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20231101.en_47674564_14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails. One supply of slaves was the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia which often exported Nilotic slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered or reconquered Muslim provinces. Native Muslim Somali sultanates exported slaves as well, such as the sometimes independent sultanate of Adal. The supply of European slaves came from Muslim outposts in Europe such as Fraxinetum.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_15
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Up until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Between 1530 and 1780 there were almost certainly 1 million and quite possibly as many as 1.25 million white, European Christians enslaved by the Muslims of the Barbary Coast of North Africa.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_16
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
On the coast of the Indian Ocean too, slave-trading posts were set up by Muslim Arabs. The archipelago of Zanzibar, along the coast of present-day Tanzania, is undoubtedly the most notorious example of these trading colonies. Southeast Africa and the Indian Ocean continued as an important region for the Oriental slave trade up until the 19th century. Livingstone and Stanley were then the first Europeans to penetrate to the interior of the Congo basin and to discover the scale of slavery there. The Arab Tippu Tib extended his influence and made many people slaves. After Europeans had settled in the Gulf of Guinea, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under Sultan Hamoud bin Mohammed. The rest of Africa had no direct contact with Muslim slave-traders.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_17
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
While slaves were employed for manual labour during the Arab slave trade, although most agricultural labor in the medieval Islamic world consisted of paid labour. Exceptions include the plantation economy of southern Iraq (which led to the Zanj Revolt), in 9th-century Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), and in 11th-century Bahrain (during the Karmatian state).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_18
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
A system of plantation labor, much like that which would emerge in the Americas, developed early on, but with such dire consequences that subsequent engagements were relatively rare and reduced. Slaves in Islam were mainly directed at the service sector concubines and cooks, porters and soldiers with slavery itself primarily a form of consumption rather than a factor of production. The most telling evidence for this is found in the gender ratio; among slaves traded in Islamic empire across the centuries, there were roughly two females to every male.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_19
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Outside of explicit sexual slavery, most female slaves had domestic occupations. Often, this also included sexual relations with their masters – a lawful motive for their purchase and the most common one.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Military service was also a common role for slaves. Barbarians from the "martial races" beyond the frontiers were widely recruited into the imperial armies. These recruits often advanced in the imperial and eventually metropolitan forces, sometimes obtaining high ranks.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_21
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Though the Qur'an expresses no racial prejudice against black Africans, Bernard Lewis argues that ethnocentric prejudice later developed among Arabs, for a variety of reasons: their extensive conquests and slave trade; the influence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards Zanj (Bantu) and Turkic peoples; and the influence of religious ideas regarding divisions among humankind. By the 8th century, anti-black prejudice among Arabs resulted in discrimination. A number of medieval Arabic authors argued against this prejudice, urging respect for all black people and especially Ethiopians. By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa; Lewis argues that this led to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing that "[i]t is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_22
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
As late as the 20th century, some authors argued that slavery in Islamic societies was free of racism. However, recent research has revealed racist attitudes in Islamic history—especially anti-Black racism and a link between Blackness and slavery—dating back to at least the ninth century CE.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_23
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 2010, at the Second Afro-Arab summit Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the African slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way. I regret and I am ashamed when we remember these practices. I apologize for this."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_24
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
One of the early calls for abolition of the Arab slave trade in Africa was issued in the 19th century by the French Catholic cardinal, Charles Lavigerie. European political leaders in the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 cited the slave trade as reason for colonial efforts in the region. This call was due in part for the need to gain public acceptance of the colonial efforts. The conference resolved to end slavery by African and Islamic powers. Thus, an international prohibition of the slave trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European members. In his novella Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad sarcastically referred to one of the participants at the conference, the International Association of the Congo (also called "International Congo Society"), as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs". The first name of this Society had been the "International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa".
