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Robert's Quartet is a compact galaxy group approximately 160 million light-years away in the constellation Phoenix. It is a family of four very different galaxies whose proximity to each other has caused the creation of about 200 star-forming regions and pulled out a stream of gas and dust 100,000 light years long. Its members are NGC 87, NGC 88, NGC 89 and NGC 92, discovered by John Herschel on the 30 September 1834. The quartet is one of the best examples of compact galaxy groups. Because such groups contain four to eight galaxies in a very small region they are excellent laboratories for the study of galactic interactions and their effects, in particular on the formation of stars. The quartet has a total visual magnitude of almost 13. The brightest member of the group is NGC 92, having the blue magnitude of 13.8. On the sky, the four galaxies are all within a circle of radius of 1.6 arcmin, corresponding to about 75,000 light-years. It was named by Halton Arp and Barry F. Madore, who compiled "A Catalogue of Southern Peculiar Galaxies and Associations" in 1987. Arp and Madore named after Robert Freedman who generated many of the updated positions of galaxies in the catalogue.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1470424
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Sectility is the ability of a mineral to be cut into thin pieces with a knife. Minerals that are not sectile will be broken into rougher pieces when cut. Metals and paper are sectile. can be used to distinguish minerals of similar appearance, and is a form of tenacity. For example, gold is sectile but pyrite ("fool's gold") is not. in metals is a result of metallic bonding, where valence (bonding) electrons are delocalized and can flow freely between atoms, rather than being shared between specific pairs or groups of atoms, as in covalent bonding.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1474649
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Plant virus Plant viruses are viruses that affect plants. Like all other viruses, plant viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that do not have the molecular machinery to replicate without a host. Plant viruses can be pathogenic to higher plants. Most plant viruses are rod-shaped, with protein discs forming a tube surrounding the viral genome; isometric particles are another common structure. They rarely have an envelope. The great majority have an RNA genome, which is usually small and single stranded (ss), but some viruses have double-stranded (ds) RNA, ssDNA or dsDNA genomes. Although plant viruses are not as well understood as their animal counterparts, one plant virus has become iconic: "tobacco mosaic virus" (TMV), the first virus to be discovered. This and other viruses cause an estimated US $60 billion loss in crop yields worldwide each year. Plant viruses are grouped into 73 genera and 49 families. However, these figures relate only to cultivated plants, which represent only a tiny fraction of the total number of plant species. Viruses in wild plants have been relatively little studied, but the interactions between wild plants and their viruses often do not appear to cause disease in the host plants. To transmit from one plant to another and from one plant cell to another, plant viruses must use strategies that are usually different from animal viruses. Plants do not move, and so plant-to-plant transmission usually involves vectors (such as insects)
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Plant virus Plant cells are surrounded by solid cell walls, therefore transport through plasmodesmata is the preferred path for virions to move between plant cells. Plants have specialized mechanisms for transporting mRNAs through plasmodesmata, and these mechanisms are thought to be used by RNA viruses to spread from one cell to another. Plant defenses against viral infection include, among other measures, the use of siRNA in response to dsRNA. Most plant viruses encode a protein to suppress this response. Plants also reduce transport through plasmodesmata in response to injury. The discovery of plant viruses causing disease is often accredited to A. Mayer (1886) working in the Netherlands demonstrated that the sap of mosaic obtained from tobacco leaves developed mosaic symptom when injected in healthy plants. However the infection of the sap was destroyed when it was boiled. He thought that the causal agent was the bacteria. However, after larger inoculation with a large number of bacteria, he failed to develop a mosaic symptom. In 1898, Martinus Beijerinck, who was a Professor of Microbiology at the Technical University the Netherlands, put forth his concepts that viruses were small and determined that the "mosaic disease" remained infectious when passed through a Chamberland filter-candle .This was in contrast to bacteria microorganisms, which were retained by the filter. Beijerinck referred to the infectious filtrate as a "contagium vivum fluidum", thus the coinage of the modern term "virus"
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Plant virus After the initial discovery of the 'viral concept' there was need to classify any other known viral diseases based on the mode of transmission even though microscopic observation proved fruitless. In 1939 Holmes published a classification list of 129 plant viruses. This was expanded and in 1999 there were 977 officially recognized, and some provisional, plant virus species. The purification (crystallization) of TMV was first performed by Wendell Stanley, who published his findings in 1935, although he did not determine that the RNA was the infectious material. However, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1946. In the 1950s a discovery by two labs simultaneously proved that the purified RNA of the TMV was infectious which reinforced the argument. The RNA carries genetic information to code for the production of new infectious particles. More recently virus research has been focused on understanding the genetics and molecular biology of plant virus genomes, with a particular interest in determining how the virus can replicate, move and infect plants. Understanding the virus genetics and protein functions has been used to explore the potential for commercial use by biotechnology companies. In particular, viral-derived sequences have been used to provide an understanding of novel forms of resistance. The recent boom in technology allowing humans to manipulate plant viruses may provide new strategies for production of value-added proteins in plants
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1475873
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Plant virus Viruses are extremely small and can only be observed under an electron microscope. The structure of a virus is given by its coat of proteins, which surround the viral genome. Assembly of viral particles takes place spontaneously. Over 50% of known plant viruses are rod-shaped (flexuous or rigid). The length of the particle is normally dependent on the genome but it is usually between 300–500 nm with a diameter of 15–20 nm. Protein subunits can be placed around the circumference of a circle to form a disc. In the presence of the viral genome, the discs are stacked, then a tube is created with room for the nucleic acid genome in the middle. The second most common structure amongst plant viruses are isometric particles. They are 25–50 nm in diameter. In cases when there is only a single coat protein, the basic structure consists of 60 T subunits, where T is an integer. Some viruses may have 2 coat proteins that associate to form an icosahedral shaped particle. There are three genera of "Geminiviridae" that consist of particles that are like two isometric particles stuck together. A very small number of plant viruses have, in addition to their coat proteins, a lipid envelope. This is derived from the plant cell membrane as the virus particle buds off from the cell. Viruses can be spread by direct transfer of sap by contact of a wounded plant with a healthy one. Such contact may occur during agricultural practices, as by damage caused by tools or hands, or naturally, as by an animal feeding on the plant
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Plant virus Generally TMV, potato viruses and cucumber mosaic viruses are transmitted via sap. Plant viruses need to be transmitted by a vector, most often insects such as leafhoppers. One class of viruses, the Rhabdoviridae, has been proposed to actually be insect viruses that have evolved to replicate in plants. The chosen insect vector of a plant virus will often be the determining factor in that virus's host range: it can only infect plants that the insect vector feeds upon. This was shown in part when the old world white fly made it to the United States, where it transferred many plant viruses into new hosts. Depending on the way they are transmitted, plant viruses are classified as non-persistent, semi-persistent and persistent. In non-persistent transmission, viruses become attached to the distal tip of the stylet of the insect and on the next plant it feeds on, it inoculates it with the virus. Semi-persistent viral transmission involves the virus entering the foregut of the insect. Those viruses that manage to pass through the gut into the haemolymph and then to the salivary glands are known as persistent. There are two sub-classes of persistent viruses: propagative and circulative. Propagative viruses are able to replicate in both the plant and the insect (and may have originally been insect viruses), whereas circulative can not. Circulative viruses are protected inside aphids by the chaperone protein symbionin, produced by bacterial symbionts
