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= Byne 's disease =
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Byne 's disease , more accurately known as Bynesian decay , is a peculiar and permanently damaging condition ( resulting from an ongoing chemical reaction ) which often attacks mollusk shells that are in storage or on display for long periods of time .
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Bynesian decay is a form of efflorescence of salts formed by the reaction of acidic vapors with the basic shell surface . The efflorescence can sometimes superficially resemble a growth of mold . Although first described in the early 19th century , Bynesian decay was not well understood until almost a hundred years la... |
In addition to mollusk shells , various other natural history specimens are susceptible to this form of decay , including eggshells and some fossils and mineral samples that are composed of calcium carbonate . This condition is of concern for museum scientists , and also for anyone who has a private collection of spec... |
= = Appearance = =
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Byne 's disease can appear as a powdery white coating on a shell . It also often looks as if a shell has been " infected " with mold ; however , under magnification the mold @-@ like appearance is revealed to be a crystalline growth of salts .
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= = History = =
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In 1839 , the British naturalist and malacologist Thomas Brown ( 1785 – 1862 ) briefly mentioned this form of deterioration in his book A Conchologist 's Text @-@ Book . Agnes Kenyon also described the condition in 1896 , suggesting that " saline particles in the atmosphere [ were ] evidently exerting a corrosive effe... |
Origin of the name
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In 1899 , the British amateur conchologist and naturalist Loftus St. George Byne ( 1872 – 1947 ) described this condition , in a presentation to the Conchological Society of Great Britain in Ireland , and did so again in another presentation in June of that same year .
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Byne was convinced that butyric acid was present together with calcium acetate in the affected shells , although he never really described the methods he used in the so @-@ called " extensive chemical tests " he claimed to have applied to these specimens . Among other conclusions , he assumed that the butyric acid ori... |
Clarification and resolution
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The true nature of the " disease " was partially clarified in 1934 , when the British government chemist John Ralph Nicholls explained that oak cabinets at the Natural History Museum in London were giving off acetic acid fumes , which were attacking the shells stored in them .
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In 1985 , almost 150 years after the Byne 's disease was first mentioned in the literature , Norman H. Tennent and Thomas Baird published an extensive study on the subject . Their deep analysis , involving many complex and sophisticated techniques such as X @-@ Ray diffraction , infrared spectroscopy , thermogravimetr... |
= = Chemistry = =
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Bynesian decay usually starts when specimens are stored or displayed for considerable periods of time in an enclosed space . The storage method itself usually causes this problem , when containers , cabinets or display cases are entirely or partially made of wood , plywood or other wood products such as Masonite , or ... |
Other potentially damaging materials include non @-@ archival quality cardboard , card , paper , cotton and cork , all of which give off acidic vapors over time . PVC and polyurethane plastics are also a problem , as they degrade and give off acidic vapors with time . High humidity of the air is a significant contribu... |
Generally , in cabinets or display cases that are entirely or partially made of wood , the hydrolysis of acetyl groups in the wood hemicelluloses creates acetic acid . The rate at which the acetic acid is produced is proportional to the concentration of esters in the wood , the humidity , the temperature , and the ove... |
In the first case , acetic acid reacts with the calcium carbonate ( one of the main components of freshwater , marine and land shells , birds ' eggs and other such specimens ) producing calcium acetate , a salt . Formaldehyde can be oxidized by the oxygen in air to create formic acid , which then has basically the sam... |
The calcium carbonate and acetic acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
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CaCO3 + 2CH3COOH → Ca ( CH3COO ) 2 + H2O + CO2
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Calcium carbonate and formic acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
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CaCO3 + 2CH2O2 → Ca ( HCOO ) 2 + H2O + CO2
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Calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
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CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
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In this last reaction , calcium carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid and produce calcium sulfate , water and carbon dioxide .
