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2,600 | In June 2009, Williams was named 77th in the Top 100 Most Powerful Celebrities list compiled by "Forbes" magazine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,601 | In August 2009, Williams and her sister Serena became minority owners of the Miami Dolphins. This made the sisters the first African-American women to obtain ownership in an NFL franchise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,602 | In late June 2010, Williams released her first book, "Come to Win; On How Sports Can Help You Top Your Profession", which she cowrote with Kelly E. Carter. To promote the book, she embarked on a nationwide tour and appeared on several talk shows, including "The Early Show" and "Good Morning America". The book reached t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,603 | In June 2011, she was named one of the "30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future" by "Time". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,604 | In March 2012, Tennis Channel aired a television series listing the 100 greatest players of all time, ranking Williams 22nd. In the series, Lindsay Davenport says: "Venus had more power than any other player on tour." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,605 | In May 2020, both the Tennis Channel and Newsday ranked Williams as the eighth-greatest female player of all time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,606 | In 1995, when Williams was 14 years old, she signed an endorsement deal with Reebok and wore the company's apparel and shoes. She used a Wilson Hammer 6.2 Stretch racket. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,607 | Williams has played 14 seasons of World TeamTennis, making her debut in 2000 with the St. Louis Aces, playing a season with the Delaware Smash in 2005, three seasons with the Philadelphia Freedoms from 2006 to 2008, and eight seasons with the Washington Kastles in 2010–2015, 2017–2019. She has five King Trophies, claim... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,608 | At the 2021 Wimbledon Championships, Williams extended her record as the all-time leader, male or female, in Grand Slams played, with 90. With her run to the 2017 Wimbledon singles final, she claimed the record for the longest time between a player's first and most recent major singles finals appearances (a record late... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167378 |
2,609 | The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is an American single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). As the result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed as an air superiority fighter, but also has ground attac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,610 | The aircraft first flew in 1997 and was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Although the USAF had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs, the program was cut to 187 operational aircraft in 2009 due to high costs, a lack of air-to-air missions due... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,611 | While it had a protracted development and initial operational difficulties, the F-22 has become a critical component of the USAF’s tactical airpower. The fighter's combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and mission systems enable unprecedented air combat capabilities and set the benchmark for its generation. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,612 | In 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. Code-named ""Senior Sky"", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by emerging worldwide threats, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems and the p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,613 | Dem/Val was focused on system engineering, technology development plans, and risk reduction over point aircraft designs; in fact, after the down-select, the Lockheed team completely changed the airframe configuration in the summer of 1987 due to weight analysis during detailed design, with notable changes including the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,614 | Each team produced two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each of the two engine options. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and in-flight tests achieved up to Mach 1.58 in supercruise. After the Dem/Val flight test of the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,615 | As the program moved to full-scale development, or Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD), the production F-22 design had notable differences from the YF-22, despite having a similar configuration. The wing’s leading edge sweep angle was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rear... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,616 | Aside from advances in air vehicle and propulsion technology, the F-22’s avionics and software were unprecedented in terms of complexity and scale, with the fusion of multiple sensors systems and software integration of 1.7 million lines of code. To enable early looks and troubleshooting for mission software developmen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,617 | The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 reduced the Department of Defense's (DoD) urgency for new weapon systems like the F-22 and the following years would see reductions in DoD spending; this resulted in the F-22's EMD being rescheduled and lengthened multiple times over the course of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,618 | The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in FY 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994 and service entry in the late 1990s. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,619 | The first two F-22s built were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing and envelope expansion, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,620 | The numerous new technologies in the F-22 resulted in substantial cost overruns and delays. Many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost. Due to the aircraft's sophisticated capabilities, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technolo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,621 | The F-22 cannot be exported under US federal law to protect its stealth technology and classified features. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,622 | Some Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F-22s instead of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. However, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) determined that the F-22 was unable to perfor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,623 | The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. However, in 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,624 | Throughout the 2000s when the U.S. was primarily involved in asymmetric warfare in Iraq and Afghanistan, the USAF's procurement goal of 381 F-22s was questioned over rising costs, initial reliability and availability problems, limited multirole versatility, and a lack of relevant adversaries for air combat missions. In... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,625 | The loss of staunch F-22 advocates in the upper DoD echelons resulted in the erosion of its political support. In July 2008, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the SASC his reasons for supporting the termination of F-22 production, including shifting resources to the multi-s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,626 | Although production ended, F-22 tooling was retained for the possibility of a production restart or a Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). A RAND Corporation paper from a 2010 USAF study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost $17 billion, resulting in $227 million per airc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,627 | In April 2016, the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee, citing advances in air warfare systems of Russia and China, directed the USAF to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22. On 9 June 2017, the USAF submitted their report to Con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,628 | The F-22 and its subsystems were designed to be upgraded over its life cycle. The modernization and upgrades consist of software and hardware modifications, or Tactical Mandates, captured under numbered Increments, originally called Spirals, as well as software-only Operational Flight Program (OFP) Updates. Amid debate... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,629 | In contrast to prior upgrades, Increment 3.2 for Block 30/35 aircraft emphasized air combat capabilities and was a two-part process. 3.2A focused on electronic warfare, communications and identification, while 3.2B included geolocation improvements and full integration of the AIM-9X and AIM-120D; fleet releases began i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,630 | Additional modernization and enhancements are under development, with funding currently extending to 2031; upgrades currently being tested include new sensors and antennas, long range advanced infrared search and track (AIRST), and more durable stealth coatings. Other enhancements being developed include all-aspect IRS... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,631 | Aside from capability upgrades, the F-22 fleet underwent a $350 million "structures retrofit program" to address improper titanium heat treatment in the parts of certain airframe batches. By January 2021, all aircraft had gone through the Structural Repair Program to add another 8,000 flight hours to their usable lifet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,632 | The F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation air superiority fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF. It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform. The F-22 has clipped diamond-like del... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,633 | The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees; the nozzles are fully integrated into the F-22’s flight controls and vehicle management system. Each engine has maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,634 | The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. The ability to supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using afterburners, allows it to inter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,635 | The F-22's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope. The airplane has excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,636 | The aircraft has an integrated avionics system where through sensor fusion, data from all onboard sensor systems as well as off-board inputs are filtered and processed into a combined tactical picture, thus enhancing the pilot's situational awareness and reducing workload. Key mission systems include Sanders/General El... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,637 | The APG-77 radar has a low-observable, active-aperture, electronically scanned antenna with multiple target track-while-scan in all weather conditions; radar emissions can also be focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic-attack capability. The radar changes frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to lowe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,638 | The F-22's ability to operate close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint, and the ability to function as a "mini-AWACS", though its radar is less powerful than those of dedicated platforms. This allows the F-22 to rapidly designate ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,639 | The F-22's baseline software has some 1.7 million lines of code, the majority involving the mission systems such as processing radar data. The integrated nature of the avionics, as well as the use of Ada, has made the development and testing of upgrades challenging. To enable more rapid upgrades, the avionics suite add... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,640 | The F-22 has a glass cockpit with all-digital flight instruments. The monochrome head-up display offers a wide field of view and serves as a primary flight instrument; information is also displayed upon six color liquid-crystal display (LCD) panels. The primary flight controls are a force-sensitive side-stick controlle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,641 | The F-22 has integrated radio functionality, the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than as a separate hardware module. The integrated control panel (ICP) is a keypad system for entering communications, navigation, and autopilot data. Two up-front displays located around the ICP are used to display integr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,642 | The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II commonly used in USAF aircraft, with a center-mounted ejection control. The F-22 has a complex life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation system (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, and a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG) valve controlling flow and pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,643 | The F-22 has three internal weapons bays: a large main bay on the bottom of the fuselage, and two smaller bays on the sides of the fuselage, aft of the engine inlets; a small bay for countermeasures such as flares is located behind each side bay. The main bay is split along the centerline and can accommodate six LAU-14... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,644 | Although designed for air-to-air missiles, the main bay can replace four launchers with two bomb racks that can each carry one 1,000 lb (450 kg) or four 250 lb (110 kg) bombs for a total of of air-to-surface ordnance. While capable of carrying weapons with GPS guidance such as JDAMs and SDBs, the F-22 cannot self-desig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,645 | While the F-22 typically carries weapons internally, the wings include four hardpoints, each rated to handle . Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600-gallon (2,270 L) external fuel tank or a launcher holding two air-to-air missiles; the two inboard hardpoints are "plumbed" for external f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,646 | The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar. Measures to reduce RCS include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges, internal carriage of weapons, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine faces and turbines from any exterior view, use o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,647 | Compared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. The F-22 has a "Signature... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,648 | The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar obse... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,649 | Beginning in 2021, the F-22 has been seen testing a new chrome-like surface coating. This highly polished surface appears to change color based on the viewer's orientation to the aircraft. It is speculated that the new coating will help to reduce the F-22's detectability by IRST and other infrared tracking systems and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,650 | The YF-22 was originally given the unofficial name "Lightning II", from the World War II Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter which persisted until the mid-1990s, when the USAF officially named the F-22 "Raptor". The "Lightning II" name was later given to the F-35. The aircraft was also briefly dubbed "SuperStar" and "Rapie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,651 | Flight testing of the F-22 began in 1997 with Raptor 4001, the first EMD jet, and eight more EMD F-22s would participate in the flight test program as the Combined Test Force (CTF) at Edwards AFB. The first two aircraft tested flying qualities, air vehicle performance, propulsion, and stores separation. The third aircr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,652 | The first production F-22 was delivered to Nellis AFB, Nevada, in January 2003 for Initial Operational Test & Evaluation (IOT&E). Delivery of operational aircraft for pilot training at Tyndall AFB, Florida began in September 2003, and the first combat ready F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing arrived at Langley AFB, Virginia ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,653 | In August 2008, an unmodified F-22 of the 411th Flight Test Squadron performed the first ever air-to-air refueling of an aircraft using synthetic jet fuel as part of a wider USAF effort to qualify aircraft to use the fuel, a 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a Fischer–Tropsch process-produced, natural gas-based fuel. In 2011, an F... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,654 | In December 2005, the USAF announced that the F-22 had achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC). During Exercise Northern Edge in Alaska in June 2006, in simulated combat exercises 12 F-22s of the 94th FS downed 108 adversaries with no losses. In the exercises, the F-22-led Blue Force amassed 241 kills against two... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,655 | The F-22 achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) in December 2007, when General John Corley of Air Combat Command (ACC) officially declared the F-22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully operational. This was followed by an Operational Readiness Inspe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,656 | The 43rd Fighter Squadron was reactivated in 2002 as the F-22 training unit for the type's basic course at Tyndall AFB. Following severe damage to the installation in the wake of Hurricane Michael in 2018, the squadron was relocated to nearby Eglin AFB. To reduce operating costs and lengthen the F-22's service life, so... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,657 | Each airplane requires a three-week packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 flight hours. The stealth coatings of the F-22 were designed to be more robust and weather-resistant than those used in earlier stealth aircraft. However, early coatings still experienced issues with rain and moisture when F-22s were initiall... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,658 | F-22s were available for missions 63% of the time on average in 2015, up from 40% when the aircraft was introduced in 2005. Maintenance hours per flight hour was also improved from 30 early on to 10.5 by 2009, lower than the requirement of 12; man-hours per flight hour was 43 in 2014. When introduced, the F-22 had a Me... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,659 | F-22 fighter units have been frequently deployed to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan. In February 2007, on the aircraft's first overseas deployment to Kadena Air Base, six F-22s of 27th Fighter Squadron flying from Hickam AFB, Hawaii, experienced multiple software-related system failures while crossing the Internation... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,660 | In November 2007, F-22s of 90th Fighter Squadron at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, performed their first NORAD interception of two Russian Tu-95MS bombers. Since then, F-22s have also escorted probing Tu-160 bombers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,661 | Defense Secretary Gates initially refused to deploy F-22s to the Middle East in 2007; the type made its first deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE in 2009. In April 2012, F-22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra, less than 200 miles from Iran; the Iranian defense minister referred to the deployment ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,662 | On 22 September 2014, F-22s performed the type's first combat sorties by conducting some of the opening strikes of Operation Inherent Resolve, the American-led intervention in Syria; aircraft dropped 1,000-pound GPS-guided bombs on Islamic State targets near Tishrin Dam. Between September 2014 and July 2015, F-22s flew... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,663 | In late 2014, the USAF tested a rapid deployment concept involving four F-22s and one C-17 for support, first proposed in 2008 by two F-22 pilots. The goal was for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat within 24 hours. Four F-22s were deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany in August, and Lask Air Base... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,664 | In November 2017, F-22s operating alongside B-52s bombed opium production and storage facilities in Taliban-controlled regions of Afghanistan. In 2019, the F-22 cost US$35,000 per flight hour to operate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,665 | During the initial years of service, F-22 pilots experienced symptoms as a result of oxygen system issues that include loss of consciousness, memory loss, emotional lability and neurological changes as well as lingering respiratory problems and a chronic cough; the issues resulted in a four-month grounding in 2011. In ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,666 | The FB-22 was a proposed medium-range supersonic stealth bomber for the USAF. The design was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of the F-22A. However, the FB-22 proposal appears to have been cancelled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,667 | The X-44 MANTA, or "multi-axis, no-tail aircraft", was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic surface backup. The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this progra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,668 | In August 2018, Lockheed Martin proposed an F-22 derivative to the USAF and JASDF that would combine an improved F-22 airframe with the avionics and improved stealth coatings of the F-35. The proposal was not considered by the USAF, while JASDF doubted its merits due to cost and existing export restrictions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,669 | The United States Air Force is the only operator of the F-22. As of August 2022, it has 183 aircraft in its inventory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,670 | The first F-22 crash occurred during takeoff at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot ejected safely before impact. The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a flight-control system malfunction; consequently the aircraft design was correc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,671 | On 25 March 2009, an EMD F-22 crashed northeast of Edwards AFB during a test flight, resulting in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P. Cooley. An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high-G maneuver, or g-LOC, then ejected when he found himself t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,672 | On 16 November 2010, an F-22 from Elmendorf AFB crashed, killing the pilot, Captain Jeffrey Haney. F-22s were restricted to flying below 25,000 feet, then grounded during the investigation. The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected, shutting down the Envi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,673 | During a training mission, an F-22 crashed to the east of Tyndall AFB, on 15 November 2012. The pilot ejected safely and no injuries were reported on the ground. The investigation determined that a "chafed" electrical wire ignited the fluid in a hydraulic line, causing a fire that damaged the flight controls. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,674 | On 15 May 2020, an F-22 from Eglin Air Force Base crashed during a routine training mission shortly after takeoff; the pilot ejected safely. The cause of the crash was attributed to a maintenance error after an aircraft wash resulting in faulty air data sensor readings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 |
2,675 | J. Robert Oppenheimer (; April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist. A professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, Oppenheimer was the wartime head of the Los Alamos Laboratory and is often credited as the "father of the atomic bomb" for his role in the Manhattan Proje... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,676 | After the war ended, Oppenheimer became chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created United States Atomic Energy Commission. He used that position to lobby for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. He opposed t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,677 | Oppenheimer's achievements in physics included the Born–Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wave functions, work on the theory of electrons and positrons, the Oppenheimer–Phillips process in nuclear fusion, and the first prediction of quantum tunneling. With his students he also made important contributions to the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,678 | On December 16, 2022, United States Secretary of Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm cleared Oppenheimer of allegations that led to the 1954 revocation of his security clearance, citing as the reason a "flawed investigation" of his background by the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the early 1950s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,679 | J. Robert Oppenheimer was born in New York City on April 22, 1904, to Ella (née Friedman), a painter, and Julius Seligmann Oppenheimer, a wealthy textile importer. Julius was born in Hanau, Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, Germany and came to the United States as a teenager in 1888 with few resources, no money, no baccalaureate ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,680 | Oppenheimer was initially educated at Alcuin Preparatory School; in 1911, he entered the Ethical Culture Society School. This had been founded by Felix Adler to promote a form of ethical training based on the Ethical Culture movement, whose motto was "Deed before Creed". His father had been a member of the Society for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,681 | Oppenheimer majored in chemistry, but Harvard required science students to also study history, literature, and philosophy or mathematics. He compensated for his late start by taking six courses each term and was admitted to the undergraduate honor society Phi Beta Kappa. In his first year, he was admitted to graduate s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,682 | In 1924, Oppenheimer was informed that he had been accepted into Christ's