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14,500 | The championship was originally due to start in March, but the start was postponed until July in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The season was due to be contested over a record of 22 Grands Prix, but as some races were cancelled and new races were added to replace them, a total of 17 races were run. The season started in July with the and ended in December with the . Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the first eight rounds of the championship were run behind closed doors, with the rest of the races being run at a reduced capacity or also behind closed doors due to the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,501 | Lewis Hamilton and Mercedes entered the season as the reigning World Drivers' and World Constructors' champions respectively, after they both won their sixth championship in 2019. At the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, Mercedes secured their seventh consecutive Constructors' Championship making them the only team to win seven consecutive championships, breaking Ferrari's record from to . Mercedes also maintained the distinction of being the only team to win the championship since the 2014 turbo-hybrid engine regulation changes were enacted. Hamilton equalled Michael Schumacher's record of seven World Drivers' Championships at the Turkish Grand Prix and broke Schumacher's previous record of 91 career wins at the . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,502 | The following teams and drivers competed in the 2020 World Championship. All teams competed with tyres supplied by Pirelli. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,503 | Across the season, four drivers drove as a test or third driver in free practice sessions. Jack Aitken and Roy Nissany both drove for Williams at one and three Grands Prix respectively, Robert Kubica drove for Alfa Romeo Racing at five Grands Prix and Mick Schumacher drove for Haas at one Grand Prix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,504 | Schumacher and Callum Ilott were entered to appear in the first practice session for the , driving for Alfa Romeo Racing and Haas, respectively, but the session was cancelled due to bad weather conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,505 | Red Bull GmbH, the parent company of Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Toro Rosso, renamed Toro Rosso as "Scuderia AlphaTauri". The team uses the constructor name "AlphaTauri". The name is derived from Red Bull's AlphaTauri fashion brand. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,506 | After a year's absence, Esteban Ocon returned to racing in Formula One after signing a contract with Renault, replacing Nico Hülkenberg. Robert Kubica left Williams at the end of the 2019 championship and joined Alfa Romeo Racing as a reserve driver. Nicholas Latifi, the 2019 Formula 2 Championship runner-up, replaced Kubica at Williams. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,507 | A day before the British Grand Prix weekend, Racing Point driver Sergio Pérez tested positive for COVID-19 and was ruled out of the race weekend. After seeking clarification from Public Health England, Racing Point stated that they intended to let Pérez race in the 70th Anniversary Grand Prix pending a negative coronavirus test. This re-test came back positive and so Pérez was also unable to take part in the 70th Anniversary Grand Prix. He was replaced for both races by Nico Hülkenberg, who had raced for the team's predecessor Force India in and from to , and last raced in Formula One at the 2019 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. Pérez had a negative coronavirus test result the week preceding the Spanish Grand Prix weekend and he competed in the Grand Prix having been cleared by the FIA to return. Pérez's Racing Point teammate Lance Stroll felt ill prior to the Eifel Grand Prix and tested positive for the coronavirus on the day of the race. Hülkenberg again raced for the team. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,508 | After Romain Grosjean suffered burns to his hands following a crash at the Bahrain Grand Prix, Haas promoted test driver Pietro Fittipaldi to make his debut at the Sakhir Grand Prix. Grosjean also missed the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix because of his recovery after the crash in Bahrain; Fittipaldi raced again for the team. Lewis Hamilton tested positive for the coronavirus prior to the Sakhir Grand Prix and was forced to sit out. He was replaced by George Russell, with Jack Aitken replacing Russell at Williams. Hamilton returned to Mercedes for the season-ending Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, after testing negative for the coronavirus, with Russell returning to Williams. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,509 | Twenty-two Grands Prix were originally scheduled for the 2020 World Championship. However, the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in numerous race cancellations and postponements. A rescheduled calendar consisted of seventeen Grands Prix, nine from the original 2020 calendar and eight other Grands Prix, while the other thirteen original 2020 races were cancelled. This also meant that the season started with two races in Austria, and later on in the season there were also two races at Silverstone Circuit along with two races at Bahrain International Circuit. Each race is the minimum number of laps that exceeds a total distance of . Under the sporting regulations, a minimum of eight races must take place for the season to be considered a championship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,510 | The following rounds were included on the original calendar published by the World Motor Sport Council, but were cancelled in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,511 | After purchasing the commercial rights to the sport from CVC Capital Partners in January 2017, Liberty Media announced plans to expand the Formula One calendar using a concept they termed "destination races" and modelled on the Singapore Grand Prix. Under the "destination races" model, Grands Prix would be established in or near key tourist destinations and integrate racing, entertainment and social functions with the aim of making the sport more accessible and appealing to a wider audience. Several countries and venues announced plans to bid for a Grand Prix, with two bids being successful: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,512 | Liberty Media initially expected that the 2020 calendar would consist of twenty-one Grands Prix and that any new races would come at the expense of existing events, but later negotiated an agreement with the teams to allow up to twenty-two Grands Prix. Several further changes were made between the 2019 and 2020 calendars, with the German Grand Prix discontinued and the Mexican Grand Prix planned to be rebranded as the Mexico City Grand Prix before it was cancelled. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,513 | Teams were allowed to use an additional MGU-K compared to 2019 to compensate for the increased demands of contesting the originally planned twenty-two races. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,514 | Drivers who participated in free practice sessions were eligible for additional FIA Super Licence points. Any driver who completed a minimum during a free practice session received an additional Super Licence point on the condition that they do not commit a driving infraction. Drivers could only accrue ten Super Licence points across a three-season period from free practice sessions. The rules around helmet designs were relaxed with drivers allowed to change their design as many times as they wanted between races, having previously been restricted to a base design and one permitted major design change (excluding minor alterations) since 2015. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,515 | As a result of what was then planned to be an expanded calendar, the two pre-season tests which took place at Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya were reduced in length from four days to three days each, whilst the two in-season tests that took place at Bahrain International Circuit and Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in 2019 were discontinued. Teams were no longer allowed to hide their cars during testing. The amount of time in which car mechanics were prohibited from working on the car was extended from eight to nine hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,516 | The rules surrounding jump starts and the weighbridge were relaxed with the race stewards able to hand out less severe punishments for missing the weighbridge and jump starts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,517 | In order to reduce the risk of punctures, the last of the front wing could no longer contain any metal. Brake ducts could no longer be outsourced and must be made and designed by the team. The amount of fuel that could be outside of the fuel tank was reduced from to . A decrease in electronic driver aids meant that drivers were responsible for managing more of the car's torque during race starts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,518 | From the Italian Grand Prix, drivers were only allowed to run one engine mode from the start of qualifying to the end of the race. However, drivers were still allowed to use electrical power for the powertrain throughout the race weekend. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,519 | The season was heavily disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, with an announcement prior to the start of the championship that the Chinese Grand Prix would be postponed due to the early COVID-19 outbreak in the country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,520 | Italian-based teams Ferrari and AlphaTauri expressed concern about the spread of the disease and its effect on the championship. As Italy suffered one of the worst outbreaks of the virus, both teams were concerned about the ability of their staff to leave the quarantine zone established in northern Italy and to enter host nations. Pre-season testing in Barcelona proceeded as planned, with all teams and drivers completing the six days of testing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,521 | Ross Brawn, the managing director of the sport, announced that Grands Prix would not go ahead if a team were blocked from entering a host nation, but that events could go ahead if a team voluntarily chose not to enter a host nation. In early March, organisers of the Bahrain Grand Prix stated that the event would be "participants-only" and that no spectators would be allowed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,522 | The season-opening Australian Grand Prix was expected to go ahead and all teams and drivers arrived at the venue as planned. Three days before the race was due to take place, McLaren announced their withdrawal from the event after a team member tested positive for the virus. This led to the Grand Prix being cancelled altogether the following morning. Later that day, it was announced that the Bahrain Grand Prix would be postponed rather than closed to spectators, as would the inaugural Vietnamese Grand Prix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,523 | Formula One and the FIA released a joint statement saying that they "expect to begin the Championship in Europe at the end of May" but that this timeline "will be regularly reviewed". On 19 March, the FIA announced that the Dutch, Spanish and Monaco Grands Prix had all been postponed indefinitely due to the pandemic. In the statement, the FIA said they now expect to begin the season "as soon as it is safe to do so after May" and that the situation would continue to be monitored. The organisers of the Monaco race, Automobile Club de Monaco, clarified that the race had been cancelled. This meant that Formula One would not race in Monaco for the first time since . Four days later, organisers of the Azerbaijan Grand Prix announced that the race had been postponed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,524 | In early April, organisers of the Canadian Grand Prix announced the race's postponement. Later in the month, the French Grand Prix organisers confirmed that the race would not be held in 2020, and the managing director of Silverstone Circuit stated that should the British Grand Prix go ahead, it would be without spectators. In May, organisers of the Hungarian Grand Prix announced that their race would use the same model. The sport's plans to resume competition called for a ban on team motorhomes and a rigid testing regime to stop any outbreak of the virus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,525 | The Dutch Grand Prix was cancelled entirely in late May, with organisers of the event stating that they would prefer to host the revived race with spectators in attendance in 2021 rather than without spectators in 2020. Formula One confirmed the cancellation of the Azerbaijan, Singapore and Japanese Grands Prix in June. Organisers of the Azerbaijan and Singapore races cited the difficulty of assembling the infrastructure required for a street circuit as the reason for their cancellation, while the Japanese Grand Prix was cancelled because of the Japanese government's travel restrictions. In July the Brazilian, Canadian, Mexico City and United States Grands Prix were formally cancelled amidst rising virus cases and travel restrictions in the Americas. However, organisers of the Brazilian Grand Prix disputed the claims of Formula One Management and were unhappy with their race being cancelled without further consultation. In August the cancellation of the Chinese Grand Prix was announced, followed, in October, by the cancellation of the inaugural Vietnamese Grand Prix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,526 | The annual summer break, where factories shut down for two weeks, was brought forward from August to March and April. Teams nominated a three-week period to close with the aim of making room for races later in the year. At the end of March, it was announced that for the first time the factory shut-down would additionally apply to power unit manufacturers. The factory shut-down period was later extended to a total of nine weeks for competitors and seven weeks for power unit manufacturers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,527 | In March, teams agreed that the 2020 Championship could run into early 2021 to ensure the running of as many races as possible. Such a move would also ensure that eight Grands Prix could be held, over three different continents, thereby meeting the minimum number of races needed for the season to qualify as a World Championship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,528 | In early April, Ross Brawn suggested that a rescheduled calendar of 18 or 19 races would be possible should racing begin in July, and that the opening round "is most likely to be in Europe", potentially without spectators. He also raised the possibility of Grand Prix events being reduced to two days in order to ease pressure on logistical operations. However, Alfa Romeo Racing managing director Frédéric Vasseur cautioned that a condensed calendar could escalate the costs of competing and put smaller teams at risk of financial collapse. This was reiterated by other teams, who pointed out that the race sanctioning fees paid by event organisers contributed to the prize money awarded to all teams at the end of the year. This money is awarded proportionally based on the teams' World Constructors' Championship positions and forms a significant part of a team's budget for the upcoming year. With fewer races and the prize structure remaining fixed, teams were concerned that they would suffer a significant financial loss. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,529 | In a statement in late April, Formula One CEO Chase Carey declared the intention to begin the season on 5 July and a target to hold between 15 and 18 races overall. In June, the first eight races of a rescheduled calendar were confirmed, with the season expected to begin on 5 July with the Austrian Grand Prix. This revised calendar included two newly named one-off events — both second races at the Red Bull Ring and Silverstone — known as the Styrian and the 70th Anniversary Grands Prix respectively. Ross Brawn announced that the eight-round calendar was expected to grow and that the sport was considering races at venues that were not on the original calendar or using multiple configurations of existing circuits to achieve the goal of fifteen Grands Prix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,530 | On 10 July, the Russian Grand Prix was re-added to the calendar on its originally scheduled date, and the first Tuscan Grand Prix was announced at the Mugello Circuit, the first time the circuit would host a Formula One World Championship race. Later in July, the return of the Nürburgring and the Autodromo Internazionale Enzo e Dino Ferrari in Imola to the calendar was revealed, along with the debut of the Algarve International Circuit. These races were named the Eifel and Emilia Romagna Grands Prix respectively, with the return of the Portuguese Grand Prix for the first time since the season. The Emilia Romagna Grand Prix took place over a shortened two-day weekend, with a single 90 minute practice session taking place on Saturday morning. This marks the first race at the Nürburgring since and at Imola since , and also the first time that a country (Italy), hosts three Grands Prix since the season. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,531 | In August, it was announced that Formula One would return to Istanbul Park for the first Turkish Grand Prix since the season, together with the debut of the Sakhir Grand Prix, to be held at the Bahrain International Circuit, using the configuration of the track called "Outer Circuit". They join the rescheduled Bahrain and Abu Dhabi Grands Prix as the final four races of the season, bringing the calendar to seventeen races. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,532 | Of the races and dates on the original calendar, only four races, the Austrian, Belgian, Italian and Russian Grands Prix kept their original dates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,533 | The pandemic required changes to the format of a race weekend, which included abandoning the drivers' parade and pre-race assembly for the host venue's national anthem. A modified podium ceremony was planned for after races. The FIA introduced limits to the number of team personnel who could be on the starting grid to prepare cars and changed the cut-off times for cars to leave pit lane to minimise the amount of time team personnel spent on the grid. Tyre supplier Pirelli was also required to provide an identical allocation of tyre compounds to all teams and drivers. Where Pirelli were previously required to announce compounds for a race several weeks in advance, this window was reduced to two weeks, allowing them to respond to anticipated changes to the calendar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,534 | In June, Formula One launched the "We Race As One" initiative to fight racism, global inequity and the impact of COVID-19. The initiative used a rainbow logo, with the colours of all ten Formula One teams, also with the #WeRaceAsOne hashtag, and featured prominent "We Race As One" branding on vehicles (including the safety car) and signage on track. Formula One and several teams launched projects or fundraising efforts in support of the initiative. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,535 | Ahead of the season opening Austrian Grand Prix, Red Bull launched a protest against the Mercedes F1 W11's dual axis steering, a system where the driver can adjust the toe of the car by pulling and pushing on the steering wheel. The system was found to be legal for 2020, but it would be banned by the FIA from 2021 onward. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,536 | After the Styrian Grand Prix, Renault launched a protest against the brake ducts of Racing Point's car, the RP20, alleging that Racing Point had copied the brake ducts from the Mercedes F1 W10, the car used in 2019 by Mercedes. Similar protests would be launched after the Hungarian and British Grands Prix with the verdict being published between the British and 70th Anniversary Grands Prix. The ruling concluded that Racing Point had illegally copied the brake ducts of the Mercedes F1 W10 and Racing Point were subsequently penalised by 15 Constructors' Championship points and fined . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,537 | Racing Point, Ferrari, McLaren, Renault and Williams had all indicated an intention to appeal the stewards decision with Racing Point trying to clear their name and Ferrari, McLaren, Williams and Renault appealing for a tougher sanction. Ferrari, Renault and Racing Point confirmed their appeal, while Williams and McLaren pulled out of the appeal. Later, Renault announced their decision to withdraw the appeal against the penalty handed out to Racing Point. The same decision was made by Racing Point and Ferrari before and after the Italian Grand Prix, respectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,538 | The delayed season started with the Austrian Grand Prix. Valtteri Bottas, driving for Mercedes, took pole position, ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton and Red Bull's Max Verstappen; however, Hamilton was given a three-place grid penalty, since he did not slow sufficiently when yellow flags were waved following a small mistake by Bottas. This promoted Verstappen to second, McLaren driver Lando Norris to third, and Alexander Albon to fourth. In an eventful race, featuring three safety car periods and the retirements of nine drivers, Bottas won, ahead of the Ferrari of Charles Leclerc and Norris. Hamilton crossed the line in second place, but received a five-second time penalty after a collision with Albon, who soon retired; after the penalty was applied, Hamilton finished fourth, ahead of Carlos Sainz Jr., Sergio Pérez and Pierre Gasly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,539 | The inaugural Styrian Grand Prix was won by Hamilton ahead of Bottas and Verstappen. The Hungarian Grand Prix started with a slippery track. Verstappen slid into the barrier on his way to the grid and broke his steering axis, but his mechanics managed to repair the car before the race start. The race winner was Hamilton, with Verstappen in second and Bottas in third place. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,540 | Hamilton won the British Grand Prix despite his left-front tyre delaminating in the middle of the last lap. Verstappen finished second with Leclerc in third. Bottas had a puncture which resulted in him finishing in eleventh. Daniil Kvyat had a puncture at high speed entering Maggotts corner which resulted in a big crash with a safety car, and Sainz Jr. finished 13th after a puncture made him fall from what would have been 4th place. In the 70th Anniversary Grand Prix, Verstappen won with Hamilton second and Bottas third. This was the first non-Mercedes win of the season. The Spanish Grand Prix was won by Hamilton with Verstappen in second and Bottas in third. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,541 | The Belgian Grand Prix was won by Lewis Hamilton, who led every lap and won by 8 seconds over teammate Valtteri Bottas who finished second ahead of Max Verstappen. Daniel Ricciardo finished fourth, setting the fastest lap on the last lap. On lap 11, Antonio Giovinazzi crashed at Campus corner; one of the wheels of his car came loose and hit the front right suspension of George Russell’s car, causing both drivers to retire from the race. This brought out the safety car for three laps. Renault achieved a finish of P4 and P5, equalling their best result since their return to the sport in 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,542 | The Italian Grand Prix was won by Pierre Gasly after a red flag caused by Charles Leclerc. This was his and AlphaTauri's first race victory. The race marked the first time since Kimi Räikkönen won the 2013 Australian Grand Prix driving for Lotus F1 that the race winner did not drive for Ferrari, Mercedes, or Red Bull and the first time since the 2012 Hungarian Grand Prix that all three constructors failed to score a podium finish. The race marked the second career podium finishes for Carlos Sainz Jr., who finished second, and Lance Stroll, who finished third. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,543 | The inaugural Tuscan Grand Prix, Ferrari's 1000th Grand Prix start, resulted in Hamilton's sixth race win of the season, and Mercedes's third 1–2 finish. Bottas overtook Hamilton into turn one before a major collision at turn two caused the retirement of both Verstappen (who had fallen from 3rd to 14th due to a power issue) and Gasly. This brought out the safety car for 8 laps to allow for the debris to be cleared. At the end of the safety car period, a major misunderstanding in the upper midfield led to a large collision down the pit straight, causing the retirement of Nicholas Latifi, Kevin Magnussen, Giovinazzi and Sainz Jr., and a red flag period. At the first restart, Hamilton overtook Bottas and led the race from there onwards. On lap 42, Ricciardo looked poised for his first podium since the 2018 Monaco Grand Prix when Stroll's Racing Point spun off the track due to a puncture, causing the second red flag of the race. This was the first time since the 2016 Brazilian Grand Prix that there were two red flag periods in one race. At the second restart, Hamilton maintained his lead to win the race. Red Bull's Alexander Albon overtook Ricciardo in the closing laps, earning his first ever podium and the first podium for a Thai driver in Formula One. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,544 | At the Russian Grand Prix, Hamilton started on pole, but two separate five-second penalties for practice starts outside the designated area meant he finished third; teammate Bottas won the Grand Prix with Verstappen in second. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,545 | At the inaugural Eifel Grand Prix, five cars retired in the forms of Russell, Esteban Ocon, Albon, Lando Norris and Bottas, who had started from pole. Hamilton took first place after Bottas locked up into turn 1 on lap 13. Hamilton would go on to win the race, his 7th win this season. Ricciardo claimed his first podium for Renault, finishing the race in third. The race also saw Räikkönen pass the record for most race starts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,546 | At the Portuguese Grand Prix, Hamilton took his 92nd win, taking the record for most wins that had been held by Michael Schumacher. Bottas would finish second in the race, twenty-five seconds behind his teammate, with Verstappen finishing third. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,547 | At the inaugural Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, Lewis Hamilton won from Valtteri Bottas and Daniel Ricciardo who picked up his second podium of the season. Max Verstappen had a puncture from second, putting him out of the race. Mercedes won their seventh consecutive Constructor World Championship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,548 | The Turkish Grand Prix saw Hamilton claim his seventh world title with a race win, equalling Michael Schumacher's record for the most Formula One world titles. He finished on the podium with Sergio Pérez and Sebastian Vettel, whilst in qualifying, Lance Stroll claimed his maiden pole position in rainy conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,549 | At the Bahrain Grand Prix, Hamilton claimed his 11th win of the year, followed by Verstappen and Alexander Albon in second and third. The race was marred by a serious accident involving Haas driver Romain Grosjean, who hit a barrier at the start of the race after making contact with the AlphaTauri of Daniil Kvyat. Grosjean's car broke in two and burst into flames as it split the barrier. Numerous safety features allowed him to escape the crash with only burns to the hands, though they would prove severe enough to exclude him from the remainder of the season, it would be Grosjean's final race with Haas after over 9 years in Formula One. Pérez surrendered third place after an engine failure, putting him out of the race, whilst teammate Stroll flipped at the restart after contact with Kvyat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,550 | Hamilton was ruled out of the Sakhir Grand Prix after testing positive for the coronavirus and was replaced by Williams' George Russell. Russell impressed by taking the lead from new teammate and pole-sitter Bottas and led for 59 laps, before being taken out of contention by first a tyre mix-up by Mercedes and then a late-race puncture, eventually finishing 9th. Despite being dropped to last position through a lap 1 collision with Leclerc and Verstappen, Pérez took his first race victory, followed by Esteban Ocon taking his first podium finish in 2nd and Stroll finishing 3rd. With his win, Pérez took the record for the most race starts before a first victory, with 190 race starts, beating Mark Webber's record of 130 starts before his win at the 2009 German Grand Prix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,551 | At the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, Hamilton returned for the last race of the season after testing negative for the coronavirus. Verstappen took the pole position and his 10th win in Formula One ahead of Bottas and Hamilton, who finished second and third, respectively. This race was the last for Vettel at Ferrari, after six years, and Pérez at Racing Point, after two years at Racing Point and five at their indirect predecessor, Force India. Ferrari finished sixth in the World Constructors' Championship, their worst championship result since 1980 when they finished tenth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,552 | Points are awarded to the top ten classified drivers and the driver who set the fastest lap. The driver with the fastest lap has to be within the top 10 to receive the point. In the case of a tie on points a countback system is used where the driver with the best results is ranked higher, if the best result is identical then the next best result is considered. The points are awarded for every race using the following system: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58993617 |