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_25
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In Classical Arabic terminology, female slaves were generally called jawāri (, s. jāriya ). Slave-girls specifically might be called imā’ (, s. ama ), while female slaves who had been trained as entertainers or courtesans were usually called qiyān (, IPA /qi'jaːn/; singular qayna, , IPA /'qaina/).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_26
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In some cases, slaves would join domestic rebellions or even rise up against governors. The most renowned of these rebellions was the Zanj Rebellion.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_27
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The Zanj Revolt took place near the city of Basra, located in southern Iraq, over a period of fifteen years (869–883 AD). It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves imported from across the Muslim empire, and claimed over “tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq”. The revolt was said to have been led by Ali ibn Muhammad, who claimed to be a descendant of Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib. Several historians, such as Al-Tabari and Al-Masudi, consider this revolt one of the “most vicious and brutal uprising[s]” out of the many disturbances that plagued the Abbasid central government.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_28
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Mamluks were slave-soldiers who were converted to Islam, and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military caste, often defeating the Crusaders and, on more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the Mamluk Sultanate from 1250 to 1517.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_29
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Saqaliba is a term used in medieval Arabic sources to refer to Slavs and other peoples of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, or in a broad sense to European slaves under Arab Islamic rule.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_30
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Through the Middle Ages up until the early modern period, a major source of slaves sent to Muslim lands was Central and Eastern Europe. Slaves of Northwestern Europe were also favored. The slaves captured were sent to Islamic lands like Spain and Egypt through France and Venice. Prague served as a major centre for castration of Slavic captives. The Emirate of Bari also served as an important port for trade of such slaves. After the Byzantine Empire and Venice blocked Arab merchants from European ports, Arabs started importing slaves from the Caucasus and Caspian Sea regions, shipping them off as far east as Transoxiana in Central Asia. Despite this, slaves taken in battle or from minor raids in continental Europe remained a steady resource in many regions. The Ottoman Empire used slaves from the Balkans and Eastern Europe. The Janissaries were primarily composed of enslaved Europeans. Slaving raids by Barbary Pirates on the coasts of Western Europe as far as Iceland remained a source of slaves until suppressed in the early 19th century. Common roles filled by European slaves ranged from laborers to concubines, and even soldiers.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_31
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Christians became part of harems as slaves in the Balkans and Asia Minor when the Turks invaded. Muslim qadis owned Christian slave girls. Greek girls who were pretty were forced into prostitution after being enslaved to Turks who took all their earnings in the 14th century according to Ibn Battuta.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_32
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Central Asian Sunni Kazakhs, Sunni Karakalpaks, Sunni Uzbeks and Sunni Turkmen would raid Shia Hazaras in Hazarajat and Shia Persians living in Khorasan province of Qajar Iran and Christian Russian and Volga German settlers in areas of Russia for slaves and sell them in markets of the Emirate of Bukhara, Khanate of Khiva and Khanate of Kokand.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_33
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Muslim prisoners of Turkmen were coerced into admitting to heterodoxy by their Turkmen masters who justified enslaving fellow Muslims.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_34
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Prior to the Battle of Geok Tepe in January 1881 and subsequent conquest of Merv in 1884, the Turkmen "retained the condition of predatory, horse-riding nomads, who were greatly feared by their neighbours as 'man-stealing Turks.' Until subjugated by the Russians, the Turkmens were a warlike people, who conquered their neighbours and regularly captured ethnic Persians for sale as slaves in Khiva. It was their boast that not one Persian had crossed their frontier except with a rope round his neck."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_35
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Oirats were given as slaves to the Turfani Turkic Muslims of Emin Khoja by the Qing during the Qing conquest of the Dzungars.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_36
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Hui Muslims were targeted in slave raids by Muslims of the Kokand Khanate. Enslavement didn't depend on religious status but political allegiance, since Turkic Muslim Ishaqi and Turfanis who served the Qing against fellow Turkic Muslim Afaqi and Khokandis were also enslaved by their fellow Turkic Muslims led by Jahangir. Kashgari Muslims purchased Ghalcha Mountain Tajiks as slaves.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_37
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Two Uyghurs named Isma'il and Adir were sentenced to be sliced to death in public in 1841 after killing their Xibo master Dasanbu while they were sentenced to penal slavery in Ili. Isma'il was a thief and Adir was the son of a rebel with Jahanir Khoja in 1828. Adir was originally the slave of a Xibe named Dasangga before Dasanbu.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_38
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
During the 18th century, raids by Kazakhs on Russia's territory of Orenburg were common; the Kazakhs captured many Russians and sold them as slaves in the Central Asian market. The Volga Germans were also victims of Kazakh raids; they were ethnic Germans living along the River Volga in the region of southeastern European Russia around Saratov.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_39
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1717, 3,000 Russian slaves, men, women, and children, were sold in Khiva by Kazakh and Kyrgyz tribesmen.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_40
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1730, the Kazakhs' frequent raids into Russian lands were a constant irritant and resulted in the enslavement of many of the Tsar's subjects, who were sold on the Kazakh steppe.
