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5,800 | Socrates affirms a belief in gods in Plato's "Apology", where he says to the jurors that he acknowledges gods more than his accusers. For Plato's Socrates, the existence of gods is taken for granted; in none of his dialogues does he probe whether gods exist or not. In "Apology", a case for Socrates being agnostic can b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,801 | In Xenophon's "Memorabilia", Socrates constructs an argument close to the contemporary teleological intelligent-design argument. He claims that since there are many features in the universe that exhibit "signs of forethought" (e.g., eyelids), a divine creator must have created the universe. He then deduces that the cre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,802 | It has been a source of puzzlement how Socrates's religious beliefs can be consistent with his strict adherence to rationalism. Philosophy professor Mark McPherran suggests that Socrates interpreted every divine sign through secular rationality for confirmation. Professor of ancient philosophy A. A. Long suggests that ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,803 | In several texts (e.g., Plato's "Euthyphro" 3b5; "Apology" 31c–d; Xenophon's "Memorabilia" 1.1.2) Socrates claims he hears a daimōnic sign—an inner voice heard usually when he was about to make a mistake. Socrates gave a brief description of this daimonion at his trial ("Apology" 31c–d): "...The reason for this is some... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,804 | Socrates's theory of virtue states that all virtues are essentially one, since they are a form of knowledge. For Socrates, the reason a person is not good is because they lack knowledge. Since knowledge is united, virtues are united as well. Another famous dictum— "no one errs willingly"—also derives from this theory. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,805 | Some texts suggest that Socrates had love affairs with Alcibiades and other young persons; others suggest that Socrates's friendship with young boys sought only to improve them and were not sexual. In "Gorgias", Socrates claims he was a dual lover of Alcibiades and philosophy, and his flirtatiousness is evident in "Pro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,806 | The Socratic theory of love is mostly deduced from "Lysis", where Socrates discusses love at a wrestling school in the company of Lysis and his friends. They start their dialogue by investigating parental love and how it manifests with respect to the freedom and boundaries that parents set for their children. Socrates ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,807 | It is notable that Socrates, who claims to know only that he does not know, makes an exception (in Plato's "Symposium"), where he says he will tell the truth about Love, which he learned from a 'clever woman'. Classicist Armand D'Angour has made the case that Socrates was in his youth close to Aspasia, and that Diotima... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,808 | While Socrates was involved in public political and cultural debates, it is hard to define his exact political philosophy. In Plato's "Gorgias," he tells Callicles: "I believe that I'm one of a few Athenians—so as not to say I'm the only one, but the only one among our contemporaries—to take up the true political craft... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,809 | Socrates spent his time conversing with citizens, among them powerful members of Athenian society, scrutinizing their beliefs and bringing the contradictions of their ideas to light. Socrates believed he was doing them a favor since, for him, politics was about shaping the moral landscape of the city through philosophy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,810 | Yet another suggestion is that Socrates endorsed views in line with liberalism, a political ideology formed in the Age of Enlightenment. This argument is mostly based on "Crito" and "Apology", where Socrates talks about the mutually beneficial relationship between the city and its citizens. According to Socrates, citiz... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,811 | Socrates's impact was immense in philosophy after his death. With the exception of the Epicureans and the Pyrrhonists, almost all philosophical currents after Socrates traced their roots to him: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, the Cynics, and the Stoics. Interest in Socrates kept increasing until the third century... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,812 | Immediate followers of Socrates were his pupils, Euclid of Megara, Aristippus, and Antisthenes, who drew differing conclusions among themselves and followed independent trajectories. The full doctrines of Socrates's pupils are difficult to reconstruct. Antisthenes had a profound contempt of material goods. According to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,813 | The Stoics relied heavily on Socrates. They applied the Socratic method as a tool to avoid inconsistencies. Their moral doctrines focused on how to live a smooth life through wisdom and virtue. The Stoics assigned virtue a crucial role in attaining happiness and also prioritized the relation between goodness and ethica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,814 | While Aristotle considered Socrates an important philosopher, Socrates was not a central figure in Aristotelian thought. One of Aristotle's pupils, Aristoxenus even authored a book detailing Socrates's scandals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,815 | The Epicureans were antagonistic to Socrates. They attacked him for superstition, criticizing his belief in his "daimonion" and his regard for the oracle at Delphi. They also criticized Socrates for his character and various faults, and focusing mostly on his irony, which was deemed inappropriate for a philosopher and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,816 | The Pyrrhonists were also antagonistic to Socrates, accusing him of being a prater about ethics, who engaged in mock humility, and who sneered at and mocked people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,817 | Socratic thought found its way to the Islamic Middle East alongside that of Aristotle and the Stoics. Plato's works on Socrates, as well as other ancient Greek literature, were translated into Arabic by early Muslim scholars such as Al-Kindi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and the Muʿtazila. For Muslim scholars, Socrates was hailed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,818 | In medieval times, little of Socrates's thought survived in the Christian world as a whole; however, works on Socrates from Christian scholars such as Lactantius, Eusebius and Augustine were maintained in the Byzantine Empire, where Socrates was studied under a Christian lens. After the fall of Constantinople, many of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,819 | During the early Italian Renaissance, two different narratives of Socrates developed. On the one hand, the humanist movement revived interest in classical authors. Leonardo Bruni translated many of Plato's Socratic dialogues, while his pupil Giannozzo Manetti authored a well-circulated book, a "Life of Socrates". They ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,820 | In early modern France, Socrates's image was dominated by features of his private life rather than his philosophical thought, in various novels and satirical plays. Some thinkers used Socrates to highlight and comment upon controversies of their own era, like Théophile de Viau who portrayed