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Arboreal woodpeckers , which depend on their tails — particularly the strong central pair of rectrices — for support while they feed , have a unique tail moult . Rather than moulting their central tail feathers first , as most birds do , they retain these feathers until last . Instead the second pair of rectrices ( bo... |
= = Age differences in flight feathers = =
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There are often substantial differences between the remiges and rectrices of adults and juveniles of the same species . Because all juvenile feathers are grown at once — a tremendous energy burden to the developing bird — they are softer and of poorer quality than the equivalent feathers of adults , which are moulted ... |
As feathers grow at variable rates , these variations lead to visible dark and light bands in the fully formed feather . These so @-@ called growth bars and their widths have been used to determine the daily nutritional status of birds . Each light and dark bar correspond to around 24 hours and the use of this techniq... |
In general , juveniles have feathers which are narrower and more sharply pointed at the tip . This can be particularly visible when the bird is in flight , especially in the case of raptors . The trailing edge of the wing of a juvenile bird can appear almost serrated , due to the feathers ' sharp tips , while that of ... |
The flight feathers of adults and juveniles can differ considerably in length , particularly among the raptors . Overall , juveniles tend to have slightly longer rectrices , and shorter , broader wings ( with shorter outer primaries , and longer inner primaries and secondaries ) than do adults of the same species . Ho... |
= = Wing formula = =
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A wing formula describes the shape of distal end of a bird 's wing in a mathematical way . It can be used to help distinguish between species with similar plumages , and thus is particularly useful for those who ring ( band ) birds .
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To determine a bird 's wing formula , the distance between the tip of the most distal primary and the tip of its greater covert ( the longest of the feathers that cover and protect the shaft of that primary ) is measured in millimeters . In some cases , this results in a positive number ( e.g. , the primary extends be... |
While there can be considerable variation across members of a species — and while the results are obviously impacted by the effects of moult and feather regeneration — even very closely related species show clear differences in their wing formulas .
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= = Primary extension = =
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The distance that a bird 's longest primaries extend beyond its longest secondaries ( or tertials ) when its wings are folded is referred to as the primary extension or primary projection . As with wing formulae , this measurement is useful for distinguishing between similarly plumaged birds ; however , unlike wing fo... |
As a general rule , species which are long distance migrants will have longer primary projection than similar species which do not migrate or migrate shorter distances .
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= Coprinellus micaceus =
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Coprinellus micaceus is a common species of fungus in the family Psathyrellaceae with a cosmopolitan distribution . The fruit bodies of the saprobe typically grow in clusters on or near rotting hardwood tree stumps or underground tree roots . Depending on their stage of development , the tawny @-@ brown mushroom caps ... |
The microscopic characteristics and cytogenetics of C. micaceus are well known , and it has been used frequently as a model organism to study cell division and meiosis in Basidiomycetes . Chemical analysis of the fruit bodies has revealed the presence of antibacterial and enzyme @-@ inhibiting compounds . Formerly kno... |
= = History and taxonomy = =
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Coprinellus micaeus was illustrated in a woodcut by the 16th @-@ century botanist Carolus Clusius in what is arguably the first published monograph on fungi , the 1601 Rariorum plantarum historia . Fungorum in Pannoniis observatorum brevis historia ( History of rare plants . Brief history of fungi observed in Pannonia... |
Due partly to their ready availability and the ease with which they may be grown in the laboratory , C. micaceus and other coprinoid mushrooms were common subjects in cytological studies of the 19th and 20th centuries . The German botanist Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link reported his observations of the structure of th... |
The specific epithet micaceus is derived from the Latin word mica , for " crumb , grain of salt " and the suffix -aceus , " like , similar " ; the modern application of " mica " to a very different substance comes from the influence of micare , " glitter " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " shiny cap " , the " ... |
= = Description = =