|
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41
] |
20231101.en_47674564_41
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1736, urged on by Kirilov, the Kazakhs of the Lesser and Middle Hordes launched raids into Bashkir lands, killing or capturing many Bashkirs in the Siberian and Nogay districts.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_42
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1743, an order was given by the senate in response to the failure to defend against the Kazakh attack on a Russian settlement, which resulted in 14 Russians killed, 24 wounded. In addition, 96 Cossacks were captured by Kazakhs.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_43
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1755, Nepliuev tried to enlist Kazakh support by ending the reprisal raids and promising that the Kazakhs could keep the Bashkir women and children living among them (a long-standing point of contention between Nepliuev and Khan Nurali of the Junior Jüz). Thousands of Bashkirs would be massacred or taken captive by Kazakhs over the course of the uprising, whether in an effort to demonstrate loyalty to the Tsarist state, or as a purely opportunistic maneuver.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_44
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the period between 1764 and 1803, according to data collected by the Orenburg Commission, twenty Russian caravans were attacked and plundered. Kazakh raiders attacked even big caravans which were accompanied by numerous guards.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_45
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In spring 1774, the Russians demanded the Khan return 256 Russians captured by a recent Kazakh raid.
|
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48
] |
20231101.en_47674564_46
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In summer 1774, when Russian troops in the Kazan region were suppressing the rebellion led by the Cossack leader Pugachev, the Kazakhs launched more than 240 raids and captured many Russians and herds along the border of Orenburg.
|
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60
] |
20231101.en_47674564_47
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1799, the biggest Russian caravan which was plundered at that time lost goods worth 295,000 rubles.
|
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47
] |
20231101.en_47674564_48
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
By 1830, the Russian government estimated that two hundred Russians were kidnapped and sold into slavery in Khiva every year.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_49
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the Muslim conquests of the 8th century, the armies of the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim enslaved tens of thousands of Indian prisoners, including both soldiers and civilians. In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 the armies of Mahmud of Ghazna conquered Peshawar and Waihand (capital of Gandhara) after the Battle of Peshawar in 1001, "in the midst of the land of Hindustan", and captured some 100,000 youths. Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Elliot and Dowson refer to "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men, and women.". Later, during the Delhi Sultanate period (1206–1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Levi attributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbors to the north and west (India's Mughal population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of Turan and Iran at the end of the 16th century).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_50
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The Delhi sultanate obtained thousands of slaves and eunuch servants from the villages of Eastern Bengal (a widespread practice which Mughal emperor Jahangir later tried to stop). Wars, famines and pestilences drove many villagers to sell their children as slaves. The Muslim conquest of Gujarat in Western India had two main objectives. The conquerors demanded and more often forcibly wrested both Hindu women as well as land owned by Hindus. Enslavement of women invariably led to their conversion to Islam. In battles waged by Muslims against Hindus in Malwa and the Deccan plateau, a large number of captives were taken. Muslim soldiers were permitted to retain and enslave prisoners of war as plunder.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_51
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The first Bahmani sultan, Alauddin Bahman Shah is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern Carnatic chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_52
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
During the rule of Shah Jahan, many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_53
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
There was a very extensive slave trade of Christians in Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh and twelfth centuries which caused a significant decline in the numbers of Christians in Asia minor. After Edessa was captured and pillaged, 16,000 Christians were enslaved. Michael the Syrian reported that 16,000 Christians were enslaved and sold at Aleppo when the Turks, led by Nur ad-Din invaded Cilicia. Major raids in the Greek provinces of western Anatolia led to the enslavement of thousands of Greeks. 26,000 people from Armenia, Mesopotamia and Cappadocia were captured and taken to slave markets during turkic raids in the year 1185. "Asia Minor continued to be a major source of slaves for the Islamic world through the 14th century" according to Speros Vryonis.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_54
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
After the Seljuks conquered parts of Asia Minor, they brought to the devastated lands Greek, Armenian and Syrian farmers after enslaving entire Byzantine and Armenian villages and towns.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_55
