball where someone killed Richard Hightower to frame Nicholas Newman for murder. Upon the club's explosion he fled town leaving Genoa City authorities with the belief that he had been murdered. Later it was discovered that the body discovered was that of Richard Hightower not Adam Newman. Owen accuses Nick of murder and since he has vendetta against the Newmans, will not drop charges although enough evidence suggests Nick was framed by Adam. This continues for several months until Adams returns to town with Skye Lockhart. Nick's charges are eventually dropped and Adam is put in jail for conspiracy but is soon released on bail by Skye
Owen then discovered that dirty cops were dealing drugs to the inmates of the Genoa City Jail. He puts Chance on the case and then makes it his duty to guard Heather Stevens, since someone involved with the investigation was trying to kill her. Later, Owen hired a new partner for Chance, detective Ronan Malloy. Later it was revealed that Owen was working with det. Sid Meeks and that he was in fact, one of the dirty cops. Ronan is also pretending to be a dirty cop, and when Meeks told him he had to kill Chance, Ronan requested a meeting with the head of the operation, and when he got there, the man in question was Owen. He handed Ronan a gun, and told him that to prove his fidelity, he had to shoot and kill Chance.
Chance then discovered that there were secret meetings being had in an old warehouse by the dirty cops. He decides to go see to try to close the case and to get reinstated as detective. When he got there and he discovered that the dirty cops were Meeds and Owen, Chance made them throw down their guns and assume the position. Ronan Malloy then entered the room with a gun pretending to be a dirty cop to help him. He held his gun to Chance and when Owen saw that Ronan had no intention of shooting Chance, he told Meeks to kill them both. Ronan took a desperate shot to try to kill Meeks, but instead shot and killed Chance accidentally. Owen is later arrested at Chance's funeral. He warns Ronan that he will end up dead like Chance, but Ronan is not betting on it.
== Roger and Annie Wilkes ==
Roger Wilkes was portrayed by David Leisure from January 14 to March 11, 2009. His wife, Annie Wilkes, was portrayed by Marcia Wallace from February 16 to March 11, 2009.
Roger is a con man that was hired by Cane Ashby as an accountant at Jabot, without Cane knowing Roger's real intentions. Roger is working with Clint Radison, a man that had criminal past connected to Katherine Chancellor and who came back to town looking for revenge. Cane's wife Chloe Mitchell asked Roger to go out on a date with her mother Esther Valentine and Roger gladly accepted, then changed his plan to get the Chancellor wealth. He decided to marry Esther to get her money, and decided to rush by asking Esther to marry him just a few days after they had met. Esther gladly accepted, while others started suspecting Roger might have an agenda.
Clint and Roger kidnapped Katherine and brought her to a seedy motel, where she is being watched by Annie Wilkes, Roger's first wife. Annie at first did not trust Kay when she claimed she is not Marge, but Kay slowly started putting doubt in Annie and trying to make her help out while Clint wasn't there to watch over her. Annie was revealed to be a big Katherine Chancellor fan, which also helped Kay convince Annie to help her out. They both tried to escape, only to be stopped by Roger and Clint various times. Clint tried to get rid of everyone by putting a bomb in the motel, while Annie reconsidered and decided to stick with Clint and Roger after all. While running away, Clint took Kevin hostage, but Roger and Annie decided to abandon Clint by escaping before he could find them.
With help from Canadian authorities, Paul Williams tracked down Annie and Roger and brought them back to Genoa City, where they confessed to everything that had happened to free Kevin Fisher from a mental institution, where he had ended up after being mentally tortured by Clint, who had died a few weeks prior to their capture.
== Delia Abbott ==
Delia Abbott was born onscreen on February 16, 2009. The role was first portrayed by various infant child actors, including triplets Riley, Olivia and Isabelle Jones and twins Alix and Madeline Dubois. In 2011, the character was rapidly aged to a 6-year-old, portrayed by Sophie Pollono, when the character was diagnosed with leukemia. Pollono portrayed the role for two years until October 2013, when the character was struck by a car and killed. However, Pollono continues to make appearances as a hallucination to other characters.
Delia was born in February 2009, at the Abbott cabin, with Billy and Lily Winters (Christel Khalil) helping deliver her. Since the character's rapid aging, Delia had been kidnapped, and was later diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia and was in need of a bone marrow transplant. All of her relatives get tested to become her donor, but none are a match. Billy, who had left town after marital problems, was unable to be located to be tested. Victor Newman (Eric Braeden) later found him in prison in Myanmar and brought him home, but enlisted the help of Chloe's boyfriend Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who would pose as the donor when in fact it would be Billy. The ruse was successful; Delia received the transplant and later recovered from the illness. In 2013, Delia is scheduled to portray the Wicked Witch of the West in her school play of The Wizard of Oz. Billy gets her a dog, whom she names Dash, for the play, angering Chloe. On the way home from the show with Delia in the car, Billy stops at a store to pick up ice cream. While in the store, Delia opens the car door and Dash runs away. She runs out into the road to follow him, and is struck by a black SUV. Billy finds her on the side of the road and she is brought to the hospital, where she is tragically pronounced dead. Chloe's friend Chelsea Lawson's (Melissa Claire Egan) son Connor is facing blindness and is in need of a cornea transplant. Billy and Chloe offer Delia's corneas to Connor; the transplant is successful and his eyesight is saved. The driver who struck Delia then remained unknown, however, Connor's father Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) was shown to be on that road that night, and later found Delia's scarf trapped on the bottom of his car. It was later revealed that Adam had killed Delia, which ignited Chloe's thirst for revenge.
== Charles Taylor ==
Dr. Charles Taylor first appeared on June 9, 2009, portrayed by John Rubinstein, who portrayed the role for 12 episodes. Dr. Taylor first came to Genoa City when his friend Adam Newman asked him to check on his pregnant stepmother Ashley Abbott.
History
Dr. Taylor found out that Ashley had miscarried the child (due to Adam haunting her, which caused her to fall down the staircase). Adam wouldn't let Dr. Taylor tell her, however he was insisting on letting Ashley know. Adam revealed his (then believed to be deceased) girlfriend, Skye Lockhart and told Dr. Taylor that Skye wrote about being molested by him, Dr. Taylor. Adam used this to blackmail Dr. Taylor into keeping Ashley's miscarriage a secret. Together with Adam, they convince Ashley she is pregnant, and she suffers from a hysterical pregnancy.
When Sharon Newman was in labor at the same psychiatric ward that Ashley was in, Sharon was actually pregnant and went into labor. At the same time, Ashley believed that she was in labor despite nothing happening. Dr. Taylor delivered Sharon's baby, and Adam, stressed as to find a solution about Ashley's fake labor, stole Sharon's baby Faith from Dr. Taylor's hands while Sharon suffered from bleeding and passed out in her room. When Sharon went to the hospital (despite her daughter being alive and well) Adam blackmailed Dr. Taylor into revealing to Sharon that Faith was stillborn and "deformed" and told Sharon that she couldn't see the child for these reasons. Sharon was forced to grieve the loss of her alive child, while Ashley raised Faith as her own.
Dr. Taylor returned a few months later intend on telling Ashley and Sharon the truth. Instead, Adam shoved him into traffic. He was rushed to the hospital but soon died. But Phyllis Newman found out that he wrote a note before he died. She got her hands on it and brought it to the Newmans and the Abbotts and told them that it said that Ashley suffered a hysterical pregnancy. They soon put the pieces together and Faith was returned to her real mom.
== Ryder Callahan ==
Ryder Callahan first appeared on June 23, 2009, portrayed by Wilson Bethel. The following year, on July 3, he confirmed his exit, last appearing exactly a month later. Of his exit, he stated, "I have had a great time on this show, I wish it could have lasted a little longer."
On February 21, 2011, his return was confirmed however, it was only for a single episode.
History
Ryder Callahan is the son of Tom Fisher and Sheila Carter, and the twin brother of Daisy Carter. He is the paternal half-brother of Kevin Fisher, and the maternal half-brother of Mary Carter Warwick, Diana Carter and John Finnegan.
Ryder first appeared as a sidekick of Deacon Sharpe. Ryder later came to Kevin and revealed their connection through Tom Fisher. After a DNA test, it was proven that Ryder was Kevin's half-brother. Ryder and Daisy came to Genoa City to get revenge on Lauren Fenmore, whom they held responsible for their mother's death. With the help of their aunt, Sarah Smythe, they committed a series of crimes and eventually kidnapped Lauren and Jana Hawkes. Kevin and Michael Baldwin discovered where they were being held and rescued them.
Daisy and Ryder escaped Genoa City, but he later returned and turned himself in. He began a friendship with Jana. She was sympathetic to him because he showed her kindness during the kidnapping. Jana left Kevin, her husband, for Ryder, and they left Genoa City together. She tried to get him to return to face the charges against him, but he refused. Ryder returned briefly to Genoa City in March 2011 to see Jana, asking for her help in searching for Daisy's baby that she abandoned after Daniel Romalotti, the baby's father, helped her give birth. Ryder is unaware that Jana was his niece's nanny, he left town again.
== Emily Peterson ==
Emily Peterson was portrayed by Stacy Haiduk from October 13, 2009, to August 6, 2010, November 29 to December 7, 2011, and January 30 to February 8, 2012. Haiduk had already been portraying Patty Williams for eight months. Haiduk was let go from the show on June 21, 2010, however, she briefly returned in 2011 and again in 2012.
History
Dr. Emily Peterson was the psychiatrist who was treating Patty Williams in Minneapolis prior to her return to Genoa City in early 2009. With her arrival, it was obvious that Patty had altered her appearance with plastic surgery to look exactly like her doctor, Emily, so she was able to come to Genoa City under the alias of "Mary Jane Benson." After Patty's reign of terror that resulted in Victor Newman wounded and near death from a bullet-damaged heart and Colleen's death from drowning while trying to escape from Patty, Emily read a story in a Minnesota newspaper about Patty's crimes. She came to Genoa City to find out what exactly had happened. After talking with Paul Williams about Patty's disturbed history while living in Minneapolis, she confronted Victor and Jack Abbott, and told them they were both responsible for what ultimately happened to Patty. Emily took a job with the Psychology Department of Genoa City University (funded, much to her initial anger, by Jack through the Abbott Family Foundation) and planned to stay in town to continue to treat Patty's psychosis as well as take on new patients.
Emily and Jack have become romantically involved. On Christmas Eve, Jack treated Emily to ice skating and the two later decorated the Christmas tree at the Abbott mansion while reminiscing about Christmas past. Emily revealed that her parents are deceased, and she has a brother. Emily was going to stop treating Patty due to the lack of progress she was making, but Patty suddenly had a breakthrough, and this encouraged her to continue as Patty's doctor. On New Year's Eve, Jack proposed to Emily, who said yes. They were planning to get married on Valentine's Day 2010.
While Patty is in her padded cell, her former doctor, Emily Peterson arrives checking up on her trying to reach out to her. Emily soon realizes that Patty knew about her planned wedding with Jack. Patty angry at this, she forces Emily into the wall knocking her to the ground. As Emily wakes up a little, Patty forces medicated water into her mouth trying to hurt her. Later, Patty colors Emily's hair so it matches hers and escapes her cell with her hair covered. Back in the cell, Paul, Patty's brother, found Emily (believing it to be Patty) unresponsive on her cell bed. Emily gets rushed to the hospital. Paul calls Patty (thinking it's Emily) to come to the hospital. Patty fakes her identity and is on the road to marry her longed husband Jack making Jack think she's Emily.
While Emily is in grave condition and near death and is revealed comatose, Jack instead unwittingly married Patty on Valentine's Day, thinking that she was Emily. Patty's other brother Todd, a priest, also unwittingly performed the ceremony. Emily wakes up from her coma and tries to convince Paul and her doctor she is Emily, not Patty, but they do not believe her.
Jack, Paul, and Heather discover that Patty has been impersonating Emily and they rush to the sanitarium to get her. Patty, knowing full well that her lies had been revealed, went to the cell and took Emily's place again. She gave the real Emily a shot that would make her seem to be dead and barely have a pulse, Patty then wheeled her down to the morgue and left a Jane Doe tag on her foot. On May 10, Jack is with Patty in the cell and he figures out what Patty did because he could smell the peroxide and see the cat scratch she had. He begged with her to tell him where Emily is and all Patty said was "she's gone" and Jack ran down to the morgue and found her body about to be cut open for an autopsy, Jack was crying and thought she was dead until he saw a tear run down her cheek. She then wakes up and they go to Patty's cell where Patty is about to commit suicide and Emily talks her out of it. Jack then takes Emily to the hospital. Emily and Jack share a tearful farewell as Emily states that she will be moving away from Genoa City, most likely back to Minneapolis, where she lived and worked before her arrival.
Months later it was revealed during one of Tucker McCall's therapy sessions, that his psychiatrist was in fact Emily, who returned a little more than a year after leaving. Emily has been revealed to have been living in Chicago, prior to her return to Genoa City. She then runs into Paul Williams, who believes, at first, that she is Patty. While still in town, Emily goes to visit Jack, who also thought at first she was Patty, and Emily had to prove to him that she was Emily. After their visit ended, she presumably returned to Chicago.
In January 2012, Patty began posing as Emily again to attempt to win Jack away from Genevieve Atkinson (Genie Francis), his fiancée. However, Jack turns "Emily" down, telling her he loves Genevieve. Patty plans to shoot Genevieve, whom she had been working for as a housekeeper for months before under the alias Myrna Murdock. However, Patty arrives at Genevieve's house only to find that she is writing him a Dear John letter all before leaving town. Meanwhile, Tucker, who had spoken to someone he thought was Emily earlier that day, discovers the real Emily at Crimson Lights, who arrived in town for a psychiatrist conference. Emily discovers that Patty has been impersonating her once again. She later confronts Patty at the police station, though Patty is soon imprisoned in a mental facility. Emily has not been seen since; she presumably returned home to Chicago.
== Others ==
== See also ==
The Young and the Restless characters (1970s)
The Young and the Restless characters (1980s)
The Young and the Restless characters (1990s)
The Young and the Restless characters (2010s)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._S._Subbulakshmi#Move_to_Madras | M. S. Subbulakshmi | Madurai Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi (16 September 1916 – 11 December 2004) was an Indian Carnatic singer. She was the first musician ever to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour and also the first Indian musician to receive the Ramon Magsaysay award in 1974. She was the first Indian to perform at the United Nations General Assembly in 1966.
== Biography ==
=== Early years ===
Subbulakshmi (Kunjamma to her family) was born on 16 September 1916 in Madurai, Madras Presidency, to veena player Shanmukavadiver Ammal and Subramania Iyer. Her grandmother Akkammal was a violinist.
She started learning Carnatic music at an early age and trained in Carnatic music under the tutelage of Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer and subsequently in Hindustani music under Pandit Narayanrao Vyas.
Her mother, from the devadasi community, was a music exponent and a regular stage performer, and Subbulakshmi grew up in an environment very conducive to musical learning. Her musical interests were also shaped by regular interactions with Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer, Mazhavarayanendal Subbarama Bhagavathar and Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar.
Subbulakshmi gave her first public performance, at the age of eleven, in the year 1927, in the 100-pillar hall inside the Rockfort Temple, Tiruchirappalli; with Mysore Chowdiah on the violin and Dakshinamurthy Pillai on the mridangam. This was organised by the Tiruchirappalli-based Indian National Congress leader F. G. Natesa Iyer.
=== Move to Madras ===
In 1936 Subbulakshmi moved to Madras (now Chennai). She also made her film debut in Sevasadan in 1938. Her debut to the world of cinema was again opposite F. G. Natesa Iyer.
== Musical style and performance ==
=== Singing career ===
M.S. Subbulakshmi began her Carnatic classical music training under her mother Shanmukhavadivu; and later in Hindustani classical training under Pandit Narayan Rao Vyas. Subbulakshmi first recording was released when she was 10 years old.
Subbalakshmi gave her first performance at the prestigious Madras Music Academy in 1929, when she was 13 years old. The performance consisted of singing bhajans (Hindu hymns). The academy was known for its discriminating selection process, and they broke tradition by inviting a young girl as a key performer. Her performance was described as spellbinding and earned her many admirers and the moniker of musical genius from critics. Soon after her debut performances, Subbulakshmi became one of the leading Carnatic vocalists.
By the age of seventeen, Subbulakshmi was giving concerts on her own, including major performances at the Madras Music Academy.
She travelled to London, New York, Canada, the Far East, and other places as India's cultural ambassador. Her concerts at Edinburgh International Festival of Music and Drama in 1963; Carnegie Hall, New York; the UN General Assembly on UN day in 1966; Royal Albert Hall, London in 1982; and Festival of India in Moscow in 1987 were significant landmarks in her career.
In 1969 she was accompanied by Indian Railways Advisor SN Venkata Rao to Rameswaram, where she sang several songs in front of each idol in the Ramanathaswamy Temple. She shared a very cordial relation with Sree Ramaseva Mandali at Bengaluru for whom she performed 36 concerts.
After the death of her husband Kalki Sadasivam in 1997, she stopped all her public performances. Her last performance was in 1997, before her retirement from public concerts.
M. S. Subbulakshmi died on 11 December 2004, at her home in Kotturpuram, Chennai.
=== Films ===
M.S. also acted in a four Tamil films in her youth. Her first movie, Sevasadanam, was released on 2 May 1938. F.G. Natesa Iyer was the lead actor, opposite Subbulakshmi, in this film, directed by K. Subramanyam. It was a critical and commercial success. Ananda Vikatan favourably reviewed the film on 8 May 1938:
We should always expect something from Subramaniam's direction – for instance depiction of social ills. If we have to say only two words about this talkie based on Premchand's story it is – Go see (it).
Sevasadanam is one of the early Tamil films to be set in a contemporary social setting and to advocate reformist social policies. The film is an adapted version of Premchand's novel Bazaar-e-Husn. Veteran Marxist leader N. Sankaraiah, has described Sevasadanam as an "unusual film" for choosing the subject of marriages between young girls and old men (which had social sanction). According to him, the film successfully broughtout the "sufferings of the girl" (Subbalakshmi) and the "mental agony of the aged husband" (F.G. Natesa Iyer). Tamil film critic and historian Aranthai Narayanan observes in his book, Thamizh Cinemavin Kathai (The Story of Tamil Cinema) that "Seva Sadhanam proved a turning point in the history of Tamil cinema. In the climax, the aged husband, now a totally changed man, was shown as casting aside with utter contempt his 'sacred thread', which symbolises his Brahmin superiority. It came as a stunning blow to the then Brahmin orthodoxy."
MS Subbulakshmi also played the male role of Narada in Savitri (1941) to raise money for launching Kalki, her husband's nationalist Tamil weekly. Her title role of the Rajasthani saint-poetess Meera in the eponymous 1945 film gave her national prominence. This movie was re-made in Hindi in 1947.
== Filmography ==
== Awards and honours ==
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru had this to say about M.S. Subbulakshmi- "Who am I, a mere Prime Minister before a Queen, a Queen of Music". While Lata Mangeshkar called her Tapaswini (the Renunciate), Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan termed her Suswaralakshmi (the goddess of the perfect note), and Kishori Amonkar labelled her the ultimate eighth note or Aathuvaan Sur, which is above the seven notes basic to all music. The great national leader and poet Sarojini Naidu called her "Nightingale of India". Her many famous renditions of bhajans include the chanting of Meenakshi Pancharatnam, Bhaja Govindam, Vishnu sahasranama (1000 names of Vishnu), Hari Tuma Haro and the Venkateswara Suprabhatam (musical hymns to awaken Lord Balaji early in the morning).
She was widely honoured, praised and awarded. Some of the popular ones include:
Padma Bhushan in 1954
Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1956
Sangita Kalanidhi in 1968
Ramon Magsaysay Award (often considered Asia's Nobel Prize) in 1974
Padma Vibhushan in 1975
Sangeetha Kalasikhamani in 1975 by The Indian Fine Arts Society, Chennai
Kalidas Samman in 1988
Indira Gandhi Award for National Integration in 1990
Bharat Ratna in 1998
She was honoured as a resident artist Asthana Vidhwan of Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. Tirupati Urban Development Authority (TUDA) has installed a bronze statue of M.S. Subbulakshmi at the Poornakumbham circle in the temple town. It was unveiled by Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy on 28 May 2006.
The Kancheepuram Saree shade known as MS Blue was named after her by the well-known Congress party member and philanthropist, Sri Muthu Chettiyar when they met at the residence of Sri R. Aiyadurai and Smt. Thangam Aiyadurai at Lady Desikachari Road, Madras, who were close friends of MS and Sadasivam.
A commemorative postage stamp on her was issued on 18-December-2005. United Nations decided to issue the stamp to mark the birth centenary of M.S. Subbulakshmi. She was bestowed with enormous prize money along with the awards, most of which she donated to charity. She has given more than 200 charity concerts and raised well over Rs. 10,000,000. She was awarded honorary degrees from several Universities. She was an ardent devotee of Kanchi Mahaswamigal and she rendered his composition "Maithreem Bhajatha" (O World! Cultivate peace) in her concert at the UN in 1966. She made a 20-minute recording of "Venkatesa Suprabhatam" for His Master's Voice, the royalty from which goes to the Veda Patasala run by the Tirupati Tirumala Devasthanam. She donated many of the royalties on several best sold records to many charity organisations.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
M.S. Subbulaksmi, the Voice Divine (79 pages) by V. Gangadhar.
MS – A Life in Music, T. J. S. George. 2004, HarperCollins. ISBN 978-81-7223-527-7
Gowri Ramnarayan (18–31 December 2004), "Cover Story: The M.S. phenomenon", Frontline, vol. 21, no. 26, archived from the original on 29 November 2009
MS & Radha – Saga of Steadfast Devotion – by Gowri Ramnarayan – http://www.msstribute.org/
Of Gifted Voice, The Life and Art of M.S. Subbulakshmi Keshav Desiraju HarperCollins. ISBN 978-93-9032-754-6
== External links ==
"Artists: M.S.Subbulakshmi, Nat Geo Music". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 14 November 2006.
Biography at the official site of Ramon Magsaysay award
M.S. Subbulakshmi at IMDb
Photo of MS, Sadhasivam and Ellis R. Dungan Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
M.S. Subbulakshmi: Portraits of a diva – The Hindu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Star_Square | Black Star Square | Black Star Square, also known as Independence Square, is a public square in Accra, Ghana, bordered by the Accra Sports Stadium and the Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park. The square often hosts the annual independence celebrations as well as other national events, and is the site for all civic and military parades and other national gatherings. It was completed in 1961, in time for the state visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Ghana.
== History ==
In 1957, Kwame Nkrumah became the first prime minister and president of Gold Coast, now Ghana, after gaining independence from the British. Kwame Nkrumah commissioned the construction of the square to celebrate the nation's independence. The square was designed by a renowned Ghanaian architect Theo Lawson. The construction of the square coincided with the visit of Queen Elizabeth II. Construction ended in 1961, and it was named Black Star Square. Kwame Nkrumah was the one who led Ghana, formerly Gold Coast, to gain independence from Britain.
== Importance ==
Black Star Square is a site for Ghana's Independence Day parade, which falls on 6 March every year. A particularly notable parade was the Golden Jubilee, which was Ghana's 50th anniversary of independence from British colonial rule. The Golden Jubilee celebration occurred on March 6, 2007, and it was led by President John Kuffour. It also hosts all major national public gatherings and national festivals.
== Structure ==
In Independence Square there are stands that can seat 30,000 people. The square boasts three monuments that encapsulate the fight for independence and liberation. This includes the Independence Arch, the Liberation Day Monument, and the Black Star Gate, also known as the Black Star Monument.Also the origin of the blackstar signifying black hope was brought to light by doctor Kwame Nkrumah due to Marcus Garvey's shipping line known as the black star line. A statue of a soldier facing the Independence Arch symbolizes the Ghanaians who lost their lives fighting for Ghana's independence.
== Major events ==
The state funerals for presidents John Atta Mills and Jerry Rawlings, and for vice-president Aliu Mahama, were held at the square. On March 24, 1998, over 500,000 people gathered at the square to welcome former U.S. President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Clinton. This was the first visit to Ghana by a U.S. president.
== Gallery ==
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Figueres_Ferrer | José Figueres Ferrer | José María Hipólito Figueres Ferrer (25 September 1906 – 8 June 1990) was a Costa Rican politician who served three terms as President of Costa Rica: 1948–1949, 1953–1958 and 1970–1974. During his first term in office he abolished the country's army, nationalized its banking sector, granted women and Afro-Costa Ricans the right to vote, and offered Costa Rican nationality to people of African descent.
His son José María Figueres served as President of Costa Rica from 1994 to 1998.
== Early life and career ==
Figueres was born on 25 September 1906 in San Ramón in Alajuela province. Figueres was the eldest of the four children of Mariano Figueres Forges (a doctor), and his wife, Francisca Ferrer Minguella (a teacher) who had recently immigrated from Catalonia to San Ramón in west-central Costa Rica. Figueres' first language was Catalan.
In 1924, he left for Boston, United States, on a work and study trip. There he studied hydroelectric engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Figueres returned to Costa Rica in 1928 and bought a farm in a remote area in the mountains of San Cristóbal, Desamparados. He named the farm "La Lucha Sin Fin" (lit. "The Endless Struggle") .. This would be his home and operational headquarters until his death in 1990.
Figueres became a successful coffee grower and rope manufacturer, employing more than 1,000 sharecroppers and factory laborers. Describing himself as a "farmer-socialist", he built housing and provided medical care and recreation for his workers and established a community vegetable farm and a dairy with free milk for workers' children.
His sharecroppers could either sell hemp grown on his plantation to him at market price for use in his rope factory, or sell it elsewhere if they were offered a better price.
== Political career ==
=== Return to Costa Rica, the Caribbean Legion, and the Costa Rica Civil War (1944–1948) ===
When Figueres returned to Costa Rica in 1944 following two years in exile for criticising President Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia, he established the Democratic Party, which a year later transformed into the Social Democratic Party. The party was intended to be a counterweight to the ruling National Republican Party (PRN), led by former President Calderón and his successor Teodoro Picado Michalski. The highly controversial Calderón had angered Costa Rican elites, enacting a large social security retirement program and implementing national healthcare. Calderón was accused of corruption by the elites, providing a rallying cry for Figueres and the Social Democratic Party.
Figueres began training the Caribbean Legion, an irregular force of 700. Figueres launched a revolution along with other landowners and student agitators, hoping to overthrow the Costa Rican government. With plans of using Costa Rica as a base, the Legion planned next to remove the three Central American dictators. Washington officials closely watched the Legion's activities, especially after Figueres carried out a series of terrorist attacks inside Costa Rica during 1945 and 1946 that were supposed to climax in a general strike, but the people did not respond.
Former President Calderón supporters prevented and invalidated the 1 March 1948 presidential election in which Otilio Ulate had allegedly defeated Calderón in his second term bid with fraud. In March–April 1948, the protests over the election results mushroomed into armed conflict, then into revolution. Figueres defeated Communist-led guerrillas and the Costa Rican Army, which had joined forces with President Picado.
With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day civil war was the bloodiest event in 20th-century Costa Rican history.
=== Figueres as the provisional president (1948–1949) ===
After the civil war, Figueres became president at the head of a provisional junta, known as the Founding Council, that held power for 18 months. During that time he took several actions:
abolishing the army (as a precaution against the militarism that has perennially thwarted or undercut democracy in Central America) Figueres said he was inspired to disarm Costa Rica by H. G. Wells "The Outline of History", which he read in 1920 while at MIT. "The future of mankind cannot include armed forces. Police, yes, because people are imperfect.", he declared. Ever since, Costa Rica has had no army and has maintained a 7,500-member national police force for a population of over five million.
enabled women and illiterates to vote,
put into effect basic welfare legislation,
nationalised banks,
outlawed the Communist Party,
directed the writing of a new constitution,
guaranteed public education for all,
gave citizenship to black immigrants' children,
established civil service to eliminate the spoils system in government, and
"In a short time, we decreed 834 reforms that completely changed the physiognomy of the country and brought a deeper and more human revolution than that of Cuba", Figueres said in a 1981 interview.
Once Figueres gained control, the legislation he passed regarding social reform was not that much different from Calderón's proposals. In fact, it is believed by some historians, such as David LaWare, that Figueres' social reforms were more or less the same as Calderón's Labor Code of 1943, with the primary difference being that Figueres had gained the power with which to enact the laws, holding the complete support of virtually all the country. Both of these leaders' programs were in many cases exactly like the ones Franklin D. Roosevelt passed during the Great Depression that helped lift the US out of its own economic slump and social decline it had faced in the 1930s. Figueres admired what president Franklin D. Roosevelt did; however, he noted that "the price he had to pay to get his programs through was to leave the business community free overseas to set up dictatorships and do whatever they liked...What we need now is an international New Deal, to change the relations between North and South."
Figueres stepped down after 18 months, handing his power over to Otilio Ulate, and ever since Costa Ricans have settled their arguments constitutionally.
"Your hands are not clean to fight communism when you don't fight dictatorships", Figueres told American interviewers in 1951. "It seems that the United States is not interested in honest government down here, as long as a government is not communist and pays lip service to democracy."
=== Second term as President (1953–1958) ===
In 1953, Figueres created the Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN), the most successful party in Costa Rican political history, and was returned to power in 1953. He has been considered to be the most important political figure in Costa Rica's history.
During his various terms in office he nationalized the banking system and contributed to the construction of the Pan-American Highway that goes across Central America. He promoted the private industry sector and stimulated the national industry sector. He succeeded in energizing the country's middle class creating a strong buffer between the upper and lower classes.
What most alarmed U.S. officials was Figueres's material and moral support for the Caribbean Legion, even though Figueres had obviously lost interest in the Legion after he gained power. But Figueres still criticized U.S. support for the dictators, going so far as to boycott the 1954 inter-American meeting because it was held in Caracas, where President of Venezuela Marcos Pérez Jiménez, a military ruler, held sway.
Figueres happily cooperated with North American military plans. After the United States established the School of the Americas in the Panama Canal Zone to train Latin American officers in Anti-Communist techniques, more Costa Rican "police" graduated from the School between 1950 and 1965 than did officers of any other hemispheric nation except Nicaragua.
In 1957 Figueres was the subject of an assassination attempt by Cuban exiles, including Herminio Díaz García, who were operating under the orders of Nicaraguan dictator Luis Somoza Debayle and Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo. Three days after their arrival they were arrested by Costa Rican authorities as they were staking out the Presidential Palace. Once captured they confessed to the authorities that Trujillo had promised them $200,000 and further aid to overthrow Batista in exchange for their services. They received a six month prison sentence.
=== Border war with Somoza's Nicaragua (1954–1955) ===
Figueres's support for the Caribbean Legion nearly cost him his job during this second presidency. Implicated in an invasion of Nicaragua in April 1954 by anti-Somoza exiles linked to the Caribbean Legion, Anastasio Somoza García launched a counter-attack, allowing the exiled former Costa Rica president Rafael Calderón to invade Costa Rica in January 1955.
The Nicaraguan dictator withdrew, but not before extracting a commitment from Figueres that he would sever links with the exiles.
=== 1958 testimony before U.S. Congress ===
In 1958, during a visit to Caracas, Venezuela, U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon was spat at by anti-American protesters who also disrupted and assaulted Nixon's motorcade, pelting his limousine with rocks, shattering windows, and injuring Venezuela's foreign minister. The event prompted the United States Congress to create a special committee to investigate the reasons behind it. Many people were invited to speak before it, including Figueres, who testified on 9 June 1958. Figueres condemned the Venezuelans, but said that he understood them, criticizing the United States for their support of Rafael Trujillo, resource extraction, and enabling of corruption and autocracy.
=== Third presidential term (1970–1974) ===
The termination of Alliance for Progress funds as well as the collapse of the Central American Common Market, threatened to cripple the country's economy until Figueres discovered a new market by selling 30,000 tons of coffee to the Soviet Union in 1972. Costa Rica then became the only Central American nation to establish diplomatic relations with Moscow. The World Bank and International Monetary Fund also delivered millions of dollars to keep the economy afloat.
When opponents of Nicaragua's President Anastasio Somoza Debayle seized a plane flying from Managua to Miami and forced it to land in San José in 1971, holding the passengers hostage and demanding fuel for a diverted flight to Cuba, Figueres ordered Costa Rican police to shoot out the engines and tires. The hijackers demanded a new plane in return for the release of hostages, to which Figueres agreed, and the hostages were released; however, when the four hijackers themselves debarked, the 160-centimetre-tall Figueres, with a submachine gun in hand, met them with 200 armed police, and a shootout ensued in which 2 hijackers were killed.
By his own account, he also nearly ruined a 1973 Central American summit when he lambasted five army generals, saying, "Isn't it odd that all you bastards are generals, and I'm the only civilian, but I'm the only one who's ever fought a war?"
== Political connections ==
=== KGB ===
According to revelations from the Mitrokhin Archive, the KGB secretly transmitted to Figueres a $300,000 loan via the Costa Rican Communist Party to help finance his 1970 campaign, in exchange for establishing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, which he did upon election. Figueres later escalated his relationship with the San Jose residency of the KGB, expanding his activities to providing confidential reports on other countries in Central America and the Caribbean.
In 1974, a KGB report to Leonid Brezhnev revealed that Figueres had agreed to publish materials advantageous to the KGB. For this reason, he was given $10,000 under the guise of stock purchases in his newspaper.
=== CIA ===
Figueres himself acknowledged in 1981 that he had received help from the Central Intelligence Agency, saying, "At the time, I was conspiring against the Latin American dictatorships and wanted help from the United States, I was a good friend of Allen Dulles," and, "The CIA's Cultural Department helped me finance a magazine and some youth conferences here. But I never participated in espionage. I did beg them not to carry out the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, which was madness, but they ignored me."
=== Relationship with Cuba ===
Figueres also opposed the dictatorial regime in pre-Castro Cuba and went so far as to dispatch a planeload of weapons for Cuban insurgents led by the young Fidel Castro, a member of Caribbean Legion. But soon after the 1959 success of the Cuban Revolution, he and Mr. Figueres had a falling out over the growth of Communist influence on the island. In March, 1959, Figueres was invited to Havana, and during a public speech, he warned Castro about the ideological deviations he had observed in Cuba, and immediately the microphone was taken from him. Figueres supported John F. Kennedy's Alliance for Progress but not the C.I.A.'s clandestine wars with Cuba.
=== Robert Vesco, fugitive U.S. financier ===
Figueres was stubborn about his blunders, most notably his most controversial decision to grant asylum to Robert Vesco, the fugitive U.S. financier, accused of looting millions of dollars from the Investors Overseas Service, Ltd. (IOS) mutual funds in the 1970s. Mr. Vesco not only had a personal and business relationship with Mr. Figueres but he also made contributions to the campaign coffers of both leading political parties in the 1974 elections. Figueres made it clear, however, that he would not hesitate to extradite Vesco if the United States requested it. Figueres tried to intervene with president Jimmy Carter on Vesco's behalf. In the resulting political uproar in Costa Rica, Figueres' party lost the 1978 presidential election. Mr. Vesco fled Costa Rica after the Presidential elections of 1978 were won by Rodrigo Carazo, who had vowed to expel him.
In an interview in 1981, Figueres said that Vesco had "committed many stupidities" but added:
"I have always defended asylum and would protect him again if I could because I never abandon my friends. The only thing that pains me is that some friends thought I personally benefitted from Vesco."
Earlier, in a 1973 interview, Figueres said that he had been introduced to Vesco in Costa Rica in 1972 and that Vesco had then arranged for the investment of $2.15 million in Sociedad Agricola Industrial San Cristobal, S.A. The financially troubled company was founded by Figueres and owned by him and others. It had diverse operations in agriculture and its 3,000 employees made it the fourth-largest employer in Costa Rica.
== Career after presidency ==
Figueres was well liked and received in many Latin American countries for his center-left ideals. He has been called one of the greatest contributors to social democracy.
After the presidency, as an acknowledged elder statesman, Figueres became a de facto ambassador for subsequent administrations.
Figueres backed the left-wing Nicaraguan Revolution that overthrew dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979. He railed against U.S. policy when the United States supported Nicaragua's Contras.
A proposal by his supporters for a fourth presidential term in the 1980s was quickly crushed.
"This is an exemplary little country. We are the example for Latin America", Figueres told the Los Angeles Times in a 1986 interview. "In the next century, maybe everyone will be like us."
== Global policy ==
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.
== Personal life ==
Figueres married Henrietta Boggs from the United States in 1941. They had two children, Muni and José Martí, before the marriage ended in divorce in 1954. He later married Karen Olsen Beck, also from the United States. They had four children: José María, Karen Christiana, Mariano and Kirsten. His wife was a member of the country's Legislative Assembly.
He was a good friend of the Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis Muñoz Marín, praising his political achievements in one of his essays.
His son, José María, also served as president from 1994 to 1998. His daughter, Muni Figueres Boggs, was a former Ambassador from Costa Rica to the United States. His other daughter, Christiana, is a Costa Rican diplomat who served from 2010 to 2016 as the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and is widely considered to be the architect of the Paris Agreement.
== Death ==
He died on 8 June 1990 in San José aged 83 from natural causes. He was given a state funeral by the government and his former comrades who fought with him in the 1948 & 1955 revolutions. After the funeral, his remains were taken to La Lucha Sin Fin, his farm which he owned since 1928.
== Awards ==
Taiwan: Order of Propitious Clouds (1973)
== References ==
== External links ==
International Jose Guillermo Carrillo Foundation
Costa Rica and the 1948 Revolution
Truman Library: Oral History Interview with Jose Figueres Ferrer, 8 July 1970
== Further reading ==
Longley, Kyle (1997). The Sparrow and the Hawk: Costa Rica and the United States During the Rise of Jose Figueres. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0831-8.
Bell, John Patrick (1971). Crisis in Costa Rica: The 1948 Revolution. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70147-0. "Figueres best biographer" according to Mr. La Feber
Kantor, Harry (1972). Bibliography of Jose Figueres. Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University. ISBN 0-87918-006-4.
Ameringer, Charles D. (1978). Don Pepe: A political biography of José Figueres of Costa Ricas. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-0480-X.
Costa Rica: Child in the Wind, 1988. (Video) (58 min.)
A Bold Peace: Costa Rica's Path of Demilitarization, 2016. (Documentary film) (90 min.)
== See also ==
Costa Rican Civil War |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Italian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles | 2022 Italian Open – Men's singles | Novak Djokovic defeated Stefanos Tsitsipas in the final, 6–0, 7–6(7–5) to win the men's singles tennis title at the 2022 Italian Open. It was his sixth Italian Open title and record-extending 38th Masters 1000 title overall. Djokovic did not lose a set during the tournament, and won his 1000th ATP Tour-level career match against Casper Ruud in the semifinals.
Rafael Nadal was the defending champion, but lost in the third round to Denis Shapovalov. Despite Nadal’s early exit, Djokovic extended their streak, which started in 2004, to 18 consecutive years with either Nadal or himself in the Rome final.
Djokovic and Daniil Medvedev were in contention for the world No. 1 singles ranking. Djokovic retained the top position by reaching the semifinals.
== Seeds ==
The top eight seeds received a bye into the second round.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
== Draw ==
Key
=== Finals ===
=== Top half ===
==== Section 1 ====
==== Section 2 ====
=== Bottom half ===
==== Section 3 ====
==== Section 4 ====
== Seeded players ==
The following are the seeded players. Seedings are based on ATP rankings as of 2 May 2022. Rankings and points before are as of 9 May 2022.
As a result of special ranking adjustment rules due to the COVID-19 pandemic, players are defending the higher of (i) their points from the 2021 tournament or (ii) the remaining 50% of their points from the 2020 tournament. Those points were not mandatory and are included in the table below only if they counted towards the player's ranking as of May 9, 2022. Players who are not defending points from the 2021 or 2020 tournaments will instead have their 19th best result replaced by their points from the 2022 tournament.
† This column shows either (a) the higher of the player's points from the 2021 tournament or 50% of his points from the 2020 tournament, or (b) his 19th best result (shown in brackets). Only ranking points counting towards the player's ranking as of May 9, 2022, are reflected in the column.
=== Withdrawn players ===
The following players would have been seeded, but withdrew before the tournament began.
== Other entry information ==
=== Wildcards ===
=== Protected ranking ===
=== Withdrawals ===
== Qualifying ==
=== Seeds ===
=== Qualifiers ===
=== Lucky losers ===
=== Draw ===
==== First qualifier ====
==== Second qualifier ====
==== Third qualifier ====
==== Fourth qualifier ====
==== Fifth qualifier ====
==== Sixth qualifier ====
==== Seventh qualifier ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Qualifying draw
Main draw |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askham_Richard | Askham Richard | Askham Richard is a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of City of York in the north of England, 6.5 miles (10.5 km) south-west of York, close to Copmanthorpe, Bilbrough and Askham Bryan. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 351. The village became a Conservation Area in 1975. Nearby is Askham Bryan College of Agriculture.
The village was historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire until 1974. It was then a part of the district of Selby District in North Yorkshire from 1974 until 1996. Since 1996 it has been part of the City of York unitary authority.
== History ==
The village is mentioned in the Domesday Book. The name comes from ascam or ascha meaning "enclosure of ash-tree". It has been also known as "Little" or "West" Askham". The "Richard" in the village name is reputed to be that of Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall.
Before the Conquest the villages of Askham Richard and nearby Askham Bryan were one manor belonging to Edwin, Earl of Mercia. When Edwin's lands were confiscated by William the Conqueror, the village was granted to Roger de Mowbray who then passed the Manor to his friend, William de Tykhill, a former Warden of Foss Bridge.
== Governance ==
Askham Richard lies in the Rural West York Ward of the City of York Unitary Authority. It is a part of the UK Parliamentary Constituency of York Outer.
== Demography ==
In 1848, parish records show the population as 232. In 1881, the National Census showed the population as 226. According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 273. The 2011 census recorded the population as 351.
== Geography ==
The village consists of one main street, where the main village green and duck pond are located, and a couple of small lanes. The soil consists of gravel and clay.
The village is 1.7 miles west of Askham Bryan, 2.3 miles south of Rufforth, 1.5 miles north-east of Bilbrough.
== Economy ==
Within the village is Her Majesty's Prison Askham Grange. Also in the village is the Rose and Crown pub. There are three farms, but the remainder are dwellings. The nearby Askham Bryan College of Agriculture and Horticulture provides some local employment.
== Transport ==
York Pullman serves the village 2/3 times a day (Monday-Saturday) in each direction on service 37 which runs between Tadcaster to York.
== Education ==
Primary education is catered for at St. Mary Church of England primary school. Nearby is Askham Bryan College of Agriculture and Horticulture. The college was originally known as the Yorkshire Institute of Agriculture, which opened in 1948. It became Askham Bryan College of Agriculture and Horticulture 19 years later. It now includes equine management, animal management, land management, business, food production, engineering and bioscience.