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Plant virus Many plant viruses encode within their genome polypeptides with domains essential for transmission by insects. In non-persistent and semi-persistent viruses, these domains are in the coat protein and another protein known as the helper component. A bridging hypothesis has been proposed to explain how these proteins aid in insect-mediated viral transmission. The helper component will bind to the specific domain of the coat protein, and then the insect mouthparts – creating a bridge. In persistent propagative viruses, such as tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), there is often a lipid coat surrounding the proteins that is not seen in other classes of plant viruses. In the case of TSWV, 2 viral proteins are expressed in this lipid envelope. It has been proposed that the viruses bind via these proteins and are then taken into the insect cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Soil-borne nematodes also have been shown to transmit viruses. They acquire and transmit them by feeding on infected roots. Viruses can be transmitted both non-persistently and persistently, but there is no evidence of viruses being able to replicate in nematodes. The virions attach to the stylet (feeding organ) or to the gut when they feed on an infected plant and can then detach during later feeding to infect other plants. Examples of viruses that can be transmitted by nematodes include tobacco ringspot virus and tobacco rattle virus
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Plant virus A number of virus genera are transmitted, both persistently and non-persistently, by soil borne zoosporic protozoa. These protozoa are not phytopathogenic themselves, but parasitic. Transmission of the virus takes place when they become associated with the plant roots. Examples include "Polymyxa graminis", which has been shown to transmit plant viral diseases in cereal crops and "Polymyxa betae" which transmits Beet necrotic yellow vein virus. Plasmodiophorids also create wounds in the plant's root through which other viruses can enter. transmission from generation to generation occurs in about 20% of plant viruses. When viruses are transmitted by seeds, the seed is infected in the generative cells and the virus is maintained in the germ cells and sometimes, but less often, in the seed coat. When the growth and development of plants is delayed because of situations like unfavorable weather, there is an increase in the amount of virus infections in seeds. There does not seem to be a correlation between the location of the seed on the plant and its chances of being infected. Little is known about the mechanisms involved in the transmission of plant viruses via seeds, although it is known that it is environmentally influenced and that seed transmission occurs because of a direct invasion of the embryo via the ovule or by an indirect route with an attack on the embryo mediated by infected gametes. These processes can occur concurrently or separately depending on the host plant
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Plant virus It is unknown how the virus is able to directly invade and cross the embryo and boundary between the parental and progeny generations in the ovule. Many plants species can be infected through seeds including but not limited to the families Leguminosae, Solanaceae, Compositae, Rosaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Gramineae. Bean common mosaic virus is transmitted through seeds. Researchers from the University of the Mediterranean in Marseille, France have found tenuous evidence that suggest a virus common to peppers, the Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMoV) may have moved on to infect humans. This is a very rare and highly unlikely event as, to enter a cell and replicate, a virus must "bind to a receptor on its surface, and a plant virus would be highly unlikely to recognize a receptor on a human cell. One possibility is that the virus does not infect human cells directly. Instead, the naked viral RNA may alter the function of the cells through a mechanism similar to RNA interference, in which the presence of certain RNA sequences can turn genes on and off," according to Virologist Robert Garry from the Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana. 75% of plant viruses have genomes that consist of single stranded RNA (ssRNA). 65% of plant viruses have +ssRNA, meaning that they are in the same sense orientation as messenger RNA but 10% have -ssRNA, meaning they must be converted to +ssRNA before they can be translated. 5% are double stranded RNA and so can be immediately translated as +ssRNA viruses
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Plant virus 3% require a reverse transcriptase enzyme to convert between RNA and DNA. 17% of plant viruses are ssDNA and very few are dsDNA, in contrast a quarter of animal viruses are dsDNA and three-quarters of bacteriophage are dsDNA. Viruses use the plant ribosomes to produce the 4-10 proteins encoded by their genome. However, since many of the proteins are encoded on a single strand (that is, they are polycistronic) this will mean that the ribosome will either only produce one protein, as it will terminate translation at the first stop codon, or that a polyprotein will be produced. Plant viruses have had to evolve special techniques to allow the production of viral proteins by plant cells. For translation to occur, eukaryotic mRNAs require a 5' Cap structure. This means that viruses must also have one. This normally consists of 7MeGpppN where N is normally adenine or guanine. The viruses encode a protein, normally a replicase, with a methyltransferase activity to allow this. Some viruses are cap-snatchers. During this process, a G-capped host mRNA is recruited by the viral transcriptase complex and subsequently cleaved by a virally encoded endonuclease. The resulting capped leader RNA is used to prime transcription on the viral genome. However some plant viruses do not use cap, yet translate efficiently due to cap-independent translation enhancers present in 5' and 3' untranslated regions of viral mRNA. Some viruses (e.g. tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)) have RNA sequences that contain a "leaky" stop codon
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Plant virus In TMV 95% of the time the host ribosome will terminate the synthesis of the polypeptide at this codon but the rest of the time it continues past it. This means that 5% of the proteins produced are larger than and different from the others normally produced, which is a form of translational regulation. In TMV, this extra sequence of polypeptide is an RNA polymerase that replicates its genome. Some viruses use the production of subgenomic RNAs to ensure the translation of all proteins within their genomes. In this process the first protein encoded on the genome, and is the first to be translated, is a replicase. This protein will act on the rest of the genome producing negative strand sub-genomic RNAs then act upon these to form positive strand sub-genomic RNAs that are essentially mRNAs ready for translation. Some viral families, such as the "Bromoviridae" instead opt to have multipartite genomes, genomes split between multiple viral particles. For infection to occur, the plant must be infected with all particles across the genome. For instance "Brome mosaic virus" has a genome split between 3 viral particles, and all 3 particles with the different RNAs are required for infection to take place. This strategy is adopted by viral genera such as the Potyviridae and Tymoviridae. The ribosome translates a single protein from the viral genome
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Plant virus Within the polyprotein is an enzyme (or enzymes) with proteinase function that is able to cleave the polyprotein into the various single proteins or just cleave away the protease, which can then cleave other polypeptides producing the mature proteins. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) are frequently used in plant molecular biology. Of special interest is the CaMV 35S promoter, which is a very strong promoter most frequently used in plant transformations.