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Slavery was a legal and important part of the economy of the Ottoman Empire and Ottoman society until the slavery of Caucasians was banned in the early 19th century, although slaves from other groups were still permitted. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609. Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely uninterrupted into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Concubinage was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_56
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a kul in Turkish, could achieve high status. Black castrated slaves, were tasked to guard the imperial harems, while white castrated slaves filled administrative functions. Janissaries were the elite soldiers of the imperial armies, collected in childhood as a "blood tax", while galley slaves captured in slave raids or as prisoners of war, manned the imperial vessels. Slaves were often to be found at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves, raised free, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the Sultan himself owned by far the largest number. By raising and specially training slaves as officials in palace schools such as Enderun, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and a fanatic loyalty.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_57
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Ottomans practiced devşirme, a sort of "blood tax" or "child collection", young Christian boys from Eastern Europe and Anatolia were taken from their homes and families, brought up as Muslims, and enlisted into the most famous branch of the Kapıkulu, the Janissaries, a special soldier class of the Ottoman army that became a decisive faction in the Ottoman invasions of Europe. Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators, and de facto rulers of the Empire, such as Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, were recruited in this way.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_58
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the year 1341, The Turkish bey Umur of Aydin terrorized the Christians in the Aegean sea with his 350 ships and 15,000 men from a captured port in Smyrna, capturing many slaves.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_59
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the East Indies, slavery was common until the end of the 19th century. The slave trade was centered on the Muslim sultanates in the Sulu Sea: the Sultanate of Sulu, the Sultanate of Maguindanao, and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern Moro people). Also the Aceh Sultanate on Sumatra took part in the slave trade. The economies of these sultanates relied heavily on the slave trade.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_60
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
It is estimated that from 1770 to 1870, around 200,000 to 300,000 people were enslaved by Iranun and Banguingui slavers. These were taken by piracy from passing ships as well as coastal raids on settlements as far as the Malacca Strait, Java, the southern coast of China and the islands beyond the Makassar Strait. Most of the slaves were Tagalogs, Visayans, and "Malays" (including Bugis, Mandarese, Iban, and Makassar). There were also occasional European and Chinese captives who were usually ransomed off through Tausug intermediaries of the Sulu Sultanate.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_61
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The scale of this activity was so massive that the word for "pirate" in Malay became Lanun, an exonym of the Iranun people. Male captives of the Iranun and the Banguingui were treated brutally, even fellow Muslim captives were not spared. They were usually forced to serve as galley slaves on the lanong and garay warships of their captors. Within a year of capture, most of the captives of the Iranun and Banguingui would be bartered off in Jolo usually for rice, opium, bolts of cloth, iron bars, brassware, and weapons. The buyers were usually Tausug datu from the Sultanate of Sulu who had preferential treatment, but buyers also included European (Dutch and Portuguese) and Chinese traders as well as Visayan pirates (renegados).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_62
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The economy of the Sulu sultanates was largely based on slaves and the slave trade. Slaves were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While personal slaves were rarely sold, slave traders trafficked extensively in slaves purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui slave markets. By the 1850s, slaves constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_63
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Chattel slaves, known as banyaga, bisaya, ipun, or ammas were distinguished from the traditional debt bondsmen (the kiapangdilihan, known as alipin elsewhere in the Philippines). The bondsmen were natives enslaved to pay off debt or crime. They were slaves only in terms of their temporary service requirement to their master, but retained most of the rights of the freemen, including protection from physical harm and the fact that they could not be sold. The banyaga, on the other hand, had little to no rights.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_64
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Some slaves were treated like serfs and servants. Educated and skilled male slaves were largely treated well. Since most of the aristocratic classes in Sulu were illiterate, they were often dependent on the educated banyaga as scribes and interpreters. Slaves were often given their own houses and lived in small communities with slaves of similar ethnic and religious backgrounds. Harsh punishment and abuse were not uncommon, despite Islamic laws, especially for slave laborers and slaves who attempt to escape.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_65
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Spanish authorities and native Christian Filipinos responded to the Moro slave raids by building watchtowers and forts across the Philippine archipelago, many of which are still standing today. Some provincial capitals were also moved further inland. Major command posts were built in Manila, Cavite, Cebu, Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Iligan. Defending ships were also built by local communities, especially in the Visayas Islands, including the construction of war "barangayanes" (balangay) that were faster than the Moro raiders' ships and could give chase. As resistance against raiders increased, Lanong warships of the Iranun were eventually replaced by the smaller and faster garay warships of the Banguingui in the early 19th century. The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired steam gunboats (vapor), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_66