== Religious sites ==
St Mary's Church is Grade II* listed. There is record of a church here from 1086
but most of the existing building dates from 1887, a simple Victorian design with no tower (it has a bellcote). The rebuilding however retained some fabric of the earlier church, notably the porch doorway (much restored), with two orders of colonettes and zig-zag pattern across the roll moulding. This fits with a late 11th century date for the original church. It is one of a local group of churches with Norman doorways (see Ainsty). At nearby St Nicholas Askham Bryan the door has similar motifs (leaves in the teeth of the zigzags) and may well have been made by the same hands. The doorway to the church, as opposed to the porch, is less grand but also late C11th, and there is an unusually plain west doorway of comparable age.
== Notable people ==
Mary Flora Bell lived and worked here for a while. She also spent some time at the HM Prison Askham Grange.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Askham [Richard] in the Domesday Book
The ancient parish of Askham Richard: historical and genealogical information at GENUKI. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Condor#Ryan_Kendall | Black Condor | Black Condor is the superhero name used by three different fictional characters in the DC Comics universe. All three incarnations of Black Condor have been members of the Freedom Fighters and each has been featured in Freedom Fighters comic books published by DC Comics.
The first Black Condor, Richard Grey Jr., was created by Quality Comics writer Will Eisner and artist Lou Fine. He first appeared in Crack Comics #1 (May 1940), and continued through issue #31 (Oct 1943). He also appeared in Uncle Sam Quarterly #2 (Dec 1941).
He moved to the DC universe when DC Comics bought the rights to Quality Comics characters. The first Black Condor was a World War II era super hero along with the rest of the Freedom Fighters. The second Black Condor, Ryan Kendall, gained the power of flight due to genetic manipulation and initially did not believe he was a superhero. He would later join the Freedom Fighters, but was killed at the beginning of the Infinite Crisis storyline. The third Black Condor, John Trujillo, is of Mayan descent and was given his powers by the Mayan Spider Goddess Tocotl. Seeing himself as a protector of the universe, he joins forces with the Freedom Fighters.
== Fictional character biography ==
=== Richard Grey Jr. ===
==== Quality Comics ====
A Golden Age superhero who possesses the power of flight, the Black Condor was created by writer Will Eisner under the pseudonym Kenneth Lewis, and artist Lou Fine in Crack Comics #1 (cover-dated May 1940). Initially alternating with the Clock as the cover-featured character, he became the solo cover feature from issues #20-26 (Jan.-Nov. 1942). Fine drew the first 24 stories, and his feature continued to run through issue #31.
As an infant traveling with his parents on an archaeological expedition thorough Outer Mongolia, Richard Grey Jr. survives after his family is killed by the bandit Gali Kan and his men. Rescued by a condor who raises him as her own, he learns to fly, as the origin story states, by "studying the movement of wings, the body motions, air currents, balance and levitation" of his avian siblings. A mountain hermit, Father Pierre, eventually discovers and civilizes the feral child, and teaches him to speak English. Richard tracks down and kills the Mongolian bandits who killed his parents and then departs for the United States where he uncovers a plot to kill United States Senator Thomas Wright. He is too late to save Wright from assassination, and so begins to use his identity. He adopts the guise of Black Condor to fight crooked politicians, rum-running bootleggers, and racketeers.
The strip was popular, and became Crack Comics' featured story starting in issue #3. In American Comic Book Chronicles: 1940-1944, Kurt Mitchell writes: "The Asian backdrop was deemphasized by the end of the year in favor of urban settings or ornately rendered lost cities, bandits and jewel thieves giving ground to mad scientists, living statues, and sentient weapons of mass destruction. Scene after scene of the Condor in flight, his lithe figure soaring across backgrounds seen from dizzying perspectives with a grace Joe Shuster's barrel-chested Superman could not hope to match, made the series irresistible".
According to Jess Nevins' Encyclopedia of Golden Age Superheroes, "Black Condor fights femmes fatale, the Eagle Battalion, Yellow Perils, Kite-Men (Japanese agents on flying kites), a Chinese mad scientist, a golem, and killer robots known as the Spinning Deaths".
==== DC Comics ====
In the DC Universe, his power was retconned to being caused by exposure to a radioactive meteor. Here he meets Uncle Sam and joins the latter's group, the Freedom Fighters, and later the All-Star Squadron.
He is among a group of Golden and Silver Age heroes who help the JLA repel an Appellaxian invasion in the JLA: Year One miniseries by Mark Waid. He appeared more recently as an ethereal "spirit guide" in Ryan Kendall's Black Condor series.
=== Ryan Kendall ===
The second Black Condor, Ryan Kendall, derives his powers of flight, telekinesis, and healing from the genetic experiments of his grandfather, Creighton. A member of an organization called the Society of the Golden Wing, Creighton and his allies were attempting to create a man who could fly. After numerous attempts, Kendall is the only success. Kendall eventually rebels and escapes from Creighton., who makes frequent attempts to recapture the youth in order to study and reproduce his abilities.
A mysterious telekinetic who keeps to himself, Ryan Kendall is adamant when he first appears as the Black Condor that he is not a superhero. However, time proves him wrong, and he fights alongside other superheroes, notably Primal Force and Justice League International (for a brief time). Eventually, he goes to Opal City, where he feels at home.
In his solo adventures, Kendall seeks out Hawkman in hopes of gaining insight into the role of a superhero. He helps in his battle against Karen Ramis, the post-Zero Hour Lion-Mane.
In Infinite Crisis #1, Kendall is killed by Sinestro. He is later resurrected as a Black Lantern in Blackest Night and permanently resurrected in Dark Nights: Death Metal.
=== John Trujillo ===
Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters #3 introduced a third Black Condor named John Trujillo whose home turf is the Arizona desert. John was given the hereditary powers of the Black Condor by Tocotl, a Mayan Spider Goddess.
Trujillo sees himself as a protector of the universe. He first appears when he single-handedly rescues Uncle Sam and the other Freedom Fighters, who had been defeated by agents of S.H.A.D.E. Trujillo is very serious and seems somewhat uncomfortable interacting with other people.
In issue #6, he rebuffs romantic overtures by the Phantom Lady, correctly (as she realizes later) assuming that she does not really mean it.
The full extent of Trujillo's powers remains unrevealed. He can fly at extremely high speeds, control the wind, and may possess moderate superhuman strength and speed.
== Powers and abilities ==
The first Black Condor has the mutant ability to fly, although no limits are known as to speed, duration or altitude. Sometime after arriving on Earth-X, it became apparent that his mutant powers also included limited telekinesis abilities, most notably mind-over-matter. At times, the Black Condor carries a ray gun, the origin of which is unknown. When used, it fires a black force beam of adjustable power capable of stunning a man or breaking a brick wall. He is a skilled hand-to-hand combatant and an Olympic level athlete.
The second Black Condor possessed a talent for telekinesis which he also used to fly, as well as limited empathic abilities and a rapid healing rate.
The third Black Condor has so far only demonstrated the abilities of flight and wind/air-current control, but has been credited by Tocotl as an elemental of the sky and Earth. He also has a moderate level of superhuman strength and speed, and seems quite ruthless.
== Other versions ==
In a Bronze Age story, Mister Mxyzptlk shows Superman a gender-reversed Justice League. Amongst its members are the Black Condor, a male equivalent of the Black Canary.
In the final issue of 52, a new Multiverse is revealed, originally consisting of 52 identical realities. Among the parallel realities shown is one designated "Earth-10". As a result of Mister Mind "eating" aspects of this reality, it takes on visual aspects similar to the Pre-Crisis Earth-X, including the Quality characters. The names of the characters and the team are not mentioned in the panel in which they appear, but a character visually similar to the Richard Grey, Jr. Black Condor appears. Based on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the pre-Crisis Earth-X.
New Super-Man features a character named the Blue Condor (an analog of the Black Condor).
Multiversity: The Mastermen features an African-American Black Condor as one of Uncle Sam's Freedom Fighters.
== In other media ==
=== Television ===
The Richard Grey Jr. incarnation of the Black Condor appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Cry Freedom Fighters!", voiced by Jason Charles Miller.
=== Miscellaneous ===
An unidentified Black Condor appears in Justice League Unlimited #17.
The John Trujillo incarnation of the Black Condor appears in Freedom Fighters: The Ray, voiced by Jason Mitchell. This version is an openly gay member of the Freedom Fighters from Earth-X. Additionally, a non-metahuman Earth-1 incarnation makes minor appearances throughout the series.
== References ==
== External links ==
Black Condor I Index
DCU Guide: Black Condor I
DCU Guide: Black Condor II
International Hero site: Black Condor I
Comic Treadmill: Black Condor II brief summary of issues #1-8 Archived 2007-02-08 at the Wayback Machine
Newsarama previews USATFF #3...Black Condor III |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2022_lunar_eclipse | November 2022 lunar eclipse | A total lunar eclipse occurred at the Moon’s ascending node of orbit on Tuesday, November 8, 2022, with an umbral magnitude of 1.3607. It was a central lunar eclipse, in which part of the Moon passed through the center of the Earth's shadow. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves into the Earth's shadow, causing the Moon to be darkened. A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon's near side entirely passes into the Earth's umbral shadow. Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from a relatively small area of the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth. A total lunar eclipse can last up to nearly two hours, while a total solar eclipse lasts only a few minutes at any given place, because the Moon's shadow is smaller. Occurring about 5.6 days before apogee (on November 14, 2022, at 1:40 UTC), the Moon's apparent diameter was smaller.
This eclipse surpassed the previous eclipse as the longest total lunar eclipse visible from nearly all of North America since August 17, 1989, and until June 26, 2029. A lunar occultation of Uranus happened during the eclipse. It was the first total lunar eclipse on Election Day in US history. This event was referred in media coverage as a "beaver blood moon".
This lunar eclipse was the last of what was almost a tetrad, with the others being on May 26, 2021 (total); November 19, 2021 (partial); and May 16, 2022 (total).
== Visibility ==
The eclipse was completely visible over northeast Asia and North America, seen rising over Asia and Australia and setting over eastern North America and South America.
== Gallery ==
== Eclipse details ==
Shown below is a table displaying details about this particular solar eclipse. It describes various parameters pertaining to this eclipse.
== Eclipse season ==
This eclipse is part of an eclipse season, a period, roughly every six months, when eclipses occur. Only two (or occasionally three) eclipse seasons occur each year, and each season lasts about 35 days and repeats just short of six months (173 days) later; thus two full eclipse seasons always occur each year. Either two or three eclipses happen each eclipse season. In the sequence below, each eclipse is separated by a fortnight.
== Related eclipses ==
=== Eclipses in 2022 ===
A partial solar eclipse on April 30.
A total lunar eclipse on May 16.
A partial solar eclipse on October 25.
A total lunar eclipse on November 8.
=== Metonic ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of January 21, 2019
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of August 28, 2026
=== Tzolkinex ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of September 28, 2015
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of December 20, 2029
=== Half-Saros ===
Preceded by: Solar eclipse of November 3, 2013
Followed by: Solar eclipse of November 14, 2031
=== Tritos ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of December 10, 2011
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of October 8, 2033
=== Lunar Saros 136 ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of October 28, 2004
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of November 18, 2040
=== Inex ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of November 29, 1993
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of October 19, 2051
=== Triad ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of January 8, 1936
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of September 9, 2109
=== Lunar eclipses of 2020–2023 ===
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of lunar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.
The penumbral lunar eclipses on January 10, 2020 and July 5, 2020 occur in the previous lunar year eclipse set.
=== Metonic series ===
The Metonic cycle repeats nearly exactly every 19 years and represents a Saros cycle plus one lunar year. Because it occurs on the same calendar date, the Earth's shadow will be in nearly the same location relative to the background stars.
=== Saros 136 ===
This eclipse is a part of Saros series 136, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, and containing 72 events. The series started with a penumbral lunar eclipse on April 13, 1680. It contains partial eclipses from July 11, 1824 through September 14, 1932; total eclipses from September 26, 1950 through July 7, 2419; and a second set of partial eclipses from July 18, 2437 through October 3, 2563. The series ends at member 72 as a penumbral eclipse on June 1, 2960.
The longest duration of totality will be produced by member 35 at 101 minutes, 23 seconds on April 21, 2293. All eclipses in this series occur at the Moon’s ascending node of orbit.
Eclipses are tabulated in three columns; every third eclipse in the same column is one exeligmos apart, so they all cast shadows over approximately the same parts of the Earth.
=== Tritos series ===
This eclipse is a part of a tritos cycle, repeating at alternating nodes every 135 synodic months (≈ 3986.63 days, or 11 years minus 1 month). Their appearance and longitude are irregular due to a lack of synchronization with the anomalistic month (period of perigee), but groupings of 3 tritos cycles (≈ 33 years minus 3 months) come close (≈ 434.044 anomalistic months), so eclipses are similar in these groupings.
=== Inex series ===
This eclipse is a part of the long period inex cycle, repeating at alternating nodes, every 358 synodic months (≈ 10,571.95 days, or 29 years minus 20 days). Their appearance and longitude are irregular due to a lack of synchronization with the anomalistic month (period of perigee). However, groupings of 3 inex cycles (≈ 87 years minus 2 months) comes close (≈ 1,151.02 anomalistic months), so eclipses are similar in these groupings.
=== Half-Saros cycle ===
A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse was related to two hybrid solar eclipses of Solar Saros 143.
== See also ==
Lists of lunar eclipses and List of lunar eclipses in the 21st century
November 2021 lunar eclipse
== References ==
== External links ==
Saros cycle 136
2022 Nov 08 chart: Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA/GSFC |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS_4000 | NS 4000 | The NS 4000 was a series of express steam locomotives of the Dutch Railways from 1945 to 1956.
== History ==
Following the occupation of the Netherlands by the German Wehrmacht, the Dutch Railways (Nederlandse Spoorwegen, NS) had to surrender many of their locomotives to the Deutsche Reichsbahn. By the end of World War II, 466 of the 866 Dutch steam locomotives as well as 83% of diesel and electric multiple units had been taken to Germany. The Dutch government-in-exile therefore had already ordered new steam locomotives from Nydqvist & Holm AB (NOHAB) in neutral Sweden in 1942 to remedy the vehicle shortage anticipated for the end of the war. After delivery of the NS 6300 series had been completed in 1931, the NS had initially assumed that they would no longer need to buy any steam locomotives. 15 express train locomotives with the wheel arrangement 2'C and 35 freight locomotives with the wheel arrangement D were ordered. The express locomotives were classified as the series NS 4000 and the freight locomotives as the series NS 4700.
== Design ==
The NS 4000 was an extremely modern three-cylinder locomotive by Dutch standards; all cylinders drove the first axle. The example of the 4000 ran on the Swedish private railway company Bergslagernas Järnvägar, they were derived from the type 'H3s'. For example, all axles ran on SKF roller bearings, the back of the streamlined cab was completely closed with folding bellows on the tender and the locomotives had electric lighting as well.
The tender was of the Gölsdorf type, and the two 4 wheeled bogies also ran on roller bearings. The tenders of the series NS 4000 and 4700 were identical. A new numbering scheme for steam locomotive tenders introduced in 1949 renumbered the series 4700 tenders to 4016–4050, creating a continuous, interchangeable series.
The locomotives looked very attractive with their small pointed smoke box door and large smoke deflectors, but this was not really useful when cleaning the smoke box or when changing the fire tubes. Over the years, the smokebox doors were replaced by larger ones, from scrapped Austerity locomotives of the NS 4300 and NS 5000 series. A bigger problem was that the locomotives had a steel inner firebox. It was therefore decided to replace these with copper ones, which was a costly investment, also because a few extra boilers had to be purchased from NOHAB, which were also fitted with steel inner fireboxes. After eleven locomotives had received a new copper inner firebox, the rebuilding was stopped. Nos. 4002, 4003, 4011 and 4015 still had a steel inner firebox.
== Technical ==
Compared to the previously predominant express steam locomotives of the NS 3700 and 3900 series, the NS 4000 series had many features that were new and unknown to the Dutch railway workers. Due to the northern temperatures, the locomotives had a completely enclosed cab. The cab windows was also something completely new in the Netherlands. The locomotives were designed as three cylinders, each powered by Walschaert's valve gear. The sandbox and steamdome shared a dome, also a feature of Swedish locomotives, as was the tender used, which was based on a design by Karl Gölsdorf. It was a very popular design and was widely used for kkStB locomotives. The conical and relatively small smokebox door was typical of Swedish designs.
The roller bearings were used on all axles, and the self-cleaning smokebox was very technically advanced in the Netherlands. All locomotives were factory fitted with smoke deflectors and steel fireboxes; the latter were replaced by a copper variant on eleven locomotives in 1952. The electric lighting of the engine, previously unknown to the NS, proved helpful in terms of entertainment. It caused the locomotives to be nicknamed "Christmas Trees".
== NS service ==
The first locomotive was delivered from Sweden via Denmark and Germany in March 1946 and arrived in Hengelo on March 17. On March 20, the first locomotive successfully completed the first test run. By the fall of 1946, all 4000 series locomotives had been delivered and put into service. They were first shedded in Amsterdam, then in Rotterdam - Feyenoord and Eindhoven, where they also had to pull goods trains in addition to express and passenger trains.
After the war, the NS accelerated the (re)electrification of the Dutch railway network, which was interrupted by the war, and in 1947 the locomotives of the series 4000 were moved to the depots in Zwolle and Amersfoort. In addition to the replacement by electric locomotives and multiple units, the locomotives weren't very popular with the Dutch railway personnel because of their often unknown controls. Whenever possible, the more popular "Jumbos" of the NS 3700 series were used. In Zwolle and Amersfoort, they initially ran express trains to Leeuwarden and Groningen. From 1948 all locomotives were allocated to Zwolle. In 1952 all the eligible lines in the east of the Netherlands were electrified. The locomotives were therefore brought back to Amsterdam from Zwolle. The local railway depot used them for heavy express trains to Arnhem and the German border station Emmerich, including important trains such as the "Holland-Italy Express", which often had to be double-headed, and the Amsterdam part of the Rheingold. From January 1953 onwards it was possible to run electric locomotives and multiple units to Arnhem after that the NS 4000 series lost their place on these trains. They were withdrawn between 1954 and early 1956, the remaining locomotives were only used on goods trains and for special services.
== Preservation ==
None of the class was preserved, but the Zuid-Limburgse Stoomtrein Maatschappij has two Swedish locomotives of the series B 1200 that were also built by Nydqvist & Holm (NOHAB) and somewhat resemble the NS 4000 series. In Sweden there are two locomotives of the sister series 'H3s' that have been preserved.
Furthermore, the tenders of locomotives 4003 and 4025 (4710) have been preserved, which were used in 1983 as a water wagon and used as a rail grinding train until 1983, which are now in the possession of Hoogovens Stoom IJmuiden, the upper part of tender 4025 (4710) has been placed and on the undercarriage of a generator wagon.
== Gallery ==
== Sources ==
R.C. Statius Muller, A.J. Veenendaal jr., H. Waldorp: De Nederlandse stoomlocomotieven. Uitg. De Alk, Alkmaar, 2005. ISBN 90 6013 262 9
H. van Poll: Stoomtractie bij de Nederlandse Spoorwegen 1944 - 1958, Uitg. De Bataafse Leeuw, 1985. ISBN 90 6707 078 5
H. Waldorp: Onze Nederlandse stoomlocomotieven in woord en beeld, (7e druk) uitgeverij De Alk, Alkmaar, 1986. ISBN 90-6013-947-X.
Het Utrechts Archief |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3mbita | Cómbita | Cómbita is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the sub region of the Central Boyacá Province. Cómbita is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense and borders Arcabuco and the department of Santander in the north, Sotaquirá in the northeast, Tuta and Oicatá in the east, department capital Tunja at 8.5 kilometres (5.3 mi) away and Motavita in the south and Arcabuco and Motavita in the west.
== History ==
Cómbita was in the time before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores inhabited by the Muisca, organized in their loose Muisca Confederation. The ruler of the northern Muisca was the zaque of Hunza, modern day Tunja. The cacique of Cómbita was loyal to the zaque.
In the Chibcha language of the Muisca, Cómbita means either "Hand of the jaguar and wheel of life" or "Force of the summit".
Modern Cómbita was founded in 1586.
== Economy ==
The economical activities of Cómbita are agriculture; potatoes, barley, wheat, maize and peas, and livestock farming.
== Notable people ==
Pedro Medina Avendaño, Colombian lawyer and poet
Nairo Quintana, professional cyclist, Giro d'Italia general classification winner, Vuelta a España general classification winner, 2nd place in the Tour de France of 2013 and 2015
Dayer Quintana, professional cyclist, brother of Nairo
Héctor Helí Rojas Jiménez, lawyer and politician
Ismael Sarmiento, former professional cyclist
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Widom | Jennifer Widom | Jennifer Widom (born 1960 or 1961) is an American computer scientist known for her work in database systems and data management. She is notable for foundational contributions to semi-structured data management and data stream management systems. Since 2017, Widom is the dean of the School of Engineering and professor of computer science at Stanford University. Her honors include the Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science and multiple lifetime achievement awards from the Association for Computing Machinery.
== Education ==
Widom earned a bachelor's degree in trumpet performance from the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in 1982 and a PhD in computer science under David Gries from Cornell University in 1987.
== Academic career ==
Widom began her career as a researcher at the IBM Almaden Research Center and joined Stanford University as a professor in 1993. She was the chair of the Stanford computer science department from 2009 to 2014, and served as senior associate dean for faculty and academic affairs in the School of Engineering from 2014 to 2016. In February 2017 she was named Dean of the School of Engineering.
Widom is a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) since 2005. In 2015, she won the ACM-W Athena Lecturer Award, which honors prominent female computer scientists, for her work in the introduction of fundamental concepts and architectures of active database systems. Widom is also a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Widom has co-authored four academic textbooks on database systems. These books focus on database design, use, and implementation of applications and management systems. The course materials have been utilized at the junior, senior, and graduate levels in the computer science department.
In late 2011, Widom launched one of the first Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), entitled "Introduction to Databases". The course had more than 100,000 enrolled students, and launched at the same time as two other MOOCs by Stanford University School of Engineering faculty. In 2018, she won the Erna Hamburger prize from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne -Women in Science and Humanities Foundation for her work with MOOCs.
== Personal life ==
Widom is the daughter of Lois Widom and Harold Widom, an American mathematician. Her uncle Benjamin Widom is on the Cornell faculty in chemistry. Widom is married to Alex Aiken, former chair of Stanford's computer science department. The couple has a son and a daughter.
== Selected works ==
Widom, Jennifer; (with H. Garcia-Molina and J. D. Ullman). Database Systems: The Complete Book, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN 978-0-13-031995-1
Widom, Jennifer; (with J. D. Ullman). A First Course in Database Systems, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1997 and 2002. ISBN 978-0-13-035300-9
Widom, Jennifer; (with H. Garcia-Molina and J.D. Ullman). Database System Implementation, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2000. ISBN 978-0-13-040264-6
Widom, Jennifer; (with S. Ceri). Active Database Systems: Triggers and Rules for Advanced Database Processing, San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, 1996. ISBN 978-1-55860-304-2
== References ==
== External links ==
Dean of Engineering page at Stanford
Jennifer Widom publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_St._Louis_mayoral_election | 1985 St. Louis mayoral election | The 1985 St. Louis mayoral election was held on April 2, 1985 to elect the mayor of St. Louis, Missouri. It saw the re-election of Vincent C. Schoemehl to a second term.
The election was preceded by party primaries on March 5.
== Democratic primary ==
== General election ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_Bodmin_by-election | 1906 Bodmin by-election | The 1906 Bodmin by-election was a by-election held on 24 July 1906 for the British House of Commons constituency of Bodmin in Cornwall.
== Vacancy ==
The by-election was triggered by the unseating of the town's Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) Thomas Agar-Robartes, as a result of an election petition alleging illegal payments to potential voters. The success of the petition was controversial, as the presiding Judge, Justice Grantham, himself a former Conservative MP, was already facing criticism for a decision on an election petition in the Great Yarmouth constituency which had been considered unduly favourable to the Conservatives. A censure motion was outstanding in Parliament at the time of the decision, but the Government decided not to proceed with it. Five years later, he was censured in Parliament by the then Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, as a consequence of some comments to a jury in a case in Liverpool.
== Candidates ==
The Liberal candidate was Freeman Freeman-Thomas, who had lost his Hastings seat in the recent general election. The Liberal Unionist was George Sandys.
== Campaign ==
The brother of the unseated member toured the constituency, urging voters to avenge the result of the petition by voting Liberal. The Unionists alleged that the Government was planning to make up to 20,000 soldiers unemployed, a claim rejected by the Secretary of War, Richard Haldane.
== Result ==
The Liberal candidate won with a slightly reduced majority (down from 1,172 to 1,093) on a somewhat smaller turnout than at the general election.
== Aftermath ==
Sandys went on to become Conservative MP for Wells from 1910 to 1918, and his son Duncan Sandys later became an MP and cabinet minister.
== See also ==
List of United Kingdom by-elections
Bodmin constituency
== References ==
The Times, July 1906
Leigh Rayment's Historical List of MPs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtel | Foxtel | NXE Australia Pty Ltd, trading as the Foxtel Group, is an Australian pay television company that operates direct broadcast satellite television, and IPTV streaming services. It was formed in April 2018, superseding an earlier company from 1995. The service was established as a 50/50 joint venture between News Corp Australia (which held a controlling 65% stake) and Telstra (which held the remaining 35%).
Since 2025, the company is owned by DAZN. It shares many features with the Sky service in the UK and Ireland – including the iQ box, the electronic programme guide, a similar remote control, and Red Button Active. Foxtel is a merger between Fox under Lachlan Murdoch who is CEO and Telstra under Ross Lambi who is Chief Infrastructure Officer.
== History ==
Foxtel was established via a joint venture between News Corporation and Telstra in October 1995. It officially launched on 23 October 1995 with 20 channels, including an exclusive 100 hour commission from Artist Services for its Fox channel.
In May 1998, Australis Media, the owner of Galaxy, was declared insolvent. Foxtel was consequently able to significantly boost its customer base by acquiring Galaxy subscribers from Australis' liquidator and immediately commenced supplying programming to former Galaxy subscribers on an interim basis. In February 1999, Foxtel began offering its own satellite service to new customers.
Kerry Packer purchased a 25% stake in Foxtel for $150 million in October 1998. Publishing & Broadcasting Limited also bought half of News Corp's stake in Foxtel, which left Telstra with 50% of the company.
In 2002, a content sharing agreement between Foxtel and Optus Television was approved by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC).
On 11 July 2011, Austar announced that it would be acquired by Foxtel through a transaction agreement with Liberty Global. This takeover received a minority shareholder approval on 30 March 2012, ACCC approval on 10 April 2012, and approval from a Second Court Hearing . Austar shares were suspended from the ASX on 16 April 2012 and delisted on 27 April 2012. The takeover was completed on 24 May 2012.
News Corporation acquired Consolidated Media Holdings in November 2012, bringing its stake in Foxtel to 50%, up from 25%.
BBC and Foxtel announced a partnership in 2013 to launch a premium BBC channel on Foxtel. The channel launched as part of the Foxtel Drama & Lifestyle package in 2014. The deal also included Foxtel broadcasting privileges of four existing BBC channels – UKTV, BBC Knowledge, CBeebies and BBC World News.
In June 2015, Foxtel officially agreed to buyout 15% shares in Ten Network Holdings, thereby ending "nine months of failed takeover bids" from Discovery Channel and Time Warner.
In June 2017, Foxtel announced that it would be undergoing its first major "Foxtel is for everyone" rebrand. The former logo, described as "quite aggressive, quite arrogant, quite elitist", would be replaced with an all lowercase logo; its Foxtel Play service also rebranded to Foxtel Now.
On 6 March 2018, News Corp Australia announced a merger of Fox Sports Australia with Foxtel. As part of the deal, News Corp would own a 65% stake in the combined entity, with Telstra owning 35% of ownership. The combining of the two businesses placed emphasis on live-streaming sports and entertainment.
On 4 May 2020, it was announced that Foxtel would be closing down its owned & operated music video networks and replacing them with a new suite of MTV, Nickelodeon and CMT-branded channels (MTV Hits, NickMusic, Club MTV, MTV 80s and CMT), as part of a wider deal with Paramount.
On 26 February 2022, Foxtel suspended broadcast distribution of the Russian television network RT in Australia. In September 2022, Foxtel extended their partnership with WWE to become Australia's exclusive home of WWE. Foxtel is to relocate WWE Network into Foxtel's Binge streaming service in January 2023, following the launch of its dedicated linear TV channel in December 2022.
In August 2024, it was reported that News Corp Australia was pursuing a sale of Foxtel, citing third-party interest in the division during a strategic review of its assets. The sale also came amid trends towards cord-cutting and free ad-supported streaming television (FAST) services, and major cuts to News Corp Australia's publishing businesses amid declining advertising revenue. An initial suitor was American private equity firm Platinum Equity, but it was later reported that British sports streaming company DAZN was in active negotiations. On 23 December 2024, DAZN announced that it would acquire Foxtel, in a transaction valuing the company at $3.4 billion. As part of the sale, News Corp Australia and Telstra will take 6% and 3% minority stakes in DAZN.
The acquisition was completed on 2 April 2025 following the approval of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission and Foreign Investment Review Board; DAZN stated that it would maintain "Foxtel" and its related brands. Following the merger, Foxtel laid off approximately 100 employees, reported to be mostly from the Hubbl subsidiary.
== Ratings ==
Foxtel grew rapidly in 2007, with most of Foxtel's highest-ever rating events being broadcast that year, including the 2007 AFC Asian Cup quarter-final between Australia and Japan, which drew an average of 419,000 viewers, an Australian pay television record at that time. This ratings record has since been eclipsed by the 2011 Rugby World Cup on Fox Sports 1 averaging around 500,000 viewers, which was smashed by the 2012 London Olympics Coverage, broadcast on 8 dedicated channels in both HD and SD formats, which saw an average of 946,432 viewers tuning in on the opening weekend, with around 600,000 to 700,000 viewers nightly thereafter.
As of 2012, Fox Sports channels, particularly Fox Footy, average between 90,000 and 300,000 + viewers for NRL/AFL matches throughout the week.
The highest-rated light entertainment shows are The Simpsons most weeknights on FOX8 with around 110,000 viewers, as well as Family Guy with around 70,000 viewers. A&E has also recorded healthy audience numbers for its TruTV and A&E US syndicated shows from the US – Pawn Stars (85,000), Hardcore Pawn (85,000), and Storage Wars (90,000). BBC UKTV also consistently rates well with British soaps EastEnders (80,000) and Coronation Street (65,000). The LifeStyle channel has experienced audiences in excess of 100,000 people for its Premiere shows Location Location Location Australia, Grand Designs Australia, Selling Houses Australia, Disney Channel (Australia) and The Real Housewives of Melbourne brings strong ratings.
== Availability ==
Foxtel transmitted its cable service via Telstra hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) cable into the Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth metropolitan areas, along with the Gold Coast. Foxtel now also transmits its satellite service into these cities as well as all over Australia, including regional areas since the takeover of Austar. Previous Austar customers are now 100% Foxtel customers with the conversion from Austar to Foxtel in regional Australia now complete. Foxtel on Mobile launched on Telstra's Next G Network in late 2006 and is now available within Telstra Next G (HSDPA/850 MHz) coverage areas, which covers 99% of the population.
With the transfer in ownership of Telstra's HFC network to NBN Co for the provision of broadband services, Foxtel announced in 2022 that it would be abandoning HFC in favour of satellite and IPTV services. The transition was completed in 2023, after which no Foxtel services have been provided via HFC, thus making NBN's HFC network all-IP, solely carrying DOCSIS services.
Telstra's network and Foxtel were created to combat the threat posed to Telstra's local call business by the combination of Optus Television content bundling with Optus' local telephony services; Foxtel was the content arm of Telstra's defence strategy, while Telstra's multimedia broadband network was originally the sole delivery system.
In 2002, Foxtel and Optus Television agreed to a content-sharing arrangement. Programming competition between the two companies has now dissipated. Prior to its acquisition by Foxtel in 2011, Austar, a regional pay television operator, also carried most Foxtel programming.
As of 2011, Foxtel is Australia's largest pay television operator, with programming available to over 70% of Australian homes, and delivered to over 1.65 million, either directly or by Foxtel's wholesale customers. In April 2008, Foxtel's penetration into Australian homes passed 30%. This penetration rate is significantly lower compared with market penetration rates in the US (over 85%) and in Western Europe (over 55%). This is due to the fact that Australian pay-TV fees are significantly more expensive and pay-TV began delivering its service much later in Australia than in the US.
Foxtel announced its maiden annual profit in 2006, more than 10 years after it commenced services. The installation and maintenance of Foxtel services is Telstra's responsibility. In many markets Telstra has outsourced installation and maintenance to large communications contractors, including ABB Communications and Siemens-Thiess Communications joint venture.
In 2007, Network 10 formed an agreement with Foxtel to allow them to carry a digital version of Ten's programming. Included in the deal is electronic program guide data, which allows Foxtel iQ users to schedule recordings on Ten. Before the agreement, Ten was carried in an analogue format on cable only. In 2008, Seven Network entered an agreement to allow Foxtel to carry its SD signal. In 2008, the first Pay TV package comparison site YouCompare was launched to allow Foxtel packages and pricing to be compared to SelecTV, however this service was ceased along with the ceasing of SelecTV's service in late 2010.
On 24 November 2009, Foxtel added 7two to the East Coast (satellite) and 7two and GO! to cable subscribers. ABC3 was recently introduced on 4 December 2009 to all Foxtel and Austar subscribers.
On 20 May 2010, Foxtel and Microsoft announced a new way of receiving Foxtel through Xbox 360's online service Xbox LIVE. The service launched November 2010 with 30+ channels and an additional 12 Video-on-demand channels. It also provided Foxtel's movie service, known as Foxtel On Demand, to non-subscribers for the first time on a pay-per-view basis. Further linear channels were added in April 2011 with the addition of 7 Telstra BigPond channels.
In June 2011, Foxtel launched an over-the-top service on Telstra's IPTV set top box called Foxtel on T-Box carrying the same services as the Foxtel on Xbox service. Also as of June 2011, Foxtel's subscribers numbered just over 1.65 million.
In November 2014, Foxtel added 2 new SD channels, 9 new HD channels and rebranded 2 sports channels to satellite and cable subscribers.
== Channels ==
Foxtel defines a virtual channel order that groups channels by their content.
General entertainment channels are from 100 to 151 which includes localised advertising on free to air channels such as Channel Nine, ABC TV, SBS, Channel Seven and Channel 10, with general entertainment and informational channels including Crime, Arena, LifeStyle, Fox8, BBC UKTV, Showcase, Foxtel One, Comedy, British, Comcast's Universal TV, Real Life, LifeStyle Food, LifeStyle Home, Discovery, DocPlay, Real History, Real Crime, Outdoor Channel, Trace Sport Stars, NatureTime, Haunt TV, Love Pets, Animal Planet, Discovery Turbo, Investigation Discovery, TLC, BoxSets and FashionTV.
Free to air channels including for ABC Kids/ABC Family, ABC Entertains, 7two, 7mate, 7flix, 7Bravo, 9Go!, 9Life, 9Gem, 10 Drama, 10 Comedy, Nickelodeon, SBS Viceland, SBS Food and NITV are from 152 to 172.
Special interest channels are from 173 to 179 which includes Aurora, TVSN and Expo.
Religious channels are from 180 to 189 which includes GOOD., Daystar Television Network and SBN.
High definition and Ultra High definition channels are from 200 to 299 which includes localised advertising versions of ABC HD, 7HD, 7mateHD, 9HD, 9Gem HD, 10 HD, SBS HD, SBS Viceland HD and NITV HD, as well as timeshifted versions of general entertainment and informational channels for a two-hour delay of Fox8, Crime, Foxtel One, Comedy, Arena, LifeStyle, LifeStyle Food, BBC UKTV, Showcase, British, Real Life, Discovery and Discovery Turbo.
Movie packaged channels are from 400 to 499 which includes Foxtel Movies Hits (themed movies and pop-up events), Ultra HD, Premiere, Family, Action, Comedy, Romance, Drama, Greats, British Cinema, Aussie Classics, PULP and SBS World Movies.
Sports channels are from 500 to 599 which includes Fox Sports News 500, Fox Cricket 501, Fox League 502, Fox Sports 503, Fox Footy 504, Fox Sports 505, Fox Sports 506, Fox Sports 507, Disney's ESPN and ESPN 2, Main Event (pay-per-view), Main Event 2 (pay-per-view), Main Event UFC, Sky Racing 1, Sky Racing 2, Sky Thoroughbred Central and Racing.com. As of 2025, they’re UHD and HD sports channels.
News channels are from 600 to 699 which includes Sky News Australia, Sky News Weather Channel, Sky News Extra, Sky News UK, Fox News (US sister channel of Sky News Australia), Warner Bros. Discovery's CNN International, NBCUniversal's MS NOW and CNBC, Bloomberg Television, ABC News, SBS WorldWatch, Al Jazeera English, CGTN, CGTN Documentary, NHK World-Japan and GB News.
Pre-Teenage entertainment channels are from 700 to 799 which includes DreamWorks Channel.
Music video channels are from 800 to 829 which includes Foxtel Networks‘s Trending, Kids, Club, Retro, Country Music Channel, Max and Australian Played and Vevo’s VEVO Pop, VEVO 2K, VEVO 90s, VEVO 70s, VEVO Rock and VEVO Country.
Audio only channels are from 830 to 899 which includes LiSTNR, SBS Radio, SBS Radio 2 and SBS Chill.
Foreign language channels are from 900 to 989 which includes Greek radio Ant1 Radio and ANT1 Pacific and Italian radio Rai Radio 1 and Rai Italia.
Also available on iQ3, iQ4 and iQ5 set top boxes are ABC iview, ABC Kids, SBS On Demand, 7plus, 9Now, 10, Netflix, Disney+, Paramount+, HBO Max, F1 TV, BeIN Sports Connect, YouTube, Amazon Prime Video, Apple TV+, BritBox, Stan and DocPlay apps.
=== Defunct channels ===
Channels that were re-branded include: 13th Street (rebranded as Fox Sleuth), Syfy (rebranded as Fox Sci-Fi), 111 Funny (split and rebranded into Fox Hits and Fox Funny), W (renamed SoHo), BBC HD (replaced by BBC UKTV HD), Fox Kids Australia (shared with Fox Classics), Weather 21 (replaced by The Weather Channel), The Weather Channel (replaced by Sky News Weather), Encore (renamed to Showtime Greats) (replaced by Showtime Action, Showtime Comedy and Showtime Drama, both swallowed with Foxtel Movies), VH1 Australia (Replaced by MTV Classic), MTV Live HD, Air Active (which was replaced by Foxtel Music), KidsCo (Replaced by Discovery Kids), Fuel TV, Speed (both replaced by Fox Sports 505 & 506 respectively), SoHo (Replaced by Binge), Channel [V] (Replaced by [V] Hits, later renamed [V]), MTV Music and MTV Dance (relaunched as MTV Hits and Club MTV respectively) and MTV Classic (replaced by MTV 80s).
HD multichannels that were replaced by other HD channels include 10 Drama (replaced by 10 HD, 10 Drama was reduced to SD) and 9Gem (replaced by 9HD, rebranded today as 9Gem and was reduced to SD). 9Gem later relaunched an HD simulcast.
Channels completely discontinued include BBC First, BBC Earth, BBC News, CBeebies, beIN Sports, MTV, Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., PBS Kids, Disney XD, Disney Channel, Disney Junior, Binge, Discovery Science, Discovery Kids, Foxtel Movies Disney, Eurosport, Your Money, The Soundtrack Channel, Movie Network (replaced by Foxtel Movies), Showtime Network (replaced by Foxtel Movies), TechTV, Ovation, KidsCo, History+2, Starpics (replaced by Foxtel Movies), Gamesworld Interactive Games and the Interactive Sports Selector. Also discontinued in July 2020 were music channels [V] (replaced by NickMusic) and Foxtel Smooth (closed down).
TV1 and SF ceased transmission at 11:59 pm, on 31 December 2013 after Foxtel chose not to renew their contracts as they wanted to bring as many channels in house as they did with their movie offerings.
STUDIO ceased transmission at 11:59 pm, on 27 March 2015 after choosing not to renew the contract with SBS Television. This was replaced by Foxtel Arts in both SD and HD on Channel 132.
Turner Classic Movies (TCM) was discontinued on 13 December 2016.
Disney XD ceased transmission on 6 January 2019.
The Comedy Channel ceased transmission on 1 September 2020.
Disney Channel and Disney Junior ceased transmission on 13 February 2020.
beIN Sports and PBS Kids ceased transmission on 1 July 2023.
Paramount channels MTV, Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. ceased transmission on 1 August 2023. The channels continue to operate on other providers in Australia and New Zealand, and Foxtel continues to carry Paramount's music video networks. By September 2023, all MTV music channels (except CMT) were switched from localised feeds to the global feed.
BBC Studios channels BBC First, BBC Earth, BBC News and CBeebies ceased transmission on 31 July 2024.
Audio only channels includes ABC NewsRadio, Radio National, ABC Local Radio stations, ABC Classic, Triple J, Double J and ABC Jazz.
On 3 June, Foxtel announced that it would discontinue its Paramount-branded music channels on 30 June.
== Current services ==
Although originally launching in 1995 with just a cable service, Foxtel has branched out into many new services since its inception including broadband and phone services in 2014.
=== Foxtel Go ===
Foxtel subscribers are able to access live and on-demand content within packages they are subscribed to through the internet via Foxtel Go.
Foxtel launched the Foxtel Go service on 7 November 2012. Originally, it was only available on iPad, but from 20 February 2013 it was also available on iPhone, and later on Mac, Windows PC and selected Android devices. Foxtel Go was launched after the success of its London 2012 app, which simulcast 8 live high definition channels that were also offered on the standard Foxtel service.
Access to the Foxtel Go app is free for residential customers with a set-top box and a Foxtel or Foxtel Now subscription, allowing access to any channel that they are subscribed to. Only five devices can be linked to an account during any given month with only two being able to view content at the same time.
Unlike Mobile Foxtel (provided by Telstra) – which only provides a loop of selected shows – Foxtel Go offers a live simulcast of a subset of channels available through the traditional cable and satellite services. The service also has no time limits; Mobile Foxtel offers only 15 minutes of programming per session, or a maximum 200 minutes per month.
The channels currently available to subscribers are:
Essentials – Showcase; Comedy; Fox8; BoxSets; Arena; Lifestyle; Real Life; Club MTV; NickMusic; MTV 80s; Sky News; Sky News Weather; Sky News Extra; Sky News UK; Fox Sports News; CNN; Fox News; BBC News; CNBC; Bloomberg; NHK World-Japan; Fox Comedy; TLC; E!; Lifestyle Food; Lifestyle Home; Foxtel Arts.
Drama Plus – UKTV; Fox Crime; BBC First; Universal TV; Fox One; Fox Sci-Fi; Fox Sleuth.
Kids – CBeebies; School Holidays Pop-Up Channel
Sport – Fox Sports, Fox Cricket; Fox League; Fox Footy; ESPN; ESPN 2
Movies – Premiere; Kids; Action; Comedy; Romance; Family; Drama; Hits; Thriller; Greats; LMN; SBS World Movies.
