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6,600 | Objective collapse theories require a modification of standard quantum mechanics to allow superpositions to be destroyed by the process of time evolution. These theories could ideally be tested by creating mesoscopic superposition states in the experiment. For instance, energy cat states has been proposed as a precise detector of the quantum gravity related energy decoherence models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,601 | The experiment as described is a purely theoretical one, and the machine proposed is not known to have been constructed. However, successful experiments involving similar principles, e.g. superpositions of relatively large (by the standards of quantum physics) objects have been performed. These experiments do not show that a cat-sized object can be superposed, but the known upper limit on "cat states" has been pushed upwards by them. In many cases the state is short-lived, even when cooled to near absolute zero. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,602 | In quantum computing the phrase "cat state" sometimes refers to the GHZ state, wherein several qubits are in an equal superposition of all being 0 and all being 1; e.g., | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,603 | According to at least one proposal, it may be possible to determine the state of the cat "before" observing it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,604 | Prominent physicists have gone so far as to suggest that astronomers observing dark energy in the universe in 1998 may have "reduced its life expectancy" through a pseudo-Schrödinger's cat scenario, although this is a controversial viewpoint. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,605 | In August 2020, physicists presented studies involving interpretations of quantum mechanics that are related to the Schrödinger's cat and Wigner's friend paradoxes, resulting in conclusions that challenge seemingly established assumptions about reality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27856 |
6,606 | A blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology (DLT) that consists of growing lists of records, called "blocks", that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree, where data nodes are represented by leaves). The timestamp proves that the transaction data existed when the block was created. Since each block contains information about the previous block, they effectively form a "chain" (compare linked list data structure), with each additional block linking to the ones before it. Consequently, blockchain transactions are irreversible in that, once they are recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without altering all subsequent blocks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,607 | Blockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,608 | A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name (or pseudonym) Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The implementation of the blockchain within bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications and blockchains that are readable by the public and are widely used by cryptocurrencies. The blockchain may be considered a type of payment rail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,609 | Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. "Computerworld" called the marketing of such privatized blockchains without a proper security model "snake oil"; however, others have argued that permissioned blockchains, if carefully designed, may be more decentralized and therefore more secure in practice than permissionless ones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,610 | Cryptographer David Chaum first proposed a blockchain-like protocol in his 1982 dissertation "Computer Systems Established, Maintained, and Trusted by Mutually Suspicious Groups." Further work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta. They wanted to implement a system wherein document timestamps could not be tampered with. In 1992, Haber, Stornetta, and Dave Bayer incorporated Merkle trees into the design, which improved its efficiency by allowing several document certificates to be collected into one block. Under their company Surety, their document certificate hashes have been published in "The New York Times" every week since 1995. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,611 | The first decentralized blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using a Hashcash-like method to timestamp blocks without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party and introducing a difficulty parameter to stabilize the rate at which blocks are added to the chain. The design was implemented the following year by Nakamoto as a core component of the cryptocurrency bitcoin, where it serves as the public ledger for all transactions on the network. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,612 | In August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (gigabytes). In January 2015, the size had grown to almost 30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to 100 GB in size. The ledger size had exceeded 200 GB by early 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,613 | The words "block" and "chain" were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper, but were eventually popularized as a single word, "blockchain," by 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,614 | According to Accenture, an application of the diffusion of innovations theory suggests that blockchains attained a 13.5% adoption rate within financial services in 2016, therefore reaching the early adopters' phase. Industry trade groups joined to create the Global Blockchain Forum in 2016, an initiative of the Chamber of Digital Commerce. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,615 | In May 2018, Gartner found that only 1% of CIOs indicated any kind of blockchain adoption within their organisations, and only 8% of CIOs were in the short-term "planning or [looking at] active experimentation with blockchain". For the year 2019 Gartner reported 5% of CIOs believed blockchain technology was a 'game-changer' for their business. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,616 | A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed, and often public, digital ledger consisting of records called "blocks" that are used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved block cannot be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. This allows the participants to verify and audit transactions independently and relatively inexpensively. A blockchain database is managed autonomously using a peer-to-peer network and a distributed timestamping server. They are authenticated by mass collaboration powered by collective self-interests. Such a design facilitates robust workflow where participants' uncertainty regarding data security is marginal. The use of a blockchain removes the characteristic of infinite reproducibility from a digital asset. It confirms that each unit of value was transferred only once, solving the long-standing problem of double-spending. A blockchain has been described as a "value-exchange protocol". A blockchain can maintain title rights because, when properly set up to detail the exchange agreement, it provides a record that compels offer and acceptance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,617 | Blocks hold batches of valid transactions that are hashed and encoded into a Merkle tree. Each block includes the cryptographic hash of the prior block in the blockchain, linking the two. The linked blocks form a chain. This iterative process confirms the integrity of the previous block, all the way back to the initial block, which is known as the "genesis block" (Block 0). To assure the integrity of a block and the data contained in it, the block is usually digitally signed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,618 | Sometimes separate blocks can be produced concurrently, creating a temporary fork. In addition to a secure hash-based history, any blockchain has a specified algorithm for scoring different versions of the history so that one with a higher score can be selected over others. Blocks not selected for inclusion in the chain are called orphan blocks. Peers supporting the database have different versions of the history from time to time. They keep only the highest-scoring version of the database known to them. Whenever a peer receives a higher-scoring version (usually the old version with a single new block added) they extend or overwrite their own database and retransmit the improvement to their peers. There is never an absolute guarantee that any particular entry will remain in the best version of history forever. Blockchains are typically built to add the score of new blocks onto old blocks and are given incentives to extend with new blocks rather than overwrite old blocks. Therefore, the probability of an entry becoming superseded decreases exponentially as more blocks are built on top of it, eventually becoming very low. For example, bitcoin uses a proof-of-work system, where the chain with the most cumulative proof-of-work is considered the valid one by the network. There are a number of methods that can be used to demonstrate a sufficient level of computation. Within a blockchain the computation is carried out redundantly rather than in the traditional segregated and parallel manner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,619 | The "block time" is the average time it takes for the network to generate one extra block in the blockchain. By the time of block completion, the included data becomes verifiable. In cryptocurrency, this is practically when the transaction takes place, so a shorter block time means faster transactions. The block time for Ethereum is set to between 14 and 15 seconds, while for bitcoin it is on average 10 minutes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,620 | By storing data across its peer-to-peer network, the blockchain eliminates a number of risks that come with data being held centrally. The decentralized blockchain may use ad hoc message passing and distributed networking. One risk of a lack of decentralization is a so-called "51% attack" where a central entity can gain control of more than half of a network and can manipulate that specific blockchain record at will, allowing double-spending. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,621 | Peer-to-peer blockchain networks lack centralized points of vulnerability that computer crackers can exploit; likewise, they have no central point of failure. Blockchain security methods include the use of public-key cryptography. A "public key" (a long, random-looking string of numbers) is an address on the blockchain. Value tokens sent across the network are recorded as belonging to that address. A "private key" is like a password that gives its owner access to their digital assets or the means to otherwise interact with the various capabilities that blockchains now support. Data stored on the blockchain is generally considered incorruptible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,622 | Every node in a decentralized system has a copy of the blockchain. Data quality is maintained by massive database replication and computational trust. No centralized "official" copy exists and no user is "trusted" more than any other. Transactions are broadcast to the network using the software. Messages are delivered on a best-effort basis. Early blockchains rely on energy-intensive mining nodes to validate transactions, add them to the block they are building, and then broadcast the completed block to other nodes. Blockchains use various time-stamping schemes, such as proof-of-work, to serialize changes. Later consensus methods include proof of stake. The growth of a decentralized blockchain is accompanied by the risk of centralization because the computer resources required to process larger amounts of data become more expensive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,623 | Finality is the level of confidence that the well-formed block recently appended to the blockchain will not be revoked in the future (is "finalized") and thus can be trusted. Most distributed blockchain protocols, whether proof of work or proof of stake, cannot guarantee the finality of a freshly committed block, and instead rely on "probabilistic finality": as the block goes deeper into a blockchain, it is less likely to be altered or reverted by a newly found consensus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,624 | Byzantine Fault Tolerance-based proof-of-stake protocols purport to provide so called "absolute finality": a randomly chosen validator proposes a block, the rest of validators vote on it, and, if a supermajority decision approves it, the block is irreversibly committed into the blockchain. A modification of this method, an "economic finality", is used in practical protocols, like the Casper protocol used in Ethereum: validators which sign two different blocks at the same position in the blockchain are subject to "slashing", where their leveraged stake is forfeited. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,625 | Open blockchains are more user-friendly than some traditional ownership records, which, while open to the public, still require physical access to view. Because all early blockchains were permissionless, controversy has arisen over the blockchain definition. An issue in this ongoing debate is whether a private system with verifiers tasked and authorized (permissioned) by a central authority should be considered a blockchain. Proponents of permissioned or private chains argue that the term "blockchain" may be applied to any data structure that batches data into time-stamped blocks. These blockchains serve as a distributed version of [[multiversion concurrency control]] (MVCC) in databases. Just as MVCC prevents two transactions from concurrently modifying a single object in a database, blockchains prevent two transactions from spending the same single output in a blockchain. Opponents say that permissioned systems resemble traditional corporate databases, not supporting decentralized data verification, and that such systems are not hardened against operator tampering and revision. Nikolai Hampton of "[[Computerworld]]" said that "many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases," and "without a clear security model, proprietary blockchains should be eyed with suspicion." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,626 | An advantage to an open, permissionless, or public, blockchain network is that guarding against bad actors is not required and no [[access control]] is needed. This means that applications can be added to the network without the approval or trust of others, using the blockchain as a [[transport layer]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,627 | Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies currently secure their blockchain by requiring new entries to include proof of work. To prolong the blockchain, bitcoin uses [[Hashcash]] puzzles. While Hashcash was designed in 1997 by [[Adam Back]], the original idea was first proposed by [[Cynthia Dwork]] and [[Moni Naor]] and Eli Ponyatovski in their 1992 paper "Pricing via Processing or Combatting Junk Mail". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,628 | In 2016, [[venture capital]] investment for blockchain-related projects was weakening in the USA but increasing in China. Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies use open (public) blockchains. , bitcoin has the highest [[Cryptocurrency#Price trends|market capitalization]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,629 | Permissioned blockchains use an access control layer to govern who has access to the network. In contrast to public blockchain networks, validators on private blockchain networks are vetted by the network owner. They do not rely on anonymous nodes to validate transactions nor do they benefit from the [[network effect]]. Permissioned blockchains can also go by the name of 'consortium' blockchains. It has been argued that permissioned blockchains can guarantee a certain level of decentralization, if carefully designed, as opposed to permissionless blockchains, which are often centralized in practice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,630 | Nikolai Hampton pointed out in "[[Computerworld]]" that "There is also no need for a '51 percent' attack on a private blockchain, as the private blockchain (most likely) already controls 100 percent of all block creation resources. If you could attack or damage the blockchain creation tools on a private corporate server, you could effectively control 100 percent of their network and alter transactions however you wished." This has a set of particularly profound adverse implications during a [[financial crisis]] or [[debt crisis]] like the [[financial crisis of 2007–08]], where politically powerful actors may make decisions that favor some groups at the expense of others, and "the bitcoin blockchain is protected by the massive group mining effort. It's unlikely that any private blockchain will try to protect records using [[gigawatts]] of computing power — it's time-consuming and expensive." He also said, "Within a private blockchain there is also no 'race'; there's no incentive to use more power or discover blocks faster than competitors. This means that many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,631 | The [[Blockchain analysis|analysis of public blockchains]] has become increasingly important with the popularity of [[bitcoin]], [[Ethereum]], [[litecoin]] and other [[cryptocurrencies]]. A blockchain, if it is public, provides anyone who wants access to observe and analyse the chain data, given one has the know-how. The process of understanding and accessing the flow of crypto has been an issue for many cryptocurrencies, crypto exchanges and banks. The reason for this is accusations of blockchain-enabled cryptocurrencies enabling illicit [[Darknet