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Atmospheric focusing is a phenomenon occurring when a large shock wave is produced in the atmosphere, as in a nuclear explosion or large extraterrestrial object impact. The shock wave is refracted horizontally by density variations in the atmosphere so that it can have impacts in localized areas much further away than the theoretical extent of its blast effect. In large bombs, some effects may thus be found hundreds of kilometers from the blast site (such as in the case of the Tsar Bomba test, where damage was caused up to approximately 1,000 km away). This effect operates similarly to the patterns made by sunlight on the bottom of a pool, the difference is that the light is bent at the contact point with the water while the shock wave is distorted by density variations (e.g. due to temperature variations) in the atmosphere. Variations of wind can cause a similar effect. This will disperse the shock wave at some places and focus it at others. For powerful shock waves this can cause damage farther than expected; the shock wave energy density will decrease beyond expected values based on uniform geometry falloff for weak shock or acoustic waves, as expected at large distances).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1484457
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Quest Diagnostics is an American clinical laboratory. A Fortune 500 company, Quest operates in the United States, (including Puerto Rico), United Kingdom, Mexico, and Brazil. Quest also maintains collaborative agreements with various hospitals and clinics across the globe. As of 2017 the company had approximately 45,000 employees, and generated more than $7.7 billion in revenue. The company offers access to diagnostic testing services for cancer, cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, neurological disorders and employment and court ordered drug testing. Originally founded as Metropolitan Pathology Laboratory, Inc., in 1967 by Paul A. Brown, MD, the clinical laboratory underwent a variety of rebranding processes. In 1969, the company's name changed to MetPath, Inc. with headquarters in Teaneck, New Jersey. By 1982, MetPath was acquired by what was then known as Corning Glass Works, and subsequently renamed Corning Clinical Laboratories. On December 31, 1996, became an independent company as a spin-off from Corning. Kenneth Freeman was appointed as CEO during this transition. Over the next year, Quest acquired a clinical laboratory division of Branford, CT-based Diagnostic Medical Laboratory, Inc. (DML). Two years later in 1999, Quest added SmithKline Beecham Clinical Laboratories to their subsidiaries; which includes a joint venture ownership with CompuNet Clinical Laboratory. From May 2004-April 2012, Surya Mohapatra served as the company's President and CEO
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1496757
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Quest Diagnostics In 2007 Quest acquired diagnostic testing equipment company AmeriPath. In response to Mohapatra's resignation after eight years with Quest, former Philips Healthcare CEO Stephen Rusckowski was appointed. Under Rusckowski, teamed up with central New England's largest health care system, UMass Memorial Health Care, to purchase its clinical outreach laboratory. In 2016 Quest collaborated with Safeway to bring testing services to twelve stores of its stores in California, Maryland, Virginia, Texas and Colorado. By the end of 2017 Quest, in partnership with Walmart, incorporated laboratory testing in about 15 of their locations in Texas and Florida. In May 2018 the company announced it will become an in-network laboratory provider to UnitedHealthcare starting in 2019, providing access to 48 million plan members. In September 2018 Quest moved its headquarters from Madison, where it was located since 2007, to Secaucus, New Jersey. set a record in April 2009 when it paid $302 million to the government to settle a Medicare fraud case alleging the company sold faulty medical testing kits. It was the largest qui tam (whistleblower) settlement paid by a medical lab for manufacturing and distributing a faulty product. In May 2011, Quest paid $241 million to the state of California to settle a False Claims Act case that alleged the company had overcharged Medi-Cal, the state's Medicaid program, and provided illegal kickbacks as incentives for healthcare providers to use Quest labs
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Quest Diagnostics In 2018, was among a number of US based labs linked to inaccuracies of over 200 women's cervical smear tests for CervicalCheck, Ireland's national screening programme. On June 3, 2019 Quest announced that American Medical Collection Agency (AMCA), a billing collections service provider, had informed that an unauthorized user had access to AMCA’s system containing personal information AMCA received from various entities, including from Quest. AMCA provides billing collections services to Optum360, which in turn is a Quest contractor.