Docos – A&E; History; Discovery Channel; Discovery Turbo; Animal Planet; Investigation Discovery; Crime + Investigation; BBC Earth.
The Foxtel Go also offers an on demand service for most channels listed above including sports channels.
=== Foxtel Now ===
Foxtel Now (formerly Foxtel Play) is an internet television alternative to the traditional Foxtel subscription, offering customers a no lock in contract subscription starting at $10. The service offers over 50 live channels and hundreds of hours of video on-demand content across six subscription packages.
The service is available across a range of devices such as computers, TVs and video game consoles. In addition, subscribers have access to Foxtel's Foxtel Go app expanding access to smartphones and tablets.
On 4 October 2016, Foxtel announced that a new look Foxtel Play streaming service will roll out from December 2016 and that Foxtel Play will be a simpler, cheaper and more flexible IP-delivered product.
As part of a company wide rebrand in June 2017, Foxtel announced that from 7 June, Foxtel Play would be renamed Foxtel Now and would gain HD streaming and Chromecast support with a lower starting price of $10 per month (later increased to $25 per month).
=== Foxtel magazine ===
Foxtel has a magazine with a monthly reach of about 700,000. It is published for Foxtel by Medium Rare Content Agency, and distributed to Foxtel subscribers (who choose to pay for this service) via post.
== Hubbl ==
Hubbl, formerly Streamotion Pty Ltd, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Foxtel that develops and operates over-the-top subscription streaming services. Currently, the group operates Kayo, Binge and Flash, as well as WatchNRL and WatchAFL internationally.
== Past services ==
Foxtel Digital
Foxtel On-Demand
=== Foxtel HD ===
Foxtel announced their high definition service, originally called Foxtel HD+, on 30 January 2008. It became officially available on 19 May 2008 at a nominal price of $10 AUD despite similar "HD" resolution broadcast channels already available on free-to-air television. HD+ launched with four channels; BBC HD, ESPN HD, Fox Sports HD and a timeshared documentary channel for Discovery HD World and National Geographic HD programming. Foxtel Box Office also began simulcasting in high definition.
On 15 November 2009, another ten high definition channels were launched; Fox Sports 2 HD, Fox Sports 3 HD, Fox8 HD, Movie One HD, Showcase HD, Showtime Action HD, Showtime Premiere HD, Starpics 1 HD, Starpics 2 HD and W HD. BBC HD was relaunched as UKTV HD and the timeshared documentary channel was split into full-time versions of Discovery HD World and National Geographic HD. The pricing and packaging of the HD+ channels was also revised.
BBC Knowledge HD, MTVN Live HD, Nat Geo Wild HD and Speed HD launched almost a year later on 1 November 2010. ESPN 2 HD and Lifestyle HD launched on 1 March 2011. A&E HD, Fox Footy HD and FX HD launched in late February 2012. Eight new high definition channels for the London Olympics began broadcasting on 25 July 2012. Foxtel launched eight new high definition movie channels on 1 January 2013, replacing the five existing high definition movie channels from Showtime and The Movie Network. The new channels included Action/Adventure HD, Comedy HD, Drama/Romance HD, Family HD, Masterpiece HD, Premiere HD and Thriller/Crime HD. Main Event HD began broadcasting on 3 September 2013.
Syfy HD launched on 1 January 2014. Foxtel added Disney Movies HD on 10 April 2014. UKTV HD was replaced with BBC First HD on 3 August 2014. On 3 November 2014, nine new high definition channels were launched; 13th Street HD, Arena HD, BoxSets HD, Eurosport HD, Fox Sports 4 HD, Fox Sports News HD, History HD, Universal HD and World Movies HD. Speed HD was also relaunched as Fox Sports 5 HD at the same time. Binge HD launched on 5 October 2015. Sky News National HD began broadcasting on 1 December 2015, with Sky News Business HD beginning on 19 January 2016. Foxtel Arts HD began broadcasting in March 2016. On 1 April 2016, Sky Thoroughbred Central HD launched. Sky News Election Channel HD launched on 1 May 2016. Foxtel added another high definition movie channel with More Movies HD launching on 1 July 2016.
In response to Optus Sports winning the rights to the English Premier League, Foxtel launched six new high definition sports channels on 15 May 2016. These included beIN Sports 1 HD, beIN Sports 2 HD, beIN Sports 3 HD, Chelsea TV HD, LFCTV HD and MUTV HD. Sky News Election Channel HD was replaced with A-PAC HD in January 2017. Movie Greats HD was added on 23 March 2018. Sky News UK HD launched as a standalone channel on 27 May 2018 with A-PAC HD also rebranding to Sky News Extra HD. Fox News Channel HD launched in November 2018.
A retransmission of the free-to-air networks' high definition channels is also available to high definition cable subscribers and satellite subscribers with an iQ3 set-top box or later. These channels include ABC HD, SBS HD, SBS Viceland HD, SBS World Movies HD, 7HD, 7mateHD, 9HD, 9Gem HD and 10 HD.
Foxtel's high definition channels are broadcast in H.264 in both 720p and 1080i resolutions. As of 2011, almost a third of Foxtel's customers were receiving the HD service.
=== Foxtel Download ===
On 1 October 2009, Foxtel launched an online download service which allows all cable and satellite customers to access Foxtel content via their computer. The service were free for customers, who can download programmes from channels within their subscription package. There were one live streaming channel, ESPN3, while the remainder of the service provides episodes of programs from 38 channels. Then CEO, Kim Williams, highlighted that Foxtel planned to expand its live streaming channel range later in the year to coincide with the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics and the launch of thirty new channels for Foxtel Digital and HD. This service has been the source of great controversy as there was no support for Linux, Mac or any 64-bit Windows operating systems, leaving many users unable to install the client.
Foxtel Download was discontinued in September 2012, with the service no longer being available to subscribers.
=== Mobile Foxtel ===
Launched in late 2006 to coincide with Telstra's NextG 3G mobile phone network, Mobile Foxtel (previously Foxtel By Mobile) offers 33 standard channels of programming for a small subscription fee, optimised for mobile devices. the channels on the service were: Sky News National, Your Money, CNN, Fox Sports News, Fox8, The Comedy Channel, MTV, E! Entertainment, Fashion TV, Discovery Mobile, Disney Channel, Eurosport, Union Extreme Sports, Cartoon Network, TV1, National Geographic, ABC, SBS One and Eurosportnews.
With the exception of CNN, Fashion TV, Eurosportsnews, Eurosport, Fox News, BBC World News and Fox Sports News, which were direct simulcasts of the actual channel and Sky News channels which are taken from the Sky News Active service, all channels are pre-produced loops that do not directly correlate to the full scale satellite/cable channel. There were a limit of 200 minutes per month, with 15 minutes per session, may apply to the service, although this has not been strictly enforced.
The service was discontinued on 27 July 2016.
=== Foxtel on Xbox 360 and Internet TV ===
Foxtel launched in November 2010 for the Xbox 360 games console, offering 38 channels, catch-up television and on-demand movie streaming. It requires both an Xbox Live Gold subscription and a Foxtel subscription. Samsung Smart TVs received the same service at no additional cost in July 2012. This has been replaced with Foxtel Now.
=== Presto ===
In 2014, Foxtel launched a movie streaming operation Presto, which was initially priced at $19.99, but was halved a few months later. Presto was spin-off a television streaming service with Seven West Media in early 2015.
Foxtel announced the Presto service will be closed in January 2017, and customers moved to a Foxtel Now service.
=== Fox Movies ===
In August 2018, Foxtel launched a streaming VOD (video on demand) movie service called FoxFlicks. This service is available to subscribers who have either the movie pack or platinum pack with the new iQ4 set-top-box. It has since been rebranded as Foxtel Movies.
=== Live2Air ===
In December 2006, airline Virgin Australia (then known as Virgin Blue) announced a partnership with Foxtel and Austar to introduce a "Live2Air" service on most flights by mid-2007, providing live satellite TV to passengers via the in-flight entertainment system. The Live2Air system offered 24 Foxtel channels and was only available on selected Boeing 737 aircraft, and was phased out beginning in 2012.
== Devices ==
Foxtel devices are manufactured by Pace plc on behalf of Foxtel – they have manufactured a variety of devices including:
=== Foxtel Standard ===
There is a variety of Foxtel standard units. These lack the recording features of the iQ models, but can be connected to a VCR or DVR. Foxtel has phased out the standard boxes for all new installations and provides the iQ3, iQ4 or iQ5 instead. The additional features of the iQ models (such as recording) can be deactivated if the customer does not wish to pay for them, in effect making them operate as if they were a legacy model.
=== Foxtel iQ ===
Foxtel launched Foxtel iQ in early 2005. It is a timeshifting personal digital recorder in which subscribers are able to record programmes onto a 160 GB hard drive inside the set-top unit for later viewing. Foxtel iQ includes a feature called Series Link, which lets the viewer choose to record all future episodes in a given television series (availability is limited to certain programmes). Foxtel iQ also allows viewers to use live rewind and pause features during television programmes. Two new services, On Demand and Remote Record, launched in 2007. Remote Record was launched on 1 January 2007 and allows users to log into the interactive TV guide on the Foxtel website and then command their iQ at home to record shows, while On-Demand was launched on 8 February 2007. This service is based on Sky+, which was launched on News Corporation's UK television platform Sky in 2001.
There are currently two models of Foxtel iQ, with identical functionality to the user but different audio-visual output abilities. Both models have two tuners, allowing users to record two programmes (or record one and watch one) simultaneously.
Pace plc are the set top box provider for iQ, of which they claim that the cable version of iQ is the first DVB-based cable digital video recorder.
The updated version of the original iQ unit is physically smaller, however allows for better quality recordings and HDMI up-scaling as well as an Ethernet Port to allow Box Office downloads. It can also order On-Demand titles without the need of the phone line connected to the model. These boxes are referred to as the iQ1.5, to differentiate them from the original iQ boxes. As of 1 March 2017, these boxes are no longer available to new customers.
=== Foxtel iQ2 ===
The second-generation iQ2 box was launched alongside the Foxtel HD+ service in mid-2008. Equipped with a 320GB HDD, iQ2 is capable of recording 30 hours of HD and 90 hours of SD content and offers, double that of the original iQ. The unit also offers HDMI connectivity.
The iQ2 is equipped with four tuners, of which one is reserved for on demand content. This allows users to record two programs at once while watching a third live.
As of 2011, 75 per cent of Foxtel subscribers are using an iQ series unit, 40 per cent are using Multi-Room, and 40 per cent are using iQ2 (and therefore, HD).
On 2 November 2011, Foxtel started notifying subscribers of the option to upgrade (at an additional one-off $200 upgrade fee) to a 1TB model with 4 times the recording capacity. As of 17 August 2020, these boxes are no longer available to new customers.
=== Foxtel iQ3 ===
Foxtel's third-generation model, iQ3, was first referenced by CEO Richard Freudenstein in March 2012, and was released to customers on 23 March 2015. The iQ3 contains increased internet connectivity with the inclusion of Wi-Fi and the ability to re-watch certain broadcast programmes to the start using on-demand technology. The iQ3 includes a 1TB HDD (3x the capacity of the previous iQHD) and a bluetooth remote. After the release, many customers had complaints due to the unstable nature of the iQ3 graphical user interface and additionally accused Foxtel of releasing an 'unfinished product'. Foxtel denied such claims along with rumours that up to 2,000 iQ3 boxes were quickly launched in response to market rival Netflix launching in Australia in April 2015. As of November 2015, instability issues are yet to be resolved. However, an iQ3 software update in late 2019 allows integration with Netflix titles when connected to a television unit with an application for the service.
=== Foxtel iQ4 ===
Foxtel's fourth-generation model, iQ4 was launched in August 2018 and is 4K compatible. Foxtel launched Foxtel 4K – a dedicated 4K channel on 7 October 2018, with the broadcast of the Supercheap Auto Bathurst 1000.
=== Foxtel iQ5 ===
The iQ5 is Foxtel's latest set top box which came out in September 2021 and can operate in two different modes depending on what service is available at customer's premises. It can be connected to an existing Satellite service, where a dish is already installed and working, or connected to the internet to stream Foxtel content in internet-only mode.
== Advertising on Foxtel ==
When Foxtel was launched in 1995, advertising during programmes was banned under Australian Government legislation for the first two years. Foxtel has since significantly increased advertising across its platform, although still today legislation prevents Foxtel and other pay TV businesses from earning more than 50 per cent of their revenue from advertising. Sometimes, viewers are exposed to up to 5 minutes worth of adverts for every 8 minutes of programming. Certain programming on select channels are ad-free such as films or live games on Fox Sports, as well as select premium networks such as Fox Showcase.
== Legislation affecting Foxtel ==
=== Anti-siphoning ===
The Australian anti-siphoning laws also prevent Foxtel and other pay TV suppliers from acquiring exclusive rights to specific sporting events such as cricket, golf, tennis and the football codes. Under the legislation pay TV licensees are prevented from bidding for major sporting events until a right is acquired by the ABC, SBS, Seven, Nine and Ten networks. In 2009, the Minister for Communications announced a review of the legislation. In an Olympics year, the Australian anti-siphoning list runs to over 1300 events and is one of the longest in the world.
== Third party access ==
Foxtel prevents users from using their subscription card in a third-party decoder, and requires all users to watch the service on a supplied set-top box, included with the subscription, however some users have reported being able to watch certain channels on a computer with a DVB-C card and using sasc-ng to decrypt the video content using card readers to read the decoding keys stored on the card used in Foxtel's iQ.
== Foxtel Networks ==
On 24 May 2012, Foxtel merged with Austar, resulting in Foxtel gaining Austar's shares in XYZnetworks (which Foxtel closed and created Foxtel Networks), as well as their shares in Main Event.
The channels owned by Foxtel include:
=== Former channels ===
== Logo history ==
== See also ==
Fox Broadcasting Company
Subscription television in Australia
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Paulus# | Friedrich Paulus | Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Paulus (23 September 1890 – 1 February 1957) was a German Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) during World War II who is best known for his surrender of the German 6th Army during the Battle of Stalingrad (July 1942 to February 1943). The battle ended in disaster for the Wehrmacht when Soviet forces encircled the Germans within the city, leading to the ultimate death or capture of most of the 265,000-strong 6th Army, their Axis allies, and collaborators.
Paulus fought in World War I and saw action in France and the Balkans. He was considered a promising officer; by the time World War II broke out, he had been promoted to major general. Paulus took part in the invasions of Poland and the Low Countries, after which he was named deputy chief of the German Army General Staff. In that capacity, Paulus helped plan the invasion of the Soviet Union.
In 1942, Paulus was given command of the 6th Army. He led the drive to Stalingrad but was cut off and surrounded in the subsequent Soviet counter-offensive. Adolf Hitler prohibited attempts to break out or capitulate, and the German defense was gradually worn down. Paulus surrendered in Stalingrad on 31 January 1943, the same day on which he was informed of his promotion to field marshal by Hitler. Hitler expected Paulus to take his own life, repeating to his staff that there was no precedent of a German field marshal being captured alive.
While in Soviet captivity during the war, Paulus became a vocal critic of the Nazi regime and joined the Soviet-sponsored National Committee for a Free Germany. In 1953, Paulus moved to East Germany, where he worked in military history research. He lived out the rest of his life in Dresden.
== Early life ==
Paulus was born in Guxhagen and grew up in Kassel, Hesse-Nassau, the son of a treasurer. He tried, unsuccessfully, to secure a cadetship in the Imperial German Navy and briefly studied law at Marburg University.
Many English-language sources and publications from the 1940s to the present day give Paulus's family name the prefix "von". For example: Mark Arnold-Forster's The World At War, companion volume to the documentary of the same name, Stein and Day, 1973, pp. 139–142; other examples are Allen and Muratoff's The Russian Campaigns of 1941–1943, published in 1944 and Peter Margaritis (2019). This is incorrect, as Paulus's family was never part of the nobility and Antony Beevor refers to his "comparatively humble birth" .
== World War I ==
After leaving university without a degree, Paulus joined the 111th Infantry Regiment as an officer cadet in February 1910. On 4 July 1912, he married the Romanian aristocrat Constance Elena Rosetti-Solescu, a descendant of the Rosetti family and sister of a colleague who served in the same regiment. They had a daughter, Olga (1914–2003), who married Achim von Kutzschenbach (1904-1944), a member of the German nobility. In addition, they had twin sons Friedrich and Ernst Alexander (born 1918).
When World War I began, Paulus's regiment was part of the thrust into France, and he saw action in the Vosges and around Arras in the autumn of 1914. After a leave of absence due to illness, he joined the Alpenkorps as a staff officer, serving in France, Romania and Serbia. By the end of the war, he was a captain.
== Interwar period ==
After the armistice ending Germany's involvement in World War I, Paulus was a brigade adjutant with the Freikorps. He was chosen as one of only 4,000 officers to serve in the Reichswehr, the defensive army that the Treaty of Versailles had limited to 100,000 men. He was assigned to the 13th Infantry Regiment as a company commander at Stuttgart. He served in various staff positions for over a decade (1921–33). In the 1920s, as part of the military cooperation between the Weimar Republic and the Soviet Union to evade the restrictions of Versailles, Paulus presented guest lectures in Moscow.
Later, Paulus briefly commanded a motorized battalion (1934–35). In October 1935, he was made chief of staff at Panzer Troop Command. This was a new formation under the direction of Oswald Lutz, which directed the training and development of the Panzerwaffe ("armored forces") of the German army.
== World War II ==
In February 1938, Paulus was appointed Chef des Generalstabes to General Heinz Guderian's new XVI Army Corps, which replaced Lutz's command. Guderian described him as "brilliantly clever, conscientious, hard working, original and talented"; but Guderian had severe doubts about Paulus's decisiveness and toughness, and his lack of command experience. Paulus remained in that post until May 1939, when he was promoted to major general and became chief of staff for the German Tenth Army, with which he saw service in the invasion of Poland. The unit was renamed the Sixth Army and engaged in the spring offensives of 1940 through the Netherlands and Belgium. Paulus was promoted to lieutenant general in August 1940. The following month he was named deputy chief of the German General Staff (Oberquartiermeister I). In that role he helped draft the plans for the invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa.
=== Eastern Front and Stalingrad ===
In November 1941, after the German Sixth Army's commander, Field Marshal Walter von Reichenau, Paulus's patron, became commander of the entire Army Group South, Paulus, who had never commanded a larger unit than a battalion, was promoted to General der Panzertruppe and appointed commander of the Sixth Army. However, Paulus took over his new command only on 20 January, six days after the sudden death of Reichenau, leaving him on his own and without the support of his more experienced sponsor.
Paulus led the drive on Stalingrad that summer. His troops fought Soviet forces defending Stalingrad for over three months in increasingly brutal urban warfare. In November 1942, when the Soviet Red Army launched a massive counter-offensive, Operation Uranus, Paulus found himself surrounded by an entire Soviet army group. Paulus did not request to evacuate the city when the counter-offensive began.
Paulus followed Adolf Hitler's orders to hold his positions in Stalingrad under all circumstances, despite the fact that he was completely surrounded by strong Soviet forces. Operation Winter Storm, a relief effort by Army Group Don under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, was launched in December. Following von Manstein's orders, Paulus prepared to break out of Stalingrad. In the meantime, he kept his army in fixed defensive positions. Manstein told Paulus that the relief would need assistance from the Sixth Army, but the order to initiate the breakout never came. Paulus remained firm in obeying the orders he had been given. Manstein's forces were unable to reach Stalingrad on their own and their efforts were eventually halted due to Soviet offensives elsewhere on the front.
Kurt Zeitzler, the newly appointed chief of the Army General Staff, eventually got Hitler to allow Paulus to break out—provided he continue to hold Stalingrad, an impossible task.
For the next two months, Paulus and his men fought on. However, the lack of food and ammunition, the equipment losses, and the deteriorating physical condition of the German troops gradually wore down the German defense. With the new year, Hitler promoted Paulus to colonel general.
About resisting capitulation, according to Adam, Paulus stated: What would become of the war if our army in the Caucasus were also surrounded? That danger is real. But as long as we keep on fighting, the Red Army has to remain here. They need these forces for a big offensive against Army Group 'A' in the Caucasus and along the still-unstable front from Voronesh to the Black Sea. We must hold them here to the last so that the eastern front can be stabilized. Only if that happens is there a chance of the war going well for Germany.
==== Crisis ====
On 7 January 1943, General Konstantin Rokossovsky, commander of the Red Army on the Don Front, called a cease-fire and offered Paulus' men generous surrender terms: normal rations, medical treatment for the ill and wounded, permission to retain their badges, decorations, uniforms and personal effects. As part of his communication, Rokossovsky advised Paulus that he was in an impossible situation. Paulus requested permission from Hitler to surrender. Even though it was obvious the Sixth Army was in an untenable position, the German Army High Command rejected Paulus's request, stating, "Capitulation out of the question. Every day that the army holds out longer helps the whole front and draws away the Russian divisions from it."
After a Soviet offensive overran the last emergency airstrip in Stalingrad on 25 January, the Soviet command again offered Paulus a chance to surrender. Paulus radioed Hitler once again for permission. Telling Hitler that collapse was "inevitable," Paulus stressed that his men were without ammunition or food, and he was no longer able to command them. He also said that 18,000 men were wounded and were in immediate need of medical attention. Once again, Hitler rejected Paulus's request out of hand, and ordered him to hold Stalingrad to the death. On 30 January, Paulus informed Hitler that his men were only hours from collapse. Hitler responded by showering a raft of field promotions by radio on Paulus' officers to build up their spirits and bolster their will to hold their ground. Most significantly, he promoted Paulus to field marshal. In deciding to promote him, Hitler noted that there was no known record of a Prussian or German field marshal ever having surrendered. The implication was clear: Paulus was to commit suicide. Hitler implied that if Paulus allowed himself to be taken alive, he would shame Germany's military history.
==== Capitulation ====
Paulus and his staff surrendered on the morning of 31 January 1943. The events of that day were recorded by Colonel Wilhelm Adam, one of Paulus' aides and an adjutant in the XXIII Army Corps, in his personal diary:
January 31, 1943 – 7.00 a.m. It was still dark but day was dawning almost imperceptibly. Paulus was asleep. It was some time before I could break out of the maze of thoughts and strange dreams that depressed me so greatly. But I don't think I remained in this state for very long. I was going to get up quietly when someone knocked at the door. Paulus awoke and sat up. It was the HQ commander. He handed the colonel general a piece of paper and said: 'Congratulations. The rank of field marshal has been conferred upon you. The dispatch came early this morning—it was the last one.'
'One can't help feeling it's an invitation to suicide. However I'm not going to do them such a favour.' said Paulus after reading the dispatch. Schmidt continued: 'At the same time I have to inform you that the Russians are at the door.' with these words he opened the door and a Soviet general and his interpreter entered the room. The general announced that we were his prisoners. I placed my revolver on the table.
'Prepare yourself for departure. We shall be back for you at 9.00. You will go in your personal car.' said the Soviet general through his interpreter. Then they left the room. I had the official seal with me. I prepared for my last official duty. I recorded Paulus's new rank in his military document, stamped it with the seal then threw the seal into the glowing fire.
The main entrance to the cellar was closed and guarded by the Soviet soldiers. An officer, the head of the guards, allowed me and the driver to go out and get the car ready. Climbing out of the cellar, I stood dumbfounded. Soviet and German soldiers, who just a few hours earlier had been shooting at one another, now stood quietly together in the yard. They were all armed, some with weapons in their hands, some with them over their shoulders.
My God, what a contrast between the two sides! The German soldiers, ragged and in light coats, looked like ghosts with hollow, unshaven cheeks. The Red Army fighters looked fresh and wore warm winter uniforms. Involuntarily I remembered the chain of unfortunate events which had prevented me from sleeping for so many nights. The appearance of the Red Army soldiers seemed symbolic. At 9.00 sharp the HQ commander of the 6th Army arrived to take the commander of the vanquished German 6th Army and its staff towards the rear. The march towards the Volga had ended.
On 2 February 1943, the remainder of the Sixth Army capitulated. Upon finding out about Paulus's "surrender", Hitler flew into a rage and vowed never to appoint another field marshal again. In fact, he went on to appoint another seven field marshals during the last two years of the war. Speaking about the surrender of Paulus, Hitler told his staff:
In peacetime Germany, about 18,000 or 20,000 people a year chose to commit suicide, even without being in such a position. Here is a man who sees 50,000 or 60,000 of his soldiers die defending themselves bravely to the end. How can he surrender himself to the Bolshevists?!
Paulus, a Roman Catholic, was opposed to suicide. During his captivity, according to General Max Pfeffer, Paulus said, "I have no intention of shooting myself for this Bohemian corporal." Paulus also forbade his soldiers from standing on top of their trenches in order to be shot by the enemy.
Shortly before surrendering, Paulus sent his wedding ring back to his wife on the last plane departing his position. He had not seen her since 1942 and would not see her again, as she died in 1949 while he was still in captivity.
== After Stalingrad and post-war era ==
At first, Paulus refused to collaborate with the Soviets. However, after the attempted assassination of Hitler on 20 July 1944, he became a vocal critic of the Nazi regime, joining the Soviet-sponsored National Committee for a Free Germany which appealed to Germans to surrender. In response, Germany put his wife as well as his daughter Olga von Kutzschenbach into Sippenhaft. He later acted as a witness for the prosecution at the Nuremberg Trials. He was allowed to move to the German Democratic Republic in 1953, two years before the repatriation of the remaining German POWs.
During the Nuremberg Trials, Paulus was asked about the Stalingrad prisoners by a journalist. He told the journalist to tell the wives and mothers that their husbands and sons were well. However, of the 91,000 German prisoners taken at Stalingrad, half had died on the march to Siberian prison camps, and nearly as many died in captivity; only about 6,000 survived and returned home.
After his return to the German Democratic Republic in 1953, Paulus gave a talk in Berlin on 2 July 1954 in the presence of Western journalists, titled "On the vital issues of our nation". In it, he paid respect to the memory of General Heinz Guderian, who had died a little over a month previously, and criticized the political leaderships of the German Empire and Nazi Germany for causing the defeats of the German Army in both world wars:
I have in mind in particular General Guderian, who died prematurely, and with whom I was particularly close, as chief of staff for the organization of the armored troops, and we were carrying out a task together. Maybe since the last time we met—more than 10 years ago—our views on specific issues differed, but I know in general, through his writings, with what sense of responsibility, how restlessly he refused to align himself with the Federal Chancellor's European Defence Community policy. He was, in any case, a defender of a united and sovereign Germany.
Everyone knows that our nation used to have great military experts, known all over the world, such as Clausewitz, Moltke the Elder, Schlieffen. Certainly, in their time they assessed the political–military situation of Germany with perseverance and sobriety, developed principles and positions for the strategy and tactics of a general nature, which were valid for the special situation in which Germany would be in a state of war. There are still many people today who wonder how Germany, which no doubt possessed a highly trained army, could be defeated in two wars. The question cannot be answered in military terms. The governments responsible for this have both put their armed forces in front of insoluble problems. Even the best army is doomed to fail when it is required to perform impossible tasks, that is, when it is ordered to campaign against the national existence of other peoples.
He also criticized United States foreign policy as aggressive and called for a reconciliation between the Germans and the French:
American policy today calls itself "power politics". For us Germans, this is particularly indicative. We have been punished for pursuing the policy of violent and lightning strikes that is now being cultivated, and we know what it has cost us. We Germans have seen that in the 20th century, such "power politics" that a strong and rich country seeks to pursue at the expense of other countries is doomed to failure. This policy can have no prospect of success unless it manages to stifle the national will of other peoples, to crush their independence. But it is a misconception and dangerous idea that the age of nations is over simply because a power, the United States, relies on this position so that it can bend over and dominate other nations at the lowest cost to it.
Establishing good neighborly relations with the countries that surround us from east and west is crucial for our national existence. I have in mind, first of all, France. The time has come for the old enmity that we have inherited and the many disputes to be buried once and for all. These two peoples must put aside all conflicts between them, all the more so because German-French relations are the link in the dangerous chain held by the Americans to turn one European people against the other and use them as a vehicle for their own policy.
Finally, he supported former German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's appeal for a betterment of relations between West Germany and the Eastern Bloc, agreed with Brüning's criticism of West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's overtly pro-American policy, and expressed his hope for a German reunification:
Chancellor Brüning took a clear stand against Chancellor Adenauer's rigid orientation to the West, and practically against the EDC and the Bonn conventions. Like many West German economists and politicians, he was in favor of taking advantage of the slightest opportunity to negotiate with the East. Thus, another prominent and experienced German politician stressed that a final implementation of the EDC agreement would be dangerous for the German nation. No sensible person can understand why Dr. Adenauer, under American influence, strongly opposes exploiting the opportunities for the resumption of economic and cultural relations with the peoples of the East.
As a former military man and commander of a large sector, taking into account the current situation and based on my experiences, I have come to the conclusion that we must definitely take the path that, in any form, leads to the development and consolidation of relations between East and West. Only we Germans can decide the future of Germany.
When I say that we Germans must focus above all on the unity and independence of Germany, on the affirmation of the vital national rights of our nation, I realize that in this way we are best serving the cause of peace, of international détente and reconciliation between peoples. We want good relations between the German people and other peoples who respect our national rights. This is the precondition for collective security in Europe and at the same time for a happy future for our own nation. With a reunited Germany having good relations with the two great powers, not only can peace not be disrupted in Europe, but the basis for the development of general prosperity is laid.
From 1953 to 1956, Paulus lived in Dresden, East Germany, where he worked as the civilian chief of the East German Military History Research Institute. In late 1956, he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and became progressively weaker. He died a few months later, in Dresden, on 1 February 1957, aged 66. As part of his last will and testament, his body was transported to Baden-Baden, West Germany, to be buried at the Hauptfriedhof (main cemetery) next to his wife.
== Awards and decorations ==
Iron Cross of 1914, 1st and 2nd class
Military Merit Order, 4th class with Swords (Bavaria)
Knight's Cross Second Class of the Order of the Zähringer Lion with swords
Military Merit Cross, 1st and 2nd class (Mecklenburg-Schwerin)
Cross for Merit in War (Saxe-Meiningen)
Military Merit Cross, 3rd class with War Decoration (Austria-Hungary)
The Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918, with Swords
Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939)
1st Class (21 September 1939)
2nd Class (27 September 1939)
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight's Cross on 26 August 1942 as General der Panzertruppe and Commander-in-chief of the 6. Armee
178th Oak Leaves on 15 January 1943 as Generaloberst and Commander-in-chief of the 6. Armee
Order of the Cross of Liberty, 1st class with Oak Leaves and Swords (Finland)
Order of Michael the Brave, 1st class (Romania)
Military Order of the Iron Trefoil, First Class with Oak Leaves, (Independent State of Croatia)
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Newspaper clippings about Friedrich Paulus in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grisons | Grisons | The Grisons (; French: [ɡʁizɔ̃]) or Graubünden (Swiss Standard German: [ɡraʊˈbʏndn̩] ), more formally the Canton Grisons, is one of the twenty-six cantons of Switzerland. It has eleven districts, and its capital is Chur. The German name of the canton, Graubünden, translates as the "Grey Leagues", referring to the canton's origin in three local alliances, the Three Leagues. The other native names also refer to the Grey League: Grischùn in Sutsilvan, Grischun in the other forms of Romansh, and Grigioni in Italian. Rhaetia is the Latin name for the area. The Alpine ibex is the canton's heraldic symbol.
The largest and easternmost canton of Switzerland, it is also one of the three large southern Alpine cantons, along with Valais and Ticino. It is the most diverse canton in terms of natural and cultural geography, as it encompasses both sides of the Alps and several natural and cultural regions. The diversity of the canton is often compared to that of Switzerland as a whole and warrants it the name of "Little Switzerland". The Grisons is bordered by four cantons as well as Austria, Italy and Liechtenstein.
The state is the only trilingual canton of Switzerland. It is also the only one where Romansh, Switzerland's fourth national language, has official status. Romansh language and culture is an important part of local identity. In 2020 the canton had a population of 200,096. It is the least densely populated canton of Switzerland. The only sizable city in the canton is Chur, as the majority of the population lives in mountainous areas, including some of the most remote valleys of the country. One of the birthplaces of winter sports, the canton is a major tourist destination year-round, including a large number of Alpine resort towns, notably Davos and St. Moritz. The canton is also renowned for its extensive narrow-gauge railway network, operated by the Rhaetian Railway, and linking the capital with most valleys of the Grisons.
Formerly occupied by the Rhaeti, most of the lands of the canton became part of the Roman province called Raetia, which was established in 15 BC, with Curia, a settlement dating back to the Pfyn culture, as capital city. The area later became part of the lands of the diocese of Chur. The late middle ages saw the foundation of the League of God's House, the Grey League and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions. In 1471 an alliance gave birth to the Three Leagues, and before the end of the 15th century, the latter became an ally of the Old Swiss Confederacy. In 1803 the Three Leagues finally became one of the cantons of the Confederation.
== Geography and climate ==
The Grisons is Switzerland's largest and at the same time easternmost canton. Its geography, essentially marked by the Alps, is complex and encompasses a wide range of climates and ecosystems. It is one of the three large southern Alpine cantons, along with Ticino and Valais, which include regions on the south side of the Alps. But in contrast to those (and all other cantons), it fully extends on both sides of the great Alpine barrier, from the northern plains at Maienfeld to the southern plains at Roveredo. However, a large portion of the canton is neither clearly north nor south of the Alps, it is the Engadin (the "garden of the Inn"), a large inner Alpine valley oriented towards eastern Europe. Therefore there are parts of this canton in four of the five drainage basins of the country. The north of the canton is drained by the Rhine (ending in the North Sea), the south by the Po and Adige through several affluents (Mediterranean Sea), and the Engadin by the Danube through the Inn (Black Sea).
The Grisons lies fully within the Alps, with elevations above sea-level ranging from 260 to 4,049 metres (853 to 13,284 ft). It is both one of the highest and lowest cantons of Switzerland, and the second-highest when considering mean elevation. As a consequence, its topography is extremely rugged and many of the highest settlements in the country (and Europe) are found there, notably in the Upper Engadin. The mountains are numerous; well over 1,000 summits are in the canton. The highest is Piz Bernina, closely followed by numerous peaks in the homonymous range. Other prominent mountains are Piz Russein, Piz Kesch, Calanda, Aroser Rothorn and Rheinwaldhorn (see list of mountains of Graubünden for a more exhaustive list). The canton includes numerous subranges of the Alps other than the Bernina. These are the Albula, the Bregaglia, the Glarus, the Gotthard, the Lepontine, the Livigno, the Plessur, the Oberhalbstein, the Ortler, the Rätikon, the Samnaun, the Sesvenna and the Silvretta ranges.
The regions on the north side of the Alps are all drained by the Rhine and form an intricate network of valleys. The Rhine is both one of the longest rivers within the canton and the only one flowing directly into a sea. The sources of the Rhine are found in the west of the canton and form the Anterior Rhine and the Posterior Rhine. These two rivers converge at Reichenau to form the Rhine in the strict sense of the term. Just after the convergence, the valley opens and its floor constitutes the flattest plains of the canton, from Domat/Ems to Fläsch at the St. Gallen border. In the area around Chur, at the foot of the Calanda, the Rhine progressively changes its direction, from eastward to northward. The Anterior Rhine and Posterior Rhine include numerous tributaries as well before their own convergence. The former constitutes a long and straight valley, the Surselva, shut off from the lower plains by the Rhine Gorge. Its biggest tributaries are the rivers Glogn, Valser Rhine, Rabiusa, forming respectively the Val Lumnezia, the Vals Valley and the Safiental. The other one, the Posterior Rhine, notably collects the waters of the Avers Rhine and the Albula, which in turn collects the waters of the Gelgia and the Landwasser. Similarly to the Anterior Rhine, the upper portion of the Posterior Rhine is also shut off from the plains by the Viamala Gorge. After the convergence with the Albula, the Posterior Rhine forms a wide valley, the Domleschg, until it meets its anterior counterpart. After that, the Rhine collects the water of two important rivers: the Plessur at Chur, forming the valley of the Schanfigg, and the Landquart at the homonymous town, forming the Prätigau.
The Engadin is entirely drained by the Inn and is the only valley in Switzerland in the Danube basin. The Inn is one of the longest rivers in the canton and forms an almost straight valley, from the Maloja Pass to Martina, with a change of direction near Zernez. Despite its length and numerous tributaries, only a few long rivers converge with the Inn. These are the Flaz (forming the Val Bernina), the Spöl (forming the Val da Spöl) and the Clemgia (forming the Val S-charl). In the lower part of the Engadin is also the side valley of Samnaun. The main passes connecting the Engadin with the northern Grisons are (from west to east): the Julier Pass, the Albula Pass and the Flüela Pass.
The valleys on the south side of the Alps are not contiguous to each other and form four distinct regions. The Mesolcina, drained by the Moesa, the Val Bregaglia, drained by the Mera, the Val Poschiavo, drained by the Poschiavino, and the Val Müstair, drained by the Rom. The first three are in the Po basin and the last one is in the Adige basin. While the first two (Mesolcina and Bregaglia) are contiguous to the region north of the Alps, through the San Bernardino Pass, and the Septimer Pass respectively, the three last ones (Bregaglia, Poschiavo and Müstair) are contiguous to the Engadin, through the Maloja Pass, the Bernina Pass, and the Ofen Pass.
Although no large bodies of water are found in the canton, numerous mountain lakes (above 800 m elevation) dot the landscape, some of them being used as reservoirs for hydroelectricity production. The largest natural lakes are Lake Sils, Lake Silvaplana, Lago di Poschiavo and Lake St. Moritz (all in Upper Engadin except that of Poschiavo). Artificial lakes are more numerous, the largest (over 100 ha) being Lago di Livigno, Lago di Lei, Lai da Sontga Maria, Zervreilasee, Lago Bianco, Lai da Marmorera and Lägh da l'Albigna. The total number of lakes has been estimated to 600.
Unlike other large cantons, the Grisons includes very few cities. The largest (and capital city) is Chur. It is followed by Davos, Landquart, Domat/Ems and St. Moritz, which are, however, far less populated. The canton is particularly renowned for its numerous Alpine resort towns, notably two of the aforementioned ones (Davos and St. Moritz), but also Klosters, Arosa, Lenzerheide, Disentis, Flims, Pontresina and Scuol.
The diversity of the climate of the Grisons is high and comparable to that of Switzerland. In the southernmost and lowest regions, vineyards and olives are grown, while on the highest summits, snow is found year-round. The inner valleys, particularly the Engadin, are significantly drier than the north and south side of the Alps, being sheltered by the high mountains of the range. On the south side of the Alps, Grono is one of the top warmest places in the country with an average of 12.4 °C (54.3 °F). The nationwide record temperature of 41.5 °C (106.7 °F) was registered there. The southern valleys are also significantly wetter than the rest of the canton (1,476 mm of rain in Grono, 849 mm in Chur, and 705 mm in Scuol). The coldest places are naturally at high elevations, such as on Piz Corvatsch. The localities of the Upper Engadin are amongst the coldest inhabited regions in the country, notably Samedan with an average temperature of 2.0 °C (35.6 °F). The cantonwide record-low temperature of −37.9 °C (−36.2 °F) was registered there. The low-elevation region of Chur, including the Bündner Herrschaft, experiences naturally less harsh temperatures with an average of 10.0 °C (50.0 °F).
The area of the Grisons is 7,105.2 square kilometres (2,743.3 sq mi), 19.2% larger than the canton of Bern, the second largest canton. Only about a third of this is commonly regarded as productive land of which forests cover about a fifth of the total area.
The canton is almost entirely mountainous and it is the most sparsely populated region of the country. In its southeastern part lies the only official Swiss National Park. In its northern part, the mountains were formed as part of the thrust fault that was in 2008 declared a geologic UNESCO World Heritage Site, under the name Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona. Another Biosphere Reserve is the Biosfera Val Müstair adjacent to the Swiss National Park, while Ela Nature Park is one of the regionally supported parks.
The Grisons is sometimes included in the larger region of Eastern Switzerland, together with six other cantons. The Grisons shares border with numerous regions of Europe, reflecting its cultural diversity, and is the only canton adjacent to three different countries. On the national level it shares borders with four other cantons: Uri, Glarus, St. Gallen to the northwest (essentially across the Glarus Alps) and Ticino to the west (essentially across the Gotthard Massif and the Lepontine Alps but also at the level of the plain at Roveredo). On the international level, the canton shares borders with three countries: Liechtenstein to the north, the Austrian regions of Vorarlberg and Tyrol to the northeast and the Italian regions of Trentino-South Tyrol and Lombardy to the east and south.
== History ==
The deep Alpine valleys of the present-day Grisons were originally settled by the Raetians (Rhaeti). In Chur, archaeological evidence of settlement goes back as far as the Pfyn culture (3900–3500 BC), making the capital city of the Grisons one of the oldest settlements in Switzerland.
Most of the lands of the canton were once part of a Roman province called Raetia, which was established in 15 BC. The current capital of the Grisons, Chur, was known as Curia in Roman times. The area later was part of the lands of the diocese of Chur.
In 1367 the League of God's House (Cadi, Gottes Haus, Ca' di Dio) was founded to resist the rising power of the Bishop of Chur. This was followed by the establishment of the Grey League (Grauer Bund), sometimes called Oberbund, in 1395 in the Upper Rhine valley. The name Grey League is derived from the homespun grey clothes worn by the people and was used exclusively after 16 March 1424. The name of this league later gave its name to the canton of the Grisons. A third league was established in 1436 by the people of ten bailiwicks in the former Toggenburg countship, as the dynasty of Toggenburg had become extinct. The league was called League of the Ten Jurisdictions (Zehngerichtebund).
The first step towards the canton of the Grisons was when the league of the Ten Jurisdictions allied with the League of God's House in 1450. In 1471 the two leagues allied with the Grey League. In 1497 and 1498 the Leagues allied with the Old Swiss Confederacy after the Habsburgs acquired the possessions of the extinct Toggenburg dynasty in 1496, siding with the Confederacy in the Swabian War three years later. The Habsburgs were defeated at Calven Gorge and Dornach, helping the Swiss Confederation and the allied leagues of the canton of the Grisons to be recognised. However the Three Leagues remained a loose association until the Bundesbrief of 23 September 1524.
The last traces of the Bishop of Chur's jurisdiction were abolished in 1526. The Musso war of 1520 drove the Three Leagues closer to the Swiss Confederacy.
Between 1618 and 1639 it became a battleground between competing factions during the Bündner Wirren. The Protestant party was supported by France and Venice, while the Catholic party was supported by the Habsburgs in Spain and Austria. Each side sought to gain control of the Grisons to gain control over the important alpine passes. In 1618, the young radical Jörg Jenatsch became a member of the court of 'clerical overseers' and a leader of the anti-Habsburg faction. He supervised the torture to death of the arch-priest Nicolò Rusca of Sondrio. In response, Giacomo Robustelli of the pro-Catholic Planta family, raised an army of rebels in the Valtellina. On the evening of 18/19 July 1620, a force of Valtellina rebels supported by Austrian and Italian troops marched into Tirano and began killing Protestants. When they finished in Tirano, they marched to Teglio, Sondrio and further down the valley killing every Protestant that they found. Between 500 and 600 people were killed on that night and in the following four days. The attack drove nearly all the Protestants out of the valley, prevented further Protestant incursions and took the Valtellina out of the Three Leagues.
