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14,300 | DEFCONs are a subsystem of a series of Alert Conditions, or LERTCONs, which also include Emergency Conditions (EMERGCONs). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,301 | The DEFCON level is controlled primarily by the U.S. president and the U.S. Secretary of Defense through the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commanders; each level defines specific security, activation and response scenarios for the personnel in question. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,302 | Different branches of the U.S. Armed Forces (i.e. U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Space Force) and different bases or command groups can be activated at different defense conditions. According to "Air & Space/Smithsonian", , the U.S. DEFCON level has never been more sever... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,303 | DEFCONs should not be confused with similar systems used by the U.S. military, such as Force Protection Conditions (FPCONS), Readiness Conditions (REDCONS), Information Operations Condition (INFOCON) and its future replacement Cyber Operations Condition (CYBERCON), and Watch Conditions (WATCHCONS), or the former Homela... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,304 | Defense readiness conditions vary between many commands and have changed over time, and the United States Department of Defense uses exercise terms when referring to the DEFCON levels during exercises. This is to preclude the possibility of confusing exercise commands with actual operational commands. On January 12, 19... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,305 | After NORAD was created, the command used different readiness levels (Normal, Increased, Maximum) subdivided into eight conditions, e.g., the "Maximum Readiness" level had two conditions "Air Defense Readiness" and "Air Defense Emergency". In October 1959, the JCS Chairman informed NORAD "that Canada and the U.S. had s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,306 | During the Cuban Missile Crisis on October 16–28, 1962, the U.S. Armed Forces (with the exception of United States Army Europe (USAREUR)) were ordered to DEFCON 3. On October 24, Strategic Air Command (SAC) was ordered to DEFCON 2, while the rest of the U.S. Armed Forces remained at DEFCON 3. SAC remained at DEFCON 2 u... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,307 | On January 15, 1991, the Joint Chiefs of Staff declared DEFCON 2 in the opening phase of Operation Desert Storm during the Persian Gulf War. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,308 | On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a joint attack on Israel resulting in the Yom Kippur War. The United States became concerned that the Soviet Union might intervene, and on October 25, US forces, including Strategic Air Command, Continental Air Defense Command, European Command and the Sixth Fleet, were plac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,309 | According to documents declassified in 2016, the move to DEFCON 3 was motivated by CIA reports indicating that the Soviet Union had sent a ship to Egypt carrying nuclear weapons along with two other amphibious vessels. Soviet troops never landed and the declassified documents did not disclose the fate of the ship and i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,310 | Over the following days, the various forces reverted to normal status with the Sixth Fleet standing down on November 17. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,311 | Following the axe murder incident at Panmunjom on August 18, 1976, readiness levels for US forces in South Korea were increased to DEFCON 3, where they remained throughout Operation Paul Bunyan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,312 | During the September 11 attacks, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld ordered the DEFCON level be increased to 3, and also a stand-by for a possible increase to DEFCON 2. It was lowered to DEFCON 4 on September 14. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287264 |
14,313 | Synesthesia (American English) or synaesthesia (British English) is a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. People who report a lifelong history of such experiences are known as synesthetes. Awareness of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,314 | Little is known about how synesthesia develops. It has been suggested that synesthesia develops during childhood when children are intensively engaged with abstract concepts for the first time. This hypothesis referred to as "semantic vacuum hypothesis" could explain why the most common forms of synesthesia are graphem... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,315 | Difficulties have been recognized in adequately defining synesthesia. Many different phenomena have been included in the term "synesthesia", and in many cases the terminology seems to be inaccurate. A more accurate but less common term may be "ideasthesia". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,316 | The earliest recorded case of synesthesia is attributed to the Oxford University academic and philosopher John Locke, who, in 1690, made a report about a blind man who said he experienced the color scarlet when he heard the sound of a trumpet. However, there is disagreement as to whether Locke described an actual insta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,317 | For example, in chromesthesia (sound to color), a "projector" may hear a trumpet, and see an orange triangle in space, while an "associator" might hear a trumpet, and think very strongly that it sounds "orange". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,318 | Synesthesia can occur between nearly any two senses or perceptual modes, and at least one synesthete, Solomon Shereshevsky, experienced synesthesia that linked all five senses. Types of synesthesia are indicated by using the notation , where x is the "inducer" or trigger experience, and y is the "concurrent" or additio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,319 | While nearly every logically possible combination of experiences can occur, several types are more common than others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,320 | In one of the most common forms of synesthesia, individual letters of the alphabet and numbers (collectively referred to as "graphemes") are "shaded" or "tinged" with a color. While different individuals usually do not report the same colors for all letters and numbers, studies with large numbers of synesthetes find so... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,321 | Another common form of synesthesia is the association of sounds with colors. For some, everyday sounds can trigger seeing colors. For others, colors are triggered when musical notes or keys are being played. People with synesthesia related to music may also have perfect pitch because their ability to see "and" hear col... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,322 | The colors triggered by certain sounds, and any other synesthetic visual experiences, are referred to as "photisms". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,323 | According to Richard Cytowic, chromesthesia is "something like fireworks": voice, music, and assorted environmental sounds such as clattering dishes or dog barks trigger color and firework shapes that arise, move around, and then fade when the sound ends. Sound often changes the perceived hue, brightness, scintillation... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,324 | Individuals rarely agree on what color a given sound is. Composers Franz Liszt and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov famously disagreed on the colors of musical keys. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,325 | Those with spatial sequence synesthesia (SSS) tend to see ordinal sequences as points in space. People with SSS may have superior memories; in one study, they were able to recall past events and memories far better and in far greater detail than those without the condition. They can also see months or dates in the spac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,326 | A number form is a mental map of numbers that automatically and involuntarily appear whenever someone who experiences number-forms synesthesia thinks of numbers. These numbers might appear in different locations and the mapping changes and varies between individuals. Number forms were first documented and named in 1881... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,327 | In auditory–tactile synesthesia, certain sounds can induce sensations in parts of the body. For example, someone with auditory–tactile synesthesia may experience that hearing a specific word or sound feels like touch in one specific part of the body or may experience that certain sounds can create a sensation in the sk... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,328 | Ordinal-linguistic personification (OLP, or personification) is a form of synesthesia in which ordered sequences, such as ordinal numbers, week-day names, months, and alphabetical letters are associated with personalities or genders (). Although this form of synesthesia was documented as early as the 1890s, researchers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,329 | Misophonia is a neurological disorder in which negative experiences (anger, fright, hatred, disgust) are triggered by specific sounds. Cytowic suggests that misophonia is related to, or perhaps a variety of, synesthesia. Edelstein and her colleagues have compared misophonia to synesthesia in terms of connectivity betwe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,330 | Newer studies suggest that depending on its severity, misophonia could be associated with lower cognitive control when individuals are exposed to certain associations and triggers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,331 | It is unclear what causes misophonia. Some scientists believe it could be genetic, others believe it to be present with other additional conditions however there is not enough evidence to conclude what causes it. There are no current treatments for the condition but could be managed with different types of coping strat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,332 | This is a form of synesthesia where individuals feel the same sensation that another person feels (such as touch). For instance, when such a synesthete observes someone being tapped on their shoulder, the synesthete involuntarily feels a tap on their own shoulder as well. People with this type of synesthesia have been ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,333 | This is another form of synesthesia where certain tastes are experienced when hearing words. For example, the word basketball might taste like waffles. The documentary 'Derek Tastes of Earwax' gets its name from this phenomenon, in references to pub owner James Wannerton who experiences this particular sensation whenev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,334 | Kinesthetic synesthesia is one of the rarest documented forms of synesthesia in the world. This form of synesthesia is a combination of various different types of synesthesia. Features appear similar to auditory–tactile synesthesia but sensations are not isolated to individual numbers or letters but complex systems of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,335 | Other forms of synesthesia have been reported, but little has been done to analyze them scientifically. There are at least 80 types of synesthesia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,336 | In August 2017 a research article in the journal "Social Neuroscience" reviewed studies with fMRI to determine if persons who experience autonomous sensory meridian response are experiencing a form of synesthesia. While a determination has not yet been made, there is anecdotal evidence that this may be the case, based ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,337 | Some synesthetes often report that they were unaware their experiences were unusual until they realized other people did not have them, while others report feeling as if they had been keeping a secret their entire lives. The automatic and ineffable nature of a synesthetic experience means that the pairing may not seem ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,338 | Though often stereotyped in the popular media as a medical condition or neurological aberration, many synesthetes themselves do not perceive their synesthetic experiences as a handicap. On the contrary, some report it as a gift an additional "hidden" sense something they would not want to miss. Most synesthetes become ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,339 | Despite the commonalities which permit the definition of the broad phenomenon of synesthesia, individual experiences vary in numerous ways. This variability was first noticed early in synesthesia research. Some synesthetes report that vowels are more strongly colored, while for others consonants are more strongly color... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,340 | Synesthetes are very likely to participate in creative activities. It has been suggested that individual development of perceptual and cognitive skills, in addition to one's cultural environment, produces the variety in awareness and practical use of synesthetic phenomena. Synesthesia may also give a memory advantage. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,341 | Dedicated regions of the brain are specialized for given functions. Increased cross-talk between regions specialized for different functions may account for the many types of synesthesia. For example, the additive experience of seeing color when looking at graphemes might be due to cross-activation of the grapheme-reco... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,342 | An alternative possibility is disinhibited feedback, or a reduction in the amount of inhibition along normally existing feedback pathways. Normally, excitation and inhibition are balanced. However, if normal feedback were not inhibited as usual, then signals feeding back from late stages of multi-sensory processing mig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,343 | A very different theoretical approach to synesthesia is that based on ideasthesia. According to this account, synesthesia is a phenomenon mediated by the extraction of the meaning of the inducing stimulus. Thus, synesthesia may be fundamentally a semantic phenomenon. Therefore, to understand neural mechanisms of synest... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,344 | Due to the prevalence of synesthesia among the first-degree relatives of people affected, there may be a genetic basis, as indicated by the monozygotic twins studies showing an epigenetic component. Synesthesia might also be an oligogenic condition, with locus heterogeneity, multiple forms of inheritance, and continuou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,345 | Although often termed a "neurological condition," synesthesia is not listed in either the DSM-IV or the ICD since it usually does not interfere with normal daily functioning. Indeed, most synesthetes report that their experiences are neutral or even pleasant. Like perfect pitch, synesthesia is simply a difference in pe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,346 | The simplest approach is test-retest reliability over long periods of time, using stimuli of color names, color chips, or a computer-screen color picker providing 16.7 million choices. Synesthetes consistently score around 90% on the reliability of associations, even with years between tests. In contrast, non-synesthet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,347 | Many tests exist for synesthesia. Each common type has a specific test. When testing for grapheme–color synesthesia, a visual test is given. The person is shown a picture that includes black letters and numbers. A synesthete will associate the letters and numbers with a specific color. An auditory test is another way t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,348 | Grapheme–color synesthetes, as a group, share significant preferences for the color of each letter (e.g., A tends to be red; O tends to be white or black; S tends to be yellow, etc.) Nonetheless, there is a great variety in types of synesthesia, and within each type, individuals report differing triggers for their sens... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,349 | Neurologist Richard Cytowic identifies the following diagnostic criteria for synesthesia in his "first" edition book. However, the criteria are different in the second book: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,350 | Cytowic's early cases mainly included individuals whose synesthesia was frankly projected outside the body (e.g., on a "screen" in front of one's face). Later research showed that such stark externalization occurs in a minority of synesthetes. Refining this concept, Cytowic and Eagleman differentiated between "localize... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,351 | Estimates of prevalence of synesthesia have ranged widely, from 1 in 4 to 1 in 25,000–100,000. However, most studies have relied on synesthetes reporting themselves, introducing self-referral bias. In what is cited as the most accurate prevalence study so far, self-referral bias was avoided by studying 500 people recru... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,352 | The most common forms of synesthesia are those that trigger colors, and the most prevalent of all is day–color. Also relatively common is grapheme–color synesthesia. We can think of "prevalence" both in terms of how common is synesthesia (or different forms of synesthesia) within the population, or how common are diffe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,353 | There is research to suggest that the likelihood of having synesthesia is greater in people with autism spectrum condition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,354 | The interest in colored hearing dates back to Greek antiquity when philosophers asked if the color ("chroia", what we now call timbre) of music was a quantifiable quality. Isaac Newton proposed that musical tones and color tones shared common frequencies, as did Goethe in his book "Theory of Colours". There is a long h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,355 | The first medical description of "colored hearing" is in an 1812 thesis by the German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs. The "father of psychophysics," Gustav Fechner, reported the first empirical survey of colored letter photisms among 73 synesthetes in 1876, followed in the 1880s by Francis Galton. Carl Jung refers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,356 | In the early 1920s, the Bauhaus teacher and musician Gertrud Grunow researched the relationships between sound, color, and movement and developed a 'twelve-tone circle of colour' which was analogous with the twelve-tone music of the Austrian composer Arnold Schönberg (1874-1951). She was a participant in at least one o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,357 | Research into synesthesia proceeded briskly in several countries, but due to the difficulties in measuring subjective experiences and the rise of behaviorism, which made the study of "any" subjective experience taboo, synesthesia faded into scientific oblivion between 1930 and 1980. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,358 | As the 1980s cognitive revolution made inquiry into internal subjective states respectable again, scientists returned to synesthesia. Led in the United States by Larry Marks and Richard Cytowic, and later in England by Simon Baron-Cohen and Jeffrey Gray, researchers explored the reality, consistency, and frequency of s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,359 | Since the rise of the Internet in the 1990s, synesthetesia began contacting one another and creating websites devoted to the condition. These rapidly grew into international organizations such as the American Synesthesia Association, the UK Synaesthesia Association, the Belgian Synesthesia Association, the Canadian Syn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,360 | Solomon Shereshevsky, a newspaper reporter turned mnemonist, was discovered by Russian neuropsychologist Alexander Luria to have a rare fivefold form of synesthesia, of which he is the only known case. Words and text were not only associated with highly vivid visuospatial imagery but also sound, taste, color, and sensa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,361 | Neuroscientist and author V.S. Ramachandran studied the case of a grapheme–color synesthete who was also color blind. While he couldn't see certain colors with his eyes, he could still "see" those colors when looking at certain letters. Because he didn't have a name for those colors, he called them "Martian colors." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,362 | Other notable synesthetes come particularly from artistic professions and backgrounds. Synesthetic art historically refers to multi-sensory experiments in the genres of visual music, music visualization, audiovisual art, abstract film, and intermedia. Distinct from neuroscience, the concept of synesthesia in the arts i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,363 | Vladimir Nabokov wrote explicitly about synesthesia in several novels. Nabokov described his grapheme–color synesthesia at length in his autobiography, "Speak, Memory", and portrayed it in some of his characters. In addition to Messiaen, whose three types of complex colors are rendered explicitly in musical chord struc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,364 | Wassily Kandinsky (a synesthete) and Piet Mondrian (not a synesthete) both experimented with image–music congruence in their paintings. Contemporary artists with synesthesia, such as Carol Steen and Marcia Smilack (a photographer who waits until she gets a synesthetic response from what she sees and then takes the pict... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,365 | Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis, 1875 – 1911, was a Lithuanian painter, composer and writer. In his short life, he composed about 400 pieces of music and created about 300 paintings, as well as many literary works and poems. He perceived colors and music simultaneously. Many of his paintings bear the names of matchin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,366 | Alexander Scriabin composed colored music that was deliberately contrived and based on the circle of fifths, whereas Olivier Messiaen invented a new method of composition (the modes of limited transposition) specifically to render his bi-directional sound–color synesthesia. For example, the red rocks of Bryce Canyon ar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,367 | British composer Daniel Liam Glyn created the classical-contemporary music project Changing Stations using Grapheme Colour Synaesthesia. Based on the 11 main lines of the London Underground, the eleven tracks featured on the album represent the eleven main tube line colours: Bakerloo, Central, Circle, District, Hammers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,368 | The producer, rapper, and fashion designer Kanye West is a prominent interdisciplinary case. In an impromptu speech he gave during an Ellen interview, he described his condition, saying that he sees sounds, and that everything he sonically makes is a painting. Other notable synesthetes include musicians Billy Joel, And... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,369 | Some artists frequently mentioned as synesthetes did not, in fact, have the neurological condition. Scriabin's 1911 , for example, is a deliberate contrivance whose color choices are based on the circle of fifths and appear to have been taken from Madame Blavatsky. The musical score has a separate staff marked "luce" w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,370 | French poets Arthur Rimbaud and Charles Baudelaire wrote of synesthetic experiences, but there is no evidence they were synesthetes themselves. Baudelaire's 1857 ' introduced the notion that the senses can and should intermingle. Baudelaire participated in a hashish experiment by psychiatrist Jacques-Joseph Moreau and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,371 | Some technologists, like inventor Nikola Tesla, and scientists also reported being synesthetic. Physicist Richard Feynman describes his colored equations in his autobiography, "What Do You Care What Other People Think?". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,372 | Synesthesia is sometimes used as a plot device or way of developing a character's inner life. Author and synesthete Pat Duffy describes four ways in which synesthetic characters have been used in modern fiction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,373 | Literary depictions of synesthesia are criticized as often being more of a reflection of an author's interpretation of synesthesia than of the phenomenon itself. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,374 | Research on synesthesia raises questions about how the brain combines information from different sensory modalities, referred to as crossmodal perception or multisensory integration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,375 | An example of this is the bouba/kiki effect. In an experiment first designed by Wolfgang Köhler, people are asked to choose which of two shapes is named "bouba" and which "kiki". The angular shape, "kiki", is chosen by 95–98% and "bouba" for the rounded one. Individuals on the island of Tenerife showed a similar prefer... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,376 | Researchers hope that the study of synesthesia will provide better understanding of consciousness and its neural correlates. In particular, synesthesia might be relevant to the philosophical problem of qualia, given that synesthetes experience extra qualia (e.g., colored sound). An important insight for qualia research... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,377 | Synesthesia also has a number of practical applications, one of which is the use of 'intentional synesthesia' in technology. These applications include sensory prosthetics, as discussed by Chaim-Meyer Scheff in "Experimental model for the study of changes in the organization of human sensory information processing thro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,378 | Peter Meijer developed a sensory substitution device for the visually impaired called The vOICe (the capital letters "O," "I," and "C" in "vOICe" are intended to evoke the expression "Oh I see"). The vOICe is a privately owned research project, running without venture capital, that was first implemented using low-cost ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438200 |
14,379 | The Big Five personality traits is a suggested taxonomy, or grouping, for personality traits, developed from the 1980s onward in psychological trait theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,380 | Starting in the 1990s, the theory identified five factors by labels, for the US English speaking population, typically referred to as: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,381 | When factor analysis (a statistical technique) is applied to personality survey data, it reveals semantic associations: some words used to describe aspects of personality are often applied to the same person. For example, someone described as conscientious is more likely to be described as "always prepared" rather than... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,382 | Those labels for the five factors may be remembered using the acronyms "OCEAN" or "CANOE". Beneath each proposed global factor, there are a number of correlated and more specific primary factors. For example, extraversion is typically associated with qualities such as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,383 | The Big Five personality traits was the model to comprehend the relationship between personality and academic behaviors. This model was defined by several independent sets of researchers who used factor analysis of verbal descriptors of human behavior. These researchers began by studying relationships between a large n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,384 | The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961, but failed to reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five-factor model of personality, which Lewis Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization. These five overarching domains have been found to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,385 | At least four sets of researchers have worked independently within lexical hypothesis in personality theory for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same five factors: Tupes and Christal were first, followed by Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute, Cattell at the University of Illinois, and Co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,386 | Each of the Big Five personality traits contains two separate, but correlated, aspects reflecting a level of personality below the broad domains but above the many facet scales that are also part of the Big Five. The aspects are labeled as follows: Volatility and Withdrawal for Neuroticism; Enthusiasm and Assertiveness... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,387 | Openness to experience is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed peopl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,388 | Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self-discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses. High conscientiousness is often perceived as being stubborn and focused. Low conscientiou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,389 | Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity/situations, and energy creation from external means. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,390 | Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extraverts. In... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,391 | Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion, with personality psychologist Hans Eysenck suggesting a model by which individual neurological differences produce these traits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,392 | The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an op... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,393 | Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others' well-being and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. Low agreeableness ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,394 | Because agreeableness is a social trait, research has shown that one's agreeableness positively correlates with the quality of relationships with one's team members. Agreeableness also positively predicts transformational leadership skills. In a study conducted among 169 participants in leadership positions in a variet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,395 | Conversely, agreeableness has been found to be negatively related to transactional leadership in the military. A study of Asian military units showed leaders with a high level of agreeableness to be more likely to receive a low rating for transformational leadership skills. Therefore, with further research, organizatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,396 | Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Hans Eysenck's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,397 | Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening. They can perceive minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. They also tend to be flippant in the way they express emotions. Their negative emotional reactions te... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,398 | At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
14,399 | Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis). Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the term neurotic in a career test. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284664 |
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