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Biomolecular engineering Recombinant DNA can also be used for diagnostic methods involving the use of the ELISA method. This makes it possible to engineer antigens, as well as the enzymes attached, to recognize different substrates or be modified for bioimmobilization. Recombinant DNA is also responsible for many products found in the agricultural industry. Genetically modified food, such as golden rice, has been engineered to have increased production of vitamin A for use in societies and cultures where dietary vitamin A is scarce. Other properties that have been engineered into crops include herbicide-resistance and insect-resistance. Site-directed mutagenesis is a technique that has been around since the 1970s. The early days of research in this field yielded discoveries about the potential of certain chemicals such as bisulfite and aminopurine to change certain bases in a gene. This research continued, and other processes were developed to create certain nucleotide sequences on a gene, such as the use of restriction enzymes to fragment certain viral strands and use them as primers for bacterial plasmids. The modern method, developed by Michael Smith in 1978, uses an oligonucleotide that is complementary to a bacterial plasmid with a single base pair mismatch or a series of mismatches. Site directed mutagenesis is a valuable technique that allows for the replacement of a single base in an oligonucleotide or gene | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering The basics of this technique involve the preparation of a primer that will be a complementary strand to a wild type bacterial plasmid. This primer will have a base pair mismatch at the site where the replacement is desired. The primer must also be long enough such that the primer will anneal to the wild type plasmid. After the primer anneals, a DNA polymerase will complete the primer. When the bacterial plasmid is replicated, the mutated strand will be replicated as well. The same technique can be used to create a gene insertion or deletion. Often, an antibiotic resistant gene is inserted along with the modification of interest and the bacteria are cultured on an antibiotic medium. The bacteria that were not successfully mutated will not survive on this medium, and the mutated bacteria can easily be cultured. Site-directed mutagenesis can be useful for many different reasons. A single base pair replacement, could change a codon, and thus replace an amino acid in a protein. This is useful for studying the way certain proteins behave. It is also useful because enzymes can be purposefully manipulated by changing certain amino acids. If an amino acid is changed that is in close proximity to the active site, the kinetic parameters may change drastically, or the enzyme might behave in a different way. Another application of site directed mutagenesis is exchanging an amino acid residue far from the active site with a lysine residue or cysteine residue | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering These amino acids make it easier to covalently bond the enzyme to a solid surface, which allows for enzyme re-use and use of enzymes in continuous processes. Sometimes, amino acids with non-natural functional groups (such as ketones and azides) are added to proteins These additions may be for ease of bioconjugation, or to study the effects of amino acid changes on the form and function of the proteins. The coupling of site directed mutagenesis and PCR are being utilized to reduce interleukin-6 activity in cancerous cells. The bacteria "bacillus subtilis" is often used in site directed mutagenesis. The bacteria secretes an enzyme called subtilisin through the cell wall. Biomolecular engineers can purposely manipulate this gene to essentially make the cell a factory for producing whatever protein the insertion in the gene codes. Bio-immobilization and bio-conjugation is the purposeful manipulation of a biomolecule's mobility by chemical or physical means to obtain a desired property. Immobilization of biomolecules allows exploiting characteristics of the molecule under controlled environments. For example , the immobilization of glucose oxidase on calcium alginate gel beads can be used in a bioreactor. The resulting product will not need purification to remove the enzyme because it will remain linked to the beads in the column. Examples of types of biomolecules that are immobilized are enzymes, organelles, and complete cells. Biomolecules can be immobilized using a range of techniques | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering The most popular are physical entrapment, adsorption, and covalent modification. Because immobilization restricts the biomolecule, care must be given to ensure that functionality is not entirely lost. Variables to consider are pH, temperature, solvent choice, ionic strength, orientation of active sites due to conjugation. For enzymes, the conjugation will lower the kinetic rate due to a change in the 3-dimensional structure, so care must be taken to ensure functionality is not lost. Bio-immobilization is used in technologies such as diagnostic bioassays, biosensors, ELISA, and bioseparations. Interleukin (IL-6) can also be bioimmobilized on biosensors. The ability to observe these changes in IL-6 levels is important in diagnosing an illness. A cancer patient will have elevated IL-6 level and monitoring those levels will allow the physician to watch the disease progress. A direct immobilization of IL-6 on the surface of a biosensor offers a fast alternative to ELISA. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique that is used to replicate a piece of a DNA molecule by several orders of magnitude. PCR implements a cycle of repeated heated and cooling known as thermal cycling along with the addition of DNA primers and DNA polymerases to selectively replicate the DNA fragment of interest. The technique was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983 while working for the Cetus Corporation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering Mullis would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 as a result of the impact that PCR had in many areas such as DNA cloning, DNA sequencing, and gene analysis. A number of biomolecular engineering strategies have played a very important role in the development and practice of PCR. For instance a crucial step in ensuring the accurate replication of the desired DNA fragment is the creation of the correct DNA primer. The most common method of primer synthesis is by the phosphoramidite method. This method includes the biomolecular engineering of a number of molecules to attain the desired primer sequence. The most prominent biomolecular engineering technique seen in this primer design method is the initial bioimmobilization of a nucleotide to a solid support. This step is commonly done via the formation of a covalent bond between the 3’-hydroxy group of the first nucleotide of the primer and the solid support material. Furthermore, as the DNA primer is created certain functional groups of nucleotides to be added to the growing primer require blocking to prevent undesired side reactions. This blocking of functional groups as well as the subsequent de-blocking of the groups, coupling of subsequent nucleotides, and eventual cleaving from the solid support are all methods of manipulation of biomolecules that can be attributed to biomolecular engineering. The increase in interleukin levels is directly proportional to the increased death rate in breast cancer patients | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering PCR paired with Western blotting and ELISA help define the relationship between cancer cells and IL-6. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is an assay that utilizes the principle of antibody-antigen recognition to test for the presence of certain substances. The three main types of ELISA tests which are indirect ELISA, sandwich ELISA, and competitive ELISA all rely on the fact that antibodies have an affinity for only one specific antigen. Furthermore, these antigens or antibodies can be attached to enzymes which can react to create a colorimetric result indicating the presence of the antibody or antigen of interest. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays are used most commonly as diagnostic tests to detect HIV antibodies in blood samples to test for HIV, human chorionic gonadotropin molecules in urine to indicate pregnancy, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis antibodies in blood to test patients for tuberculosis. Furthermore, ELISA is also widely used as a toxicology screen to test people's serum for the presence of illegal drugs. Although there are three different types of solid state enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, all three types begin with the bioimmobilization of either an antibody or antigen to a surface. This bioimmobilization is the first instance of biomolecular engineering that can be seen in ELISA implementation. This step can be performed in a number of ways including a covalent linkage to a surface which may be coated with protein or another substance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering The bioimmobilization can also be performed via hydrophobic interactions between the molecule and the surface. Because there are many different types of ELISAs used for many different purposes the biomolecular engineering that this step requires varies depending on the specific purpose of the ELISA. Another biomolecular engineering technique that is used in ELISA development is the bioconjugation of an enzyme to either an antibody or antigen depending on the type of ELISA. There is much to consider in this enzyme bioconjugation such as avoiding interference with the active site of the enzyme as well as the antibody binding site in the case that the antibody is conjugated with enzyme. This bioconjugation is commonly performed by creating crosslinks between the two molecules of interest and can require a wide variety of different reagents depending on the nature of the specific molecules. Interleukin (IL-6) is a signaling protein that has been known to be present during an immune response. The use of the sandwich type ELISA quantifies the presence of this cytokine within spinal fluid or bone marrow samples. is an extensive discipline with applications in many different industries and fields. As such, it is difficult to pinpoint a general perspective on the profession. The biotechnology industry, however, provides an adequate representation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering The biotechnology industry, or biotech industry, encompasses all firms that use biotechnology to produce goods or services or to perform biotechnology research and development. In this way, it encompasses many of the industrial applications of the biomolecular engineering discipline. By examination of the biotech industry, it can be gathered that the principal leader of the industry is the United States, followed by France and Spain. It is also true that the focus of the biotechnology industry and the application of biomolecular engineering is primarily clinical and medical. People are willing to pay for good health, so most of the money directed towards the biotech industry stays in health-related ventures. Scaling up a process involves using data from an experimental-scale operation (model or pilot plant) for the design of a large (scaled-up) unit, of commercial size. Scaling up is a crucial part of commercializing a process. For example, insulin produced by genetically modified Escherichia coli bacteria was initialized on a lab-scale, but to be made commercially viable had to be scaled up to an industrial level. In order to achieve this scale-up a lot of lab data had to be used to design commercial sized units. For example, one of the steps in insulin production involves the crystallization of high purity glargin insulin. In order to achieve this process on a large scale we want to keep the Power/Volume ratio of both the lab-scale and large-scale crystallizers the same in order to achieve homogeneous mixing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering We also assume the lab-scale crystallizer has geometric similarity to the large-scale crystallizer. Therefore, P/V α Nd where d= crystallizer impeller diameter N= impeller rotation rate A broad term encompassing all engineering applied to the life sciences. This field of study utilizes the principles of biology along with engineering principles to create marketable products. Some bioengineering applications include: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemical processes govern all living organisms and living processes and the field of biochemistry seeks to understand and manipulate these