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The slave raids on merchant ships and coastal settlements disrupted traditional trade in goods in the Sulu Sea. While this was temporarily offset by the economic prosperity brought by the slave trade, the decline of slavery in the mid-19th century also led to the economic decline of the Sultanates of Brunei, Sulu, and Maguindanao. This eventually led to the collapse of the latter two states and contributed to the widespread poverty of the Moro region in the Philippines today. By the 1850s, most slaves were local-born from slave parents as the raiding became more difficult. By the end of the 19th century and the conquest of the Sultanates by the Spanish and the Americans, the slave population was largely integrated into the native population as citizens under the Philippine government.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_67
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The Sultanate of Gowa of the Bugis people also became involved in the Sulu slave trade. They purchased slaves (as well as opium and Bengali cloth) from the Sulu Sea sultanates, then re-sold the slaves in the slave markets in the rest of Southeast Asia. Several hundred slaves (mostly Christian Filipinos) were sold by the Bugis annually in Batavia, Malacca, Bantam, Cirebon, Banjarmasin, and Palembang by the Bugis. The slaves were usually sold to Dutch and Chinese families as servants, sailors, laborers, and concubines. The sale of Christian Filipinos (who were Spanish subjects) in Dutch-controlled cities led to formal protests by the Spanish Empire to the Netherlands and its prohibition in 1762 by the Dutch, but it had little effect due to lax or absent enforcement. The Bugis slave trade was only stopped in the 1860s, when the Spanish navy from Manila started patrolling Sulu waters to intercept Bugis slave ships and rescue Filipino captives. Also contributing to the decline was the hostility of the Sama-Bajau raiders in Tawi-Tawi who broke off their allegiance to the Sultanate of Sulu in the mid-1800s and started attacking ships trading with the Tausug ports.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_68
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the end of the 19th century bought Japanese girls as slaves who were imported to the region by sea. The Japanese women were sold as concubines both to Muslim Malay men as well as non-Muslim Chinese men and British men of the British ruled Straits Settlements of British Malaya after being trafficked from Japan to Hong Kong and Port Darwin in Australia. In Hong Kong the Japanese consul Miyagawa Kyujiro said these Japanese women were taken by Malay and Chinese men who “lead them off to wild and savage lands where they suffered unimaginable hardship.” One Chinese man paid 40 British pounds for 2 Japanese women and a Malay man paid 50 British pounds for a Japanese woman in Port Darwin, Australia after they were trafficked there in August 1888 by a Japanese pimp, Takada Tokijirō. However, the buying of Chinese girls in Singapore was forbidden for Muslims by a Batavia (Jakarta) based Arab Muslim Mufti, Usman bin Yahya in a fatwa because he ruled that in Islam it was illegal to buy free non-Muslims or marry non-Muslim slave girls during peace time from slave dealers and non-Muslims could only be enslaved and purchased during holy war (jihad).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_69
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
A Chinese non-Muslim man had a female concubine who was of Muslim Arab Hadhrami Sayyid origin in Solo, the Dutch East Indies, in 1913 which was scandalous in the eyes of Ahmad Surkati and his Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_70
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In Jeddah, Kingdom of Hejaz on the Arabian peninsula, the Arab king Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz had in his palace 20 young pretty Javanese girls from Java (modern day Indonesia).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_71
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the 1760s the Arab Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie mass enslaved other Muslims while raiding coastal Borneo in violation of sharia, before he founded the Pontianak Sultanate.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_72
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
When Amr ibn al-As conquered Tripoli in 643, he forced the Jewish and Christian Berbers to give their wives and children as slaves to the Arab army as part of their jizya. Uqba ibn Nafi would often enslave for himself (and to sell to others) countless Berber girls, "the likes of which no one in the world had ever seen."
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_73
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The muslim historian Ibn Abd al-Hakam recounts that the Arab General Hassan ibn al-Nu'man would often abduct "young, female Berber slaves of unparalleled beauty, some of which were worth a thousand dinars." Al-Hakam confirms that up to one hundred thousand slaves were captured by Musa ibn Nusayr and his son and nephew during the conquest of North Africa. In Tangier, Musa ibn Nusayr enslaved all the Berber inhabitants. Musa sacked a fortress near Kairouan and took with him all the children as slaves. The number of Berbers enslaved "amounted to a number never before heard of in any of the countries subject to the rule of Islam" up to that time. As a result, "most of the African cities were depopulated, [and] the fields remained without cultivation." Even so, Musa "never ceased pushing his conquests until he arrived before Tangiers, the citadel of their [Berbers’] country and the mother of their cities, which he also besieged and took, obliging its inhabitants to embrace Islam."