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Sillar is a variety of rhyolite, which is a type of volcanic rock. Although sillar is of rhyolitic composition, it has been erupted from volcanoes which mostly erupt andesite lava, and sillar contains small fragments of andesite. A pink variety of sillar owes its colour to crystals of hematite within the rock. A white variety lacks these hematite crystals. is found as pyroclastic flow deposits of tuff near volcanoes in southern Peru, for example the now-extinct Chachani volcano which erupted flows of sillar during the Pleistocene epoch. facies Orvieto-Bagnoregio Ignimbrite (black blocks of scoria in red tuff) occurs at Civita di Bagnoregio in the Vulsini volcanic district of central Italy. has been used as a building stone in Peru. Many colonial buildings in the city of Arequipa are made of sillar, for example, the arches of the "Mirador of Yanahuara" in Arequipa, from which the entire city can be appreciated.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1499550
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On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves is an 1860 dissertation written by Dr. Albert Niemann. Its title in German is "Über eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern". The piece describes, in detail, how Niemann isolated cocaine, a crystalline alkaloid. It also earned Niemann his Ph.D. and is now in the British Library. He wrote of the alkaloid's "colourless transparent prisms" and said that, "Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue." Niemann named the alkaloid "cocaine" — as with other alkaloids its name carried the "-ine" suffix.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1505000
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RRS James Clark Ross RRS "James Clark Ross" is a supply and research ship operated by the British Antarctic Survey. RRS "James Clark Ross" is named after the British explorer James Clark Ross. She replaced the in 1991. In March 2018, RRS "James Clark Ross" was due to sample the marine life around the world's biggest iceberg, A-68, but was unable to reach the site due to thick sea ice in the Weddell Sea.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1505956
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Royal Museum for Central Africa The or RMCA ( or KMMA; or MRAC; or KMZA), colloquially known as the Africa Museum, is an ethnography and natural history museum situated in Tervuren in Flemish Brabant, Belgium, just outside Brussels. It was built to showcase King Leopold II's Congo Free State in the 1897 World Exhibition. The museum focuses on the Congo, a former Belgian colony. The sphere of interest however (especially in biological research) extends to the whole Congo River basin, Middle Africa, East Africa, and West Africa, attempting to integrate "Africa" as a whole. Intended originally as a colonial museum, from 1960 onwards it has focused more on ethnography and anthropology. Like most museums, it houses a research department in addition to its public exhibit department. Not all research pertains to Africa (e.g. research on the archaeozoology of Sagalassos, Turkey). Some researchers have strong ties with the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. In November 2013, the museum closed for renovation work (including the construction of new exhibition space) until reopening in December 2018. After his Congo Free State was recognized by the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, King Leopold II wanted to publicise the civilizing mission and the economic opportunities available in the colony to a wider public, both in Belgium and internationally. After considering other places, the king decided to have a temporary exhibition in his royal estate at Tervuren
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Royal Museum for Central Africa When the 1897 International Exposition was held in Brussels, a colonial section was built in Tervuren, connected to the city centre by the monumental Avenue de Tervueren. The Brussels-Tervuren tram line 44 was built at the same time as the original museum by King Leopold II to bring the visitors from the city centre to the colonial exhibition. The colonial section was hosted in the (Palace of the Colonies). The building was designed by the Belgian architect Albert-Philippe Aldophe and the classical gardens by French landscape architect Elie Lainé. In the main hall designed a distinctive wooden "Art Nouveau" structure to evoke the forest, using Bilinga wood, an African tree. The exhibition displayed ethnographic objects, stuffed animals and Congolese export products (coffee, cacao and tobacco). In the park, a temporary "Human zoo" - a copy of an African village - was built, in which 60 Congolese people lived for the duration of the exhibition. In 1898 the Palace of the Colonies became the Museum of the Congo ("Musée du Congo") and a permanent exhibition was installed. A decade later, in 1912, a small, similar museum - the (African Museum of Namur) - was opened in Namur. The Museum began to support academic research, but due to the avid collecting of the scientists, the collection soon grew too large for the museum and enlargement was needed. Tervuren became a rich suburb of Brussels
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Royal Museum for Central Africa The new museum started construction in 1904 and was designed by the French architect Charles Girault in neoclassical "palace" architecture, reminiscent of "Petit Palais" in Paris, with large gardens extending into the Tervuren Forest (a part of the Sonian Forest). It was officially opened by King Albert I in 1910 and named the Museum of the Belgian Congo ("Musée du Congo Belge" or "Museum van Belgisch-Kongo"). In 1952 the adjective "Royal" was added. In preparation for Expo '58, in 1957 a large building was constructed to accommodate African personnel working in the exhibition: the "Centre d'Accueil du Personnel Africain" (CAPA). In 1960, following the independence of the Congo, the museum's name was changed to its current title: the Royal Museum for Central Africa. In late 2013 the museum was closed to allow a major renovation of its exhibits and an extension. It was reopened in December 2018. 66 million euros was spent on the modernization by the Belgian government. The additional space allows contemporary art from Central Africa to be displayed alongside the original colonial exhibits. According to the website of the museum, the collection contains: The herbarium collection of the Congo Museum was transferred to that of the National Botanic Garden of Belgium in 1934. The museum stores archives documenting its own institutional history, as well as archives of private businesses, organizations, and individuals
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Royal Museum for Central Africa As of 2018, online finding aids exist for archives of , musicologist Paul Collaer, geologist , Francis Dhanis, Félix Fuchs, Cyriaque Gillain, Josué Henry de la Lindi, , American Richard Mohun, Emmanuel Muller, German explorer Paul Reichard, Albert Sillye, British explorer Henry Morton Stanley, Émile Storms, Alphonse van Gèle, historian Jan Vansina, Auguste Verbeken, historian , Gustave Vervloet, and railway enterprises and . The publicly accessible museum itself only represents 25 percent of the activities which the museum covers. The scientific departments, which represent the bulk of the museum's academic and research facilities, (together with the main collections) are housed in the Palace of the Colonies, the Stanley Pavilion and in the CAPA building. There are 4 departments: The museum also maintains a library of some 130,000 titles. There has been controversy surrounding the Museum. It had been called a museum that "has remained frozen in time" as it showed how a museum looked like in the mid-twentieth century. No mention was made of the savage excesses and pillage during Belgium's colonial era. "The Guardian" reported in July 2002 that, after initial outrage by Belgian historians over "King Leopold's Ghost" by Adam Hochschild, the state-funded museum would finance an investigation into Hochschild's allegations
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Royal Museum for Central Africa The resulting more modern exhibition "The Memory of Congo" (February–October 2005), tried to tell the story of the Congo Free State before it became a Belgian colony and a less one-sided view of the Belgian colonial era. The exhibition was praised by the international press, with French newspaper "Le Monde" claiming that "the museum has done better than revisit a particularly stormy page in history...[it] has pushed the public to join it in looking into the reality of colonialism."