14,553 | Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate. The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages. Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical and their body possesses an external skeleton. In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process by which they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. Some species have wings. They are an extremely diverse group, with up to 10 million species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,554 | The haemocoel, an arthropod's internal cavity, through which its haemolymph – analogue of blood – circulates, accommodates its interior organs; it has an open circulatory system. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is "ladder-like", with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,555 | Arthropods use combinations of compound eyes and pigment-pit ocelli for vision. In most species, the ocelli can only detect the direction from which light is coming, and the compound eyes are the main source of information, but the main eyes of spiders are ocelli that can form images and, in a few cases, can swivel to track prey. Arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many bristles known as setae that project through their cuticles. Similarly, their reproduction and development are varied; all terrestrial species use internal fertilization, but this is sometimes by indirect transfer of the sperm via an appendage or the ground, rather than by direct injection. Aquatic species use either internal or external fertilization. Almost all arthropods lay eggs, but many species give birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, and a few are genuinely viviparous, such as aphids. Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. The level of maternal care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by social insects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,556 | The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the Cambrian period. The group is generally regarded as monophyletic, and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians (or their constituent clades) in a superphylum Ecdysozoa. Overall, however, the basal relationships of animals are not yet well resolved. Likewise, the relationships between various arthropod groups are still actively debated. Today, Arthropods contribute to the human food supply both directly as food, and more importantly, indirectly as pollinators of crops. Some species are known to spread severe disease to humans, livestock, and crops. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,557 | The word "arthropod" comes from the Greek "árthron", "joint", and "pous" (gen. "podos (ποδός)"), i.e. "foot" or "leg", which together mean "jointed leg". The designation "Arthropoda" was coined in 1848 by the German physiologist and zoologist Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold (1804–1885). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,558 | In common parlance, terrestrial arthropods are often called bugs. The term is also occasionally extended to colloquial names for freshwater or marine crustaceans (e.g. Balmain bug, Moreton Bay bug, mudbug) and used by physicians and bacteriologists for disease-causing germs (e.g. superbugs), but entomologists reserve this term for a narrow category of "true bugs", insects of the order Hemiptera (which does not include ants, bees, beetles, butterflies or moths). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,559 | Arthropods are invertebrates with segmented bodies and jointed limbs. The exoskeleton or cuticles consists of chitin, a polymer of glucosamine. The cuticle of many crustaceans, beetle mites, and millipedes (except for bristly millipedes) is also biomineralized with calcium carbonate. Calcification of the endosternite, an internal structure used for muscle attachments, also occur in some opiliones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,560 | Estimates of the number of arthropod species vary between 1,170,000 and 5 to 10 million and account for over 80 percent of all known living animal species. The number of species remains difficult to determine. This is due to the census modeling assumptions projected onto other regions in order to scale up from counts at specific locations applied to the whole world. A study in 1992 estimated that there were 500,000 species of animals and plants in Costa Rica alone, of which 365,000 were arthropods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,561 | They are important members of marine, freshwater, land and air ecosystems, and are one of only two major animal groups that have adapted to life in dry environments; the other is amniotes, whose living members are reptiles, birds and mammals. One arthropod sub-group, insects, is the most species-rich member of all ecological guilds in land and freshwater environments. The lightest insects weigh less than 25 micrograms (millionths of a gram), while the heaviest weigh over . Some living malacostracans are much larger; for example, the legs of the Japanese spider crab may span up to , with the heaviest of all living arthropods being the American lobster, topping out at over 20 kg (44 lbs). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,562 | The embryos of all arthropods are segmented, built from a series of repeated modules. The last common ancestor of living arthropods probably consisted of a series of undifferentiated segments, each with a pair of appendages that functioned as limbs. However, all known living and fossil arthropods have grouped segments into tagmata in which segments and their limbs are specialized in various ways. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,563 | The three-part appearance of many insect bodies and the two-part appearance of spiders is a result of this grouping; in fact there are no external signs of segmentation in mites. Arthropods also have two body elements that are not part of this serially repeated pattern of segments, an ocular somite at the front, where the mouth and eyes originated, and a telson at the rear, behind the anus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,564 | Originally it seems that each appendage-bearing segment had two separate pairs of appendages: an upper, unsegmented exite and a lower, segmented endopod. These would later fuse into a single pair of biramous appendages united by a basal segment (protopod or basipod), with the upper branch acting as a gill while the lower branch was used for locomotion. The appendages of most crustaceans and some extinct taxa such as trilobites have another segmented branch known as exopods, but whether these structures have a single origin remain controversial. In some segments of all known arthropods the appendages have been modified, for example to form gills, mouth-parts, antennae for collecting information, or claws for grasping; arthropods are "like Swiss Army knives, each equipped with a unique set of specialized tools." In many arthropods, appendages have vanished from some regions of the body; it is particularly common for abdominal appendages to have disappeared or be highly modified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,565 | The most conspicuous specialization of segments is in the head. The four major groups of arthropods – Chelicerata (sea spiders, horseshoe crabs and arachnids), Myriapoda (symphylan, pauropods, millipedes and centipedes), Crustacea (oligostracans, copepods, malacostracans, branchiopods, hexapods, etc.), and the extinct Trilobita – have heads formed of various combinations of segments, with appendages that are missing or specialized in different ways. Despite myriapods and hexapods both having similar head combinations, hexapods are deeply nested within crustacea while myriapods are not, so these traits are believed to have evolved separately. In addition, some extinct arthropods, such as "Marrella", belong to none of these groups, as their heads are formed by their own particular combinations of segments and specialized appendages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,566 | Working out the evolutionary stages by which all these different combinations could have appeared is so difficult that it has long been known as "the arthropod head problem". In 1960, R. E. Snodgrass even hoped it would not be solved, as he found trying to work out solutions to be fun. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,567 | Arthropod exoskeletons are made of cuticle, a non-cellular material secreted by the epidermis. Their cuticles vary in the details of their structure, but generally consist of three main layers: the epicuticle, a thin outer waxy coat that moisture-proofs the other layers and gives them some protection; the exocuticle, which consists of chitin and chemically hardened proteins; and the endocuticle, which consists of chitin and unhardened proteins. The exocuticle and endocuticle together are known as the procuticle. Each body segment and limb section is encased in hardened cuticle. The joints between body segments and between limb sections are covered by flexible cuticle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,568 | The exoskeletons of most aquatic crustaceans are biomineralized with calcium carbonate extracted from the water. Some terrestrial crustaceans have developed means of storing the mineral, since on land they cannot rely on a steady supply of dissolved calcium carbonate. Biomineralization generally affects the exocuticle and the outer part of the endocuticle. Two recent hypotheses about the evolution of biomineralization in arthropods and other groups of animals propose that it provides tougher defensive armor, and that it allows animals to grow larger and stronger by providing more rigid skeletons; and in either case a mineral-organic composite exoskeleton is cheaper to build than an all-organic one of comparable strength. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,569 | The cuticle may have setae (bristles) growing from special cells in the epidermis. Setae are as varied in form and function as appendages. For example, they are often used as sensors to detect air or water currents, or contact with objects; aquatic arthropods use feather-like setae to increase the surface area of swimming appendages and to filter food particles out of water; aquatic insects, which are air-breathers, use thick felt-like coats of setae to trap air, extending the time they can spend under water; heavy, rigid setae serve as defensive spines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,570 | Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton to flex their limbs, some still use hydraulic pressure to extend them, a system inherited from their pre-arthropod ancestors; for example, all spiders extend their legs hydraulically and can generate pressures up to eight times their resting level. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,571 | The exoskeleton cannot stretch and thus restricts growth. Arthropods, therefore, replace their exoskeletons by undergoing ecdysis (moulting), or shedding the old exoskeleton after growing a new one that is not yet hardened. Moulting cycles run nearly continuously until an arthropod reaches full size. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,572 | The developmental stages between each moult (ecdysis) until sexual maturity is reached is called an instar. Differences between instars can often be seen in altered body proportions, colors, patterns, changes in the number of body segments or head width. After moulting, i.e. shedding their exoskeleton, the juvenile arthropods continue in their life cycle until they either pupate or moult again. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,573 | In the initial phase of moulting, the animal stops feeding and its epidermis releases moulting fluid, a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle. This phase begins when the epidermis has secreted a new epicuticle to protect it from the enzymes, and the epidermis secretes the new exocuticle while the old cuticle is detaching. When this stage is complete, the animal makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air, and this makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest. It commonly takes several minutes for the animal to struggle out of the old cuticle. At this point, the new one is wrinkled and so soft that the animal cannot support itself and finds it very difficult to move, and the new endocuticle has not yet formed. The animal continues to pump itself up to stretch the new cuticle as much as possible, then hardens the new exocuticle and eliminates the excess air or water. By the end of this phase, the new endocuticle has formed. Many arthropods then eat the discarded cuticle to reclaim its materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,574 | Because arthropods are unprotected and nearly immobilized until the new cuticle has hardened, they are in danger both of being trapped in the old cuticle and of being attacked by predators. Moulting may be responsible for 80 to 90% of all arthropod deaths. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,575 | Arthropod bodies are also segmented internally, and the nervous, muscular, circulatory, and excretory systems have repeated components. Arthropods come from a lineage of animals that have a coelom, a membrane-lined cavity between the gut and the body wall that accommodates the internal organs. The strong, segmented limbs of arthropods eliminate the need for one of the coelom's main ancestral functions, as a hydrostatic skeleton, which muscles compress in order to change the animal's shape and thus enable it to move. Hence the coelom of the arthropod is reduced to small areas around the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,576 | Arthropods have open circulatory systems, although most have a few short, open-ended arteries. In chelicerates and crustaceans, the blood carries oxygen to the tissues, while hexapods use a separate system of tracheae. Many crustaceans, but few chelicerates and tracheates, use respiratory pigments to assist oxygen transport. The most common respiratory pigment in arthropods is copper-based hemocyanin; this is used by many crustaceans and a few centipedes. A few crustaceans and insects use iron-based hemoglobin, the respiratory pigment used by vertebrates. As with other invertebrates, the respiratory pigments of those arthropods that have them are generally dissolved in the blood and rarely enclosed in corpuscles as they are in vertebrates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,577 | The heart is typically a muscular tube that runs just under the back and for most of the length of the hemocoel. It contracts in ripples that run from rear to front, pushing blood forwards. Sections not being squeezed by the heart muscle are expanded either by elastic ligaments or by small muscles, in either case connecting the heart to the body wall. Along the heart run a series of paired ostia, non-return valves that allow blood to enter the heart but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,578 | Arthropods have a wide variety of respiratory systems. Small species often do not have any, since their high ratio of surface area to volume enables simple diffusion through the body surface to supply enough oxygen. Crustacea usually have gills that are modified appendages. Many arachnids have book lungs. Tracheae, systems of branching tunnels that run from the openings in the body walls, deliver oxygen directly to individual cells in many insects, myriapods and arachnids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,579 | Living arthropods have paired main nerve cords running along their bodies below the gut, and in each segment the cords form a pair of ganglia from which sensory and motor nerves run to other parts of the segment. Although the pairs of ganglia in each segment often appear physically fused, they are connected by commissures (relatively large bundles of nerves), which give arthropod nervous systems a characteristic "ladder-like" appearance. The brain is in the head, encircling and mainly "above" the esophagus. It