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6,600 | Objective collapse theories require a modification of standard quantum mechanics to allow superpositions to be destroyed by the process of time evolution. These theories could ideally be tested by creating mesoscopic superposition states in the experiment. For instance, energy cat states has been proposed as a precise ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,601 | The experiment as described is a purely theoretical one, and the machine proposed is not known to have been constructed. However, successful experiments involving similar principles, e.g. superpositions of relatively large (by the standards of quantum physics) objects have been performed. These experiments do not show ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,602 | In quantum computing the phrase "cat state" sometimes refers to the GHZ state, wherein several qubits are in an equal superposition of all being 0 and all being 1; e.g., | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,603 | According to at least one proposal, it may be possible to determine the state of the cat "before" observing it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,604 | Prominent physicists have gone so far as to suggest that astronomers observing dark energy in the universe in 1998 may have "reduced its life expectancy" through a pseudo-Schrödinger's cat scenario, although this is a controversial viewpoint. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,605 | In August 2020, physicists presented studies involving interpretations of quantum mechanics that are related to the Schrödinger's cat and Wigner's friend paradoxes, resulting in conclusions that challenge seemingly established assumptions about reality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,606 | A blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology (DLT) that consists of growing lists of records, called "blocks", that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree, where... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,607 | Blockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,608 | A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name (or pseudonym) Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The implementation of the blockchain within bitc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,609 | Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. "Computerworld" called the marketing of such privatized blockchains without a proper security model "snake oil"; however, others have argued that permissioned blockchains, if carefully designed, may be more decentralized and therefore more secure in practice than... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,610 | Cryptographer David Chaum first proposed a blockchain-like protocol in his 1982 dissertation "Computer Systems Established, Maintained, and Trusted by Mutually Suspicious Groups." Further work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta. They wanted to imp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,611 | The first decentralized blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using a Hashcash-like method to timestamp blocks without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party and introducing a difficulty parameter to sta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,612 | In August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (gigabytes). In January 2015, the size had grown to almost 30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to 100 GB in size. The ledger size had... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,613 | The words "block" and "chain" were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper, but were eventually popularized as a single word, "blockchain," by 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,614 | According to Accenture, an application of the diffusion of innovations theory suggests that blockchains attained a 13.5% adoption rate within financial services in 2016, therefore reaching the early adopters' phase. Industry trade groups joined to create the Global Blockchain Forum in 2016, an initiative of the Chamber... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,615 | In May 2018, Gartner found that only 1% of CIOs indicated any kind of blockchain adoption within their organisations, and only 8% of CIOs were in the short-term "planning or [looking at] active experimentation with blockchain". For the year 2019 Gartner reported 5% of CIOs believed blockchain technology was a 'game-cha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,616 | A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed, and often public, digital ledger consisting of records called "blocks" that are used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved block cannot be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. This allows the participants to ver... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,617 | Blocks hold batches of valid transactions that are hashed and encoded into a Merkle tree. Each block includes the cryptographic hash of the prior block in the blockchain, linking the two. The linked blocks form a chain. This iterative process confirms the integrity of the previous block, all the way back to the initial... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,618 | Sometimes separate blocks can be produced concurrently, creating a temporary fork. In addition to a secure hash-based history, any blockchain has a specified algorithm for scoring different versions of the history so that one with a higher score can be selected over others. Blocks not selected for inclusion in the chai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,619 | The "block time" is the average time it takes for the network to generate one extra block in the blockchain. By the time of block completion, the included data becomes verifiable. In cryptocurrency, this is practically when the transaction takes place, so a shorter block time means faster transactions. The block time f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,620 | By storing data across its peer-to-peer network, the blockchain eliminates a number of risks that come with data being held centrally. The decentralized blockchain may use ad hoc message passing and distributed networking. One risk of a lack of decentralization is a so-called "51% attack" where a central entity can gai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,621 | Peer-to-peer blockchain networks lack centralized points of vulnerability that computer crackers can exploit; likewise, they have no central point of failure. Blockchain security methods include the use of public-key cryptography. A "public key" (a long, random-looking string of numbers) is an address on the blockchain... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,622 | Every node in a decentralized system has a copy of the blockchain. Data quality is maintained by massive database replication and computational trust. No centralized "official" copy exists and no user is "trusted" more than any other. Transactions are broadcast to the network using the software. Messages are delivered ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,623 | Finality is the level of confidence that the well-formed block recently appended to the blockchain will not be revoked in the future (is "finalized") and thus can be trusted. Most distributed blockchain protocols, whether proof of work or proof of stake, cannot guarantee the finality of a freshly committed block, and i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,624 | Byzantine Fault Tolerance-based proof-of-stake protocols purport to provide so called "absolute finality": a randomly chosen validator proposes a block, the rest of validators vote on it, and, if a supermajority decision approves it, the block is irreversibly committed into the blockchain. A modification of this method... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,625 | Open blockchains are more user-friendly than some traditional ownership records, which, while open to the public, still require physical access to view. Because all early blockchains were permissionless, controversy has arisen over the blockchain definition. An issue in this ongoing debate is whether a private system w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,626 | An advantage to an open, permissionless, or public, blockchain network is that guarding against bad actors is not required and no [[access control]] is needed. This means that applications can be added to the network without the approval or trust of others, using the blockchain as a [[transport layer]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,627 | Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies currently secure their blockchain by requiring new entries to include proof of work. To prolong the blockchain, bitcoin uses [[Hashcash]] puzzles. While Hashcash was designed in 1997 by [[Adam Back]], the original idea was first proposed by [[Cynthia Dwork]] and [[Moni Naor]] and Eli ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,628 | In 2016, [[venture capital]] investment for blockchain-related projects was weakening in the USA but increasing in China. Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies use open (public) blockchains. , bitcoin has the highest [[Cryptocurrency#Price trends|market capitalization]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,629 | Permissioned blockchains use an access control layer to govern who has access to the network. In contrast to public blockchain networks, validators on private blockchain networks are vetted by the network owner. They do not rely on anonymous nodes to validate transactions nor do they benefit from the [[network effect]]... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,630 | Nikolai Hampton pointed out in "[[Computerworld]]" that "There is also no need for a '51 percent' attack on a private blockchain, as the private blockchain (most likely) already controls 100 percent of all block creation resources. If you could attack or damage the blockchain creation tools on a private corporate serve... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,631 | The [[Blockchain analysis|analysis of public blockchains]] has become increasingly important with the popularity of [[bitcoin]], [[Ethereum]], [[litecoin]] and other [[cryptocurrencies]]. A blockchain, if it is public, provides anyone who wants access to observe and analyse the chain data, given one has the know-how. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,632 | In April 2016, [[Standards Australia]] submitted a proposal to the [[International Organization for Standardization]] to consider developing standards to support blockchain technology. This proposal resulted in the creation of ISO Technical Committee 307, Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technologies. The technical co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,633 | Many other national standards bodies and open standards bodies are also working on blockchain standards. These include the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), the [[European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization]] (CENELEC), the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,634 | Although most of blockchain implementation are decentralized and distributed, [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] launched a centralized blockchain table feature in [[Oracle Database|Oracle 21c database]]. The Blockchain Table in [[Oracle Database|Oracle 21c database]] is a centralized blockchain which provide immutable feat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,635 | Currently, there are at least four types of blockchain networks — public blockchains, private blockchains, [[consortium]] blockchains and hybrid blockchains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,636 | A public blockchain has absolutely no access restrictions. Anyone with an [[Internet]] connection can send [[Financial transaction|transactions]] to it as well as become a validator (i.e., participate in the execution of a [[Consensus (computer science)|consensus protocol]]). Usually, such networks offer [[Incentive|ec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,637 | Some of the largest, most known public blockchains are the bitcoin blockchain and the Ethereum blockchain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,638 | A private blockchain is permissioned. One cannot join it unless invited by the network administrators. Participant and validator access is [[Closed platform|restricted]]. To distinguish between open blockchains and other peer-to-peer decentralized database applications that are not open ad-hoc compute clusters, the ter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,639 | A hybrid blockchain has a combination of centralized and decentralized features. The exact workings of the chain can vary based on which portions of centralization and decentralization are used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,640 | A sidechain is a designation for a blockchain ledger that runs in parallel to a primary blockchain. Entries from the primary blockchain (where said entries typically represent [[digital asset]]s) can be linked to and from the sidechain; this allows the sidechain to otherwise operate independently of the primary blockch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,641 | Blockchain technology can be integrated into multiple areas. The primary use of blockchains is as a [[distributed ledger]] for [[cryptocurrency|cryptocurrencies]] such as [[bitcoin]]; there were also a few other operational products that had matured from [[proof of concept]] by late 2016. As of 2016, some businesses ha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,642 | In 2019, it was estimated that around $2.9 billion were invested in blockchain technology, which represents an 89% increase from the year prior. Additionally, the International Data Corp has estimated that corporate investment into blockchain technology will reach $12.4 billion by 2022. Furthermore, According to [[Pric... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,643 | In 2019 the [[BBC World Service]] radio and podcast series "[[50 Things That Made the Modern Economy|Fifty Things That Made the Modern Economy]]" identified blockchain as a technology that would have far-reaching consequences for economics and society. The economist and "Financial Times" journalist and broadcaster [[Ti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,644 | A paper published in 2022 discussed the potential use of blockchain technology in sustainable management | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,645 | Most cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology to record transactions. For example, the [[bitcoin network]] and [[Ethereum]] network are both based on blockchain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,646 | The criminal enterprise [[Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]], which operated on [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]], utilized cryptocurrency for payments, some of which the [[US federal government]] has seized through research on the blockchain and [[Forfeiture (law)|forfeiture.]] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,647 | [[Legality of bitcoin by country or territory|Governments have mixed policies]] on the legality of their citizens or banks owning cryptocurrencies. China implements blockchain technology in several industries including a [[Central bank digital currency|national digital currency]] which launched in 2020. To strengthen t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,648 | Blockchain-based [[smart contract]]s are proposed contracts that can be partially or fully executed or enforced without human interaction. One of the main objectives of a smart contract is [[automation|automated]] [[escrow]]. A key feature of smart contracts is that they do not need a trusted third party (such as a tru... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,649 | According to "[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]", many banks have expressed interest in implementing [[distributed ledger]]s for use in [[banking]] and are cooperating with companies creating private blockchains, and according to a September 2016 [[IBM]] study, this is occurring faster than expected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,650 | Banks are interested in this technology not least because it has the potential to speed up [[back office]] settlement systems. Moreover, as the blockchain industry has reached early maturity institutional appreciation has grown that it is, practically speaking, the infrastructure of a whole new financial industry, with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,651 | [[Bank]]s such as [[UBS]] are opening new research labs dedicated to blockchain technology in order to explore how blockchain can be used in financial services to increase efficiency and reduce costs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,652 | [[Berenberg Bank|Berenberg]], a German bank, believes that blockchain is an "overhyped technology" that has had a large number of "proofs of concept", but still has major challenges, and very few success stories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,653 | The blockchain has also given rise to [[initial coin offering]]s (ICOs) as well as a new category of digital asset called security token offerings (STOs), also sometimes referred to as digital security offerings (DSOs). STO/DSOs may be conducted privately or on public, regulated stock exchange and are used to tokenize ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,654 | Blockchain technology, such as cryptocurrencies and [[non-fungible token]]s (NFTs), has been used in video games for [[video game monetization|monetization]]. Many [[Games as a service|live-service games]] offer in-game customization options, such as character skins or other in-game items, which the players can earn an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,655 | The first known game to use blockchain technologies was "[[CryptoKitties]]", launched in November 2017, where the player would purchase NFTs with Ethereum cryptocurrency, each NFT consisting of a [[virtual pet]] that the player could breed with others to create offspring with combined traits as new NFTs. The game made ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,656 | By the early 2020s, there had not been a breakout success in video games using blockchain, as these games tend to focus on using blockchain for speculation instead of more traditional forms of gameplay, which offers limited appeal to most players. Such games also represent a high risk to investors as their revenues can... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,657 | In October 2021, [[Valve Corporation]] banned blockchain games, including those using cryptocurrency and [[Non-fungible token|NFTs]], from being hosted on its [[Steam (service)|Steam]] digital storefront service, which is widely used for personal computer gaming, claiming that this was an extension of their policy bann... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,658 | There are several different efforts to offer [[domain name]] services via the blockchain. These domain names can be controlled by the use of a private key, which purports to allow for uncensorable websites. This would also bypass a registrar's ability to suppress domains used for fraud, abuse, or illegal content. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,659 | [[Namecoin]] is a cryptocurrency that supports the ".bit" [[top-level domain]] (TLD). Namecoin was forked from bitcoin in 2011. The .bit TLD is not sanctioned by [[ICANN]], instead requiring an [[alternative DNS root]]. As of 2015, it was used by 28 websites, out of 120,000 registered names. Namecoin was dropped by [[O... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,660 | Specific TLDs include ".eth", ".luxe", and ".kred", which are associated with the Ethereum blockchain through the Ethereum Name Service (ENS). The .kred TLD also acts as an alternative to conventional [[cryptocurrency wallet]] addresses, as a convenience for transferring cryptocurrency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,661 | Blockchain technology can be used to create a permanent, public, transparent ledger system for compiling data on sales, tracking digital use and payments to content creators, such as wireless users or musicians. The Gartner 2019 CIO Survey reported 2% of higher education respondents had launched blockchain projects and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,662 | New distribution methods are available for the [[insurance]] industry such as [[peer-to-peer insurance]], [[parametric insurance]] and [[microinsurance]] following the adoption of blockchain. The [[sharing economy]] and [[Internet of Things|IoT]] are also set to benefit from blockchains because they involve many collab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,663 | Other blockchain designs include [[Hyperledger]], a collaborative effort from the [[Linux Foundation]] to support blockchain-based distributed ledgers, with projects under this initiative including Hyperledger Burrow (by Monax) and Hyperledger Fabric (spearheaded by IBM). Another is Quorum, a permissionable private blo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,664 | [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] introduced a blockchain table feature in its [[Oracle database|Oracle 21c database]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,665 | Blockchain could be used in detecting counterfeits by associating unique identifiers to products, documents and shipments, and storing records associated with transactions that cannot be forged or altered. It is however argued that blockchain technology needs to be supplemented with technologies that provide a strong b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,666 | 2022 Jan 30 Beijing and Shanghai are among the cities designated by China to trial blockchain applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,667 | With the increasing number of blockchain systems appearing, even only those that support cryptocurrencies, blockchain interoperability is becoming a topic of major importance. The objective is to support transferring assets from one blockchain system to another blockchain system. Wegner stated that "[[interoperability]... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,668 | There are already several blockchain interoperability solutions available. They can be classified into three categories: cryptocurrency interoperability approaches, blockchain engines, and blockchain connectors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,669 | Several individual IETF participants produced the draft of a blockchain interoperability architecture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,670 | Some cryptocurrencies use blockchain mining — the peer-to-peer computer computations by which transactions are validated and verified. This requires a large amount of energy. In June 2018 the [[Bank for International Settlements]] criticized the use of public [[proof-of-work]] blockchains for their high energy consumpt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,671 | Early concern over the high energy consumption was a factor in later blockchains such as [[Cardano (blockchain platform)|Cardano]] (2017), [[Solana (blockchain platform)|Solana]] (2020) and [[Polkadot (cryptocurrency)|Polkadot]] (2020) adopting the less energy-intensive [[proof of stake|proof-of-stake]] model. Research... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,672 | In 2021, a study by [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] determined that Bitcoin (at 121 terawatt-hours per year) used more electricity than Argentina (at 121TWh) and the Netherlands (109TWh). According to Digiconomist, one bitcoin transaction required 708 kilowatt-hours of electrical energy, the amount an ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,673 | In February 2021, U.S. Treasury secretary [[Janet Yellen]] called Bitcoin "an extremely inefficient way to conduct transactions", saying "the amount of energy consumed in processing those transactions is staggering". In March 2021, [[Bill Gates]] stated that "Bitcoin uses more electricity per transaction than any other... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,674 | Nicholas Weaver, of the [[International Computer Science Institute]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], examined blockchain's online security, and the energy efficiency of proof-of-work public blockchains, and in both cases found it grossly inadequate. The 31TWh-45TWh of electricity used for bitcoin in 2018... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,675 | Some cryptocurrency developers are considering moving from the [[proof of work|proof-of-work]] model to the [[proof of stake|proof-of-stake]] model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,676 | In October 2014, the MIT Bitcoin Club, with funding from MIT alumni, provided undergraduate students at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] access to $100 of bitcoin. The adoption rates, as studied by [[Christian Catalini|Catalini]] and [[Catherine Tucker|Tucker]] (2016), revealed that when people who typical... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,677 | Motivations for adopting blockchain technology (an aspect of [[Diffusion of innovations|innovation adoptation]]) have been investigated by researchers. For example, Janssen, et al. provided a framework for analysis, and Koens & Poll pointed out that adoption could be heavily driven by non-technical factors. Based on be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,678 | Scholars in business and management have started studying the role of blockchains to support collaboration. It has been argued that blockchains can foster both cooperation (i.e., prevention of opportunistic behavior) and coordination (i.e., communication and information sharing). Thanks to reliability, transparency, tr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,679 | The need for internal audits to provide effective oversight of organizational efficiency will require a change in the way that information is accessed in new formats. Blockchain adoption requires a framework to identify the risk of exposure associated with transactions using blockchain. The [[Institute of Internal Audi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,680 | In September 2015, the first peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to cryptocurrency and blockchain technology research, "Ledger", was announced. The inaugural issue was published in December 2016. The journal covers aspects of [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[engineering]], [[law]], [[economics]] and [[phil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,681 | The journal encourages authors to [[Digital signature|digitally sign]] a [[Hash function|file hash]] of submitted papers, which are then [[Trusted timestamping|timestamped]] into the bitcoin blockchain. Authors are also asked to include a personal bitcoin address on the first page of their papers for non-repudiation pu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,682 | Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module "Eagle" on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minute... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,683 | Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Eart... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,684 | After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into "Eagle" and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used "Eagle"s ascent stage to lift off from... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,685 | Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,686 | In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Un... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,687 | Since the Soviet Union had higher lift capacity launch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,688 | On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the United States Congress on "Urgent National Needs" and declared: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,689 | On September 12, 1962, Kennedy delivered another speech before a crowd of about 40,000 people in the Rice University football stadium in Houston, Texas. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,690 | In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a "moondoggle" by Norbert Wiener, a mathematician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: Project Apollo. When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev, the Premier of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,691 | An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,692 | Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,693 | Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent investigation. In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, Ap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,694 | The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,695 | The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on the backup crew for Apollo9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,696 | There would be one change. Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,697 | Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,698 | The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal rel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,699 | The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
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