market|dark market]] trade of drugs, weapons, money laundering, etc. A common belief has been that cryptocurrency is private and untraceable, thus leading many actors to use it for illegal purposes. This is changing and now specialised tech companies provide blockchain tracking services, making crypto exchanges, law-enforcement and banks more aware of what is happening with crypto funds and [[Fiat money|fiat]]-crypto exchanges. The development, some argue, has led criminals to prioritise the use of new cryptos such as [[Monero (cryptocurrency)|Monero]]. The question is about the public accessibility of blockchain data and the personal privacy of the very same data. It is a key debate in cryptocurrency and ultimately in the blockchain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,632 | In April 2016, [[Standards Australia]] submitted a proposal to the [[International Organization for Standardization]] to consider developing standards to support blockchain technology. This proposal resulted in the creation of ISO Technical Committee 307, Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technologies. The technical committee has working groups relating to blockchain terminology, reference architecture, security and privacy, identity, smart contracts, governance and interoperability for blockchain and DLT, as well as standards specific to industry sectors and generic government requirements.<ref name="ISO/TC 307 Blockchain and distributed ledger technologies"></ref> More than 50 countries are participating in the standardization process together with external liaisons such as the [[Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication]] (SWIFT), the [[European Commission]], the [[International Federation of Surveyors]], the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) and the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,633 | Many other national standards bodies and open standards bodies are also working on blockchain standards. These include the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), the [[European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization]] (CENELEC), the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE), the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards ([[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]]), and some individual participants in the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]]<ref name="An Interoperability Architecture for Blockchain/DLT Gateways draft-hardjono-blockchain-interop-arch-02"></ref> (IETF). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,634 | Although most of blockchain implementation are decentralized and distributed, [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] launched a centralized blockchain table feature in [[Oracle Database|Oracle 21c database]]. The Blockchain Table in [[Oracle Database|Oracle 21c database]] is a centralized blockchain which provide immutable feature. Compared to decentralized blockchains, centralized blockchains normally can provide a higher throughput and lower latency of transactions than consensus-based distributed blockchains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,635 | Currently, there are at least four types of blockchain networks — public blockchains, private blockchains, [[consortium]] blockchains and hybrid blockchains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,636 | A public blockchain has absolutely no access restrictions. Anyone with an [[Internet]] connection can send [[Financial transaction|transactions]] to it as well as become a validator (i.e., participate in the execution of a [[Consensus (computer science)|consensus protocol]]). Usually, such networks offer [[Incentive|economic incentives]] for those who secure them and utilize some type of a [[Proof-of-stake|Proof of Stake]] or [[Proof-of-work system|Proof of Work]] algorithm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,637 | Some of the largest, most known public blockchains are the bitcoin blockchain and the Ethereum blockchain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,638 | A private blockchain is permissioned. One cannot join it unless invited by the network administrators. Participant and validator access is [[Closed platform|restricted]]. To distinguish between open blockchains and other peer-to-peer decentralized database applications that are not open ad-hoc compute clusters, the terminology [[Distributed Ledger]] (DLT) is normally used for private blockchains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,639 | A hybrid blockchain has a combination of centralized and decentralized features. The exact workings of the chain can vary based on which portions of centralization and decentralization are used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,640 | A sidechain is a designation for a blockchain ledger that runs in parallel to a primary blockchain. Entries from the primary blockchain (where said entries typically represent [[digital asset]]s) can be linked to and from the sidechain; this allows the sidechain to otherwise operate independently of the primary blockchain (e.g., by using an alternate means of record keeping, alternate [[Consensus (computer science)|consensus algorithm]], etc.