In response, in February 1621, Jenatsch led a force of anti-Habsburg troops to attack Rietberg Castle, the home of a leader of the pro-Catholic faction, Pompeius Planta. They surprised Planta and according to legend he was killed by Jörg Jenatsch with an axe. The murder of Planta encouraged the Protestant faction and they assembled a poorly led and disorganized army to retake the Valtellina and other subject lands. However, the army fell apart before they could attack a single Catholic town. This Protestant invasion provided the Spanish and Austrians with an excuse to invade the Leagues. By the end of October, Spain and Austria had occupied all of the Grisons. The resulting peace treaty of January 1622, forced Grisons to cede the Müstair, the Lower Engadine and Prättigau valleys. The treaty also forbade the Protestant religion in these valleys. In response, in 1622, the Prättigau valley rebelled against the Austrians and drove them out of the valley. The Austrians invaded the valley twice more, attempting to reimpose the Catholic faith, in 1623–1624 and 1629–1631.
In 1623 the Leagues entered into an alliance with France, Savoy and Venice. Jürg Jenatsch and Ulysses von Salis used French money to hire an 8,000-man mercenary army and drive out the Austrians. The peace treaty of Monzon (5 March 1626) between France and Spain, confirmed the political and religious independence of the Valtellina. In 1627 the French withdrew from the Valtellina valley, which was then occupied by Papal troops. Starting in 1631 the League, under the French Duke Henri de Rohan, started to expel the Spaniards. However, Richelieu still did not want to hand the valley over to its residents. When it became clear that the French intended to remain permanently in the Leagues, but would not force the Valtellina to convert to Protestantism, Jürg Jenatsch (now a mercenary leader) converted in 1635 to the Catholic faith. In 1637, he rebelled and allied with Austria and Spain. His rebellion along with the rebellion of 31 other League officers forced the French to withdraw without a fight. On 24 January 1639, Jürg Jenatsch was killed during Carnival by an unknown attacker who was dressed as a bear. The attacker may have been a son of Pompeius Planta or an assassin hired by the local aristocracy. According to legend he was killed by the same axe that he used on Pompeius Planta. On 3 September 1639 the Leagues agreed with Spain to bring the Valtellina back under League sovereignty, but with the promise to respect the free exercise of the Catholic faith. Treaties with Austria in 1649 and 1652, brought the Müstair and Lower Engadine valleys back under the authority of the Three Leagues.
In 1798, the lands of the canton of the Grisons became part of the Helvetic Republic as the canton of Raetia except Valtellina, which was separated in 1797 for joining the Cisalpine Republic. It was later part of the Empire of Austria in 1814 before joining the Kingdom of Italy in 1859. With the Act of Mediation the "perpetual ally" of Switzerland became a canton in 1803. The constitution of the canton dates from 1892. In the following century, there have been about 30 changes made to the constitution.
The arms of the three original leagues were combined into the modern cantonal coat of arms in 1933.
== Government ==
The Grand Council (German: Grosser Rat; Italian: Gran Consiglio, Romansh: Cussegl Grond), the legislature of the canton, sits in Chur, the cantonal capital. Its 120 members, elected in 39 districts using a majority system, are in office for four years. The last district elections were in 2014. The cantonal government, exercising executive authority, is made up of five members, elected by the people for a term of four years and limited to three terms using a majority system.
The constitution of the Grisons, last revised on 14 September 2003, states in its preamble that the canton's purpose is to "safeguard freedom, peace, and human dignity, ensure democracy and the Rechtsstaat, promote prosperity and social justice and preserving a sane environment for the future generations, with the intention of promoting trilingualism and cultural variety and conserving them as part of our historical heritage".
The constitution allows for the enfranchisement of foreign residents at a municipal level, at discretion of the local governments. In 2009, the municipality of Bregaglia became the first in the canton to make use of this provision, granting voting rights to foreigners.
== Politics ==
=== Federal election results ===
^a FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009
^b "*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
== Political subdivisions ==
=== Regions ===
as of January 2017
Albula with capital Tiefencastel
Bernina with capital Poschiavo
Engiadina Bassa/Val Müstair with capital Scuol
Imboden with capital Domat/Ems
Landquart with capital Igis
Maloja with capital Samedan
Moesa with capital Roveredo
Plessur with capital Chur
Prättigau/Davos with capital Davos
Surselva with capital Ilanz
Viamala Region with capital Thusis
=== Municipalities ===
There are 100 municipalities in the canton (as of January 2025).
== Demographics ==
The inhabitants of the Grisons are called Bündner or (rarely) Grisonians.
The population of the canton (as of 31 December 2020) is 200,096. As of 2007, the population included 28,008 foreigners, or about 14.84% of the total population. The main religions are Catholicism and Protestantism. Both are well represented in the canton, with Roman Catholics forming a slight plurality (47% Catholic to 41% Protestant).
=== Languages ===
The Grisons is the only canton of Switzerland with three official languages: German (74.7%), Romansh (13.9%), and Italian (13.9%) with the remaining 13% speaking another language natively.
More speakers of the Romansh language live in the Grisons than in any other canton, although it has become a minority language there. Since the late Middle Ages the Romansh language has greatly reduced (by more than half the original territory, that included Liechtenstein and sections of western Austria) the area where it is spoken by the majority of the population.
Romansh consists of five dialect groups, each with its own written language: Sursilvan, Vallader, Puter, Surmiran and Sutsilvan. There also exists a common written language called Rumantsch Grischun.
Romansh has been recognized as one of four "national languages" by the Swiss Federal Constitution since 1938. It was declared an "official language" of the Confederation in 1996, meaning that Romansh speakers may use Romansh for correspondence with the federal government and expect to receive a response in Rumantsch Grischun.
Romansh has official language status at the canton level. Municipalities in turn are free to specify their own official languages.
== Economy ==
Agriculture is still essential to keep remote valleys inhabited and cultivated, differing it from sheer wilderness. Agriculture is therefore supported by subsidies by the authorities both national and regional. Eight per cent of the population work in agriculture and forestry, where 50 per cent of the production is certified as organic. Agriculture includes forests and mountain pasturage in summer, particularly of cows, sheep and goats.
Since wolf and bear have returned, the use of Maremma Sheepdogs is not unusual. Although mountain pastures are predominant, there is also wine production in the Rhine Valley, particularly in Fläsch, Maienfeld, Jenins and Malans. This area is referred to as the Bündner Herschaft. In the southern valleys of Mesolcina and Val Poschiavo there is corn (maize) and chestnut farming, allowed by the milder climate. In the Mesolcina, olive trees are also grown.
24 per cent of the workforce are employed in industry whereas 68 per cent work in the service industry. The most industrialized region is naturally that of Chur. Ems-Chemie is based in Domat/Ems and is a major employer in the area.
The tourism industry is a major player and reaches a remarkable 14 per cent of the GDP. Tourism is concentrated around the towns of Davos, Klosters, Lenzerheide, Arosa, Flims, St. Moritz and Pontresina, which have large ski areas. There are, however, a great number of other tourist resorts in the canton, divided by the official tourist board for winter sports for example into categories "Top - Large - Small and beautiful". St. Moritz is one of the oldest winter sport resorts, being popular in winter since 1864. The following year, Davos also saw its first tourists in winter. St. Moritz hosted the 1928 Winter Olympics and the 1948 Winter Olympics. Summer tourism is also an important source of revenue. Trekking, mountaineering, and mountain biking are some of the main activities. Business tourism is also a source of revenue, notably in Davos, where the World Economic Forum meetings are traditionally organised.
== Transport ==
As the canton extends on both sides of the great Alpine barrier, many important mountain passes are found there, particularly on the north-south axis. Transport has always been an important issue in the area; cart tracks from the Roman era were found on Julier Pass and Septimer Pass was rebuilt for cart use in 1387 and, although it later became unimportant, it is still in its 1800 form (for hikers only). Corniche paths were necessary for long stretches, and gorges such as the Viamala gave construction problems for any kind of transport. The first real roads of 3.7 m (4 yd) width were built across the Alps from around 1816, one of which is still in a very good historical condition as this connection across Splügen Pass lost its importance after the opening of rail tunnels crossing the alps. The last valley to be connected to the road system in the Grisons was Avers, whose remote hamlet of Juf was only reached in 1897. After the Swiss Post expanded their Postal Bus transport services, the region's inhabitants became more used to motorized traffic. In 1925, there were already 250 vehicles in service. Eventually, the inhabitants of the Grisons gave up their resistance against individual motor traffic in 1926, In 1967 opened San Bernardino road tunnel, built to host tourism traffic, is used also by heavy goods vehicles nowadays although not really suitable for them because of its ascent gradients. Most other passes have lost their importance for goods transport nowadays.
Unlike Valais and Ticino, the Grisons does not benefit from major railway axes across the Alps such as the Lötschberg and Gotthard. As a consequence, the only standard gauge railway in the canton is that of the Rhine Valley, ending at Chur station. Conversely, the latter has become a major railway station and a transport hub of the canton since the construction of the Rhaetian Railway, which links most regions of the canton from the Rhine Valley.
Huge efforts ensure public transport to (nearly) every settlement by an integrated timetable of different transport companies. Even Juf, inhabited by some 30 people only but holding a European record, is reached five times a day by public transport. The two main transport companies are PostBus, the national post bus company, and the Rhaetian Railway, essentially owned by the cantonal government. The latter uses the largest narrow-gauge railway network in Switzerland and serves most regions of the canton, with branches towards Central Switzerland and Italy. This network is notably travelled by two of the longest distance trains of Switzerland: the Glacier Express and the Bernina Express. The Swiss Federal Railways extend only a few kilometres into the canton, from Maienfeld, and serve essentially Landquart and Chur, where passengers transfer to the Rhaetian Railway and a large number of PostBus routes. The Albula Line became a UNESCO world heritage as did the Bernina Railway, the highest and only railway to cross the Alps without the use of a tunnel at the pass. In winter some of the road passes are closed whereas several high mountain passes such as the Julier, Bernina and Lukmanier are kept open all winter (subject to restrictions). Being the highest elevated state in Switzerland, the Grisons hosts huge alpine areas that are not accessible by any means of transport but have to be walked to. A large number of cable transport facilities provide easy access to some of the mountains of the Grisons, the highest being on Piz Corvatsch.
The Engadin valley has its own airport, Samedan Airport. It is the highest airport in Switzerland. However, there are no scheduled flights to and from the airport. Generally, residents in the Grisons would also use Zurich Airport, and Milan's Malpensa Airport, Linte Airport and Bergamo Airport to fly other domestic and international destinations.
== Culture ==
The Grisons is culturally the most diverse region of Switzerland. Its common denominator, however, is a strong mountain culture marked by life in isolated rural communities, notably depicted in Johanna Spyri's Heidi. Traditional customs include Alpine transhumance in spring and autumn, and the Chalandamarz at the end of winter.
The canton has a large concentration of medieval castles (and ruins). The most notable, in the Engadin, is that of Tarasp, guarding the Inn valley. Many ruins and castles are found in the Domleschg area. Close by lies the church of Zillis, where 1130/40 a famous romanesque illustrated ceiling was added which is now treated as national heritage. Three World Heritage Sites are located in the canton: the Benedictine Convent of Saint John, the Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona and the Rhaetian Railway in the Albula and Bernina Landscapes.
The gastronomy of the Grisons is mostly known for a dried-beef delicacy called Bündnerfleisch, often simply referred to as Grisons Meat. Other meat specialities include dried sausages (especially Salsiz, made of various meats), speck and ham. Cheeses produced in the Grisons are also numerous. Among notable dishes are the Capuns, predominantly made in the western part of the Grisons. Capuns consist of hearty dumplings with pieces of meat wrapped in chard leaves, then gratinated in oven with cheese and cream. The Maluns are another well-known dish of the Grisons. They are made of boiled potatoes mixed with flour, then fried in butter. Maluns are typically served with a compote of apples and various other local products such as cheeses and meat specialities. The Pizzoccheri are another dish, essentially eaten in the valley of Poschiavo. They consist of buckwheat noodles, cooked with potatoes, vegetables and cheese. The emblematic dessert of the Grisons is the Bündner Nusstorte. It is essentially a shortcrust pastry filled with a mix of caramelized walnuts and honey. Another similar pastry, but containing chestnuts instead, the Torta di Castagne, is made in the southern valleys, especially in the Val Bregaglia.
Wines are essentially produced in the Bündner Herrschaft. In the vineyards between Fläsch and Malans, 42 types of vines are found, Pinot Noir being the most popular. Wines are also naturally produced in the southern valleys but in smaller quantities. The valley of the Mesolcina is contiguous with the Ticino wine region and that of Poschiavo is contiguous with the Valtellina wine region. Numerous breweries can be found in the canton as well. The largest, located at Chur, is Calanda Bräu.
Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha is the Romansh-speaking division of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation and focuses on the Grisons. Die Südostschweiz (in German) and La Quotidiana (Romansh) are some of the most important written media of the region.
== Nature ==
The Grisons successfully reintroduced ibex in the early 20th century after it had all but died out from the Alps, except for an area in the Aosta Valley in Italy, Parco Nazionale Gran Paradiso. Similarly, it reintroduced the bearded vulture and lynx in the 21st century, which had been extinguished, though the lynx remains rare.
== See also ==
Swiss Alps
Three Leagues
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Canton website
Canton of the Grisons Tourism website
Short documentary from the cantonal authorities
Official Canton of the Grisons statistics website
"Grisons" in Romansh, German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Grisons" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 608–610. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umar_Farouk_Abdulmutallab | Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab | Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab (Arabic: عمر فاروق عبد المطلب; also known as Umar Abdul Mutallab and Omar Farooq al-Nigeri; born 22 December 1986) popularly referred to as the "Underwear Bomber" or "Christmas Bomber", is a Nigerian terrorist who attempted to detonate plastic explosives hidden in his underwear while on board Northwest Airlines Flight 253, en route from Amsterdam to Detroit, Michigan, U.S. on 25 December 2009.
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) claimed to have organised the attack with Abdulmutallab; they said they supplied him with the bomb and trained him. Connections to al-Qaeda and Anwar al-Awlaki have been found, although the latter denied ordering the bombing.
Abdulmutallab was convicted in a U.S. federal court of eight federal criminal counts, including attempted use of a weapon of mass destruction and attempted murder of 289 people. On 16 February 2012, he was sentenced to 4 life terms plus 50 years without parole. He is incarcerated at ADX Florence, the supermax federal prison in Colorado.
== Background ==
Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab is the youngest of 16 children of Alhaji Umaru Mutallab, a wealthy Nigerian banker and businessman, and his second wife, Aisha (who is from Yemen). The father was described by The Times in 2009 as being "one of the richest men in Africa." He is a former Chairman of First Bank of Nigeria and former Nigerian Federal Commissioner for Economic Development. The family comes from Funtua in Katsina State. Abdulmutallab was raised initially in an affluent neighbourhood of Kaduna, in Nigeria's north.
Abdulmutallab attended Essence International School and also took classes at the Rabiatu Mutallib Institute for Arabic and Islamic Studies, named for his grandfather, at that time. He also attended The British School of Lomé, Togo. He was considered a gifted student, and enjoyed playing PlayStation games and basketball. According to multiple people who knew him at the time, Abdulmutallab became very pious in his teenage years, detaching himself from others his age. He condemned his father's banking profession for charging interest, which is prohibited in Islam, and urged him to quit.
For the 2004–5 academic year, Abdulmutallab studied at the Sana'a Institute for the Arabic Language in Sana'a, Yemen, and attended lectures at Iman University.
=== London: September 2005 – June 2008 ===
Abdulmutallab began his studies at University College London in September 2005, where he studied Engineering and Business Finance, and earned a degree in mechanical engineering in June 2008.
He was president of the school's Islamic Society, which some sources have described as a vehicle for peaceful protest against the actions of the United States and the United Kingdom in the war on terrorism. During his tenure as president, along with political discussions, the club participated in activities such as martial arts training and paintballing; at least one of the Society's paintballing trips involved a preacher who reportedly said: "Dying while fighting jihad is one of the surest ways to paradise." He was well liked as president of the society and considered to be moderate though politically engaged. He organized a talk about the detention of terror suspects, and walked down Gower Street in an orange jumpsuit.
He organized a conference in January 2007 under the banner "War on Terror Week", and advertised speakers including political figures, human rights lawyers, speakers from Cageprisoners, and former Guantánamo Bay detainees. One lecture, Jihad v Terrorism, was billed as "a lecture on the Islamic position with respect to jihad".
During those years, Abdulmutallab "crossed the radar screen" of MI5, the UK's domestic counter-intelligence and security agency, for radical links and "multiple communications" with Islamic extremists.
At the age of 21, Abdulmutallab told his parents that he wanted to get married; they refused on the grounds that he had not yet earned a master's degree.
On 12 June 2008, Abdulmutallab applied for and received from the US embassy in London a multiple-entry visa, valid until 12 June 2010, with which he visited Houston, Texas, from 1–17 August 2008.
After graduating from university, Abdulmutallab made regular visits to the family town of Kaduna, where his father was known for financing local mosque construction and other public works.
=== Dubai: January–July 2009 ===
In May 2009, Abdulmutallab tried to return to Britain, ostensibly for a six-month "life coaching" program at what the British authorities concluded was a fictitious school; the United Kingdom Border Agency denied his visa application. His name was placed on a UK Home Office security watch list which, according to BBC News, meant that he could not enter the UK. Passing through the country in transit was permissible and he was not permanently banned; the UK did not share the information with other countries. This status was based on his visa application being rejected to prevent immigration fraud rather than for a national security purpose.
=== Yemen: August–December 2009 ===
Intelligence officials suspect that Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula member, Anwar al-Awlaki, may have directed Abdulmutallab to Yemen for al-Qaeda training. Abdulmutallab's father agreed in July 2009 to his son's request to return to the San'a Institute for the Arabic Language in Yemen, to study Arabic from August to September 2009. He arrived in the country in August. Abdulmutallab was the only African in the 70-student school. A fellow student at the Institute said Abdulmutallab would start his day by going to the mosque for dawn prayers and then spent hours in his room reading the Quran. Ahmed Mohammed, one of his teachers, said Abdulmutallab spent the last 10 days of Ramadan sequestered in a mosque. He apparently left the institute after a month, while remaining in-country.
His family became concerned in August 2009 when he called to say he had dropped the course, but was remaining in Yemen. By September, he routinely skipped his classes at the Institute and attended lectures at Iman University, known for suspected links to terrorism. "He told me his greatest wish was for sharia and Islam to be the rule of law across the world," said one of his classmates at the institute. The Institute obtained an exit visa for him at his request, and on 21 September arranged for him to go the airport to return home. However, he did not leave the country at that time.
In October 2009, Abdulmutallab sent his father a text message saying that he was no longer interested in pursuing an MBA in Dubai, and wanted to study sharia and Arabic in a seven-year course in Yemen. When his father threatened to cut off his funding, Abdulmutallab said he was "already getting everything for free" and refused to tell his father who would support him. He sent more texts stating he would be cutting off contact and disowning his family. The family last had contact with Abdulmutallab in October 2009.
Yemeni officials said that Abdulmutallab was in Yemen from early August 2009, and overstayed his student visa (which was valid through September 21). He left Yemen on 7 December, flying to Ethiopia, and then two days later to Ghana. Yemeni officials have said that Abdulmutallab travelled to the mountainous Shabwah Province to meet with "al-Qaeda elements" before leaving Yemen. A video of Abdulmutallab and others training in a desert camp, firing weapons at targets including the Star of David, the British Union Jack flag, and the letters "UN", was produced by al-Qaeda in Yemen. The tape includes a statement justifying his actions against "the Jews and the Christians and their agents." Ghanaian officials say he was there from 9 December until 24 December, when he flew to Lagos.
In February 2010, a Yemeni security official said that 43 people were being interrogated for links to the Christmas Day attempt, including foreigners, some of them studying Arabic and others married to Yemeni women. Abdulmutallab was thought to have used Arabic studies as a pretext for entering the country. Saïd Kouachi, one of the attackers—now deceased—in the Charlie Hebdo shooting, is believed to have been one of Abdulmutallab's neighbors at the Yemeni Arabic language school.
==== Awareness by US intelligence ====
On 11 November 2009, British intelligence officials sent the US a cable indicating that a man named "Umar Farouk" had spoken to al-Awlaki, pledging to support jihad, but the cable did not give Abdulmutallab's last name. On 19 November, Abdulmutallab's father consulted with two CIA officers at the US Embassy in Abuja, Nigeria, reporting his son's "extreme religious views", and told the embassy that Abdulmutallab might be in Yemen. Acting on the report, the CIA added the suspect's name in November 2009 to the US's 550,000-name Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment, a database of the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC). It was not added to the FBI's 400,000-name Terrorist Screening Database, the terror watch list that feeds both the 14,000-name Secondary Screening Selectee list and the US's 4,000-name No Fly List, nor was Abdulmutallab's American visa revoked.
US State Department officials said in Congressional testimony that the State Department had wanted to revoke Abdulmutallab's visa, but intelligence officials requested that his visa not be revoked. The intelligence officials said that revoking Abdulmutallab's visa could have foiled a larger investigation into al-Qaeda.
Abdulmutallab's name had come to the attention of intelligence officials many months before that, but no "derogatory information" was recorded about him. A Congressional official said that Abdulmutallab's name appeared in US reports reflecting that he had connections to both al-Qaeda and Yemen. The NCTC did not check to see whether Abdulmutallab's American visa was valid, or whether he had a British visa that was valid; they did not learn that the British had rejected Abdulmutallab's visa application earlier in 2009. British officials had not informed the United States because the visa application was not denied for a national security purpose.
=== Web postings ===
CNN reported that "the many detailed biographical points made by [ internet username Farouk1986 ] match what has been reported about Mutallab's life." The user name posted on Facebook and on Islamic Forum (gawaher.com). On 28 December 2009, a U.S. government official said the government was reviewing the online postings, and has not yet independently confirmed the authenticity of the posts.
CNN reported that by 2005, the postings of Farouk1986 revealed "a serious view of his religion." Tracey D. Samuelson of the Christian Science Monitor further said that the posts "suggest a student preoccupied by university admissions and English soccer clubs, but who was also apparently lonely and conflicted." Philip Rucker and Julie Tate of the Washington Post reviewed 300 online postings by Farouk1986 , and found that "the writings demonstrate an acute awareness of Western customs and a worldliness befitting Mutallab's privileged upbringing as a wealthy Nigerian banker's son."
Farouk1986 discussed loneliness and marriage in his postings between 2005 and 2007, writing about his "struggle to control" his sex drive and his desire to get married so that he could engage in sexual activity in a religiously acceptable way. In January 2006 he chastised female users for not wearing the hijab and stated that it was not appropriate for men and women to be friends.
He also described jihadist fantasies about Muslims engaging in a worldwide jihad and establishing a Muslim empire.
=== Contact with Islamists ===
The New York Times reported in December 2009 that "officials said the suspect told them he had obtained plastic explosives that were sewn into his underwear and a syringe from a bomb expert in Yemen associated with al Qaeda."
In April 2009, Abdulmutallab had applied to attend an Islamic seminar in Houston, Texas. He obtained a multiple-entry visa in the U.S. Consulate in June 2008 that would be valid until June 2010. He attended the Islamic seminar from 1–17 August at AlMaghrib Institute. When Abdulmutallab returned to Yemen later in 2009, purportedly to study Arabic again, he appeared to have undergone a personality change: he was more religious and "a loner", and wore traditional Islamic clothing. He rarely attended class, and sometimes he left class midway to go pray at a mosque.
==== Ties to Anwar al-Awlaki ====
A number of sources reported contacts between Abdulmutallab and Anwar al-Awlaki, an American Yemeni Muslim lecturer and spiritual leader who had been accused of being a senior al-Qaeda talent recruiter and motivator. Al-Awlaki, who was killed by an unmanned United States drone in Yemen in September 2011, was previously an imam in the U.S. He was associated with three of the 9/11 hijackers, who prayed at his mosque; the 2005 London Bombings; a 2006 Toronto terror cell; a 2007 Fort Dix attack plot; and the 2009 Fort Hood shooter.
With a blog and a Facebook page, al-Awlaki had been described as the "bin Laden of the internet." As a fluent English speaker, he had used contemporary technology to communicate with a wide circle of people in the West.
Despite being banned from entering the UK in 2006, al-Awlaki spoke via video-link in 2007–09 on at least seven occasions at five different venues in Britain. During this period he gave a number of video-link lectures at the East London Mosque before being banned by the mosque in 2009.
Pete Hoekstra, the senior Republican on the House Intelligence Committee, said on the day of the attack that Obama administration officials and officials with access to law enforcement information told him "there are reports [the suspect] had contact [with al-Awlaki].... The question we'll have to raise is, was this imam in Yemen influential enough to get some people to attack the U.S. again." He added: "The suspicion is ... that [the suspect] had contact with al-Awlaki. The belief is this is a stronger connection with al-Awlaki" than Hasan had. Hoekstra later said credible sources told him Abdulmutallab "most likely" has ties with al-Awlaki.
==== Meetings with Al-Awlaki ====
The Sunday Times established that Abdulmutallab first met and attended lectures by al-Awlaki in 2005, when he was first in Yemen to study Arabic. Fox News reported that evidence collected during searches of "flats or apartments of interest" connected to Abdulmutallab in London showed that he was a "big fan" of al-Awlaki, based on his web traffic.
However, there is no clear evidence that the two men met in London. NPR reported that, according to unnamed intelligence officials, Abdulmutallab attended a sermon by al-Awlaki at the Finsbury Park Mosque "in the fall of 2006 or 2007", but this was in error, as al-Awlaki was in prison in Yemen during that period. The Finsbury Park Mosque said neither Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab nor Anwar al-Awlaki had ever been invited to attend NLCM since February 2005. CBS News and The Sunday Telegraph initially reported that Abdulmutallab attended a talk by al-Awlaki at the East London Mosque (which al-Awlaki may have participated in by video teleconference), but the mosque officials said that the Sunday Telegraph was misinformed. They said that "Anwar Al Awlaki did not deliver any talks at the ELM between 2005 and 2008".
CBS News said that the two were communicating in the months before the bombing attempt, and sources say that, at a minimum, al-Awlaki was providing spiritual support. According to federal sources, over the year prior to the attack, Abdulmutallab increased his electronic communications with al-Awlaki.
Intelligence officials suspect al-Awlaki may have directed Abdulmutallab to Yemen for al-Qaeda training. One government source described intercepted "voice-to-voice communication" between the two during the autumn of 2009. After being arrested, Abdulmutallab reportedly told the FBI that al-Awlaki was one of his trainers when he did al-Qaeda training in remote camps in Yemen. There were "informed reports" that Abdulmutallab met al-Awlaki during his final weeks of training and indoctrination prior to the attack.
A U.S. intelligence official said that information pointed to connections between the two:
Some of the information ... comes from Abdulmutallab, who ... said that he met with al-Awlaki and senior al-Qaeda members during an extended trip to Yemen this year, and that the cleric was involved in some elements of planning or preparing the attack and in providing religious justification for it. Other intelligence linking the two became apparent after the attempted bombing, including communications intercepted by the National Security Agency indicating that the cleric was meeting with "a Nigerian" in preparation for some kind of operation.
Yemen's Deputy Prime Minister for Defence and Security Affairs, Rashad Mohammed al-Alimi, said Yemeni investigators believe the suspect travelled in October to Shabwa, where he met with suspected al-Qaeda members. They met in a house built and used by al-Awlaki to hold theological sessions, and Abdulmutallab was trained and equipped there with his explosives.
At the end of January 2010, a Yemeni journalist, Abdulelah Haider Shaye, said he met with al-Awlaki, who said he had met and spoken with Abdulmutallab in Yemen in the autumn of 2009. Al-Awlaki reportedly said Abdulmutallab was one of his students, that he supported his actions but had not ordered him, and that he was proud of the young man. A New York Times journalist listened to a digital recording of the meeting, and said that while the tape's authenticity could not be independently verified, the voice resembled that on other recordings of al-Awlaki.
On 6 April 2010, The New York Times reported that US President Barack Obama had authorised the targeted killing of al-Awlaki. The cleric was killed in an American drone attack in Yemen on 30 September 2011.
== Attack ==
On 25 December 2009, Abdulmutallab travelled from Ghana to Amsterdam, where he boarded Northwest Airlines Flight 253 en route to Detroit. He had a Nigerian passport and valid U.S. tourist visa, and purchased his ticket with cash in Ghana on 16 December. Passengers Kurt and Lori Haskell told The Detroit News that prior to boarding the plane they witnessed a "smartly dressed man" possibly of Indian descent, around 50 years old, and who spoke "in an American accent similar to my own" helping a passenger they identified as Abdulmutallab onto the plane without a passport.
Abdulmutallab spent about 20 minutes in the toilet as the flight approached Detroit, then covered himself with a blanket after returning to his seat. Other passengers heard popping noises and smelled a foul odour. Some saw flames on Abdulmutallab's trouser leg and the wall of the plane. Jasper Schuringa, a Dutch film director, held Abdulmutallab down while flight attendants extinguished the flames. Abdulmutallab was taken toward the front of the aircraft cabin, where he told a flight attendant he had an explosive device in his pocket. The device was a six-inch (15 cm) packet containing the explosive powder PETN, sewn into his underwear.
Abdulmutallab was arrested at Detroit Metropolitan Airport by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers after the incident and turned over to the FBI pending further investigation. Abdulmutallab told authorities he had been directed by al-Qaeda, and that he had obtained the device in Yemen. Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, the organisation's affiliate in Yemen, subsequently claimed responsibility for the attack, describing it as revenge for the United States's role in a Yemeni military offensive against al-Qaeda in that country.
== Aftermath ==
Two days after the attack, Abdulmutallab was released from a hospital where he had been treated for first and second degree burns to his hands, and second degree burns to his right inner thigh and genitalia, sustained during the attempted bombing. He was subsequently held at the Federal Correctional Institution, Milan, a federal prison in Michigan, where he remained during court proceedings.
New restrictions were imposed on U.S. travelers, but the government did not publicise many of them because security officials reportedly "wanted the security experience to be 'unpredictable'". One day after she said that the system had "worked", Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano acknowledged that the aviation security system had indeed failed.
US President Barack Obama vowed the federal government would track down all those responsible for the attack, and any attack being planned against the U.S. He also ordered a review of detection and watch list procedures. Saying that "totally unacceptable" systemic and human failures had occurred, Obama told reporters he was insisting on "accountability at every level," but did not give any details. Criticism of the system's failure to prevent Abdulmutallab from boarding the aircraft in the first place has been widespread; one critic, former FBI counterterrorism agent Ali Soufan, has said that the "system should have been lighting up like a Christmas tree."
United States Senator Joe Lieberman called for the Obama administration to pre-emptively curb terrorism in Yemen and halt plans to repatriate Guantanamo detainees to Yemen.
Peter Hoekstra and Congressional Representative Peter T. King also called for a halt to the repatriation of Guantanamo detainees from Yemen.
Bennie Thompson, Chairman of the House Homeland Security Committee, called for a halt to all current plans with regard to Yemen in light of Abdulmutallab's ties there.
Immediately after the attack, Lateef Adegbite, Secretary General of Nigeria's Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, condemned the attack and said: "We are embarrassed by this incident and we strongly condemn the alleged action by this young man. We do not think that there is any organised Islamic group in Nigeria that is inclined to such a criminal and violent act. We condemn such an extreme viewpoint and action."
On 27 December, The Wall Street Journal reported that Abdulmutallab's suspected ties to jihadists from Yemen could potentially complicate the Obama administration's plans to release Yemeni detainees held in Guantanamo to Yemen.
On 27 January 2010, the House Committee on Homeland Security continued a series of hearings across Capitol Hill that started prior to 27 January 2010, all looking into the events leading up to and after the attempted bombing of Flight 253 over Detroit. Patrick F. Kennedy, an undersecretary for management at the US State Department, said Abdulmutallab's visa was not taken away because intelligence officials asked his agency not to deny a visa to the suspected terrorist over concerns that a denial would have foiled a larger investigation into al-Qaeda threats against the United States.
Several Muslim organisations and leaders in both the United States and the United Kingdom condemned the terrorist and extremist actions of Abdulmutallab as contrary to Islamic beliefs. Concerns in the media also arose that Nigerians would now be "unduly stigmatized" due to the incident.
Abdulmutallab is now held at United States Penitentiary, Florence ADX.
== Interrogation and court proceedings ==
Abdulmutallab was questioned by the authorities for several hours before being given medical treatment for his injuries.
On 26 December 2009, Abdulmutallab appeared in front of Judge Paul D. Borman of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan in Detroit and was formally charged with attempting to blow up and placing a destructive device on an American civil aircraft. The hearing took place at the University of Michigan Hospital in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he was receiving treatment for the burns he suffered when he attempted to detonate the device. Additional charges were added in a grand jury indictment on 6 January 2010, including attempted use of a weapon of mass destruction and attempted murder of 289 people.
Abdulmutallab initially cooperated with investigators, then stopped talking. The decision to read him his Miranda rights, advising him of his right to remain silent, generated criticism from a number of mostly Republican politicians. After the FBI brought two of Abdulmutallab's relatives from Nigeria to the U.S. to speak with him, he once again began to cooperate.
On 14 September 2010, the Associated Press reported Abdulmutallab had dismissed his court-appointed defence team to defend himself. The court subsequently appointed Anthony Chambers to act as standby counsel. On 12 October 2011, Abdulmutallab, against the advice of Chambers, pleaded guilty to the eight charges against him, including the attempted use of a weapon of mass destruction and the attempted murder of the 289 people on the plane. Both charges carried a potential death sentence. He reportedly changed his mind about his plea after the prosecution completed its opening arguments.
Sentencing was initially scheduled for 12 January 2012, but was subsequently postponed to 16 February 2012, to give Abdulmutallab more time to review the presentence investigation report completed by the United States Probation Service. On 13 February 2012, Chambers filed a motion arguing that sentencing his client to life in prison would constitute cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution because no one other than his client suffered physical harm during the attempted attack. The motion was rejected, and on 16 February 2012, Judge Nancy Edmunds of Federal District Court in Detroit sentenced Abdulmutallab to life in prison. In a statement after the sentencing, Abdulmutallab's family said, "We are grateful to God that the unfortunate incident of that date did not result in any injury or death".
== See also ==
Naser Jason Abdo, former American soldier
Michael Finton, American convert to Islam, attempted 2009 bombing of U.S. target with FBI agent he thought was al-Qaeda member
Hasan Akbar case, American convert to Islam who was convicted of the double-murder of two U.S. Army officers
Operation Arabian Knight, 2010 arrest of two American men from New Jersey on terrorism charges
Aafia Siddiqui, female alleged al-Qaeda member, former U.S. resident, convicted in 2010 of attempting to kill American personnel
Bryant Neal Vinas, American convert to Islam, convicted in 2009 of participating in/supporting al-Qaeda plots in Afghanistan and the U.S.
Najibullah Zazi, al-Qaeda member, U.S. resident, pleaded guilty in 2010 of planning suicide bombings on New York City subway system
List of unsuccessful terrorist plots in the United States post-9/11
== References ==
== External links ==
Criminal Complaint and Affidavit for U.S. v. Abdulmutallab, December 25, 2009
Indictment in U.S. v. Abdulmutallab, January 6, 2010 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narinder_Kumar_Gupta#:~:text=Narinder%20Kumar%20Gupta%20is%20a,and%20high%20rates%20of%20loading. | Narinder Kumar Gupta | Narinder Kumar Gupta is a research scientist, educator, and engineer. Born 22 August 1942 in Mirpur, Jammu and Kashmir, India, he is a Professor of Mechanics at the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi. Gupta works in the area of large deformations of metals and composites at low, medium and high rates of loading. His research stimulates the development of constitutive behaviour of materials, understanding of the basic mechanics of large deformation, design for crashworthiness of road and air vehicles, design for safety in defence applications and in design of metal forming processes.
== Education ==
He received his Bachelor of Science from the Jammu and Kashmir University in 1960, his Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering from the Regional Engineering College, Srinagar (Now NIT Srinagar) in 1966 and his PhD from the IIT Delhi under Prof. B. Karunes in 1972.
He did his post-doctoral studies in Cambridge University under Professor W. Johnson (1977) and as Alexander von Humboldt fellow at Ruhr University Bochum under Professor Th. J. Lehmann (1981).
== Profession ==
Gupta has been a faculty member in the department of applied mechanics at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi since 1971 and has been a full professor since 1987 and retired in 2005. He continued as Henry Ford Chair Emeritus Professor from 2005 to 2010, and then as emeritus professor till 2011. He was invited as Mercator Guest Professor at RWTH Aachen, supported by the German Research Foundation for one year (2011–2012).
Gupta continued to work as "INSA (Indian National Science Academy) Senior Scientist" at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, from 2012 to 2017. He was also associated for a period (2013–14) with the Supercomputer Education and Research Center, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Presently, he continues with his academic work as an "INSA Honorary Scientist" since 2017 at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.
== Activity fields ==
Gupta works in the area of large deformations of metals and composites at low, medium and high rates of loading. His research finds application in development of constitutive behaviour of materials, understanding of the basic mechanics of large deformation, design for crashworthiness of road and air vehicles, design for safety in defence applications and in design of metal forming processes.
He has been instrumental in setting up the India's first and internationally recognised low and medium velocity impact testing laboratory in the Department of Applied Mechanics at the IIT Delhi and has fostered and nurtured this area in India.
He has published over 350 scientific papers (with over 5000 citations) in peer-reviewed national and international journals and conference proceedings, edited eight books, mentored nearly 40 PhD and 75 MTech students, and undertaken national and international research and consultancy projects. He has been a visiting professor and fellow and invited to deliver guest lectures in universities in Armenia, Australia, Brazil, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Malaysia, Norway, Poland, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand, Trinidad, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and United States.
He was invited to deliver a keynote lecture at the 2008 World Congress of the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics (ICTAM), held in Adelaide, Australia. The German National Academy of Sciences, Leopoldina, invited him to deliver a lecture at an annual event in 2012 along with the German scientist Prof. M. Kleiner, who was then the President of DFG. Gupta delivered the "K S Krishnan memorial lecture" during the annual meeting of the INSA at Lucknow in 2013. In 2014, he delivered a plenary lecture to the 39th Solid Mechanics Conference held in Poland. He has been invited to deliver national lectures, which include Taylor memorial, Seth memorial, Bhatnagar memorial, Karunes memorial and Joga Rao memorial, and also numerous inaugural, keynote and invited lectures in major conferences and reputed institutions in India.
He has been on the Editorial advisory boards of the International Journal of Mechanical Sciences (1981–1985), the International Journal of Impact Engineering, the International Journal of Crashworthiness (1996–2007), the Latin American Journal of Solids and Structures, Thin Walled Structures, Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures (2006–2011), the Journal of Aeronautics Society of India, Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, Sadhana, Defence Science Journal and Everyman's Science. He is president of the Indian Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, past president of the Indian Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics and past president of the Indian Society of Mechanical Engineers. He was vice-president of the Indian National Science Academy and chairman of the National Committee of the academy for IUTAM (International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics) and IMU (International Mathematical Union). He has been member of IUTAM Bureau( 2008–2012) and Congress Committee (2008 - 2018). He is member or chairman of several other national and international academic bodies. He is fellow of the Indian National Science Academy, the Indian National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Sciences, India, the Aeronautical Society of India, the Institution of Engineers, India and The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS).
Gupta's expertise in the mechanics of large deformation of metals and composites under impact loading has greatly augmented India's advance in technology, in particular, defence and aerospace researches. He helped found IMPLAST, an international event held regularly in India and countries across the world, including Australia (2000), Germany (2007), and the USA (2010). The last IMPLAST held in India was in 2016, and the recent was held in Republic of Korea in 2019. He also initiated a series of Indo-Russian workshops in "Theoretical and Applied Mechanics", held in both India and Russia. Gupta has edited nearly a dozen volumes of IMPLAST and Indo-Russian workshops, which the scientific community has very well received. These events provide a forum for Indian scientists to interact with several known international scientists. Gupta has been a voice of India in international forums in articulating the country's long-term vision on key scientific and technical issues.
== Honours ==
Gupta was conferred Padma Shri by the President of India in 1991.
Professor Gupta is recipient of J.C. Bose Memorial Award, the O. P. Bhasin Award, the Millennium Plaques of Honour (ISCA) Award, the Erskine (New Zealand) Award, the Alexander von Humboldt (Germany) Research Award and several other honours and awards. He has been conferred Doctor Honoris Causa by the Russian Academy of Sciences and Mercator Professorship of DFG and DRDO Academy excellence award.
Gupta is Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy, Indian National Academy of Engineering, National Academy of Sciences, India and the Third World Academy of Sciences.
The esteem that Gupta enjoys nationally and internationally is shown by the fact that conferences to honour his contributions were held on his 60th and 70th birthday in India in 2002 and 2012, On his 65th birthday in Bochum, Germany, in 2007, and was honoured on 70th in Singapore in 2012. Special issues of the International Journal of Impact Engineering, Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy and Defence Science Journal were devoted to his birthdays. These issues received contributions from highly regarded international scientists. A special issue to honour his contributions has been published by the International Journal of Impact Engineering, in 2017.
Gupta has been named as one of five Honorary Members - honoured as one of the top five world scientists in the area of impact mechanics - by the International Society of Impact Engineering.
In 2019 Prof. Gupta is awarded prestigious "DRDO Academy Excellence Award"
== Personal ==
Gupta and his wife Rashmi Gupta ,have two sons, Shivanshu and Shalav.
== Selected publications ==
N. K. Gupta and S. K. Sinha (1990); "Collapse of a laterally compressed square tube resting on a flat base". International Journal of Solids and Structures, 26, 601‑615
N. K. Gupta and A. Meyers (1992); "Considerations of translated yield surfaces". International Journal of Plasticity, 8, 729‑740
N. K. Gupta and V. Madhu (1997); "An Experimental Study of normal and oblique impact of a hard core projectile on single and layered plates". International Journal of Impact Engineering, 27, 901 – 918
N. K. Gupta, (2002) "IMPLAST symposia and large deformations – a perspective", International Journal of Impact Engineering, 27, 901 – 918
O. T. Bruhns, N. K. Gupta, A. Meyers and H. Xiao (2003), "Bending of an elastoplastic strip with isotropic and kinematic hardening". Archive of Applied Mechanics, Volume 72, pages 759–778, 2003
N. K. Gupta and Nagesh, (2006) "Collapse mode transitions of thin tubes with wall thickness, end condition and shape eccentricity", International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 48, 210–223
N. K. Gupta, M. A. Iqbal and G. S. Sekhon (2007), "Effect of projectile nose shape, impact velocity, and target thickness on the deformation behaviour of thin aluminium targets", International Journal of Solids and Structures, 44, 3411–343
N. K. Gupta, N. Mohamed Sheriff and R. Velmurugan, (2007) "Experimental and numerical investigations into collapse behavior of thin spherical shells under drop hammer impact", International Journal of Solids and Structures, 44, 3136–3155
M. Klaus, H. _G. Reimerdes and N. K. Gupta (2012), "Experimental and Numerical investigations of residual strength after impact of sandwich panels", International Journal of Impact Engineering, 44, 50–58
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Is_Blind_season_2 | Love Is Blind season 2 | The second season of Love Is Blind premiered on Netflix on February 11, 2022, and concluded on February 25, 2022. A reunion episode was released on March 4, 2022, and a three-part companion piece entitled After the Altar was released on September 16, 2022. The season followed singles from Chicago, Illinois.
