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Natural science The field covers the chemistry, physics and engineering applications of materials including metals, ceramics, artificial polymers, and many others. The core of the field deals with relating structure of material with it properties. It is at the forefront of research in science and engineering. It is an ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behavior of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science Using these principles, Chinese philosophers and doctors explored human anatomy, characterizing organs as predominantly yin or yang and understood the relationship between the pulse, the heart and the flow of blood in the body centuries before it became accepted in the West. Little evidence survives of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science In the 5th century BC, Leucippus was an early exponent of atomism, the idea that the world is made up of fundamental indivisible particles. Pythagoras applied Greek innovations in mathematics to astronomy, and suggested that the earth was spherical. Later Socratic and Platonic thought focused on ethics,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science Many Ancient Roman Neoplatonists of the 3rd to the 6th centuries also adapted Aristotle's teachings on the physical world to a philosophy that emphasized spiritualism. Early medieval philosophers including Macrobius, Calcidius and Martianus Capella also examined the physical world, largely from a cosmol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. E... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science " In the late Middle Ages, Spanish philosopher Dominicus Gundissalinus translated a treatise by the earlier Persian scholar Al-Farabi called "On the Sciences" into Latin, calling the study of the mechanics of nature "scientia naturalis", or natural science. Gundissalinus also proposed his own classifica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science Later in the 13th century, a Catholic priest and theologian Thomas Aquinas defined natural science as dealing with "mobile beings" and "things which depend on a matter not only for their existence but also for their definition." There was wide agreement among scholars in medieval times that natural scie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science The Condemnation of 1277, which forbade setting philosophy on a level equal with theology and the debate of religious constructs in a scientific context, showed the persistence with which Catholic leaders resisted the development of natural philosophy even from a theological perspective. Aquinas and Alb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science The titles of Galileo's work "Two New Sciences" and Johannes Kepler's "New Astronomy" underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favor of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he arg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science Newton in 1687 published his "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", or "Principia Mathematica", which set the groundwork for physical laws that remained current until the 19th century. Some modern scholars, including Andrew Cunningham, Perry Williams and Floris Cohen, argue that natural ph... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science The hypothesis was then tested using the principle of falsifiability to prove or disprove its accuracy. The natural sciences continued to be called natural philosophy, but the adoption of the scientific method took science beyond the realm of philosophical conjecture and introduced a more structured way... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science The idea of fields contrasted with the Newtonian construct of gravitation as simply "action at a distance", or the attraction of objects with nothing in the space between them to intervene. James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century unified these discoveries in a coherent theory of electrodynamics. Using m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Natural science " The term "scientist" was coined by William Whewell in an 1834 review of Mary Somerville's "On the Connexion of the Sciences". But the word did not enter general use until nearly the end of the same century. According to a famous 1923 textbook "Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances"... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38890 |
Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the entire Solar System, and has made important contributions to the understand... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry This was the beginnings of the field of cosmochemistry and has contributed much of what we know about the formation of the Earth and the Solar System. In the early 20th century, Max von Laue and William L. Bragg showed that X-ray scattering could be used to determine the structures of crystals. In the 1920... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry The chemical behavior of an atom – its affinity for other elements and the type of bonds it forms – is determined by the arrangement of electrons in orbitals, particularly the outermost (valence) electrons. These arrangements are reflected in the position of elements in the periodic table. Based on positio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry In the Earth's mantle, differentiation occurs at mid-ocean ridges through partial melting, with more refractory materials remaining at the base of the lithosphere while the remainder rises to form basalt. After an oceanic plate descends into the mantle, convection eventually mixes the two parts together. E... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry The process is known as "equilibrium" or "batch" melting if the solid and melt remain in equilibrium until the moment that the melt is removed, and "fractional" or "Rayleigh" melting if it is removed continuously. Isotopic fractionation can have mass-dependent and mass-independent forms. Molecules with hea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry In general, fractionation is greater at lower temperatures. At 0 °C, the factors are 1.0117 and 1.111. When there is not equilibrium between phases or chemical compounds, "kinetic fractionation" can occur. For example, at interfaces between liquid water and air, the forward reaction is enhanced if the humi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Instead, in an approach borrowed from chemical engineering, geochemists average the concentration over regions of the Earth called "geochemical reservoirs". The choice of reservoir depends on the problem; for example, the ocean may be a single reservoir or be split into multiple reservoirs. In a type of mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry In that case, the system is always close to a steady state and a lowest order expansion of the mass balance equation will lead to a linear equation like Equation (). In most systems, one or both of the input and output depend on , resulting in a feedback that tends to maintain the steady state. If an exter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Meteorites come in a variety of compositions, but chemical analysis can determine whether they were once in planetesimals that melted or differentiated. Chondrites are undifferentiated and have round mineral inclusions called chondrules. With ages of 4.56 billion years, they date to the early solar system.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry In the 1960s, interferometry greatly increased the resolution and sensitivity of spectral analysis, allowing the identification of a much greater collection of molecules including ethane, acetylene, water and carbon monoxide. However, Earth-based spectroscopy becomes increasingly difficult with more remote... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry In the atmosphere of Jupiter, He was found to be depleted by a factor of 2 compared to solar composition and Ne by a factor of 10, a surprising result since the other noble gases and the elements C, N and S were enhanced by factors of 2 to 4 (oxygen was also depleted but this was attributed to the unusuall... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Thus, while the gas giants are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, the ice giants are primarily composed of heavier elements (O, C, N, S), primarily in the form of water, methane and ammonia. The surfaces are cold enough for molecular hydrogen to be liquid, so much of each planet is likely a hydroge... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Additional information on Mars comes from meteorites that have landed on Earth (the Shergottites, Nakhlites, and Chassignites, collectively known as SNC meteorites). Abundances are also constrained by the masses of the planets, while the internal distribution of elements is constrained by their moments of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry The greatest problem with this theory is that volatiles would not condense, so the planets would have no atmospheres and Earth no atmosphere. In "chondritic mixing" models, the compositions of chondrites are used to estimate planetary compositions. For example, one model mixes two components, one with the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry It occurs principally in combination as oxides, of which the chief are silica, alumina, iron oxides, and various carbonates (calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, sodium carbonate, and potassium carbonate). The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry These must be regarded only as general tendencies. It is possible, by rock analysis, to say approximately what minerals the rock contains, but there are numerous exceptions to any rule. Except in acid or siliceous igneous rocks containing greater than 66% of silica, known as felsic rocks, quartz is not abu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Only 8% of the Earth is composed of non-silicate minerals such as carbonates, oxides, and sulfides. The other determining factor, namely the physical conditions attending consolidation, plays on the whole a smaller part, yet is by no means negligible. Certain minerals are practically confined to deep-seate... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Those rocks that contain the most silica, and on crystallizing yield free quartz, form a group generally designated the "felsic" rocks. Those again that contain least silica and most magnesia and iron, so that quartz is absent while olivine is usually abundant, form the "mafic" group. The "intermediate" ro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry We might in consequence regard them as varieties of syenite, diorite, gabbro, etc., in which feldspathoid minerals occur, and indeed there are many transitions between syenites of ordinary type and nepheline — or leucite — syenite, and between gabbro or dolerite and theralite or essexite. But, as many mine... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry The quartz-syenites and nordmarkites may be interposed between granite and syenite, the tonalites and adamellites between granite and diorite, the monzoaites between syenite and diorite, norites and hyperites between diorite and gabbro, and so on. Trace metals readily form complexes with major ions in the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Thus higher concentrations of Cd in marine sediments may indicate low redox potential conditions in the past. For copper(II), a prevalent form is CuCl(aq) within oxic environments and CuS(s) and CuS within reduced environments. The reduced seawater environment leads to two possible oxidation states of copp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Molybdenum interacts weakly with particles and displays an almost uniform vertical profile in the ocean. Relative to the abundance of molybdenum in the ocean, the amount required as a metal cofactor for enzymes in marine phytoplankton is negligible. Trace metals with nutrient-type distributions are strongl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Geochemistry Here, many iron precipitates are found, mostly in the forms of iron sulfides and oxidized iron oxyhydroxide compounds. Concentrations of iron near hydrothermal vents can be up to one million times the concentrations found in the open ocean. Using electrochemical techniques, it is possible to show that bioa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39562 |
