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13,800 | Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a refractive index of 1.36242 (at λ=589.3 nm and ). The triple point for ethanol is at a pressure of . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,801 | Ethanol is a versatile solvent, miscible with water and with many organic solvents, including acetic acid, acetone, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethylene glycol, glycerol, nitromethane, pyridine, and toluene. Its main use as a solvent is in making tincture of iodine, cough syrups etc. It is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,802 | Ethanol's miscibility with water contrasts with the immiscibility of longer-chain alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as the number of carbons increases. The miscibility of ethanol with alkanes is limited to alkanes up to undecane: mixtures with dodecane and higher alkanes sh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,803 | Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than the sum of their individual components at the given fractions. Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture. Mixing ethanol and water is exothermic, with up to 777 J/mol being released at 298 K. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,804 | Mixtures of ethanol and water form an azeotrope at about 89 mole-% ethanol and 11 mole-% water or a mixture of 95.6 percent ethanol by mass (or about 97% alcohol by volume) at normal pressure, which boils at 351K (78 °C). This azeotropic composition is strongly temperature- and pressure-dependent and vanishes at temper... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,805 | Hydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be hygroscopic to the extent that it readily absorbs water from the air. The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to dissolve many ionic compounds, notably sodium and potassium hydroxides, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, ammonium bromide, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,806 | The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the surface tension of water. This property partially explains the "tears of wine" phenomenon. When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As the wine's ethanol content decreases, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,807 | An ethanol–water solution will catch fire if heated above a temperature called its flash point and an ignition source is then applied to it. For 20% alcohol by mass (about 25% by volume), this will occur at about . The flash point of pure ethanol is , but may be influenced very slightly by atmospheric composition such ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,808 | Ethanol is a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast. As such, ethanol will be present in any yeast habitat. Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe fruit. Ethanol produced by symbiotic yeast can be found in bertam palm blossoms. Although some animal species, such as the pentailed treeshrew, exhibit ethanol-seeki... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,809 | Minute quantity amounts (average 196 ppb) of endogenous ethanol and acetaldehyde were found in the exhaled breath of healthy volunteers. Auto-brewery syndrome, also known as gut fermentation syndrome, is a rare medical condition in which intoxicating quantities of ethanol are produced through endogenous fermentation wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,810 | Ethanol is produced both as a petrochemical, through the hydration of ethylene and, via biological processes, by fermenting sugars with yeast. Which process is more economical depends on prevailing prices of petroleum and grain feed stocks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,811 | World production of ethanol in 2006 was , with 69% of the world supply coming from Brazil and the U.S. Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugarcane, which has relatively high yields (830% more fuel than the fossil fuels used to produce it) compared to some other energy crops. Sugarcane not only has a greater concentrat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,812 | In the 1970s most industrial ethanol in the U.S. was made as a petrochemical, but in the 1980s the U.S. introduced subsidies for corn-based ethanol. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, as of 30 October 2007, 131 grain ethanol bio-refineries in the U.S. have the capacity to produce of ethanol per year. An addi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,813 | In India ethanol is made from sugarcane. Sweet sorghum is another potential source of ethanol, and is suitable for growing in dryland conditions. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is investigating the possibility of growing sorghum as a source of fuel, food, and animal feed in arid pa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,814 | Ethanol for use as an industrial feedstock or solvent (sometimes referred to as synthetic ethanol) is made from petrochemical feed stocks, primarily by the acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,815 | The catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid, adsorbed onto a porous support such as silica gel or diatomaceous earth. This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the Shell Oil Company in 1947. The reaction is carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at where a 5:3 ethylene to steam ra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,816 | In an older process, first practiced on the industrial scale in 1930 by Union Carbide but now almost entirely obsolete, ethylene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce ethyl sulfate, which was hydrolyzed to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulfuric acid: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,817 | Ethanol has been produced in the laboratory by converting carbon dioxide via biological and electrochemical reactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,818 | Ethanol in alcoholic beverages and fuel is produced by fermentation. Certain species of yeast (e.g., "Saccharomyces cerevisiae") metabolize sugar, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide. The chemical equations below summarize the conversion: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,819 | Fermentation is the process of culturing yeast under favorable thermal conditions to produce alcohol. This process is carried out at around . Toxicity of ethanol to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing; higher concentrations, therefore, are obtained by fortification or distillation. The most eth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,820 | To produce ethanol from starchy materials such as cereals, the starch must first be converted into sugars. In brewing beer, this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or malt, which produces the enzyme amylase. When the malted grain is mashed, the amylase converts the remaining starche... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,821 | Sugars for ethanol fermentation can be obtained from cellulose. Deployment of this technology could turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural by-products, such as corncobs, straw, and sawdust, into renewable energy resources. Other agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse and energy crops such as switch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,822 | Breweries and biofuel plants employ two methods for measuring ethanol concentration. Infrared ethanol sensors measure the vibrational frequency of dissolved ethanol using the C−H band at 2900 cm. This method uses a relatively inexpensive solid-state sensor that compares the C−H band with a reference band to calculate t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,823 | Ethylene hydration or brewing produces an ethanol–water mixture. For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified. Fractional distillation at atmospheric pressure can concentrate ethanol to 95.6% by weight (89.5 mole%). This mixture is an azeotrope with a boiling point of , and "cannot" be further purifi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,824 | Apart from distillation, ethanol may be dried by addition of a desiccant, such as molecular sieves, cellulose, or cornmeal. The desiccants can be dried and reused. Molecular sieves can be used to selectively absorb the water from the 95.6% ethanol solution. Molecular sieves of pore-size 3 Ångstrom, a type of zeolite, e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,825 | Membranes can also be used to separate ethanol and water. Membrane-based separations are not subject to the limitations of the water-ethanol azeotrope because the separations are not based on vapor-liquid equilibria. Membranes are often used in the so-called hybrid membrane distillation process. This process uses a pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,826 | Pure ethanol and alcoholic beverages are heavily taxed as psychoactive drugs, but ethanol has many uses that do not involve its consumption. To relieve the tax burden on these uses, most jurisdictions waive the tax when an agent has been added to the ethanol to render it unfit to drink. These include bittering agents s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,827 | Absolute or anhydrous alcohol refers to ethanol with a low water content. There are various grades with maximum water contents ranging from 1% to a few parts per million (ppm). If azeotropic distillation is used to remove water, it will contain trace amounts of the material separation agent (e.g. benzene). Absolute alc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,828 | Rectified spirit, an azeotropic composition of 96% ethanol containing 4% water, is used instead of anhydrous ethanol for various purposes. Spirits of wine are about 94% ethanol (188 proof). The impurities are different from those in 95% (190 proof) laboratory ethanol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,829 | Ethanol is classified as a primary alcohol, meaning that the carbon that its hydroxyl group attaches to has at least two hydrogen atoms attached to it as well. Many ethanol reactions occur at its hydroxyl group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,830 | In the presence of acid catalysts, ethanol reacts with carboxylic acids to produce ethyl esters and water: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,831 | This reaction, which is conducted on large scale industrially, requires the removal of the water from the reaction mixture as it is formed. Esters react in the presence of an acid or base to give back the alcohol and a salt. This reaction is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap. Ethanol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,832 | In the presence of acid catalysts, alcohols can be converted to alkenes such as ethanol to ethylene. Typically solid acids such as alumina are used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,833 | Since water is removed from the same molecule, the reaction is known as intramolecular dehydration. Intramolecular dehydration of an alcohol requires a high temperature and the presence of an acid catalyst such as sulphuric acid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,834 | Ethylene produced from sugar-derived ethanol (primarily in Brazil) competes with ethylene produced from petrochemical feedstocks such as naphtha and ethane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,835 | At a lower temperature than that of intramolecular dehydration, intermolecular alcohol dehydration may occur producing a symmetrical ether. This is a condensation reaction. In the following example, diethyl ether is produced from ethanol: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,836 | Ethanol is a neutral molecule and the pH of a solution of ethanol in water is nearly 7.00. Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its conjugate base, the ethoxide ion (CHCHO), by reaction with an alkali metal such as sodium: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,837 | The acidities of water and ethanol are nearly the same, as indicated by their pKa of 15.7 and 16 respectively. Thus, sodium ethoxide and sodium hydroxide exist in an equilibrium that is closely balanced: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,838 | Ethanol is not used industrially as a precursor to ethyl halides, but the reactions are illustrative. Ethanol reacts with hydrogen halides to produce ethyl halides such as ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide via an S2 reaction: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,839 | HBr requires refluxing with a sulfuric acid catalyst. Ethyl halides can, in principle, also be produced by treating ethanol with more specialized halogenating agents, such as thionyl chloride or phosphorus tribromide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,840 | Upon treatment with halogens in the presence of base, ethanol gives the corresponding haloform (CHX, where X = Cl, Br, I). This conversion is called the haloform reaction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,841 | An intermediate in the reaction with chlorine is the aldehyde called chloral, which forms chloral hydrate upon reaction with water: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,842 | Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde and further oxidized to acetic acid, depending on the reagents and conditions. This oxidation is of no importance industrially, but in the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalyzed by the enzyme liver alcohol dehydrogenase. The oxidation product of ethanol, acetic acid,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,843 | Ethanol is similar to macronutrients such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in that it provides calories. When consumed and metabolized, it contributes 7 calories per gram via ethanol metabolism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,844 | Pure ethanol will irritate the skin and eyes. Nausea, vomiting, and intoxication are symptoms of ingestion. Long-term use by ingestion can result in serious liver damage. Atmospheric concentrations above one part per thousand are above the European Union occupational exposure limits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,845 | The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the earliest biotechnologies employed by humans. Ethanol has historically been identified variously as spirit of wine or ardent spirits, and as aqua vitae or aqua vita. The intoxicating effects of its consumption have been known since ancient times. Ethanol has been used... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,846 | The inflammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE). However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of ethanol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,847 | The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating ethanol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an ethanol purity of 90% could be obtained. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupesciss... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,848 | In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the Jin (1115–1234) or Southern Song (1127–1279) dynasties. A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century. In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,849 | In 1796, German-Russian chemist Johann Tobias Lowitz obtained pure ethanol by mixing partially purified ethanol (the alcohol-water azeotrope) with an excess of anhydrous alkali and then distilling the mixture over low heat. French chemist Antoine Lavoisier described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,850 | Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1825 by Michael Faraday. He found that sulfuric acid could absorb large volumes of coal gas. He gave the resulting solution to Henry Hennell, a British chemist, who found in 1826 that it contained "sulphovinic acid" (ethyl hydrogen sulfate). In 1828, Hennell and the French ch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,851 | Ethanol was used as lamp fuel in the U.S. as early as 1840, but a tax levied on industrial alcohol during the Civil War made this use uneconomical. The tax was repealed in 1906. Use as an automotive fuel dates back to 1908, with the Ford Model T able to run on petrol (gasoline) or ethanol. It fuels some spirit lamps. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,852 | Ethanol intended for industrial use is often produced from ethylene. Ethanol has widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for human contact or consumption, including scents, flavorings, colorings, and medicines. In chemistry, it is both a solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products. It has a l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10048 |
13,853 | Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word "technology" may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily life. Technologies include ph... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,854 | Many technological advancements have led to societal changes. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used in the prehistoric era, followed by fire use, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language in the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age enabled wider ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,855 | While technology contributes to economic development and human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution or resource depletion, or cause social harms like technological unemployment caused by automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates have arisen over the role and use of technology,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,856 | "Technology" is a term dating back to the early 17th century that meant 'systematic treatment' (from Greek , "from τέχνη" 'art, craft' and , 'study, knowledge')."" It is predated in use by the Ancient Greek "τέχνη", used to mean 'knowledge of how to make things', which encompassed activities like architecture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,857 | Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the terms "Technik" (German) or "technique" (French) to refer to a 'way of doing', which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments. At the time, "Technologie" (German and Fren... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,858 | In the 20th century, as a result of scientific progress and the Second Industrial Revolution, "technology" stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on its current-day meaning: the systemic use of knowledge to practical ends. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,859 | Tools were initially developed by hominids through observation and trial and error. Around 2 Mya (million years ago), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharp hand axe. This practice was refined 75 kya (thousand years ago) into pressure flaking, enabling much finer wo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,860 | The discovery of fire was described by Charles Darwin as "possibly the greatest ever made by man". Archeological, dietary, and social evidence point to "continuous [human] fire-use" at least 1.5 Mya. Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving it... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,861 | Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter. No consensus exists on the approximate time of adoption of either technology, but archeologists have found archeological evidence of clothing 90-120 kya and shelter 450 kya. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became mor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,862 | The Neolithic Revolution (or "First Agricultural Revolution") brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity. The invention of the polished stone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scale forest clearance and farming. This use of polished stone axes incr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,863 | With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization. What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,864 | Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided, for the first time, the ability to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and lead native metals found in relatively pure form in nature. The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,865 | After harnessing fire, humans discovered other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to around 7,000 BCE. From prehistoric times, Egyptians likely used the power of the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,866 | Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and Central Europe. Time estimates range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE. The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,867 | The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used a potter's wheel and may have invented it. A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state of Ur dates to around 3,429 BCE, and even older fragments ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,868 | The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating to circa 4,000 BCE, and timber roads leading through the swamps of Glastonbury, England, dating to around the same period. The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3,500 BCE, spanned 2,400 km from the Persi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,869 | Ancient Minoan private homes had running water. A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos. Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain. The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets, which emptied into an extensive se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,870 | The ancient Romans also had a complex system of aqueducts, which were used to transport water across long distances. The first Roman aqueduct was built in 312 BCE. The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE. Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km, but less than 70 km of this was a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,871 | Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the horse collar, and horseshoes. Simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills, and clocks. A system of unive... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,872 | The Renaissance era produced many innovations, including the introduction of the movable type printing press to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,873 | Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the discovery of steam power set off the Industrial Revolution, which saw wide-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, and the widespread application of the factory system. This was... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,874 | The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission in the Atomic Age led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were invented and later shifted from analog to digital in the Digital Revolution. Information technology, particularly optical fiber and optical amplifi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,875 | Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain more modern technologies, and entire industries have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builder... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,876 | Many new technologies have had deep societal ramifications. Technologies have contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, and medical progress, but they can also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and harm individuals or groups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,877 | Recent years have brought about a rise in social media's cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on democracy, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a "liberation technology" that would democratize knowledge, improve access to education, and promote democracy. Modern research has tu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,878 | Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has been criticized, leading to a surge in investment in solar, wind, and other forms of clean energy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,879 | Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans' economic output. Past automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs. Studies have fou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,880 | "Philosophy of technology" is a branch of philosophy that studies the "practice of designing and creating artifacts", and the "nature of the things so created." It emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown "considerably" since the 1970s. The "humanities philosophy of technology" is concerned wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,881 | Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties. Marx framed it as a tool used by capitalists to oppress the proletariat, but believe technology would be a fundamentally liberating force once it was "freed from societal deformations". Second-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,882 | Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments: technological determinism, and social construction. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes. It usually encompasses a related argument, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress foll... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,883 | Cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called "technopolies," societies that are dominated by an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world views. Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,884 | The "ethics of technology" is an interdisciplinary subfield of ethics that analyzes technology's ethical implications and explores ways to mitigate the potential negative impacts of new technologies. There is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology, from specific areas of focus affecting professiona... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,885 | Prominent debates have surrounded genetically modified organisms, the use of robotic soldiers, algorithmic bias, and the issue of aligning AI behavior with human values | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,886 | Technology ethics encompasses several key fields. Bioethics looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering, and stem cell research. Computer ethics focuses on issues related to computing. Cyberethics explores internet-related issues like intellectua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,887 | A wide branch of technology ethics is concerned with the ethics of artificial intelligence: it includes robot ethics, which deals with ethical issues involved in the design, construction, use, and treatment of robots, as well as machine ethics, which is concerned with ensuring the ethical behavior of artificial intelli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,888 | Other fields of ethics have had to contend with technology-related issues, including military ethics, media ethics, and educational ethics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,889 | "Futures studies" is the systematic and interdisciplinary study of social and technological progress. It aims to quantitatively and qualitatively explore the range of plausible futures and to incorporate human values in the development of new technologies. More generally, futures researchers are interested in improving... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,890 | Existential risk researchers analyze risks that could lead to human extinction or civilizational collapse, and look for ways to build resilience against them. Relevant research centers include the Cambridge Center for the Study of Existential Risk, and the Stanford Existential Risk Initiative. Future technologies may c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,891 | Emerging technologies are novel technologies whose development or practical applications are still largely unrealized. They include nanotechnology, biotechnology, robotics, 3D printing, blockchains, and artificial intelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,892 | In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances in genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics, with robotics being the most impactful of the three. Genetic engineering will allow far greater control over human biological nature through a process called directed evolution. S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,893 | Estimates on the advent of artificial general intelligence vary, but half of machine learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will "accomplish every task better and more cheaply" than humans by 2063, and automate all human jobs by 2140. This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased em... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,894 | Some segments of the 1960s hippie counterculture grew to dislike urban living and developed a preference for locally autonomous, sustainable, and decentralized technology, termed "appropriate technology". This later influenced hacker culture and technopaganism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,895 | Technological utopianism refers to the belief that technological development is a moral good, which can and should bring about a utopia, that is, a society in which laws, governments, and social conditions serve the needs of all its citizens. Examples of techno-utopian goals include post-scarcity economics, life extens... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,896 | The transhumanism movement is founded upon the "continued evolution of human life beyond its current human form" through science and technology, informed by "life-promoting principles and values." The movement gained wider popularity in the early 21st century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,897 | Singularitarians believe that machine superintelligence will "accelerate technological progress" by orders of magnitude and "create even more intelligent entities ever faster", which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is "incomprehensible" to us. This "event horizon" is known as the technologi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,898 | Major figures of techno-utopianism include Ray Kurzweil and Nick Bostrom. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism by progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
13,899 | Technology's central role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against technology is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 |
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