== Season summary ==
== Participants ==
All the participants lived in Chicago at the time of filming.
=== Future appearances ===
In February 2023, Shayne Jansen appeared on the first season of Perfect Match. He finished as a finalist in a couple with Chloe Vietch.
In October 2023, Abhishek "Shake" Chatterjee competed on the first season of House of Villains and placed fifth overall.
== Episodes ==
== Unaired engagements ==
Two couples got engaged in the pods and their relationships were not aired in the footage: Kara Williams and Jason Beaumont as well as Caitlin McKee and Joey Miller became engaged in the pods but were not filmed after their engagements. Both couples continued their relationships for several months after filming concluded, but later ended their relationships.
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stella_Obasanjo#Death | Stella Obasanjo | Stella Obasanjo (née Abebe; 14 November 1945 – 23 October 2005) was the First Lady of Nigeria from 1999 until her death. She was the wife of former President Olusegun Obasanjo, although she was not the First Lady in 1976, when Obasanjo was military head of state. She died while undergoing elective liposuction abroad.
She was a political activist in her own right, supporting causes such as women's liberation, youth as leaders of tomorrow, and the rehabilitation of a war-torn Nigeria.
== Early life and education ==
Stella Abebe was born on 14 November 1945, she was from Iruekpen, Esan West, Edo State. Her father, Dr. Christopher Abebe, was chief of the United Africa Company (UAC) who became the first indigenous (African) chairman of UAC Nigeria.
She began her education at Our Lady of the Apostles Primary School. She enrolled at St. Theresa's College, where she obtained her West African School Certificate in 1964 with grade one. Two years later she obtained the higher school certificate. She was admitted to the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University), Ile-Ife, for a bachelor's degree in English, attending from 1967 to 1969. In 1969 she transferred to the UK to complete her studies, this time round, in insurance, in London and Edinburgh, Scotland, from 1970 to 1974.
She completed her education with a certificate as confidential secretary from Pitman College in 1976. She returned to Nigeria in 1976.
== Personal life ==
She married General Obasanjo with whom she had one son; Olumuyiwa Obasanjo born in 1977. Olusegun Obasanjo had just become Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces, following the assassination of General Muritala Mohammed.
== First Lady of Nigeria ==
When she became Nigeria's First Lady in 1999, following the election of her husband as president, Obasanjo established Child Care Trust, for the care of underprivileged and/or disabled children.
As First Lady of Nigeria, Obasanjo joined the Campaign Against Female Genital Mutilation and on 6 February 2003, she declared the day the International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation. Reporters Without Borders reported that Orobosa Omo-Ojo, the publisher of the Lagos-based Nigerian Midwest Herald, was arrested on Stella Obasanjo's orders on 2 May 2005 and taken to Akure prison. His arrest was prompted by an article the previous week about her, headlined "Greedy Stella".
== Death ==
Obasanjo died at age 59 from complications of cosmetic surgery at a private health clinic in Puerto Banús, Marbella, Spain, on 23 October 2005. The surgeon, identified only as "AM" in court, was sentenced to one year of imprisonment in September 2009 on a charge of "causing homicide through negligence", disqualified from medicine for a period of three years and ordered to pay €120,000 (approximately US$176,000) in compensation to Stella Obasanjo's son. Prosecutors had requested a two-year jail term and five-year disqualification. A request for compensation for the Nigerian government was also rejected. The physician had misplaced a tube designed for a liposuction procedure into Obasanjo's abdominal cavity. She sustained a punctured colon and lacerated liver and died two days after the surgery. The doctor did not immediately answer his mobile phone when called after performing the operation and reportedly left Obasanjo for four hours. Had she been hospitalised in time, it is thought she might have survived her injuries.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Nigerian President's wife dies after plastic surgery operation in Spain", The Independent.co.uk |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murind%C3%B3 | Murindó | Murindó is a Colombian municipality located in the subregion of Urabá in the department of Antioquia. It borders the department of Chocó to the north, the municipalities of Dabeiba and Frontino to the east, the municipality of Vigía del Fuerte to the south, and both the municipality of Vigía del Fuerte and the department of Chocó to the west. It is 310 km away from Medellín, the departmental capital. Murindó spans 1,349 square kilometers and is only 25 meters above sea level. It is a municipality without a public water supply and sewage system; consequently, residents must seek water from nearby rivers and natural pools.
== History ==
To date, the patron saint festivals of Murindó are dedicated to Saint Bartholomew the Apostle, as the first settlement founded there was named San Bartolomé de Murindó. The year officially recognized as the initial founding of the town is 1835, with Don Juan Paulino Salazar considered its founder. The community has undergone several changes in its geographical, political, and administrative condition, leading to other versions indicating that its definitive erection as a municipal district was in 1914.
Located on the banks of the Atrato River, this municipality is nestled in virgin jungle, making it highly attractive for adventure tourism. It is full of rivers suitable for fishing, natural pools, and paths through abundant nature.
Murindó also represents a great cultural wealth, resulting from the presence of mestizos, blacks, and Emberá Katío indigenous people.
== Political & Administrative Division ==
In addition to its municipal headquarter, Murindó has jurisdiction over the following districts (according to the departmental management):
Bellaluz
Campoalegre
Opogadó
General Information
Foundational values: Symbol of overcoming and Welcoming land where no one is a stranger. It is one of the few regions in the country where Catio indigenous reserves remain. It is connected by road to the towns of Bellavista and Vigía del Fuerte. It is a fluvial port on the Murindó River.
Murindó is known as a Synonym of overcoming.
== Demographics ==
Total Population: 4,911 inhabitants (2018)
Urban Population: 1,760
Rural Population: 3,151
Literacy: 58.5% (2005)
Urban area: 46.5%
Rural area: 53.5% Ethnography According to the figures presented by DANE from the 2005 census, the ethnic composition of the municipality is:
Blacks (47.8%)
Indigenous (42.0%)
Mestizos and whites (10.2%)
== Economy ==
The economy is based primarily on agriculture and fishing. Regarding handicrafts, canoes are carved from wood, as are canaletes, pilones, bateas, and tool handles. Hats, cups, and mats are made from vines, leaves, and fruits.
== Cuisine ==
The community offers very typical dishes that deviate from the standard of traditional Colombian cuisine. Additionally, as the municipality does not belong to the Paisa zone of Antioquia, typical Antioquian dishes are not highlighted. Instead, borojó, chontaduro with salt, and fish prepared in various ways are offered. Other examples include pampa, jenene, tumbo, and birimbi.
== Festivities ==
Day of Tambeo or the Holy Cross
Patron saint festivities of Saint Bartholomew the Apostle
Day of the Matachines.
== Climate ==
Murindó has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy to very heavy rainfall year-round.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Young_(author)#:~:text=In%201991%2C%20the%20couple%20moved,been%20sexually%20or%20spiritually%20abused. | Sarah Young (author) | Sarah Young (March 15, 1946 – August 31, 2023) was an American author known for her contributions to Christian literature particularly for her book Jesus Calling. Young is an advocate of contemplative prayer. Her books have sold over 45 million units worldwide. She has been described as one of the most successful Christian authors in history.
== Life ==
Sarah Jane Kelly was born on March 15, 1946, in Nashville, Tennessee to parents Douglass (Levine) Kelly and Tom Kelly, both educators. She graduated from E. C. Glass High School in Lynchburg, Virginia. Young pursued her higher education at Wellesley College, earning a degree in philosophy in 1968, and later obtained a master's degree in child development from Tufts University in 1974.
While in graduate school, Young, a lapsed Christian, encountered the work of evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer. She later reported that Schaeffer's work profoundly impacted her spiritual journey. She visited L'Abri, an evangelical center in Switzerland, where she had a spiritual encounter and converted to Christianity. She decided to become a Christian counselor and enrolled at Covenant Theological Seminary in Creve Coeur, Missouri, where she met her husband, Stephen Young, a third-generation missionary. They married in 1977 and served as Presbyterian missionaries near Yokkaichi, Japan for eight years. While in Japan, Young gave birth to her two children.
After living in Japan, the family moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where Young earned a master's degree in counseling from Georgia State University.
In 1991, the couple moved to Melbourne, Australia. There, Young started a Christian counseling practice for women who had been sexually or spiritually abused. While meditating on God’s protection, visualizing those she cared for encircled by the Holy Spirit, Young had a mystical experience where she was enveloped by light and overcome by peace.
In 2001, they moved to Perth. In the following years, Young's chronic health conditions, including Lyme disease, melanoma, and vertigo, often left her housebound.
In 2013, the couple moved to Nashville, Tennessee. Young died on August 31, 2023, from leukemia, at her home in Brentwood, Tennessee, aged 77.
== Writing career ==
Young began maintaining a devotional journal in 1992. She practiced "listening prayers," writing down what she thought God was saying to her, rather than what she wanted to say to God. This journal eventually formed the basis of her most famous work, Jesus Calling. Young prepared a manuscript but was initially rejected by publishers and gave up on publishing in 2001. However, her writings eventually caught the attention of an executive at Integrity (later part of Thomas Nelson), who offered her a contract.
Jesus Calling, published in 2004, started modestly but surged in popularity following a renewed marketing effort by Thomas Nelson. The devotional book, composed of daily spiritual readings purportedly written in the voice of Jesus Christ, became a bestseller in the Christian literary world.
The success of Jesus Calling led to the release of sequels, including Jesus Always and Jesus Today, along with various related products such as calendars, journals, and children's editions. Additionally, the Jesus Calling brand expanded into podcasts, an app, a magazine, and a television show, collectively selling over 45 million units as of August 2023.
Jesus Calling also faced criticism from some who accused Young of blasphemy for writing in the voice of Jesus.
== Personal life ==
Young was known as an intensely private individual who preferred to avoid public appearances and gave interviews only by email. She remained dedicated to her faith, her family, and her writing throughout her life.
In 2009, Young traveled to the United States for six months to receive treatment for Lyme disease but saw little improvement.
Young was survived by her husband, Stephen Young, their two children Stephanie van der Westhuizen and Eric Young, her three siblings, and six grandchildren.
== Criticisms ==
Various critics, including Kathy Keller of Redeemer Presbyterian Church, Randy Alcorn of Eternal Perspective Ministries, and Tim Challies of Grace Fellowship Church, among others, have denounced Young's message, calling it dangerous, deeply troubling, occultic, pagan, panentheistic, misleading, idolatrous, and pietistic.
== References ==
== External links ==
Jesus Calling: Sarah Young |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belva_Davis#:~:text=In%201961%2C%20Davis%20became%20an,an%20African%2DAmerican%20beauty%20pageant. | Belva Davis | Belvagene Davis (née Melton; October 13, 1932 – September 24, 2025) was an American television and radio journalist. She was the first African-American woman to become a television reporter on the U.S. West Coast. She won eight Emmy Awards and was recognized by the American Women in Radio and Television and National Association of Black Journalists.
After growing up in Oakland, California, Davis began writing freelance articles for magazines in 1957. Within a few years, she began reporting on radio and television. As a reporter, Davis covered many important events of the day, including issues of race, gender, and politics. She became an anchorwoman and hosted her own talk show, before retiring in 2012.
== Early life ==
Belvagene Melton was born in Monroe, Louisiana, on October 13, 1932, to John and Florence Melton. She was the oldest of four children. Her mother was 14 years old at Belva's birth, and Belva spent her early years living with various relatives. When she was eight years old, Belva and her family, including aunts and cousins, moved to a two-bedroom apartment in the West Oakland neighborhood of Oakland, California. Eleven people lived in the apartment. Davis later said about her youth, "I learned to survive. And, as I moved from place to place, I learned to adapt. When I got older, I just figured I could become whatever it was that I needed to become."
By the late 1940s, her parents were able to afford a house in Berkeley, California. Davis graduated from Berkeley High School in 1951, becoming the first member of her family to graduate from high school. She applied and got accepted into San Francisco State University but couldn't afford to attend college. She went to work as a typist at the Oakland Naval Supply Depot, earning $2,000 a year.
== Journalism career ==
Davis accepted a freelance assignment in 1957 for Jet, a magazine focusing on African-American issues, and became a stringer for the publication. She received $5 per piece with no byline. Over the next few years, she began writing for other African-American publications, including the Sun Reporter and Bay Area Independent. Davis edited the Sun Reporter from 1961 through 1968.
In 1961, Davis became an on-air interviewer for KSAN, a San Francisco AM radio station broadcasting a rhythm and blues music format, targeting black listeners in the Bay Area. She made her television debut in 1963 for KTVU, an Oakland-based television station, covering an African-American beauty pageant. She worked as a disc jockey for KDIA, a soul-gospel radio station (also based in Oakland) when the 1964 Republican National Convention, located at the Cow Palace in nearby Daly City, California, inspired her to become a reporter. According to Davis's account, while she was covering the convention with Louis Freeman, the two were chased out of the Cow Palace by convention attendees throwing food at them and yelling racial slurs. It would not be the last time she encountered racism on the job: In 1967 she covered a march during the Civil Rights Movement in Forsyth County, Georgia, and attempted to interview a white woman who spat in her face.
Davis worked for KNEW, an AM radio station located in Oakland, as an announcer in 1966. She became the first female African-American television journalist on the West Coast when she was hired by KPIX-TV, the CBS affiliate based in San Francisco, in 1966. She spent the next three decades working in Bay Area television, first for KPIX (becoming an anchorwoman in 1970), and a few years later moved to what was then the local NBC affiliate, KRON-TV. Stories she covered include the Berkeley riots of the Free Speech Movement, the Black Panthers, the mass suicide-murder at Jonestown, the Moscone–Milk assassinations, the AIDS and crack epidemics, and the 1998 United States embassy bombing in Tanzania.
For 18 years beginning in 1981, she and Rollin Post co-hosted the KRON's Sunday-morning show "California This Week"
Davis hosted "This Week in Northern California" on PBS member station KQED, starting in the 1990s. She retired in November 2012. Her final broadcast included a taped interview with Maya Angelou, a personal friend, as she wanted the theme of her final show to be friendship.
Davis was highly regarded for her coverage of politics and issues of race and gender, as well as her calm demeanor. Rita Williams, a reporter for KTVU, said "Belva knew instinctively how to keep everyone in check. Amid all these prima donnas, she had so much class, so much presence, so much intuition. Belva has always been the grande dame."
Her autobiography, entitled Never in My Wildest Dreams: A Black Woman's Life in Journalism, was published in 2010. In the foreword, Bill Cosby wrote that she had symbolic value to the African-American television audience, as "someone who sustained us, who made us proud." He wrote that "We looked forward to seeing her prove the stereotypical ugliness of those days to be wrong."
== Personal life and death ==
Belva married Frank Davis on January 1, 1952. The couple had two children, and a granddaughter. Davis met her second husband, Bill Moore, in 1967 while working at KPIX-TV. Davis and Moore lived in the San Francisco neighborhood of Presidio Heights, and later lived in Petaluma, California. Belva Davis, a private person, separated her personal life from her professional life for most of her journalistic life. In 1975, Davis allowed an African-American woman and American Women in Radio and TV member, Kathleen H. Arnold (today anthropologist Kathleen Rand Reed), to produce Belva Davis – This is Your Life. Davis mentored Reed for decades.
Davis served on the boards of Museum of the African Diaspora, the Institute on Aging, and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Davis raised $5 million for the Museum of the African Diaspora in one year.
Davis died in Oakland, California, from a long illness on September 24, 2025, at the age of 92.
== Honors ==
Davis won eight Emmy Awards from the San Francisco / Northern California chapter. She was an honorary member of Alpha Kappa Alpha. She received lifetime achievement awards from the American Women in Radio and Television and National Association of Black Journalists.
== Bibliography ==
Davis, Belva; Haddock, Vicki (2011). Never in My Wildest Dreams: A Black Woman's Life in Journalism. Polipoint Press. ISBN 978-1-936227-06-8.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Belva Davis at IMDb
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Pe%C3%B1ol,_Antioquia | El Peñol, Antioquia | El Peñol is a town and municipality in Antioquia Department, Colombia. The population was 16,223 at the 2018 census. It is part of the subregion of Eastern Antioquia. The town is nationally known for the nearby monolith known also as El Peñol, which is a tourist attraction.
== History ==
The town was originally founded along the Negro-Nare River in 1714 by Fray Miguel de Castro y Rivadeneiro. The area was inhabited by the indigenous Tahamí people prior to the Spanish arrival and colonization of the area.
In 1971, Empresas Públicas de Medellín determined that more water and power was needed to support the rapidly growing city of Medellín, located approximately 50mi/30km to the west, and decided that the
Negro-Nare River should be dammed at Guatape, flooding the Negro-Nare River valley in which El Peñol was located. The old town seized by eminent domain and a new town was built several miles west, disrupting the lives of several thousand residents who were then forced to move to the new town without recourse.
The new dam was completed and the valley flooded in 1978. The El Peñol-Guatapé Reservoir now sits over the former location of El Peñol. A cross now marks the location in the reservoir above the former parish of El Viejo Peñol that fronted the town plaza. Some rural parts of Guatape were also flooded and lost.
== Climate ==
El Peñol has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen: Cfb) consistently warm temperatures and abundant rainfall.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party | National Fascist Party | The National Fascist Party (Italian: Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) was a political party in Italy, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italian fascism and as a reorganisation of the previous Italian Fasces of Combat. The party ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 when Fascists took power with the March on Rome until the fall of the Fascist regime in 1943, when Mussolini was deposed by the Grand Council of Fascism. The National Fascist Party was succeeded by the Republican Fascist Party in the territories under the control of the Italian Social Republic, and it was ultimately dissolved at the end of World War II.
The National Fascist Party was rooted in Italian nationalism and the desire to restore and expand Italian territories, which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists claimed that modern Italy was the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy and historically supported the idea of continued expansion of the Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonisation by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea. The party also supported social conservative stances.
Fascists promoted a corporatist economic system, whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes. Moreover, the PNF strongly advocated autarky.
Italian Fascism, similarly to German Fascism (Nazism), opposed liberalism, but did not seek a reactionary restoration of the pre-French Revolutionary world, which it considered to have been flawed, and not in line with a forward-looking direction on policy. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its typical opposition to nationalism, but was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy, as well as a solid belief that Italy was destined to become the hegemonic power in Europe.
The National Fascist Party along with its successor, the Republican Fascist Party, are the only parties whose re-formation is banned by the Constitution of Italy: "It shall be forbidden to reorganize, under any form whatsoever, the dissolved Fascist party."
== History ==
=== Historical background ===
After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that perceived slight to Italian nationalism in presenting Fascism as best suited for governing the country by successfully claiming that democracy, socialism and liberalism were failed systems.
In 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference, the Allies compelled the Kingdom of Italy to yield to Yugoslavia the Croatian seaport of Fiume (Rijeka), a mostly Italian city of little nationalist significance, until early 1919. Moreover, elsewhere Italy was then excluded from the wartime secret Treaty of London (1915) it had concorded with the Triple Entente, wherein Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join the enemy by declaring war against the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in exchange for territories at war's end, upon which the Kingdom of Italy held claims (see Italia irredenta).
In September 1919, the nationalist response of outraged war hero Gabriele D'Annunzio was declaring the establishment of the Italian Regency of Carnaro. To his independent Italian state, he installed himself as the Regent Duce (Leader) and promulgated the Carta del Carnaro (Charter of Carnaro, 8 September 1920), a politically syncretic constitutional amalgamation of right-wing and left-wing politics – anarchist, proto-fascist and democratic republican ideas – which much influenced the politico-philosophic development of early Italian fascism. Consequent to the Treaty of Rapallo (1920), the metropolitan Italian military deposed the Regency of Duce D'Annunzio on Christmas 1920. In the development of the fascist model of government, D'Annunzio was a nationalist and not a fascist, whose legacy of political–praxis ("Politics as Theatre") was stylistic (ceremony, uniform, harangue and chanting) and not substantive, which Italian fascism artfully developed as a government model.
Founded in Rome during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921, the National Fascist Party marked the transformation of the paramilitary Fasci Italiani di Combattimento into a more coherent political group (the Fasci di Combattimento had been founded by Mussolini in Milan's Piazza San Sepolcro on 23 March 1919).
The Fascist Party was instrumental in directing and popularising support for Mussolini's ideology. In the early years, groups within the PNF called Blackshirts (squadristi) built a base of power by violently attacking socialists and their institutions in the rural Po Valley, thereby gaining the support of landowners. Compared to its predecessor, the PNF abandoned republicanism to turn decisively towards the right-wing of the political spectrum.
=== March on Rome ===
On 28 October 1922, Mussolini attempted a coup d'état, titled the March on Rome by Fascist propaganda, in which almost 30,000 fascists took part. The quadrumvirs leading the Fascist Party, General Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo (one of the most famous ras), Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi, organised the March while the Duce stayed behind for most of the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with the Fascist marchers. Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organisers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori.
On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared before 60,000 people at the Fascist Congress in Naples: "Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy". Meanwhile, the Blackshirts, who had occupied the Po plain, took all strategic points of the country. On 26 October, former prime minister Antonio Salandra warned current prime minister Luigi Facta that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would govern quietly at his side. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Facta (who had resigned the next day on 29 October 1922 but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the king about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the king would agree. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order. On 30 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right-wing part of the population.
The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the squadristi had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment. Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 31 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the conquest of power which fascism later celebrated, but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasised free market and laissez-faire economics. This proved overly optimistic, as Mussolini's corporatist view stressed total state power over businesses as much as over individuals, via governing industry bodies ("corporations") controlled by the Fascist party, a model in which businesses retained the responsibilities of property, but few if any of the freedoms.
Even though the coup failed in giving power directly to the Fascist Party, it nonetheless resulted in a parallel agreement between Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III that made Mussolini the head of the Italian government. On 15 December, the Grand Council of Fascism was founded and it was the supreme organ of the PNF.
=== Fascist government ===
After a drastic modification of electoral legislation (the Acerbo Law), the Fascist Party clearly won the highly controversial elections of April 1924. In early 1925, Mussolini dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a total dictatorship. From that point onward, the PNF was effectively the only legally permitted party in the country. This status was formalised by a law passed in 1928 and Italy remained a one-party state until the end of the Fascist regime in 1943. The new laws were strongly criticised by the leader of the Socialist Party Giacomo Matteotti during his speech in Parliament and a few days later Matteotti was kidnapped and killed by fascist blackshirts.
After taking sole power, the Fascist regime began to impose the Fascist ideology and its symbolism throughout the country. Party membership in the PNF became necessary to seek employment or gain government assistance. The fasces adorned public buildings, Fascist mottos and symbols were displayed in art and a personality cult was created around Mussolini as the nation's saviour called "Il Duce", "The Leader". The Italian parliament was replaced in duties by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations, solely filled with Fascist Party members. The PNF promoted Italian imperialism in Africa and staunchly promoted racial segregation and white supremacy of Italian settlers in the colonies.
In 1930 came the Youth Fasces of Combat. The 1930s were characterised by the secretary Achille Starace, "faithful" to Mussolini and one of the few fascist secretaries from Southern Italy, who launched a campaign of Fascism in the country made up of a wave of ceremonies and rallies and the creation of organisations which aimed to frame the country and the citizen in all its manifestations (both public and private). To regiment youth movements, Starace brought the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) under the direct control of the PNF and the Youth Fasces that were dissolved and merged into the new Gioventù Italiana del Littorio (GIL).
On 27 May 1933, party membership was declared a basic requirement for public office. On 9 March 1937, it became mandatory if one wanted access to any public office and from 3 June 1938 those who did not join the party could not work. In 1939, Ettore Muti replaced Starace at the helm of the party, a fact that testifies to the increasing influence of Galeazzo Ciano, the Minister of Foreign Affairs and son-in-law of Mussolini.
On 10 June 1940, from the balcony of Palazzo Venezia Mussolini announced the entry of Italy into World War II on the side of Hitler's Germany.
=== The Fall of Mussolini ===
On 25 July 1943, following a request from Dino Grandi due to the failure of the war the Grand Council of Fascism overthrew Mussolini by asking the King to resume his full authority in officially removing Mussolini as prime minister, which he did. Mussolini was imprisoned, and the Fascist organizations immediately collapsed and the party was officially banned by Pietro Badoglio's government on 27 July.
After the Nazi-engineered Gran Sasso raid liberated Mussolini in September, the PNF was revived as the Republican Fascist Party (Partito Fascista Repubblicano – PFR; 13 September), as the single party of the Northern and Nazi-protected Italian Social Republic (the Salò Republic). Its secretary was Alessandro Pavolini. The PRF did not outlast Mussolini's execution and the disappearance of the Salò state in April 1945, amidst the final Allied offensive in Italy.
== Ideology ==
Italian Fascism was rooted in Italian nationalism and Georges Sorel's revolutionary syndicalism that eventually evolved into national syndicalism in Italy. Most Italian revolutionary syndicalist leaders were not only "founders of the Fascist movement", but later held key positions in Mussolini's administration. They sought to restore and expand Italian territories, which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists claimed that modern Italy is the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy and historically supported the creation of an Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonisation by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea.
Italian Fascism promoted a corporatist economic system whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes.
Italian Fascism opposed liberalism, but rather than seeking a reactionary restoration of the pre-French Revolutionary world, which it considered to have been flawed as it had a forward-looking direction. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its typical opposition to nationalism, but was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people, alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy.
=== Nationalism ===
Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of Risorgimento by incorporating Italia Irredenta ("unredeemed Italy") into the state of Italy. The National Fascist Party founded in 1921 declared that the party was to serve as "a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles: order, discipline, hierarchy".
It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance and promotes the cultural identity of Romanitas ("Roman-ness"). Italian Fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a "Third Rome", identifying ancient Rome as the "First Rome" and Renaissance-era Italy as the "Second Rome". Italian Fascism has emulated ancient Rome and Mussolini in particular emulated ancient Roman leaders, such as Julius Cæsar as a model for the Fascists' rise to power and Augustus as a model for empire-building. Italian Fascism has directly promoted imperialism, such as within the Doctrine of Fascism (1932) ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini, declared:
The Fascist state is a will to power and empire. The Roman tradition is here a powerful force. According to the Doctrine of Fascism, empire is not only territorial or military or mercantile concept, but a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, that is, a nation, which directly or indirectly guides other nations, without the need to conquer a single square kilometre of territory.
Fascism emphasised the need for the restoration of the Mazzinian Risorgimento tradition that pursued the unification of Italy, that the Fascists claimed had been left incomplete and abandoned in the Giolittian-era Italy. Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed "unredeemed" territories to Italy.
To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. The Fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The Fascists were outraged after World War I, when the agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919.
The Fascist regime supported annexation of Yugoslavia's region of Slovenia into Italy that already held a portion of the Slovene population, whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province, resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of total population of 1.3 million Slovenes being subjected to forced Italianization.
The Fascist regime supported annexation of Albania, claimed that Albanians were ethnically linked to Italians through links with the prehistoric Italiotes, Illyrian and Roman populations and that the major influence exerted by the Roman and Venetian empires over Albania justified Italy's right to possess it. The Fascist regime also justified the annexation of Albania on the basis that — because several hundred thousand people of Albanian descent had been absorbed into society in Southern Italy already — the incorporation of Albania was a reasonable measure that would unite people of Albanian descent into one state. The Fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus – particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. After Italy annexed Albania in 1939, the Fascist regime endorsed assimilating Albanians into Italians and colonising Albania with Italian settlers from the Italian Peninsula to gradually transform it into an Italian land. The Fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the 18th century.
To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the italianità of the island. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by annexation of Corsica into Italy.
To the north of Italy, the Fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch-populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland (the Romansch are a people with a Latin-based language). In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council: "We shall bring our border to the Gotthard Pass". The Fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515. Claim was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the Mesolcina valley and Hinterrhein were held by the Milanese Trivulzio family, who ruled from the Mesocco Castle in the late 15th century. Also during the summer of 1940, Galeazzo Ciano met with Adolf Hitler and Joachim von Ribbentrop and proposed to them the dissection of Switzerland along the central chain of the Western Alps, which would have left Italy also with the canton of Valais in addition to the claims raised earlier.
To the south, the regime claimed the archipelago of Malta, which had been held by the British since 1800. Mussolini claimed that the Maltese language was a dialect of Italian, and theories about Malta being the cradle of the Latin civilisation were promoted. Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it was one of Malta's official languages until 1937, when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia.
Italian irredentists had claimed that territories on the coast of North Africa were Italy's Fourth Shore and used the historical Roman rule in North Africa as a precedent to justify the incorporation of such territories to Italian jurisdiction as being a "return" of Italy to North Africa. In January 1939, Italy annexed territories in Libya that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy. At the same time, indigenous Libyans were given the ability to apply for "Special Italian Citizenship" which required such people to be literate in the Italian language and confined this type of citizenship to be valid in Libya only.
Tunisia, a French protectorate since 1881, had the highest concentration of Italians in North Africa and its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it. Upon entering World War II, Italy declared its intention to seize Tunisia as well as the province of Constantine of Algeria from France.
To the south, the Fascist regime held interest in expanding Italy's African colonial possessions. In the 1920s, Italy regarded Portugal as a weak country that was unbecoming of a colonial power due to its weak hold on its colonies and mismanagement of them and as such Italy desired to annexe Portugal's colonies. Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by the rise to power of the authoritarian conservative nationalist regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, which borrowed fascist methods, though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with Britain.
=== Totalitarianism ===
In 1925, the PNF declared that Italy's Fascist state was to be totalitarian. The term "totalitarian" had initially been used as a pejorative accusation by Italy's liberal opposition that denounced the Fascist movement for seeking to create a total dictatorship. However, the Fascists responded by accepting that they were totalitarian, but presented totalitarianism from a positive viewpoint. Mussolini described totalitarianism as seeking to forge an authoritarian national state that would be capable of completing Risorgimento of the Italia Irredenta, forge a powerful modern Italy and create a new kind of citizen – politically active Fascist Italians.
The Doctrine of Fascism (1932) described the nature of Italian Fascism's totalitarianism, stating the following:
Fascism is for the only liberty which can be a serious thing, the liberty of the state and of the individual in the state. Therefore for the fascist, everything is in the state, and no human or spiritual thing exists, or has any sort of value, outside the state. In this sense fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state which is the synthesis and unity of every value, interprets, develops and strengthens the entire life of the people.
American journalist H. R. Knickerbocker wrote in 1941: "Mussolini's Fascist state is the least terroristic of the three totalitarian states. The terror is so mild in comparison with the Soviet or Nazi varieties, that it almost fails to qualify as terroristic at all." As example he described an Italian journalist friend who refused to become a Fascist. He was fired from his newspaper and put under 24-hour surveillance, but otherwise not harassed; his employment contract was settled for a lump sum and he was allowed to work for the foreign press. Knickerbocker contrasted his treatment with the inevitable torture and execution under Stalin or Hitler, and stated "you have a fair idea of the comparative mildness of the Italian kind of totalitarianism".
However, since World War II, historians have noted that in Italy's colonies Italian Fascism displayed extreme levels of violence. One-tenth of the population of the Italian colony of Libya died during the Fascist era, including from the use of gassings, concentration camps, starvation and disease; in Ethiopia during and after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, a quarter of a million Ethiopians died.
=== Corporatist economics ===
Italian Fascism promotes a corporatist economic system. The economy involves employer and employee syndicates being linked together in corporative associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. It supports criminalisation of strikes by employees and lockouts by employers, as it deems these acts prejudicial to the national community as a whole.
=== Age and gender roles ===
The Italian Fascists' political anthem was called Giovinezza ("The Youth"). Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people that will affect society.
Italian Fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding sexuality. Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered abnormal sexual behaviour. It deemed homosexuality as deviant sexual conduct. The Fascist state also criminalised the dispersion of birth control as well as abortion and created laws that taxed bachelors. Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before puberty as the cause of criminality amongst male youth. Fascist Italy reflected the belief of most Italians that homosexuality was wrong and even went as far as to create punitive laws against homosexuals. Instead of the traditional Catholic teaching that it was a sin, a new approach was taken based on then-modern psychoanalysis that it was a social disease. Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.
Mussolini perceived women's primary role to be childbearers while men were warriors, once saying that "war is to man what maternity is to the woman". In an effort to increase birthrates, the Italian Fascist government gave financial incentives to women who raised large families and initiated policies designed to reduce the number of women employed. Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation" and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation. In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" and that for women working was "incompatible with childbearing". Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force".
=== Tradition ===
Italian Fascism believed that the success of Italian nationalism required a clear sense of a shared past amongst the Italian people, along with a commitment to a modernised Italy. In a famous speech in 1926, Mussolini called for Fascist art that was "traditionalist and at the same time modern, that looks to the past and at the same time to the future".
Traditional symbols of Roman civilisation were used by the Fascists, particularly the fasces that symbolised unity, authority and the exercise of power. Other traditional symbols of ancient Rome used by the Fascists included the she-wolf of Rome. The fasces and the she-wolf symbolised the shared Roman heritage of all the regions that constituted the Italian nation. In 1926, the fasces was adopted by the Fascist government of Italy as a symbol of the state. In that year, the Fascist government attempted to have the Italian national flag redesigned to incorporate the fasces. This was stopped by the strong opposition of Italian monarchists. Afterwards, the Fascist government in public ceremonies raised the national tricolour flag along with a Fascist black flag. Years later, after Mussolini was deposed by the King and rescued by German forces in 1943, the Italian Social Republic founded by Mussolini and the Fascists did incorporate the fasces on the state's war flag, which was a variant of the Italian tricolour national flag.
The issue of the rule of monarchy or republic in Italy was an issue that changed several times through the development of Italian Fascism. Initially Italian Fascism was republican and denounced the Savoy monarchy. However, Mussolini tactically abandoned republicanism in 1922 and recognised that the acceptance of the monarchy was a necessary compromise to gain the support of the establishment to challenge the liberal constitutional order that also supported the monarchy. King Victor Emmanuel III had become a popular ruler in the aftermath of Italy's gains after World War I and the army held close loyalty to the King. Thus any idea of overthrowing the monarchy was discarded as foolhardy by the Fascists at this point. Importantly, Fascism's recognition of monarchy provided Fascism with a sense of historical continuity and legitimacy. The Fascists publicly identified King Victor Emmanuel II – the first King of a reunited Italy, who had initiated the Risorgimento – along with other historic Italian figures, such as Gaius Marius, Julius Cæsar, Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and others, for being within a tradition of dictatorship in Italy that the Fascists declared that they emulated. However, this compromise with the monarchy did not yield a cordial relationship between the King and Mussolini. Although Mussolini formally accepted the monarchy, he pursued and largely achieved reduction of the power of the King to that of a figurehead. The King initially held complete nominal legal authority over the military through the Statuto Albertino. That ended during the Fascist regime when Mussolini created the position of First Marshal of the Empire in 1938. This was a two-person position of control over the military held by both the King and the head of government. It had the effect of eliminating the King's previously exclusive legal authority over the military by giving Mussolini equal legal authority. In the 1930s, Mussolini became aggravated by the monarchy's continued existence due to envy of the fact that his counterpart in Germany Adolf Hitler was both head of state and head of government of a republic; and Mussolini in private denounced the monarchy and indicated that he had plans to dismantle the monarchy and create a republic with himself as head of state of Italy upon an Italian success in the then-anticipated major war about to erupt in Europe.
After Mussolini was deposed by the King in 1943 and Italy switched sides from the Axis to the Allies, Italian Fascism returned to republicanism and condemnation of the monarchy. On 18 September 1943, Mussolini made his first public address to the Italian people since his rescue from arrest by German forces. He commended the loyalty of Hitler as an ally while condemning Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Italian Fascism. On the topic of the monarchy removing him from power and dismantling the Fascist regime, Mussolini stated that "[i]t is not the regime that has betrayed the monarchy, it is the monarchy that has betrayed the regime" and that "[w]hen a monarchy fails in its duties, it loses every reason for being...The state we want to establish will be national and social in the highest sense of the word; that is, it will be Fascist, thus returning to our origins." The Fascists at this point did not denounce the House of Savoy in the entirety of its history. They credited Victor Emmanuel II for his rejection of "scornfully dishonourable pacts" and denounced Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Victor Emmanuel II by entering a dishonourable pact with the Allies.
The relationship between Italian Fascism and the Catholic Church was mixed, as originally it was highly anti-clerical and hostile to Catholicism. From the middle to late 1920s, anti-clericalism lost ground in the movement as Mussolini in power sought accord with the Church. In 1929, the Italian government signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See, a concordat between Italy and the Catholic Church that created the Vatican City enclave, a sovereign state governed by the papacy. This ended years of tension between the Church and the Italian government after Italy annexed the Papal States in 1870. Italian Fascism justified its adoption of antisemitic laws in 1938 by claiming that Italy was fulfilling the Christian religious mandate of the Catholic Church that had been initiated by Pope Innocent III in the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. At that time, the Pope issued oppressive laws for Jews in Christian lands, including requiring distinctive clothing.
== Influence outside Italy ==
The National Fascist Party model was very influential beyond Italy. In the twenty-one-year interbellum period, many political scientists and philosophers sought ideological inspiration from Italy. Mussolini's establishment of law and order to Italy and its society was praised by Winston Churchill, Sigmund Freud, George Bernard Shaw and Thomas Edison, as the Fascist Government combated organised crime and the Mafia with violence and vendetta (honour).
Italian Fascism influenced Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, the Russian Fascist Organization, Brit HaBirionim, the British Union of Fascists, the Romanian National Fascist Movement (the National Romanian Fascia and National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement). The Sammarinese Fascist Party established a government in San Marino with a politico-philosophic basis that was essentially Italian Fascism. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Milan Stojadinović established his Yugoslav Radical Union, which was based on Fascism. Party members wore green shirts, Šajkača caps and used the Roman salute. Stojadinović also took to calling himself Vodja. In Switzerland, pro-Nazi Colonel Arthur Fonjallaz of the National Front became an ardent Mussolini admirer after visiting Italy in 1932 and advocated the Italian annexation of Switzerland, whilst receiving Fascist foreign aid. The country was host for two Italian politico-cultural activities: the International Centre for Fascist Studies (CINEF — Centre International d' Études Fascistes), and the 1934 congress of the Action Committee for the Universality of Rome (CAUR — Comitato d' Azione della Università de Roma). In Spain, the writer Ernesto Giménez Caballero, in Genio de España (The Genius of Spain, 1932) called for the Italian annexation of Spain, led by Mussolini presiding an international Latin Catholic empire. He then progressed to be closely associated with Falangism, leading to discarding the Spanish annexation to Italy. In India, Italian Fascism and particularly the Opera Nazionale Balilla, influenced B.S. Moonje and the Hindu Mahasabha. In Brazil, Italian Fascism played a role in inspiring and financing Plínio Salgado's Brazilian Integralist Action.
== Legacy ==
Although the National Fascist Party was outlawed by the postwar Constitution of Italy, a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Historically, the largest neo-fascist party was the Italian Social Movement (Movimento Sociale Italiano), whose best result was 8.7% of votes gained in the 1972 general election. The MSI was disbanded in 1995 and was replaced by National Alliance, a conservative party that distanced itself from Fascism (its founder, former foreign minister Gianfranco Fini, declared during an official visit to State of Israel that Fascism was "an absolute evil"). National Alliance and a number of neo-fascist parties were merged in 2009 to create the short-lived People of Freedom party led by then Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, which eventually disbanded after the defeat in the 2013 general election. By now, many former members of MSI and AN joined Brothers of Italy, like Giorgia Meloni, Ignazio La Russa, Adolfo Urso, Francesco Lollobrigida, Daniela Santanchè, Luca Ciriani, Tommaso Foti, Nello Musumeci, Gianni Alemanno, Giovanni Donzelli, Nicola Procaccini, Andrea Delmastro Delle Vedove, Luca Ciriani, Marcello Gemmato, Paola Frassinetti, Galeazzo Bignami, Claudio Barbaro, Isabella Rauti, Wanda Ferro, Edmondo Cirielli, Giovanbattista Fazzolari, Alessio Butti, Francesco Acquaroli, Marco Marsilio, Federico Mollicone and Romano Maria La Russa.
== Secretaries of the PNF ==
Michele Bianchi (November 1921 – January 1923)
multiple presidency (January 1923 – October 1923)
Triumvirate: Michele Bianchi, Nicola Sansanelli, Giuseppe Bastianini
Francesco Giunta (15 October 1923 – 22 April 1924)
multiple presidency (23 April 1924 – 15 February 1925)
Quadrumvirate: Roberto Forges Davanzati, Cesare Rossi, Giovanni Marinelli, Alessandro Melchiorri
Roberto Farinacci (15 February 1925 – 30 March 1926)
Augusto Turati (30 March 1926 – 7 October 1930)
Giovanni Giuriati (October 1930 – December 1931)
Achille Starace (December 1931 – 31 October 1939)
Ettore Muti (31 October 1939 – 30 October 1940)
Adelchi Serena (30 October 1940 – 26 December 1941)
Aldo Vidussoni (26 December 1941 – 19 April 1943)
Carlo Scorza (19 April 1943 – 27 July 1943)
== Election results ==
=== Italian Parliament ===
== Party symbols ==
== Slogans ==
Viva il Duce! ("Long live the Leader!")
Saluto al Duce! ("Hail the Leader!")
Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato ("Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State") – Benito Mussolini (October 1925)
La guerra è per l'uomo, come la maternità è per la donna ("War is to man, as motherhood is to woman")
Viva la morte ("Long live death [sacrifice]")
Credere, obbedire, combattere ("Believe, obey, fight")
Vincere e vinceremo! ("Win and we will win!")
