id stringlengths 24 24 | title stringlengths 3 59 | context stringlengths 151 3.71k | question stringlengths 12 217 | answers dict |
|---|---|---|---|---|
572947c3af94a219006aa248 | Glass | From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy ... | When did glassworkers begin to consider their products fine art? | {
"text": [
"1960"
],
"answer_start": [
659
]
} |
572947c3af94a219006aa249 | Glass | From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy ... | What type of glass did many Art Nouveau artists use? | {
"text": [
"cameo glass"
],
"answer_start": [
373
]
} |
572947c3af94a219006aa24a | Glass | From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy ... | When did mass production of glass art begin? | {
"text": [
"early 20th-century"
],
"answer_start": [
537
]
} |
572947c3af94a219006aa24b | Glass | From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy ... | What early civilization made cameo glass? | {
"text": [
"Roman Empire"
],
"answer_start": [
144
]
} |
572964476aef051400154de6 | Glass | Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); t... | What makes glass melt at a lower temperature? | {
"text": [
"lead(II) oxide"
],
"answer_start": [
12
]
} |
572964476aef051400154de7 | Glass | Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); t... | How much less viscous is lead glass compared with soda glass? | {
"text": [
"100 times"
],
"answer_start": [
275
]
} |
572964476aef051400154de8 | Glass | Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); t... | Pb2+ causes lead glass to have what? | {
"text": [
"high electrical resistance"
],
"answer_start": [
616
]
} |
572964476aef051400154de9 | Glass | Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); t... | Lead oxide makes it easier to dissolve what? | {
"text": [
"other metal oxides"
],
"answer_start": [
153
]
} |
57296639af94a219006aa389 | Glass | There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and... | What components of glass for networks? | {
"text": [
"silicon, boron, germanium"
],
"answer_start": [
125
]
} |
57296639af94a219006aa38a | Glass | There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and... | What type of components change the network's shape? | {
"text": [
"modifiers"
],
"answer_start": [
372
]
} |
57296639af94a219006aa38b | Glass | There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and... | What type of component can both make and change networks? | {
"text": [
"intermediates"
],
"answer_start": [
210
]
} |
57296639af94a219006aa38c | Glass | There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and... | What type of chemical attachment connects ions to the network? | {
"text": [
"covalent bond"
],
"answer_start": [
551
]
} |
57296766af94a219006aa3a3 | Glass | The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two pos... | What component gives glass the ability to conduct electricity? | {
"text": [
"alkali metal ions"
],
"answer_start": [
4
]
} |
57296766af94a219006aa3a4 | Glass | The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two pos... | How can glass be prevented from corroding? | {
"text": [
"dealkalization"
],
"answer_start": [
729
]
} |
57296766af94a219006aa3a5 | Glass | The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two pos... | What types of ions does typical glass have? | {
"text": [
"alkali and alkaline earth ions"
],
"answer_start": [
560
]
} |
57296766af94a219006aa3a6 | Glass | The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two pos... | Reaction with what causes dealkalization? | {
"text": [
"sulfur or fluorine compounds"
],
"answer_start": [
817
]
} |
57296766af94a219006aa3a7 | Glass | The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two pos... | What can alkaline ions in glass harm, in addition to electrical resistance? | {
"text": [
"loss tangent"
],
"answer_start": [
914
]
} |
5729689c3f37b31900478343 | Glass | New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals a... | What material is useful in glassmaking because of its slow evaporation? | {
"text": [
"sodium selenite"
],
"answer_start": [
688
]
} |
5729689c3f37b31900478344 | Glass | New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals a... | What containers are used for melting? | {
"text": [
"platinum crucibles"
],
"answer_start": [
904
]
} |
5729689c3f37b31900478345 | Glass | New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals a... | Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in factory production? | {
"text": [
"the cost factor has a low priority"
],
"answer_start": [
243
]
} |
5729689c3f37b31900478346 | Glass | New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals a... | What is the reason for crushing the glass and melting it again? | {
"text": [
"homogeneity"
],
"answer_start": [
981
]
} |
5729689c3f37b31900478347 | Glass | New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals a... | Why is glass annealed? | {
"text": [
"to prevent breakage"
],
"answer_start": [
1170
]
} |
57296ab01d046914007793e7 | Glass | In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the ... | Who coined the term "splat cooling"? | {
"text": [
"W. Klement"
],
"answer_start": [
260
]
} |
57296ab01d046914007793e8 | Glass | In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the ... | What are thick alloys made in layers called? | {
"text": [
"bulk metallic glasses"
],
"answer_start": [
687
]
} |
57296ab01d046914007793e9 | Glass | In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the ... | What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their alloys? | {
"text": [
"zirconium"
],
"answer_start": [
