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5,700 | The cause of the disaster was the failure of the two redundant O-ring seals in a joint in the shuttle's right solid rocket booster (SRB). The record-low temperatures of the launch had stiffened the rubber O-rings, reducing their ability to seal the joints. Shortly after liftoff, the seals were breached, and hot pressur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,701 | The crew compartment and many other fragments from the shuttle were recovered from the ocean floor after a three-month search-and-recovery operation. The exact timing of the deaths of the crew is unknown, but several crew members are thought to have survived the initial breakup of the spacecraft. The orbiter had no esc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,702 | The disaster resulted in a 32-month hiatus in the Space Shuttle program. President Ronald Reagan created the Rogers Commission to investigate the accident. The commission criticized NASA's organizational culture and decision-making processes that had contributed to the accident. Test data since 1977 had revealed a pote... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,703 | As a result of the disaster, NASA established the Office of Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance, and arranged for deployment of commercial satellites from expendable launch vehicles rather than from a crewed orbiter. To replace "Challenger", construction of a new Space Shuttle orbiter, was approved in 1987, and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,704 | The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable spacecraft operated by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It flew for the first time in April 1981, and was used to conduct in-orbit research, and deploy commercial, military, and scientific payloads. At launch, it consisted of the orbiter, which cont... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,705 | When it launched, the orbiter was connected to the ET, which held the fuel for the SSMEs. The ET consisted of a larger tank for liquid hydrogen (LH2) and a smaller tank for liquid oxygen (LOX), both of which were required for the SSMEs to operate. After its fuel had been expended, the ET separated from the orbiter and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,706 | Two solid rocket boosters (SRBs), built by Morton Thiokol at the time of the disaster, provided the majority of thrust at liftoff. They were connected to the external tank, and burned for the first two minutes of flight. The SRBs separated from the orbiter once they had expended their fuel and fell into the Atlantic Oc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,707 | Evaluations of the proposed SRB design in the early 1970s and field joint testing showed that the wide tolerances between the mated parts allowed the O-rings to be extruded from their seats rather than compressed. This extrusion was judged to be acceptable by NASA and Morton Thiokol despite concerns of NASA's engineers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,708 | The first occurrence of in-flight O-ring erosion occurred on the right SRB on in November1981. In August1984, a post-flight inspection of the left SRB on revealed that soot had blown past the primary O-ring and was found in between the O-rings. Although there was no damage to the secondary O-ring, this indicated that t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,709 | To correct the issues with O-ring erosion, engineers at Morton Thiokol, led by Allan McDonald and Roger Boisjoly, proposed a redesigned field joint that introduced a metal lip to limit movement in the joint. They also recommended adding a spacer to provide additional thermal protection and using an O-ring with a larger... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,710 | The Space Shuttle mission, named , was the twenty-fifth Space Shuttle flight and the tenth flight of. The crew was announced on January27,1985, and was commanded by Dick Scobee. Michael Smith was assigned as the pilot, and the mission specialists were Ellison Onizuka, Judith Resnik, and Ronald McNair. The two payload s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,711 | The primary mission of the "Challenger" crew was to use an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) to deploy a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), named TDRS-B, that would have been part of a constellation to enable constant communication with orbiting spacecraft. The crew also planned to study Halley's Comet as it passed nea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,712 | The mission was originally scheduled for July1985, but was delayed to November and then to January1986. The mission was scheduled to launch on January22, but was delayed until January 28. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,713 | The air temperature on January 28 was predicted to be a record-low for a Space Shuttle launch. The air temperature was forecast to drop to overnight before rising to at 6:00 a.m. and at the scheduled launch time of 9:38 am. Based upon O-ring erosion that had occurred in warmer launches, Morton Thiokol engineers were co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,714 | The teleconference held a recess to allow for private discussion amongst Morton Thiokol management. When it resumed, Morton Thiokol leadership had changed their opinion and stated that the evidence presented on the failure of the O-rings was inconclusive and that there was a substantial margin in the event of a failure... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,715 | An overnight measurement taken by the KSC Ice Team recorded the left SRB was and the right SRB was . These measurements were recorded for engineering data and not reported, because the temperature of the SRBs was not part of the Launch Commit Criteria. In addition to its effect on the O-rings, the cold temperatures cau... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,716 | At T+0, "Challenger" launched from the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B (LC-39B) at 11:38:00a.m. Beginning at T+0.678 until T+3.375 seconds, nine puffs of dark gray smoke were recorded escaping from the right-hand SRB near the aft strut that attached the booster to the ET. It was later determined that these smok... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,717 | At , a tracking film camera captured the beginnings of a plume near the aft attach strut on the right SRB, right before the vehicle passed through max q at . The high aerodynamic forces and wind shear likely broke the aluminum oxide seal that had replaced eroded O-rings, allowing the flame to burn through the joint. Wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,718 | At , the right SRB pulled away from the aft strut that attached it to the ET, causing lateral acceleration that was felt by the crew. At the same time, pressure in the LH2 tank began dropping, accompanied by a large fireball on the side of the ET. Pilot Mike Smith said "Uh-oh," which was the last speech recorded of the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,719 | At , there was a burst of static on the air-to-ground loop as the vehicle broke up, which was later attributed to ground-based radios searching for a signal from the destroyed spacecraft. NASA Public Affairs Officer Steve Nesbitt was initially unaware of the explosion and continued to read out flight information. At , ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,720 | Nesbitt stated, "Flight controllers here are looking very carefully at the situation. Obviously a major malfunction. We have no downlink." Soon afterwards, he said, "We have a report from the Flight Dynamics Officer that the vehicle has exploded. The flight director confirms that. We are looking at checking with the re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,721 | In Mission Control, flight director Jay Greene ordered that contingency procedures be put into effect, which included locking the doors, shutting down telephone communications, and freezing computer terminals to collect data from them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,722 | The crew cabin, which was made of reinforced aluminum, separated in one piece from the rest of the orbiter. It then traveled in a ballistic arc, reaching the apogee of approximately 25 seconds after the explosion. At the time of separation, the maximum acceleration is estimated to have been between 12 and 20 times that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,723 | At least some of the crew were alive and at least briefly conscious after the breakup, as the Personal Egress Air Packs (PEAPs) were activated for Smith and two unidentified crewmembers, but not for Scobee. The PEAPs were not intended for in-flight use, and the astronauts never trained with them for an in-flight emerge... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,724 | While analyzing the wreckage, investigators discovered that several electrical system switches on Smith's right-hand panel had been moved from their usual launch positions. The switches had lever locks on top of them that must be pulled out before the switch could be moved. Later tests established that neither the forc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,725 | On July 28, 1986, NASA's Associate Administrator for Space Flight, former astronaut Richard H. Truly, released a report on the deaths of the crew from physician and Skylab 2 astronaut Joseph P. Kerwin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,726 | Pressurization could have enabled consciousness for the entire fall until impact. The crew cabin hit the ocean surface at approximately two minutes and 45 seconds after breakup. The estimated deceleration was , far exceeding structural limits of the crew compartment or crew survivability levels. The mid-deck floor had ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,727 | Unlike other spacecraft, crew escape was not possible during powered flight of a Space Shuttle. Launch escape systems had been considered during development, but NASA's conclusion was that the Space Shuttle's expected high reliability would preclude the need for one. Modified SR-71 Blackbird ejection seats and full pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,728 | Immediately after the disaster, the NASA Launch Recovery Director launched the two SRB recovery ships, MV "Freedom Star" and MV "Liberty Star", to proceed to the impact area to recover debris, and requested the support of US military aircraft and ships. Owing to falling debris from the explosion, the RSO kept recovery ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,729 | On January31, the US Navy was tasked with submarine recovery operations. The search efforts prioritized the recovery of the right SRB, followed by the crew compartment, and then the remaining payload, orbiter pieces, and ET. The search for debris formally began on February8 with the rescue and salvage ship , and eventu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,730 | The debris from the SRBs was widely distributed due to the detonation of their linear shaped charges. The identification of SRB material was primarily conducted by crewed submarines and submersibles. The vehicles were dispatched to investigate potential debris located during the search phase. Surface ships lifted the S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,731 | On March 7, Air Force divers identified potential crew compartment debris, which was confirmed the next day by divers from the USS "Preserver". The damage to the crew compartment indicated that it had remained largely intact during the initial explosion but was extensively damaged when it impacted the ocean. The remain... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,732 | The IUS that would have been used to boost the orbit of the TDRS-B satellite was one of the first pieces of debris recovered. There was no indication that there had been premature ignition of the IUS, which had been one of the suspected causes for the disaster. Debris from the three SSMEs was recovered from February14 ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,733 | On April 29, 1986, the astronauts' remains were transferred on a C-141 Starlifter aircraft from Kennedy Space Center to the military mortuary at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware. Their caskets were each draped with an American flag and carried past an honor guard and followed by an astronaut escort. After the remains a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,734 | President Ronald Reagan had been scheduled to give the 1986 State of the Union Address on January28,1986, the evening of the "Challenger" disaster. After a discussion with his aides, Reagan postponed the State of the Union, and instead addressed the nation about the disaster from the Oval Office. On January31, Ronald a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,735 | Soon after the disaster, US politicians expressed concern that White House officials, including Chief of Staff Donald Regan and Communications Director Pat Buchanan, had pressured NASA to launch "Challenger" before the scheduled January 28 State of the Union address, because Reagan had planned to mention the launch in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,736 | Nationally televised coverage of the launch and explosion was provided by CNN. To promote the Teacher in Space program with McAuliffe as a crewmember, NASA had arranged for many students in the US to view the launch live at school with their teachers. Press interest in the disaster increased in the following days; the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,737 | The "Challenger" accident has been used as a case study for subjects such as engineering safety, the ethics of whistleblowing, communications and group decision-making, and the dangers of groupthink. Roger Boisjoly and Allan McDonald became speakers who advocated for responsible workplace decision making and engineerin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,738 | The Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle "Challenger" Accident, also known as the Rogers Commission after its chairman, was formed on February6. Its members were Chairman William P. Rogers, Vice Chairman Neil Armstrong, David Acheson, Eugene Covert, Richard Feynman, Robert Hotz, Donald Kutyna, Sally Ride, Rober... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,739 | The commission held hearings that discussed the NASA accident investigation, the Space Shuttle program, and the Morton Thiokol recommendation to launch despite O-ring safety issues. On February15, Rogers released a statement that established the commission's changing role to investigate the accident independent of NASA... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,740 | The commission determined that the cause of the accident was hot gas blowing past the O-rings in the field joint on the right SRB, and found no other potential causes for the disaster. It attributed the accident to a faulty design of the field joint that was unacceptably sensitive to changes in temperature, dynamic loa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,741 | The commission published a series of recommendations to improve the safety of the Space Shuttle program. It proposed a redesign of the joints in the SRB that would prevent gas from blowing past the O-rings. It also recommended that the program's management be restructured to keep project managers from being pressured t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,742 | During a televised hearing on February11, Feynman demonstrated the loss of rubber's elasticity in cold temperatures using a glass of cold water and a piece of rubber, for which he received media attention. Feynman, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, advocated for harsher criticism towards NASA in the report and repeatedl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,743 | The US House Committee on Science and Technology conducted an investigation of the "Challenger" disaster and released a report on October29, 1986. The committee, which had authorized the funding for the Space Shuttle program, reviewed the findings of the Rogers Commission as part of its investigation. The committee agr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,744 | In response to the commission's recommendation, NASA initiated a redesign of the SRB, later named the redesigned solid rocket motor (RSRM), which was supervised by an independent oversight group. The redesigned joint included a capture feature on the tang around the interior wall of the clevis to prevent joint rotation... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,745 | In addition to the SRBs, NASA increased the safety standards on other Space Shuttle program components. The critical items lists and failure modes for the SSMEs were updated, along with 18 hardware changes. The maximum thrust of the SSMEs was limited to 104%, with 109% only allowed in an abort scenario. The landing gea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,746 | NASA also created a new Office of Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance, headed as the commission had specified by a NASA associate administrator who reported directly to the NASA administrator. Former "Challenger" flight director Greene became chief of the Safety Division of the directorate. After the Space Shutt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,747 | The Teacher in Space program, which McAuliffe had been selected for, was canceled in 1990 as a result of the "Challenger" disaster. In 1998, NASA replaced Teacher in Space with the Educator Astronaut Project, which differed in that it required the teachers to become professional astronauts trained as mission specialist... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,748 | The projected launch schedule of 24 per year was criticized by the Rogers Commission as an unrealistic goal that created unnecessary pressure on NASA to launch missions. In August 1986, President Reagan approved the construction of an orbiter, which would later be named , to replace "Challenger". Construction of "Endea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,749 | The Space Shuttle fleet was grounded for two years and eight months while the program underwent investigation, redesign, and restructuring. On September 29, 1988, "Discovery" launched on STS-26 mission from LC-39B with a crew of five veteran astronauts. Its payload was TDRS-3, which was a substitute for the satellite l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,750 | In 2004, President George W. Bush conferred posthumous Congressional Space Medals of Honor to all 14 crew members killed in the "Challenger" and "Columbia" accidents. An unpainted decorative oval in the Brumidi Corridors of the United States Capitol was finished with a portrait depicting the crew by Charles Schmidt in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,751 | Seven asteroids were named after the crew members: , , , , , , and . The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on March 26, 1986 (). In 1988, seven craters on the far side of the Moon, within the Apollo Basin, were named after the astronauts by the IAU. The Soviet Union named two craters on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,752 | Several memorials have been established in honor of the "Challenger" disaster. The public Peers Park in Palo Alto, California, features the "Challenger" Memorial Grove including redwood trees grown from seeds carried aboard "Challenger" in 1985. Schools and streets have been renamed to include the names of the crew or ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,753 | The crew's families established the Challenger Center for Space Science Education as educational non-profit organization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,754 | An American flag, later named the "Challenger" flag, was carried aboard the "Challenger". It was sponsored by Boy Scout Troop 514 of Monument, Colorado, and was recovered intact, still sealed in its plastic container. Onizuka had included a soccer ball with his personal effects that was recovered and later flown to the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,755 | The 1986 motion picture "" was dedicated to the crew of the "Challenger" with an opening message which stated "The cast and crew of "Star Trek" wish to dedicate this film to the men and women of the spaceship "Challenger" whose courageous spirit shall live to the 23rd century and beyond..." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,756 | In the years immediately after the "Challenger" disaster, several books were published describing the factors and causes of the accidents and the subsequent investigation and changes. In 1987, Malcolm McConnell, a journalist and a witness of the disaster, published "Challenger–A Major Malfunction: A True Story of Polit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,757 | Books were published long after the disaster. In 1996, Diane Vaughan published "The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky Technology, Culture, and Deviance at NASA", which argues that NASA's structure and mission, rather than just Space Shuttle program management, created a climate of risk acceptance that resulted in the d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,758 | The ABC television movie titled "Challenger" was broadcast on February 25, 1990. It stars Barry Bostwick as Scobee and Karen Allen as McAuliffe. The movie is critical of NASA and positively portrays the engineers who argued against launching. The movie was criticized by the widows of Smith, McNair, and Onizuka as an in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,759 | The four-part docuseries "", created by Steven Leckart and Glen Zipper, was released by Netflix on September 16, 2020. It uses interviews with NASA and Morton Thiokol personnel to argue against their flawed decision-making which produced a preventable disaster. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,760 | The first episode of the Australian television drama "The Newsreader", broadcast on August 15, 2021, depicts the disaster from the perspective of the television industry, specifically the journalists and crew within, and of, an Australian television newsroom at the time; a co-lead character's hosting of a newsflash wea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717 |
5,761 | Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particular... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,762 | Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. They demonstrate the Socratic approach to areas of philosophy including rationalism and ethics. The Platonic Socrates lends his name to the concept of the Socratic method, and also to Socratic irony. The Socratic method o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,763 | Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and has continued to do so in the modern era. Socrates was studied by medieval and Islamic scholars and played an important role in the thought of the Italian Renaissance, particularly within the humanist movement. Interest in Socrates continued una... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,764 | Socrates did not document his teachings. All that is known about him comes from the accounts of others: mainly the philosopher Plato and the historian Xenophon, who were both his pupils; the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes (Socrates's contemporary); and Plato's pupil Aristotle, who was born after Socrates's death... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,765 | An honest man, Xenophon was no trained philosopher. He could neither fully conceptualize nor articulate Socrates's arguments. He admired Socrates for his intelligence, patriotism, and courage on the battlefield. He discusses Socrates in four works: the "Memorabilia", the "Oeconomicus", the "Symposium", and the "Apology... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,766 | Plato's representation of Socrates is not straightforward. Plato was a pupil of Socrates and outlived him by five decades. How trustworthy Plato is in representing the attributes of Socrates is a matter of debate; the view that he did not represent views other than Socrates's own is not shared by many contemporary scho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,767 | Xenophon's and Plato's accounts differ in their presentations of Socrates as a person. Xenophon's Socrates is duller, less humorous and less ironic than Plato's. Xenophon's Socrates also lacks the philosophical features of Plato's Socrates—ignorance, the Socratic method or "elenchus"—and thinks "enkrateia" (self-contro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,768 | Writers of Athenian comedy, including Aristophanes, also commented on Socrates. Aristophanes's most important comedy with respect to Socrates is "The Clouds", in which Socrates is a central character. In this drama, Aristophanes presents a caricature of Socrates that leans towards sophism, ridiculing Socrates as an abs... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,769 | Other ancient authors who wrote about Socrates were Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo and Aristotle, all of whom wrote after Socrates's death. Aristotle was not a contemporary of Socrates; he studied under Plato at the latter's Academy for twenty years. Arist... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,770 | In a seminal work titled "The Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher" (1818), the philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher attacked Xenophon's accounts; his attack was widely accepted and gave rise to the Socratic problem. Schleiermacher criticized Xenophon for his naïve representation of Socrates. Xenophon was a soldier, argu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,771 | The philosopher Karl Joel, basing his arguments on Aristotle's interpretation of "logos sokratikos", suggested that the Socratic dialogues are mostly fictional: according to Joel, the dialogues' authors were just mimicking some Socratic traits of dialogue. In the mid-20th century, philosophers such as Olof Gigon and Eu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,772 | Socrates was born in 470 or 469 BC to Sophroniscus and Phaenarete, a stoneworker and a midwife, respectively, in the Athenian deme of Alopece; therefore, he was an Athenian citizen, having been born to relatively affluent Athenians. He lived close to his father's relatives and inherited, as was customary, part of his f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,773 | Another incident that reflects Socrates's respect for the law is the arrest of Leon the Salaminian. As Plato describes in his "Apology", Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos and told by representatives of the Thirty Tyrants (which began ruling in 404 BC) to arrest Leon for execution. Again Socrates was ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,774 | Socrates attracted great interest from the Athenian public and especially the Athenian youth. He was notoriously ugly, having a flat turned-up nose, bulging eyes and a large belly; his friends joked about his appearance. Socrates was indifferent to material pleasures, including his own appearance and personal comfort. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,775 | Socrates died in Athens in 399 BC after a trial for impiety and the corruption of the young that lasted for only a day. He spent his last day in prison among friends and followers who offered him a route to escape, which he refused. He died the next morning, in accordance with his sentence, after drinking poison hemloc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,776 | In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and for impiety. Socrates defended himself unsuccessfully. He was found guilty by a majority vote cast by a jury of hundreds of male Athenian citizens and, according to the custom, proposed his own penalty: that "he" should be given free... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,777 | Socrates was charged in a politically tense climate. In 404 BC, the Athenians had been crushed by Spartans at the decisive naval Battle of Aegospotami, and subsequently, the Spartans laid siege to Athens. They replaced the democratic government with a new, pro-oligarchic government, named the Thirty Tyrants. Because of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,778 | The accusations against Socrates were initiated by a poet, Meletus, who asked for the death penalty in accordance with the charge of "asebeia". Other accusers were Anytus and Lycon. After a month or two, in late spring or early summer, the trial started and likely went on for most of one day. There were two main source... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,779 | Plato's "Apology" starts with Socrates answering the various rumours against him that have given rise to the indictment. First, Socrates defends himself against the rumour that he is an atheist naturalist philosopher, as portrayed in Aristophanes's "The Clouds"; or a sophist. Against the allegations of corrupting the y... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,780 | Socrates was given the chance to offer alternative punishments for himself after being found guilty. He could have requested permission to flee Athens and live in exile, but he did not do so. Instead, according to Plato, he requested that a fine should be imposed on him and also suggested that free meals should be prov... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,781 | The question of what motivated Athenians to convict Socrates remains controversial among scholars. There are two theories. The first is that Socrates was convicted on religious grounds; the second, that he was accused and convicted for political reasons. Another, more recent, interpretation synthesizes the religious an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,782 | The argument for religious persecution is supported by the fact that Plato's and Xenophon's accounts of the trial mostly focus on the charges of impiety. In those accounts, Socrates is portrayed as making no effort to dispute the fact that he did not believe in the Athenian gods. Against this argument stands the fact t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,783 | A fundamental characteristic of Plato's Socrates is the Socratic method, or the method of refutation ("elenchus"). It is most prominent in the early works of Plato, such as "Apology", "Crito", "Gorgias", "Republic