Libro e moschetto - fascista perfetto ("Book and rifle - perfect Fascist")
Se avanzo, seguitemi. Se indietreggio, uccidetemi. Se muoio, vendicatemi ("If I advance, follow me. If I retreat, kill me. If I die, avenge me")
La libertà non è diritto è un dovere ("Liberty is not a right it is a duty")
Noi tireremo diritto (literally "We will go straight" or "We shall go forward")
== See also ==
Glossary of Fascist Italy
Fascism
Fascism and ideology
Italian fascism
Revolutionary nationalism
Squadrismo
Ranks and insignia of the National Fascist Party
Italian fascism and racism
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Renzo De Felice, Le interpretazioni del fascismo, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1977
Renzo De Felice, I rapporti tra fascismo e nazionalsocialismo fino all'andata al potere di Hitler. 1922-1933. Appunti e documenti. Anno accademico 1970-1971, Napoli, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1971
Renzo De Felice, Autobiografia del fascismo. Antologia di testi fascisti, 1919-1945, Minerva italica, Bergamo, 1978
Renzo De Felice, Intellettuali di fronte al fascismo. Saggi e note documentarie, Bonacci, Roma, 1985
Renzo De Felice, Fascismo, Prefazione di Sergio Romano, Introduzione di Francesco Perfetti, Luni Editrice, Milano-Trento, 1998. ISBN 88-7984-109-2
Renzo De Felice, Breve storia del Fascismo, Mondadori, Milano, 2002
Carlo Galeotti, Achille Starace e il vademecum dello stile fascista, Rubbettino, 2000 ISBN 88-7284-904-7
Carlo Galeotti, Benito Mussolini ama molto i bambini..., Galeotti editore, 2022
Carlo Galeotti, Saluto al Duce!, Gremese, 2001
Carlo Galeotti, Credere obbedire combattere, Stampa alternativa, 1996
Paola S. Salvatori, La seconda Mostra della Rivoluzione fascista, in "Clio", XXXIX, 3, 2003, pp. 439–459
Paola S. Salvatori, La Roma di Mussolini dal socialismo al fascismo. (1901-1922), in «Studi Storici», XLVII, 2006, 3, pp. 749–780
Paola S. Salvatori, L'adozione del fascio littorio nella monetazione dell'Italia fascista, in "Rivista italiana di numismatica e scienze affini", CIX, 2008, pp. 333–352
Paola S. Salvatori, Liturgie immaginate: Giacomo Boni e la romanità fascista, in "Studi Storici", LIII, 2012, 2, pp. 421–438
== External links ==
THE DOCTRINE OF FASCISM / BENITO MUSSOLINI (1932)
Fascist Italy and the Jews: Myth versus Reality Archived 27 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine an online lecture by Dr. Iæl Nidam-Orvieto of Yad Vashem |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briggs_%26_Stratton_Raptor | Briggs & Stratton Raptor | The Briggs & Stratton Raptor series is a line of single-cylinder, four-cycle flathead engines. The series includes:
Raptor 1: an industrial-based 3-horsepower flathead Model 13 engine introduced in the early 1970s.
Raptor II: Released in the 1980s, it introduced the aluminum-bore dual-bearing block and had four horsepower standard. A cast-aluminum connecting rod decreased internal mass and extended engine life. It was designed after the company's kart-racing engines but without the racing parts.
Raptor III: The final Raptor variant, released in 1995, had five horsepower and added a cast-alloy crank with a carbon-infused piston. It is the best-selling kart-racing engine of all time; hundreds of thousands remain in service.
BlockZilla: The block is about 6 lb (2.7 kg) heavier and has more structural integrity. The exhaust and intake ports are set on an angle.
== External links ==
[1] A Briggs Raptor III. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_J._Allen#:~:text=Benjamin%20Joseph%20Allen%20(born%20January,UNI)%20from%202006%20to%202013. | Benjamin J. Allen | Benjamin Joseph Allen (born January 5, 1947) is an American academic who served as president of the University of Northern Iowa (UNI) from 2006 to 2013. It was announced on March 24, 2017 that Allen would begin serving as interim president for Iowa State University on May 9 after former president Steven Leath announced he would be leaving for Auburn University.
== Education ==
Allen received his Bachelor of Science degree in business economics from Indiana University Bloomington in 1969 and Master of Arts (1973) and Ph.D. (1974) in economics from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.
== Career ==
Allen taught at Washington State University from 1974 to 1979 and was a Brookings Economic Policy Fellow in the Office of Transportation Regulatory Policy at the U.S. Department of Transportation from 1976 to 1977. Allen joined the faculty of Iowa State University in 1979. In the 1986–87 academic year, Allen was the Visiting McKinley Professor of Economics and Public Utilities at the University of Illinois. Allen then held the Oren Harris Chair in Transportation at the University of Arkansas during the 1990-91 academic year. From 1984 to 1988 then 1991 to 2002, Allen was a professor at Iowa State in the departments of economics and transportation. Allen chaired the Iowa State University Department of Transportation and Logistics from 1984 to 1988 and was dean of the Iowa State University College of Business from 1994 to 2000.
Allen was vice president for academic affairs and provost at Iowa State University from 2002 to 2006, succeeding Rollin C. Richmond, who went on to be president of Humboldt State University. At Iowa State, he was named the first University Distinguished Professor in Business.
=== University of Northern Iowa ===
He was named the ninth president of the University of Northern Iowa on April 28, 2006, and assumed his duties on June 5, 2006.
In 2007, President Allen was appointed by two state college associations (the American Association of State Colleges and Universities and the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges) to the Presidential Advisory Committee for the National Commission of University Accountability.
Under his leadership, the University of Northern Iowa established its priorities of increasing student achievement in undergraduate programs and providing statewide leadership in Pre-K through 12 education, including UNI's lead role in the Iowa Mathematics and Science Education Partnership with Iowa State University and the University of Iowa. During his time as president, the ninth United States Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, the 14th Dalai Lama, and Michelle Obama visited and gave speeches at the campus.
President Allen is co-chair of the Institute for Tomorrow's Workforce, a non-profit educational foundation created to help prepare all Iowa learners for the 21st century global marketplace. He is an ex-officio board member of the Iowa Department of Economic Development, and he co-chairs the education subcommittee of the Iowa Business Council, composed of education and business executives committed to enhancing Iowa's economic vitality. A staunch supporter of the local community, President Allen is a member of the executive committee of the Greater Cedar Valley Alliance. He is a director for Heartland Express Company.
President Allen was diagnosed with prostate cancer on November 15, 2010 and took a leave of absence starting on February 7, 2011. Provost Gloria Gibson served in the role of Interim President during the absence. President Allen underwent a routine procedure and made a full recovery.
On February 29, 2012, the Teacher Education Faculty at the University of Northern Iowa voted 15-1 (with one abstention) to support a motion of no confidence in President Allen, Provost Gloria Gibson, and the Iowa Board of Regents. Their vote was a protest of the decision-making process in President Allen's recommendation to the Board of Regents to close the Malcolm Price Laboratory School/Northern University High School, effective June 30, 2012. On March 2, 2012, the university faculty voted 197-53 in support of a motion of no confidence in President Allen. Speakers cited the lack of faculty consultation in the decision making process to close the Price Lab School, and several academic programs on campus. On March 15, 2012, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) said they would investigate reports that the UNI administration had violated rules of academic governance in making budget cuts and firing faculty, and that their probe could lead to a formal censure of the university by the AAUP.
=== Criticism ===
On October 24, 2012, Allen released an online statement regarding a student in a psychology course at UNI. The student, a member of the Iowa National Guard, would not be able to be in class on the day of an exam due to the requirements of the Guard, and spoke briefly with professor Cathy DeSoto, who said she would look into the university policy for military service which caused missed classes, but that the standard missed-class policy would apply. The student later filed a standard grievance, as DeSoto had recommended.
In his statement, Allen went on to write: "As university president and a veteran, I strongly disagree with the decision made by the professor in this case. We have been working with the student involved from the beginning, and continue to work with him to help ensure he won't be penalized for serving his country." Allen released this statement before speaking with DeSoto, and no penalty was or has been placed on the student in the case. Yet Allen's statement led to angry calls and emails to DeSoto and her family, as well as vandalism of her car, such that DeSoto needed a police escort.
A letter from American Association of University Professors (AAUP) President Rudy Fichtenbaum questioned Allen's handling of the case: "The media response, which unfairly and falsely characterized Professor DeSoto's actions, was a direct result of your premature and provocative press release. As a consequence of your actions, Professor DeSoto and members of her family received numerous threatening e-mails and phone calls."
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium#:~:text=Swami%20Vivekananda%20Planetarium%2C%20also%20called,mechanical%20(hybrid)%20projection%20system. | Swami Vivekananda Planetarium | Swami Vivekananda Planetarium, also called Pilikula Planetarium, at Pilikula Nisargadhama in Mangaluru is the first 3D planetarium in India. It is also only such planetarium in the country with hybrid modern technology innovations coupled with 3D technology of 8K digital and opto-mechanical (hybrid) projection system. It is a part of the Pilikula Nisargadhama (covering an area of 370 acres (150 ha)), which is also named Dr Shivaram Karanth Biological Park. It is planned and built to provide the best learning experience for students and enthusiasts on Zodiacal system of planets. Its creation is attributed to Pilikula Regional Science Centre.
== History ==
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium is the first state-of-the-art 3D planetarium in India. It was initiated in 2013 to mark the 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda by the then chief minister of Karnataka, Jagadish Shettar, who had laid the foundation stone to build it in two years at a cost of ₹35.69 crore (US$4.2 million). However, the project overran its schedule completion, and the planetarium could be opened only on 1 March 2018. It was set up with grants from KSTePS (Karnataka Science and Technology Promotion Society) of the Karnataka government. The planetarium's objective is intended to give the viewers (students in particular and the public) to see the stars and planetary systems in the universe. Its creation is attributed to Pilikula Regional Science Centre.
The planetarium was planned and established as the first planetarium in the country with 8K digital and opto-mechanical (hybrid) projection system. Five technical persons were initially sent to Utah, US, for training to operate the planetarium. The planetarium also has a provision of ₹1.5 crore (US$180,000) for annual maintenance.
== Technical specifications ==
The planetarium has a dome diameter of 18 m (59 ft) and a seating capacity of 170; the seats can be tilted by 15 degrees to enhance the viewing experience of the audience. It has a Megastar IIA optical projector integrated with digistar and active stereo 3D 8K digital planetarium system manufactured in US by Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation. The projected 3 dimensional images on the screen are a part of a new level of full dome innovation. The 32 lenses of the 8K ultra-bright LED-based projector, from Ohira Tech Japan, is said to be capable of beaming "20 million stars uniformly and seamlessly over the nano-seam panels of the dome, thereby avoiding the overlapping of projected visuals."
== Programmes ==
The planetarium was inaugurated on 1 March 2018 and started the first public show on 2 March 2018. Eight shows are held daily with each show lasting 25 minutes. Some of the 3D shows screened are We are stars, Dawn of the space age and Mysteries of the unseen world. The shows cover space technology, planets, nature, environment science, history and geography, which are presented in English, Hindi and Kannada. The first inaugural show screened was We are stars which covers the story of space of billions of years from the time of the Big Bang to the modern day.
== Access ==
The planetarium is located at the Pilikula Regional Science Centre at Moodushedde, 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) away from Mangalore. which is well connected by road, rail, and air services with the rest of the country. Mangalore railway station, in the city centre, is connected to the major cities including Chennai, Mumbai and New Delhi. Mangalore International Airport is located about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) away from the city centre. By road, it is 350 kilometres (220 mi) west of Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Astrotourism in India
List of planetariums
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Liverpool_F.C._season#Goals | 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season | The 2021–22 season was Liverpool Football Club's 130th season in existence and their 60th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. Liverpool were on course to winning a unique quadruple, as they won a record-breaking ninth EFL Cup and the FA Cup, beating Chelsea on penalties in both finals. However, they lost the Premier League title by one point to Manchester City, and – in a repeat of the 2018 final – lost the Champions League final to Real Madrid. This was the first season since 2015–16 without Georginio Wijnaldum, who departed to Paris Saint-Germain and the first since 2017–18 without Xherdan Shaqiri, who departed to Lyon.
== Season overview ==
Liverpool excelled in both the FA Cup and EFL Cup, beating Chelsea in both finals on penalties after both matches ended in goalless draws. On the final day of the season, Liverpool faced Wolverhampton Wanderers at Anfield, while their title challengers Manchester City faced Aston Villa at the Etihad Stadium. Liverpool found themselves 0–1 down early in the match, however, City were also a goal down to Villa. Sadio Mané levelled the scoreline for Liverpool, and their title hopes were kept alive by the fact that City were now 0–2 down. However, City went on to score three goals in five minutes to take the lead and, despite Mohamed Salah and Andy Robertson scoring two late goals to beat Wolves 3–1, it was not enough and the Reds were pipped to the title by a point. Meanwhile in the UEFA Champions League, despite being drawn in a group with Atlético Madrid, AC Milan and Porto, Liverpool made history by becoming the first English club to win all six group stage matches. They advanced all the way to the final where they took on Real Madrid, as they had done four years earlier. In Paris, the same city in which the Reds won the European Cup against Madrid in 1981, they lost 0–1 as Vinícius Júnior scored the only goal of the game for Los Blancos.
== First-team squad ==
As of 28 May 2022
=== New contracts ===
== Transfers ==
=== Transfers in ===
=== Transfers out ===
=== Loans out ===
=== Transfer summary ===
== Pre-season and friendlies ==
On 12 July 2021, Liverpool announced that they would play four friendlies as part of a pre-season training camp in Austria. On 19 July, they stated that they would complete their pre-season campaign with two home friendlies. On 29 July, the Reds confirmed that they would face Bologna in two sixty-minute matches as part of a training camp in France in between the previously announced engagements.
Win
Draw
Loss
Fixtures
== Competitions ==
=== Overview ===
=== Premier League ===
==== League table ====
==== Results summary ====
==== Results by matchday ====
==== Matches ====
The league fixtures were revealed on 16 June 2021.
=== FA Cup ===
Liverpool were drawn at home to Shrewsbury Town in the third round to begin their participation in the competition.
=== EFL Cup ===
Liverpool entered the competition in the third round.
=== UEFA Champions League ===
Liverpool entered the competition in the group stage.
==== Group stage ====
The draw for the group stage was held on 26 August 2021, with the fixtures announced a day later.
==== Knockout phase ====
===== Round of 16 =====
The draw for the round of 16 took place on 13 December 2021 at UEFA's headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland. Liverpool were drawn against reigning Serie A champions Inter Milan.
===== Quarter-finals =====
The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 18 March 2022, with Liverpool being paired with Benfica.
===== Semi-finals =====
The draw for the semi-finals was held on 18 March 2022, after the quarter-finals draw, with Liverpool being drawn against Villarreal, reigning Europa League champions.
===== Final =====
The final was held on 28 May 2022 in Paris, with Liverpool facing 13-time winners Real Madrid. This was Liverpool's tenth European Cup final, the most of any English club, and third in five years; it was a rematch of the 2018 final, which Liverpool lost 1–3.
== Squad statistics ==
=== Appearances ===
Players with no appearances are not included on the list.
=== Goals ===
=== Clean sheets ===
=== Disciplinary record ===
== Club awards ==
=== End-of-season awards ===
Standard Chartered Men's Player of the Season: Mohamed Salah
Goal of the Season: Mohamed Salah (vs. Man City, 3 October 2021)
=== Player of the Month award ===
Awarded monthly to the player that was chosen by fans voting on Liverpoolfc.com
== See also ==
2021–22 in English football
List of Liverpool F.C. seasons
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugbara_people | Lugbara people | The Lugbara are a Central Sudanic ethnic group who live primarily in the West Nile region of Uganda, in the adjoining area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) with a few living in South Sudan. They speak the Lugbara language, a Central Sudanic language similar to the language spoken by the Madi, with whom they also share many cultural similarities.
== Traditions and culture ==
Traditionally, the Lugbara are farmers who rear some livestock and poultry, mainly guineafowl locally known as ope; they are the predominant keepers of guineafowl in Uganda. Lugbara occupy the West Nile region of Uganda (Arua City, Arua, Maracha, Terego, Madi-Okollo, Yumbe and Koboko districts of Uganda to be specific). The Lugbara are divided into many dialects which are easily understandable to each other. These include: Ayivu, Maracha, Terego, Vurra and Aringa. Tribes related to the Lugbara in language include Madi and Kaliko in South Sudan. The Lugbara also have a special name-giving ceremony called Cikiri every time a child is born.
In the early days, the Lugbara were a mainly chiefdom-based community. They did not have kingdoms and kings presiding over them like other ethnic groups in Uganda. They mainly had chiefs who were their leaders. They formed friendly alliances with neighboring tribes so as to ensure their security against attacks from other ethnic groups. The earlier Lugbara did not have soldiers or a standing army in their chiefdoms. Every able-bodied man had the duty to protect his village hence all able-bodied men were automatically considered a soldier though this was not a permanent duty. The Lugbara were originally animists as their mythology attests. However, Christianity is now the predominant religion amongst them with Islam another major religion. According to the 2002 Census of Uganda, the majority of Lugbara people at around 48.6% are Roman Catholic, while 21.4% are Anglican and 29.1% are Sunni Muslim.
They are settled subsistence farmers. Cassava is now the traditional staple. They also grow millet, sorghum, legumes, pigeon peas, beans and a variety of root crops. Before cassava was introduced to the Lugbara to manage famine when the cereals millet and sorghum failed due to drought in the 1960s; millet and sorghum used to be their staple food. Chicken, pigs, goats, and at higher elevations, cattle are also important. Groundnuts, Simsim [sesame], chick peas and sweet potatoes are also grown. Maize is grown for brewing beer, and tobacco is a very important cash crop. Emerging cash crops are avocado, pineapple, and mangoes.
In early days of 1874 the North Eastern side of the Democratic Republic of Congo, a faction of the Lugbara were called "The Naked People", due to their attitude towards clothing. Most women did not wear shirts and many of them did not wear even dresses, but they were covered with grass skirts or leaves. Taller than many Congolese, the Lugbara men are great hunters as well, using powerful bows with long arrows that have fishing hooks type tips.
This ethnic group straddles the common border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo with the majority of their population in the Congo side of the border. Some live in South Sudan.
A collection of the proverbs of the Lugbara have been published, and also a description of how their proverbs relate to ethics. The same author has described other parts of traditional Lugbara customs and society.
Famous and well known Lugbara include Dorcus Inzikuru, the 3000-metre steeple chase world champion in Helsinki 2005 and Jackson Asiku, the previous Commonwealth boxing light-weight champion. Another important Lugbara is John Munduga, an international boxer plus Idi Amin Dada, former president of Uganda mostly remembered/ known for expelling the Asians.
The cultural symbol of the Lugbara is a leopard with 300 spots.
== Notable people ==
Dorcus Inzikuru
Jackson Asiku
Idi Amin Dada
John Munduga
== See also ==
Lugbara cuisine
Lugbara language
Lugbara mythology
Lugbara proverbs
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Middleton, J. (1965). The Lugbara of Uganda. Case studies in cultural anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2nd edition published 1992, Fort Worth : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, ISBN 978-0-15-500622-5.
== External links ==
Lugbara entry from Ethnologue |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_bin_Zayed_University_of_Artificial_Intelligence | Mohamed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence | The Mohamed Bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence (MBZUAI) is a research university located in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Established in 2019, it was the first graduate-level research university focused on artificial intelligence. It launched an undergraduate program in 2025.
== History ==
The establishment of MBZUAI is part of the United Arab Emirates' strategy for Artificial Intelligence 2031. This policy seeks to "position the country as a global AI leader", and included the appointment of the world's first Minister of State for Artificial Intelligence. MBZUAI is the "world's first graduate-level, research-based AI university".
The university was founded in October 2019. It was named after Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and the board of trustees was chaired by Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, while its advisory board was chaired by Omar Al Olama, the UAE's first Minister of State for Artificial Intelligence.
The Ministry of Education accredited six MBZUAI graduate programs in February 2020 and granted the university a license in April 2020. The initial class of graduate students were to start coursework in the fall of 2020, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic this was delayed to January 2021. At the time classes began the university had 11 faculty members and 78 students (13 PhD and 65 MSc) in machine learning and computer vision. Due to pandemic restrictions the first classes were held online using Moodle software. The first in-person classes began in the fall of 2021.
The first cohort of PhD and MsC students graduated in January 2023. By 2024, at least 25 additional faculty members had been recruited, and departments had been established in robotics, computer science, and statistics and data science. The first undergraduate program at MBZUAI, a bachelor of science in artificial intelligence, was launched in March 2025.
== Campus ==
MBZUAI is located in Masdar City, a sustainable urban community designed as a smart innovation cluster. The campus uses low-carbon transportation methods, including electric buses and golf carts.
When classes began in 2021, the university had only six classrooms, most of which could accommodate class sizes of no larger than 20 students. Shortly afterward the classrooms were redesigned to better accommodate remote and hybrid learning options and more flexible layouts, such as having an instructor in one classroom broadcast a lecture to the other classrooms and to online students.
The campus also includes a gymnasium, swimming pool, and squash and badminton courts.
== Administration ==
The current president, Eric Xing, joined in January 2021. Sir J. Michael Brady served as the founding, interim president. Professor Ling Shao was the founding provost and executive vice president. Timothy Baldwin was appointed provost in April 2024. As of 2025, the Board of Trustees was chaired by Khaldoon Khalifa Al Mubarak.
== Academics ==
The goal of the university is "producing a new generation of AI leaders and experts". According to The Economist, MBZUAI and the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology "have poached star professors from illustrious institutions such as the University of California, Berkeley, and Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh".
MBZUAI provides undergraduate, master's, and Ph.D. programs in artificial intelligence, computer science, computer vision, machine learning, natural language processing, robotics, and statistics & data science. As of 2025 the institution had 84 faculty members and over 200 postdocs and researchers.
In October 2021, the university launched a 12-week Executive Program for leaders implementing AI in their organizations. In March 2022, the university graduated the first class of participants.
== Research ==
The university's research program has four pillars: improving services offered by the public and private sectors, enhancing efficiencies and improving productivity in industry and manufacturing, support new and emerging high-value sectors, and optimizing environmental sustainability. MBZUAI has a joint AI research program with the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.
MBZUAI has a dedicated research hub on foundation models. It coordinated the development of Jais, a large language model for Arabic, to be used by the Emirati government for administrative functions. Other research hubs include the Center for Integrative Artificial Intelligence, the Metaverse Center, and the Institute of Digital Public Health. It also has a business incubator and a joint lab with the Abu Dhabi Digital Authority to support government service initiatives.
== Student life ==
The university provides graduate students with a full scholarship support package, including a monthly stipend, health insurance, and accommodations, "in exchange for full-time commitment to studying and researching in the field of AI". This approach is designed to "attract students who would otherwise have gone to well-established hubs in the West or China".
The 2024 intake included 209 students (147 MSc and 62 PhD) from 36 countries. Many students are Chinese and 31% are women. The student-faculty ratio is 5:1.
As of 2024, 212 students had graduated from the master's and PhD programs. Most stay in the region after graduation. More than half pursue industry internships during their program, and many participate in hackathons or research conferences.
== See also ==
List of universities in the United Arab Emirates
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_Pacquiao#:~:text=Pacquiao%20married%20Jinkee%20Jamora%20on,have%20five%20children%2C%20Emmanuel%20Jr. | Manny Pacquiao | Emmanuel Dapidran Pacquiao Sr. ( PAK-ee-ow; locally [ˈmanɪ pɐkˈjaʊ]; born December 17, 1978) is a Filipino professional boxer and retired politician. Nicknamed "PacMan", he is widely regarded as one of the greatest professional boxers of all time, becoming the only eight-division world champion in boxing history. He also served as a senator of the Philippines from 2016 to 2022.
Pacquiao has won twelve major world titles overall. He is the first boxer to win major world titles in four of the eight "glamour divisions" (flyweight, featherweight, lightweight, and welterweight), and is the only boxer to hold world championships across four decades (1990s, 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s). In July 2019, Pacquiao became the oldest welterweight world champion in history at the age of 40, and the first boxer in history to become a recognized four-time welterweight champion, after defeating Keith Thurman to win the WBA (Super) welterweight title. As of 2015, Pacquiao's fights had generated $1.2 billion in revenue from his 25 pay-per-view bouts. Forbes ranked him the second highest paid athlete in the world in 2012 and 2015, and the eighth highest paid athlete of the 2010s. In 2024, ESPN ranked Pacquiao as the greatest Asian athlete of the 21st century. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in the class of 2025.
Pacquiao entered politics in 2010 when he was elected as the representative of Sarangani. He held this post for six years until he was elected and assumed office as a senator in 2016. He became the leader of the (at that time ruling) PDP–Laban party in 2020 (which is disputed since 2021). On September 19, 2021, Pacquiao officially declared his candidacy for President of the Philippines in the 2022 Philippine presidential election; he ended up losing to Bongbong Marcos. Following his unsuccessful campaign in the 2025 Senate election, he announced his intention to retire from politics and came out of retirement from boxing.
Outside of boxing and politics, Pacquiao was the player-coach for the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA) team Kia/Mahindra for three seasons from 2014 to 2017, before founding the semi-professional Maharlika Pilipinas Basketball League. He has also starred in films and has presented television shows. In music, he has released multiple PARI-certified platinum albums and songs; his cover of "Sometimes When We Touch" peaked at 19 in the United States on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart after a performance on Jimmy Kimmel Live! He is an Evangelical Christian preacher, philanthropist, and entrepreneur.
== Early life and education ==
Manny Pacquiao was born as Emmanuel Dapidran Pacquiao on December 17, 1978, in Kibawe, Bukidnon, on the island of Mindanao, Philippines. He is the son of Rosalio Pacquiao and actress Dionisia Dapidran. His parents separated when he was in sixth grade, after his father had an affair. He is the fourth of six siblings, one of whom, Alberto "Bobby" Pacquiao, is also a politician and former professional boxer. Pacquiao was raised in General Santos, South Cotabato, also on the island of Mindanao.
At the age of 14, Pacquiao moved to Manila and lived on the streets, worked as a construction worker and had to pick between eating or sending money to his mother. Pacquiao completed his elementary education at Saavedra Saway Elementary School in General Santos, but dropped out of high school due to extreme and abject poverty.
In February 2007, Pacquiao took and passed a high school equivalency exam, and was awarded with a high school diploma by the Department of Education.
== Boxing career ==
=== Overview ===
Manny Pacquiao has an amateur record of 60–4 and a record of 62–8–3 as a professional, with 39 wins by knockout. Boxing historian Bert Sugar ranked Pacquiao as the greatest southpaw fighter of all time. In 2021, he ranked number 1 in DAZN's list of the top 10 boxers of the last 30 years.
Pacquiao made history by being the first boxer ever to win world titles in eight weight divisions, having won twelve major world titles. Pacquiao is also the first boxer in history to win major world titles in four of the original eight weight classes of boxing, also known as the "glamour divisions" (flyweight, featherweight, lightweight and welterweight), and the first boxer ever to become a four-decade world champion, winning world championships across four decades (1990s, 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s).
Pacquiao was long rated as the best active boxer in the world, pound for pound, by most sporting news and boxing websites, including ESPN, Sports Illustrated, Sporting Life, Yahoo! Sports, About.com, BoxRec and The Ring, beginning from his climb to lightweight until his losses in 2012. He is also the longest reigning top-ten active boxer on The Ring's pound for pound list from 2003 to 2016.
Pacquiao has generated approximately 20.4 million in pay-per-view (PPV) buys and $1.3 billion in revenue from 26 PPV-bouts. According to Forbes, he was the world's second highest paid athlete in 2015.
Pacquiao signed with Bob Arum's Top Rank from 2015 to 2017 and Al Haymon's Premier Boxing Champions (PBC) promotion on 2018 alongside Paradigm Sports Management on 2020.
On September 29, 2021, Pacquiao announced his retirement from boxing, in a post on social media.
On July 28, 2024, Pacquiao made his debut on Super RIZIN 3 in an exhibition featherweight bout against kickboxer Rukiya Anpo in a boxing match under Rizin Special standing bout rules. As there was no judge's decision, the bout ended in a draw.
=== Early years ===
Pacquiao was introduced to boxing at the age of 12 by his maternal uncle Sardo Mejia. According to his autobiography, Pacquiao said watching James "Buster" Douglas defeat Mike Tyson in 1990 with his Uncle Sardo was an experience that "changed my life forever". Mejia began training his nephew in a makeshift home gym. After 6 months of training, Pacquiao began boxing in a park in General Santos, eventually traveling to other cities to fight higher-ranked opponents. By age 15, he was considered the best junior boxer in the southern Philippines and he moved to Manila. In January 1995, at the age of 16, he made his professional boxing debut as a junior flyweight.
Pacquiao stated of his early years, "Many of you know me as a legendary boxer, and I'm proud of that. However, that journey was not always easy. When I was younger, I became a fighter because I had to survive. I had nothing. I had no one to depend on except myself. I realized that boxing was something I was good at, and I trained hard so that I could keep myself and my family alive."
On December 4, 1998, at the age of 19, he won his first major title, the World Boxing Council (WBC) flyweight title.
=== Notable fights ===
Over the course of his decorated career, Pacquiao has defeated 22 world champions: Chatchai Sasakul, Lehlohonolo Ledwaba, Jorge Eliécer Julio, Marco Antonio Barrera (twice), Érik Morales (twice), Óscar Larios, Jorge Solís, Juan Manuel Márquez (twice), David Díaz, Oscar De La Hoya, Ricky Hatton, Miguel Cotto, Joshua Clottey, Antonio Margarito, Shane Mosley, Brandon Ríos, Timothy Bradley (twice), Chris Algieri, Jessie Vargas, Lucas Matthysse, Adrien Broner and Keith Thurman.
Pacquiao's most recent bout was against Mario Barrios in July 2025.
Pacquiao also participated in an exhibition match against former world champion Jesus Salud in August 2002 which he won.
==== Ranking and awards ====
Pacquiao was named "Fighter of the Decade" for the 2000s by the Boxing Writers Association of America (BWAA), World Boxing Council (WBC), World Boxing Organization (WBO), The Sporting News and Home Box Office (HBO). In 2006, 2008, and 2009, he was awarded Ring magazine, ESPN and BWAA's Fighter of the Year, and in 2009 and 2011 he won the Best Fighter ESPY Award. BoxRec ranks him as the greatest Asian fighter of all time. In 2016, Pacquiao ranked No. 2 on ESPN's list of top pound for pound boxers of the past 25 years and he ranks No.4 in BoxRec's ranking of the greatest pound for pound boxers of all time. As of 2022, Pacquiao was ranked ninth in The Ring's list of the top 100 boxers of all time.
Manny Pacquiao is a holder of six Guinness Book World Records. He has the most consecutive boxing world title fight victories at different weights at 15, between 2005 and 2011; he is named the oldest welterweight boxing world champion when he claimed the WBA Welterweight title aged 40 years 215 days on July 20, 2019; he has the most boxing world titles won in different weight divisions with eight, when he defeated Antonio Margarito (USA) to win the WBC Super Welterweight title on November 13, 2010. He has also held sanctioned belts in the WBC Flyweight, Super Featherweight and Lightweight divisions, plus The Ring Featherweight, IBF Super Bantamweight, IBO and The Ring Light Welterweight and WBO Welterweight. He recorded the highest selling pay-per-view boxing match in a Welterweight title fight at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, on May 2, 2015, and the highest revenue earned from ticket sales for a boxing match from ticket sales title fight at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, on May 2, 2015.
=== Olympics ===
Pacquaio has never competed in the Summer Olympics. However, he would participate in the parade of nations of the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony as the Philippine delegation's flag bearer; the first-ever non-participant to serve as the country's flagbearer. Swimmer Miguel Molina, 2005 Southeast Asian Games' Best Male Athlete, yielded the role to Pacquiao, upon the request of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo to national sports officials.
He had the opportunity to compete in the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, when professional boxers under the age of 40 were allowed to compete in the games for the first time. However Pacquiao, decided not to compete. Pacquiao would signify his interest to qualify for the 2024 Summer Olympics in France. The Philippine Olympic Committee would make a failed petition to the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Now 45-years old, Pacquiao was disallowed to participate after the IOC decide to uphold the 40-year-old age limit.
=== Earnings ===
Forbes listed Pacquiao as the world's equal sixth highest paid athlete, with a total of $40 million or ₱2 billion pesos from the second half of 2008 to the first half of 2009. Tied with him on the sixth spot was NBA player LeBron James and golfer Phil Mickelson. Pacquiao was again included in Forbes' list of highest paid athletes from the second half of 2009 to the first half of 2010; he was ranked eighth with an income of $42 million. Pacquiao also won the 2009 ESPY Awards for the Best Fighter category, beating fellow boxer Shane Mosley and Brazilian mixed martial arts fighters Lyoto Machida and Anderson Silva. ESPN Magazine reported that Pacquiao was one of the two top earning athletes for 2010, alongside American Major League Baseball player Alex Rodriguez. According to the magazine's annual salary report of athletes, Pacquiao earned $32 million (approximately PhP 1.38 billion) for his two 2010 boxing matches against Clottey and Margarito.
=== Sports administration ===
Pacquiao was appointed as vice president of the International Boxing Association in October 2025. The Philippine Olympic Committee has cautioned Pacquiao over associating himself with the IBA, an organization which has been expelled from the International Olympic Committee.
== Basketball career ==
On April 17, 2014, Pacquiao, a passionate basketball fan, announced his intention to join the Philippine Basketball Association as the playing coach of Kia Motors Basketball team, an incoming expansion team for the PBA's 2014–15 season. As the team's head coach, he asked other teams to not draft him before Kia, and picked himself 11th overall in the first round of the 2014 PBA draft, being the oldest rookie to be ever drafted in the league's history. Pacquiao played basketball as part of his training before his matches and prior to his PBA stint, Pacquiao was named an honorary member of the Boston Celtics and established friendships with Steph Curry and basketball Hall of Famers Kobe Bryant, Kevin Garnett, and Ray Allen. NBA player Karl-Anthony Towns cites Pacquiao as a "legend" & visited him along with Klay Thompson at training.
On September 4, 2014, Pacquiao trained with the Golden State Warriors at their training facility in preparation for his PBA stint.
On February 18, 2015, Pacquiao played briefly and scored one point when the Sorento pulled a 95–84 upset against Purefoods, which had tapped former NBA player Daniel Orton as their import for the conference. When asked about playing against him, Orton said that "[Pacquiao playing] is a joke...Professional boxer? Yeah. Congressman? All right. But professional basketball player? Seriously? It's a joke." Orton was fined by PBA commissioner Chito Salud and was replaced after a few days. He later became one of the Pilipinas MX3 Kings owners in the Asean Basketball League.
On October 25, 2015, Pacquiao made his first field goal in the PBA in a 108–94 loss against the Rain or Shine Elasto Painters. On August 21, 2016, Pacquiao scored a career-high four points in a 97–88 victory against the Blackwater Elite, also sinking the first three-point field goal in his career.
In 2017, Pacquiao founded the Maharlika Pilipinas Basketball League, initially a semi-professional league. The MPBL turned professional in 2022. In 2018, although being rumored to transfer to Blackwater, Pacquiao officially announced his retirement from the league after playing just ten games in three seasons and scoring less than fifteen career points.
In 2019, he announced that he is "planning to own an NBA team" after boxing retirement.
== Political career ==
=== House of Representatives (2010–2016) ===
On February 12, 2007, Pacquiao announced his campaign for a seat in the Philippine House of Representatives to represent the 1st District of South Cotabato province running as a candidate of the Liberal Party faction under Manila mayor Lito Atienza. Pacquiao, said he was persuaded to run by the local officials of General Santos, hoping he would act as a bridge between their interests and the national government. Ultimately Pacquiao was forced to run under the Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino (KAMPI), a pro-Arroyo political party by the courts. Pacquiao was defeated in the election by incumbent Rep. Darlene Antonino-Custodio of the Nationalist People's Coalition (NPC), who said, "More than anything, I think, people weren't prepared to lose him as their boxing icon."
In preparation for his political career in the Filipino House of Representatives, Pacquiao enrolled in the Certificate Course in Development, Legislation, and Governance at the Development Academy of the Philippines – Graduate School of Public and Development Management (DAP-GSPDM).
On November 21, 2009, Pacquiao announced that he would run again for a congressional seat, but this time in Sarangani province, the hometown of his wife Jinkee. In May 2010, Pacquiao was elected to the House of Representatives in the 15th Congress of the Philippines, representing the province of Sarangani. He scored a landslide victory over the wealthy and politically well-entrenched Chiongbian clan that had been in power in the province for more than thirty years. Pacquiao got 120,052 votes while his opponent for the seat, Roy Chiongbian, got 60,899 votes.
In 2010, Pacquiao made a speech on human trafficking that earned praise. However, he also received criticism for coming out as uninformed during a discussion of the contentious reproductive health bill that same year.
In 2013, he was re-elected to the 16th Congress of the Philippines. He ran unopposed. Additionally, his wife, Jinkee, was also elected as vice-governor of Sarangani, while his younger brother, Rogelio lost his bid as congressman.
Because of other commitments, Pacquiao only attended one Congress session on the congress' final leg and was criticized for being the top absentee among lawmakers. Pacquiao filed a total of less than 20 bills in six years, with zero of them passing beyond committee.
=== Senate (2016–2022) ===
On October 5, 2015, Pacquiao formally declared that he was running for senator under the United Nationalist Alliance (UNA) party of vice-president Jejomar Binay. On May 19, 2016, Pacquiao was formally elected as a senator by the Commission on Elections. Pacquiao garnered over 16 million votes, landing at 7th place.
Pacquiao earlier aligned himself with the Duterte government. He facilitated on September 18, 2016, the ouster of Leila de Lima (a Duterte critic) from the chairmanship of the Senate Justice committee and criticized de Lima's presentation three days later of an alleged member of the Davao Death Squad.
In another Senate hearing, Pacquiao defended then-Davao City Vice Mayor Paolo Duterte from allegations of having a part, along with the vice mayor's alleged drinking buddy Charlie Tan and Kenneth Dong, in a 2017 seized ₱6.4-billion shipment of illegal drugs from Xiamen, China, into the Philippines.
As of 2018, Pacquiao has filed a total of 31 Senate bills during the 17th Congress. And in a bill filed alongside Senator Bato dela Rosa and Bong Go, he backed the return of capital punishment.
In June 2019, the Philippine Senate released a data showing Pacquiao as having the worst attendance record among all senators in the 17th Congress, reflecting a struggle Pacquiao had since he was a congressman. Despite the poor attendance, he still managed to enact four laws from the bills he filed.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Pacquiao worked with Alibaba Group co-founder Jack Ma to help bring to the Philippines 50,000 COVID-19 test kits through their respective charity foundations.
In December 2020, Pacquiao became acting party president of PDP–Laban, the ruling political party, when Koko Pimentel resigned. However, the position will eventually become disputed between Pacquiao and Energy Secretary Alfonso Cusi. Alfonso Cusi's faction through a vote decided that Pacquiao is no longer party president of PDP–Laban on July 17. Melvin Matibag, the deputy secretary-general of PDP–Laban, defended the vote, saying it was organized because the term limits of the party's officials had already expired. Pacquiao is still regarded by his faction as party president.
In May 2021, Senator Pacquiao filed a bill proposing to create the Philippine Boxing and Combat Sports Commission. The move, however, was lambasted by Senator Pia Cayetano who criticized the timing of the proposal in the midst of the coronavirus pandemic. Pacquiao earlier already tried filing the bill during the 17th Congress when Pacquiao and Senator Franklin Drilon made headlines after Pacquiao called out the latter and senior legislator to use his "common sense" during an interpellation about the topic while Pacquiao was apparently being coached by his advisers after struggling to answer Drilon.
In May 2022, Pacquiao called for the "speedy release" of fellow Senator Leila De Lima, who had been detained for five years, after witnesses against De Lima retracted their testimony. Pacquiao had earlier been vocal about De Lima's supposed links to a purported drug lord, Kerwin Espinosa, an allegation that led to De Lima's arrest and detention.
=== 2022 presidential campaign ===
As early as June 2020, Pacquiao's former promoter Bob Arum declared that the senator expressed that he will run in 2022 in a conversation with him uttering "Bob, I'm gonna run in 2022 and, when I win, I want you there at my inauguration.'" Speculations quickly spread around a possible Pacquiao run for president, backed by his own expression of interest in a presidential bid.
In June 2021, he expressed belief that Duterte's response towards China's claims in the South China Sea was lacking. Duterte rebuked Pacquiao for the statement, saying the latter lacked knowledge in foreign policy. The President also responded to a claim attributed to Pacquiao that the Duterte administration is more corrupt than those by his predecessors; Duterte challenged Pacquiao to name certain individuals or agencies, otherwise he will launch a negative campaign against the senator in the 2022 elections.
A month after being asked about the possibility of him running in the postgame interview after losing his final boxing match against Yordenis Ugas, Pacquiao officially announced his presidential bid on September 19, 2021, during the National Assembly of the PDP–Laban, organized by his faction. On October 1, he formally registered his candidacy under the Cebu-based party PROMDI. This was in accordance with the "MP3 Alliance" established by PDP Laban under Pacquiao's faction with PROMDI, and the People's Champ Movement. Cusi, in response to Pacquiao's filing of candidacy under PROMDI, decided that he is no longer a member of PDP-Laban.
His platforms included solving corruption and a promise of nationwide housing projects for the poor. Since the campaign period started in February, he had struggled in the presidential surveys with low ratings ranking fourth to fifth among the candidates, dropping to as low as 1.8 percent on the March 2022 poll by Publicus Asia and 8 percent on Pulse Asia with his disapproval rating going up.
In March 2022, amid recent news about frontrunner Bongbong Marcos' unsettled estate tax dues amounting to 200 billion pesos, Pacquiao openly challenged Marcos to a one-on-one debate and made remarks against critics saying "he's not intelligent enough to be president" saying that "the most dumb in this country are those who are going to vote for a plunderer". Pacquiao only placed third in the election with roughly four million votes and later conceded to Marcos, who won by a landslide.
=== 2025 Senate bid ===
On September 26, 2024, Pacquiao was named as a senatorial candidate for the Alyansa para sa Bagong Pilipinas in the 2025 elections. He ran under the Partido Federal ng Pilipinas. He formalized his bid for senator by filing his certificate of candidacy on October 7, 2024. Pacquiao would eventually lose his bid for the Senate, placing 18th out of the 12 seats up for election, garnering 10,397,133 votes. He has considered leaving politics after returning to boxing.
== Entertainment career ==
=== Acting and hosting career ===
With growing fame, Pacquiao became a celebrity and was obligated to start his acting and hosting career with guest appearances on ABS-CBN shows. He signed a contract as an actor & host with ABS-CBN short-after.
In December 2005, Pacquiao took his first lead role in Violett Films' Lisensyadong Kamao (Licensed Fist). The film is titled so because (according to director Tony Bernal), being a boxer, Pacquiao is licensed to use his hands.
Upon the expiration of his contract with ABS-CBN, Pacquiao signed with GMA Network as an actor and host in September 2007. A few months after, he taped his first episode of the network's infotainment show Pinoy Records. His other projects with the network included Totoy Bato and the sitcom Show Me Da Manny, where he appeared as Marian Rivera's onscreen loveteam, and in which his mother, Dionisia, also appeared. He also hosted his own game show Manny Many Prizes where he gave out prizes to his audience.
In 2008, Pacquiao starred with Ara Mina and Valerie Concepcion in Anak ng Kumander (Child of a Commander). The movie was not a commercial success and was panned by critics.
Pacquiao starred in the superhero/comedy film entitled Wapakman, which was released on December 25, 2009, as an entry to the 2009 Metro Manila Film Festival. Like his previous films, Wapakman was not commercially successful.
In 2020, he was cast to portray General Miguel Malvar in the upcoming biopic film Malvar: Tuloy ang Laban about the Philippine hero, which gained mixed reactions from the Malvar family. Gabriel, grandson of General Malvar's youngest child Pablo, worries that Pacquiao's fame might overshadow his movie character. While Villegas, son of Malvar's daughter Isabel, supports the casting.
