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6,800 | Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life. Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who wo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,801 | When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini. He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,802 | Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, an important physician, professor, and politician in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,803 | When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as Galileo Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, an elite pro-science organization in Italy. It was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname. Hence, G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,804 | The biblical roots of Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered against Galileo a controversial and influential sermon. In it he made a point of quoting Acts , "Ye men of Galilee,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,805 | Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born 1606). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,806 | Due to their illegitimate birth, Galileo considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,807 | Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchiner... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,808 | Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence. In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,809 | In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. During this period, Galileo made significant discov... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,810 | Tycho Brahe and others had observed the supernova of 1572. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to Galileo brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo observed and discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,811 | Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification. With a Galilean telescope, the observe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,812 | On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the Moon. While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done it four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"), Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,813 | A friend of Galileo's, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,814 | On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,815 | Galileo's observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,816 | From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibits a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the Solar System developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Ea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,817 | In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,818 | Galileo observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,819 | Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots. Their existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, also provided... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,820 | Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,821 | In the "Starry Messenger", Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his "Letters on Sunspots", he reported that the telescope revealed the shape... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,822 | In his "Dialogue", he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about / arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,823 | Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun". Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide such evidence. This theory was so important to him that he original... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,824 | For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. His theory gave ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,825 | If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,826 | In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published "The Assayer" ("Il Saggiatore") in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,827 | Because "The Assayer" contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, "An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618", which discussed the nature of a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,828 | Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, "Discourse on Comets", published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself. Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,829 | "The Assayer" was Galileo's devastating reply to the "Astronomical Balance". It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature, in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn. It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been ded... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,830 | Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits, and Galileo and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation, although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,831 | At the time of Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the Earth is the center of the Universe and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism. Opposition to heliocentrism and Galile... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,832 | Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609. In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth. Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a letter to Castel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,833 | By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism. Lorini specifically cit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,834 | In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ...... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,835 | For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the admonition of Galileo in 1616. Galileo's res... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,836 | Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", was o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,837 | Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,838 | Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,839 | According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until rest... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,840 | After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the Seven Penitential Psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his dau... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,841 | It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, "Two New Sciences". Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book was highly praised... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,842 | Dava Sobel argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,843 | Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,844 | These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested, because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy". He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern tra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,845 | Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,846 | Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In "The Assayer", he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;..." His mat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,847 | Galileo showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galileo further asserted that the parabola was the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,848 | Using his refracting telescope, Galileo observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth. Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter. Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other pla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,849 | Galileo made studies of sunspots, the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,850 | Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, as distinct from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a geometric and military compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,851 | In 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,852 | In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani, at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Ce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,853 | In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the rema... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,854 | Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding. In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the Bisenzio River near Florence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,855 | Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,856 | Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,857 | Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,858 | A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass. This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,859 | In his 1638 "Discorsi", Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius and Simon Stevin. Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,860 | Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance traveled during a uniform accelerat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,861 | He also concluded that objects "retain their velocity" in the absence of any impediments to their motion, thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to ac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,862 | While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion square root method passed down from Fibonacci and Archimedes. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,863 | The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned "Dialogue") in Florence. In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,864 | Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century, when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of the flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholicism. Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Ponti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,865 | On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome, Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today"... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,866 | On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II acknowledged that the Church had erred in condemning Galileo for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned Galileo did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,867 | In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls. In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,868 | According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else, and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,869 | Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,870 | Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy. A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body respo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,871 | Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody". He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls and Amy Grant's "Galileo" on her "Heart in Motion" album. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,872 | Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including "Life of Galileo" (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and "Lamp at Midnight" (1947) by Barrie Stavis, as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,873 | Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled "Galileo's Dream" (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future and contains a great deal of biographical infor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,874 | Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,875 | Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled "The Little Balance" ("La Billancetta") describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water and the 1606 printed manual "Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare" on the operation of a geometrical and military c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,876 | His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his "circa" 1590 Pisan "De Motu" (On Motion) and his "circa" 1600 Paduan "Le Meccaniche" (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,877 | Galileo's 1610 "The Starry Messenger" ("Sidereus Nuncius") was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,878 | Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled "Letters on Sunspots" suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The "Letters on Sunspots" also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puz... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,879 | In 1623, Galileo published "The Assayer—Il Saggiatore", which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church. Following the success... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,880 | In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at Villa Il Gioiello, on the outskirts of Florence. Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,881 | With his past experience, Galileo may have feared that his collection of books and manuscripts would be seized by the authorities and burned, as no reference to such items was made in his last will and testament. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,882 | Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by Vincenzo Viviani, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. Unfortunately, it was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant po... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,883 | A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of Galileo and those of his peers Evangelista Torricelli and Benedetto Castelli, were left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,884 | The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government. Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscrip... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 |
6,885 | The Boeing F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornet are twin-engine, carrier-capable, multirole fighter aircraft variants based on the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F tandem-seat variants are larger and more advanced derivatives of the F/A-18C and D Hornet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,886 | The Super Hornet has an internal 20 mm M61 rotary cannon and can carry air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface weapons. Additional fuel can be carried in up to five external fuel tanks and the aircraft can be configured as an airborne tanker by adding an external air-to-air refueling system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,887 | Designed and initially produced by McDonnell Douglas, the Super Hornet first flew in 1995. Low-rate production began in early 1997 with full-rate production starting in September 1997, after the merger of McDonnell Douglas and Boeing the previous month. The Super Hornet entered fleet service with the United States Navy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,888 | The Super Hornet is a redesign of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The wing and tail configuration trace its origin to a Northrop prototype aircraft, the P-530, , which began as a rework of the lightweight Northrop F-5E (with a larger wing, twin tail fins and a distinctive leading edge root extension, or LERX). Lat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,889 | The Navy directed that the YF-17 be redesigned into the larger F/A-18 Hornet to meet a requirement for a multi-role fighter to complement the larger and more expensive Grumman F-14 Tomcat serving in fleet defense interceptor and air superiority roles. The Hornet proved to be effective but limited in combat radius. The ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,890 | The end of the Cold War led to a period of military budget cuts and considerable restructuring. At the same time, U.S. Naval Aviation faced a number of problems. The McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II was canceled in 1991 after the program ran into serious problems; it was intended to replace the obsolete Grumman A-6 In... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,891 | At the time, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat was the Navy's primary air superiority fighter and fleet defense interceptor. Then-Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney described the F-14 as 1960s technology, and drastically cut back F-14D procurement in 1989 before cancelling production altogether in 1991, in favor of the updated F/A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,892 | The Super Hornet was first ordered by the U.S. Navy in 1992. The Navy retained the F/A-18 designation to help sell the program to Congress as a low-risk "derivative", though the Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft. The Hornet and Super Hornet share many characteristics, including avionics, ejection seats, radar, arm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,893 | The Super Hornet first flew on 29 November 1995. Initial production on the F/A-18E/F began in 1995. Flight testing started in 1996 with the F/A-18E/F's first carrier landing in 1997. Low-rate production began in March 1997 with full production beginning in September 1997. Testing continued through 1999, finishing with ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,894 | With the retirement of the F-14 in 2006, all of the Navy's combat jets have been Hornet variants until the F-35C Lightning II entered service. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F two-seat aircraft took the place of the F-14 Tomcat, A-6 Intruder, Lockheed S-3 Viking, and KA-6D aircraft. An electronic warfare variant, th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,895 | The Block II Super Hornet incorporates an improved active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, larger displays, the joint helmet mounted cueing system, and several other avionics replacements. Avionics and weapons systems that were under development for the prospective production version of the Boeing X-32 were u... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,896 | In 2008, Boeing discussed the development of a Super Hornet Block III with the U.S. and Australian military, featuring additional stealth capabilities and extended range. In 2010, Boeing offered prospective Super Hornet customers the "International Roadmap", which included conformal fuel tanks, enhanced engines, an enc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,897 | In 2007, Boeing stated that a passive Infrared Search and Track (IRST) sensor would be an available future option. The sensor, mounted in a modified centerline fuel tank, detects long wave IR emissions to spot and track targets such as aircraft; combat using the IRST and AIM-9X Sidewinder missiles is immune to radar ja... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,898 | Boeing and Northrop Grumman self-funded a prototype of the Advanced Super Hornet. The prototype features a 50% reduction in frontal radar cross-section (RCS), conformal fuel tanks (CFT), and an enclosed weapons pod. Features could also be integrated onto the EA-18G Growler: using CFTs on the EA-18G fleet was speculated... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,899 | In 2013, the U.S. Navy was considering the widespread adoption of CFTs, which would allow the Super Hornet to carry of additional fuel. Budgetary pressures from the F-35C Lightning II and Pacific region operations were cited as reasons supporting the use of CFTs. Flight testing demonstrated CFTs could slightly reduce d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
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