processes. Bioelectrical engineering involves the electrical fields generated by living cells or organisms. Examples include the electric potential developed between muscles or nerves of the body. This discipline requires knowledge in the fields of electricity and biology to understand and utilize these concepts to improve or better current bioprocesses or technology. Biomedical engineering is a sub category of bioengineering that uses many of the same principles but focuses more on the medical applications of the various engineering developments. Some applications of biomedical engineering include: Chemical engineering is the processing of raw materials into chemical products | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Biomolecular engineering It involves preparation of raw materials to produce reactants, the chemical reaction of these reactants under controlled conditions, the separation of products, the recycle of byproducts, and the disposal of wastes. Each step involves certain basic building blocks called “unit operations,” such as extraction, filtration, and distillation. These unit operations are found in all chemical processes. is a subset of Chemical Engineering that applies these same principles to the processing of chemical substances made by living organisms. Newly developed and offered undergraduate programs across the United States, often coupled to the chemical engineering program, allow students to achieve a B.S. degree. According to ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology), biomolecular engineering curricula "must provide thorough grounding in the basic sciences including chemistry, physics, and biology, with some content at an advanced level… [and] engineering application of these basic sciences to design, analysis, and control, of chemical, physical, and/or biological processes." Common curricula consist of major engineering courses including transport, thermodynamics, separations, and kinetics, with additions of life sciences courses including biology and biochemistry, and including specialized biomolecular courses focusing on cell biology, nano- and biotechnology, biopolymers, etc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11344743 |
Sexing Through sexing, biologists and agricultural workers determine the sex of livestock and other animals they work with. The specialized trade of chicken sexing has a particular importance in the poultry industry. The sex of mammals can often be determined using sexually dimorphic characteristics. Assisted physical sexing is a relevant in vertebrates with cloacae (e.g. birds, reptiles or amphibians) when there is no external sexual dimorphism. In veterinary practice, fibroscopy is used under general anaesthesia in birds such as parrots. Molecular sexing is a set of techniques that use DNA for determining sex in wild or domestic species (population studies, farming, genetics) or humans (archaeology, forensic medicine). Markers commonly used include amelogenin, SRY and ZFX/ZFY. Various techniques have been developed using simple polymerase chain reaction product size dimorphism, presence/absence, restriction dimorphism, or even sequencing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11345653 |
Moses Botarel Farissol was a Jewish astronomer and mathematician of the second half of the 15th century. He wrote a work on the calendar entitled "Meleket ha-Ḳebi'ah," and compiled, under the title "Nofet Ẓufim," calendric tables. Both these works, in manuscript, are preserved in the royal library at Munich. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11355257 |
Woods–Saxon potential The is a mean field potential for the nucleons (protons and neutrons) inside the atomic nucleus, which is used to describe approximately the forces applied on each nucleon, in the nuclear shell model for the structure of the nucleus. The potential is named after Roger D. Woods and David S. Saxon. The form of the potential, in terms of the distance "r" from the center of nucleus, is: formula_1 where "V" (having dimension of energy) represents the potential well depth, "a" is a length representing the "surface thickness" of the nucleus, and formula_2 is the nuclear radius where and "A" is the mass number. Typical values for the parameters are: , . For large atomic number "A" this potential is similar to a potential well. It has the following desired properties The Schrödinger equation of this potential can be solved analytically, by transforming it into a hypergeometric differential equation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11357006 |
Pachycaul Pachycauls are plants with a disproportionately thick trunk for their height, and few branches. The word is derived from the Greek "pachy-" meaning thick or stout, and Latin "caulis" meaning the stem. Examples occur in the genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11363457 |
Mutual coherence (physics) Two sinusoidal oscillations of the same frequency are said to be mutually coherent if they exhibit a constant phase relationship during the course of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11364414 |
Allen Kerr AO, FRS, FAA (born 1926) was a Scottish-born Professor of Plant Pathology at the University of Adelaide. His most significant work was his study of crown gall - a plant cancer induced by Agrobacterium tumerfaciens. He was born on 21 May 1926 in Edinburgh and gained a BSc degree at the University of Edinburgh. From 1947-1951 he was Assistant Mycologist at the North of Scotland College of Agriculture.<br> From 1951-1980 he was Lecturer, then Senior Lecturer, then Reader in Plant Pathology at the University of Adelaide.<br> From 1978-1983 he was Vice-President of the International Society for Plant Pathology.<br> From 1980-1983 he was President of the Australasian Plant Pathology Society. In 1978 he was elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science.<br> In 1986 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society.<br> In 1990 he received the inaugural Australia Prize for his work with plant genetics and biology. In 1990 he became Head of the Department of Plant Pathology at the University of Adelaide, and in 1991 he became Head of the Department of Crop Protection at the University of Adelaide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11371107 |
Everglades virus (EVEV) is an alphavirus included in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus complex. The virus circulates among rodents and vector mosquitoes and sometimes infects humans, causing a febrile illness with occasional neurological manifestations. The virus is named after the Everglades, a region of subtropical wetlands in southern Florida. The virus is endemic to the U.S. state of Florida, where its geographic range mirrors that of the mosquito species "Culex cedecei". Hispid cotton rat and cotton mouse are considered important reservoir hosts of Everglades virus. Most clinical cases of infection occur in and around the city of Miami. Symptoms of infection include: The virus is transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes of the genus "Culex", specifically "Culex cedecei". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11371983 |
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research The (, abbreviated IOW) is a research institution located in Warnemünde (Rostock), Germany. It is part of the Leibniz-Association, cooperates with the University of Rostock and was founded in 1992. Employing about 160 people the main focus lies on interdisciplinary study of coastal oceans and marginal seas, especially on Baltic Sea related oceanography. The institute is a follow-up of the former Institute of Oceanography ("Institut für Meereskunde") which was part of the GDR Academy of Science. The institute is divided in four departments: physical oceanography, marine chemistry, biological oceanography, and marine geology. Central task of the institute is fundamental research but also teaching at the universities of Rostock and Greifswald. IOW has direct access to the research vessel "Maria S. Merian" and can access by request a variety of other medium-sized vessels for longer trips and interdisciplinary tasks from the German research fleet. The institute's facilities are financed by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, and the Ministry of Education of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11393560 |
Impsonite is a black, carbonaceous substance, with a specific gravity of 1.10–1.25 and a carbon content of 50–85%. It is described as an asphaltic pyrobitumen. It is believed to be derived from a fluid bitumen which polymerized after filling a vein. The term was coined by George Homans Eldridge in 1901, referring to the asphaltic material in the Impson Valley in southeastern Oklahoma, later known as the Jumbo mine. The asphaltic material in the Impson Valley was later reclassified as grahamite, based on solubility and chemical similarities with the type grahamite of West Virginia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11406528 |
Zena Tooze (born 3 May 1955) is a Canadian biologist and conservationist who has worked in Nigeria in the area of primate conservation since 1991. She received a master's degree in Biology from Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1987. In 2005 she received a Whitley Award for excellence in leadership in nature conservation. In 1994 Tooze founded the Centre for Education, Research and Conservation of Primates and Nature (CERCOPAN) which is a non-profit, non-government organisation based in Cross River State, Nigeria. CERCOPAN is a rehabilitation and conservation project for threatened and endangered forest monkeys. Much of its work involves the rehabilitation of young monkeys orphaned by the trade in bushmeat. The mission of CERCOPAN is to conserve Nigeria's primates through sustainable rainforest conservation, community partnerships, education, primate rehabilitation and research. The host community of CERCOPAN is Iko Esai which is involved in the collaborative protection of 200 km of forest contiguous with the Cross River National Park. At least six species of monkey are involved in the rehabilitation and conservation program, including the endemic Sclater's guenon, Preuss's guenon and red-eared guenon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11434528 |
Zena Tooze Following acting as CERCOPAN's Director since 1995, Tooze handed over to a new Director in January 2009, from which time she took on the official title of 'Founder and Trustee', heading up the board of trustees for the UK registered charity which she founded to support the conservation work in Nigeria (registered charity 1116955). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11434528 |
Tim Naish Timothy Raymond Naish is a New Zealand glaciologist. He is the director of the Antarctic Research Centre at Victoria University of Wellington. He has written about the collapse of Antarctica's Larsen B ice shelf. In 2002, between January 31 and March 7 the Larsen B ice shelf collapsed and broke up. Naish warned that the ice shelf of Weddell Sea is imperiled, and if the temperature rises by 3°C, the ice shelves of Antarctica will become thinner. In the 2010 New Year Honours, Naish was awarded the New Zealand Antarctic Medal for services to Antarctic climate science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11449099 |
I-cell I-cells also called inclusion cells are abnormal fibroblasts having a large number of dark inclusions in the cytoplasm of the cell (mainly in the central area). The inclusions are of various fats, proteins, carbohydrates, pigments and other insolubles. They are seen in mucolipidosis II, also called inclusion-cell or disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11461412 |
Polymer blend A polymer blend, or polymer mixture, is a member of a class of materials analogous to metal alloys, in which at least two polymers are blended together to create a new material with different physical properties. During the 1940s, '50s and '60s, the commercial development of the new monomers for production of the new polymers seemed endless. In this period, it was discovered that the development of the new techniques for the modification of the already existing polymers, would be economically viable. The first technique of modification developed was the polymerization, in other words, the joint polymerization of more than one kind of polymer. A new polymers modification process, based on a simple mechanical mixture of two polymers first appeared when Thomas Hancock got one mixture of natural rubber with gutta-percha. This process generated a new polymer class called "polymer blends". Polymer blends can be broadly divided into three categories: The use of the term polymer alloy for a polymer blend is discouraged, as the former term includes multiphase copolymers but excludes incompatible polymer blends. Examples of miscible polymer blends: Polymer blends can be used as thermoplastic elastomer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11471537 |