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Moraine-dammed lake A moraine-dammed lake occurs when the terminal moraine has prevented some meltwater from leaving the valley. Its most common shape is that of a long ribbon (ribbon lake). Example of moraine dammed lakes include: In the 19th century the Argentine explorer Francisco Perito Moreno suggested that many Patagonian lakes draining to the Pacific were in fact part of the Atlantic basin but had been moraine dammed during the quaternary glaciations changing their outlets to the west. He argued that as originally belonging to the Atlantic basin these lakes should be awarded to Argentina. Most of the lakes situated in the Himalaya of Nepal and Bhutan are also of the moraine dammed type. They may burst at any time. That is why the areas below such lakes have high risk of flooding.
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Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation The Interdecadal Pacific oscillation (IPO) is an oceanographic/meteorological phenomenon similar to the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), but occurring in a wider area of the Pacific. While the PDO occurs in mid-latitudes of the Pacific Ocean in the northern hemisphere, the IPO stretches from the southern hemisphere into the northern hemisphere. The period of oscillation is roughly 15-30 years. Positive phases of the IPO are characterized by a warmer than average tropical Pacific and cooler than average northern Pacific. Negative phases are characterized by an inversion of this pattern, with cool tropics and warm northern regions. The IPO had positive phases (southeastern tropical Pacific warm) from 1922 to 1946 and 1978 to 1998, and a negative phase between 1947 and 1976.
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Cave popcorn Cave popcorn, or coralloids, are small nodes of calcite, aragonite or gypsum that form on surfaces in caves, especially limestone caves. They are a common type of speleothem. The individual nodules of cave popcorn range in size from 5 to 20 mm and may be decorated by other speleothems, especially aragonite needles or frostwork. The nodules tend to grow in clusters on bedrock or the sides of other speleothems. These clusters may terminate suddenly in either an upward or downward direction, forming a stratographic layer. When they terminate in a downward direction, they may appear as flat bottomed formations known as trays. Individual nodes of popcorn can assume a variety of shapes from round to flattened ear or button like shapes. The color of cave popcorn is usually white, but various other colors are possible depending on the composition. can form by precipitation. Water seeping through limestone walls or splashing onto them leaves deposits when CO loss causes its minerals to precipitate. When formed in this way, the resultant nodules have the characteristics of small balls of flowstone. can also form by evaporation in which case it is chalky and white like edible popcorn. In the right conditions, evaporative cave popcorn may grow on the windward side of the surface to which it is attached or appear on the edges of projecting surfaces. Popcorn can also occur on concrete structures outside the cave environment; these are classified as calthemite coralloids
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Cave popcorn Calthemite coralloids also occur in "artificial caves" such as mines or railway or vehicle tunnels were there is a source of lime, mortar or cement from which the calcium ions can be leached. Coralloids can form by a number of different methods in caves; however, the most common form on concrete is created when a hyperalkaline solution seeps from fine cracks. Due to solution evaporation, deposition of calcium carbonate occurs before any drop can form. The resulting coralloids are small and chalky with a cauliflower appearance.
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Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project The is a project, somewhat along the lines of AMIP or CMIP, to coordinate and encourage the systematic study of atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) and to assess their ability to simulate large climate changes such as those that occurred in the distant past. Project goals include identifying common responses of AGCMs to imposed paleoclimate "boundary conditions," understanding the differences in model responses, comparing model results with paleoclimate data, and providing AGCM results for use in helping in the analysis and interpretation of paleoclimate data. PMIP is initially focussing on the mid-Holocene (6,000 years before present) and the Last Glacial Maximum (21,000 yr BP) because climatic conditions were remarkably different at those times, and because relatively large amounts of paleoclimate data exist for these periods. The major "forcing" factors are also relatively well known at these times. Some of the paleoclimate features simulated by models in previous studies seem consistent with paleoclimatic data, but others do not. One of the goals of PMIP is to determine which results are model-dependent. The PMIP experiments are limited to studying the equilibrium response of the atmosphere (and such surface characteristics as snow cover) to changes in boundary conditions (e.g., insolation, ice-sheet distribution, CO concentration, etc.)
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Erich von Tschermak Erich Tschermak, Edler von Seysenegg (15 November 1871 – 11 October 1962) was an Austrian agronomist who developed several new disease-resistant crops, including wheat-rye and oat hybrids. He was a son of the Moravia-born mineralogist Gustav Tschermak von Seysenegg. His maternal grandfather was the famous botanist, Eduard Fenzl, who taught Gregor Mendel botany during his student days in Vienna. He received his doctorate from the University of Halle, Germany, in 1896. Tschermak accepted a teaching position at the University of Agricultural Sciences Vienna in 1901, and became professor there five years later, in 1906. Von Tschermak is one of four men—see also Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and William Jasper Spillman—who independently rediscovered Gregor Mendel's work on genetics. Von Tschermak published his findings in June, 1900. His works in genetics were largely influenced by his brother Armin von Tschermak-Seysenegg.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1517443
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Gillet de Laumont François Pierre Nicolas (28 May 1747 – 1 June 1834) was a French mineralogist. He was born in Paris, educated at a military school and served in the army from 1772 to 1784, when he was appointed inspector of mines. His attention in his leisure time was wholly given to mineralogy, and he assisted in organizing the new École des Mines in Paris. He was author of numerous mineralogical papers in the ""Journal et Annales des Mines"". The mineral laumontite, which Laumont discovered in the mines of Huelgoat, was named after him by René Just Haüy. After the death of Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle in 1790, Laumont purchased his large collection of minerals and crystals. During his career, he was awarded with the Ordre de la Réunion (1813), the Légion d'honneur (1815) and the Ordre de Saint-Michel (1819). He died in Paris in 1834.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1517562
