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newton_estimation/Chronology_of_the_Bible3.txt |
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newton_estimation/Ussher_chronology4.txt |
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
17th-century chronology of the history of the world
Annales Veteris Testamenti Vol I (Latin)Annales Novi Testamenti Vol II (Latin)
Annals of the World title page (English)Annals of the World page 1 (English)
The Ussher chronology is a 17th-century chronology of the hi... | |
earth_science-67/extraction_0.txt | These questions were addressed in detail by Isaac Newton in his _Chronology of ancient kingdoms amended_ published in 1728 but which had been written many years earlier. Newton begins by deploring the defects of Greek, Latin and Egyptian calculations of time. The Greeks used generations and the Olympiads (even when the... | |
earth_science-67/extraction_1.txt | These questions were addressed in detail by Isaac Newton in his _Chronology of ancient kingdoms amended_ published in 1728 but which had been written many years earlier. Newton begins by deploring the defects of Greek, Latin and Egyptian calculations of time. The Greeks used generations and the Olympiads (even when the... | |
earth_science-67/extraction_2.txt | ## New Theologies and New Astronomies With the Protestant Reformation came the break from traditional authorities, yet major figures in these movements continued to deny the legitimacy of astrological prognostication. Martin Luther exclaimed that he would never believe in its validity ( Garin 1983, 4), and John Calvin ... | |
earth_science-67/extraction_4.txt | Although Ussher brought stunning precision to his chronology, Christians for centuries had assumed a history roughly corresponding to his. The Bible itself provides all the information necessary to conclude that Creation occurred less than 5,000 years before the birth of Christ. Shakespeare, in _As You Like It_, has hi... | |
continental_drift/Satellite_laser_ranging4.txt |
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This articl... | |
continental_drift/Paleomagnetism3.txt |
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Paleomagnetism
42 languages
AfrikaansالعربيةAzərbaycancaBosanskiCatalàČeštinaDeutschEspañolEuskaraفارسیFrançaisGaeilgeGalego한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiBahasa IndonesiaItalianoעבריתҚазақшаMagyarमराठीBahasa MelayuNederlands日本語Norsk bokmålNorsk nynorskپښتوPolskiPortu... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_0.txt | ## What is VLBI? Over its 40-year history of development and operation, the space geodetic technique called very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) has provided an unprecedented record of the motions of the solid Earth. VLBI is unique in its ability to define an inertial reference frame and to measure the Earth's orie... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_1.txt | # 3.1.2. Terrestrial reference frame Unlike the ICRF, the realization of the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) is a combination of four contributing space-geodetic techniques. The latest version is the International Terrestrial Reference Frame 2008 (ITRF2008), which is based on input data from 1980 thro... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_2.txt | ### The Reference Frame and the Role of Co-location NASA's Next Generation SLR system, NGSLR, located at NASA GSFC. Common threads in these measurements are the reference frame and precision orbit determination (POD). The reference frame provides the stable coordinate system that allows us to measure change (link measu... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_3.txt | ## ITRF2020 ### Description ITRF2020 is the new realization of the International Terrestrial Reference System. Following the procedure already used for previous ITRF solutions, the ITRF2020 uses as input data time series of station positions and Earth Orientation Parameters (EOPs) provided by the Technique Centers of t... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_4.txt | ### Tracking Stress Buildup The constant plate tectonic motions between the Pacific and North American plates guarantees that the crust in the western US is continually building up stress. The image of crustal velocities provided by extensive GPS coverage reveals where these velocities change rapidly over short distanc... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_5.txt | # Seafloor Geodesy **Key research question: Can we establish underwater a high accuracy network of geodetic control?** The Earth’s tectonic plates are separated by faults and are constantly grinding and scraping against one another at slow moving rates that are measured at a millimeters-per-year (mm/yr) scale. We only ... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_6.txt | ## Abstract The subduction rate of an oceanic plate may accelerate after large earthquakes rupture the interplate coupling between the oceanic and overriding continental plates. To better understand postseismic deformation processes in an incoming oceanic plate, we directly measured the displacement rate of the Pacific... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_7.txt | ## _Magnetic stripes and isotopic clocks_ Oceanographic exploration in the 1950s led to a much better understanding of the ocean floor. Among the new findings was the discovery of zebra stripe-like magnetic patterns for the rocks of the ocean floor. These patterns were unlike any seen for continental rocks. Obviously, ... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_8.txt | ## Paleomagnetism, polar wandering, and continental drift During the 1950s, paleomagnetic studies, notably those of Stanley K. Runcorn and his coworkers in England, showed that in the late Paleozoic Era the north magnetic pole—as reconstructed from European data—seems to have wandered from a Precambrian position near H... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_10.txt | ## _The long trail of the Hawaiian hotspot_ Over the past 70 million years, the combined processes of magma formation, volcano eruption and growth, and continued movement of the Pacific Plate over the stationary Hawaiian "hot-spot" have left a long trail of volcanoes across the Pacific Ocean floor. The Hawaiian Ridge-E... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_11.txt | \[3\] A traditional approach for defining reference frames for absolute plate motion (APM) is based on the use of hot spot tracks \[_Wilson_, 1963; _Morgan_, 1971\]. A hot spot track is a linear chain of intraplate volcanic edifices, which shows regular progression of eruption ages, often extends to a currently active ... | |
earth_science-68/extraction_12.txt | # Astro-Geodetic Deflections Astronomic azimuths as observed also were used to control the firstorder taped traverses observed during the 191727 period. It was recognized that the Laplace corrections would be very small in that part of the country where the traverses were measured and that the observed angles could e... | |
Archaeozoic_vs_Archean/Archean4.txt |
Artist's impression of an Archean landscapeChronology−4500 —–—–−4000 —–—–−3500 —–—–−3000 —–—–−2500 —–—–−2000 —–—–−1500 —–—–−1000 —–—–−500 —–—–0 —PrecambrianHadeanArcheanProterozoicPhanerozoicEoarcheanPaleoarcheanMesoarcheanNeoarcheanPaleoproterozoicMesoproterozoicNeoproterozoicPaleozoicMesozoicCenozoic (in millio... | |
Archaeozoic_vs_Archean/archaeozoic3.txt |
GamesDaily CrosswordWord PuzzleWord FinderAll gamesFeaturedWord of the DaySynonym of the DayWord of the YearNew wordsLanguage storiesAll featuredPop cultureSlangEmojiMemesAcronymsGender and sexualityAll pop cultureWriting tipsGrammar Coach™Writing hubGrammar essentialsCommonly confusedAll writing tipsGamesFeaturedPop... | |
earth_science-69/extraction_0.txt | Also known as: Archaean Eon, Archeozoic Eon Written by Brian Frederick Windley\\ \\ Professor of Geology, University of Leicester, England. Author of _The Evolving Continents_. Brian Frederick Windley Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica\\ \\ Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas i... | |
colder_march/Seasonal_lag1.txt | part1 -------------------
Seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum insolation (i.e. the summer solstice). This also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after... | |
colder_march/Seasonal_lag2.txt | part2 -------------------
On Earth[edit]
The amount of Sun energy reaching a location on Earth ("insolation", shown in blue) varies through the seasons. As it takes time for the seas and lands to heat or cool, the surface temperatures will lag the primary cycle by roughly a month, although this will vary from location... | |