Paludal is derived from the Latin word "palus" ("marsh"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11477401 |
Pseudo-warm front A pseudo-warm front is a boundary between the in-flow region and the forward-flank downdraft of a supercell. It can either be stationary or move in a northeasterly direction. If it were stationary it would technically be a pseudo-stationary front. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11477772 |
Coster–Kronig transition The is a special case of the Auger process in which the vacancy is filled by an electron from a higher subshell of the same shell. If, in addition, the electron emitted (the "Auger electron") also belongs to the same shell, one calls this a super Coster–Kronig transition. The Coster–Kronig process is named after the physicists Dirk Coster and Ralph Kronig. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11483011 |
Les Houches Accords The are agreements between particle physicists to standardize the interface between the matrix element programs and the event generators used to calculate different quantities. The original accord was initially formed in 2001, at a conference in Les Houches, France, and was subsequently expanded. In experimental high energy physics, several levels of computing are used to simulate data runs, including programs that generate matrix elements and ones that generate events. However, there are several programs for each of these tasks, such as CompHEP and MadGraph to generate matrix elements, and PYTHIA and HERWIG for event generation. Depending on specific properties of the particle decay that physicists are interested in, they may desire to use a certain program for these tasks, but before the Les Houches Accords, there was no general interface for communicating between the programs. This enables physicists to choose more freely between different programs. The Accords also make it easier to generate probability density function cross sections for events. The original Accord defined a programmatic interface for transfer of event information, in terms of Fortran common blocks, but no data exchange file format was defined until 2006. Events that conform to the formats described in the are said to be in Les Houches Event format, or more often, LHE format. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11488602 |
John J. Turin (1913–1973) was an American mathematician and physicist, especially active in the field of astronomy. He was director of the Ritter Astrophysical Research Center of the University of Toledo, Ohio. A number of patents, many with respect to heat convection, are on his name. After his death, several awards were named after him, including the Memorial Service Award and the Award for Outstanding Career Accomplishments in Physics, both awarded to him posthumously by the University of Toledo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11501917 |
Robert Rosner (born June 26, 1947) is an astrophysicist and founding director of the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago, where he is the William E. Wrather Distinguished Service Professor in the departments of Astronomy and Astrophysics and Physics. He was the director of Argonne National Laboratory from 2005 to 2009. Prior to his appointment as Argonne's director, his research was focused primarily on astrophysical fluid dynamics and plasma physics problems. Rosner is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, and also sits on the Science and Security Board of the "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11514030 |
Activation product Activation products are materials made radioactive by neutron activation. Fission products and actinides produced by neutron absorption of nuclear fuel itself are normally referred to by those specific names, and "activation product" reserved for products of neutron capture by other materials, such as structural components of the nuclear reactor or nuclear bomb, the reactor coolant, control rods or other neutron poisons, or materials in the environment. All of these, however, need to be handled as radioactive waste. Some nuclides originate in more than one way, as activation products or fission products. Activation products in a reactor's primary coolant loop are a main reason reactors use a chain of two or even three coolant loops linked by heat exchangers. Fusion reactors will not produce radioactive waste from the fusion product nuclei themselves, which are normally just helium-4, but generate high neutron fluxes, so activation products are a particular concern. radionuclides include: [1] Branching fractions from LNHB database. [2] Branching fractions renormalised to sum to 1.0.. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11516599 |
Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory (TLL) was established in August 2002 and as a Singapore Non Profit Philanthropic Research Organisation focusing primarily on understanding the cellular mechanisms that underlie the development and physiology of plants, fungi and animals which provides foundation for biotechnology innovation. It is affiliated with the National University of Singapore and the Nanyang Technological University and is located within the campus of the National University of Singapore. TLL has 230 researchers from about 20 different nationalities to engage in biomolecular science research and applications. (TLL) is a beneficiary of Temasek Trust which oversees the initial endowment of S$500 million by Temasek to support corporate social responsibility philanthropic efforts in developing and delivering community programmes. (TLL) was founded in 2002 and funded by Temasek Trust, the philanthropic arm of Temasek. TLL offers various academic programmes at the tertiary level and is affiliated with the National University of Singapore and the Nanyang Technological University. (TLL) offers an intensive PhD programme in Singapore that fosters productive scientific interactions between students, postdoctoral fellows, and PIs. Past candidates have had their work published in prestigious research journals and travelled widely to present their findings at international conferences. 2 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11516662 |
Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory Internship Programmes Research Attachment Programme (REAP) The Research Attachment Programme (REAP) is jointly organised by the Ministry of Education (MOE), National University of Singapore (NUS) and TLL to groom local life sciences research talents. The eight-week programme is designed for first-year Biology and Chemistry students in local junior colleges (JCs) to encourage these budding young science students to pursue a career in life sciences in future by stimulating their interest with hands-on training in research environment and interactions with professional scientists. Undergraduate Programme (UTP) The Undergraduate Programme (UTP) promotes scientific exchange and research collaboration between TLL and the top-tier China and India universities, where final year undergraduates are given the opportunity to execute research projects at TLL for 3 to 4 months. Graduate Attachment Programme (GAP) The Graduate Attachment Programme (GAP), which lasts for 3 to 6 months, exposes Singaporeans and Singapore Permanent Resident (PR) fresh graduates to the R&D environment to encourage them to pursue a career in research. Other Training TLL also participates in the attachment programmes offered by Nanyang Polytechnic, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Republic Polytechnic,Singapore Polytechnic, and Temasek Polytechnic. Since its inception, TLL has made over 60 inventions and published over 730 papers in peer-reviewed journals, of which more than 25 percent are in high impact research journals like Nature | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11516662 |
Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory Headed by Emeritus Professor Chan Soh Ha, the research institute focuses on creating an environment which can attract the brightest young minds worldwide, support their research and challenge them. In 2011, TLL published 59 papers in peer-reviewed journals and made five discoveries including the specific Enterovirus 711 monoclonal antibodies which can be further developed as potential therapeutics. In 2012, TLL published 85 papers in peer-reviewed journals and made 11 discoveries, out of which five have been licensed. At (TLL), 230 scientists from about 20 countries undertake basic and applied research in cellular, molecular, and genetic biology. The research efforts aim to address both the immediate and long-term needs of the life sciences industry with a particular focus on cell biology, developmental biology, genomes structural biology and molecular pathogenesis. Notable research methodology includes the adaptation of a range of molecular and cell biology approaches and the use of computational data mining to understand the cellular mechanisms that underlie the development and physiology of plants, fungi and animals. One third of TLL’s research programmes is directed at practical research such as improving non-food biofuel sources and developing rapid diagnostic test kits, therapeutics and vaccines for emerging infectious diseases such as the H5N1 bird flu virus. Under the PhD/Graduate Programme, TLL supervised 90 PhD candidates with their thesis research being carried out in various laboratories within TLL. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11516662 |
Conceptual physics is an approach to teaching physics that focuses on the ideas of physics rather than the often daunting mathematics. It is believed that with a strong conceptual foundation in physics, students are better equipped to understand the equations and formulas of physics, and to make connections between the concepts of physics and their everyday life. Early versions used almost no equations or math-based problems. Paul G. Hewitt popularized this approach with his textbook "Conceptual Physics: A New Introduction to your Environment" in 1971. In his review at the time, Kenneth Ford noted the emphasis on logical reasoning and said "Hewitt's excellent book can be called physics without equations, or physics without computation, but not physics without mathematics." Hewitt's wasn't the first book to take this approach. "Conceptual Physics: Matter in Motion" by Jae R. Ballif and William E. Dibble was published in 1969. But Hewitt's book became very successful. As of 2014 it is in its twelfth edition. In 1987 Hewitt wrote a version for high school students. The spread of the conceptual approach to teaching physics broadened the range of students taking physics in high school. Enrollment in conceptual physics courses in high school grew from 25,000 students in 1987 to over 400,000 in 2009. In 2009, 37% of students took high school physics, and 31% of them were in Physics First, conceptual physics courses, or regular physics courses using a conceptual textbook | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11522564 |
Conceptual physics This approach to teaching physics has also inspired books for science literacy courses, such as "From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness" by Sadri Hassani. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11522564 |
Spinplasmonics is a field of nanotechnology combining spintronics and plasmonics. The field was pioneered by Professor Abdulhakem Elezzabi at the University of Alberta in Canada. In a simple spinplasmonic device, light waves couple to electron spin states in a metallic structure. The most elementary spinplasmonic device consists of a bilayer structure made from magnetic and nonmagnetic metals. It is the nanometer scale interface between such metals that gives rise to an electron spin phenomenon. The plasmonic current is generated by optical excitation and its properties are manipulated by applying a weak magnetic field. Electrons with a specific spin state can cross the interfacial barrier, but those with a different spin state are impeded. Essentially, switching operations are performed with the electrons spin and then sent out as a light signal. Spinplasmonic devices potentially have the advantages of high speed, miniaturization, low power consumption, and multifunctionality. On a lengthscale that is less than a single magnetic domain size, the interaction between atomic spins realigns the magnetic moments. Unlike semiconductor-based devices, smaller spinplasmonics devices are expected to be more efficient in transporting the spin-polarized electron current. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11523749 |