758
]
} |
57296ab01d046914007793ea | Glass | In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the ... | What type of metal makes better alloys than traditional steel? | {
"text": [
"amorphous steel"
],
"answer_start": [
791
]
} |
57296ab01d046914007793eb | Glass | In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the ... | At what university was Klement a student? | {
"text": [
"Caltech"
],
"answer_start": [
274
]
} |
57296d396aef051400154e6a | Glass | In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a... | Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a melt? | {
"text": [
"NIST researchers"
],
"answer_start": [
9
]
} |
57296d396aef051400154e6b | Glass | In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a... | What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and melt? | {
"text": [
"nucleation barrier"
],
"answer_start": [
610
]
} |
57296d396aef051400154e6c | Glass | In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a... | What is q-glass? | {
"text": [
"an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase"
],
"answer_start": [
50
]
} |
57296d396aef051400154e6d | Glass | In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a... | What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as separate particles? | {
"text": [
"Transmission electron"
],
"answer_start": [
345
]
} |
5729747d3f37b31900478405 | Glass | Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are o... | What word means that ceramics don't absorb liquids? | {
"text": [
"vitreous"
],
"answer_start": [
436
]
} |
5729747d3f37b31900478406 | Glass | Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are o... | What hardens glass-ceramics? | {
"text": [
"heat treatment"
],
"answer_start": [
167
]
} |
5729747d3f37b31900478407 | Glass | Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are o... | What materials do glass ceramics have a lot in common with? | {
"text": [
"non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics"
],
"answer_start": [
56
]
} |
5729765a6aef051400154f48 | Glass | The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. Th... | How high of a temperature change can glass-ceramics handle? | {
"text": [
"1000 °C"
],
"answer_start": [
669
]
} |
5729765a6aef051400154f49 | Glass | The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. Th... | Because of their heat resistance, glass-ceramics are especially suitable for what? | {
"text": [
"countertop cooking"
],
"answer_start": [
298
]
} |
5729765a6aef051400154f4a | Glass | The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. Th... | What is the most economically significant property of glass-ceramics? | {
"text": [
"impervious to thermal shock"
],
"answer_start": [
215
]
} |
5729765a6aef051400154f4b | Glass | The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. Th... | What ingredients give glass-ceramics its useful heat tolerance? | {
"text": [
"lithium and aluminosilicates"
],
"answer_start": [
35
]
} |
5729765a6aef051400154f4c | Glass | The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. Th... | What proportion of crystalline ceramics yields a product with a CTE of around 0? | {
"text": [
"~70%"
],
"answer_start": [
479
]
} |
572977e11d046914007794c1 | Glass | Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into sma... | What were the areas at the center of an old sheet of glass called? | {
"text": [
"bull's-eyes"
],
"answer_start": [
445
]
} |
572977e11d046914007794c2 | Glass | Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into sma... | In early 20th century glass production, the glass was thickest at what part of the sheet? | {
"text": [
"the center"
],
"answer_start": [
259
]
} |
572977e11d046914007794c3 | Glass | Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into sma... | Currently window glass is made as what? | {
"text": [
"float glass"
],
"answer_start": [
531
]
} |
572977e11d046914007794c4 | Glass | Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into sma... | How was the bull's-eye used? | {
"text": [
"for decorative effect"
],
"answer_start": [
459
]
} |
572979896aef051400154f7e | Glass | The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumptio... | What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the bottom, in addition to avoiding water accumulation? | {
"text": [
"stability"
],
"answer_start": [
881
]
} |
572979896aef051400154f7f | Glass | The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumptio... | Who used to make window panes? | {
"text": [
"glassblowers"
],
"answer_start": [
471
]
} |
572979896aef051400154f80 | Glass | The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumptio... | What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved spinning it into sheets? | {
"text": [
"crown glass process"
],
"answer_start": [
586
]
} |
572979896aef051400154f81 | Glass | The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumptio... | The thickness at the bottom of glass panes was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter? | {
"text": [
"liquid"
],
"answer_start": [
252
]
} |
572979896aef051400154f82 | Glass | The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumptio... | When does glass stop moving like a liquid? | {
"text": [
"once solidified"
],
"answer_start": [
339
]
} |
572982021d046914007794ef | Glass | In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crys... | How is "glass" defined in physics? | {
"text": [
"a solid formed by rapid melt quenching"
],
"answer_start": [
70
]
} |
572982021d046914007794f0 | Glass | In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crys... | What is the tendency to make a glass when cooled called? | {
