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1962 • President 's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service
1963 • Gold Key Award from University of Chicago , Medical and Biological Sciences Alumni Association
2000 • Inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame
2001 • Named a Virtual Mentor for the American Medical Association
2006 • Foremother Award from the National Research Center for Women & Families
2010 • Recipient of the first Dr. Frances O. Kelsey Award for Excellence and Courage in Protecting Public Health given out by the FDA
2012 • Honorary doctor of science degree from Vancouver Island University
2015 • Named to the Order of Canada
= Battle of Boroughbridge =
The Battle of Boroughbridge was a battle fought on 16 March 1322 between a group of rebellious barons and King Edward II of England , near Boroughbridge , north @-@ west of York . The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the King and Thomas , Earl of Lancaster , his most powerful subject , it resulted in...
Not in itself a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence , the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic , English conflict . Both the extensive use of foot soldiers rather than cavalry , and the heavy impact caused by the longbow , represented significant steps in...
= = Background = =
Edward II was a weak and ineffectual king ( made to look the more so by comparison with his father and son , Edward I and Edward III ) , and his reign was marked by military failure and internal strife . A great number of the barony turned against the King , and the leader of the opposition eventually became Thomas of...
In 1319 , the King and Lancaster fell out during a failed campaign against Scotland . The next year Lancaster refused to attend a parliament summoned by the King , and later the same year , Edward obtained papal absolution from his oath to follow the Ordinances . Meanwhile , an inheritance dispute had broken out in th...
Edward now seized the initiative , and moved northwards . Lancaster convened one final meeting at Doncaster in November , and also entered into an alliance with Robert I of Scotland to strengthen his hand against the King . In January 1322 Edward crossed the River Severn , and secured the surrender of several of the m...
= = Battle = =
When Lancaster arrived at the town of Boroughbridge , Harclay was already in possession of the bridge crossing the river . The rebel forces counted probably no more than 700 knights and men @-@ at @-@ arms , against the 4 @,@ 000 or so soldiers in the royal army . Lancaster initially tried to negotiate , but Harclay c...
Harclay had deployed his men on foot to hold the bridge from the northern side . Additional forces were placed at a nearby ford , though contemporary sources do not specify the exact location of this ford . The royal pikemen were deployed in a schiltron formation , a tactic learned from the Scots in the Scottish wars ...
Lancaster negotiated a truce with Harclay , and withdrew to the town . During the night a great number of the rebels deserted , and the next day the sheriff of York arrived from the south with additional forces . Lancaster , now greatly outnumbered and with no chance of retreat , had no choice but to surrender to Harc...
= = Aftermath = =
Thomas of Lancaster was taken to Pontefract Castle , which by then had fallen to the King . There he was submitted to what was little more than a show trial , and – in front of a gathering of earls and barons – sentenced to death . On 22 March 1322 , he was led out of the castle and beheaded in front of a jeering crow...
Some thirty of Lancaster 's followers were also executed , among these Clifford and the baron John Mowbray .
Andrew Harclay was richly rewarded for his loyal and competent performance at Boroughbridge . On 15 March he was created Earl of Carlisle , and promised lands worth 1000 marks yearly . Yet Harclay , who had turned down Lancaster 's overtures to join in the rebellion , was no great adherent of the King . As a warden of...
As for Edward II himself , his dependence on the Despensers grew only deeper , and their transgressions more severe . Lancaster 's supporters ( including Roger Mortimer , William Trussell and Robert de Holland ) found themselves systematically accused of false charges , being imprisoned and having their lands taken ov...
In 1327 Isabella and Mortimer staged a coup against the King . Edward II was deposed and his son , Edward III , succeeded in his place .
= = External sources = =
The Battle of Boroughbridge at The Battlefields Trust .
English Heritage Battlefield Report : Boroughbridge 1322
= History of Minnesota =
The history of the U.S. state of Minnesota is shaped by its original Native American residents , European exploration and settlement , and the emergence of industries made possible by the state 's natural resources . Minnesota achieved prominence through fur trading , logging , and farming , and later through railroad...
The earliest known settlers followed herds of large game to the region during the last glacial period . They preceded the Anishinaabe , the Dakota , and other Native American inhabitants . Fur traders from France arrived during the 17th century . Europeans , moving west during the 19th century , drove out most of the ...