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The cap is initially 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , oval to cylindrical , but expands to become campanulate ( bell @-@ shaped ) , sometimes with an umbo ( a central nipple @-@ like protrusion ) ; finally it flattens somewhat , becoming convex . When expanded , the cap diameter reaches 0 @.@ 8 – ... |
The gills are crowded together closely , and have an adnexed ( narrow ) attachment to the stem . Initially white , they change color to dark brown then eventually black as the spores mature . Expansion of the cap causes the gills to split open down their median planes , tearing the cap margin into rays . The process o... |
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
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The spores of C. micaceus are reddish @-@ brown , with dimensions of 7 – 10 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 µm . Generally , they are lentiform ( shaped like a biconvex lens ) , but viewed from the side they appear more almond @-@ shaped or spindle @-@ shaped , while in front view they appear oval or mitriform ( roughly the shape of a... |
Cystidia that are located along the edge of the cap ( called cheilocystidia ) are spherical , and 30 – 120 by 20 – 74 µm . The facial cystidia ( called pleurocystidia ) are club @-@ shaped or elongated ellipses , up to 130 – 155 µm in length . The pleurocystidia protrude from the face of the gill and act as guards , p... |
The globular cells that make up the mica @-@ resembling scales on the cap are colorless , smooth @-@ walled , and range in size from about 25 – 65 µm , although most are between 40 – 50 µm . Buller explained the " glitter " of these cells as follows : " The sparkling of the meal @-@ cells , as well as of the cystidia ... |
In 1914 , Michael Levine was the first to report successfully cultivating C. micaceus from spores in the laboratory . In his experiments , fruit bodies appeared roughly 40 to 60 days after initially inoculating the growth media ( agar supplemented with soil , horse dung , or cornmeal ) with spores . Like other coprino... |
= = = Edibility = = =
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Coprinellus micaceus is an edible species , and cooking inactivates the enzymes that cause autodigestion or deliquescence — a process that can begin as soon as one hour after collection . It is considered ideal for omelettes , and as a flavor for sauces , although it is " a very delicate species easily spoiled by over... |
A study of the mineral contents of various edible mushrooms found that C. micaceus contained the highest concentration of potassium in the 34 species tested , close to half a gram of potassium per kilogram of mushroom . Because the species can bioaccumulate detrimental heavy metals like lead and cadmium , it has been ... |
= = = Similar species = = =
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The edible Coprinellus bisporus is nearly identical but lacks the yellowish cap granules and only has two spores per basidium . The scaly inky cap ( Coprinus variegatus = Coprinus quadrifidus ) has a grayish @-@ brown cap with dull white to brownish scales ; its odor is disagreeable . The trooping crumble cap ( Coprin... |
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
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Coprinellus micaceus is a saprotrophic species , deriving nutrients from dead and decomposing organic matter , and grows in and around stumps or logs of broad @-@ leaved trees or attached to buried wood . It prefers feeding on bark , particularly the secondary phloem , rather than the wood . In the scheme of the succe... |
Fruit bodies are commonly found growing in dense clusters , but can also be found growing singly or in small clumps , especially in forested areas . In North America , C. micaceus is one of the first edible mushrooms to appear in the spring , and fruits from May to September . In Europe , it fruits from May to Decembe... |
Coprinellus micaceus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been collected in northern Africa , South Africa , Europe ( including Turkey ) , North America ( as far north as Alaska ) , the Hawaiian islands , South America , India , Australia , New Zealand , and Japan . Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA sequences from sp... |
= = Bioactive compounds = =
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Research into the natural product chemistry of Coprinellus micaceus has revealed the presence of several chemical compounds unique to the species . Micaceol is a sterol with " modest " antibacterial activity against the pathogens Corynebacterium xerosis and Staphylococcus aureus . The compound ( Z , Z ) -4 @-@ oxo @-@... |
= = = Cited books = = =
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Arora D. ( 1986 ) . Mushrooms Demystified : a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley , California : Ten Speed Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 89815 @-@ 169 @-@ 4 .
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Buller AH . ( 1924 ) . " Chapter XI : The micaceus sub @-@ type illustrated by Coprinus micaceus " . Researches on Fungi III . London , UK : Longmans , Green , and Co. pp. 328 – 56 .