I", and others. The typical "elenchus" proceeds as follows. Socrates initiates a discussion about a topic ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,784 | Socrates also tests his own opinions through the Socratic method. Thus Socrates does not teach a fixed philosophical doctrine. Rather, he acknowledges his own ignorance while searching for truth with his pupils and interlocutors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,785 | Scholars have questioned the validity and the exact nature of the Socratic method, or indeed if there even "was" a Socratic method. In 1982, the scholar of ancient philosophy Gregory Vlastos claimed that the Socratic method could not be used to establish the truth or falsehood of a proposition. Rather, Vlastos argued, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,786 | Socrates starts his discussions by prioritizing the search for definitions. In most cases, Socrates initiates his discourse with an expert on a subject by seeking a definition—by asking, for example, what virtue, goodness, justice, or courage is. To establish a definition, Socrates first gathers clear examples of a vir... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,787 | Some scholars have argued that Socrates does not endorse the priority of definition as a principle, because they have identified cases where he does not do so. Some have argued that this priority of definition comes from Plato rather than Socrates. Philosopher Peter Geach, accepting that Socrates endorses the priority ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,788 | Plato's Socrates often claims that he is aware of his own lack of knowledge, especially when discussing ethical concepts such as arete (i.e., goodness, courage) since he does not know the nature of such concepts. For example, during his trial, with his life at stake, Socrates says: "I thought Evenus a happy man, if he ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,789 | There are varying explanations of the Socratic inconsistency (other than that Socrates is simply being inconsistent). One explanation is that Socrates is being either ironic or modest for pedagogical purposes: he aims to let his interlocutor to think for himself rather than guide him to a prefixed answer to his philoso... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,790 | Socrates is known for disavowing knowledge, a claim encapsulated in the saying "I know that I know nothing". This is often attributed to Socrates on the basis of a statement in Plato's "Apology", though the same view is repeatedly found elsewhere in Plato's early writings on Socrates. In other statements, though, he im... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,791 | Whether Socrates genuinely thought he lacked knowledge or merely feigned a belief in his own ignorance remains a matter of debate. A common interpretation is that he was indeed feigning modesty. According to Norman Gulley, Socrates did this to entice his interlocutors to speak with him. On the other hand, Terence Irwin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,792 | Gregory Vlastos argues that there is enough evidence to refute both claims. On his view, for Socrates, there are two separate meanings of "knowledge": Knowledge-C and Knowledge-E (C stands for "certain", and E stands for "elenchus", i.e. the Socratic method). Knowledge-C is something unquestionable whereas Knowledge-E ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,793 | There is a widespread assumption that Socrates was an ironist, mostly based on the depiction of Socrates by Plato and Aristotle. Socrates's irony is so subtle and slightly humorous that it often leaves the reader wondering if Socrates is making an intentional pun. Plato's "Euthyphro" is filled with Socratic irony. The ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,794 | Scholars are divided on why Socrates uses irony. According to an opinion advanced since the Hellenistic period, Socratic irony is a playful way to get the audience's attention. Another line of thought holds that Socrates conceals his philosophical message with irony, making it accessible only to those who can separate ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,795 | For Socrates, the pursuit of "eudaimonia" motivates all human action, directly or indirectly. Virtue and knowledge are linked, in Socrates's view, to "eudaimonia", but how closely he considered them to be connected is still debated. Some argue that Socrates thought that virtue and "eudaimonia" are identical. According ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,796 | Moral intellectualism refers to the prominent role Socrates gave to knowledge. He believed that all virtue was based on knowledge (hence Socrates is characterized as a "virtue" intellectualist). He also believed that humans were guided by the cognitive power to comprehend what they desire, while diminishing the role of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,797 | Socrates's religious nonconformity challenged the views of his times and his critique reshaped religious discourse for the coming centuries. In Ancient Greece, organized religion was fragmented, celebrated in a number of festivals for specific gods, such as the City Dionysia, or in domestic rituals, and there were no s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,798 | Socrates discusses divinity and the soul mostly in "Alcibiades", "Euthyphro", and "Apology". In "Alcibiades" Socrates links the human soul to divinity, concluding "Then this part of her resembles God, and whoever looks at this, and comes to know all that is divine, will gain thereby the best knowledge of himself." His ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,799 | Socrates argued that the gods were inherently wise and just, a perception far from traditional religion at that time. In "Euthyphro", the Euthyphro dilemma arises. Socrates questions his interlocutor about the relationship between piety and the will of a powerful god: Is something good because it is the will of this go... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
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