Minnesota gained legal existence as the Minnesota Territory in 1849 , and became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11 , 1858 . After the upheaval of the American Civil War and the Dakota War of 1862 , the state 's economy started to develop when natural resources were tapped for logging and farming . Railroads attracted immi...
New industry came from iron ore , discovered in the north , mined relatively easily from open pits , and shipped to Great Lakes steel mills from the ports at Duluth and Two Harbors . Economic development and social changes led to an expanded role for state government and a population shift from rural areas to cities ....
= = Native American inhabitation = =
The oldest known human remains in Minnesota , dating back about 9000 years ago , were discovered near Browns Valley in 1933 . " Browns Valley Man " was found with tools of the Clovis and Folsom types . Some of the earliest evidence of a sustained presence in the area comes from a site known as Bradbury Brook near Mill...
Several hundred years later , the climate of Minnesota warmed significantly . As large animals such as mammoths became extinct , native people changed their diet . They gathered nuts , berries , and vegetables , and they hunted smaller animals such as deer , bison , and birds . The stone tools found from this era beca...
Archaeological evidence of Native American settlements dates back as far as 3000 BC ; the Jeffers Petroglyphs site in southwest Minnesota contains carvings thought to date to the Late Archaic Period ( 3000 BC to 1000 BC ) . Around 700 BC , burial mounds were first created , and the practice continued until the arrival...
By AD 800 , wild rice became a staple crop in the region , and corn farther to the south . Within a few hundred years , the Mississippian culture reached into the southeast portion of the state , and large villages were formed . The Dakota Native American culture may have descended from some of the peoples of the Miss...
When Europeans first started exploring Minnesota , the region was inhabited primarily by tribes of Dakota , with the Ojibwa ( sometimes called Chippewa , or Anishinaabe ) beginning to migrate westward into the state around 1700 . The economy of these tribes was chiefly based on hunter @-@ gatherer activities . There w...
= = European exploration = =
Though highly controversial , an inscribed stone known as the Kensington Runestone suggests that a group of Norse explorers may have ventured as far inland as Minnesota as early as 1362 , though many consider it a hoax .
It was a few more centuries before contact between Europeans and Native Americans of Minnesota could be confirmed . In the late 1650s , Pierre Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers were probably the first to meet Dakota Native Americans while following the southern shore of Lake Superior ( which would become nor...
Around this time , the Ojibwa Native Americans reached Minnesota as part of a westward migration . Having come from a region around Maine , they were experienced at dealing with European traders . They dealt in furs and possessed guns . Tensions rose between the Ojibwa and Dakota in the ensuing years .
In 1671 , France signed a treaty with a number of tribes to allow trade . Shortly thereafter , French trader Daniel Greysolon , Sieur du Lhut arrived in the area and began trading with the local tribes . Du Lhut explored the western area of Lake Superior , near his namesake , the city of Duluth , and areas south of th...
Father Louis Hennepin with companions Michel Aco and Antoine Auguelle ( aka Picard Du Gay ) headed north from the area of Illinois after coming into that area with an exploration party headed by René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle . They were captured by a Dakota tribe in 1680 . While with the tribe , they ca...
Explorers searching for the fabled Northwest Passage and large inland seas in North America continued to pass through the state . In 1721 , the French built Fort Beauharnois on Lake Pepin . In 1731 , the Grand Portage trail was first traversed by a European , Pierre La Vérendrye . He used a map written down on a piece...
Jonathan Carver , a shoemaker from Massachusetts , visited the area in 1767 as part of another expedition . He and the rest of the exploration party were only able to stay for a relatively short period , due to supply shortages . They headed back east to Fort Michilimackinac , where Carver wrote journals about the tri...
Until 1818 the Red River Valley was considered British and was subject to several colonization schemes , such as the Red River Colony . The boundary where the Red River crossed the 49th parallel was not marked until 1823 , when Stephen H. Long conducted a survey expedition . When several hundred settlers abandoned the...
Several efforts were made to determine the source of the Mississippi River . The true source was found in 1832 , when Henry Schoolcraft was guided by a group of Ojibwa headed by Ozaawindib ( " Yellow Head " ) to a lake in northern Minnesota . Schoolcraft named it Lake Itasca , combining the Latin words veritas ( " tru...