Dew point depression The dew point depression (T-Td) is the difference between the temperature and dew point temperature at a certain height in the atmosphere. For a constant temperature, the smaller the difference, the more moisture there is, and the higher the relative humidity. In the lower troposphere, more moisture (small dew point depression) results in lower cloud bases and lifted condensation levels (LCL). LCL height is an important factor modulating severe thunderstorms. One example concerns tornadogenesis, with tornadoes most likely if the dew point depression is 20 °F (11 °C) or less, and the likelihood of large, intense tornadoes increasing as dew point depression decreases. LCL height also factors in downburst and microburst activity. Conversely, instability is increased when there is a mid-level dry layer (large dew point depression) known as a "dry punch", which is favorable for convection if the lower layer is buoyant. As it measures moisture content in the atmosphere, the dew point depression is also an important indicator in agricultural and forest meteorology, particularly in predicting wildfires. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11530049 |
Convective condensation level The convective condensation level (CCL) represents the height (or pressure) where an air parcel becomes saturated when heated from below and lifted adiabatically due to buoyancy. In the atmosphere, assuming a constant water vapor mixing ratio, the dew point temperature (the temperature where the relative humidity is 100%) decreases with increasing height because the pressure of the atmosphere decreases with height. The CCL is determined by plotting the dew point (100%RH) verses altitude and locating the intersection with the actual measured temperature sounding. It marks where the cloud base begins when air is heated from below to the convective temperature, without mechanical lift. Once the CCL is determined, the surface temperature necessary to raise a mass of air to that height can be found by using the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) to determine the potential temperature. In the early morning, this temperature is typically larger than the surface temperature, in the mid-afternoon, it may be the same. Compare this to the Lifting Condensation Level (LCL) where the air is lifted and cooled without first increasing the surface temperature. The LCL is less than or equal to the CCL depending on the temperature profile. Both condensation levels indicate the altitude (or pressure) where relative humidity reaches 100%. However, since the actual condensation level depends on the availability of condensation nuclei, clouds typically do not form until the relative humidity is somewhat above 100%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11530184 |
Convective temperature The convective temperature (CT or T) is the approximate temperature that air near the surface must reach for cloud formation without mechanical lift. In such case, cloud base begins at the convective condensation level (CCL), whilst with mechanical lifting, condensation begins at the lifted condensation level (LCL). is important to forecasting thunderstorm development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11530507 |
Hayes similitude principle The enabled aerodynamicists to take the results of one series of tests or calculations and apply them to the design of an entire family of similar configurations where neither tests nor detailed calculations are available. The similitude principle was developed by Wallace D. Hayes, a pioneer in hypersonic flow, which is considered to begin at about five times the speed of sound, or Mach 5, and is described in his classic book Hypersonic Flow Theory co-written with Ronald Probstein and first published in 1959. The behavior of the physical processes in actual problems is affected by so many physical quantities that a complete mathematical description thereof is usually very difficult and sometimes practically impossible due to the complicated nature of the phenomena. We know from experience that if two systems are geometrically similar there usually exists some kind of similarity under certain conditions, such as kinematic similarity, dynamic similarity, thermal similarity, and similarity of concentration distribution, and that if similarity conditions are satisfied we can greatly reduce the number of independent variables required to describe the behavior of the process. In this way, we can systematically understand. describe, and even predict the behavior of physical processes in real problems in a relatively simple manner. This principle is known as principle of similitude | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11551960 |
Hayes similitude principle Dimensional analysis is a method of deducing logical groupings of the variables, through which we can describe similarity criteria of the processes. Physical quantities such as length [L], mass [M], time [T], and temperature are dimensional quantities and the magnitude of each quantity can be described by multiples of the unit of each dimension namely m, kg, s, and K, respectively. Through experience, we can select a certain number of fundamental dimensions, such as those mentioned above, and express all other dimensional quantities in terms of products of powers of these fundamental dimensions. Furthermore, in describing the behavior of physical processes, we know that there is an implicit principle that we cannot add or subtract physical quantities of different dimensions. This means that the equations governing physical processes must be dimensionally consistent and each term of the equation must have the same dimensions. This principle is known as the principle of dimensional homogeneity. (courtesy: Book: Mass transfer : from fundamentals to modern industrial applications, Publisher: Weinheim : WILEY-VCH, 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11551960 |
Chromic acid cell The was a type of primary cell which used chromic acid as a depolarizer. The chromic acid was usually made by acidifying (with sulfuric acid) a solution of potassium dichromate. The old name for potassium dichromate was potassium bichromate and the cell was often called a Bichromate cell. This type of cell is now only of historical interest. The main elements of the cell were: The cell was made in two forms - the single-fluid type, attributed to Poggendorff and the two-fluid type, attributed to Fuller. In both cases, cell voltage was about 2 volts. The cell was set up in a long-necked glass bottle with a zinc plate located between two carbon plates. The electrolyte and depolarizer were mixed. The mixture would dissolve the zinc plate even when the cell was not in use, so there was a mechanism for lifting the zinc plate out of the liquid and storing it in the neck of the bottle. The cell was set up in a glass, or glazed earthenware, pot. This contained the chromic acid solution, the carbon plate and a porous pot. Inside the porous pot was dilute sulfuric acid, the zinc rod, and a small quantity of mercury. The mercury formed an amalgam with the zinc and this reduced "local action", i.e. unwanted dissolution of the zinc when the cell was not in use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11552929 |
Microscale meteorology is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than mesoscale, about 1 km or less. These two branches of meteorology are sometimes grouped together as "mesoscale and microscale meteorology" (MMM) and together study all phenomena smaller than synoptic scale; that is they study features generally too small to be depicted on a weather map. These include small and generally fleeting cloud "puffs" and other small cloud features. controls the most important mixing and dilution processes in the atmosphere. Important topics in microscale meteorology include heat transfer and gas exchange between soil, vegetation, and/or surface water and the atmosphere caused by near-ground turbulence. Measuring these transport processes involves use of micrometeorological (or flux) towers. Variables often measured or derived include net radiation, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, ground heat storage, and fluxes of trace gases important to the atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. A micronet is an atmospheric and/or environmental observation network, composed of automated weather stations, used to monitor microscale phenomena. Micronets are sometimes considered a subtype of mesonet, and many micronets are a denser spatial resolution sub-network of a mesonet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11554525 |
Jyotisha (, IAST: Jyotiṣa), or Vedic astrology or Hindu astrology, is the science of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep the right time for the Vedic sacrifices. It refers to one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of the Vedic culture. This field of study was concerned with fixing the days and hours of Vedic rituals. Some scholars have opined that Hindu astrology likely developed from the conquest of Persia and parts of Northern India Greek astrology by Alexander the Great, their zodiac signs being nearly identical.. But this view of Hellenistic transmission is not without contention. Hindu Astrology is inherently a study of karma, which gives it a very different foundation compared to Greek astrology. In addition to this, the predictive techniques used in Hindu Astrology such as Dashas (planetary and sign-based time periods), Vargas (harmonic divisions of the horoscope) are not that evolved in Greek astrology. In fact, there is very little evidence that these techniques were used in Greek astrology in the sophisticated, highly evolved manner as used in Jyotisha. Jyotisha, states Monier-Williams, is rooted in the word "Jyotish" which means light, such as that of sun or moon or heavenly body. The term "Jyotisha" includes the study of astronomy, astrology and the science of timekeeping using the movements of astronomical bodies. It aimed to keep time, maintain calendar, and predict auspicious times for Vedic rituals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11569539 |
Jyotisha According to David Pingree, the field of timekeeping in may have been "derived from Mesopotamia during the Achaemenid period", but Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as "definitely wrong". Ohashi states that this Vedanga field developed from actual astronomical studies in ancient India. Other scholars dismiss various arguments of Pingree and K. S. Shukla points out a controversy by showing Pingree’s incorrect amendations to the manuscript of the Yavanajātaka, which Pingree believed to be highly corrupted. The texts of Vedic sciences were translated into the Chinese language in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, and the Rigvedic passages on astronomy are found in the works of Zhu Jiangyan and Zhi Qian. Timekeeping as well as the nature of solar and lunar movements are mentioned in Vedic texts. For example, Kaushitaki Brahmana chapter 19.3 mentions the shift in the relative location of the sun towards north for 6 months, and south for 6 months. The ancient extant text on is the "Vedanga-Jyotisha", which exists in two editions, one linked to Rigveda and other to Yajurveda. The Rigveda version consists of 36 verses, while the Yajurveda recension has 43 verses of which 29 verses are borrowed from the Rigveda. The Rigveda version is variously attributed to sage Lagadha, and sometimes to sage Shuci. The Yajurveda version credits no particular sage, has survived into the modern era with a commentary of Somakara, and is the more studied version | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11569539 |
Jyotisha The text "Brahma-siddhanta", probably composed in the 5th century CE, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. This text also lists trigonometry and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbits, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides. The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as 4.32 billion years as the lifetime of the current universe. The ancient Hindu texts on only discuss time keeping, and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Technical horoscopes and astrology ideas in India came from Greece and developed in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. Later medieval era texts such as the "Yavana-jataka" and the "Siddhanta" texts are more astrology-related. The field of deals with ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious day and time for Vedic rituals. The field of Vedanga structured time into "Yuga" which was a 5-year interval, divided into multiple lunisolar intervals such as 60 solar months, 61 savana months, 62 synodic months and 67 sidereal months. A Vedic Yuga had 1,860 "tithis" (, dates), and it defined a "savana"-day (civil day) from one sunrise to another. The Rigvedic version of may be a later insertion into the Veda, states David Pingree, possibly between 513 and 326 BCE, when Indus valley was occupied by the Achaemenid from Mesopotamia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11569539 |