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= Frances Oldham Kelsey =
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Frances Kathleen Oldham Kelsey , CM ( July 24 , 1914 – August 7 , 2015 ) was a Canadian pharmacologist and physician . As a reviewer for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , she refused to authorize thalidomide for market because she had concerns about the drug 's safety . Her concerns proved to be justifie... |
= = Birth and education = =
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Born in Shawnigan Lake on Vancouver Island , British Columbia , Kelsey was graduated by St. Margaret 's School high school at age 15 , and attended Victoria College , British Columbia ( 1930 – 1931 ) in Victoria , British Columbia ( now University of Victoria ) . She then enrolled at McGill University to study pharmac... |
During her second year , Geiling was retained by the FDA to research unusual deaths related to elixir sulfanilamide , a sulfonamide medicine . Kelsey assisted on this research project , which showed that the 107 deaths were caused by the use of diethylene glycol as a solvent . The next year , the United States Congres... |
= = Early career and marriage = =
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Upon completing her Ph.D. , Kelsey joined the University of Chicago faculty . In 1942 , like many other pharmacologists , Kelsey was looking for a synthetic cure for malaria . As a result of these studies , Kelsey learned that some drugs are able to pass through the placental barrier . While there she also met fellow ... |
While on the faculty at the University of Chicago , Kelsey was awarded her M.D. during 1950 . She supplemented her teaching with work as an editorial associate for the American Medical Association Journal for two years . Kelsey left the University of Chicago in 1954 , decided to take a position teaching pharmacology a... |
She became a dual @-@ citizen of Canada and the United States in the 1950s in order to continue practicing medicine in the U.S. , but retained strong ties to Canada where she continued to visit her siblings regularly until late in life .
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= = Work at the FDA and thalidomide = =
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In 1960 , Kelsey was hired by the FDA in Washington , D.C. At that time , she " was one of only seven full @-@ time and four young part @-@ time physicians reviewing drugs " for the FDA . One of her first assignments at the FDA was to review an application by Richardson Merrell for the drug thalidomide ( under the tra... |
Kelsey 's insistence that the drug should be fully tested prior to approval was vindicated when the births of deformed infants in Europe were linked to thalidomide ingestion by their mothers during pregnancy . Researchers discovered that the thalidomide crossed the placental barrier and caused serious birth defects . ... |
After Morton Mintz broke the story in July 1962 , there was a substantial public outcry . The Kefauver Harris Amendment was passed unanimously by Congress in October 1962 to strengthen drug regulation . Companies were required to demonstrate the efficacy of new drugs , report adverse reactions to the FDA , and request... |
As a result of her blocking American approval of thalidomide , Kelsey was awarded the President 's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service by President John F. Kennedy , becoming the second woman to receive that award . British Pathé released a film of Kennedy acknowledging Kelsey in a speech . After receivin... |
Kelsey retired from the FDA in 2005 , at age 90 , after 45 years of service . In 2010 the FDA named the Kelsey Award for her , to be awarded annually to an FDA employee .
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= = Later life and death = =
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Kelsey continued to work for the FDA while being recognised for her earlier work . She was still working at the FDA 's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research in 1995 and was appointed deputy for scientific and medical affairs . In 1994 , the Frances Kelsey Secondary School in Mill Bay , British Columbia was named in ... |
In 2010 , the FDA presented Kelsey with the first Drug Safety Excellence Award and named the annual award after her , announcing that it would be given to one FDA staff member annually . In announcing the awards , Center Director Steven K. Galson said “ I am very pleased to have established the Dr. Frances O. Kelsey D... |
Kelsey turned 100 in July 2014 , and shortly thereafter , in the fall of 2014 , she moved from Washington , D.C. , to live with her daughter in London , Ontario . In June 2015 , when she was named to the Order of Canada , Mercédes Benegbi , a thalidomide victim and the head of the Thalidomide Victims Association of Ca... |
Kelsey died in London , Ontario , on August 7 , 2015 at the age of 101 , less than 24 hours after Ontario ’ s Lieutenant @-@ Governor , Elizabeth Dowdeswell , visited her home to present her with the insignia of Member of the Order of Canada for her role against thalidomide .
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= = Legacy and awards = =
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