=== Music career ===
Pacquiao recorded songs to use as entrance music for his fights and released them on two albums that were certified platinum locally in the Philippines. Most of the Tagalog songs of Pacquiao were composed by Lito Camo who wrote Pacquiao's biggest hit and primarily known song "Para Sayo ang Laban Na 'To".
On November 3, 2009, Pacquiao covered "Sometimes When We Touch", originally by Dan Hill, on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, marking his first singing performance on American TV. He went back to the late-night talk show on March 3, 2010, to cover another song, "Nothing's Gonna Change My Love for You". He would later record Dan Hill's hit in April 2011 as a single which reached number 19 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. It made Pacquiao one of the few Southeast Asians to enter a US Billboard chart. He also appeared with Will Ferrell and sang a version of John Lennon's "Imagine" for his third guesting on the show. His appearances on the show led to Canadian rapper Drake impersonating him and making fun of his singing by creating a parody, Pacquiao responded by posting another video of himself singing. In 2015, he released an extended play that featured his own recorded entrance song for his fight against Floyd Mayweather Jr. and shortly announced his retirement from music, being quoted saying "I love music, but music is not for me".
The following are Manny Pacquiao's albums from 2006 to 2015:
==== Albums ====
Laban Nating Lahat Ito (2006), Star
Pac-Man Punch (2007), MCA
Lalaban Ako para sa Pilipino (EP) (2015), GMA
== In popular culture ==
A film based on Pacquiao's life, Pacquiao: The Movie, was released on June 21, 2006, featuring Filipino actor Jericho Rosales as Manny Pacquiao and was directed by Joel Lamangan. The film flopped at the box office, grossing a total of only ₱4,812,191 (approximately US$99,322), as confirmed by Lamangan.
Another film, based on Pacquiao's early life in boxing, Kid Kulafu, was released on April 15, 2015, featuring actor Buboy Villar as Emmanuel "Manny" Pacquiao. The film dramatizes the life of the Filipino boxing superstar during his childhood.
A documentary entitled "Manny", which featured Pacquiao's early life as well as his boxing and political career, was released with Liam Neeson as the narrator.
Pacquiao has featured in the Fight Night boxing video game franchise as a playable character. The playable character Paquito, in the mobile game, Mobile Legends: Bang Bang was also inspired from Pacquiao. A skin was also made available for Paquito which changes the character's appearance to that of the real life boxer. Filipino game developer Ranida Games announced in 2021 that a mobile game revolving around Pacquiao's boxing career Fighting Pride: The Manny Pacquiao Saga is in the works.
Pacquiao was one of Time's 100 most influential people for the year 2009, for his exploits in boxing and his influence among the Filipino people. Pacquiao was also included by Forbes in its annual Celebrity 100 list for the year 2009, joining Hollywood actress Angelina Jolie and fellow athletes Woods and Bryant.
Pacquiao has also appeared on the cover of Time magazine Asia for their November 16, 2009 issue. According to their five-page feature story, "(Pacquiao is) a fighter with enough charisma, intelligence and backstory to help rescue a sport lost in the labyrinth of pay-per-view. Global brands like Nike want him in their ads." They also added, "Pacquiao has a myth of origin equal to that of any Greek or Roman hero. He leaves the Philippines to make it even bigger, conquering the world again and again to bring back riches to his family and friends." Pacquiao became the eighth Filipino to grace the cover of the prestigious magazine, after former Philippine presidents Manuel L. Quezon, Ramon Magsaysay, Ferdinand Marcos, Corazon Aquino, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Benigno "Noynoy" Aquino III and Filipino actress and environmentalist Chin Chin Gutierrez. Pacquiao was also featured on the cover of Reader's Digest Asia, where a seven-page story was written about the Filipino boxing superstar. The issue came out in November 2008, before Pacquiao's fight against De La Hoya.
Pacquiao is also mentioned in some hip hop tracks including Kool A.D.'s song entitled "Manny Pacquiao" on his mixtape, 51. A few notable ones are Pitbull's "Get It Started", A$AP Rocky's "Phoenix", Bad Meets Evil and Bruno Mars' "Lighters", Eminem and Skylar Grey's "Asshole", Future's "Never Gon' Lose", Migos' "Chinatown", Nicki Minaj and Ciara's "I'm Legit" and Rick Ross's "High Definition", Jelo Acosta's "Just Like Manny P," and Yung Gravy's "Betty" to name a few.
Pacquiao became the first Filipino athlete to appear on a postage stamp.
A video clip of Pacquiao greeting his followers for New Year's Eve was used as a meme in the Internet.
== Controversies ==
=== Taxation issues ===
On November 26, 2013, a few days after Pacquiao's victory over Brandon Ríos, the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) issued a freeze order on all of Pacquiao's Philippine bank accounts due to his alleged failure to pay ₱2.2 billion in taxes for earnings he made in his fights in the United States from 2008 to 2009. A day after the bank account freeze, the BIR also issued an order to freeze all of Pacquiao's Philippine properties, whereupon Pacquiao presented documents to the press showing the income tax for non-resident alien payment by his promoter to the BIR's US counterpart, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), as well as a letter from Bob Arum. In April 2017, Pacquiao, now a senator, approached Philippine authorities in an attempt to settle the case. The BIR had maintained that taxes were due even if all taxes had been paid to the IRS in the first place.
=== Homosexuality comments ===
In February 2016, Pacquiao, in a video statement posted by TV5, made a comment on the issue of same-sex marriage. Pacquiao, in vernacular, described people in same-sex marriages as behaving worse than animals because, he said, animals generally do not have same-sex mating. LGBT celebrities criticized the statements of the senatorial candidate. Pacquiao later apologized and stated that while, as a Christian, he is still against same-sex marriage, which he said is against Biblical teachings, he did not condemn gay people themselves. Nike ended their longtime partnership with Pacquiao, stating his comments against gay people were abhorrent. The Grove at Farmers Market in Los Angeles also banned Pacquiao from the shopping mall.
=== Paradigm Sports Management contract dispute ===
In 2021, Paradigm Sports Management – the company Pacquaio signed an exclusive management deal with a year prior – filed a lawsuit against him, alleging he in bad faith breached the contract having two management companies negotiating simultaneously for boxing matches.
In early May 2023, Orange County Superior Court ruled the lawsuit in favor of Paradigm Sports Management, ordering Pacquiao to pay $5.1 million plus at least $2 million in attorney fees, both with 10 percent annual interest. In August 2024, the verdict was overturned and vacated. The court found evidence, that when signing the contract to represent Pacquiao, Audie Attar did not hold a management license, which is required under California law.
== Personal life ==
Pacquiao married Jinkee Jamora on May 10, 1999. Together, they have five children, Emmanuel Jr. (Jimuel), Michael Stephen, Mary Divine Grace (Princess), Queen Elizabeth (Queenie) and Israel. In 2006, Joanna Rose Bacosa, a KTV receptionist, disclosed the existence of her child with Pacquiao named as Emmanuel "Eman" Bacosa, who was born in January 2004. Although Pacquiao initially did not acknowledge him, he was later seen training with Eman, who began following in his father's footsteps and pursued boxing. Eman made his professional boxing debut on September 23, 2023, which ended in a draw. He dedicated his win against Noel Pangantao on December 15, 2023, to his father. His eldest son with Jinkee, Jimuel, is a professional boxer, having made his professional boxing debut on November 30, 2025 in a majority draw, model & actor, while his second son, Michael, is a rapper, who has amassed tens of millions of streams with his songs, and incumbent councilor of General Santos. His first daughter, Princess, is a popular YouTube vlogger with millions of subscribers and started the Pacquiao family's network of YouTube content, while his second daughter, Queenie, was born in the United States. On May 27, 2024, Mary Divine Grace "Princess" graduated secondary school from Brent International School.
Pacquiao resides in his hometown of General Santos, South Cotabato, Philippines. As the congressman representing the lone district of Sarangani from 2010 to 2016, he officially resided in Kiamba, Sarangani, the hometown of his wife. Upon his election to the Senate of the Philippines, he returned his official residence to General Santos, as senators are elected on a nationwide basis, rather than by district.
Pacquiao has a YouTube channel with 990,000 subscribers as of August 2023. The Pacquiao family constantly posts content about their activities together in their own separate YouTube channels. His daughter, Mary and his wife Jinkee both have more than one million subscribers and his sons Jimuel and Michael each have fewer than 600,000.
On June 25, 2010, Pacquiao completed a 10-day crash course on Development Legislation and Governance at the Graduate School of Public and Development Management of the Development Academy of the Philippines (DAP).
Pacquiao was officially enrolled for two semesters at Notre Dame of Dadiangas University (NDDU) in the Academic Year 2007–2008 under the bachelor's degree of business administration major in marketing management program, however, Pacquiao was not able to finish the program and NDDU did not grant him a college degree.
From June 8 to 17, 2016, Pacquiao underwent another 9-day Executive Coaching Program crash course conducted by the Development Academy of the Philippines, the Ateneo School of Government, the Asian Institute of Management, and the Philippine Public Safety College after he won a senate seat in 2016.
On December 11, 2019, Pacquiao controversially graduated from the University of Makati with a bachelor's degree in political science; majoring in local government administration through the Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency and Accreditation Program (ETEEAP) of the Philippine Councilors League-Legislative Academy (PCCLA) which allows qualified Filipinos to complete a collegiate-level education via informal education system. Pacquiao reportedly completed the degree in one year, contrary to earlier reports of three months.
Raised Catholic, Pacquiao is currently practicing and preaching Evangelical Protestantism. Pacquiao said he once had a dream where he saw a pair of angels and heard the voice of God—this dream convinced him to become a devout believer.
Pacquiao enlisted as a military reservist and was promoted with the rank of colonel in the Reserve Force of the Philippine Army. Prior to being promoted to full colonel after finishing his General Staff Course (GSC) schooling, he held the rank of lieutenant colonel for being a member of the Philippine Congress as per the AFP's regulations for reservist officers. He first entered the army's reserve force on April 27, 2006, as a sergeant. Later, he rose to Technical Sergeant on December 1 of the same year. On October 7, 2007, he became a Master Sergeant, the highest rank for enlisted personnel. On May 4, 2009, he was given the special rank of Senior Master Sergeant and was also designated as the Command Sergeant Major of the 15th Ready Reserve Division.
In 2022, Pacquiao graduated from Philippine Christian University, with a master's degree in management, majoring in public administration. Pacquiao's cousin is Rene Pacquiao, a 6'5 center from Bukidnon. Rene became a teammate of Pacquiao in the Mahindra Floodbusters.
== Awards and recognitions ==
=== International ===
2000–2009 Boxing Writers Association of America Fighter of the Decade
2000–2009 HBO Fighter of the Decade
2001–2010 World Boxing Council Boxer of the Decade
2001–2010 World Boxing Organization Best Pound-for-Pound Fighter of the Decade
2006, 2008 and 2009 Boxing Writers Association of America's Fighter of the Year
2006, 2008 and 2009 ESPN Fighter of the Year
2006, 2008 and 2009 The Ring Fighter of the Year
2007 World Boxing Hall of Fame Fighter of the year
2008 Sports Illustrated Boxer of the Year
2008 Yahoo! Sports Fighter of the Year
2008 and 2009 ESPN Star's Champion of Champions
2008 and 2009 World Boxing Council Boxer of the Year
2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 The Ring No.1 Pound-for-Pound (year-end)
2009 ESPN Knockout of the Year (in Round 2 against Ricky Hatton)
2009 and 2011 ESPY Awards Best Fighter
2009 and 2015 Forbes magazine World's Highest-Paid Athletes (ranked 6th and 2nd)
2009 Sports Illustrated Fighter of the Year
2009 The Ring Knockout of the Year (in Round 2 against Ricky Hatton)
2009 TIME 100 Most Influential People (Heroes and Icons Category)
2009, 2010, 2012 and 2015 Forbes magazine Celebrity 100 (The World's Most Powerful Celebrity) (ranked 57th, 55th, 33rd and 2nd)
2010 World Boxing Organization Fighter of the Year
2010 Yahoo! Sports Boxing's Most Influential (ranked 25th)
2010, 2011, 2012 and 2015 The Ring Magazine Event of the year
2011 Las Vegas Walk of Stars Awardee
2011 Guinness World Records Most boxing world titles in different weight divisions (8 times; since November 13, 2010)
2012 Laredo Asian Association Special Recognition Award
2013 On The Ropes Boxing Awards Comeback Fighter of the Year
2013 The Ring magazine Comeback of the Year
2014, 2015 and 2016 Reader's Digest Asia Pacific Most Trusted Sports Personality
2014 On The Ropes Boxing Awards Fighter of the Year
2014 PublicAffairsAsia HP Gold Standard Award for Communicator of the Year
2015 Asia Society's Asia Game Changer of the Year
2016 Forbes magazine Boxing's MVPs (ranked 4th)
2019 Forbes magazine Highest Paid Athletes of the Decade (ranked 8th)
2019 World Boxing News Fighter of the year
2025 World Boxing Council Fighter of the Century
=== National ===
2000–2009 Philippine Sportswriters Association Athlete of the Decade
2000–2009 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial Boxer of the Decade
2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial Boxer of the Year
2002, 2003, 2004, 2006 and 2008 PSA Sportsman of the Year
2003 Presidential Medal of Merit
2003 and 2010 Congressional Medal of Achievement / Distinction / Honor
2006 Order of Lakandula with the rank of "Champion for Life" (Kampeon Habambuhay)
2006 Eastwood City Walk of Fame Awardee
2006 36th GMMSF Box-Office Entertainment Awards People's Hero Award
2008 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial Hall of Fame Awardee
2008 Philippine Legion of Honor with the rank of "Officer" (Pinuno)
2008 University Athletic Association of the Philippines (UAAP) Honorary Award for Sports Excellence
2009 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial Best Pound For Pound Boxer Award
2009 25th Philippine Movie Press Club Star Awards for Movies Newsmaker of the Year
2009 Order of Sikatuna with the rank of Datu (Grand Cross with Gold Distinction)
2009 Southwestern University – honorary Doctorate of Humanities (Honoris Causa as accorded by the Commission on Higher Education)
2010–2019 Philippine Sportswriters Association Athlete of the Decade
2011 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial "Quintessential Athlete" Award
2012 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial "Man of Others" Award
2013, 2016 and 2018 Gabriel "Flash" Elorde Memorial Award of Distinction
2015 MEGA Man Magazine Man of the Year
2017 Bawas Bisyo Youth for Sin Tax Movement Anti-smoking champion
2018 League of Municipalities of the Philippines – Cebu "Cebuano Heritage Award for Manny Pacquiao"
2019 50th GMMSF Box-Office Entertainment Awards Global Achievement by a Filipino Award
2020 Clean Air Philippines Movement, Inc. (CAPMI) "Clean Air Champion" award
2021 Philippine Sportswriters Association Chooks-to-Go Fan Favorite "Manok ng Bayan" Award
== Electoral history ==
=== 2016 ===
=== 2022 ===
=== 2025 ===
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== TV documentary film ===
=== Video games ===
=== Web shows ===
== Concerts ==
== Basketball stats ==
=== PBA season-by-season averages ===
Correct as of February 18, 2018
=== UNTV Cup season-by-season averages ===
Correct as of February 2, 2019
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Boxing record for Manny Pacquiao from BoxRec (registration required)
Manny Pacquiao at IMDb
Rep. Emmanuel D. Pacquiao official profile at the Congress of the Philippines
Manny Pacquiao profile at HBO
Manny Pacquiao profile Archived December 10, 2006, at the Wayback Machine at About.com
The Biggest Little Man in the World by GQ Magazine
Nike – Inside Pacquiao
PacMan: Behind the Scenes with Manny Pacquiao: A Biography of Pacquiao by Gary Andrew Poole
The Manny Pacquiao workout at Men's Health UK
Manny Pacquiao – Profile, News Archive & Current Rankings at Box.Live |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Asiku#:~:text=In%202000%2C%20he%20took%20part,time%2C%20Asiku%20boxed%20in%20flyweight. | Jackson Asiku | Jackson "Action" Asiku (*21 October 1978) is a Ugandan-Australian amateur flyweight and professional feather/super featherweight boxer.
== Career ==
As an amateur, Asiku represented Uganda at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and won a bronze medal, losing to eventual gold medal winner Richard Sunee of Mauritius. In 1999, he won a bronze medal at flyweight in Boxing at the All-Africa Games in Johannesburg, South Africa, losing to eventual silver medal winner Nacer Keddam of Algeria. In 2000, he took part, in the Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, losing to Arlan Lerio of the Philippines. During his amateur time, Asiku boxed in flyweight.
As a professional, Asiku won the Australian featherweight title, World Boxing Organization (WBO) Asia Pacific featherweight title, African Boxing Union (ABU) featherweight title, International Boxing Federation (IBF) Australasian featherweight title, International Boxing Organization (IBO) featherweight title, and Commonwealth featherweight title, and was a challenger for the International Boxing Federation (IBF) Pan Pacific featherweight title against Fahprakorb Rakkiatgym. His professional fighting weight varied from 123+1⁄2 lb (56.0 kg; 8 st 11.5 lb), i.e. featherweight to 129+3⁄4 lb (58.9 kg; 9 st 3.8 lb), i.e. super featherweight.
== References ==
== External links ==
Boxing record for Jackson Asiku from BoxRec (registration required)
Image - Jackson Asiku Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Image - Jackson Asiku Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talat_Ahmad | Talat Ahmad | Talat Ahmad (born 23 December 1955) is an Indian Earth Scientist, former Professor at the Department of Geology, University of Delhi and served as Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Senior Scientist. He served as Chairman of Governing body which oversees Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun from 1 December 2021 (full charge from 1 June 2022) onwards and served the office till 30 November 2024 and thereafter as a member of Governing body (WIHG) from 1 December 2024 till 30 November 2027.
Previously, he commenced his second stint as Vice-Chancellor of University of Kashmir on 6 August 2018 and served the office till 20 May 2022. Before that, he served as Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, he resigned from the post a few months short of his full term. He was shortlisted by a committee constituted by the governor to shortlist a panel for the post. He had earlier taken over as Vice-Chancellor of University of Kashmir from Professor Riyaz Punjabi on 1 June 2011 and served there until the year 2014. Prior to this, he was teaching Geology at the University of Delhi.
Ahmad was selected to serve a second term as Vice Chancellor University of Kashmir after he was selected by Governor of Jammu and Kashmir Narinder Nath Vohra in his capacity as chancellor of the State University. He was handed over charge by Professor Khurshid Iqbal Andrabi who had been serving as officiating Vice-Chancellor since October 2017 after his tenure was over.
During his first tenure, Ahmad was recommended for the position of Vice-Chancellor, University of Kashmir by a search committee headed by a former member of the Planning Commission, Prof. Abid Hussain, former Indian ambassador to the US, and comprising Professor G. K. Chadha, CEO, South Asian University and former Vice-Chancellor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and Prof. Seyed E. Hasnain, an eminent scientist and former Vice-Chancellor of University of Hyderabad.
Ahmad is the first vice chancellor to serve a second term and the second vice chancellor to be appointed from outside the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the past two decades. Jalees Ahmad Khan Tareen was the first vice-chancellor from outside the state who ran the office from 2001 to 2004.
== Early life ==
Ahmad was born and brought up in a small town of Giridih, Jharkhand. His father was Moinuddin Ahmad.
== Education ==
Ahmad did his schooling at Giridih Higher Secondary School. In 1972, he joined Aligarh Muslim University to pursue a BSc in geology, which he completed in 1975. Subsequently, he pursued an MSc in geology, which was awarded to him in 1977. He completed his M.Phil in Ore Petrology from Jawaharlal Nehru University in 1980. In 1985, he completed his PhD in Igneous Petrology from Jawaharlal Nehru University.
He did a postdoctoral fellowship with University of Leicester during 1988–89 under a Government of India Fellowship and another from University of Cambridge under Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) during 1997–98. In 1999–2000, he did another postdoctoral fellowship under Japanese Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS) with Nagoya University, Japan.
== Career ==
In 1979, Ahmad got selected in the UPSC and started working as a junior geologist with the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and formally joined GSI in February 1980. He worked there for a year, but left it soon after as for him, it was more of a survey and less of research. Later, he worked as a Scientist with Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun from 16 July 1984 to 3 September 1989. Ahmad worked at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun, as a scientist under DST for nineteen years (1984–2003).
He joined the Department of Geology, University of Delhi as a professor on 31 October 2003. There he started a project in central India and Rajasthan, in addition to research work in Himalayas. He got another project, Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) after coming to the valley of Kashmir.
He took over as vice-chancellor of University of Kashmir on 1 June 2011.
On 29 April 2014, Ahmad was appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Pursuant to the permission of the chancellor of the university, Ahmad was relieved from the post by A M Shah, dean of academic affairs of the university. Ahmad joined Jamia Millia Islamia on 15 May 2014, taking over from officiating Vice-Chancellor Prof S M Sajid and thus succeeded Najeeb Jung after he was sworn in as the 20th lieutenant governor of Delhi in April 2013.
In 2018, Ahmad was appointed as Vice-Chancellor of Kashmir University for the second time and served the office till 20 May 2022. Subsequently, he was nominated by Department of Science and Technology under the aegis of Government of India as Chairman of Governing body which oversees Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun on 1 December 2021 for a term of three years till 30 November 2024 and thereafter as a member of the Governing body(WIHG) from 1 December 2024 till 30 November 2027. Also, he served as Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Senior Scientist.
== Research ==
Ahmad has over 65 research publications to his credit. He has supervised several M.Phil. and PhD research studies at the University of Delhi and the Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
He has been working on various sponsored projects, including Geochemical, Isotopic and Geochronological characterisation of Granotoids from the Central Indian Tectonic Zones (CITZ) and Central Indian Shear Zones (CISZ)-Constraints on Pre-cambrian Crystal Evolution, funded by Indo-Russian, ILTP Project, and Proterozoic mafic magmatism in the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ): elemental and isotopic constraints on crystal evolution and geodynamics.
== Fellowships and awards ==
Ahmad had the memberships of many was a recipient of the following fellowships and awards:
Fellow of Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore
Fellow of Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi
Fellow of National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad
National Mineral Award, from the Government of India in 1994.
J C Bose National Fellowship 2011
S.M. Naqvi Gold Medal 2013
== Memberships and honours ==
Ahmad bore memberships of prestigious societies and was a recipient of many prestigious honours.
Life member and executive committee member of Alumni Association of JNU (JNU, New Delhi)
Life member of Mineralogical Society of India
Honorary research associate of the department of geology, University of Leicester, UK
Associate member, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Society
Member, editorial advisory board of the Indian Journal of Geochemistry
Member, advisory committee for DRS, Department of Geology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
Member, expert panel for the Science and Engineering Research Council
Member, National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) UGC
Member, "Deep Continental Studies Programme" of the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi
Convener, Vision Committee for Perspective Planning for the Academic Activities of Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi
Regional coordinator, International Geological Correlation Programme, member, Working Group for Geology for the National Science Digital Library Under the National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, CSIR
Regional coordinator, International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP) Project 516 on the "Geological anatomy of East and South East Asia"
Member, editorial board for Indian Journal of Geology
Member, Working Group for Geology for the National Science Digital Library (NSDL) Under the National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, CSIR, New Delhi
Member, editorial board for Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences
Member, Expert Group for 'Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer (EPMA) National Facility at IIT Kharagpur' under the Science & Engineering Research Council, Department of Science & Technology, New Delhi
Member, editorial board for Journal of Virtual Explorer, an electronic journal from Monash University, Australia. ISSN Number: 1441-8126 (Printed Journal); 1441-8142 (Online Journal) and 1441–8134 (CD-ROM Journal)
Member, editorial board of the Journal of the Mineralogical Society of India
Member, editorial board of the Gondwana Geological Magazine
Member, editorial board of the Journal of the Geological Society of India
Member, editorial board Of the Journal of Earth System Science
Member, Expert Group for FIST North East, DST, New Delhi
Member, Board of Research Studies for the Faculty of Sciences, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Kashmir
== References ==
== External links ==
Member page on Delhi University official website
CV on Kashmir University official website (archived 28 September 2013)
University of Kashmir official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Monsters | River Monsters | River Monsters is a British wildlife documentary television series produced for Animal Planet by Icon Films of Bristol, United Kingdom. It is hosted by angler and biologist Jeremy Wade, who travels around the globe in search of large and dangerous fish.
River Monsters premiered on ITV in Great Britain and became one of the most-watched programmes in Animal Planet's history. It is also one of the most-viewed series on Discovery Channel in the American market.
== Overview ==
River Monsters follows the worldwide adventures of Suffolk-born British host, biologist, adventurer and extreme angler Jeremy Wade. He explores rivers and lakes to uncover the creatures behind local folklore and harrowing tales of monster fish. The show has taken viewers to
England, Scotland, Cambodia, Canada, Germany, Spain, Colombia, Bolivia, Iceland, Norway, Greenland, Argentina, Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, India, Japan, France, Russia, Suriname, Brazil, Guyana, The Solomon Islands, Indonesia, Zambia, Malaysia, Nepal, The Bahamas, The Cayman Islands, Mexico, Peru, Uganda, South Africa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nicaragua, Mongolia, Ukraine, Botswana, and the U.S. states of Alaska, Florida, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, Washington, Illinois, Oregon, and Vermont.
In the first season, Wade's weekly quest had him in search of piranha, goonch catfish (during his investigation of the Kali River goonch attacks), alligator gar, wels catfish, arapaima, piraíba, and the bull shark. All of them are potentially deadly creatures poorly understood by humans. The show also focuses on explaining the creatures' feeding habits, behaviour and conservation status. Rebroadcasts of the episodes with captions showing behind the scenes commentary from the host about the particular episode can also be seen on both Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. These episodes are going by the title River Monsters: Unhooked.
The second season of River Monsters began airing on 24 April 2010, although the first episode, titled "Demon Fish" first appeared on Discovery Channel on 28 March 2010. This season consisted of 7 episodes and took viewers to the River Congo and other distant locations. In the episode "Death Ray," Wade caught a pregnant giant freshwater stingray, the largest fish he ever landed. She later gave birth to two pups while being examined by Wade and a team of biologists. This season featured the white sturgeon, Wade's second largest catch.
The ninth season of River Monsters was announced as the final season.
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2009) ===
=== Season 2 (2010) ===
=== Season 3 (2011) ===
=== Season 4 (2012) ===
=== Season 5 (2013) ===
=== Season 6 (2014) ===
=== Season 7 (2015) ===
=== Season 8 (2016) ===
Promoted as a special season under the title River Monsters: Mysteries of the Ocean, this season sees Jeremy Wade shift his focus from freshwater to oceanic fish.
=== Season 9 (2017) ===
This season was dubbed "the final season", as it is the last season of River Monsters.
=== Season 10 (2017) ===
This season only had one episode, "Jeremy's Monster Story".
== Additional episodes: The Lost Reels ==
== Ratings ==
River Monsters had the best series premiere in Animal Planet's network history by delivering 1.3 million viewers. It was also its most watched regularly airing primetime telecast in over six years. The second episode of Animal Planet's River Monsters delivered a 39% boost in total viewers (1.866 million) compared to the series premiere. Those numbers made it the best performing regularly scheduled primetime telecast in Animal Planet's history. The first season of River Monsters made it the best performing show in Animal Planet's history with every episode averaging over 1 million households. The season finale delivered about 1.47 million households.
The second season premiere episode became the network's best season premiere ever. It drew in 1.7 million total viewers.
== See also ==
Kali River goonch attacks
Fish Warrior
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Review of River Monsters, Leicester Mercury Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
River Monsters at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidgah | Eidgah | Eidgah or Idgah, also Eid Gah or Id Gah (Persian: عیدگاه "site of Eid [observances]"; Bengali: ঈদগাহ; Punjabi: عید گاہ; Urdu: عید گاہ; Hindi: ईदगाह) is a term used in South Asian Islamic culture for the open-air enclosure usually outside the city (or at the outskirts) reserved for Eid prayers offered in the morning of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. It is usually a public place that is not used for prayers at other times of the year. On the day of Eid, the first thing Muslims do in the morning is gather usually at a large open ground and offer special prayers, in accordance with the Sunnah (traditions of Muhammad). Although the usage of the term Eidgah is of Indian origin, it may be used for the musalla, the open space outside a mosque, or other open grounds where Eid prayers are performed, due to the lack of a specific Islamic term for a site of Eid observance. The Eidgah is mentioned in the famous Bengali poem by Kazi Nazrul Islam, O Mon Romzaner Oi Rozar Sheshe.
== Prescriptions in the Sharia ==
The first "Eidgah" was located at the outskirts of Medina nearly 1,000 footsteps from Masjid al Nabawi., There are several scholarly opinions regarding praying at Eidgahs, prescribing it in the Sharia (Islamic law):
Complying with the Sunnah, performing of the Eid Salah at the outskirts of the town is better and more virtuous, than performing it in the town (i.e. in a mosque).
The Eid Salah performed in the mosque is complete, but performing it in the Eidgah is Sunnah. To not perform Eid Salah in the Eidgah without a valid excuse, is contrary to the Sunnah.
The Eid Salah should be [performed in] a huge Jam'ah (congregation) on the outskirts of the town. In this way the brotherhood in Islam (i.e. among Muslims) is manifested. In the big cities it is difficult to have Eidgahs on the outskirts of the city, therefore a large open plain ground should be chosen for the Eidgah. Or if needed, the prayer can be performed in the mosque, which will be correct. But [people should try praying in an Eidgah] as far as possible, [since] one huge Jam'ah is superior to many small Eid [Jam'ahs].
Performing of the Eid Salah in the Eidgah is [classified as] Sunnah al-Muakkadah (emphasized or substantiated Sunnah). Without any valid excuse, the one who does not perform his Eid Salah in the Eidgah is worthy of being reprimanded and taken to task and this kind of a person is a sinner. If the Eidgah is a distance away and it is inconvenient for the old and sick, then the Fuqaha (Islamic jurists) have given permission for them to perform Eid Salah in the mosque.
== List of Eidgahs ==
Notable Eidgahs around the world include
Purani Idgah
Id Gah Mosque
Id Kah Mosque, Kashgar, Xinjiang, China
Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah
Sylhet Shahi Eidgah
Kheri Eidgah
Sholakiya Eidgah Maidan, Kishoreganj
Gor-E-Shahid Eidgah, Dinajpur
=== Shahi Eidgah ===
When the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir ascended the throne in the year 1658, he decided to build a big Eidgah, on the outskirts of then Shahjahanabad now known as the walled city. Shahi Eidgah was built on an area of 31,484 square yards (26,325 m2) of land, surrounded by thousands of square yards of open grounds. The Shahi Eidgah complex has 283,257 sq ft (26,315.4 m2), which at any time can be used by 50,000 namazi. The main gate at the front side has also two small gates besides it for the entrance and exit of the devotees. The same pattern is followed on the north and south sides of the Shahi Eidgah.
=== Moradabad Eidgah ===
The Moradabad Eidgah, Located near by Moradabad railway station. The prayer ground is very large, with a seating capacity of 20,000 attendees. It is a historical religious place for Muslims, thus local Moradabad Muslims perform Eid Namaz every year in this Eidgah.
=== Gor-E-Shahid Eidgah Maidan ===
Gor-E-Shahid Eidgah Maidan (Bengali: গোর-এ-শহীদ ঈদগাহ ময়দান) is located in Dinajpur. Sholakia is declared as the largest Eidgah in Bangladesh. But in Eid ul Adha of 2017 this Eidgah hosted the largest jamaat of Bangladesh.
The number of devotees increased this year following the construction of a 516-foot wide minaret with 52 domes. Eidgah Minar's main dome (Mehrab) is about 47 feet (14 m) high and 516 feet (157 m) wide. It has been built in 32 arches. Electric lamps have been connected to each dome of the Eidgah Minar. Eidgah Minar's beauty can be seen from many distances. The largest Eidgah Minar was constructed entirely with ceramic. The road is made for the devotees on both sides of the field. There will be adjacent arrangements. The Eidgah Minar is full of beauty when looked at from a distance. According to the district administration, the Eidgah has an area of about 22 acres (8.9 ha). On the other hand, Sholakia's field is known to be 7 acres of land. In 2019, the 5thEid-ul-Fitr congregation was at Gor-e-Shahid Baro Maidan at 8:45am with the participation of 600,000 devotees. Apart from members of other law enforcement agencies, over 500 policemen were deployed in and around the Eidgah to ensure security. The 6th Eid-ul-Azha largest Eid congregation was at Gor-e-Shahid Baro Maidan, Dinajpur at 8:30am with the participation of around 4 lakh devotees.
== Eidgah Sharif ==
Eidgah Sharif is a Sunni Sufi shrine located in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The shrine was founded over a century ago. It welcomes visitors from all over the world and frequently hosts ceremonies known as Milaad Paaks which are mainly series of sermons from scholars and religious materials presented in solo a capella by people called "reciters". At the largest of these gatherings (such as the Urs Paak), more than a million visitors crowd the main grounds and the surrounding streets. About four million followers from all over the country and about 500,000 more from the United Kingdom are regular visitors to the shrine.
The custodian of Eidgah Sharif, Shaykh Hafiz Muhammad Naqib-Ur Rehman, known to his followers as "Pir Sa’ab", advances the mission and teachings of Eidgah Shareef with the assistance of his son Sahibzada Muhammad Hassan Haseeb Ur Rehman, known to the devotees as "Sa’ab Ji". Pir Sa’ab's ancestors, the previous custodians of the shrine, were all said to be Sufi masters directly from the lineage of Mughal Emperor Babur. In 1960 the family gifted the government with a large proportion of the land used to build Pakistan's capital city of Islamabad, not far from Rawalpindi.
Eid al-Fitr
Eid al-Adha
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%C8%99 | Mediaș | Mediaș (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈmedi.aʃ] ; Latin: Media, German: Mediasch, Transylvanian Saxon: Medwesch/Medveš/Medwisch, Hungarian: Medgyes) is a city in Sibiu County, Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. With a recorded history that began in the 13th century, it has nearly 40,000 residents today.
== Geography ==
Mediaș is located in the middle basin of Târnava Mare River, at 39 km (24 mi) from Sighișoara and 41 km (25 mi) from Blaj. The health resort Bazna, officially recognized for the first time in 1302, is 18 km (11 mi) from Mediaș. The health resort offers mineral water springs, rich in salts, mineral mud and a special type of salt, called "Bazna salt". The distance between Mediaș and the county's residence Sibiu is 55 km (34 mi).
The city administers one village, Ighișu Nou (Eibesdorf; Szászivánfalva).
== History ==
The first signs of human communities in the area are thought to be from the middle Neolithic period.
The name of the city comes from the Hungarian word meggy (sour cherry). The Romanian name originates in the German version, which comes from the Hungarian name (Medgyes).
In the 13th century, the kings of Hungary invited German settlers known as Transylvanian Saxons to the area, who settled in the valley of the Târnava Mare River.
According to tradition, the town was founded in 1146, thus being one of the oldest cities in Transylvania.
1200: Here would have lived around 100 inhabitants.
1267: The first document that mentions the city (as Mediesy) is dated 3 June 1267.
1283: Another reference appears in a document: Mediaș is listed as "villa Medgyes".
1318: The Hungarian king Charles Robert of Anjou offers complete rights for the Sibiu region to people living in Mediaș, Șeica Mare, and Biertan.
1359: Mediaș is called for the first time a city ("civitas"). The first seal of Mediaș was used in 1448.
1414: The St. Margaret church was the first church built in Mediaș. The first document that notes the presence of a hospital in the city is dated 1487.
1448: While preparing for his campaign against the Ottoman Empire, John Hunyadi passed through Mediaș.
1490–1534: The city is fortified by the people living in Mediaș and Șeica Mare, after a document signed in 1477 by the king Matthias Corvinus's office.
1517: Mediaș obtains the right to organise annual fairs.
1557: The population of Mediaș was hit by leprosy. The plague has also devastated the population of Mediaș several times in history, in 1586, 1601–1604, 1633, 1646, 1653, 1656–1658, 1660–1661 and 1717–1718.
1562: 34 guilds are registered.
1586: The first mention of a school in Mediaș ("Schola civitatis").
1611: Mediaș is plundered by the soldiers of Gabriel Báthory.
1705: The city is besieged for the last time in its history.
1771–1781: The Johann Sifft typography started its activity.
1822: The first gymnastics association in present-day Romania was established.
1826: The first Romanian church in Mediaș was raised, with great effort and dedication from the Greek-Catholic Bishop Ioan Bob. During the same period, Ioan Bob established the first Romanian school in the city.
1863: Public lighting of streets in Mediaș was established.
1871: The agricultural school was founded and the G. A. Reisenberger typography started its activity.
1872: The first train station was built. The current train station was built between 1963 and 1965.
1918–1919: The city of Mediaș came under Romanian administration as a result of the Union of Transylvania with Romania and the subsequent Hungarian–Romanian War.
1920: The city became part of the Kingdom of Romania as a result of the Treaty of Trianon. It fell within the Târnava-Mare County, and became the administrative center of plasa Mediaș.
1950: After the establishment of the Romanian People's Republic in 1947 and the subsequent administrative reform, the city became part of the Sibiu Region, and from 1952, the Stalin Region (renamed Brașov Region in 1960).
1968: The old administrative division of județ was reinstated, and Mediaș became part of Sibiu County.
== Demographics ==
In 1850, Mediaș had a population of 5,230 inhabitants, of which 2,986 were Germans (57.1%), 1,710 Romanians (32.7%), 264 Hungarians (5%), 200 Roma (3.8%), and 70 (1.3%) of other ethnicities. In 1910, the town had 8,626 inhabitants (44.8% Germans, more specifically Transylvanian Saxons, 31.6% Romanians, and 19.9% Hungarians). In 1992, there were 64,481 inhabitants. In 2022, according to that year's Romanian census postponed one year because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the figure had fallen to 39,505.
The ethnic composition in 2022 was as follows:
87.9% Romanians
7.6% Hungarians
3.2% Romani
1.2% Germans (Transylvanian Saxons)
0.1% Other minority ethnic groups
== Administration and local politics ==
=== Town council ===
The town's current local council has the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2020 Romanian local elections:
== Economy ==
Mediaș is the second industrial center after Sibiu in the county.
From the 14th to 19th centuries, various manufacturers and professionals were members of associations based on their trades called bresle (guilds), the first two unions were the ones formed by tailors and cloth makers, in 1457. In 1698, Mediaș already had 33 unions.
In the 19th century, unions started to merge and build factories. The first factory, called "Karres", was established in 1881 and produced various leather products. In 1888, a factory that manufactured cloth and various textiles was built, followed in 1895 by a factory called "Salconserv" that produced salami and cans. The company used to produce the famous brand of salami called Salam de Sibiu, for the company "Theil & Co. A.G. Salami und Selchwarenfabrik", located in Sibiu.
In 1921, Mediaș started to manufacture windows. The factory is now called Geromed and extended its products with blackboards, mirrors, windscreens and stained glass. In the same year, a factory now called Emailul started to produce enameled pots, mugs and dishes.
The "Vitrometan" factory was built in 1922 and produces various glass products, including porcelain, light bulbs and mirrors. "Relee S.A" manufactures automobile components, switches, wall sockets, relays and electric motors.
Mediaș is known best for its role in production of methane gas. The area where Mediaș is located is the site of the largest natural gas field in Romania. The headquarters of Romgaz - the national gas exploitation enterprise - and of Transgaz - the natural gas carrier - are in Mediaș.
== Education ==
Mediaș has close to 20 kindergartens and 10 schools (they are numbered, and three of them have names):
School no. 1 – Mihai Eminescu;
School no. 8 – Constantin Motaș;
School no. 9 – Hermann Oberth (German school);
School no. 10 – Báthory István (Hungarian school).
There are also 5 high-schools in the city:
Stephan Ludwig Roth High-School
National School of Gas College
Axente Sever Theoretical High-School
Automecanica Technological College
Mediensis Technical College
== Media ==
Newspapers
Monitorul de Mediaș
Medieșeanul
Ziarul de Mediaș
TV channels
Nova TV
Radio stations
Radio Mediaș 88.1 FM
Radio Ring 90.2 FM
== Tourism ==
Mediaș has one of the best preserved historical centers in Romania and also some well preserved medieval fortifications. One symbol of the town is the Tower of the Buglers, which is about 70 metres (230 feet) tall. Its construction started in the 13th century. In the 15th century it was raised to 5 tiers. The St. Margaret Church was finished at about the same time. Later, 3 more tiers were added in only two months. The roof consists of colored vitrified tiles, and four turrets were built. The tower had a guard, who would sound his bugle whenever an enemy approached. The tower has in its southwestern corner (between the clocks) a small wooden man who rings a bell, thus announcing in advance when the clock will ring on the hour. The heavy pressure of the tower on the sandy soil is the reason why the tower is slightly tilted to the North. Between 1927 and 1930, and later in 1972, the tower was consolidated. The tilt of the tip compared with the base is 2.32 m (7 ft 7 in).
The town lies in the middle of the area which was inhabited by Transylvanian Saxons and in an area of 20 km (12 mi) around it there are dozens of fortified churches. Two of these, Biertan and Valea Viilor, are part of the Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site.
St. Margaret's Church: The fortified church was built in gothic style in 1488, with time it went through different modifications. The feeble ground structure made its tower, built in 1460, inclines. In 1550 the church was raised with three storeys and in 1551 four smaller towers were added to show that the city had a court. It was at that time that it attained its 68.5 metres (225 feet) height. In 1783 the roof-structure was changed and the small towers renovated, it was also then that the golden globe, dating from 1550, was brought down from the tower and according to tradition its content was read aloud. The tower proved to be a good spotting post. In those times the trumpeter in the tower had an important function, sounding the alert about approaching danger. If he made a mistake, he would've been thrown out from the top of the tower. From this does the towers name derive, Trumpeters tower. In this tower was ordered to be locked Vlad the Impaler, a.k.a. Dracula, by King Matthias Corvinus in 1476. On the inside walls of the church one can see 14th- or 15th-century frescoes. The altar was made in 1480 in Gothic style, and portrays the sufferings of Jesus. On the portrait, below the crucified Jesus' arm, a panorama of Vienna can be observed, thereby indicating the portrait's origin. The church walls are also decorated with eastern wall carpets given to the church by Christians, some dating back to the 16th century. In the church there is the oldest brazen baptistry in Romania, made at the beginning of the 19th century. The canopy of the pulpit was made in 1679 by master Sigismund Moess. Its pipe-organ, from 1755, is appropriate for symphony concerts. While those concerts happen, the church benches are turned to face the pipe-organ.
The route of the Via Transilvanica long-distance trail passes through Mediaș.
== Wine ==
The grapes and wine leaves visible in the city's coat of arms refer to the (once well-known) wine from Mediaș. For example, the wine is mentioned early in Bram Stoker's novel Dracula: "The wine was Golden Mediasch, which produces a queer sting on the tongue, which is, however, not disagreeable" (Jonathan Harker's diary, May 5, on his way to the castle of the count).