Jyotisha The mathematics and devices for time keeping mentioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts, proposes Pingree, such as the water clock may also have arrived in India from Mesopotamia. However, Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as incorrect, suggesting instead that the Vedic timekeeping efforts, for forecasting appropriate time for rituals, must have begun much earlier and the influence may have flowed from India to Mesopotamia. Ohashi states that it is incorrect to assume that the number of civil days in a year equal 365 in both Hindu and Egyptian–Persian year. Further, adds Ohashi, the Mesopotamian formula is different from the Indian formula for calculating time, each can only work for their respective latitude, and either would make major errors in predicting time and calendar in the other region. According to Asko Parpola, the and luni-solar calendar discoveries in ancient India, and similar discoveries in China in "great likelihood result from convergent parallel development", and not from diffusion from Mesopotamia. Kim Plofker states that while a flow of timekeeping ideas from either side is plausible, each may have instead developed independently, because the loan-words typically seen when ideas migrate are missing on both sides as far as words for various time intervals and techniques. Further, adds Plofker, and other scholars, that the discussion of time keeping concepts are found in the Sanskrit verses of the "Shatapatha Brahmana", a 2nd millennium BCE text | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11569539 |
Jyotisha Water clock and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra. Some integration of Mesopotamian and Indian Jyotisha-based systems may have occurred in a roundabout way, states Plofker, after the arrival of Greek astrology ideas in India. The texts present mathematical formulae to predict the length of day time, sun rise and moon cycles. For example, Water clock<br>A "prastha" of water [is] the increase in day, [and] decrease in night in the [sun's] northern motion; vice versa in the southern. [There is] a six-muhurta [difference] in a half year. — Yajurveda Jyotisha-vedanga 8, Translator: Kim Plofker | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11569539 |
Hippolyte Louis Gory (27 September 1800 – 26 April 1852) was a French entomologist. was born in Paris, 5th arrondissement the 27 (or the 28) September 1800 (the exact date is 5 vendémiaire an IX in the republican calendar). He was married to Sophie Marie Sotom at Paris 30 March 1826. He died 26 April 1852 at Paris, 11ème arrondissement. Horn & Schenkling give a list of 63 entomological works One of his main works was the "Histoire naturelle et iconographie des insectes coléoptères" (1837–1841), volumes 2-4; Castelnau writing the first volume only. This has become one of the rarest entomological books. Another well-known magistral work is the "Monographie des Cétoines et genres voisins", published with Achille Rémy Percheron. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11569648 |
Free convective layer In atmospheric sciences, the free convective layer (FCL) is the layer of conditional or potential instability in the troposphere. It is a layer in which rising air can experience positive buoyancy (PBE) so that deep, moist convection (DMC) can occur. On an atmospheric sounding, it is the layer between the level of free convection (LFC) and the equilibrium level (EL). The FCL is important to a variety of convective processes and to severe thunderstorm forecasting. It is the layer of instability, the "positive area" on thermodynamic diagrams where an ascending air parcel is warmer than its environment. Integrating buoyant energy from the LFC to the EL gives the amount of convective available potential energy (CAPE), an estimate of the maximum energy available to convection. The depth of the FCL is expressed by the formula: or Deep, moist convection is essentially a thunderstorm or thundercloud, although some such convection does not produce lightning and thus not thunder. It is cumulus congestus clouds or cumulonimbus clouds. An air parcel ascending from the near surface layer (mixed layer (ML) or boundary layer (PBL)) must work through the stable layer of convective inhibition (CIN) when present. This work comes from sufficiently increasing instability in the low levels by raising the temperature or dew point, or by mechanical lift | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11582749 |
Free convective layer Without the aid of mechanical forcing, a parcel must reach its convective temperature (T) before moist convection (cloud) begins near the convective condensation level (CCL}, whereas with dynamic lift, cloud base begins near the lifted condensation level (LCL). When such a capping inversion is present, this will remain as shallow, moist convection (small cumulus clouds) until breaking through the convective inhibition layer, after which DMC ensues as a parcel hits the LFC and enters the FCL, if thermal or mechanical forcing continues (and sufficient moisture is available in the inflow layer). At the level of neutral buoyancy (the EL), a parcel is cooler than the environment and is thermodynamically stable, continuing to rise via momentum and thus it slows down until eventually ceasing ascent at the maximum parcel level (MPL) --which may visually manifest itself as an overshooting top. Ignoring other influences, higher amount of total CAPE in the FCL, and especially greater thickness of this positive area, which can be measured as lifted index (LI) at a respective altitude, results in more vigorous updrafts and faster air parcel ascent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11582749 |
Biotransformation is the chemical modification (or modifications) made by an organism on a chemical compound. If this modification ends in mineral compounds like CO, NH, or HO, the biotransformation is called mineralisation. means chemical alteration of chemicals such as nutrients, amino acids, toxins, and drugs in the body. It is also needed to render non-polar compounds polar so that they are not reabsorbed in renal tubules and are excreted. of xenobiotics can dominate toxicokinetics and the metabolites may reach higher concentrations in organisms than their parent compounds. Recently its application is seen as an efficient, cost effective, and easily applicable approach for the valorization of agricultural wastes with potentials of enhancing existing bioactive components and synthesis of new compounds. The metabolism of a drug or toxin in a body is an example of a biotransformation. The body typically deals with a foreign compound by making it more water-soluble, to increase the rate of its excretion through the urine. There are many different processes that can occur; the pathways of drug metabolism can be divided into: Drugs can undergo one of four potential biotransformations: Active Drug to Inactive Metabolite, Active Drug to Active Metabolite, Inactive Drug to Active Metabolite, Active Drug to Toxic Metabolite (biotoxification). of various pollutants is a sustainable way to clean up contaminated environments | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11594369 |
Biotransformation These bioremediation and biotransformation methods harness the naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals. Major methodological breakthroughs in recent years have enabled detailed genomic, metagenomic, proteomic, bioinformatic and other high-throughput analyses of environmentally relevant microorganisms providing unprecedented insights into biotransformation and biodegradative pathways and the ability of organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and pollutants from the environment. Some microorganisms possess an astonishing catabolic versatility to degrade or transform such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented "in silico" views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of biochemical pathways relevant to biotransformation and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11594369 |
Biotransformation Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they are accelerating the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes. Also there is other approach of biotransformation called enzymatic biotransformation. Petroleum oil is toxic for most life forms and episodic and chronic pollution of the environment by oil causes major ecological perturbations. Marine environments are especially vulnerable, since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB). "Alcanivorax borkumensis", a paradigm of HCB and probably the most important global oil degrader, was the first to be subjected to a functional genomic analysis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11594369 |
Biotransformation This analysis has yielded important new insights into its capacity for (i) n-alkane degradation including metabolism, biosurfactant production and biofilm formation, (ii) scavenging of nutrients and cofactors in the oligotrophic marine environment, as well as (iii) coping with various habitat-specific stresses. The understanding thereby gained constitutes a significant advance in efforts towards the design of new knowledge-based strategies for the mitigation of ecological damage caused by oil pollution of marine habitats. HCB also have potential biotechnological applications in the areas of bioplastics and biocatalysis. The study of the fate of persistent organic chemicals in the environment has revealed a large reservoir of enzymatic reactions with a large potential in preparative organic synthesis, which has already been exploited for a number of oxygenases on pilot and even on industrial scale. Novel catalysts can be obtained from metagenomic libraries and DNA sequence based approaches. Our increasing capabilities in adapting the catalysts to specific reactions and process requirements by rational and random mutagenesis broadens the scope for application in the fine chemical industry, but also in the field of biodegradation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11594369 |
Biotransformation In many cases, these catalysts need to be exploited in whole cell bioconversions or in fermentations, calling for system-wide approaches to understanding strain physiology and metabolism and rational approaches to the engineering of whole cells as they are increasingly put forward in the area of systems biotechnology and synthetic biology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11594369 |
Coastal-Marine Automated Network The (C-MAN) is a meteorological observation network along the coastal United States. Consisting of about sixty stations installed on lighthouses, at capes and beaches, on near shore islands, and on offshore platforms, the stations record atmospheric pressure, wind direction, speed and gust, and air temperature; however, some C-MAN stations are designed to also measure sea surface temperature, water level, waves, relative humidity, precipitation, and visibility. The network is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) of the National Weather Service (NWS), which is part of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and data is ingested into numerical weather prediction computer models. It was created in the early 1980s to maintain observations that were about to be discontinued by other programs. Data is processed and transmitted similarly to the moored buoy system. In 2002, C-MAN was added to the NOAA Observing System Architecture (NOSA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11611342 |
Berendsen thermostat The is an algorithm to re-scale the velocities of particles in molecular dynamics simulations to control the simulation temperature. In this scheme, the system is weakly coupled to a heat bath with some temperature. The thermostat suppresses fluctuations of the kinetic energy of the system and therefore cannot produce trajectories consistent with the canonical ensemble. The temperature of the system is corrected such that the deviation exponentially decays with some time constant formula_1. Though the thermostat does not generate a correct canonical ensemble (especially for small systems), for large systems on the order of hundreds or thousands of atoms/molecules, the approximation yields roughly correct results for most calculated properties. The scheme is widely used due to the efficiency with which it relaxes a system to some target (bath) temperature. In many instances, systems are initially equilibrated using the Berendsen scheme, while properties are calculated using the widely known Nosé–Hoover thermostat, which correctly generates trajectories consistent with a canonical ensemble. However, the can result in the flying ice cube effect, an artifact which can be eliminated by using the more rigorous Bussi–Donadio–Parrinello thermostat; for this reason, it has been recommended that usage of the be discontinued in almost all cases except for replication of prior studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11628729 |