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_74
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The historian Pascual de Gayangos observed: “Owing to the system of warfare adopted by the Arabs, it is not improbable that the number of captives here specified fell into Musa’s hands. It appears both from Christian and Arabian authorities that populous towns were not infrequently razed to the ground and their inhabitants, amounting to several thousands, led into captivity.”
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_75
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Succesive Muslim rulers of North Africa continued to enslave the Berbers en masse. The historian Hugh N. Kennedy observed that
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_76
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
"the Islamic jihad looks uncomfortably like a giant slave trade." Arab chronicles record vast numbers of Berber slaves taken, especially in the accounts of Musa ibn Nusayr, who became the governor of Africa in 698, and who "was cruel and ruthless against any tribe that opposed the tenets of the Muslim faith, but generous and lenient to those who converted." Muslim historian Ibn Qutaybah recounts Musa ibn Nusayr waging "battles of extermination" against the Berbers and how he "killed myriads of them, and made a surprising number of prisoners."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_77
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
According to the historian As-sadfi, the number of slaves taken by Musa ibn Nusayr was greater than in any of the previous Islamic conquests.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_78
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Ibn Battuta met a Syrian Arab Damascene girl who was a slave of a black African governor in Mali. Ibn Battuta engaged in a conversation with her in Arabic. The black man was a scholar of Islam and his name was Farba Sulayman. Syrian girls were trafficked from Syria to Saudi Arabia right before World War II and married to legally bring them across the border but then divorced and given to other men. A Syrian Dr. Midhat and Shaikh Yusuf were accused of engaging in this traffic of Syrian girls to supply them to Saudis.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_79
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Emily Ruete (Salama bint Said) was born to Sultan Said bin Sultan and Jilfidan, a Circassian slave, turned concubine (some accounts also note her as Georgian) An Indian girl slave who was named Mariam (originally Fatima) ended up in Zanzibar after being sold by multiple men. She originally came from Bombay. There were also Georgian girl slaves in Zanzibar. Egypt and Hejaz were also the recipients of Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa. Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th century British ruled Aden was no longer a recipient of slaves and the slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead. Eunuchs, female concubines and male labourers were the occupations of slaves sent from Ethiopia to Jidda and other parts of Hejaz. The southwest and southern parts of Ethiopia supplied most of the girls being exported by Ethiopian slave traders to India and Arabia. Female and male slaves from Ethiopia made up the main supply of slaves to India and the Middle East.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_80
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Raoul du Bisson was traveling down the Red Sea when he saw the chief black eunuch of the Sharif of Mecca being brought to Constantinople for trial for impregnating a Circassian cocubine of the Sharif and having sex with his entire harem of Circassian and Georgian women. The chief black eunuch was not castrated correctly so he was still able to impregnate and the women were drowned as punishment. 12 Georgian women were shipped to replace the drowned concubines. 12 Georgian women were shipped to replace the drowned concubines.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_81
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The Gulf of Bengal and Malabar in India were sources of eunuchs for the Safavid court of Iran according to Jean Chardin. Sir Thomas Herbert accompanied Robert Shirley in 1627-9 to Safavid Iran. He reported seeing Indian slaves sold to Iran, "above three hundred slaves whom the Persians bought in India: Persees, Ientews (gentiles [i.e. Hindus]) Bannaras [Bhandaris?], and others." brought to Bandar Abbas via ship from Surat in 1628.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_82
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Ethiopian slaves, both females imported as concubines and men imported as eunuchs were imported in 19th century Iran. Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zanzibar exported the majority of slaves to 19th century Iran.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_83
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The strong abolitionist movement in the 19th century in England and later in other Western countries influenced slavery in Muslim lands. Appalling loss of life and hardships often resulted from the processes of acquisition and transportation of slaves to Muslim lands and this drew the attention of European opponents of slavery. Continuing pressure from European countries eventually overcame the strong resistance of religious conservatives who were holding that forbidding what God permits is just as great an offense as to permit what God forbids. Slavery, in their eyes, was "authorized and regulated by the holy law". Even masters persuaded of their own piety and benevolence sexually exploited their concubines, without a thought of whether this constituted a violation of their humanity. There were also many pious Muslims who refused to have slaves and persuaded others not to do so. Eventually, the Ottoman Empire's orders against the traffic of slaves were issued and put into effect.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_84
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
According to Brockopp, in the 19th century, "Some authorities made blanket pronouncements against slavery, arguing that it violated the Qurʾānic ideals of equality and freedom. The great slave markets of Cairo were closed down at the end of the nineteenth century and even conservative Qurʾān interpreters continue to regard slavery as opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_85
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Slavery in the forms of carpet weavers, sugarcane cutters, camel jockeys, sex slaves, and even chattel exists even today in some Muslim countries (though some have questioned the use of the term slavery as an accurate description).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_86
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
According to a March 1886 article in The New York Times, the Ottoman Empire allowed a slave trade in girls to thrive during the late 1800s, while publicly denying it. Girl sexual slaves sold in the Ottoman Empire were mainly of three ethnic groups: Circassian, Syrian, and Nubian. Circassian girls were described by the American journalist as fair and light-skinned. They were frequently sent by Circassian leaders as gifts to the Ottomans. They were the most expensive, reaching up to 500 Turkish lira and the most popular with the Turks. The next most popular slaves were Syrian girls, with "dark eyes and hair", and light brown skin. Their price could reach to thirty lira. They were described by the American journalist as having "good figures when young". Throughout coastal regions in Anatolia, Syrian girls were sold. The New York Times journalist stated Nubian girls were the cheapest and least popular, fetching up to 20 lira.