earth_science-6/extraction_0.txt | Seasonal temperature extremes are milder near large bodies of water and more extreme further inland because water is slower to heat up and cool down than air or even land. The ocean (as well as other large bodies of water) have considerable "thermal inertia." They warm slowly as heat is added, but also give up that hea... | |
earth_science-6/extraction_1.txt | # The Equinox (Vernal & Autumnal) There are only two times of the year when the Earth's axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, resulting in a "nearly" equal amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes. These events are referred to as Equinoxes. The word equinox is derived from two Latin words - _aequ... | |
earth_science-6/extraction_2.txt | Because the Laurentian Great Lakes possess tremendous water and heat storage capacities, they respond slowly to changed meteorological inputs. This “memory” results in a filtering or dampening of most short-term meteorological fluctuations and a response to longer-period fluctuations characteristic of climate change. T... | |
earth_science-6/extraction_3.txt | ## 2\. Physical Principles \[3\] Seasonal snow cover, which exists between the atmosphere and the ground surface during the cold seasons of the annual temperature cycle, is one of the primary factors influencing the ground thermal regime in cold regions. The influence of the seasonal snow cover on the ground thermal re... | |
earth_science-6/extraction_4.txt | Aside from changes in atmospheric circulation patterns and thermal advection that may be altering cold extremes, variations in surface fluxes affecting the overall surface energy budget have strong links with surface temperatures and extremes. In particular, changes in snow cover play an important role in altering surf... | |
earth_science-6/extraction_5.txt | So far we have discussed temperature change due to heat transfer. No temperature change occurs from heat transfer if ice melts and becomes liquid water (i.e., during a phase change). For example, consider water dripping from icicles melting on a roof warmed by the Sun. Conversely, water freezes in an ice tray cooled by... | |
earth_science-70/extraction_0.txt | _4.1.3. Wind-driven dynamics of the mean circulation_ The distinctive regional wind forcing is key to understanding the complex thermal structure of the region and the modification of the central Pacific zonal currents of the central Pacific near the continent. West of about 110 °W the characteristic central Pacific wi... | |
earth_science-70/extraction_1.txt | Ekman transport generates vertical water motions (upwelling or downwelling) through several mechanisms. Vertical water motions are of great significance for the ocean ecosystem. In the case of upwelling, they stimulate primary production by bringing nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean to the surface. In the case of... | |
acidity_of_rock/igrockclassif_htm3.txt | Cpx, Opx, Hornblende
Trachyte
Sanidine + Plagioclase
Na-Cpx, Hornblende, Biotite
Dacite
Plagioclase + Hornblende
Cpx, Opx, Biotite
Rhyolite
Quartz
Sanidine, Biotite, Plag., Hornblende, Cpx,
Opx
* The amount of glass in the groundmass increases, in general, from the top to the
bottom of the chart.
... | |
earth_science-71/extraction_1.txt | Chemical analyses are usually reported in weight percent of elements or elemental oxides. Calculate mineral formula requires transforming weight percent into atomic percent or molecular percent. SiO 2 TiO 2 (+4)• Al 2 O 3 Cr 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 (+3)• MgO MnO FeO CaO(+2)• Na 2 O K 2 O H 2 O (+1)• P 2 O 5 (+5)• Ions complexes... | |
earth_science-71/extraction_2.txt | # Rock characterisation ### Geological characterisation Robust characterisation of geological samples is often performed during ore deposit knowledge and mineralisation assessments. It is essential for resource model production as well as developing robust exploration models. To fully understand the geological history ... | |
earth_science-71/extraction_3.txt | ### Geological characterisation Robust characterisation of geological samples is often performed during ore deposit knowledge and mineralisation assessments. It is essential for resource model production as well as developing robust exploration models. To fully understand the geological history of an area and the event... | |