"text": [
"glass-forming ability"
],
"answer_start": [
526
]
} |
572982021d046914007794f1 | Glass | In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crys... | What must happen quickly for glass to form? | {
"text": [
"cooling"
],
"answer_start": [
227
]
} |
572982021d046914007794f2 | Glass | In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crys... | What predicts glass-forming ability? | {
"text": [
"rigidity theory"
],
"answer_start": [
586
]
} |
572984596aef051400154f9c | Glass | Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the int... | What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a liquid? | {
"text": [
"first-order phase transition"
],
"answer_start": [
63
]
} |
572984596aef051400154f9d | Glass | Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the int... | What theory isn't completely valid for glass? | {
"text": [
"equilibrium theory of phase transformations"
],
"answer_start": [
437
]
} |
572984596aef051400154f9e | Glass | Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the int... | Transition in glass is comparable to what? | {
"text": [
"a second-order phase transition"
],
"answer_start": [
275
]
} |
572988531d04691400779513 | Glass | Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instant... | Atomically, glass is similar to what? | {
"text": [
"a supercooled liquid"
],
"answer_start": [
82
]
} |
572988531d04691400779514 | Glass | Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instant... | What acts like a liquid but is under the freezing temperature? | {
"text": [
"A supercooled liquid"
],
"answer_start": [
177
]
} |
572988531d04691400779515 | Glass | Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instant... | Despite its atomic structure, cooled glass acts like what? | {
"text": [
"a solid"
],
"answer_start": [
129
]
} |
572988531d04691400779516 | Glass | Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instant... | In cooled glass, what types of movement stop? | {
"text": [
"rotational and translational"
],
"answer_start": [
694
]
} |
57291ce0af94a219006aa089 | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | What is energy abbreviated to in science? | {
"text": [
"E"
],
"answer_start": [
128
]
} |
57291ce0af94a219006aa08a | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | What is frequency also known as in science? | {
"text": [
"f"
],
"answer_start": [
249
]
} |
57291ce0af94a219006aa08b | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | What term describes a small amount of element? | {
"text": [
"quantum"
],
"answer_start": [
421
]
} |
57291ce0af94a219006aa08c | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | What did the light quantum, in some ways, behave as? | {
"text": [
"an electrically neutral particle"
],
"answer_start": [
545
]
} |
57291ce0af94a219006aa08d | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | What was later termed the photon? | {
"text": [
"The light quantum"
],
"answer_start": [
499
]
} |
57295e056aef051400154d84 | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | When did Max Planck first recognize the value of the Planck constant? | {
"text": [
"1900"
],
"answer_start": [
20
]
} |
57295e056aef051400154d85 | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | Which scientist associated the Planck constant with a quantum five years after Planck's recognition? | {
"text": [
"Einstein"
],
"answer_start": [
404
]
} |
57295e056aef051400154d86 | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | Instead of an electromagnetic wave, what did the light quantum behave as in some regards? | {
"text": [
"an electrically neutral particle"
],
"answer_start": [
545
]
} |
57295e056aef051400154d87 | Planck_constant | First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the min... | What is the simple name given to the light quantum today? | {
"text": [
"the photon"
],
"answer_start": [
643
]
} |
57291f276aef051400154a68 | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of what? | {
"text": [
"h"
],
"answer_start": [
58
]
} |
57291f276aef051400154a69 | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | What was realized after Planck's discovery? | {
"text": [
"that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value"
],
"answer_start": [
158
]
} |
57291f276aef051400154a6a | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | What is the Planck constant formerly known as? | {
"text": [
"quantum of action"
],
"answer_start": [
279
]
} |
57291f276aef051400154a6b | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | Regarding atoms, what does the Planck constant imply? | {
"text": [
"that only certain energy levels are allowed"
],
"answer_start": [
472
]
} |
57291f276aef051400154a6c | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | Regarding atoms, what are values in between certain energy levels considered by the Planck constant? | {
"text": [
"forbidden"
],
"answer_start": [
543
]
} |
57295eef6aef051400154d9e | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | Following Planck's discovery, what was realized about values of physical action? | {
"text": [
"physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value"
],
"answer_start": [
163
]
} |
57295eef6aef051400154d9f | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | The Planck constant initially was given what name? | {
"text": [
"the \"quantum of action\""
],
"answer_start": [
274
]
} |
57295eef6aef051400154da0 | Planck_constant | Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck... | How is the proportional nature of the Planck constant explained? | {