Jean-Frédéric Hermann (Strasbourg 1768–1793) was a French physician and naturalist mainly interested in entomology. Son of Jean Hermann, he continued the index of his father’s collection, illustrating some species. He studied the comparative anatomy of the mouthparts of insects and mites publishing "Mémoire aptérologique" with his son in law Frédéric-Louis Hammer in 1804. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11629729 |
Infrared excess An infrared excess is a measurement of an astronomical source, typically a star, that in their spectral energy distribution has a greater measured infrared flux than expected by assuming the star is a blackbody radiator. Infrared excesses are often the result of circumstellar dust heated by starlight and reemitted at longer wavelengths. They are common in young stellar objects and evolved stars on the asymptotic giant branch or older. In addition, monitoring for infrared excess emission from stellar systems is one possible method that could enable a search for large-scale stellar engineering projects of a hypothetical extraterrestrial civilization; for example a Dyson sphere or Dyson swarm. This infrared excess would be the outcome of the waste heat emitted by the aforementioned structures if they are considered blackbodies at temperatures close to 300 K. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11633005 |
Amylin Pharmaceuticals was a biopharmaceutical company based in San Diego, CA, that was founded in 1987. The company was engaged in the discovery, development and commercialization of drug candidates for the treatment of diabetes, obesity and other diseases. Amylin produced three drugs: Symlin (pramlintide acetate), Byetta (exenatide) and Bydureon (exenatide extended-release). In 1987, was co-founded by Howard E. Greene Jr., former CEO of San Diego biotech pioneer Hybridtech, to develop a treatment for diabetes from a synthetic analog of amylin. Amylin was discovered by researchers at Oxford University earlier that year. Greene served as CEO from 1987 to 1996. Amylin completed its IPO in 1992. Amylin, in its natural form, is sticky—it clumps on needles and forms little rocks in the pancreas. Researchers first had to create a synthetic version that they could work with more easily and reliably. The inventors at Amylin Pharmaceuticals—Laura Gaeta, Howard Jones, and Elisabeth Albrecht—altered amino acids in the molecule and created a new drug named pramlintide. In 1995, Amylin Pharmactietucals signed an agreement with Johnson & Johnson's LifeScan division to further develop pramlintide. A Phase II study made public in January 1997 showed pramlintide was safe to mix with leading short-acting and intermediate-acting commercial insulin products, with preliminary results suggesting it might improve glucose control | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11635760 |
Amylin Pharmaceuticals Initial Phase III trial results released in August 1997 showed pramlintide did show statistically significant results for type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes, helping modestly to improve glucose control without increasing the risk of hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) while also improving weight and cholesterol levels. But adult-onset type 2 diabetes affects far more people than type 1, and pramlintide showed significant benefits only at 6 months but not after 12 months. In March 1998, seven months before the next trial data were due, J&J discontinued its partnership with Amylin. Joseph C. Cook, Jr., a 28-year veteran at Eli Lilly & Co. and an Amylin board member since 1994, came out of retirement in 1998 to help the company recover its footing, taking the title of chief executive officer. Cook reduced the company's workforce by 75 percent to conserve cash and raised capital from investors to keep Symlin (pramlintide's commercial name) moving through the regulatory pipeline. In October 2001, Amylin received an approvable letter for Symlin from the FDA, requiring additional clinical data addressing concerns of severe hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics for approval. In December 2003, the FDA issued a second approvable letter requesting further clinical data to identify a patient population and method of use for Symlin where there is no increased risk of significant hypoglycemia or where there is an added benefit that clearly counterbalances any potential for increases in episodes of hypoglycemia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11635760 |
Amylin Pharmaceuticals In March 2005, Symlin was approved by the FDA for use in diabetics who have difficulty maintaining glycemic control. In October 1996, Dr. John Eng licensed his discovery, exendin-4 to Amylin. Dr. Eng discovered exendin-4 in the venom of a Gila monster. Exendin-4 is similar to the human gut hormone GLP-1, which is responsible for regulating insulin and glucagon release. Unlike human GLP-1, however, exendin-4 doesn’t degrade for hours, making it a much better candidate for a drug. Amylin developed exenatide, a synthetic version of exendin-4. In 2002, Eli Lilly signed an agreement with Amylin for $325 million to partner in development of exenatide. In May 2005, Byetta (commercial name for exenatide) was approved in the United States. In July 2012, Bristol-Myers Squibb announced it would acquire for $5.3 billion. As part of the acquisition, AstraZeneca made a $3.4 billion cash payment to make Amylin a wholly owned subsidiary within the existing BMS/AZ joint venture in diabetes. In April 2013, Bristol-Myers Squibb announced it would close Amylin's San Diego operations by the end of 2014 and merge the Amylin manufacturing facility in West Chester, Ohio and all field-based sales personnel into Bristol-Myers Squibb operations. In December 2013, AstraZeneca purchased the Bristol-Myers Squibb share of the diabetes joint venture, and as a result, became the sole owner of all former Amylin products and business, including the manufacturing facility in West Chester, Ohio. On February 4, 2014, the U.S | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11635760 |
Amylin Pharmaceuticals FDA approved Myalept (metreleptin), an analog of human leptin, as replacement therapy to treat the complications of leptin deficiency, in addition to diet, in patients with congenital generalized or acquired generalized lipodystrophy. Metraleptin was originally developed at Amylin Pharmaceuticals. In November 2014, Aegerion Pharmaceuticals made a $325 million cash payment to AstraZeneca to acquire and commercialize metreleptin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11635760 |
GeoRef The database is a bibliographic database that indexes scientific literature in the geosciences, including geology. Coverage ranges from 1666 to the present for North American literature, and 1933 to the present for the rest of the world. It currently contains more than 2.8 million references. It is widely considered one of the preeminent literature databases for those studying the earth sciences. It is produced by the American Geosciences Institute, which was known as the American Geological Institute until October 2011. "To maintain the database, editor/indexers regularly scan more than 3,500 journals in 40 languages as well as new books, maps, and reports. They record the bibliographic data for each document and assign index terms to describe it. Each month between 6,000 and 9,000 new references are added to the database." Major areas of coverage by include: Print publications that correspond to are Bibliography and Index of North American Geology; Bibliography of Theses in Geology; and the Geophysical Abstracts, Bibliography and Index of Geology Exclusive of North America. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11650157 |
Yamaneko Group of Comet Observers The (YGCO) is a famous group of astronomical observers based in Japan. Founded by K. Ichikawa in 1980, the members have obtained approximately 12,300 astronomic and 6,300 photometric observations. This group maintains the YGCO Chiyoda Station, also based in Japan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11651421 |
Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study The (BATS) is a long-term oceanographic study by the Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences (BIOS). Based on regular (monthly or better) research cruises, it samples an area of the western Atlantic Ocean nominally at the coordinates . The cruise programme routinely samples physical properties such as ocean temperature and salinity, but focuses on variables of biological or biogeochemical interest including: nutrients (nitrate, nitrite, phosphate and silicic acid), dissolved inorganic carbon, oxygen, HPLC of pigments, primary production and sediment trap flux. The BATS cruises began in 1988 but are supplemented by biweekly Hydrostation "S" cruises to a neighbouring location () that began in 1954. The data collected by these cruises are available online. Between 1998 and 2013, research conducted at BATS has generated over 450 peer-reviewed articles. Among the findings are measurements showing the gradual acidification of the surface ocean, where surface water pH, carbonate ion concentration, and the saturation state for calcium carbonate minerals, such as aragonite, have all decreased since 1998. Additionally, studies at BATS have shown changes in the Revelle factor, suggesting that the capacity of North Atlantic Ocean surface waters to absorb carbon dioxide has diminished, even as seawater pCO has kept pace with increasing atmospheric pCO. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11661976 |
Antonio Curò (21 June 1828, Bergamo – 10 May 1906) was an Italian engineer, mountaineer and entomologist. He was a lepidopterist and published "Saggio di un Catalogo dei Lepidotteri d’Italia" between 1875 and 1889. He was a founder and president of the Bergamo section of the Italian Alpine Club. His collection is conserved in the Museo di Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11662394 |
Auguste Lameere Auguste Alfred Lucien Lameere (12 June 1864 – 6 May 1942) was a Belgian entomologist. He was born in Ixelles. He was a professor and dean (1906–1907) of the faculty of sciences at the Université Libre de Bruxelles. An active member of the Royal Belgian Entomological Society, he was the author of numerous articles, notably on Coleoptera and the famous "Manuel de la Faune de Belgique" which had a great influence on the entomologists of his country. Frog "Arthroleptis lameerei", also known as Lameere's squeaker, is named after him. Partial list | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11669687 |
Cross-plot is synonym for scatter plots used primarily in the Earth Sciences and Social Sciences to describe a specialized chart that compares multiple measurements made at a single time or location along two or more axes. The axes of the plot are commonly linear, but may also be logarithmic. Cross-plots are used to interpret geophysical (e.g., amplitude versus offset analysis), geochemical, and hydrologic data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11672567 |
4-HO-DPT (4-hydroxy-"N","N"-dipropyltryptamine) It is the 4-hydroxyl analog of dipropyltryptamine (DPT). In 2019, Chadeayne et al. solved the crystal structure of the fumarate salt of 4-HO-DPT. The authors describe the structure as follows: "The asymmetric unit contains one cation, protonated at the dipropylamine N atom. There are also two independent water molecules, and half of a fumarate ion present." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11672909 |
Rupes (plural ) is the Latin word for 'cliff'. It is used in planetary geology to refer to escarpments on other worlds. , the IAU has named 62 such features in the Solar System, on Mercury (17), Venus (7), the Moon (8), Mars (23), the asteroids Vesta (2) and Lutetia (2), and Uranus's satellites Miranda (2) and Titania (1). How rupes formed is, , a matter of speculation. Compressional strain from the cooling of the crust of terrestrial planets and large scale displacement due to impacts are the two dominant theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11678916 |
Mensa (geology) In planetary geology, a mensa (pl. mensae ) is a flat-topped prominence with cliff-like edges. The term is derived from the Latin word for table, and has the same root as the Spanish word for table, mesa. Mensa is used in the same manner as mesa is used in the Southwest United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11678934 |