Electroporation Electroporation, or electropermeabilization, is a microbiology technique in which an electrical field is applied to cells in order to increase the permeability of the cell membrane, allowing chemicals, drugs, or DNA to be introduced into the cell (also called electrotransfer). In microbiology, the proce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation has proven efficient for use on tissues in vivo, for in utero applications as well as in ovo transfection. Adherent cells can also be transfected using electroporation, providing researchers with an alternative to trypsinizing their cells prior to transfection. One downside to electroporation, however, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation However, the first and most known application of cell fusion is production of monoclonal antibodies in hybridoma technology, where hybrid cell lines (hybridomas) are formed by fusing specific antibody-producing B lymphocytes with a myeloma (B lymphocyte cancer) cell line. is performed with electroporato... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation For a further detailed investigation of the process, more attention should be paid to the output impedance of the porator device and the input impedance of the cells suspension (e.g. salt content). Since the cell membrane is not able to pass current (except in ion channels), it acts as an electrical cap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation The method is used to deliver large variety of therapeutic genes for potential treatment of several diseases, such as: disorders in immune system, tumors, metabolic disorders, monogenetic diseases, cardiovascular diseases, analgesia…. With regards to irreversible electroporation, the first successful tr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation Namely, viral vectors can have serious limitations in terms of immunogenicity and pathogenicity when used for DNA transfer. A higher voltage of electroporation was found in pigs to irreversibly destroy target cells within a narrow range while leaving neighboring cells unaffected, and thus represents a p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation Although the method is not systemic, but strictly local one, it is still the most efficient non-viral strategy for gene delivery. A recent technique called non-thermal irreversible electroporation (N-TIRE) has proven successful in treating many different types of tumors and other unwanted tissue. This p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation Reversible electroporation is typically done with treatments that involve getting a drug or gene (or other molecule that is not normally permeable to the cell membrane) into the cell. Not all tissue has the same electric field threshold; therefore careful calculations need to be made prior to a treatmen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation The success rate of these procedures is high and is very promising for future treatment in humans. One disadvantage to using N-TIRE is that the electricity delivered from the electrodes can stimulate muscle cells to contract, which could have lethal consequences depending on the situation. Therefore, a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation This procedure is referred to as electrochemotherapy when the molecules to be transported are chemotherapeutic agents or gene electrotransfer when the molecule to be transported is DNA. Scientists from Karolinska Institutet and the University of Oxford use electroporation of exosomes to deliver siRNAs, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation The material alteration is thus chemical in nature. In contrast, during electroporation the lipid molecules are not chemically altered but simply shift position, opening up a pore which acts as the conductive pathway through the bilayer as it is filled with water. is a dynamic phenomenon that depends on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation The resulting structure is believed to be a "pre-pore" since it is not electrically conductive but leads rapidly to the creation of a conductive pore. Evidence for the existence of such pre-pores comes mostly from the "flickering" of pores, which suggests a transition between conductive and insulating s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation Although the mechanisms of gene electrotransfer are not yet fully understood, it was shown that the introduction of DNA only occurs in the part of the membrane facing the cathode and that several steps are needed for successful transfection: electrophoretic migration of DNA towards the cell, DNA inserti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Electroporation In the 1980s, many labs began to use this electroporation method to introduce various of materials/molecules into the cells, for example, drugs (Zimmermann), DNA/genes (Neumann). The electroporation techniques were also under active improvement. At that time, the electro-pore was mainly a theoretical co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39619 |