consists of the fused ganglia of the acron and one or two of the foremost segments that form the head – a total of three pairs of ganglia in most arthropods, but only two in chelicerates, which do not have antennae or the ganglion connected to them. The ganglia of other head segments are often close to the brain and function as part of it. In insects these other head ganglia combine into a pair of subesophageal ganglia, under and behind the esophagus. Spiders take this process a step further, as "all" the segmental ganglia are incorporated into the subesophageal ganglia, which occupy most of the space in the cephalothorax (front "super-segment"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,580 | There are two different types of arthropod excretory systems. In aquatic arthropods, the end-product of biochemical reactions that metabolise nitrogen is ammonia, which is so toxic that it needs to be diluted as much as possible with water. The ammonia is then eliminated via any permeable membrane, mainly through the gills. All crustaceans use this system, and its high consumption of water may be responsible for the relative lack of success of crustaceans as land animals. Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system: the end-product of nitrogen metabolism is uric acid, which can be excreted as dry material; the Malpighian tubule system filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel, and dumps these materials into the hindgut, from which they are expelled as feces. Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called nephridia ("little kidneys"), which extract other wastes for excretion as urine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,581 | The stiff cuticles of arthropods would block out information about the outside world, except that they are penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system. In fact, arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various touch sensors, mostly setae, respond to different levels of force, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell, often by means of setae. Pressure sensors often take the form of membranes that function as eardrums, but are connected directly to nerves rather than to auditory ossicles. The antennae of most hexapods include sensor packages that monitor humidity, moisture and temperature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,582 | Most arthropods lack balance and acceleration sensors, and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up. The self-righting behavior of cockroaches is triggered when pressure sensors on the underside of the feet report no pressure. However, many malacostracan crustaceans have statocysts, which provide the same sort of information as the balance and motion sensors of the vertebrate inner ear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,583 | The proprioceptors of arthropods, sensors that report the force exerted by muscles and the degree of bending in the body and joints, are well understood. However, little is known about what other internal sensors arthropods may have. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,584 | Most arthropods have sophisticated visual systems that include one or more usually both of compound eyes and pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"). In most cases ocelli are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup. However, the main eyes of spiders are pigment-cup ocelli that are capable of forming images, and those of jumping spiders can rotate to track prey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,585 | Compound eyes consist of fifteen to several thousand independent ommatidia, columns that are usually hexagonal in cross section. Each ommatidium is an independent sensor, with its own light-sensitive cells and often with its own lens and cornea. Compound eyes have a wide field of view, and can detect fast movement and, in some cases, the polarization of light. On the other hand, the relatively large size of ommatidia makes the images rather coarse, and compound eyes are shorter-sighted than those of birds and mammals – although this is not a severe disadvantage, as objects and events within are most important to most arthropods. Several arthropods have color vision, and that of some insects has been studied in detail; for example, the ommatidia of bees contain receptors for both green and ultra-violet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,586 | A few arthropods, such as barnacles, are hermaphroditic, that is, each can have the organs of both sexes. However, individuals of most species remain of one sex their entire lives. A few species of insects and crustaceans can reproduce by parthenogenesis, especially if conditions favor a "population explosion". However, most arthropods rely on sexual reproduction, and parthenogenetic species often revert to sexual reproduction when conditions become less favorable. The ability to undergo meiosis is widespread among arthropods including both those that reproduce sexually and those that reproduce parthenogenetically. Although meiosis is a major characteristic of arthropods, understanding of its fundamental adaptive benefit has long been regarded as an unresolved problem, that appears to have remained unsettled. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,587 | Aquatic arthropods may breed by external fertilization, as for example horseshoe crabs do, or by internal fertilization, where the ova remain in the female's body and the sperm must somehow be inserted. All known terrestrial arthropods use internal fertilization. Opiliones (harvestmen), millipedes, and some crustaceans use modified appendages such as gonopods or penises to transfer the sperm directly to the female. However, most male terrestrial arthropods produce spermatophores, waterproof packets of sperm, which the females take into their bodies. A few such species rely on females to find spermatophores that have already been deposited on the ground, but in most cases males only deposit spermatophores when complex courtship rituals look likely to be successful. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,588 | Most arthropods lay eggs, but scorpions are ovoviparous: they produce live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, and are noted for prolonged maternal care. Newly born arthropods have diverse forms, and insects alone cover the range of extremes. Some hatch as apparently miniature adults (direct development), and in some cases, such as silverfish, the hatchlings do not feed and may be helpless until after their first moult. Many insects hatch as grubs or caterpillars, which do not have segmented limbs or hardened cuticles, and metamorphose into adult forms by entering an inactive phase in which the larval tissues are broken down and re-used to build the adult body. Dragonfly larvae have the typical cuticles and jointed limbs of arthropods but are flightless water-breathers with extendable jaws. Crustaceans commonly hatch as tiny nauplius larvae that have only three segments and pairs of appendages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,589 | Based on the distribution of shared plesiomorphic features in extant and fossil taxa, the last common ancestor of all arthropods is inferred to have been as a modular organism with each module covered by its own sclerite (armor plate) and bearing a pair of biramous limbs. However, whether the ancestral limb was uniramous or biramous is far from a settled debate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,590 | This Ur-arthropod had a ventral mouth, pre-oral antennae and dorsal eyes at the front of the body. It was assumed to have been a non-discriminatory sediment feeder, processing whatever sediment came its way for food, but fossil findings hint that the last common