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1,700 | After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino-Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal. The Chinese-Soviet animosity spilled out in an intra-communist propaganda war. Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao's China for leadership of the g... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,701 | On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), and in October they launched th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,702 | Later, however, the US and USSR pursued some cooperation in space as part of détente, such as Apollo–Soyuz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,703 | In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement, led by young revolutionaries Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, seized power in the Cuban Revolution on 1 January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration. Although Fidel Castro's first refused to categorize h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,704 | Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Castro during the latter's trip to Washington, D.C. in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place. Cuba began... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,705 | In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. That April, the administration of newly elected American President John F. Kennedy mounted the unsuccessful CIA-organized ship-borne invasion of the island at Playa Girón and Playa Larga in Santa Clara Provin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,706 | The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and post–World War II Germany. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually emi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,707 | The emigration resulted in a massive "brain drain" from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961. That June, the Soviet Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Allied forces from West Berlin. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,708 | The Kennedy administration continued seeking ways to oust Castro following the Bay of Pigs Invasion, experimenting with various ways of covertly facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government. Significant hopes were pinned on the program of terrorist attacks and other destabilisation operations known as Operation M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,709 | Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions. He ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade, and he presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for a public American pledge not to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,710 | The Cuban Missile Crisis (October–November 1962) brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the Cold War's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,711 | In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement. Accused of rudeness and incompetence, John Lewis Gaddis argues that Khrushchev was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war and that Khrushchev had become an 'interna... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,712 | In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destructio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,713 | The Vietnam War descended into a quagmire for the United States, leading to a decline in international prestige and economic stability, derailing arms agreements, and provoking domestic unrest. America's withdrawal from the war led it to embrace a policy of détente with both China and the Soviet Union. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,714 | In the 1973 oil crisis, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cut their petroleum output. This raised oil prices and hurt Western economies, but helped the Soviet Union by generating a huge flow of money from its oil sales. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,715 | As a result of the oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as OPEC and the Non-Aligned Movement, less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower. Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its at... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,716 | Under President John F. Kennedy, US troop levels in Vietnam grew under the Military Assistance Advisory Group program from just under a thousand in 1959 to 16,000 in 1963. South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem's heavy-handed crackdown on Buddhist monks in 1963 led the US to endorse a deadly military coup against Die... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,717 | The Tet Offensive of 1968 proved to be the turning point of the war. Despite years of American tutelage and aid the South Vietnamese forces were unable to withstand the communist offensive and the task fell to US forces instead. Tet showed that the end of US involvement was not in sight, increasing domestic skepticism ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,718 | At the same time, 1963–1965, American domestic politics saw the triumph of liberalism. According to historian Joseph Crespino: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,719 | The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle's presidency of France. De Gaulle protested at the strong role of the United States in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,720 | Officially claiming to be neutral, Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union. The YYA Treaty (Finno-Soviet Pact of "Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance") gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics, which was later used as the term "Finlandization" b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,721 | For West German conservative politicians, especially the Bavarian Prime Minister Franz Josef Strauss, the case of Finlandization served as a warning, for example, about how a great power dictates its much smaller neighbor in its internal affairs and the neighbor's independence becomes formal. During the Cold War, Finla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,722 | However, Finland maintained capitalism unlike most other countries bordering the Soviet Union. Even though being a neighbor to the Soviet Union sometimes resulted in overcautious concern in foreign policy, Finland developed closer co-operation with the other Nordic countries and declared itself even more neutral in sup... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,723 | In 1968, a period of political liberalization took place in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring. An "Action Program" of reforms included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government, limitati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,724 | In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. The invasion spar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,725 | In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party one month after the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev outlined the Brezhnev Doctrine, in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism. During the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,726 | The doctrine found its origins in the failures of Marxism–Leninism in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,727 | Under the Lyndon B. Johnson administration, which gained power after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the US took a more hardline stance on Latin America—sometimes called the "Mann Doctrine". In 1964, the Brazilian military overthrew the government of president João Goulart with US backing. In late April 1965, the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,728 | In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order". From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the United States and other Western governments, the military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizer... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,729 | Escalating the scale of American intervention in the ongoing conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,730 | The Middle East remained a source of contention. Egypt, which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 Six-Day War (with advisers and technicians) and the War of Attrition (with pilots and airc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,731 | In East Africa, a territorial dispute between Somalia and Ethiopia over the Ogaden region resulted in the Ogaden War. Around June 1977, Somali troops occupied the Ogaden and began advancing inland towards Ethiopian positions in the Ahmar Mountains. Both countries were client states of the Soviet Union; Somalia was led ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,732 | In Chile, the Socialist Party candidate Salvador Allende won the presidential election of 1970, thereby becoming the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a country in the Americas. The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to a peri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,733 | On 24 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution succeeded in ousting Marcello Caetano and Portugal's right-wing "Estado Novo" government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,734 | Independence was hastily granted to a number of Portuguese colonies, including Angola, where the disintegration of colonial rule was followed by a violent civil war. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,735 | There were three rival militant factions competing for power in Angola, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,736 | While all three had socialist leanings, the MPLA was the only party with close ties to the Soviet Union. Its adherence to the concept of a one-party state alienated it from the FNLA and UNITA, which began portraying themselves as anti-communist and pro-Western in orientation. When the Soviets began supplying the MPLA w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,737 | During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam used border areas of Cambodia as military bases, which Cambodian head of state Norodom Sihanouk tolerated in an attempt to preserve Cambodia's neutrality. Following Sihanouk's March 1970 deposition by pro-American general Lon Nol, who ordered the North Vietnamese to leave Cambodia,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,738 | After taking power and distancing himself from the Vietnamese, pro-China Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot killed 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians in the killing fields, roughly a quarter of the Cambodian population (an event commonly labelled the Cambodian genocide). Martin Shaw described these atrocities as "the purest genocide ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,739 | As a result of the Sino-Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese–Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, and United States President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. The Chinese had sought improved relations with the Americans in order to gain a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,740 | In February 1972, Nixon achieved a stunning rapprochement with China, traveling to Beijing and meeting with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. At this time, the USSR achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States; meanwhile, the Vietnam War both weakened America's influence in the Third World and cooled relations with We... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,741 | Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,742 | Following his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow. These Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the developm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,743 | Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. Between 1972 and 1974, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,744 | Kissinger and Nixon were "realists" who deemphasized idealistic goals like anti-communism or promotion of democracy worldwide because those goals were too expensive in terms of America's economic capabilities. Instead of a Cold War they wanted peace, trade and cultural exchanges. They realized that Americans were no lo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,745 | In the 1970s, the KGB, led by Yuri Andropov, continued to persecute distinguished Soviet personalities such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov, who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms. Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, par... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,746 | Although President Jimmy Carter tried to place another limit on the arms race with a SALT II agreement in 1979, his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the Iranian Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US regimes, and his retaliation against Soviet intervention in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,747 | The term "new Cold War" refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militant. Diggins says, "Reagan went all out to fight the second cold war, by supporting counterin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,748 | In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,749 | In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces during Operation Storm-333 in December 1979. A Soviet-organized ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,750 | Carter responded to the Soviet intervention by withdrawing the SALT II treaty from ratification, imposing embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, and demanding a significant increase in military spending, and further announced that the United States would boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. He ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,751 | In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, Ronald Reagan bluntly stated, in a conversation with Richard V. Allen, his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic," he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. Wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,752 | By early 1985, Reagan's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new Reagan Doctrine—which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments. Besides continuing Carter's policy of supporting the Islamic opponents of the Soviet Union and the Sov... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,753 | Pope John Paul II provided a moral focus for anti-communism; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement that galvanized opposition and may have led to his attempted assassination two years later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,754 | In December 1981, Poland's Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis by imposing a period of martial law. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response. Mikhail Suslov, the Kremlin's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,755 | The Soviet Union had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of its gross national product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,756 | Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity but in large part by the interests of the nomenklatura, which was dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges. The Soviet Armed Forces became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,757 | By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, president Carter began massively building up the United States military. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,758 | Tensions continued to intensify as Reagan revived the B-1 Lancer program, which had been canceled by the Carter administration, produced LGM-118 Peacekeeper missiles, installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced the experimental Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,759 | After Reagan's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military, because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient planned manufacturing and collectivized agriculture, were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil product... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,760 | On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman Larry McDonald, an action which Reagan characterized as a "massacre". The airliner had violated Soviet airspace just past the west coast of Sakhalin Island near Moneron Island,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,761 | American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War. The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low-cost counterinsurgency tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts. In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided Lebanese Civil ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,762 | Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the Soviet war in Afghanistan would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, waged a fierce resistance against the invasion. The Kremlin sent nearl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,763 | A senior US State Department official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a "domestic crisis within the Soviet may be that the thermodynamic law of entropy up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,764 | By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,765 | An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary, and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called "perestroika", or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign inves... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,766 | Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,767 | In response to the Kremlin's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race. The first summit was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each coun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,768 | During 1988 it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,769 | Bush and Gorbachev met at the Moscow Summit May 29–June 3, 1988 and the Governors Island Summit December 7, 1988. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,770 | In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan. In 1989, the Berlin Wall, the Inner German border and the Iron Curtain fell. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,771 | In February 1990, Gorbachev drafted the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany and signed it on 12 September 1990; it allowed the German reunification, as the only alternative was a Tiananmen Square scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "Common European Home" concept began to take shape. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,772 | During the final summit in Moscow in July 1991, Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,773 | By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,774 | The Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 in Hungary finally started a peaceful movement that the rulers in the Eastern Bloc could not stop. It was the largest movement of refugees from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and ultimately brought about the fall of the Iron Curtain. The patrons of the picnic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,775 | In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organization of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a vi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,776 | The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet-s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,777 | In the USSR itself, "glasnost" weakened the ideological bonds that held the Soviet Union together, and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power. At the same time the union's component republics declared their autonomy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,778 | Gorbachev used force to keep the Baltics from breaking away. The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup in August 1991. A growing number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, threatened to secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States, created on 21 December 1991, was a successor entity to the So... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,779 | US President George H. W. Bush expressed his emotions: "The biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,780 | After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia drastically cut military spending, and restructuring the economy left millions unemployed. The capitalist reforms culminated in a recession in the early 1990s more severe than the Great Depression as experienced by the United States and Germany. In the 25 years followin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,781 | Communist parties outside the Baltic states were not outlawed and their members were not prosecuted. Just a few places attempted to exclude even members of communist secret services from decision-making. In some countries, the communist party changed its name and continued to function. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,782 | Stephen Holmes of the University of Chicago argued in 1996 that decommunization, after a brief active period, quickly ended in near-universal failure. After the introduction of lustration, demand for scapegoats has become relatively low, and former communists have been elected for high governmental and other administra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,783 | The Cold War continues to influence world affairs. The post-Cold War world is considered to be unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role of the United States after World War II—by 1989 the United States had military alliances with 50 countries, with 526,000 ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,784 | Cumulative US military expenditures throughout the entire Cold War amounted to an estimated $8 trillion. Further nearly 100,000 Americans died in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Although Soviet casualties are difficult to estimate, as a share of gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was much highe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,785 | In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in eastern Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,786 | However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not considered to be concluded. Many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by communist governments produced new civil and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,787 | During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence people around the world, especially using motion pictures. The Cold War endures as a popular topic reflected extensively in entertainment media, and continuing to the present with numerous post-1991 Cold War... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,788 | As soon as the term "Cold War" was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists. In particular, historians have sharply disagre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,789 | Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three different approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox" accounts, "revisionism", and "post-revisionism". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,790 | "Orthodox" accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe. "Revisionist" writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of Worl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 |
1,791 | Skathi , also named Saturn XXVII and originally spelled Skadi, is a natural satellite of the planet Saturn. Skathi is one of Saturn's irregular moons, in its Norse group of satellites. It was discovered on September 23, 2000, by a team of astronomers led by Brett Gladman. The team announced their discovery on December ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,792 | Skathi takes just over 725 days to complete an orbit of Saturn and it is estimated to take hours to rotate on its axis. It orbits at a greater distance from Saturn than many of the planet's other satellites, with a large orbital inclination and eccentricity, and it moves in a retrograde direction. Not much is known abo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,793 | Skathi's origin remains an open question. One possibility is that it was originally an asteroid that formed elsewhere, and was captured by Saturn's gravity as it flew by the planet. Another possibility is that it was originally a portion of one of Saturn's moons, like Phoebe, that split off during a collision and becam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,794 | Skathi was discovered on September 23, 2000, by Brett J. Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, Jean-Marc Petit, Hans Scholl, Matthew J. Holman, Brian G. Marsden, Phil Nicholson, and Joseph A. Burns. The team used images taken by the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope at the Mauna Kea Observatories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,795 | At first, Skathi was given the temporary name "S/2000 S 8": the first "S" denotes that Skathi is a satellite (as opposed to, say, a planetary ring), "2000" specifies that it was discovered in the year 2000, the second "S" is assigned because it orbits the planet Saturn, and the number 8 means that it was the eighth suc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,796 | Skathi's name was specifically chosen to diversify the origins of names given to astronomical objects. Most English names for planets are derived from the Roman names for planets, and scientists who have named satellites have tended to follow this pattern. Given this context, the historian Jürgen Blunck wrote that Kave... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,797 | When the name of the moon was announced in 2003, it was given as "Skadi", using as a graphical approximation of the Icelandic letter ("eth"). In 2005, the IAU Working Group on Planetary System Nomenclature instead decided to use the transliteration . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,798 | When Skathi was given its permanent name, it was also assigned the Roman numeral designation Saturn XXVII. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
1,799 | All of the members of Saturn's Norse group of satellites, which includes Skathi, share roughly the same orbital characteristics. Skathi has a retrograde orbit, meaning that it orbits in the opposite direction as Saturn's orbit. It takes more than 725 days to complete one orbit around Saturn, and it does so at an averag... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=589853 |
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