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MOATA was a 100 kW thermal Argonaut class reactor built at the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (later ANSTO) Research Establishment at Lucas Heights, Sydney. went critical at 5:50am on 10 April 1961 and ended operations on 31 May 1995. was the first reactor to be decommissioned in Australia in 2009. The design of university training reactor was based on the Argonaut research reactor developed by the Argonne National Laboratory in the mid-1950s, in the United States. Moata is an Aboriginal name meaning "gentle-fire" or "fire-stick". was designed and built by the Advanced Technology Laboratories and first went critical on 10 April 1961. The purpose of the reactor was for training scientists, however in the mid-1970s it was expanded to include activation analysis and neutron radiography. initially offered training in reactor control and neutron physics, later neutron activation analysis, neutron radiography, soil analysis and nuclear medicine research. The reactor was shut down in 1995 as it was no longer possible, after 34 years, to economically justify its continued operations. Experimental data on nuclear fuel and moderator systems was also accumulated during the operation of the reactor. With the dismantling of the reactor complete in 2009, the site has been completely restored. It was the first reactor to be decommissioned in Australia. In 1995 the used fuel from the reactor was unloaded and in 2006, it was shipped to the United States under the US DoE Foreign Research Reactor Spent Nuclear Fuel Acceptance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1518042
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Khareef (, autumn) is a colloquial Arabic term used in southern Oman, southeastern Yemen, southwestern Saudi Arabia and Sudan for the southeastern monsoon. The monsoon affects Dhofar and Al Mahrah Governorates from about June to early September. Towns such as Salalah depend upon the khareef for water supply. An annual festival is held in Salalah to celebrate the monsoon and attracts tourists. The leads to a unique ecological habitat along the coast known as the Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1518981
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Flora of the Marquesas Islands The Marquesas Islands have a diverse flora, with a high rate of endemism. They are in the floristic Polynesian subkingdom of the Oceanian realm. Most of the food plants are not endemic, and include:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1528353
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Copper coulometer The copper coulometer is a one application for the copper-copper(II) sulfate electrode. Such a coulometer consists of two identical copper electrodes immersed in slightly acidic pH-buffered solution of copper(II) sulfate. Passing of current through the element leads to the anodic dissolution of the metal on anode and simultaneous deposition of copper ions on the cathode. These reactions have 100% efficiency over a wide range of current density. The amount of electric charge (quantity of electricity) passed through the cell can easily be determined by measuring the change in mass of either electrode and calculating: where: Although this apparatus is interesting from a theoretical and historical point of view, present-day electronic measurement of time and electric current provide in their multiplication the amount of passed coulombs much easier, with greater precision, and in a shorter period of time than is possible by weighing the electrodes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1528467
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Rhizoid Rhizoids are protuberances that extend from the lower epidermal cells of bryophytes and algae. They are similar in structure and function to the root hairs of vascular land plants. Similar structures are formed by some fungi. Rhizoids may be unicellular or multicellular. Plants originated in aquatic environments and gradually migrated to land during their long course of evolution. In water or near it, plants could absorb water from their surroundings, with no need for any special absorbing organ or tissue. Additionally, in the primitive states of plant development, tissue differentiation and division of labor was minimal, thus specialized water absorbing tissue was not required. Once plants colonized land however, they required specialized tissues to absorb water efficiently, and also to anchor themselves to the land. Rhizoids absorb water by capillary action, in which water moves up between threads of rhizoids and not through each of them as it does in roots. In fungi, rhizoids are small branching hyphae that grow downwards from the stolons that anchor the fungus to the substrate, where they release digestive enzymes and absorb digested organic material. That is why fungí are called heterotrophs by absorption. In land plants, rhizoids are trichomes that anchor the plant to the ground. In the liverworts, they are absent or unicellular, but multicelled in mosses. In vascular plants they are often called root hairs, and may be unicellular or multicellular
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1531306
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Rhizoid In certain algae, there is an extensive rhizoidal system that allows the alga to anchor itself to a sandy substrate from which it can absorb nutrients. Microscopic free-floating species, however, do not have rhizoids at all.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1531306
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Electric form factor The electric form factor is the Fourier transform of electric charge distribution in a nucleon. Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are made of up and down quarks which have charges associated with them (2/3 & -1/3, respectively). The study of Form Factors falls within the regime of Perturbative QCD. The idea originated from young William Thomson.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1531739
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Magnetic form factor In electromagnetism, a magnetic form factor is the Fourier transform of an electric charge distribution in space. For the form factor relevant to magnetic diffraction of free neutrons by unpaired outer electrons of an atom see also: atomic form factor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1531742
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Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti (4 December 1735, Vienna – 17 February 1805, Vienna) was an Austrian naturalist and zoologist of Italian origin. Laurenti is considered the auctor of the class Reptilia (reptiles) through his authorship of "" (1768) on the poisonous function of reptiles and amphibians. This was an important book in herpetology, defining thirty genera of reptiles; Carl Linnaeus's 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" in 1758 defined only ten genera. "Specimen Medicum" contains a description of the blind salamander (amphibian): "Proteus anguinus", purportedly collected from cave waters in Slovenia (or possibly western Croatia); this description represented one of the first published accounts of a cave animal in the western world, although "Proteus anguinus" was not recognized as a cave animal at the time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1532704
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Dalton Minimum The was a period of low sunspot count, representing low solar activity, named after the English meteorologist John Dalton, lasting from about 1790 to 1830 or 1796 to 1820, corresponding to the period solar cycle 4 to solar cycle 7. Like the Maunder Minimum and Spörer Minimum, the coincided with a period of lower-than-average global temperatures. During that period, there was a variation of temperature of about 1 °C in Germany. The cause of the lower-than-average temperatures and their possible relation to the low sunspot count are not well understood. Recent papers have suggested that a rise in volcanism was largely responsible for the cooling trend. While the Year Without a Summer, in 1816, occurred during the Dalton Minimum, the prime reason for that year's cool temperatures was the highly explosive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which was one of the two largest eruptions in the past 2000 years. One must also consider that the rise in volcanism may have been triggered by lower levels of solar output as there is a weak but statistically significant link between decreased solar output and an increase in volcanism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1533140