|
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8
] |
20231101.en_47674564_87
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Murray Gordon said that, unlike Western societies which developed anti-slavery movements, no such organizations developed in Muslim societies. In Muslim politics, the state interpreted Islamic law. This then extended legitimacy to the traffic in slaves.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_88
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Writing about the Arabia he visited in 1862, the English traveler W. G. Palgrave met large numbers of slaves. The effects of slave concubinage were apparent in the number of persons of mixed race and in the emancipation of slaves he found to be common. Charles Doughty, writing about 25 years later, made similar reports.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_89
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
According to British explorer (and abolitionist) Samuel Baker, who visited Khartoum in 1862 six decades after the British had declared slave trade illegal, slave trade was the industry "that kept Khartoum going as a bustling town". From Khartoum slave raiders attacked African villages to the south, looting and destroying so that "surviving inhabitants would be forced to collaborate with slavers on their next excursion against neighboring villages," and taking back captured women and young adults to sell in slave markets.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_90
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly when the European slave trade dropped around the 1850s only to be ended with European colonisation of Africa around 1900.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_91
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity."
|
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44
] |
20231101.en_47674564_92
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Richard Francis Burton wrote about the Medina slaves, during his 1853 Haj, "a little black boy, perfect in all his points, and tolerably intelligent, costs about a thousand piastres; girls are dearer, and eunuchs fetch double that sum." In Zanzibar, Burton found slaves owning slaves.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_93
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade in the African Great Lakes region, which he visited in the mid-nineteenth century:
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_94
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_95
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
At Istanbul, the sale of black and Circassian women was conducted openly, even well past the granting of the Constitution in 1908.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_96
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, slavery gradually became outlawed and suppressed in Muslim lands, due to a combination of pressures exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France, internal pressure from Islamic abolitionist movements, and economic pressures.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_97
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
By the Treaty of Jeddah, May 1927 (art.7), concluded between the British Government and Ibn Sa'ud (King of Nejd and the Hijaz) it was agreed to suppress the slave trade in Saudi Arabia. Then by a decree issued in 1936, the importation of slaves into Saudi Arabia was prohibited unless it could be proved that they were slaves at the treaty date. In 1962, all slavery practices or trafficking in Saudi Arabia was prohibited.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_98
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
By 1969, it could be observed that most Muslim states had abolished slavery, although it existed in the deserts of Iraq bordering Arabia and it still flourished in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. Slavery was not formally abolished in Yemen and Oman until the following year. The last nation to formally enact the abolition of slavery practice and slave trafficking was the Islamic Republic of Mauritania in 1981.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_99
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_100
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Slavery in Mauritania was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and 1981. It was finally criminalized in August 2007. It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of Mauritania's population, are currently in conditions which some consider to be "slavery", namely, many of them used as bonded labour due to poverty.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_101
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The issue of slavery in the Islamic world in modern times is controversial. Critics argue there is hard evidence of its existence and destructive effects. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, slavery in central Islamic lands has been "virtually extinct" since the mid-20th century, though there are reports indicating that it is still practiced in some areas of Sudan and Somalia as a result of warfare.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_102
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Earlier in the 20th century, prior to the "reopening" of slavery by Salafi scholars like Shaykh al-Fawzan, Islamist authors declared slavery outdated without actually clearly supporting its abolition. This has caused at least one scholar, William Clarence-Smith, to bemoan the "dogged refusal of Mawlana Mawdudi to give up on slavery" and the notable "evasions and silences of Muhammad Qutb".