Joseph Nicollet scouted the area in the late 1830s , exploring and mapping the Upper Mississippi River basin , the St. Croix River , and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers . He and John C. Frémont left their mark in the southwest of the state , carving their names in the pipestone quarries near Winne...
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow never explored the state , but he did help to make it popular . He published The Song of Hiawatha in 1855 , which contains references to many regions in Minnesota . The story was based on Ojibwa legends carried back east by other explorers and traders ( particularly those collected by Henry ...
= = Territorial foundation and settlement = =
= = = Land acquisition = = =
All of the land east of the Mississippi River was granted to the United States by the Second Treaty of Paris at the end of the American Revolution in 1783 . This included what would become modern day Saint Paul but only part of Minneapolis , including the northeast , north @-@ central and east @-@ central portions of ...
Throughout the first half of the 19th century , the northeastern portion of the state was a part of the Northwest Territory , then the Illinois Territory , then the Michigan Territory , and finally the Wisconsin Territory . The western and southern areas of the state , although theoretically part of the Wisconsin Terr...
= = = Fort Snelling and the establishment of Minneapolis and Saint Paul = = =
Fort Snelling was the first major U.S. military presence in the state . The land for the fort , at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers , was acquired in 1805 by Zebulon Pike . When concerns mounted about the fur trade in the area , construction of the fort began in 1819 . Construction was completed ...
In the 1850s , Fort Snelling played a key role in the infamous Dred Scott court case . Slaves Dred Scott and his wife were taken to the fort by their master , John Emerson . They lived at the fort and elsewhere in territories where slavery was prohibited . After Emerson 's death , the Scotts argued that since they had...
By 1851 , treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government had opened much of Minnesota to settlement , so Fort Snelling no longer was a frontier outpost . It served as a training center for soldiers during the American Civil War and later as the headquarters for the Department of Dakota . A portion has...
Fort Snelling was largely responsible for the establishment of the city of Minneapolis . In an effort to be self @-@ sufficient , the soldiers of the fort built roads , planted crops , and built a grist mill and a sawmill at Saint Anthony Falls . Later , Franklin Steele came to Fort Snelling as the post sutler ( the o...
The city of Saint Paul , Minnesota owes its existence to Fort Snelling . A group of squatters , mostly from the ill @-@ fated Red River Colony in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba , established a camp near the fort . The commandant of Fort Snelling , Major Joseph Plympton , found their presence problematic...
Minneapolis and Saint Paul are collectively known as the " Twin Cities " . The cities enjoyed a rivalry during their early years , with Saint Paul being the capital city and Minneapolis becoming prominent through industry . The term " Twin Cities " was coined around 1872 , after a newspaper editorial suggested that Mi...
= = = Early European settlement and development = = =
Henry Hastings Sibley built the first stone house in the Minnesota Territory in Mendota in 1838 , along with other limestone buildings used by the American Fur Company , which bought animal pelts at that location from 1825 to 1853 . Another area of early economic development in Minnesota was the logging industry . Log...
Saint Anthony , on the east bank of the Mississippi River later became part of Minneapolis , and was an important lumber milling center supplied by the Rum River . In 1848 , businessman Franklin Steele built the first private sawmill on the Saint Anthony Falls , and more sawmills quickly followed . The oldest home sti...
= = = Minnesota Territory = = =
Stephen A. Douglas ( D ) , the chair of the Senate Committee on Territories , drafted the bill authorizing Minnesota Territory . He had envisioned a future for the upper Mississippi valley , so he was motivated to keep the area from being carved up by neighboring territories . In 1846 , he prevented Iowa from includin...
With Alexander Ramsey ( W ) as the first governor of Minnesota Territory and Henry Hastings Sibley ( D ) as the territorial delegate to the United States Congress , the populations of Saint Paul and Saint Anthony swelled . Henry M. Rice ( D ) , who replaced Sibley as the territorial delegate in 1853 , worked in Congre...
= = = Statehood = = =
In December 1856 , Rice brought forward two bills in Congress : an enabling act that would allow Minnesota to form a state constitution , and a railroad land grant bill . Rice 's enabling act defined a state containing both prairie and forest lands . The state was bounded on the south by Iowa , on the east by Wisconsi...