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= = Prevention = =
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When specimens are to be placed in any size of container for long @-@ term storage or display , the consistent use of only archival @-@ quality materials prevents the development of Byne 's disease . Thus , materials such as metal cabinets and display cases , archival quality paper labels and card trays are used in mu... |
It is also worth mentioning that sea shells , after collecting , need to be washed thoroughly in freshwater to remove the salt that is on and in the shell , and then dried thoroughly before they are stored . Salt attracts moisture and makes shells more vulnerable to Bynesian decay .
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The following is a chart that shows non @-@ archival materials and their archival equivalents :
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If possible , the use of wood and cellulose derivatives should be avoided entirely . Many varnishes and paints are well known emitters of volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) , some of which may be acidic , and thus have the potential to damage calcium carbonate specimens . Because of this , these coatings should also ... |
Because the reactions involved in Bynesian decay require a certain quantity of moisture in the air in order for them to take place , keeping the air somewhat dry , i.e. keeping the environmental relative humidity under control is beneficial . This is achieved by careful monitoring of the relative humidity ( using inst... |
= = Management = =
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The damage to specimens is unfortunately not reversible ; however , the decay can be arrested by washing or soaking the specimens in water , followed by a very thorough drying . The specimens must then be placed in an environment that consists of only archival materials , in a completely archival setting .
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= = Pyrite disease = =
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In collections which contain fossils , high humidity can also affect pyrite ( or its more reactive polymorph marcasite ) ( iron sulphide ) fossils in a somewhat similar condition , which is known as pyrite disease . The iron sulfide can react with water and oxygen to form iron sulfates and sulfuric acid , which then c... |
= R. K. Narayan =
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R. K. Narayan ( 10 October 1906 – 13 May 2001 ) , full name Rasipuram Krishnaswami Iyer Narayanaswami , is an Indian writer , best known for his works set in the fictional South Indian town of Malgudi . He is a leading author of early Indian literature in English , along with Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao .
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Narayan 's mentor and friend , Graham Greene was instrumental in getting publishers for Narayan ’ s first four books , including the semi @-@ autobiographical trilogy of Swami and Friends , The Bachelor of Arts and The English Teacher . The fictional town of Malgudi , was first introduced in Swami and Friends . Naraya... |
Narayan highlights the social context and everyday life of his characters , and he has been compared to William Faulkner , who also created a similar fictional town , and likewise explored with humour and compassion the energy of ordinary life . Narayan 's short stories have been compared with those of Guy de Maupassa... |
In a career that spanned over sixty years , Narayan received many awards and honours , including the AC Benson Medal from the Royal Society of Literature , the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Vibhushan , India 's third and second highest civilian awards . He was also nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of India... |
= = Life and career = =
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= = = Early days = = =
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R. K. Narayan was born in Madras ( now Chennai ) , British India . His father was a school headmaster , and Narayan did some of his studies at his father 's school . As his father 's job entailed frequent transfers , Narayan spent part of his childhood under the care of his maternal grandmother , Parvati . During this... |
His grandmother gave him the nickname of Kunjappa , a name that stuck to him in family circles . She taught him arithmetic , mythology , classical Indian music and Sanskrit . According to his youngest brother R. K. Laxman , the family mostly conversed in English , and grammatical errors on the part of Narayan and his ... |
Narayan moved to Mysore to live with his family when his father was transferred to the Maharajah 's College High School . The well @-@ stocked library at the school , as well as his father 's own , fed his reading habit , and he started writing as well . After completing high school , Narayan failed the university ent... |
= = = Turning point = = =
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While vacationing at his sister 's house in Coimbatore , in 1933 , Narayan met and fell in love with Rajam , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl who lived nearby . Despite many astrological and financial obstacles , Narayan managed to gain permission from the girl 's father and married her . Following his marriage , Narayan be... |