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_103
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Muhammad Qutb, brother and promoter of the Egyptian author and revolutionary Sayyid Qutb, vigorously defended Islamic slavery from Western criticism, telling his audience that "Islam gave spiritual enfranchisement to slaves" and "in the early period of Islam the slave was exalted to such a noble state of humanity as was never before witnessed in any other part of the world." He contrasted the adultery, prostitution, and (what he called) "that most odious form of animalism" casual sex, found in Europe, with (what he called) "that clean and spiritual bond that ties a maid [i.e. slave girl] to her master in Islam."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_104
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In recent years, according to some scholars, there has been a "reopening" of the issue of slavery by some conservative Salafi Islamic scholars after its "closing" earlier in the 20th century when Muslim countries banned slavery.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_105
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 2003, Shaykh Saleh Al-Fawzan, a member of Saudi Arabia's highest religious body, the Senior Council of Clerics, issued a fatwa claiming "Slavery is a part of Islam. Slavery is part of jihad, and jihad will remain as long there is Islam."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_106
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Muslim scholars who said otherwise were "infidels". In 2016, Shaykh al-Fawzan responded to a question about taking Yazidi women as sex slaves by reiterating that "Enslaving women in war is not prohibited in Islam", he added that those who forbid enslavement are either "ignorant or infidel".
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_107
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
While Saleh Al-Fawzan's fatwa does not repeal Saudi laws against slavery, the fatwa carries weight among many Salafi Muslims. According to reformist jurist and author Khaled Abou El Fadl, it "is particularly disturbing and dangerous because it effectively legitimates the trafficking in and sexual exploitation of so-called domestic workers in the Gulf region and especially Saudi Arabia." "Organized criminal gangs smuggle children into Saudi Arabia where they are enslaved, sometimes mutilated, and forced to work as beggars. When caught, the children are deported as illegal aliens."
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_108
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In Mauritania slavery was abolished in the country's first constitution of 1961 after independence, and abolished yet again, by presidential decree, in July 1980. The "catch" of these abolitions was that slave ownership was not abolished. The edict "recognized the rights of owners by stipulating that they should be compensated for their loss of property". No financial payment was provided by the state, so that the abolition amounted to "little more than propaganda for foreign consumption". Religious authorities within Mauritania assailed abolition. One leader, El Hassan Ould Benyamine, imam of a mosque in Tayarat attacked it as "not only illegal because it is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Koran. The abolition also amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods, goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave.""God created Me to Be a Slave," New York Times Magazine, October 12, 1997, p. 58
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_109
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1994–95, a Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights documented the physical and emotional abuse of captives by the Sudanese Army and allied militia and army. The captives were "sold as slaves or forced to work under conditions amounting to slavery". The Sudanese government responded with "fury", accusing the author, Gaspar Biro of "harboring anti-Islam and Anti-Arab sentiments". In 1999, the UN Commission sent another Special Rapporteur who "also produced a detailed examination of the question of slavery incriminating the government of Sudan." At least in the 1980s, slavery in Sudan was developed enough for slaves to have a market price the price of a slave boy fluctuating between $90 and $10 in 1987 and 1988.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_110
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
In 1962, Saudi Arabia abolished slavery officially; however, unofficial slavery is rumored to exist.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_111
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, and for children from Yemen, Afghanistan, and Africa trafficking for forced begging. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Kenya migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia; some fall into conditions of involuntary servitude, suffering from physical and sexual abuse, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their freedom of movement and non-consensual contract alterations.
|
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64
] |
20231101.en_47674564_112
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
The Government of Saudi Arabia does not comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47674564_113
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20slavery%20in%20the%20Muslim%20world
|
History of slavery in the Muslim world
|
Libya is a major exit point for African migrants heading to Europe. International Organization for Migration (IOM) published a report in April 2017 showing that many of the migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa heading to Europe are sold as slaves after being detained by people smugglers or militia groups. African countries south of Libya were targeted for slave trading and transferred to Libyan slave markets instead. According to the victims, the price is higher for migrants with skills like painting and tiling. Slaves are often ransomed to their families and in the meantime until ransom can be paid tortured, forced to work, sometimes to death and eventually executed or left to starve if they can't pay for too long. Women are often raped and used as sex slaves and sold to brothels and private Libyan clients. Many child migrants also suffer from abuse and child rape in Libya.
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