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NGC 4395 is a low surface brightness spiral galaxy with a halo that is about 8′ in diameter. It has several wide areas of greater brightness running northwest to southeast. The one furthest southeast is the brightest. Three of the patches have their own NGC numbers: 4401, 4400, and 4399 running east to west. The nucleus of is active and the galaxy is classified as a Seyfert. It is notable for containing one of the smallest supermassive black hole with an accurately-determined mass. The central black hole has a mass of "only" 300,000 Sun masses, which would make it a so-called "intermediate-mass black hole".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1534136
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Depth conversion is an important step of the seismic reflection method, which converts the acoustic wave travel time to actual depth, based on the acoustic velocity of subsurface medium (sediments, rocks, water). integrates several sources of information about the subsurface velocity to derive a three-dimensional velocity model: The conversion permits the production of depth and thickness maps that depict subsurface layers that are based on reflection data. These maps are crucial in hydrocarbon exploration because they permit the volumetric evaluation of gas or oil in place. In the example subsurface map presented below, depth increases from red to blue. The highest zone in red is an oilfield at approximately 3000 m below sea level.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1536286
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Léon Fairmaire Léon Marc Herminie Fairmaire (29 June 1820 – 1 April 1906) was a French entomologist. A specialist in Coleoptera he assembled an immense collection comparable with that of Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean (1780-1845). This is in the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. Fairmaire wrote 450 scientific papers and other publications relating to Coleoptera (). He also worked on Hemiptera.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1539960
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Phantom energy is a hypothetical form of dark energy satisfying the equation of state with formula_1. It possesses negative kinetic energy, and predicts expansion of the universe in excess of that predicted by a cosmological constant, which leads to a Big Rip. The idea of phantom energy is often dismissed, as it would suggest that the vacuum is unstable with negative mass particles bursting into existence. The concept is hence tied to emerging theories of a continuously-created negative mass dark fluid, in which the cosmological constant can vary as a function of time. The existence of phantom energy could cause the expansion of the universe to accelerate so quickly that a scenario known as the Big Rip, a possible end to the universe, occurs. The expansion of the universe reaches an infinite degree in finite time, causing expansion to accelerate without bounds. This acceleration necessarily passes the speed of light (since it involves expansion of the universe itself, not particles moving within it), causing more and more objects to leave our observable universe faster than its expansion, as light and information emitted from distant stars and other cosmic sources cannot "catch up" with the expansion. As the observable universe expands, objects will be unable to interact with each other via fundamental forces, and eventually the expansion will prevent any action of forces between any particles, even within atoms, "ripping apart" the universe. One application of phantom energy in 2007 was to a cyclic model of the universe.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1540711
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Ernst Gustav Kraatz (13 March 1831 – 2 November 1909) was a German entomologist. He collected and described numerous beetles including Staphylinidae. Kraatz was born in Berlin on 13 March 1831. He studied law in the University of Heidelberg and at the University of Bonn. but found no interest in it and through the influence of Carl August Dohrn he shifted to study entomology at the University of Berlin and later became was a professor . He was mainly interested in Coleoptera. His collection is held by Deutsches Entomologisches Institut. Kraatz worked on the beetle fauna of the whole world using the vast collections in the Natural History Museum of Berlin and described numerous species. Loss of eyesight led to stoppage of work and he died in Berlin. Kraatz,G. "Prof. Dr. Gustav Kraatz. 50 järingen Jubilaeum" 164 pages, 4 plates 1906 [https://web.archive.org/web/20061126191835/http://www.toyen.uio.no/entomology/gusarov/Library/Kraatz.htm gives a complete list the list of his publications and the species described.
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Ignaz Schiffermüller (born 2 October 1727 in Hellmonsödt; died 21 June 1806 in Linz) was an Austrian naturalist mainly interested in Lepidoptera. Schiffermüller was a teacher at the Theresianum College in Vienna. His collection was presented to the old United Royal and Imperial Natural History Collections (Vereinigtes k.k. Naturalien-Cabinet) at the Hofburg where it burnt during the revolution in 1848. With Michael Denis, also a teacher at the Theresianum, he published the first index of the Lepidoptera of the Viennese region "das Systematische Verzeichnis der Schmetterlinge der Wienergegend herausgegeben von einigen Lehrern am k. k. Theresianum" (1775). His collection is in the "Kaiserlichen Hof-Naturalienkabinett" (now Naturhistorisches Museum Wien). Schiffermüller is also noteworthy for his work in developing a scientifically based colour nomenclature. In his "Versuch eines Farbensystems" (1772), Schiffermüller addressed the need for a standardised nomenclature with which to describe the countless colours of nature. Work by predecessors in this field had proved unsatisfactory: he mentions suggestions made by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli (1723–1778) in his "Entomologia Carniolica" (1763) and August Johann Rösel (1705–1759) in his "Insecten-Belustigung" (1746–61). To serve as a model, Schiffermüller himself presents a table classifying and sub-classifying shades of blue, and naming them in German, Latin and French: in all, 81 German terms are listed
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Ignaz Schiffermüller Matching this table, and using the same alphabetical notation, is a 3 x 12 matrix showing a set of colour samples for blue, with some discussion of the pigments used. The work also contains an attractive full-page engraving with a colour circle, inspired by the optical theory of Father Louis Bertrand Castel (1688–1757) and hand-tinted with twelve colours continuously shading into one another. Evident throughout this pioneering work is a subtle response to the nuances of colour and their accurate rendition.
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Franz von Paula Schrank (21 August 1747, in Vornbach – 22 December 1835) was a German priest, botanist and entomologist. He was ordained as a priest in Vienna in 1784, gaining his doctorate in theology two years later. In 1786 he was named chair of mathematics and physics at the lyceum in Amberg, and in 1784 became a professor of botany and zoology at the University of Ingolstadt (later removed to Landshut). Schrank was the first director of the botanical gardens in Munich from 1809 to 1832. Schrank was the first author to use the genus name "Triops", which he used in his work on the fauna of Bavaria in 1803.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1544061
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Barnett effect The is the magnetization of an uncharged body when spun on its axis. It was discovered by American physicist Samuel Barnett in 1915. An uncharged object rotating with angular velocity ω tends to spontaneously magnetize, with a magnetization given by: with γ = gyromagnetic ratio for the material, χ = magnetic susceptibility. The magnetization occurs parallel to the axis of spin. Barnett was motivated by a prediction by Owen Richardson in 1908, later named the Einstein–de Haas effect, that magnetizing a ferromagnet can induce a mechanical rotation. He instead looked for the opposite effect, that is, that spinning a ferromagnet could change its magnetization. He established the effect with a long series of experiments between 1908 and 1915.