a Christianized Socrates acc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,821 | In the 18th century, German idealism revived philosophical interest in Socrates, mainly through Hegel's work. For Hegel, Socrates marked a turning point in the history of humankind by the introduction of the principle of free subjectivity or self-determination. While Hegel hails Socrates for his contribution, he noneth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,822 | Søren Kierkegaard considered Socrates his teacher, and authored his master's thesis on him, "The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates". There he argues that Socrates is not a moral philosopher but is purely an ironist. He also focused on Socrates's avoidance of writing: for Kierkegaard, this avoidance ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,823 | Friedrich Nietzsche resented Socrates's contributions to Western culture. In his first book, "The Birth of Tragedy" (1872), Nietzsche held Socrates responsible for what he saw as the deterioration of ancient Greek civilization during the 4th century BC and after. For Nietzsche, Socrates turned the scope of philosophy f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,824 | Continental philosophers Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss and Karl Popper, after experiencing the horrors of World War II, amidst the rise of totalitarian regimes, saw Socrates as an icon of individual conscience. Arendt, in "Eichmann in Jerusalem" (1963), suggests that Socrates's constant questioning and self-reflection cou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25664190 |
5,825 | Chess is a board game between two players. It is sometimes called international chess or Western chess to distinguish it from related games, such as xiangqi (Chinese chess) and shogi (Japanese chess). The current form of the game emerged in Spain and the rest of Southern Europe during the second half of the 15th centur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,826 | Chess is an abstract strategy game and involves no hidden information. It is played on a chessboard with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. At the start, each player controls sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. The player controlling the white pieces mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,827 | Organized chess arose in the 19th century. Chess competition today is governed internationally by FIDE (International Chess Federation). The first universally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; Magnus Carlsen is the current World Champion. A huge body of chess theory has devel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,828 | One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat the reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. Today's chess engines are significantly stronger than the best human players and have deeply influenced the de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,829 | The rules of chess are published by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs), chess's international governing body, in its "Handbook". Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ in some details. FIDE's rules were most recently revised... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,830 | Chess pieces are divided into two different colored sets. While the sets may not be literally white and black (e.g. the light set may be a yellowish or off-white color, the dark set may be brown or red), they are always referred to as "white" and "black". The players of the sets are referred to as and , respectively. E... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,831 | The game is played on a square board of eight rows (called ) and eight columns (called ). By convention, the 64 squares alternate in color and are referred to as and squares; common colors for chessboards are white and brown, or white and dark green. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,832 | The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo. Thus, on White's first rank, from left to right, the pieces are placed in the following order: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, rook. On the second rank is placed a row of eight pawns. Black's position mirrors White's, with an equivalent piece ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,833 | In competitive games, the piece colors are allocated to players by the organizers; in informal games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by a coin toss, or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other, and having the opponent choose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,834 | White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn, except for castling, when two pieces are moved. A piece is moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole exception of "en passant", all pieces capture ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,835 | Each piece has its own way of moving. In the diagrams, the dots mark the squares to which the piece can move if there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except the knight, which leaps over any intervening pieces). All pieces except the pawn can capture an enemy piece if it is located on a square to which they... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,836 | When a king is under immediate attack, it is said to be . A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check. This can involve capturing the checking piece; interposing a piece between the checking piece and the king (which is possible only if the attacking piec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,837 | The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check. It is never legal for a player to make a move that puts or leaves the player's own king in check. In casual games, it is common to announce "check" when putting the op... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,838 | Once per game, each king can make a move known as . Castling consists of moving the king two squares toward a rook of the same color on the same rank, and then placing the rook on the square that the king crossed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,839 | When a pawn makes a two-step advance from its starting position and there is an opponent's pawn on a square next to the destination square on an adjacent file, then the opponent's pawn can capture it "en passant" ("in passing"), moving to the square the pawn passed over. This can be done only on the turn immediately fo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,840 | When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, as part of the move, it is and must be exchanged for the player's choice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases, another piece is chosen; this is called underpromotion. In the animated diagram... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,841 | In competition, chess games are played with a time control. If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has to deliver checkmate). The duration of a game ranges from long (or "classical") games, which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,842 | Time is controlled using a chess clock that has two displays, one for each player's remaining time. Analog chess clocks have been largely replaced by digital clocks, which allow for time controls with increments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,843 | Time controls are also enforced in correspondence chess competitions. A typical time control is 50 days for every 10 moves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,844 | Historically, many different notation systems have been used to record chess moves; the standard system today is short-form algebraic notation. In this system, each square is uniquely identified by a set of coordinates, – for the files followed by – for the ranks. The usual format is: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,845 | The pieces are identified by their initials. In English, these are (king), (queen), (rook), (bishop), and (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king). For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file, 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). Different initials may be used for other languages. In chess literature fi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,846 | To resolve ambiguities, an additional letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved (e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3"; R1e2 means "rook on the first rank moves to e2"). For pawns, no letter initial is used; so e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,847 | If the piece makes a capture, "x" is usually inserted before the destination square. Thus Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used to identify the pawn making the capture, for example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5). Ranks may be ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,848 | If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move (for example, e1=Q or e1Q). Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 (or O-O) for castling and 0-0-0 (or O-O-O) for castling. A move that places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,849 | Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. For example: "!" indicates a good move; "!!" an excellent move; "?" a mistake; "??" a blunder; "!?" an interesting move that may not be best; or "?!" a dubious move not easily refuted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,850 | For example, one variation of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can be recorded: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,851 | Variants of algebraic notation include long form algebraic, in which both the departure and destination square are indicated; abbreviated algebraic, in which capture signs, check signs, and ranks of pawn captures may be omitted; and Figurine Algebraic Notation, used in chess publications for universal readability regar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,852 | Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a text-based file format for recording chess games, based on short form English algebraic notation with a small amount of markup. PGN files (suffix .pgn) can be processed by most chess software, as well as being easily readable by humans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,853 | Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first rank at the beginning of the game. In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is rendered as "1.P-K4" ("pawn to king four")... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,854 | In competitive games, players are normally required to keep a score (record of the game). For this purpose, only algebraic notation is recognized in FIDE-sanctioned events; game scores recorded in a different notation system may not be used as evidence in the event of a dispute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,855 | Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses. Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and festivals are held around the world every year catering to players of all levels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,856 | Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every player plays one game against every other player. For a large numbers of players, the Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as possible) score in each round. I... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,857 | The term "" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a player of the other team. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,858 | Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced FEE-day) (French: Fédération internationale des échecs), or International Chess Federation. FIDE's membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there are also several associate members, includi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,859 | FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship, a role it assumed in 1948. The current World Champion is Magnus Carlsen of Norway. The reigning Women's World Champion is Ju Wenjun from China. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,860 | Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship, the tournaments for the World Championship qualification cycle, and the various national championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players. Examples includ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,861 | The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships include both team and individual events; these are held independently of FIDE. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,862 | In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo. An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest FIDE rating of all time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,863 | The above titles are open to both men and women. There are also separate women-only titles; Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE Master (WFM) and Woman Candidate Master (WCM). These require a performance level approximately 200 Elo rating points below the similarly named open titles, an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,864 | FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers. International titles are also awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess organizations may also award titles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,865 | Chess has an extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the total number of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000. B.H. Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,866 | Chess theory usually divides the game of chess into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, typically the first 10 to 20 moves, when players move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,867 | A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defense. They are catalogued in reference works such as the "Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings". There are dozens of different... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,868 | Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a small advantage. This initially gives White the initiative. Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve , or to develop in an unbalanced position. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,869 | The middlegame is the part of the game which starts after the opening. There is no clear line between the opening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed. (Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of the endgame.) Beca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,870 | Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings which result in a specific type of pawn structure. An example is the , which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,871 | Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame (i.e. ). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every redu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,872 | In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,873 | Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example: pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences. Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – thr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,874 | Chess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,875 | The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides. The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,876 | Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is (sometimes known as the ): the configuration of pawns on the chessboard. Since pawns are the least mobile of the pieces, pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in pawn structure include ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,877 | The endgame (also or ) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and the endgame: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,878 | Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king. For example, king and pawn endgames involve ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,879 | The earliest texts referring to the origins of chess date from the beginning of the 7th century. Three are written in "Pahlavi" (Middle Persian) and one, the "Harshacharita", is in Sanskrit. One of these texts, the "Chatrang-namak", represents one of the earliest written accounts of chess. The narrator Bozorgmehr expla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,880 | The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to about 840, written by al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled "Kitab ash-shatranj" (The Book of Chess). This is a lost manuscript, but is referenced in later works. Here also, al-Adli attributes the origins of Persian chess to India, along... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,881 | The early forms of chess in India were known as (), literally "four divisions" [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by pieces which would later evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called . Thence... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,882 | Xiangqi is the form of chess best-known in China. The eastern migration of chess, into China and Southeast Asia, has even less documentation than its migration west, making it largely conjectured. The word was used in China to refer to a game from 569 A.D. at the latest, but it has not been proven if this game was or w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,883 | The first reference to Chinese chess appears in a book entitled "Xuán guaì lù" ("Record of the Mysterious and Strange"), dating to about 800. A minority view holds that western chess arose from xiàngqí or one of its predecessors, although this has been contested. Chess historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,884 | The oldest archaeological chess artifacts – ivory pieces – were excavated in ancient Afrasiab, today's Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, and date to about 760, with some of them possibly being older. Remarkably, almost all findings of the oldest pieces come from along the Silk Road, from the former regions of the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,885 | The game reached Western Europe and Russia via at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000, it had spread throughout both the Muslim Iberia and Latin Europe. A Latin poem called "Versus de scachis" ("Verses on Chess") dated to the late 10th century, has been preserved at Einsiedeln Ab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,886 | The game of chess was then played and known in all European countries. A famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice is known as the "Libro de los juegos", which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European tables games. The rules were funda... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,887 | Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in Spain and the rest of Southern Europe, culminating, several major changes later, in the emergence of modern chess practically as it is known today. A major change was the modern piece movement rules, which began to appear in intellectual circles in Valencia, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,888 | Writings about chess theory began to appear in the 15th century. The "Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez" ("Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess") by Spanish churchman Luis Ramírez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497. Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leon... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,889 | In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved from Southern Europe to mainland France. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,890 | At the same time, the intellectual movement of romanticism had had a far-reaching impact on chess, with aesthetics and tactical beauty being held in higher regard than objective soundness and strategic planning. As a result, virtually all games began with the Open Game, and it was considered unsportsmanlike to decline ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,891 | The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first). Finally, the rules around castling and en passant captures were standardized – variations in these rules persisted i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,892 | As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example, the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824. Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century new... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,893 | The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton, a leading English chess player, and was held in London in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, who was hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant, energetic attacking style was typical for the time. Sparkling games like Anderssen's Im... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,894 | Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy. Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to play), including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,895 | Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz laid the foundations for a scientific approach to the game, the art of breaking a position down into components and preparing correct plans. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,896 | After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournaments and matches held annually quickly grew. The first Olympiad was held in Paris in 1924, and FIDE was founded initially for the purpose of organizing that event. In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold the title wa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,897 | A prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca, known for his skill in endgames, won the World Championship from Lasker in 1921. Capablanca was undefeated in tournament play for eight years, from 1916 to 1924. His successor (1927) was the Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player who died as the world cha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,898 | In the interwar period, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns, which become objects of att... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
5,899 | After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the title since then, ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948 tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134 |
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