ancestor of both arthropods and priapulida shared the same specialized mouth apparatus; a circular mouth with rings of teeth used for capturing animal prey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,591 | It has been proposed that the Ediacaran animals "Parvancorina" and "Spriggina", from around , were arthropods, but later study shows that their affinities of being origin of arthropods are not reliable. Small arthropods with bivalve-like shells have been found in Early Cambrian fossil beds dating in China and Australia. The earliest Cambrian trilobite fossils are about 530 million years old, but the class was already quite diverse and worldwide, suggesting that they had been around for quite some time. In the Maotianshan shales, which date to between 530 and 520 million years ago, fossils of arthropods such as "Kylinxia" and "Erratus" have been found that seem to show a transitional split between lobopodia and other more primitive stem arthropods. Re-examination in the 1970s of the Burgess Shale fossils from about identified many arthropods, some of which could not be assigned to any of the well-known groups, and thus intensified the debate about the Cambrian explosion. A fossil of "Marrella" from the Burgess Shale has provided the earliest clear evidence of moulting. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,592 | The earliest fossil crustaceans date from about in the Cambrian, and fossil shrimp from about apparently formed a tight-knit procession across the seabed. Crustacean fossils are common from the Ordovician period onwards. They have remained almost entirely aquatic, possibly because they never developed excretory systems that conserve water. In 2020 scientists announced the discovery of "Kylinxia", a five-eyed ~5 cm long shrimp-like animal living 518 Mya that – with multiple distinctive features – appears to be a key ‘missing link’ of the evolution from "Anomalocaris" to true arthropods and could be at the evolutionary root of true arthropods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,593 | Arthropods provide the earliest identifiable fossils of land animals, from about in the Late Silurian, and terrestrial tracks from about appear to have been made by arthropods. Arthropods possessed attributes that were easy coopted for life on land; their existing jointed exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation, support against gravity and a means of locomotion that was not dependent on water. Around the same time the aquatic, scorpion-like eurypterids became the largest ever arthropods, some as long as . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,594 | The oldest known arachnid is the trigonotarbid "Palaeotarbus jerami", from about in the Silurian period. "Attercopus fimbriunguis", from in the Devonian period, bears the earliest known silk-producing spigots, but its lack of spinnerets means it was not one of the true spiders, which first appear in the Late Carboniferous over . The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods provide a large number of fossil spiders, including representatives of many modern families. Fossils of aquatic scorpions with gills appear in the Silurian and Devonian periods, and the earliest fossil of an air-breathing scorpion with book lungs dates from the Early Carboniferous period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,595 | The oldest possible insect fossil is the Devonian "Rhyniognatha hirsti", dated at , but its mandibles are of a type found only in winged insects, which suggests that the earliest insects appeared in the Silurian period, although later study shows possibility that "Rhyniognatha" can be myriapod, not an insect. The Mazon Creek lagerstätten from the Late Carboniferous, about , include about 200 species, some gigantic by modern standards, and indicate that insects had occupied their main modern ecological niches as herbivores, detritivores and insectivores. Social termites and ants first appear in the Early Cretaceous, and advanced social bees have been found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle Cenozoic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,596 | From 1952 to 1977, zoologist Sidnie Manton and others argued that arthropods are polyphyletic, in other words, that they do not share a common ancestor that was itself an arthropod. Instead, they proposed that three separate groups of "arthropods" evolved separately from common worm-like ancestors: the chelicerates, including spiders and scorpions; the crustaceans; and the uniramia, consisting of onychophorans, myriapods and hexapods. These arguments usually bypassed trilobites, as the evolutionary relationships of this class were unclear. Proponents of polyphyly argued the following: that the similarities between these groups are the results of convergent evolution, as natural consequences of having rigid, segmented exoskeletons; that the three groups use different chemical means of hardening the cuticle; that there were significant differences in the construction of their compound eyes; that it is hard to see how such different configurations of segments and appendages in the head could have evolved from the same ancestor; and that crustaceans have biramous limbs with separate gill and leg branches, while the other two groups have uniramous limbs in which the single branch serves as a leg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,597 | Further analysis and discoveries in the 1990s reversed this view, and led to acceptance that arthropods are monophyletic, in other words they are inferred to share a common ancestor that was itself an arthropod. For example, Graham Budd's analyses of "Kerygmachela" in 1993 and of "Opabinia" in 1996 convinced him that these animals were similar to onychophorans and to various Early Cambrian "lobopods", and he presented an "evolutionary family tree" that showed these as "aunts" and "cousins" of all arthropods. These changes made the scope of the term "arthropod" unclear, and Claus Nielsen proposed that the wider group should be labelled "Panarthropoda" ("all the arthropods") while the animals with jointed limbs and hardened cuticles should be called "Euarthropoda" ("true arthropods"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,598 | A contrary view was presented in 2003, when Jan Bergström and Xian-Guang Hou argued that, if arthropods were a "sister-group" to any of the anomalocarids, they must have lost and then re-evolved features that were well-developed in the anomalocarids. The earliest known arthropods ate mud in order to extract food particles from it, and possessed variable numbers of segments with unspecialized appendages that functioned as both gills and legs. Anomalocarids were, by the standards of the time, huge and sophisticated predators with specialized mouths and grasping appendages, fixed numbers of segments some of which were specialized, tail fins, and gills that were very different from those of arthropods. In 2006, they suggested that arthropods were more closely related to lobopods and tardigrades than to anomalocarids. In 2014, research indicated that tardigrades were more closely related to arthropods than velvet worms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,599 | Higher up the "family tree", the Annelida have traditionally been considered the closest relatives of the Panarthropoda, since both groups have segmented bodies, and the combination of these groups was labelled Articulata. There had been competing proposals that arthropods were closely related to other groups such as nematodes, priapulids and tardigrades, but these remained minority views because it was difficult to specify in detail the relationships between these groups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
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