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,641 | Blockchain technology can be integrated into multiple areas. The primary use of blockchains is as a [[distributed ledger]] for [[cryptocurrency|cryptocurrencies]] such as [[bitcoin]]; there were also a few other operational products that had matured from [[proof of concept]] by late 2016. As of 2016, some businesses have been testing the technology and conducting low-level implementation to gauge blockchain's effects on organizational efficiency in their [[back office]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,642 | In 2019, it was estimated that around $2.9 billion were invested in blockchain technology, which represents an 89% increase from the year prior. Additionally, the International Data Corp has estimated that corporate investment into blockchain technology will reach $12.4 billion by 2022. Furthermore, According to [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (PwC), the second-largest professional services network in the world, blockchain technology has the potential to generate an annual business value of more than $3 trillion by 2030. PwC's estimate is further augmented by a 2018 study that they have conducted, in which PwC surveyed 600 business executives and determined that 84% have at least some exposure to utilizing blockchain technology, which indicates a significant demand and interest in blockchain technology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,643 | In 2019 the [[BBC World Service]] radio and podcast series "[[50 Things That Made the Modern Economy|Fifty Things That Made the Modern Economy]]" identified blockchain as a technology that would have far-reaching consequences for economics and society. The economist and "Financial Times" journalist and broadcaster [[Tim Harford]] discussed why the underlying technology might have much wider applications and the challenges that needed to be overcome. First broadcast 29 June 2019. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,644 | A paper published in 2022 discussed the potential use of blockchain technology in sustainable management | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,645 | Most cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology to record transactions. For example, the [[bitcoin network]] and [[Ethereum]] network are both based on blockchain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,646 | The criminal enterprise [[Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]], which operated on [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]], utilized cryptocurrency for payments, some of which the [[US federal government]] has seized through research on the blockchain and [[Forfeiture (law)|forfeiture.]] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,647 | [[Legality of bitcoin by country or territory|Governments have mixed policies]] on the legality of their citizens or banks owning cryptocurrencies. China implements blockchain technology in several industries including a [[Central bank digital currency|national digital currency]] which launched in 2020. To strengthen their respective currencies, Western governments including the European Union and the United States have initiated similar projects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,648 | Blockchain-based [[smart contract]]s are proposed contracts that can be partially or fully executed or enforced without human interaction. One of the main objectives of a smart contract is [[automation|automated]] [[escrow]]. A key feature of smart contracts is that they do not need a trusted third party (such as a trustee) to act as an intermediary between contracting entities — the blockchain network executes the contract on its own. This may reduce friction between entities when transferring value and could subsequently open the door to a higher level of transaction automation. An [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] staff discussion from 2018 reported that smart contracts based on blockchain technology might reduce [[moral hazard]]s and optimize the use of contracts in general. But "no viable smart contract systems have yet emerged." Due to the lack of widespread use their legal status was unclear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,649 | According to "[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]", many banks have expressed interest in implementing [[distributed ledger]]s for use in [[banking]] and are cooperating with companies creating private blockchains, and according to a September 2016 [[IBM]] study, this is occurring faster than expected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,650 | Banks are interested in this technology not least because it has the potential to speed up [[back office]] settlement systems. Moreover, as the blockchain industry has reached early maturity institutional appreciation has grown that it is, practically speaking, the infrastructure of a whole new financial industry, with all the implications which that entails. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,651 | [[Bank]]s such as [[UBS]] are opening new research labs dedicated to blockchain technology in order to explore how blockchain can be used in financial services to increase efficiency and reduce costs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,652 | [[Berenberg Bank|Berenberg]], a German bank, believes that blockchain is an "overhyped technology" that has had a large number of "proofs of concept", but still has major challenges, and very few success stories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,653 | The blockchain has also given rise to [[initial coin offering]]s (ICOs) as well as a new category of digital asset called security token offerings (STOs), also sometimes referred to as digital security offerings (DSOs). STO/DSOs may be conducted privately or on public, regulated stock exchange and are used to tokenize traditional assets such as company shares as well as more innovative ones like intellectual property, real estate, art, or individual products. A number of companies are active in this space providing services for compliant [[Tokenization (data security)|tokenization]], private STOs, and public STOs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,654 | Blockchain technology, such as cryptocurrencies and [[non-fungible token]]s (NFTs), has been used in video games for [[video game monetization|monetization]]. Many [[Games as a service|live-service games]] offer in-game customization options, such as character skins or other in-game items, which the players can earn and trade with other players using in-game currency. Some games also allow for trading of virtual items using real-world currency, but this may be illegal in some countries where video games are seen as akin to gambling, and has led to [[gray market]] issues such as [[skin gambling]], and thus publishers typically have shied away from allowing players to earn real-world funds from games. Blockchain games typically allow players to trade these in-game items for cryptocurrency, which can then be exchanged for money. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,655 | The first known game to use blockchain technologies was "[[CryptoKitties]]", launched in November 2017, where the player would purchase NFTs with Ethereum cryptocurrency, each NFT consisting of a [[virtual pet]] that the player could breed with others to create offspring with combined traits as new NFTs. The game made headlines in December 2017 when one virtual pet sold for more than [[United States dollar|US$]]100,000. "CryptoKitties" also illustrated scalability problems for games on Ethereum when it created significant congestion on the Ethereum network in early 2018 with approximately 30% of all Ethereum transactions being for the game. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,656 | By the early 2020s, there had not been a breakout success in video games using blockchain, as these games tend to focus on using blockchain for speculation instead of more traditional forms of gameplay, which offers limited appeal to most players. Such games also represent a high risk to investors as their revenues can be difficult to predict. However, limited successes of some games, such as "[[Axie Infinity]]" during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and corporate plans towards [[metaverse]] content, refueled interest in the area of GameFi, a term describing the intersection of video games and financing typically backed by blockchain currency, in the second half of 2021. Several major publishers, including [[Ubisoft]], [[Electronic Arts]], and [[Take Two Interactive]], have stated that blockchain and NFT-based games are under serious consideration for their companies in the future. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,657 | In October 2021, [[Valve Corporation]] banned blockchain games, including those using cryptocurrency and [[Non-fungible token|NFTs]], from being hosted on its [[Steam (service)|Steam]] digital storefront service, which is widely used for personal computer gaming, claiming that this was an extension of their policy banning games that offered in-game items with real-world value. Valve's prior history with [[gambling]], specifically [[skin gambling]], was speculated to be a factor in the decision to ban blockchain games. Journalists and players responded positively to Valve's decision as blockchain and NFT games have a reputation for scams and fraud among most PC gamers, [[Epic Games]], which runs the [[Epic Games Store]] in competition to Steam, said that they would be open to accepted blockchain games, in the wake of Valve's refusal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,658 | There are several different efforts to offer [[domain name]] services via the blockchain. These domain names can be controlled by the use of a private key, which purports to allow for uncensorable websites. This would also bypass a registrar's ability to suppress domains used for fraud, abuse, or illegal content. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,659 | [[Namecoin]] is a cryptocurrency that supports the ".bit" [[top-level domain]] (TLD). Namecoin was forked from bitcoin in 2011. The .bit TLD is not sanctioned by [[ICANN]], instead requiring an [[alternative DNS root]]. As of 2015, it was used by 28 websites, out of 120,000 registered names. Namecoin was dropped by [[OpenNIC]] in 2019, due to malware and potential other legal issues. Other blockchain alternatives to ICANN include The Handshake Network, EmerDNS, and Unstoppable Domains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,660 | Specific TLDs include ".eth", ".luxe", and ".kred", which are associated with the Ethereum blockchain through the Ethereum Name Service (ENS). The .kred TLD also acts as an alternative to conventional [[cryptocurrency wallet]] addresses, as a convenience for transferring cryptocurrency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,661 | Blockchain technology can be used to create a permanent, public, transparent ledger system for compiling data on sales, tracking digital use and payments to content creators, such as wireless users or musicians. The Gartner 2019 CIO Survey reported 2% of higher education respondents had launched blockchain projects and another 18% were planning academic projects in the next 24 months. In 2017, [[IBM]] partnered with [[ASCAP]] and [[PRS for Music]] to adopt blockchain technology in music distribution. [[Imogen Heap]]'s Mycelia service has also been proposed as a blockchain-based alternative "that gives artists more control over how their songs and associated data circulate among fans and other musicians." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,662 | New distribution methods are available for the [[insurance]] industry such as [[peer-to-peer insurance]], [[parametric insurance]] and [[microinsurance]] following the adoption of blockchain. The [[sharing economy]] and [[Internet of Things|IoT]] are also set to benefit from blockchains because they involve many collaborating peers. The use of blockchain in libraries is being studied with a grant from the U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,663 | Other blockchain designs include [[Hyperledger]], a collaborative effort from the [[Linux Foundation]] to support blockchain-based distributed ledgers, with projects under this initiative including Hyperledger Burrow (by Monax) and Hyperledger Fabric (spearheaded by IBM). Another is Quorum, a permissionable private blockchain by [[JPMorgan Chase]] with private storage, used for contract applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,664 | [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] introduced a blockchain table feature in its [[Oracle database|Oracle 21c database]]. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,665 | Blockchain could be used in detecting counterfeits by associating unique identifiers to products, documents and shipments, and storing records associated with transactions that cannot be forged or altered. It is however argued that blockchain technology needs to be supplemented with technologies that provide a strong binding between physical objects and blockchain systems. The [[European Union Intellectual Property Office|EUIPO]] established an Anti-Counterfeiting Blockathon Forum, with the objective of "defining, piloting and implementing" an anti-counterfeiting infrastructure at the European level. The Dutch Standardisation organisation NEN uses blockchain together with [[QR code|QR Codes]] to authenticate certificates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,666 | 2022 Jan 30 Beijing and Shanghai are among the cities designated by China to trial blockchain applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,667 | With the increasing number of blockchain systems appearing, even only those that support cryptocurrencies, blockchain interoperability is becoming a topic of major importance. The objective is to support transferring assets from one blockchain system to another blockchain system. Wegner stated that "[[interoperability]] is the ability of two or more software components to cooperate despite differences in language, interface, and execution platform". The objective of blockchain interoperability is therefore to support such cooperation among blockchain systems, despite those kinds of differences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,668 | There are already several blockchain interoperability solutions available. They can be classified into three categories: cryptocurrency interoperability approaches, blockchain engines, and blockchain connectors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,669 | Several individual IETF participants produced the draft of a blockchain interoperability architecture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,670 | Some cryptocurrencies use blockchain mining — the peer-to-peer computer computations by which transactions are validated and verified. This requires a large amount of energy. In June 2018 the [[Bank for International Settlements]] criticized the use of public [[proof-of-work]] blockchains for their high energy consumption. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,671 | Early concern over the high energy consumption was a factor in later blockchains such as [[Cardano (blockchain platform)|Cardano]] (2017), [[Solana (blockchain platform)|Solana]] (2020) and [[Polkadot (cryptocurrency)|Polkadot]] (2020) adopting the less energy-intensive [[proof of stake|proof-of-stake]] model. Researchers have estimated that Bitcoin consumes 100,000 times as much energy as proof-of-stake networks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,672 | In 2021, a study by [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] determined that Bitcoin (at 121 terawatt-hours per year) used more electricity than Argentina (at 121TWh) and the Netherlands (109TWh). According to Digiconomist, one bitcoin transaction required 708 kilowatt-hours of electrical energy, the amount an average U.S. household consumed in 24 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,673 | In February 2021, U.S. Treasury secretary [[Janet Yellen]] called Bitcoin "an extremely inefficient way to conduct transactions", saying "the amount of energy consumed in processing those transactions is staggering". In March 2021, [[Bill Gates]] stated that "Bitcoin uses more electricity per transaction than any other method known to mankind", adding "It's not a great climate thing." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,674 | Nicholas Weaver, of the [[International Computer Science Institute]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], examined blockchain's online security, and the energy efficiency of proof-of-work public blockchains, and in both cases found it grossly inadequate. The 31TWh-45TWh of electricity used for bitcoin in 2018 produced 17-23 million tonnes of . By 2022, the University of Cambridge and Digiconomist estimated that the two largest proof-of-work blockchains, Bitcoin and Ethereum, together used twice as much electricity in one year as the whole of Sweden, leading to the release of up to 120 million tonnes of each year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,675 | Some cryptocurrency developers are considering moving from the [[proof of work|proof-of-work]] model to the [[proof of stake|proof-of-stake]] model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,676 | In October 2014, the MIT Bitcoin Club, with funding from MIT alumni, provided undergraduate students at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] access to $100 of bitcoin. The adoption rates, as studied by [[Christian Catalini|Catalini]] and [[Catherine Tucker|Tucker]] (2016), revealed that when people who typically adopt technologies early are given delayed access, they tend to reject the technology. Many universities have founded departments focusing on crypto and blockchain, including [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], in 2017. In the same year, [[university of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] became "one of the first big European universities to launch a blockchain course", according to the "Financial Times". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,677 | Motivations for adopting blockchain technology (an aspect of [[Diffusion of innovations|innovation adoptation]]) have been investigated by researchers. For example, Janssen, et al. provided a framework for analysis, and Koens & Poll pointed out that adoption could be heavily driven by non-technical factors. Based on behavioral models, Li has discussed the differences between adoption at the individual level and organizational levels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,678 | Scholars in business and management have started studying the role of blockchains to support collaboration. It has been argued that blockchains can foster both cooperation (i.e., prevention of opportunistic behavior) and coordination (i.e., communication and information sharing). Thanks to reliability, transparency, traceability of records, and information immutability, blockchains facilitate collaboration in a way that differs both from the traditional use of contracts and from relational norms. Contrary to contracts, blockchains do not directly rely on the legal system to enforce agreements. In addition, contrary to the use of relational norms, blockchains do not require a trust or direct connections between collaborators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,679 | The need for internal audits to provide effective oversight of organizational efficiency will require a change in the way that information is accessed in new formats. Blockchain adoption requires a framework to identify the risk of exposure associated with transactions using blockchain. The [[Institute of Internal Auditors]] has identified the need for internal auditors to address this transformational technology. New methods are required to develop audit plans that identify threats and risks. The Internal Audit Foundation study, "Blockchain and Internal Audit," assesses these factors. The [[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]] has outlined new roles for auditors as a result of blockchain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,680 | In September 2015, the first peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to cryptocurrency and blockchain technology research, "Ledger", was announced. The inaugural issue was published in December 2016. The journal covers aspects of [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[engineering]], [[law]], [[economics]] and [[philosophy]] that relate to cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,681 | The journal encourages authors to [[Digital signature|digitally sign]] a [[Hash function|file hash]] of submitted papers, which are then [[Trusted timestamping|timestamped]] into the bitcoin blockchain. Authors are also asked to include a personal bitcoin address on the first page of their papers for non-repudiation purposes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44065971 |
6,682 | Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module "Eagle" on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module "Columbia" in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin "Columbia". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,683 | Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,684 | After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into "Eagle" and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used "Eagle"s ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned "Eagle" before they performed the maneuvers that propelled "Columbia" out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,685 | Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,686 | In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic and technological superiority. This precipitated the Sputnik crisis, and triggered the Space Race to prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and initiating Project Mercury, which aimed to launch a man into Earth orbit. But on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth. Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, John F. Kennedy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,687 | Since the Soviet Union had higher lift capacity launch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,688 | On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the United States Congress on "Urgent National Needs" and declared: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,689 | On September 12, 1962, Kennedy delivered another speech before a crowd of about 40,000 people in the Rice University football stadium in Houston, Texas. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,690 | In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a "moondoggle" by Norbert Wiener, a mathematician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: Project Apollo. When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev, the Premier of the Soviet Union in June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer. Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly on September 20, 1963. The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,691 | An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single Saturn V rocket that was then under development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,692 | Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,693 | Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent investigation. In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, Apollo 9 put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit, and in May Apollo 10 conducted a "dress rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,694 | The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched Luna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories radio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,695 | The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on the backup crew for Apollo9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo8 and Apollo9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,696 | There would be one change. Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience, the first being Apollo 10. The next was STS-26 in 1988. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,697 | Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,698 | The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship. Aldrin and Collins described the crew as "amiable strangers". Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said "... all the crews I was on worked very well together." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
6,699 | The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=662 |
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