Tholus In planetary nomenclature, a tholus (pl. "tholi") is a small domical mountain or hill. The word is from the Greek θόλος, "tholos" (pl. "tholoi"), which means a circular building with a conical or vaulted roof. The Romans transliterated the word into the Latin "tholus," which means cupola or dome. In 1973, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted "tholus" as one of a number of official descriptor terms for topographic features on Mars and other planets and satellites. One justification for using neutral Latin or Greek descriptors was that it allowed features to be named and described before their geology or geomorphology could be determined. For example, many tholi appear to be volcanic in origin, but the term does not imply a specific geologic origin. Currently (March 2015), the IAU recognizes 56 descriptor terms. (See Planetary nomenclature.) Tholi are present on Venus, Mars, asteroid 4 Vesta and on Jupiter's moon Io. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11678940 |
Lee Sung-yang (, born 29 May 1922) is a Taiwanese entomologist. He was the subject of the 1975 BBC documentary "The Insect World of Dr. Lee". In Taiwan, he is referred to as the "Taiwanese Jean Henri Fabre." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11692445 |
Abdullah Omar Nasseef () (born 5 July 1939 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia) is a Saudi chemist and geologist, and serves as Chief Scout of the Saudi Arabian Boy Scouts Association, which he joined in 1956. Nasseef has a Ph.D degree from Leeds University in the United Kingdom. He is a professor at King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah. He is chairman of the World Muslim Congress, chairman of the founding board of Sahm Al-Nour Trust, and former Secretary General of Muslim World League in 1983-1993. He has served as Vice-President of the Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia, President of King Abdul Aziz University, and Secretary-General of the International Islamic Council for Da'wah and Relief (IICDR). In 1983 Nasseef was awarded the "Bronze Wolf", the only distinction of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, awarded by the World Scout Committee for exceptional services to world Scouting. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11695881 |
Minimum deviation In a prism, the angle of deviation(formula_1) decreases with increase in the angle of incidence(formula_2) up to a particular angle. This angle of incidence where the angle of deviation in a prism is minimum is called the Minimum Deviation Position of the prism and that very deviation angle is known as the Minimum Angle of Deviation (denoted by formula_3, formula_4 or formula_5). In Minimum Deviation, the refracted ray in the prism is parallel to its base. In other words, the light ray is symmetrical about the axis of symmetry of the prism. Also, the angle of incidence and angle of emergence equal each other (formula_6). And, the angles of refractions are equal i.e. formula_7 The deviation angle in a prism depends upon: All these factors are quite evident from the formula in the next section. From Prism Formula we know, formula_11 Now formula_12, formula_13 formula_14 Also, formula_15 From Snell's law, formula_16 formula_17 This is a convenient way to measure the refractive index of a prism by directing a light ray through the prism such that it produces the minimum deviation angle. Eg: The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Find the minimum angle of deviation for an equilateral triangle along with the corresponding angle of incidence. Sol: Here, A = 60°, n = 1.5 Putting them in the above formula, sin[(60 + δ)/2]/sin(60/2) = 1.5 or, sin(30 + δ/2)/sin(30) = 1.5 or, sin(30 + δ/2) = 1.5 × 0.5 or, 30 + δ/2 = sin(0.75) or, δ/2 = 48.6 - 30 or, δ = 2 × 18 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11708087 |
Minimum deviation 6 So, δ ~ 37° Also, i = (A + δ)/2 ~ 48° Also, the variation of the angle of deviation with an arbitrary angle of incidence can be encapsulated into a single equation:formula_18 Finding the minima of this equation will also give the same relation for minimum deviation as above. In a thin or small angle prism, formula_19 is very small, formula_20 formula_21 formula_22 formula_23 This implies that thin prisms do not deviate light much. One of the factors that causes a rainbow is the bunching of light rays at the minimum deviation angle that is close to the rainbow angle. (For more information, see the sub-heading 'Mathematical Deduction' In the rainbow article.) It is also responsible for some meteorological phenomena, like halos and sundogs, produced by the deviation of sunlight in the hexagonal prisms of ice crystals in the air. Prism Rainbow Halos Refraction Optics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11708087 |
BioWeb The is the connotation for a network of web-enabled biological devices (e.g. trees, plants, and flowers) which extends an internet of things to the Internet of Living Things of natural sensory devices. The devices give insights to real-time ecological data and feedback to changes in the environment. The biodiversity of today is one giant ecological mesh network of information exchange, and a resource humanity should be able to access for a better understanding of the state of our global ecology. The information technologies emerge from the interdisciplinary fields of biotechnology and nanotechnology. The devices for reading individual ecological systems can be either wireless transmitters implemented into the organic structure of seeds or external inserted network nodes with the ability to read information and wirelessly transmit the information to the Internet (or network). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11709317 |
Onshore (hydrocarbons) Onshore, when used relative to hydrocarbons, refers to an oil, natural gas or condensate field that is under dry land or to activities or operations carried out in relation to such a field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11712329 |
Offshore (hydrocarbons) "Offshore", when used in relation to hydrocarbons, refers to operations undertaken at, or under the, sea in association with an oil, natural gas or condensate field that is under the seabed, or to activities carried out in relation to such a field. Offshore is part of the upstream sector of the oil and gas industry. Offshore activities include searching for potential underground crude oil and natural gas reservoirs and accumulations, the drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or natural gas to the surface. Offshore exploration is performed with floating drilling units, drill ships, semi-submersible installations and jack-up installations. At the surface (either on the seabed or above water) offshore facilities are designed, constructed, commissioned and operated to process and treat the hydrocarbon oil and gas. Permanent oil and gas installations and plant include subsea wellheads and flowlines, offshore platforms and tethered floating installations. Other facilities include storage vessels, tanker ships, and pipelines to transport hydrocarbons onshore for further treatment and distribution. Further treatment and distribution comprise the midstream and downstream sectors of the industry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11712344 |
Offshore (hydrocarbons) There are various types of installation used in the development of offshore oil and gas fields and subsea facilities, these include: fixed platforms, compliant towers, semi-submersible platforms, jack-up installations, floating production systems, tension-leg platforms, gravity-based structure and spar platforms. Production facilities on these installations include oil, gas and water separation systems; oil heating, cooling, pumping, metering and storage; gas cooling, treating and compression; and produced water clean-up. Other facilities may include reservoir gas injection and water injection; fuel gas systems; power generation; vents and flares; drains and sewage treatment; compressed air; helicopter fuel; heating, ventilation and air conditioning; and accommodation facilities for the crew. The final phase of offshore operations is the abandonment of wells, the decommissioning and removal of offshore facilities to onshore disposal, and the flushing, cleaning and abandonment of pipelines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11712344 |
Malter effect The is named after Louis Malter, who first described the effect. Following exposure to ionizing radiation (e.g., electrons, ions, X-rays, extreme ultraviolet, vacuum ultraviolet), secondary electron emission from the surface of a thin insulating layer results in the establishment of a positive charge on the surface. This positive charge produces a high electric field in the insulator, resulting in the emission of electrons through the surface. This tends to pull more electrons from further beneath the surface. Eventually the sample replenishes the lost electrons, by picking up the collected secondary electrons through the ground loop. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11713313 |
Cresolene is a dark liquid with a pungent smell made from coal tar used in the 19th and early 20th century as a disinfectant and to treat various ailments such as colds and measles. There was also a special 'Vapo-Cresolene' lamp used to heat the substance so that the fumes could be inhaled | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11722422 |
Okhotsk High The is a semi-permanent high pressure system that forms over the Sea of Okhotsk during the summer months. Its associated air mass is maritime polar, marked with frequent sea fog over ocean areas, and cool and moist conditions over land. It typically dominates the weather pattern over eastern Russia, northern Japan and the Korean Peninsula during the spring and summer months. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11737923 |
Scattering from rough surfaces Surface roughness scattering or interface roughness scattering is the elastic scattering of a charged particle by an imperfect interface between two different materials. It is an important effect in electronic devices which contain narrow layers, such as field effect transistors and quantum cascade lasers. Interface roughness scattering is most noticeable in confined systems, in which the energies for charge carriers are determined by the locations of interfaces. An example of such a system is a quantum well, which may be constructed from a sandwich of different layers of semiconductor. Variations in the thickness of these layers therefore causes the energy of particles to be dependent on their in-plane location in the layer. Although the roughness formula_1 varies in a complicated way on a microscopic scale, it can be considered to exhibit a Gaussian distribution characterised by a height formula_2 and a correlation length formula_3 such that | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11744449 |
Angle of climb In aerodynamics, climb gradient is the ratio between distance travelled over the ground and altitude gained, and is expressed as a percentage. The angle of climb can be defined as the angle between a horizontal plane representing the Earth's surface and the actual flight path followed by the aircraft during its ascent. The speed of an aircraft type at which the angle of climb is largest is called V. It is always slower than V, the speed for the best rate of climb. As the latter gives the quickest way for gaining altitude levels, regardless of the distance covered during such a maneuver, it is more relevant to cruising. The maximum angle of climb on the other hand is where the aircraft gains the most altitude in a given distance, regardless of the time needed for the maneuver. This is important for clearing an obstacle, and therefore is the speed a pilot uses when executing a "short field" takeoff. V increases with altitude and V decreases with altitude until they converge at the airplane's absolute ceiling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11760149 |
Isostatic depression is the sinking of large parts of the Earth's crust into the asthenosphere. The sinking is caused by a heavy weight placed on the Earth's surface. Often this is caused by the heavy weight of glacial ice due to continental glaciation. This is a process in which permanent ice places pressure on the Earth's crust, thereby depressing it with its weight. After continental glaciation has receded, it is common for isostatic rebound to occur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11782509 |