earth_science-71/extraction_4.txt | **Both ICP-MS and XRF only determine the concentrations of the _metallic_ elements. The detected signals in the instruments (secondary X-rays in XRF and atomic mass in ICP-MS) are from _atoms_ of the elements of column D. These techniques do not “see” SiO2 or CaO, for example. They only see the Si and Ca atoms; there i... | |
earth_science-71/extraction_6.txt | **felsic and mafic rocks**, division of igneous rocks on the basis of their silica content. Chemical analyses of the most abundant components in rocks usually are presented as oxides of the elements; igneous rocks typically consist of approximately 12 major oxides totaling over 99 percent of the rock. Of the oxides, si... | |
below_treeline/Tree_line2.txt |
3.3North America
3.4South America
4Worldwide distribution
Toggle Worldwide distribution subsection
4.1Alpine tree lines
4.2Arctic tree lines
4.3Antarctic tree lines
5See also
6References
7Further reading
Toggle the table of contents
... | |
below_treeline/Montane_ecosystems4.txt |
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ecosystems found in mountains
A subalpine lake in the Cascade Range, Washington, United States
Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountain... | |
earth_science-72/extraction_0.txt | **Montane ecosystems** are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial factor in shaping plant community, biodiversity, metabolic processes and e... | |
earth_science-72/extraction_1.txt | # Subalpine Forests | | | --- | | !Fir trees covered with 1-2 feet of snow and ice with a blue sky above.Spire-like subalpine firs normally shed snow easily, but in severe storms, heavy snow and ice can build up and snap off limbs and trunks. <br>Buffeted by hurricane force winds, scoured by ice crystals, and weighted ... | |
earth_science-72/extraction_3.txt | # Subalpine Forests # Introduction Subalpine forests in California, bounded by the treeline at their upper margin, are the forest zone influenced primarily by abiotic controls, including persistent snowpack, desiccating winds, acute and chronic extreme temperatures, soil moisture and evapotranspirative stresses in both... | |
earth_science-73/extraction_0.txt | # Ocean Level-2 Data Format Specification ## Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Naming Convention 3. Global Attributes 4. Data Objects 5. Sensor-Specific Examples ## 1\. Introduction This document describes the specifications of Ocean Level-2 archive products that are produced by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center'... | |
earth_science-73/extraction_1.txt | Jump to: | | | | --- | --- | | dimensions | | | global attributes | | | sensor\_band\_parameters | Details here. | | scan\_line\_attributes | Details here. | | geophysical\_data | Details here. | | navigation\_data | Details here. | | processing\_control | | | input\_parameters | | | flag\_percentages | | | Dataset Ran... | |
earth_science-73/extraction_2.txt | ``` # ncread Read data from variable in netCDF data source collapse all in page ## Syntax `vardata = ncread(source,varname)` `vardata = ncread(source,varname,start,count)` `vardata = ncread(source,varname,start,count,stride)` ## Description `vardata = ncread(source,varname)` reads all the data from the netCDF variable ... | |
earth_science-73/extraction_3.txt | # ncdisp Display contents of netCDF data source in Command Window ## Syntax `ncdisp(source)` `ncdisp(source,location)` `ncdisp(source,location,dispFormat)` ## Description `ncdisp(source)` displays all groups, dimensions, variable definitions, and attributes in the specified netCDF data source as text in the Command Win... | |
earth_science-73/extraction_5.txt | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **geophysical\_data** ( Top)<br>Details here. | | **shortname** | **datatype** | **units** | **long\_name** | **standard\_name** | **reference** | | csol\_z | short | degree | Center Solar Zenith Angle | | N/A | | sst | byte | degree\_C | Sea Surface Temperature | s... | |
unit_of_wave_spectrum/45223.txt |
Date modified (newest first)
Date created (oldest first)
9
$\begingroup$
Yes, wave variance or energy spectrum, direcional or non-directional is positive-definite as @aretxa... | |
earth_science-74/extraction_0.txt | Significant wave height, WVHT, is approximately equal to the average of the highest one-third of the waves, as measured from the trough to the crest of the waves. **WVHT** is calculated using: !Wave height equals 4 times the square root of the zeroth spectral moment. where **_m_** **0** is the variance of the wave disp... | |