== Sports ==
Football
Gaz Metan Mediaș - founded in 1945 and dissolved in 2022, had played most of its history in Liga I and Liga II
ACS Mediaș 2022 - founded in 2022, currently playing in Liga IV
Basketball
CSM Mediaș - dissolved, had played in Division A.
Cycling
The annual mountain bike marathon (in Romanian: Maratonul Medieval Mediaș) is a popular bicycle race usually held in June.
== Natives ==
Ioan Adam (b. 1946), historian
Marius Baciu (b. 1975), football player
Andreas Brecht von Brechtenberg (1805–1842), German poet
Ionuț Buzean (b. 1982), football player
Iulian Cristea (b. 1994), football player
Octavian Fodor (1913–1976), doctor
Giulio Gari (1909–1994), tenor
Ioan Ghișe (b. 1956), politician
Tudor Cristian Jurgiu (b. 1984), film director and writer
Margareta Keszeg (b. 1965), middle distance runner
Laura Codruța Kövesi (b. 1973), prosecutor, the first European Chief Prosecutor and the former chief prosecutor of Romania's National Anticorruption Directorate, born in Sfântu Gheorghe, raised in Mediaș
Paul Traugott Meissner (1778–1864), Austrian chemist
Alexandru Munteanu (b. 1987), football player
Estelle Nathan (1871–1949), Austrian-British painter
Darius Olaru (b. 1998), football player
Alexandru Oroian (b. 2001), football player
Paul Pîrvulescu (b. 1998), football player
Horațiu Potra (b. 1970), mercenary
George Puflea (1883–1950s), early aviator, he flew in the First Balkan War, in the Mexican Revolution, in World War I, and in early American and Mexican civil aviation
Cristian Pustai (b. 1967), football player and manager
Stephan Ludwig Roth (1796–1849), Transylvanian Saxon intellectual, teacher, pedagogue, revolutionary leader, and Evangelical Lutheran pastor
Adrian Andrei Rusu (b. 1951), researcher in Romanian medieval archaeology
Christian Schesaeus (1535–1585), Transylvanian Saxon humanist, poet, and a Lutheran pastor
Ruxandra Sireteanu (1945–2008), biophysicist and neuroscientist who undertook pioneering research into the human visual system
Willie Schneider (b. 1963), German skeleton racer
Mihaela Tatu (b. 1963), TV host
George Togan (1910–2003), historian
Michael Weiß (1569–1612), Transylvanian Saxons politician and historian
== International relations ==
=== Twin towns — sister cities ===
Mediaș is twinned with:
== References ==
== External links ==
Webcam located in "Corneliu Coposu" square
Mediaş Transylvanian beauty in transition
Heimatgemeinschaft Mediasch e. V. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Nicoll | Murray Nicoll | Murray Nicoll (20 July 1943 – 2 May 2010) was an Australian journalist and broadcaster whose career spanned more than 45 years. He was best known for providing reports on 5DN radio from his own burning home during the Ash Wednesday fires of 1983. His reports on the fire and the destruction of his house earned Nicoll the 1983 Walkley Award for best radio news report.
Nicoll's resume in journalism included stints at The News, in Melbourne radio, including the top rating drive time program on 3AW, and ABC radio in Adelaide, Australia. He worked as a television reporter for Channel 7 during the last five years of his life. He earned the 1985 Walkley Award for best radio current affairs report for his radio broadcasts from an expedition to Mount Everest.
Nicoll died of leukaemia at his home on 2 May 2010, at the age of 66.
He was the uncle of Chris Nicoll, currently head of production for the Capital FM Network in the UK.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish | Jellyfish | Jellyfish, also known as sea jellies or simply jellies, are the medusa-phase of certain gelatinous members of the subphylum Medusozoa, which is a major part of the phylum Cnidaria. Jellyfish are mainly free-swimming marine animals, although a few are anchored to the seabed by stalks rather than being motile. They are made of an umbrella-shaped main body made of mesoglea, known as the bell, and a collection of trailing tentacles on the underside.
Via pulsating contractions, the bell can provide propulsion for locomotion through open water. The tentacles are armed with stinging cells and may be used to capture prey or to defend against predators. Jellyfish have a complex life cycle, and the medusa is normally the sexual phase, which produces planula larvae. These then disperse widely and enter a sedentary polyp phase which may include asexual budding before reaching sexual maturity.
Jellyfish are found all over the world, from surface waters to the deep sea. Scyphozoans (the "true jellyfish") are exclusively marine, but some hydrozoans with a similar appearance live in fresh water. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide. The medusae of most species are fast-growing, and mature within a few months then die soon after breeding, but the polyp stage, attached to the seabed, may be much more long-lived. Jellyfish have been in existence for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal group.
Jellyfish are eaten by humans in certain cultures. They are considered a delicacy in some Asian countries, where species in the Rhizostomeae order are pressed and salted to remove excess water. Australian researchers have described them as a "perfect food": sustainable and protein-rich but relatively low in food energy.
They are also used in cell and molecular biology research, especially the green fluorescent protein used by some species for bioluminescence. This protein has been adapted as a fluorescent reporter for inserted genes and has had a large impact on fluorescence microscopy.
The stinging cells used by jellyfish to subdue their prey can injure humans. Thousands of swimmers worldwide are stung every year, with effects ranging from mild discomfort to serious injury or even death. When conditions are favourable, jellyfish can form vast swarms, which may damage fishing gear by filling fishing nets, and sometimes clog the cooling systems of power and desalination plants which draw their water from the sea.
== Names ==
The name jellyfish, in use since 1796, has traditionally been applied to medusae and all similar animals including the comb jellies (ctenophores, another phylum). The term jellies or sea jellies is more recent, having been introduced by public aquaria in an effort to avoid use of the word "fish" with its modern connotation of an animal with a backbone, though shellfish, cuttlefish and starfish are not vertebrates either. In scientific literature, "jelly" and "jellyfish" have been used interchangeably. Many sources refer to only scyphozoans as "true jellyfish".
A group of jellyfish is called a "smack" or a "smuck".
== Mapping to taxonomic groups ==
=== Phylogeny ===
==== Definition ====
The term jellyfish broadly corresponds to medusae, that is, a life-cycle stage in the Medusozoa. The American evolutionary biologist Paulyn Cartwright gives the following general definition:
Typically, medusozoan cnidarians have a pelagic, predatory jellyfish stage in their life cycle; staurozoans are the exceptions [as they are stalked].
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines jellyfish as follows:
A free-swimming marine coelenterate that is the sexually reproducing form of a hydrozoan or scyphozoan and has a nearly transparent saucer-shaped body and extensible marginal tentacles studded with stinging cells.
Given that jellyfish is a common name, its mapping to biological groups is inexact. Some authorities have called the comb jellies and certain salps jellyfish, though other authorities state that neither of these are jellyfish, which they consider should be limited to certain groups within the medusozoa.
The non-medusozoan clades called jellyfish by some but not all authorities (both agreeing and disagreeing citations are given in each case) are indicated with "???" on the following cladogram of the animal kingdom:
==== Medusozoan jellyfish ====
Jellyfish are not a clade, as they include most of the Medusozoa, barring some of the Hydrozoa. The medusozoan groups included by authorities are indicated on the following phylogenetic tree by the presence of citations. Names of included jellyfish, in English where possible, are shown in boldface; the presence of a named and cited example indicates that at least that species within its group has been called a jellyfish.
=== Taxonomy ===
The subphylum Medusozoa includes all cnidarians with a medusa stage in their life cycle. The basic cycle is egg, planula larva, polyp, medusa, with the medusa being the sexual stage. The polyp stage is sometimes secondarily lost. The subphylum include the major taxa, Scyphozoa (large jellyfish), Cubozoa (box jellyfish) and Hydrozoa (small jellyfish), and excludes Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones). This suggests that the medusa form evolved after the polyps. Medusozoans have tetramerous symmetry, with parts in fours or multiples of four.
The four major classes of medusozoan Cnidaria are:
Scyphozoa are sometimes called true jellyfish, though they are no more truly jellyfish than the others listed here. They have tetra-radial symmetry. Most have tentacles around the outer margin of the bowl-shaped bell, and long, oral arms around the mouth in the center of the subumbrella.
Cubozoa (box jellyfish) have a (rounded) box-shaped bell, and their velarium assists them to swim more quickly. Box jellyfish may be related more closely to scyphozoan jellyfish than either are to the Hydrozoa.
Hydrozoa medusae also have tetra-radial symmetry, nearly always have a velum (diaphragm used in swimming) attached just inside the bell margin, do not have oral arms, but a much smaller central stalk-like structure, the manubrium, with terminal mouth opening, and are distinguished by the absence of cells in the mesoglea. Hydrozoa show great diversity of lifestyle; some species maintain the polyp form for their entire life and do not form medusae at all (such as Hydra, which is hence not considered a jellyfish), and a few are entirely medusal and have no polyp form.
Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish) are characterized by a medusa form that is generally sessile, oriented upside down and with a stalk emerging from the apex of the "calyx" (bell), which attaches to the substrate. At least some Staurozoa also have a polyp form that alternates with the medusoid portion of the life cycle. Until recently, Staurozoa were classified within the Scyphozoa.
There are over 200 species of Scyphozoa, about 50 species of Staurozoa, about 50 species of Cubozoa, and the Hydrozoa includes about 1000–1500 species that produce medusae, but many more species that do not.
=== Fossil history ===
Since jellyfish have no hard parts, fossils are rare. The oldest unambiguous fossil of a free-swimming medusa is Burgessomedusa from the mid-Cambrian Burgess Shale of Canada, which is likely either a stem group of box jellyfish (Cubozoa) or Acraspeda (the clade including Staurozoa, Cubozoa, and Scyphozoa). Other claimed records from the Cambrian of China and Utah in the United States are uncertain, and possibly represent ctenophores instead.
== Anatomy ==
The main feature of a true jellyfish is the umbrella-shaped bell. This is a hollow structure consisting of a mass of transparent jelly-like matter known as mesoglea, which forms the hydrostatic skeleton of the animal. The mesoglea is 95% or more composed of water, and also contains collagen and other fibrous proteins, as well as wandering amebocytes that can engulf debris and bacteria. The mesoglea is bordered by the epidermis on the outside and the gastrodermis on the inside. The edge of the bell is often divided into rounded lobes known as lappets, which allow the bell to flex. In the gaps or niches between the lappets are dangling rudimentary sense organs known as rhopalia, and the margin of the bell often bears tentacles.
On the underside of the bell is the manubrium, a stalk-like structure hanging down from the centre, with the mouth, which also functions as the anus, at its tip. There are often four oral arms connected to the manubrium, streaming away into the water below. The mouth opens into the gastrovascular cavity, where digestion takes place and nutrients are absorbed. This is subdivided by four thick septa into a central stomach and four gastric pockets. The four pairs of gonads are attached to the septa, and close to them four septal funnels open to the exterior, perhaps supplying good oxygenation to the gonads. Near the free edges of the septa, gastric filaments extend into the gastric cavity; these are armed with nematocysts and enzyme-producing cells and play a role in subduing and digesting the prey. In some scyphozoans, the gastric cavity is joined to radial canals which branch extensively and may join a marginal ring canal. Cilia in these canals circulate the fluid in a regular direction.
The box jellyfish is largely similar in structure. It has a squarish, box-like bell. A short pedalium or stalk hangs from each of the four lower corners. One or more long, slender tentacles are attached to each pedalium. The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bell's aperture and creates a powerful jet when the bell pulsates, allowing box jellyfish to swim faster than true jellyfish. Hydrozoans are also similar, usually with just four tentacles at the edge of the bell, although many hydrozoans are colonial and may not have a free-living medusal stage. In some species, a non-detachable bud known as a gonophore is formed that contains a gonad but is missing many other medusal features such as tentacles and rhopalia. Stalked jellyfish are attached to a solid surface by a basal disk, and resemble a polyp, the oral end of which has partially developed into a medusa with tentacle-bearing lobes and a central manubrium with four-sided mouth.
Most jellyfish do not have specialized systems for osmoregulation, respiration and circulation, and do not have a central nervous system. Nematocysts, which deliver the sting, are located mostly on the tentacles; true jellyfish also have them around the mouth and stomach. Jellyfish do not need a respiratory system because sufficient oxygen diffuses through the epidermis. They have limited control over their movement, but can navigate with the pulsations of the bell-like body; some species are active swimmers most of the time, while others largely drift. The rhopalia contain rudimentary sense organs which are able to detect light, water-borne vibrations, odour and orientation. A loose network of nerves called a "nerve net" is located in the epidermis. Although jellyfish are traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species. A jellyfish detects stimuli, and transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, to other nerve cells. The rhopalial ganglia contain pacemaker neurones which control swimming rate and direction.
In many species of jellyfish, the rhopalia include ocelli, light-sensitive organs able to tell light from dark. These are generally pigment spot ocelli, which have some of their cells pigmented. The rhopalia are suspended on stalks with heavy crystals of calcium carbonate at one end, acting like gyroscopes to orient the eyes skyward. Certain jellyfish look upward at the mangrove canopy while making a daily migration from mangrove swamps into the open lagoon, where they feed, and back again.
Box jellyfish have more advanced vision than the other groups. Each individual has 24 eyes, two of which are capable of seeing colour, and four parallel information processing areas that act in competition, supposedly making them one of the few kinds of animal to have a 360-degree view of its environment.
=== Box jellyfish eye ===
The study of jellyfish eye evolution is an intermediary to a better understanding of how visual systems evolved on Earth. Jellyfish exhibit immense variation in visual systems ranging from photoreceptive cell patches seen in simple photoreceptive systems to more derived complex eyes seen in box jellyfish. Major topics of jellyfish visual system research (with an emphasis on box jellyfish) include: the evolution of jellyfish vision from simple to complex visual systems), the eye morphology and molecular structures of box jellyfish (including comparisons to vertebrate eyes), and various uses of vision including task-guided behaviors and niche specialization.
==== Evolution ====
Experimental evidence for photosensitivity and photoreception in cnidarians antecedes the mid 1900s, and a rich body of research has since covered evolution of visual systems in jellyfish. Jellyfish visual systems range from simple photoreceptive cells to complex image-forming eyes. More ancestral visual systems incorporate extraocular vision (vision without eyes) that encompass numerous receptors dedicated to single-function behaviors. More derived visual systems comprise perception that is capable of multiple task-guided behaviors.
Although they lack a true brain, cnidarian jellyfish have a "ring" nervous system that plays a significant role in motor and sensory activity. This net of nerves is responsible for muscle contraction and movement and culminates the emergence of photosensitive structures. Across Cnidaria, there is large variation in the systems that underlie photosensitivity. Photosensitive structures range from non-specialized groups of cells, to more "conventional" eyes similar to those of vertebrates. The general evolutionary steps to develop complex vision include (from more ancestral to more derived states): non-directional photoreception, directional photoreception, low-resolution vision, and high-resolution vision. Increased habitat and task complexity has favored the high-resolution visual systems common in derived cnidarians such as box jellyfish.
Basal visual systems observed in various cnidarians exhibit photosensitivity representative of a single task or behavior. Extraocular photoreception (a form of non-directional photoreception), is the most basic form of light sensitivity and guides a variety of behaviors among cnidarians. It can function to regulate circadian rhythm (as seen in eyeless hydrozoans) and other light-guided behaviors responsive to the intensity and spectrum of light. Extraocular photoreception can function additionally in positive phototaxis (in planula larvae of hydrozoans), as well as in avoiding harmful amounts of UV radiation via negative phototaxis. Directional photoreception (the ability to perceive direction of incoming light) allows for more complex phototactic responses to light, and likely evolved by means of membrane stacking. The resulting behavioral responses can range from guided spawning events timed by moonlight to shadow responses for potential predator avoidance. Light-guided behaviors are observed in numerous scyphozoans including the common moon jelly, Aurelia aurita, which migrates in response to changes in ambient light and solar position even though they lack proper eyes.
The low-resolution visual system of box jellyfish is more derived than directional photoreception, and thus box jellyfish vision represents the most basic form of true vision in which multiple directional photoreceptors combine to create the first imaging and spatial resolution. This is different from the high-resolution vision that is observed in camera or compound eyes of vertebrates and cephalopods that rely on focusing optics. Critically, the visual systems of box jellyfish are responsible for guiding multiple tasks or behaviors in contrast to less derived visual systems in other jellyfish that guide single behavioral functions. These behaviors include phototaxis based on sunlight (positive) or shadows (negative), obstacle avoidance, and control of swim-pulse rate.
Box jellyfish possess "proper eyes" (similar to vertebrates) that allow them to inhabit environments that lesser derived medusae cannot. In fact, they are considered the only class in the clade Medusozoa that have behaviors necessitating spatial resolution and genuine vision. However, the lens in their eyes are more functionally similar to cup-eyes exhibited in low-resolution organisms, and have very little to no focusing capability. The lack of the ability to focus is due to the focal length exceeding the distance to the retina, thus generating unfocused images and limiting spatial resolution. The visual system is still sufficient for box jellyfish to produce an image to help with tasks such as object avoidance.
==== Utility as a model organism ====
Box jellyfish eyes are a visual system that is sophisticated in numerous ways. These intricacies include the considerable variation within the morphology of box jellyfishes' eyes (including their task/behavior specification), and the molecular makeup of their eyes including: photoreceptors, opsins, lenses, and synapses. The comparison of these attributes to more derived visual systems can allow for a further understanding of how the evolution of more derived visual systems may have occurred, and puts into perspective how box jellyfish can play the role as an evolutionary/developmental model for all visual systems.
===== Characteristics =====
Box jellyfish visual systems are both diverse and complex, comprising multiple photosystems. There is likely considerable variation in visual properties between species of box jellyfish given the significant inter-species morphological and physiological variation. Eyes tend to differ in size and shape, along with number of receptors (including opsins), and physiology across species of box jellyfish.
Box jellyfish have a series of intricate lensed eyes that are similar to those of more derived multicellular organisms such as vertebrates. Their 24 eyes fit into four different morphological categories. These categories consist of two large, morphologically different medial eyes (a lower and upper lensed eye) containing spherical lenses, a lateral pair of pigment slit eyes, and a lateral pair of pigment pit eyes. The eyes are situated on rhopalia (small sensory structures) which serve sensory functions of the box jellyfish and arise from the cavities of the exumbrella (the surface of the body) on the side of the bells of the jellyfish. The two large eyes are located on the mid-line of the club and are considered complex because they contain lenses. The four remaining eyes lie laterally on either side of each rhopalia and are considered simple. The simple eyes are observed as small invaginated cups of epithelium that have developed pigmentation. The larger of the complex eyes contains a cellular cornea created by a mono ciliated epithelium, cellular lens, homogenous capsule to the lens, vitreous body with prismatic elements, and a retina of pigmented cells. The smaller of the complex eyes is said to be slightly less complex given that it lacks a capsule but otherwise contains the same structure as the larger eye.
Box jellyfish have multiple photosystems that comprise different sets of eyes. Evidence includes immunocytochemical and molecular data that show photopigment differences among the different morphological eye types, and physiological experiments done on box jellyfish to suggest behavioral differences among photosystems. Each individual eye type constitutes photosystems that work collectively to control visually guided behaviors.
Box jellyfish eyes primarily use c-PRCs (ciliary photoreceptor cells) similar to that of vertebrate eyes. These cells undergo phototransduction cascades (process of light absorption by photoreceptors) that are triggered by c-opsins. Available opsin sequences suggest that there are two types of opsins possessed by all cnidarians including an ancient phylogenetic opsin, and a sister ciliary opsin to the c-opsins group. Box jellyfish could have both ciliary and cnidops (cnidarian opsins), which is something not previously believed to appear in the same retina. Nevertheless, it is not entirely evident whether cnidarians possess multiple opsins that are capable of having distinctive spectral sensitivities.
===== Comparison with other organisms =====
Comparative research on genetic and molecular makeup of box jellyfishes' eyes versus more derived eyes seen in vertebrates and cephalopods focuses on: lenses and crystallin composition, synapses, and Pax genes and their implied evidence for shared primordial (ancestral) genes in eye evolution.
Box jellyfish eyes are said to be an evolutionary/developmental model of all eyes based on their evolutionary recruitment of crystallins and Pax genes. Research done on box jellyfish including Tripedalia cystophora has suggested that they possess a single Pax gene, PaxB. PaxB functions by binding to crystallin promoters and activating them. PaxB in situ hybridization resulted in PaxB expression in the lens, retina, and statocysts. These results and the rejection of the prior hypothesis that Pax6 was an ancestral Pax gene in eyes has led to the conclusion that PaxB was a primordial gene in eye evolution, and that the eyes of all organisms likely share a common ancestor.
The lens structure of box jellyfish appears very similar to those of other organisms, but the crystallins are distinct in both function and appearance. Weak reactions were seen within the sera and there were very weak sequence similarities within the crystallins among vertebrate and invertebrate lenses. This is likely due to differences in lower molecular weight proteins and the subsequent lack of immunological reactions with antisera that other organisms' lenses exhibit.
All four of the visual systems of box jellyfish species investigated with detail (Carybdea marsupialis, Chiropsalmus quadrumanus, Tamoya haplonema and Tripedalia cystophora) have invaginated synapses, but only in the upper and lower lensed eyes. Different densities were found between the upper and lower lenses, and between species. Four types of chemical synapses have been discovered within the rhopalia which could help in understanding neural organization including: clear unidirectional, dense-core unidirectional, clear bidirectional, and clear and dense-core bidirectional. The synapses of the lensed eyes could be useful as markers to learn more about the neural circuit in box jellyfish retinal areas.
==== Evolution as a response to natural stimuli ====
The primary adaptive responses to environmental variation observed in box jellyfish eyes include pupillary constriction speeds in response to light environments, as well as photoreceptor tuning and lens adaptations to better respond to shifts between light environments and darkness. Some box jellyfish species' eyes appear to have evolved more focused vision in response to their habitat.
Pupillary contraction appears to have evolved in response to variation in the light environment across ecological niches across three species of box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsella bronzie, and Carukia barnesi). Behavioral studies suggest that faster pupil contraction rates allow for greater object avoidance, and in fact, species with more complex habitats exhibit faster rates. Ch. bronzie inhabit shallow beach fronts that have low visibility and very few obstacles, thus, faster pupil contraction in response to objects in their environment is not important. Ca. barnesi and Ch. fleckeri are found in more three-dimensionally complex environments like mangroves with an abundance of natural obstacles, where faster pupil contraction is more adaptive. Behavioral studies support the idea that faster pupillary contraction rates assist with obstacle avoidance as well as depth adjustments in response to differing light intensities.
Light/dark adaptation via pupillary light reflexes is an additional form of an evolutionary response to the light environment. This relates to the pupil's response to shifts between light intensity (generally from sunlight to darkness). In the process of light/dark adaptation, the upper and lower lens eyes of different box jellyfish species vary in specific function. The lower lens-eyes contain pigmented photoreceptors and long pigment cells with dark pigments that migrate on light/dark adaptation, while the upper-lens eyes play a concentrated role in light direction and phototaxis given that they face upward towards the water surface (towards the sun or moon). The upper lens of Ch. bronzie does not exhibit any considerable optical power while Tr. cystophora (a box jellyfish species that tends to live in mangroves) does. The ability to use light to visually guide behavior is not of as much importance to Ch. bronzie as it is to species in more obstacle-filled environments. Differences in visually guided behavior serve as evidence that species that share the same number and structure of eyes can exhibit differences in how they control behavior.
== Largest and smallest ==
Jellyfish range from about one millimeter in bell height and diameter, to nearly 2 metres (6+1⁄2 ft) in bell height and diameter; the tentacles and mouth parts usually extend beyond this bell dimension.
The smallest jellyfish are the peculiar creeping jellyfish in the genera Staurocladia and Eleutheria, which have bell disks from 0.5 millimetres (1⁄32 in) to a few millimeters in diameter, with short tentacles that extend out beyond this, which these jellyfish use to move across the surface of seaweed or the bottoms of rocky pools; many of these tiny creeping jellyfish cannot be seen in the field without a hand lens or microscope. They can reproduce asexually by fission (splitting in half). Other very small jellyfish, which have bells about one millimeter, are the hydromedusae of many species that have just been released from their parent polyps; some of these live only a few minutes before shedding their gametes in the plankton and then dying, while others will grow in the plankton for weeks or months. The hydromedusae Cladonema radiatum and Cladonema californicum are also very small, living for months, yet never growing beyond a few mm in bell height and diameter.
The lion's mane jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, was long-cited as the largest jellyfish, and arguably the longest animal in the world, with fine, thread-like tentacles that may extend up to 36.5 m (119 ft 9 in) long (though most are nowhere near that large). They have a moderately painful, but rarely fatal, sting. The increasingly common giant Nomura's jellyfish, Nemopilema nomurai, found in some, but not all years in the waters of Japan, Korea and China in summer and autumn is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", in terms of diameter and weight, since the largest Nomura's jellyfish in late autumn can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in bell (body) diameter and about 200 kg (440 lb) in weight, with average specimens frequently reaching 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) in bell diameter and about 150 kg (330 lb) in weight. The large bell mass of the giant Nomura's jellyfish can dwarf a diver and is nearly always much greater than the Lion's Mane, whose bell diameter can reach 1 m (3 ft 3 in).
The rarely encountered deep-sea jellyfish Stygiomedusa gigantea is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", with its thick, massive bell up to 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) wide, and four thick, "strap-like" oral arms extending up to 6 m (19+1⁄2 ft) in length, very different from the typical fine, threadlike tentacles that rim the umbrella of more-typical-looking jellyfish, including the Lion's Mane.
Desmonema glaciale, which lives in the Antarctic region, can reach a very large size (several meters). Purple-striped jelly (Chrysaora colorata) can also be extremely long (up to 15 feet).
== Life history and behavior ==
=== Life cycle ===
Jellyfish have a complex life cycle which includes both sexual and asexual phases, with the medusa being the sexual stage in most instances. Sperm fertilize eggs, which develop into larval planulae, become polyps, bud into ephyrae and then transform into adult medusae. In some species certain stages may be skipped.
Upon reaching adult size, jellyfish spawn regularly if there is a sufficient supply of food. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, with all individuals spawning at about the same time of day; in many instances this is at dawn or dusk. Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the unprotected eggs are fertilized and develop into larvae. In a few species, the sperm swim into the female's mouth, fertilizing the eggs within her body, where they remain during early development stages. In moon jellies, the eggs lodge in pits on the oral arms, which form a temporary brood chamber for the developing planula larvae.
The planula is a small larva covered with cilia. When sufficiently developed, it settles onto a firm surface and develops into a polyp. The polyp generally consists of a small stalk topped by a mouth that is ringed by upward-facing tentacles. The polyps resemble those of closely related anthozoans, such as sea anemones and corals. The jellyfish polyp may be sessile, living on the bottom of boat hulls or other substrates, or it may be free-floating or attached to tiny bits of free-living plankton or rarely, fish or other invertebrates. Polyps may be solitary or colonial. Most polyps are only millimetres in diameter and feed continuously. The polyp stage may last for years.
After an interval and stimulated by seasonal or hormonal changes, the polyp may begin reproducing asexually by budding and, in the Scyphozoa, is called a segmenting polyp, or a scyphistoma. Budding produces more scyphistomae and also ephyrae. Budding sites vary by species; from the tentacle bulbs, the manubrium (above the mouth), or the gonads of hydromedusae. In a process known as strobilation, the polyp's tentacles are reabsorbed and the body starts to narrow, forming transverse constrictions, in several places near the upper extremity of the polyp. These deepen as the constriction sites migrate down the body, and separate segments known as ephyra detach. These are free-swimming precursors of the adult medusa stage, which is the life stage that is typically identified as a jellyfish. The ephyrae, usually only a millimeter or two across initially, swim away from the polyp and grow. Limnomedusae polyps can asexually produce a creeping frustule larval form, which crawls away before developing into another polyp. A few species can produce new medusae by budding directly from the medusan stage. Some hydromedusae reproduce by fission.
=== Lifespan ===
Little is known of the life histories of many jellyfish as the places on the seabed where the benthic forms of those species live have not been found. However, an asexually reproducing strobila form can sometimes live for several years, producing new medusae (ephyra larvae) each year.
An unusual species, Turritopsis dohrnii, formerly classified as Turritopsis nutricula, might be effectively immortal because of its ability under certain circumstances to transform from medusa back to the polyp stage, thereby escaping the death that typically awaits medusae after reproduction if they have not otherwise been eaten by some other organism. So far this reversal has been observed only in the laboratory.
=== Locomotion ===
Using the moon jelly Aurelia aurita as an example, jellyfish have been shown to be the most energy-efficient swimmers of all animals. They move through the water by radially expanding and contracting their bell-shaped bodies to push water behind them. They pause between the contraction and expansion phases to create two vortex rings. Muscles are used for the contraction of the body, which creates the first vortex and pushes the animal forward, but the mesoglea is so elastic that the expansion is powered exclusively by relaxing the bell, which releases the energy stored from the contraction. Meanwhile, the second vortex ring starts to spin faster, sucking water into the bell and pushing against the centre of the body, giving a secondary and "free" boost forward. The mechanism, called passive energy recapture, only works in relatively small jellyfish moving at low speeds, allowing the animal to travel 30 percent farther on each swimming cycle. Jellyfish achieved a 48 percent lower cost of transport (food and oxygen intake versus energy spent in movement) than other animals in similar studies. One reason for this is that most of the gelatinous tissue of the bell is inactive, using no energy during swimming.
== Ecology ==
=== Diet ===
Jellyfish are, like other cnidarians, generally carnivorous (or parasitic), feeding on planktonic organisms, crustaceans, small fish, fish eggs and larvae, and other jellyfish, ingesting food and voiding undigested waste through the mouth. They hunt passively using their tentacles as drift lines, or sink through the water with their tentacles spread widely; the tentacles, which contain nematocysts to stun or kill the prey, may then flex to help bring it to the mouth. Their swimming technique also helps them to capture prey; when their bell expands it sucks in water which brings more potential prey within reach of the tentacles.
A few species such as Aglaura hemistoma are omnivorous, feeding on microplankton which is a mixture of zooplankton and phytoplankton (microscopic plants) such as dinoflagellates. Others harbour mutualistic algae (Zooxanthellae) in their tissues; the spotted jellyfish (Mastigias papua) is typical of these, deriving part of its nutrition from the products of photosynthesis, and part from captured zooplankton. The upside-down jellyfish (Cassiopea andromeda) also has a symbiotic relationship with microalgae, but captures tiny animals to supplement their diet. This is done by releasing tiny balls of living cells composed of mesoglea. These use cilia to drive them through water and stinging cells which stun the prey. The blobs also seem to have digestive capabilities.
=== Predation ===
Other species of jellyfish are among the most common and important jellyfish predators. Sea anemones may eat jellyfish that drift into their range. Other predators include tunas, sharks, swordfish, sea turtles and penguins. Jellyfish washed up on the beach are consumed by foxes, other terrestrial mammals and birds. In general however, few animals prey on jellyfish; they can broadly be considered to be top predators in the food chain. Once jellyfish have become dominant in an ecosystem, for example through overfishing which removes predators of jellyfish larvae, there may be no obvious way for the previous balance to be restored: they eat fish eggs and juvenile fish, and compete with fish for food, preventing fish stocks from recovering.
=== Symbiosis ===
Some small fish are immune to the stings of the jellyfish and live among the tentacles, serving as bait in a fish trap; they are safe from potential predators and are able to share the fish caught by the jellyfish. The cannonball jellyfish has a symbiotic relationship with ten different species of fish, and with the longnose spider crab, which lives inside the bell, sharing the jellyfish's food and nibbling its tissues.
=== Blooms ===
Jellyfish form large masses or blooms in certain environmental conditions of ocean currents, nutrients, sunshine, temperature, season, prey availability, reduced predation and oxygen concentration. Currents collect jellyfish together, especially in years with unusually high populations. Jellyfish can detect marine currents and swim against the current to congregate in blooms. Jellyfish are better able to survive in nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water than competitors, and thus can feast on plankton without competition. Jellyfish may also benefit from saltier waters, as saltier waters contain more iodine, which is necessary for polyps to turn into jellyfish. Rising sea temperatures caused by climate change may also contribute to jellyfish blooms, because many species of jellyfish are able to survive in warmer waters. Increased nutrients from agricultural or urban runoff with nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus compounds increase the growth of phytoplankton, causing eutrophication and algal blooms. When the phytoplankton die, they may create dead zones, so-called because they are hypoxic (low in oxygen). This in turn kills fish and other animals, but not jellyfish, allowing them to bloom. Jellyfish populations may be expanding globally as a result of land runoff and overfishing of their natural predators. Jellyfish are well placed to benefit from disturbance of marine ecosystems. They reproduce rapidly; they prey upon many species, while few species prey on them; and they feed via touch rather than visually, so they can feed effectively at night and in turbid waters. It may be difficult for fish stocks to re-establish themselves in marine ecosystems once they have become dominated by jellyfish, because jellyfish feed on plankton, which includes fish eggs and larvae.
As suspected at the turn of this century, jellyfish blooms are increasing in frequency. Between 2013 and 2020 the Mediterranean Science Commission monitored on a weekly basis the frequency of such outbreaks in coastal waters from Morocco to the Black Sea, revealing a relatively high frequency of these blooms nearly all year round, with peaks observed from March to July and often again in the autumn. The blooms are caused by different jellyfish species, depending on their localisation within the Basin: one observes a clear dominance of Pelagia noctiluca and Velella velella outbreaks in the western Mediterranean, of Rhizostoma pulmo and Rhopilema nomadica outbreaks in the eastern Mediterranean, and of Aurelia aurita and Mnemiopsis leidyi outbreaks in the Black Sea.
Some jellyfish populations that have shown clear increases in the past few decades are invasive species, newly arrived from other habitats: examples include the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, central and eastern Mediterranean, Hawaii, and tropical and subtropical parts of the West Atlantic (including the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and Brazil).
Jellyfish blooms can have significant impact on community structure. Some carnivorous jellyfish species prey on zooplankton while others graze on primary producers. Reductions in zooplankton and ichthyoplankton due to a jellyfish bloom can ripple through the trophic levels. High-density jellyfish populations can outcompete other predators and reduce fish recruitment. Increased grazing on primary producers by jellyfish can also interrupt energy transfer to higher trophic levels.
During blooms, jellyfish significantly alter the nutrient availability in their environment. Blooms require large amounts of available organic nutrients in the water column to grow, limiting availability for other organisms. Some jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with single-celled dinoflagellates, allowing them to assimilate inorganic carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen creating competition for phytoplankton. Their large biomass makes them an important source of dissolved and particulate organic matter for microbial communities through excretion, mucus production, and decomposition. The microbes break down the organic matter into inorganic ammonium and phosphate. However, the low carbon availability shifts the process from production to respiration creating low oxygen areas making the dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus largely unavailable for primary production.
These blooms have very real impacts on industries. Jellyfish can outcompete fish by utilizing open niches in over-fished fisheries. Catch of jellyfish can strain fishing gear and lead to expenses relating to damaged gear. Power plants have been shut down due to jellyfish blocking the flow of cooling water. Blooms have also been harmful for tourism, causing a rise in stings and sometimes the closure of beaches.
Jellyfish form a component of jelly-falls, events where gelatinous zooplankton fall to the seafloor, providing food for the benthic organisms there. In temperate and subpolar regions, jelly-falls usually follow immediately after a bloom.
=== Habitats ===
Most jellyfish are marine animals, although a few hydromedusae inhabit freshwater. The best known freshwater example is the cosmopolitan hydrozoan jellyfish, Craspedacusta sowerbii. It is less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, colorless and does not sting. Some jellyfish populations have become restricted to coastal saltwater lakes, such as Jellyfish Lake in Palau. Jellyfish Lake is a marine lake where millions of golden jellyfish (Mastigias spp.) migrate horizontally across the lake daily.
Although most jellyfish live well off the ocean floor and form part of the plankton, a few species are closely associated with the bottom for much of their lives and can be considered benthic. The upside-down jellyfish in the genus Cassiopea typically lie on the bottom of shallow lagoons where they sometimes pulsate gently with their umbrella top facing down. Even some deep-sea species of hydromedusae and scyphomedusae are usually collected on or near the bottom. All of the stauromedusae are found attached to either seaweed or rocky or other firm material on the bottom.
Some species explicitly adapt to tidal flux. In Roscoe Bay, jellyfish ride the current at ebb tide until they hit a gravel bar, and then descend below the current. They remain in still waters until the tide rises, ascending and allowing it to sweep them back into the bay. They also actively avoid fresh water from mountain snowmelt, diving until they find enough salt.
=== Parasites ===
Jellyfish are hosts to a wide variety of parasitic organisms. They act as intermediate hosts of endoparasitic helminths, with the infection being transferred to the definitive host fish after predation. Some digenean trematodes, especially species in the family Lepocreadiidae, use jellyfish as their second intermediate hosts. Fish become infected by the trematodes when they feed on infected jellyfish.
== Relation to humans ==
=== Fisheries ===
Jellyfish have long been eaten in some parts of the world. Fisheries have begun harvesting the American cannonball jellyfish, Stomolophus meleagris, along the southern Atlantic coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico for export to Asia.
Jellyfish are also harvested for their collagen, which is being investigated for use in a variety of applications including the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
Aquaculture and fisheries of other species often suffer severe losses – and so losses of productivity – due to jellyfish.
=== Products ===
Aristotle stated in the Parts of Animals IV, 6 that jellyfish (sea-nettles) were eaten in wintertime in a fish stew.
In some countries, including China, Japan, and Korea, jellyfish are a delicacy. The jellyfish is dried to prevent spoiling. Only some 12 species of scyphozoan jellyfish belonging to the order Rhizostomeae are harvested for food, mostly in southeast Asia. Rhizostomes, especially Rhopilema esculentum in China (海蜇 hǎizhé, 'sea stingers') and Stomolophus meleagris (cannonball jellyfish) in the United States, are favored because of their larger and more rigid bodies and because their toxins are harmless to humans.
Traditional processing methods, carried out by a jellyfish master, involve a 20- to 40-day multi-phase procedure in which, after removing the gonads and mucous membranes, the umbrella and oral arms are treated with a mixture of table salt and alum, and compressed. Processing makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a crisp texture. Jellyfish prepared this way retain 7–10% of their original weight, and the processed product consists of approximately 94% water and 6% protein. Freshly processed jellyfish has a white, creamy color and turns yellow or brown during prolonged storage.
In China, processed jellyfish are desalted by soaking in water overnight and eaten cooked or raw. The dish is often served shredded with a dressing of oil, soy sauce, vinegar and sugar, or as a salad with vegetables. In Japan, cured jellyfish are rinsed, cut into strips and served with vinegar as an appetizer. Desalted, ready-to-eat products are also available.
=== Biotechnology ===
Pliny the Elder reported in his Natural History that the slime of the jellyfish "Pulmo marinus" produced light when rubbed on a walking stick.
In 1961, Osamu Shimomura extracted green fluorescent protein (GFP) and another bioluminescent protein, called aequorin, from the large and abundant hydromedusa Aequorea victoria, while studying photoproteins that cause bioluminescence in this species. Three decades later, Douglas Prasher sequenced and cloned the gene for GFP. Martin Chalfie figured out how to use GFP as a fluorescent marker of genes inserted into other cells or organisms. Roger Tsien later chemically manipulated GFP to produce other fluorescent colors to use as markers. In 2008, Shimomura, Chalfie and Tsien won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work with GFP. Man-made GFP became widely used as a fluorescent tag to show which cells or tissues express specific genes. The genetic engineering technique fuses the gene of interest to the GFP gene. The fused DNA is then put into a cell, to generate either a cell line or (via IVF techniques) an entire animal bearing the gene. In the cell or animal, the artificial gene turns on in the same tissues and the same time as the normal gene, making a fusion of the normal protein with GFP attached to the end, illuminating the animal or cell reveals what tissues express that protein—or at what stage of development. The fluorescence shows where the gene is expressed.
=== Aquarium display ===
Jellyfish are displayed in many public aquariums. Often the tank's background is blue and the animals are illuminated by side light, increasing the contrast between the animal and the background. In natural conditions, many jellies are so transparent that they are nearly invisible. Jellyfish are not adapted to closed spaces. They depend on currents to transport them from place to place. Professional exhibits as in the Monterey Bay Aquarium feature precise water flows, typically in circular tanks to avoid trapping specimens in corners. The outflow is spread out over a large surface area and the inflow enters as a sheet of water in front of the outflow, so the jellyfish do not get sucked into it. As of 2009, jellyfish were becoming popular in home aquariums, where they require similar equipment.
=== Stings ===
Jellyfish are armed with nematocysts, a type of specialized stinging cell. Contact with a jellyfish tentacle can trigger millions of nematocysts to pierce the skin and inject venom, but only some species' venom causes an adverse reaction in humans. In a study published in Communications Biology, researchers found a jellyfish species called Cassiopea xamachana which when triggered will release tiny balls of cells that swim around the jellyfish stinging everything in their path. Researchers described these as "self-propelling microscopic grenades" and named them cassiosomes.
The effects of stings range from mild discomfort to extreme pain and death. Most jellyfish stings are not deadly, but stings of some box jellyfish (Irukandji jellyfish), such as the sea wasp, can be deadly. Stings may cause anaphylaxis (a form of shock), which can be fatal. Jellyfish kill 20 to 40 people a year in the Philippines alone. In 2006 the Spanish Red Cross treated 19,000 stung swimmers along the Costa Brava.
Vinegar (3–10% aqueous acetic acid) may help with box jellyfish stings but not the stings of the Portuguese man o' war. Clearing the area of jelly and tentacles reduces nematocyst firing. Scraping the affected skin, such as with the edge of a credit card, may remove remaining nematocysts. Once the skin has been cleaned of nematocysts, hydrocortisone cream applied locally reduces pain and inflammation. Antihistamines may help to control itching. Immunobased antivenins are used for serious box jellyfish stings.
In Elba Island and Corsica dittrichia viscosa is now used by residents and tourists to heal stings from jellyfish, bees and wasps by pressing fresh leaves on the skin with quick results.
=== Mechanical issues ===
Jellyfish in large quantities can fill and split fishing nets and crush captured fish. They can clog cooling equipment, having disabled power stations in several countries; jellyfish caused a cascading blackout in the Philippines in 1999, as well as damaging the Diablo Canyon Power Plant in California in 2008. They can also stop desalination plants and ships' engines.
== See also ==
Jellyfish dermatitis
List of prehistoric medusozoans
Ocean sunfish, a significant jellyfish predator
Ctenophora
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Juli Berwald (2017). Spineless: The Science of Jellyfish and the Art of Growing a Backbone. Riverhead Books. ISBN 978-0-7352-1126-1.
== External links ==
Jellyfish and Comb Jellies – Smithsonian Ocean Portal
Jellyfish Facts – Information on Jellyfish and Jellyfish Safety
"There's no such thing as a jellyfish" on the MBARI YouTube channel
"Vicious beauties – Jellyfish" documentary on YouTube
"They're Taking Over!", New York Books article by Tim Flannery
Jellyfish exhibition (photo gallery), National Aquarium, Baltimore, Maryland, US |
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