Mario Pino Quivira is a Chilean geologist specialized in geoarchaeology and sedimentology that has been involved in several studies of early human settlements in Southern Chile. After Tom Dillehay's excavation of Monte Verde near Puerto Montt, where human remains estimated to be about 12,800 years old have been found, challenging the Clovis theory of the first human arrival in the Americas, Pino controversially claimed the site was 33,000 years old. Other studied sites includes the Chan-Chan settlement near Mehuín and the Gomphotherium of Osorno. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11782853 |
Gu Binglin (, born October 8, 1945 in Dehui, Jilin, China) is a Chinese physicist and material scientist. He is the 17th President of Tsinghua University and a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11794322 |
Electrochemical equivalent The electrochemical equivalent, sometimes abbreviated Eq or Z, of a chemical element is the mass of that element (in grams) transported by 1 coulomb of electric charge. The electrochemical equivalent of an element is measured with a voltameter. The electrochemical equivalent of a substance may be defined as the mass of the substance deposited to one of the electrodes when a current of 1 Ampere is passed for 1 Second, i.e. a quantity of electricity of one Coulomb is passed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11797347 |
Zero field NMR is the acquisition of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra in an environment carefully screened from magnetic fields (Including from the Earth's field). It is useful for studying chemicals with magnetically active nuclei (spins 1/2 and greater), and for studying molecular dynamics. The development of very sensitive magnetic sensors such as SQUID, GMR, and atomic magnetometers in the 2000s has made it possible to detect NMR signals directly in zero-field environments. Previous zero-field NMR experiments relied on indirect detection where the sample had to be shuttled from the shielded zero-field environment into a high magnetic field for detection with a conventional inductive pick-up coil. One successful implementation was using atomic magnetometers at zero magnetic field working with rubidium vapor cells to detect zero-field NMR. It is sometimes but inaccurately referred to as nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801199 |
Kin recognition Kin recognition, also called kin detection, is an organism's ability to distinguish between close genetic kin and non-kin. In evolutionary biology and psychology, such an ability is presumed to have evolved for inbreeding avoidance. An additional adaptive function sometimes posited for kin recognition is a role in kin selection. There is debate over this, since in strict theoretical terms kin recognition is not necessary for kin selection or the cooperation associated with it. Rather, social behaviour can emerge by kin selection in the demographic conditions of 'viscous populations' with organisms interacting in their natal context, without active kin discrimination, since social participants by default typically share recent common origin. Since kin selection theory emerged, much research has been produced investigating the possible role of kin recognition mechanisms in mediating altruism. Taken as a whole, this research suggests that active powers of recognition play a negligible role in mediating social cooperation relative to less elaborate cue-based and context-based mechanisms, such as familiarity, imprinting and phenotype matching. Because cue-based 'recognition' predominates in social mammals, outcomes are non-deterministic in relation to actual genetic kinship, instead outcomes simply reliably correlate with genetic kinship in an organism's typical conditions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
Kin recognition A well-known human example of an inbreeding avoidance mechanism is the Westermarck effect, in which unrelated individuals who happen to spend their childhood in the same household find each other sexually unattractive. Similarly, due to the cue-based mechanisms that mediate social bonding and cooperation, unrelated individuals who grow up together in this way are also likely to demonstrate strong social and emotional ties, and enduring altruism. The English evolutionary biologist W. D. Hamilton's theory of inclusive fitness, and the related theory of kin selection, were formalized in the 1960s and 1970s to explain the evolution of social behaviours. Hamilton's early papers, as well as giving a mathematical account of the selection pressure, discussed possible implications and behavioural manifestations. Hamilton considered potential roles of cue-based mechanisms mediating altruism versus 'positive powers' of kin discrimination: These two possibilities, altruism mediated via 'passive situation' or via 'sophisticated discrimination', stimulated a generation of researchers to look for evidence of any 'sophisticated' kin discrimination. However, Hamilton later (1987) developed his thinking to consider that "an innate kin recognition adaptation" was unlikely to play a role in mediating altruistic behaviours: The implication that the inclusive fitness criterion can be met by mediating mechanisms of cooperative behaviour that are context and location-based has been clarified by recent work by West "et al | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
Kin recognition ": For a recent review of the debates around kin recognition and their role in the wider debates about how to interpret inclusive fitness theory, including its compatibility with ethnographic data on human kinship, see Holland (2012). Leading inclusive fitness theorists such as Grafen have argued that the whole research program around kin recognition is somewhat misguided: Others have cast similar doubts over the enterprise: is a behavioral adaptation noted in many species but proximate level mechanisms are not well documented. Recent studies have shown that kin recognition can result from a multitude of sensory input. Jill Mateo notes that there are three components prominent in kin recognition. First, "production of unique phenotypic cues or labels". Second, "perception of these labels and the degree of correspondence of these labels with a 'recognition template'", and finally the recognition of the phenotypes should lead to "action taken by the animal as a function of the perceived similarity between its template and an encountered phenotype". The three components allow for several possible mechanisms of kin recognition. Sensory information gathered from visual, olfactory and auditory stimuli are the most prevalent. The belding ground squirrel kin produce similar odors in comparison to non-kin. Mateo notes that the squirrels spent longer investigating non-kin scents suggesting recognition of kin odor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
Kin recognition It's also noted that belding's ground squirrels produce at least two scents arising from dorsal and oral secretions, giving two opportunities for kin recognition. Auditory distinctions have been noted among avian species. Long-tailed tits ("Aegithalos caudatus") are capable of discriminating kin and non-kin based on contact calls. Distinguishing calls are often learned from adults during the nestling period. Studies suggest that the bald-faced hornet, "Dolichovespula maculata", can recognize nest mates by their cuticular hydrocarbon profile, which produces a distinct smell. in some species may also be mediated by immunogenetic similarity of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). For a discussion of the interaction of these social and biological kin recognition factors see Lieberman, Tooby, and Cosmides (2007). Some have suggested that, as applied to humans, this nature-nurture interactionist perspective allows a synthesis between theories and evidence of social bonding and cooperation across the fields of evolutionary biology, psychology (attachment theory) and cultural anthropology (nurture kinship). is an adaptive behavior observed in living beings to prevent inbreeding, and increase fitness of populations, individuals and genes. is the key to successful reciprocal altruism, a behavior that increases reproductive success of both organisms involved. Reciprocal altruism as a product of kin recognition has been observed and studied in many animals, and more recently, plants | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
Kin recognition Due to the nature of plant reproduction and growth, plants are more likely than animals to live in close proximity to family members, and therefore stand to gain more from the ability to differentiate kin from strangers. In recent years, botanists have been conducting studies to determine which plant species can recognize kin, and discover the responses of plants to neighboring kin. Murphy and Dudley (2009) shows that "Impatiens pallida" has the ability to recognize individuals closely related to them and those not related to them. The physiological response to this recognition is increasingly interesting. "I. pallida" responds to kin by increasing branchiness and stem elongation, to prevent shading relatives, and responds to strangers by increasing leaf to root allocation, as a form of competition. Similarly, Bhatt et al. (2010) show that "Cakile edentula", the American sea rocket, has the ability to allocate more energy to root growth, and competition, in response to growing next to a stranger, and allocates less energy to root growth when planted next to a sibling. This reduces competition between siblings and increases fitness of relatives growing next to each other, while still allowing competition between non-relative plants. Little is known about the mechanisms involved in kin recognition. They most likely vary between species as well as within species. A study by Bierdrzycki et al. (2010) shows that root secretions are necessary for "Arabidopsis thaliana" to recognize kin vs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
Kin recognition strangers, but not necessary to recognize self vs. non-self roots. This study was performed using secretion inhibitors, which disabled the mechanism responsible for kin recognition in this species, and showed similar growth patterns to Bhatt et al., (2010) and Murphy and Dudley (2009) in control groups. The most interesting result of this study was that inhibiting root secretions did not reduce the ability of "Arabidopsis" to recognize their own roots, which implicates a separate mechanism for self/non-self recognition than that for kin/stranger recognition. While this mechanism in the roots responds to exudates and involves competition over resources like nitrogen and phosphorus, another mechanism has been recently proposed, which involves competition over light, in which kin recognition takes place in leaves. In their 2014 study, Crepy and Casal conducted multiple experiments on different accessions of "A. thaliana". These experiments showed that "Arabidopsis" accessions have distinct R:FR and blue light signatures, and that these signatures can be detected by photoreceptors, which allows the plant to recognize its neighbor as a relative or non-relative. Not much is known about the pathway that "Arabidopsis" uses to associate these light patterns with kin, however, researchers ascertained that photoreceptors phyB, cry 1, cry 2, phot1, and phot2 are involved in the process by performing a series of experiments with knock-out mutants | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
Kin recognition Researchers also concluded that the auxin-synthesis gene TAA1 is involved in the process, downstream of the photoreceptors, by performing a similar experiments using Sav3 knock-out mutants. This mechanism leads to altered leaf direction to prevent shading of related neighbors and to reduce competition for sunlight. When mice inbreed with close relatives in their natural habitat, there is a significant detrimental effect on progeny survival. Since inbreeding can be detrimental, it tends to be avoided by many species. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein (MUP) gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating. Another mechanism for avoiding inbreeding is evident when a female house mouse mates with multiple males. In such a case, there appears to be egg-driven sperm selection against sperm from related males. In toads, male advertisement vocalizations may serve as cues by which females recognize their kin and thus avoid inbreeding. In dioecious plants, the stigma may receive pollen from several different potential donors. As multiple pollen tubes from the different donors grow through the stigma to reach the ovary, the receiving maternal plant may carry out pollen selection favoring pollen from less related donor plants | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801835 |
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