earth_science-74/extraction_2.txt | ## Appendix A: Rayleigh distribution We consider a wave field η(x,y,t) consisting of a superposition of n independent, uncorrelated sinusoidal (i.e. linear) waves, with amplitudes aj, radial frequencies ωj and random phases ϕj, originating from different nearby and remote regions. This superposition can be represented ... | |
earth_science-74/extraction_3.txt | 3.2.9 Directional and Non-Directional Wave Spectra A directional wave spectrum provides the distribution of wave elevation variance as a function of both wave frequency, f, and wave direction, θ. Following the scientific convention used in many wave references, wave direction is the direction of wave propagation measur... | |
earth_science-74/extraction_4.txt | ## Pierson-Moskowitz Spectrum Various idealized spectra are used to answer the question in oceanography and ocean engineering. Perhaps the simplest is that proposed by Pierson and Moskowitz (1964). They assumed that if the wind blew steadily for a long time over a large area, the waves would come into equilibrium with ... | |
hydrostatic_equilibrium/Isostasy4.txt |
−
ρ
w
)
{\displaystyle {b_{2}(\rho _{m}-\rho _{c})}={h_{2}(\rho _{c}-\rho _{w})}}
b
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=
(
ρ
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−
ρ
w
ρ
m
−
ρ
c
)
h
2
{\displaystyle b_{2}=({\frac {\rho _{c}-\rho _{w}}{\rho _{m}-\rho _{c}}}){h_{2}}}
where
ρ
m
{\displaystyle \rho _{m}}
is the density of the ... | |
hydrostatic_equilibrium/Isostasy3.txt |
=
(
c
ρ
c
)
+
(
b
1
ρ
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)
{\displaystyle (h_{1}+c+b_{1})\rho _{c}=(c\rho _{c})+(b_{1}\rho _{m})}
b
1
(
ρ
m
−
ρ
c
)
=
h
1
ρ
c
{\displaystyle {b_{1}(\rho _{m}-\rho _{c})}=h_{1}\rho _{c}}
b
1
=
h
1
ρ
c
ρ
m
−
ρ
c
{\displaystyle b_{1}={\frac {h... | |
earth_science-75/extraction_0.txt | # Isostasy and buoyancy forces Initial state, isostatic equilibrium Weight of column to compensation depth $= \\rho \_ { l } g h \_ { l i t h } + \\rho \_ { a } g h \_ { r o o t }$ A load is applied $\\underline { { \\underline { { \\mathbf { \\Pi } } } } }$ action) $\\Rightarrow$ A restoring force develops $^ { \\prim... | |
earth_science-75/extraction_2.txt | # Flexure Deformation of oceanic lithosphere under vertical load $= >$ depression $+$ water fills depression $= >$ isostatic equilibrium perturbed: restring buoyancy force? Weight per unit area of column: Weight per unit area of column: $$ \\rho \_ { w } g h \_ { \\scriptscriptstyle w } + \\rho \_ { \\scriptscriptstyle... | |
earth_science-75/extraction_4.txt | # Some background on isostasy Isostasy is an equilibrium condition characterized by equal pressure within some fluid. In the case of plate tectonics, the fluid happens to be the mantle. (Beware! Do not confuse the word fluid here to mean that the mantle is a liquid – solid rock can be a fluid provided that it can flow ... | |
earth_science-75/extraction_5.txt | Problem: In spite of the additional terrain volume, mountains are associated with negative Bouguer anomalies… Airy (1854): Mountains have a crustal root that compensates for the relief Pratt (1855): Density varies laterally (e.g. lateral variations of temperature or composition) In both models, mountains “float” on den... | |
earth_science-75/extraction_6.txt | <ctrl94>thought The user is asking to extract a continuous portion of text (300-1000 words) that explains the principle of Airy isostasy. I need to scan the document for mentions of "Airy isostasy" or related concepts like "isostatic balance," "compensation depth," and "balancing masses of vertical columns." The text s... | |
ears/topo_scale4.txt | ●
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ears/topo_scale5.txt | Precipitation MOD mm Year-1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
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500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
R=0.41
RMSE=592.1
BIAS =-199.83
GRID
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
R=0.5
RMSE=607.5
BIAS =34.84
REF
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
R=0.6
RMSE=493.5
BIAS =21.64
TOPOSCALE
Fig. 9. Performance of TopoSCALE precipitation at monthly and annua... | |
ears/topo_scale1.txt | Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 387–405, 2014
www.geosci-model-dev.net/7/387/2014/
doi:10.5194/gmd-7-387-2014
© Author(s) 2014. CC Attribution 3.0 License.