In his first three books , Narayan highlights the problems with certain socially accepted practices . The first book has Narayan focusing on the plight of students , punishments of caning in the classroom , and the associated shame . The concept of horoscope @-@ matching in Hindu marriages and the emotional toll it le... |
Rajam died of typhoid in 1939 . Her death affected Narayan deeply and he remained depressed for a long time ; he was also concerned for their daughter Hema , who was only three years old . The bereavement brought about a significant change in his life and was the inspiration behind his next novel , The English Teacher... |
Bolstered by some of his successes , in 1940 Narayan tried his hand at a journal , Indian Thought . With the help of his uncle , a car salesman , Narayan managed to get more than a thousand subscribers in Madras city alone . However , the venture did not last long due to Narayan 's inability to manage it , and it ceas... |
= = = The busy years = = =
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After The English Teacher , Narayan 's writings took a more imaginative and creative external style compared to the semi @-@ autobiographical tone of the earlier novels . His next effort , Mr. Sampath , was the first book exhibiting this modified approach . However , it still draws from some of his own experiences , p... |
In 1953 , his works were published in the United States for the first time , by Michigan State University Press , who later ( in 1958 ) , relinquished the rights to Viking Press . While Narayan 's writings often bring out the anomalies in social structures and views , he was himself a traditionalist ; in February 1956... |
Occasionally , Narayan was known to give form to his thoughts by way of essays , some published in newspapers and journals , others not . Next Sunday ( 1960 ) , was a collection of such conversational essays , and his first work to be published as a book . Soon after that , My Dateless Diary , describing experiences f... |
Narayan 's next novel , The Man @-@ Eater of Malgudi , was published in 1961 . The book was reviewed as having a narrative that is a classical art form of comedy , with delicate control . After the launch of this book , the restless Narayan once again took to travelling , and visited the U.S. and Australia . He spent ... |
In 1964 , Narayan published his first mythological work , Gods , Demons and Others , a collection of rewritten and translated short stories from Hindu epics . Like many of his other works , this book was illustrated by his younger brother R. K. Laxman . The stories included were a selective list , chosen on the basis ... |
Narayan 's next published work was the 1967 novel , The Vendor of Sweets . It was inspired in part by his American visits and consists of extreme characterizations of both the Indian and American stereotypes , drawing on the many cultural differences . However , while it displays his characteristic comedy and narrativ... |
= = = The later years = = =
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Narayan was commissioned by the government of Karnataka to write a book to promote tourism in the state . The work was published as part of a larger government publication in the late 1970s . He thought it deserved better , and republished it as The Emerald Route ( Indian Thought Publications , 1980 ) . The book conta... |
In 1983 , Narayan published his next novel , A Tiger for Malgudi , about a tiger and its relationship with humans . His next novel , Talkative Man , published in 1986 , was the tale of an aspiring journalist from Malgudi . During this time , he also published two collections of short stories : Malgudi Days ( 1982 ) , ... |
Living alone in Mysore , Narayan developed an interest in agriculture . He bought an acre of agricultural land and tried his hand at farming . He was also prone to walking to the market every afternoon , not so much for buying things , but to interact with the people . In a typical afternoon stroll , he would stop eve... |
In 1980 , Narayan was nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of the Indian Parliament , for his contributions to literature . During his entire six @-@ year term , he was focused on one issue — the plight of school children , especially the heavy load of school books and the negative effect of the system on a ... |
In 1990 , he published his next novel , The World of Nagaraj , also set in Malgudi . Narayan 's age shows in this work as he appears to skip narrative details that he would have included if this were written earlier in his career . Soon after he finished the novel , Narayan fell ill and moved to Madras to be close to ... |
During his final years , Narayan , ever fond of conversation , would spend almost every evening with N. Ram , the publisher of The Hindu , drinking coffee and talking about various topics until well past midnight . Despite his fondness of meeting and talking to people , he stopped giving interviews . The apathy toward... |
In May 2001 , Narayan was hospitalised . A few hours before he was to be put on a ventilator , he was planning on writing his next novel , a story about a grandfather . As he was always very selective about his choice of notebooks , he asked N. Ram to get him one . However , Narayan did not get better and never starte... |
= = Literary review = =
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= = = Writing style = = =
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