College, Cambridge. He wrote to Ernest Rutherford requesting permission to work at the Cavendish Laboratory. Bridgman provided Oppenheimer with a recommendation, which conceded that Oppenheimer's clumsiness in the laboratory made it apparent his ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,683 | Oppenheimer was a tall, thin chain smoker, who often neglected to eat during periods of intense thought and concentration. Many of his friends described him as having self-destructive tendencies. A disturbing event occurred when he took a vacation from his studies in Cambridge to meet up with Fergusson in Paris. Fergus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,684 | In 1926, Oppenheimer left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen to study under Max Born. Göttingen was one of the world's leading centers for theoretical physics. Oppenheimer made friends who went on to great success, including Werner Heisenberg, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, Enrico Fermi and Edward T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,685 | He obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree in March 1927 at age 23, supervised by Born. After the oral exam, James Franck, the professor administering, reportedly said, "I'm glad that's over. He was on the point of questioning "me"." Oppenheimer published more than a dozen papers at Göttingen, including many important... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,686 | Oppenheimer was awarded a United States National Research Council fellowship to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in September 1927. Bridgman also wanted him at Harvard, so a compromise was reached whereby he split his fellowship for the 1927–28 academic year between Harvard in 1927 and Caltech in 1928. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,687 | In the autumn of 1928, Oppenheimer visited Paul Ehrenfest's institute at the University of Leiden, the Netherlands, where he impressed by giving lectures in Dutch, despite having little experience with the language. There he was given the nickname of "Opje", later anglicized by his students as "Oppie". From Leiden he c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,688 | On returning to the United States, Oppenheimer accepted an associate professorship from the University of California, Berkeley, where Raymond T. Birge wanted him so badly that he expressed a willingness to share him with Caltech. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,689 | Before he began his Berkeley professorship, Oppenheimer was diagnosed with a mild case of tuberculosis and spent some weeks with his brother Frank at a New Mexico ranch, which he leased and eventually purchased. When he heard the ranch was available for lease, he exclaimed, "Hot dog!", and later called it "Perro Calien... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,690 | He worked closely with Nobel Prize-winning experimental physicist Ernest O. Lawrence and his cyclotron pioneers, helping them understand the data their machines were producing at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In 1936, Berkeley promoted him to full professor at a salary of $3,300 a year (). In return he was... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,691 | Oppenheimer did important research in theoretical astronomy (especially as related to general relativity and nuclear theory), nuclear physics, spectroscopy, and quantum field theory, including its extension into quantum electrodynamics. The formal mathematics of relativistic quantum mechanics also attracted his attenti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,692 | Initially, his major interest was the theory of the continuous spectrum and his first published paper, in 1926, concerned the quantum theory of molecular band spectra. He developed a method to carry out calculations of its transition probabilities. He calculated the photoelectric effect for hydrogen and X-rays, obtaini... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,693 | Oppenheimer also made important contributions to the theory of cosmic ray showers and started work that eventually led to descriptions of quantum tunneling. In 1931, he co-wrote a paper on the "Relativistic Theory of the Photoelectric Effect" with his student Harvey Hall, in which, based on empirical evidence, he corre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,694 | With his first doctoral student, Melba Phillips, Oppenheimer worked on calculations of artificial radioactivity under bombardment by deuterons. When Ernest Lawrence and Edwin McMillan bombarded nuclei with deuterons they found the results agreed closely with the predictions of George Gamow, but when higher energies and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,695 | As early as 1930, Oppenheimer wrote a paper that essentially predicted the existence of the positron. This was after a paper by Paul Dirac proposed that electrons could have both a positive charge and negative energy. Dirac's paper introduced an equation, known as the Dirac equation, which unified quantum mechanics, sp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,696 | In the late 1930s, Oppenheimer became interested in astrophysics, most likely through his friendship with Richard Tolman, resulting in a series of papers. In the first of these, a 1938 paper co-written with Robert Serber entitled "On the Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores", Oppenheimer explored the properties of white ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,697 | Oppenheimer's papers were considered difficult to understand even by the standards of the abstract topics he was expert in. He was fond of using elegant, if extremely complex, mathematical techniques to demonstrate physical principles, though he was sometimes criticized for making mathematical mistakes, presumably out ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,698 | After World War II, Oppenheimer published only five scientific papers, one of which was in biophysics, and none after 1950. Murray Gell-Mann, a later Nobelist who, as a visiting scientist, worked with him at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1951, offered this opinion: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
2,699 | Oppenheimer's diverse interests sometimes interrupted his focus on science. He liked things that were difficult and since much of the scientific work appeared easy for him, he developed an interest in the mystical and the cryptic. In 1933, he learned Sanskrit and met the Indologist Arthur W. Ryder at Berkeley. He event... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39034 |
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