Geoscientific
Model Development
Open Access
TopoSCALE v.1.0: downscaling gridded climate data in
complex terrain
J. Fiddes1 and S. Gruber2
1Department of Geography, Universi... | |
earth_science-76/extraction_0.txt | ### Table 3: surface and single level parameters: accumulations (stream=oper/enda/mnth/moda/edmm/edmo, levtype=sfc) (The native grid is the reduced Gaussian grid N320 (N160 for the EDA)) | count | name | units | Variable name in CDS | shortName | paramId | an | fc | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1... | |
earth_science-76/extraction_1.txt | ## Data and methods ### Mean radiant temperature—the general equation MRT can be therefore expressed as (Fanger 1972 Thermal comfort. McGraw Hill, New York"); Jendritzky and Nübler 1981 A model analysing the urban thermal environment in physiologically significant terms. Arch Meteorol Geophys Bioklimatol B 29:313–326. ... | |
earth_science-76/extraction_2.txt | # pvlib.irradiance.erbs \# pvlib.irradiance.erbs( _ghi_, _zenith_, _datetime\_or\_doy_, _min\_cos\_zenith=0.065_, _max\_zenith=87_) [\[source\]](https://pvlib-python.readthedocs.io/en/v0.11.0/_modules/pvlib/irradiance.html#erbs) # Estimate DNI and DHI from GHI using the Erbs model. The Erbs model 1 estimates the diffus... | |
earth_science-76/extraction_3.txt | ### Data source A complete set of meteorological data, including air temperature and humidity, wind speed, and shortwave and longwave radiation fluxes, is required for computation of the thermal indices included in the HiTiSEA dataset. While various reanalysis products, such as the Global Land Data Assimilation System ... | |
earth_science-76/extraction_4.txt | # ERA5-HEAT: A global gridded historical dataset of human thermal comfort indices from climate reanalysis Claudia Di Napoli1 $\\textcircled{1}$ Christopher Barnard1 $\\textcircled{1}$ \| Christel Prudhomme1,2,3 $\\textcircled{1}$ \| Hannah L. Cloke4,5,6,7 $\\textcircled{1}$ \| Florian Pappenberger1 $\\textcircled{1}$ 1... | |
co2_abundance/earthfact_html4.txt | Scale height: 8.5 km
Total mass of atmosphere: 5.1 x 1018 kg
Total mass of hydrosphere: 1.4 x 1021 kg
Average temperature: 288 K (15 C)
Diurnal temperature range: 283 K to 293 K (10 to 20 C)
Wind speeds: 0 to 100 m/s
Mean molecular weight: 28.97
Atmospheric composition (by volume, dry air):
Major : 78.08%... | |
earth_science-77/extraction_1.txt | Carbon dioxide measured at NOAA’s Mauna Loa Atmospheric Baseline Observatory peaked for 2022 at 421 parts per million in May, pushing the atmosphere further into territory not seen for millions of years, scientists from NOAA and Scripps Institution of Oceanography offsite link at the University of California San Diego ... | |
earth_science-77/extraction_2.txt | To directly compare CO2 emissions to atmospheric CO2 levels, both sets of data can be converted to gigatonnes of CO2. The CO2 emissions data is typically expressed in gigatonnes carbon (GtC). One gigatonne is equal to one billion tonnes. This means they've only included the carbon element of the carbon dioxide molecule... | |
earth_science-77/extraction_3.txt | ## Fossil CO2 in major emitting countries Global emissions of fossil CO2 – including coal, oil, gas and cement – increased by around 0.8% in 2024, relative to 2023, with an uncertainty range of -0.3% to 1.9%. This represents a new record high and is 2.6% above the 2019 pre-Covid levels. The figure below shows global CO... | |
earth_science-77/extraction_5.txt | For the first time, the seasonal peak of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere exceeded 430 parts per million (ppm) at NOAA’s Mauna Loa Observatory on Hawaii, scientists from NOAA and Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California San Diego reported today. Scripps Oceanography scientists ... | |
earth_science-77/extraction_6.txt | Ninety scientific institutions around the world contribute to the Global Carbon Budget report, released annually since 2003. It estimates how much carbon is emitted each year from human activities and how much is absorbed by carbon sinks such as terrestrial plants, soils, and the ocean. Roughly 25% is absorbed by the o... | |