"text": [
"Classical physics cannot explain this fact"
],
"answer_start": [
331
]
} |
572920e0af94a219006aa0c6 | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | At about what wavelength of light are human eyes most sensitive? | {
"text": [
"555 nanometres"
],
"answer_start": [
190
]
} |
572920e0af94a219006aa0c7 | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | What frequency does green light with a wavelength of 555 nanmetres have? | {
"text": [
"7014540000000000000♠540 THz"
],
"answer_start": [
292
]
} |
572920e0af94a219006aa0c8 | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | How is the energy from one mole of photos computed? | {
"text": [
"by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant"
],
"answer_start": [
730
]
} |
572920e0af94a219006aa0c9 | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | How much energy does a green light of wavelength 555 nm contain? | {
"text": [
"7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol"
],
"answer_start": [
901
]
} |
57295f9d1d0469140077933b | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | What is the wavelength of light to which human eyes are most sensitive? | {
"text": [
"555 nanometres"
],
"answer_start": [
190
]
} |
57295f9d1d0469140077933c | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | What is the frequency of the light to which the human eye is most sensitive? | {
"text": [
"7014540000000000000♠540 THz"
],
"answer_start": [
292
]
} |
57295f9d1d0469140077933d | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | What is the energy of a photon? | {
"text": [
"6981358000000000000♠3.58×10−19 J"
],
"answer_start": [
390
]
} |
57295f9d1d0469140077933e | Planck_constant | Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz ... | How much energy is contained in the light to which human eyes are most sensitive? | {
"text": [
"7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol"
],
"answer_start": [
901
]
} |
572922ae1d0469140077909b | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | What was Planck studying in the last part of the nineteenth century? | {
"text": [
"the problem of black-body radiation"
],
"answer_start": [
70
]
} |
572922ae1d0469140077909c | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | Who posed the problem of black-body radiation? | {
"text": [
"Kirchhoff"
],
"answer_start": [
121
]
} |
572922ae1d0469140077909d | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | Cooler objects glow less than objects that are what? | {
"text": [
"hotter"
],
"answer_start": [
206
]
} |
572922ae1d0469140077909e | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | What does a black object do to any of the light that hits it? | {
"text": [
"it absorbs all the light"
],
"answer_start": [
498
]
} |
572922ae1d0469140077909f | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | What is maximized as a result of a black object absorbing all the light that hits it? | {
"text": [
"thermal light emission"
],
"answer_start": [
546
]
} |
572960a8af94a219006aa353 | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | Planck studied what problem posed originally by Kirchhoff? | {
"text": [
"black-body radiation"
],
"answer_start": [
85
]
} |
572960a8af94a219006aa354 | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | If an object is black, what is known about its thermal light emission? | {
"text": [
"its thermal light emission is maximized."
],
"answer_start": [
542
]
} |
572960a8af94a219006aa355 | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | What is known about the light absorption of a hot object in equilibrium with light? | {
"text": [
"absorbs just as much light as it emits"
],
"answer_start": [
426
]
} |
572960a8af94a219006aa356 | Planck_constant | In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass ... | Electromagnetic fields obey what laws? | {
"text": [
"laws of motion"
],
"answer_start": [
285
]
} |
572925caaf94a219006aa103 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | What assumption that black-body radiation is what leads to an accurate prediction? | {
"text": [
"thermal"
],
"answer_start": [
44
]
} |
572925caaf94a219006aa105 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | What about a hot object changes with the temperature? | {
"text": [
"the colour of the light"
],
"answer_start": [
242
]
} |
572925caaf94a219006aa106 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | What color is hotter than "red hot"? | {
"text": [
"white hot"
],
"answer_start": [
331
]
} |
57296189af94a219006aa361 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | What rule predicts that emitted energy increases with temperature? | {
"text": [
"the Stefan–Boltzmann law"
],
"answer_start": [
179
]
} |
57296189af94a219006aa362 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | What characteristic of the light emitted by a hot object changes with temperature? | {
"text": [
"the colour of the light given off"
],
"answer_start": [
242
]
} |
57296189af94a219006aa363 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | Who discovered the mathematical relationship between peaks and curves of light at different temperatures? | {
"text": [
"Wilhelm Wien"
],
"answer_start": [
382
]
} |
57296189af94a219006aa364 | Planck_constant | The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature... | The rule that adjust the curve at different temperatures is known as what? | {
"text": [
"Wien's displacement law"
],
"answer_start": [
601
]
} |
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