Caesium standard The caesium standard is a primary frequency standard in which the photon absorption by transitions between the two hyperfine ground states of caesium-133 atoms are used to control the output frequency. The first caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the U... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40858 |
Caesium standard "" At its 1997 meeting the BIPM added to the previous definition the following specification: ""This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."" The BIPM restated this definition in its 26th conference (2018), ""The second is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40858 |
Caesium standard When the atom is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation having an energy corresponding to the energetic difference between the two sub-levels the radiation is absorbed and the atom is excited, going from the sub-level to the one. After a small fraction of a second the atom will re-emit the radiation... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40858 |
Cosmic noise and galactic radio noise is random noise that originates outside the Earth's atmosphere. It can be detected and heard in radio receivers. characteristics are similar to those of thermal noise. is experienced at frequencies above about 15 MHz when highly directional antennas are pointed toward the sun or to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40969 |
Field strength In physics, field strength means the "magnitude" of a vector-valued field (e.g., in volts per meter, V/m, for an electric field E). For example, an electromagnetic field results in both electric field strength and magnetic field strength. As an application, in radio frequency telecommunications, the sign... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41150 |
Harmonic A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series. The term is employed in various disciplines, including music, physics, acoustics, electronic power transmission, radio technology, and other fields. It is typically applied to repeating signals, such as sinusoidal waves. A harmonic of such a wave is a wave with ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41232 |
Harmonic Harmonics may also be called "overtones", "partials" or "upper partials". The difference between "harmonic" and "overtone" is that the term "harmonic" includes all of the notes in a series, including the fundamental frequency (e.g., the open string of a guitar). The term "overtone" only includes the pitches ab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41232 |
Harmonic Wind instruments whose air column is open at only one end, such as trumpets and clarinets, also produce partials resembling harmonics. However they only produce partials matching the odd harmonics, at least in theory. The reality of acoustic instruments is such that none of them behaves as perfectly as the som... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41232 |
Harmonic In the special case of instrumental timbres whose component partials closely match a harmonic series (such as with most strings and winds) rather than being inharmonic partials (such as with most pitched percussion instruments), it is also convenient to call the component partials "harmonics" but not strictly ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41232 |
Harmonic For example, lightly fingering the node found halfway down the highest string of a cello produces the same pitch as lightly fingering the node of the way down the second highest string. For the human voice see Overtone singing, which uses harmonics. While it is true that electronically produced periodic tones ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41232 |
Harmonic Harmonics are widely used in plucked string instruments, such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar and electric bass. On an electric guitar played loudly through a guitar amplifier with distortion, harmonics are more sustained and can be used in guitar solos. In the heavy metal music lead guitar style known as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41232 |
Phase distortion In signal processing, phase distortion or phase-frequency distortion is distortion, that is, change in the shape of the waveform, that occurs when (a) a filter's phase response is not linear over the frequency range of interest, that is, the phase shift introduced by a circuit or device is not directly... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41510 |
Tropospheric wave In telecommunication, a tropospheric wave is a radio wave that is propagated by reflection from a place of abrupt change in the dielectric constant, or its gradient, in the troposphere. In some cases, a ground wave may be so altered that new components appear to arise from reflection in regions of rap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41823 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek ( ; ; 24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723) was a Dutch businessman and scientist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology. A largely self-taught man in science, he is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and one of the first microscopists and micr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek He was also the first to document microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, red blood cells, crystals in gouty tophi, and blood flow in capillaries. Although van Leeuwenhoek did not write any books, his discoveries came to light through correspondence with the Royal Socie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek His status in Delft had grown throughout the years. In 1660 he received a lucrative job as chamberlain for the assembly chamber of the Delft sheriffs in the city hall, a position which he would hold for almost 40 years. In 1669 he was appointed as a land surveyor by the court of Holland; at some... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Van Leeuwenhoek's interest in microscopes and a familiarity with glass processing led to one of the most significant, and simultaneously well-hidden, technical insights in the history of science: By placing the middle of a small rod of soda lime glass in a hot flame, van Leeuwenhoek could pull t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek At first he had been reluctant to publicize his findings, regarding himself as a businessman with little scientific, artistic, or writing background, but de Graaf urged him to be more confident in his work. By the time van Leeuwenhoek died in 1723, he had written some 190 letters to the Royal So... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Eventually, in the face of van Leeuwenhoek's insistence, the Royal Society arranged for Alexander Petrie, minister to the English Reformed Church in Delft; Benedict Haan, at that time Lutheran minister at Delft; and Henrik Cordes, then Lutheran minister at the Hague, accompanied by Sir Robert Go... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek An experienced businessman, van Leeuwenhoek believed that if his simple method for creating the critically important lens was revealed, the scientific community of his time would likely disregard or even forget his role in microscopy. He therefore allowed others to believe that he was laboriousl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek It is suspected that van Leeuwenhoek possessed some microscopes that could magnify up to 500 times. Although he has been widely regarded as a dilettante or amateur, his scientific research was of remarkably high quality. The single-lens microscopes of van Leeuwenhoek were relatively small device... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek He studied a broad range of microscopic phenomena, and shared the resulting observations freely with groups such as the British Royal Society. Such work firmly established his place in history as one of the first and most important explorers of the microscopic world. Van Leeuwenhoek was one of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek He suffered from a rare disease, an uncontrolled movement of the midriff, which now is named "van Leeuwenhoek's disease". He died at the age of 90, on 26 August 1723, and was buried four days later in the Oude Kerk in Delft. In 1981, the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that van Leeuwenh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek In 2004, a public poll in the Netherlands to determine the greatest Dutchman ("De Grootste Nederlander") named van Leeuwenhoek the 4th-greatest Dutchman of all time. On 24 October 2016, Google commemorated the 384th anniversary of van Leeuwenhoek's birth with a Doodle that depicted his discovery... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001 |
Trace radioisotope A trace radioisotope is a radioisotope that occurs naturally in trace amounts (i.e. extremely small). Generally speaking, trace radioisotopes have half-lives that are short in comparison with the age of the Earth, since primordial nuclides tend to occur in larger than trace amounts. Trace radioisotop... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42021 |
Aristid Lindenmayer (17 November 1925 – 30 October 1989) was a Hungarian biologist. In 1968 he developed a type of formal languages that is today called L-systems or Lindenmayer Systems. Using those systems Lindenmayer modelled the behaviour of cells of plants. L-systems nowadays are also used to model whole plants. Li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42231 |
Ionic crystal An ionic crystal is a crystal consisting of ions bound together by their electrostatic attraction. Examples of such crystals are the alkali halides, including potassium fluoride, potassium chloride, potassium bromide, potassium iodide, sodium fluoride, and other combinations of sodium, caesium, rubidium, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42566 |
Biostasis or Cryptobiosis is the ability of an organism to tolerate environmental changes without having to actively adapt to them. is found in organisms that live in habitats that likely encounter unfavorable living conditions, such as drought, freezing temperatures, change in pH levels, pressure, or temperature. Inse... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42940 |
Biostasis It has also been observed that in may instances where it was thought that bacteria had been destroyed (pasteurization of milk) and later caused spoilage or harmful effects to consumers because the bacteria had entered the VBNC state. Effects on cells entering the VBNC state include "dwarfing, changes in metab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42940 |
Biostasis Watson and Ford defined fungistasis as "when viable fungal propagules, which are not subject to endogenous or constitutive dormancy do not germinate in soil at their favorable temperature or moisture conditions or growth of fungal hyphae is retarded or terminated by conditions of the soil environment other th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42940 |
Biostasis These approaches are based on research into diapause in tardigrades and wood frogs which suggests that selective stabilization of intracellular machinery occurs at the protein level. In molecular biology, molecular chaperones are proteins that assist in the folding, unfolding, assembly, or disassembly of othe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42940 |
Biostasis By introducing these intracellular polymers to a biological system and manipulating the crowdedness of a cell, scientists may be able to slow down the rate of biological reactions in the system. Tardigrades are microscopic animals that are able to enter a state of diapause and survive a remarkable array of en... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42940 |