earth_science-77/extraction_7.txt | Since the beginning of the industrial age, human activities have increased the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) to levels never before seen in human history. These large increases are driving climate change because CO2 is an efficient greenhouse gas with atmospheric r... | |
always_daytime/what_makes_suns_light_travel_as_parallel_beams_towards_earth3.txt |
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4
$\begingroup$
The Sun rays are not exactly parallel. They seem parallel as "Phonon" says, see her comments, but at a precise examination they are not so. Are you aware of the Hanbury Brown Twiss experiment? Look in Wikipedia at the site... | |
always_daytime/what_makes_suns_light_travel_as_parallel_beams_towards_earth2.txt |
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edited Dec 30, 2014 at 1:20
Sensebe
asked Dec 26, 2014 at 10:27
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$\be... | |
earth_science-78/extraction_0.txt | ### About the Image !solar system The image of the Solar System was made using real images of the planets. It is not to scale; the Solar System is so large with respect to the size of the planets, that to fit it on the screen, the planets would have to be small dots. Thus, some artistic license is involved. However, th... | |
earth_science-78/extraction_1.txt | # How Big Is the Sun? Ask the Chatbot a Question More Actions Print Cite Share Feedback External Websites Written by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica\\ \\ Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that co... | |
earth_science-78/extraction_2.txt | ## Use in astronomy [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elements_of_astronomy-_accompanied_with_numerous_illustrations,_a_colored_representation_of_the_solar,_stellar,_and_nebular_spectra,_and_celestial_charts_of_the_northern_and_the_southern_hemisphere_(14804687203).jpg) A 19th century depiction of the apparent size... | |
earth_science-78/extraction_3.txt | A **terminator** or **twilight zone** is a moving line that divides the daylit side and the dark night side of a planetary body. The terminator is defined as the locus "Locus (mathematics)") of points on a planet or moon where the line through the center of its parent star is tangent. An observer on the terminator of s... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_0.txt | # What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source? In 2023, about 4,178 billion kilowatthours (kWh) (or about 4.18 trillion kWh) of electricity were generated at utility-scale electricity generation facilities in the United States.1 About 60% of this electricity generation was from fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, ... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_1.txt | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Gas mixture as by-product of steelworks | | | | --- | --- | | | show<br>You can help **expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French**. _(January 2014)_ Click \[show\] for important translation instructions. | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_2.txt | **Propane (C3H8):** A normally gaseous, straight-chain, paraffinic hydrocarbon extracted from natural gas or refinery gas streams. In the manufacturing sector, it is used as a petrochemical feedstock. **Propylene (C3H6):** A normally gaseous olefinic hydrocarbon recovered from refinery processes or petrochemical proces... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_4.txt | Coal includes anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, lignite, and waste coal; synthetic coal and refined coal; and beginning in 2011, coal-derived synthesis gas. Prior to 2011 coal-derived synthesis gas was included in Other Fossil Gas. Petroleum Liquids includes distillate and residual fuel oils, jet fuel, kerosene, w... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_5.txt | # What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source? In 2023, about 4,178 billion kilowatthours (kWh) (or about 4.18 trillion kWh) of electricity were generated at utility-scale electricity generation facilities in the United States.1 About 60% of this electricity generation was from fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, ... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_6.txt | ## What is natural gas? Natural gas is a fossil fuel energy source. Natural gas contains many different compounds. The largest component of natural gas is methane, a compound with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4). Natural gas also contains smaller amounts of natural gas liquids (NGLs, which are also hydroc... | |
earth_science-79/extraction_7.txt | ## Biogas from biomass Biogas, which may be called _renewable natural gas_ (RNG) or _biomethane_, is an energy-rich gas produced by anaerobic decomposition or thermochemical conversion of biomass. Biogas is composed mostly of methane (CH4) (the main compound in fossil natural gas) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The methane ... | |
colder_winter_after_solstice/Seasonal_lag2.txt | part2 -------------------
On Earth[edit]
The amount of Sun energy reaching a location on Earth ("insolation", shown in blue) varies through the seasons. As it takes time for the seas and lands to heat or cool, the surface temperatures will lag the primary cycle by roughly a month, although this will vary from location... | |
colder_winter_after_solstice/Seasonal_lag1.txt | part1 -------------------
Seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum insolation (i.e. the summer solstice). This also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after... | |
earth_science-7/extraction_0.txt | Summer solstice and seasonal lag ================================ ### by Kirsty McCabe, FRMetS The summer solstice, the longest day of the year, marks the beginning of summer (although we meteorologists prefer to divide our seasons neatly up by calendar months ). In the northern hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs w... | |
earth_science-7/extraction_1.txt | Seasonal Changes in Global Net Radiation ======================================== Earth’s climate, including its average surface temperature, depends on the balance between incoming and outgoing energy. Energy comes in to the system when sunlight penetrates the top of the atmosphere. Energy goes out in two ways: reflec... | |
earth_science-7/extraction_3.txt | Even though using a conceptual snow model, such as SNOW-17, that uses air temperature as the sole index to energy exchange and includes simplified representations of the physical processes that control the accumulation and ablation of the snow cover, it is important to have a basic understanding of the physics that con... | |
earth_science-7/extraction_4.txt | The Seasons =========== We all know that the Earth makes a complete revolution around the sun once every 365 days, following an orbit that is elliptical in shape. This means that the distance between the Earth and Sun, which is 93 million miles on average, varies throughout the year. During the first week in January, t... | |
temperature_inversion/Inversion_(meteorology)5.txt | Height (y-axis) versus temperature (x-axis) under normal atmospheric conditions (black line). When the layer from 6–8 kilometres (4–5 miles) (designated A-B) descends dry adiabatically , the result is the inversion seen near the ground at 1–2 kilometres (1–1 mile) (C-D).
Klagenfurter Becken (Austria) in December 2015: ... | |
temperature_inversion/Inversion_(meteorology)4.txt |
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earth_science-80/extraction_0.txt | ## Temperature, Sunlight, and Humidity Air temperature affects the movement of air, and thus the movement of air pollution. Because energy from the Sun is absorbed by the Earth's surface, air near the ground is warmer than air that is farther up in the troposphere. The warmer, lighter air at the surface rises, and the ... | |
earth_science-80/extraction_1.txt | **Capping Inversion**Alternate term for **Cap**; a layer of relatively warm air aloft, usually several thousand feet above the ground, which suppresses or delays the development of thunderstorms. Air parcels rising into this layer become cooler than the surrounding air, which inhibits their ability to rise further and ... | |
earth_science-80/extraction_2.txt | Under normal atmospheric conditions, air is warmer near the ground and colder at higher altitudes. In a temperature inversion, the situation “inverts,” and cold air at the surface gets trapped under a layer of warmer air. During the winter, snow-covered valley floors reflect rather absorb heat, preventing the normal ve... |
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