Nature (journal) Nature is a British multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869. It is one of the most recognizable scientific journals in the world, and was ranked the world's most cited scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2018 "Journal Citation Reports" and is ascribed an im... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) Fewer than 8% of submitted papers are accepted for publication. In 2007 "Nature" (together with "Science") received the Prince of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanity. The enormous progress in science and mathematics during the 19th century was recorded in journals written mostly in German or... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) The journal's name changed from its original title to "Intellectual Observer: A Review of Natural History, Microscopic Research, and Recreative Science" and then later to the "Student and Intellectual Observer of Science, Literature, and Art". While "Recreative Science" had attempted to include more ph... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) The "Quarterly Journal", after undergoing a number of editorial changes, ceased publication in 1885. "The Reader" terminated in 1867, and finally, "Scientific Opinion" lasted a mere 2 years, until June 1870. Not long after the conclusion of "The Reader", a former editor, Norman Lockyer, decided to crea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) Perhaps it was in part its scientific liberality that made "Nature" a longer-lasting success than its predecessors. John Maddox, editor of "Nature" from 1966 to 1973 as well as from 1980 to 1995, suggested at a celebratory dinner for the journal's centennial edition that perhaps it was the journalistic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) Philip Campbell became Editor-in-chief of all "Nature" publications until 2018. Magdalena Skipper has since become Editor-in-chief. In 1970, "Nature" first opened its Washington office; other branches opened in New York in 1985, Tokyo and Munich in 1987, Paris in 1989, San Francisco in 2001, Boston in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) In October 2012, an Arabic edition of the magazine was launched in partnership with King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology. As of the time it was released, it had about 10,000 subscribers. On 2 December 2014, "Nature" announced that it would allow its subscribers and a group of selected media o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) Because of these positive feedback effects, competition among scientists to publish in high-level journals like "Nature" and its closest competitor, "Science", can be very fierce. "Nature"s impact factor, a measure of how many citations a journal generates in other works, was 38.138 in 2015 (as measure... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) The article commented on the placement and maintenance of statues honouring scientists with known unethical, abusive and torturous histories. Specifically, the editorial called on examples of J. Marion Sims, the 'Father of gynecology' who experimented on African American female slaves who were unable t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) When Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for research initially rejected by "Nature" and published only after Lauterbur appealed against the rejection, "Nature" acknowledged more of its own missteps in rejecting papers in an editorial titled, "Coping with Peer... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) Before publishing one of its most famous discoveries, Watson and Crick's 1953 on the structure of DNA, "Nature" did not send the paper out for peer review. John Maddox, "Nature"s editor, stated: "the Watson and Crick paper was not peer-reviewed by "Nature" ... the paper could not have been refereed: it... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) The journal has a weekly circulation of around 53,000 and a pass-along rate of 8.0, resulting in a readership of over 400,000. "Nature" is edited and published in the United Kingdom by a division of the international scientific publishing company Springer Nature that publishes academic journals, magazi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Nature (journal) In 2007, Nature Publishing Group began publishing "Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics", the official journal of the American Society of Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics and "Molecular Therapy", the American Society of Gene Therapy's official journal, as well as the "International Society for Micr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43427 |
Oceanography (compound of the Greek words ὠκεανός meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning "write"), also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean. It is an important Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44044 |
Oceanography Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Stream's cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769–1770. Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, inc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44044 |
Oceanography Many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide. Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water and a small amount of the bo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44044 |
Oceanography On her journey circumnavigating the globe, 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken. Around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the "Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44044 |
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