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Garshelis effect The is the effect wherein a circumferentially magnetized rod of ferromagnetic, magnetostrictive material generates a net axial magnetic field in response to an applied torque.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1545337
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Heavy snow warning A was a weather warning issued by the National Weather Service of the United States during times when a high rate of snowfall was occurring or was forecast. Generally, the warning was issued for snowfall rates of or more in 12 hours, or or more in 24 hours. This warning was discontinued beginning with the 2008-09 winter storm season, replaced by the Winter Storm Warning for Heavy Snow. A similar warning is issued by Environment Canada's Meteorological Service of Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1552174
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Vostok (crater) Vostok is a crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region of the planet Mars that was reached by the rover "Opportunity" on sol 399 (March 8, 2005). Vostok is located roughly 1200 meters south of Endurance in Meridiani Planum. The crater appears to have been covered up with sand by the winds on the red planet, but many rock outcrops are still visible from the surface. The rover's Mini-TES instrument was malfunctioning when it was near Vostok, however, the issues soon disappeared. Other smaller craters visited along the way included Argo, Jason, and Alvin just south of the heat shield, and Naturaliste, Géographe, and Investigator. While at Vostok, Opportunity investigated a rock dubbed "Gagarin", named for cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. It also imaged a soil sample named "Laika". The rover left on Sol 404, and headed south towards Erebus - an eroded crater wider than Endurance, some "etched terrain" and an even larger crater, the 750-meter wide Victoria.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1555484
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Crest and trough A crest is the point on a wave with the maximum value of upward displacement within a cycle. A crest is a point on a surface wave where the displacement of the medium is at a maximum. A trough is the opposite of a crest, so the minimum or lowest point in a cycle. When the crests and troughs of two sine waves of equal amplitude and frequency intersect or collide, while being in phase with each other, the result is called "constructive" interference and the magnitudes double (above and below the line). When in antiphase – 180° out of phase – the result is "destructive" interference: the resulting wave is the undisturbed line having zero amplitude. [[Category:Waves]]
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Elephanta (wind) The Elephanta is a strong southerly or southeasterly wind which blows on the Malabar coast of India during the months of May and June and marks the onset of the southwest monsoon.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1565410
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Mathematical chemistry is the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. has also sometimes been called computer chemistry, but should not be confused with computational chemistry. Major areas of research in mathematical chemistry include chemical graph theory, which deals with topology such as the mathematical study of isomerism and the development of topological descriptors or indices which find application in quantitative structure-property relationships; and chemical aspects of group theory, which finds applications in stereochemistry and quantum chemistry. The history of the approach may be traced back to the 19th century. Georg Helm published a treatise titled "The Principles of Mathematical Chemistry: The Energetics of Chemical Phenomena" in 1894. Some of the more contemporary periodical publications specializing in the field are MATCH Communications in Mathematical and in Computer Chemistry, first published in 1975, and the Journal of Mathematical Chemistry, first published in 1987. In 1986 a series of annual conferences MATH/CHEM/COMP taking place in Dubrovnik was initiated by the late Ante Graovac. The basic models for mathematical chemistry are molecular graph and topological index. In 2005 the International Academy of Mathematical Chemistry (IAMC) was founded in Dubrovnik (Croatia) by Milan Randić
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Mathematical chemistry The Academy has 82 members (2009) from all over the world, including six scientists awarded with a Nobel Prize.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1570072
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Don Misener (A.D. Misener) (1911-1996) was a physicist. Along with Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa and John F. Allen, Misener discovered the superfluid phase of matter in 1937. Misener was a graduate student at the University of Toronto in 1935. He joined Allen at Cambridge University in about 1937. Misener later returned to Canada to work at the University of Western Ontario.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1573063
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James G. Wilson (1915–1987) was an embryologist and anatomist, known for his "Six Principles of Teratology". In 1960 he co-founded "The Teratology Society", and was since then one of its most active members. The "Publication Award" is annually presented in recognition of the best paper accepted or published in the journal "Birth Defects Research (formerly known as Teratology)." Wilson's 6 principles Along with this new awareness of the in utero vulnerability of the developing mammalian embryo came the development and refinement of The Six Principles of Teratology which are still applied today. These principles of teratology were put forth by Jim Wilson in 1959 and in his monograph Environment and Birth Defects.[8] These principles guide the study and understanding of teratogenic agents and their effects on developing organisms: Susceptibility to teratogenesis depends on the genotype of the conceptus and the manner in which this interacts with adverse environmental factors. Susceptibility to teratogenesis varies with the developmental stage at the time of exposure to an adverse influence. There are critical periods of susceptibility to agents and organ systems affected by these agents. Teratogenic agents act in specific ways on developing cells and tissues to initiate sequences of abnormal developmental events. The access of adverse influences to developing tissues depends on the nature of the influence
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James G. Wilson Several factors affect the ability of a teratogen to contact a developing conceptus, such as the nature of the agent itself, route and degree of maternal exposure, rate of placental transfer and systemic absorption, and composition of the maternal and embryonic/fetal genotypes. There are four manifestations of deviant development (Death, Malformation, Growth Retardation and Functional Defect). Manifestations of deviant development increase in frequency and degree as dosage increases from the No Observable Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) to a dose producing 100% Lethality (LD100).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1578359
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Celatone The celatone was a device invented by Galileo Galilei to observe Jupiter's moons with the purpose of finding longitude on Earth. It took the form of a piece of headgear with a telescope taking the place of an eyehole. In 2013, Matthew Dockrey created a replica celatone, using notes from a version created by Samuel Parlour. From April 2014 to January 2015, Dockrey's celatone has been on display in the Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, London.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1580989
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Metaviridae are a family of viruses which exist as Ty3-gypsy LTR retrotransposons in a eukaryotic host’s genome. They are closely related to retroviruses: share many genomic elements with retroviruses, including length, organization, and genes themselves. This includes genes that encode reverse transcriptase, integrase, and capsid proteins. The reverse transcriptase and integrase proteins are needed for the retrotransposon activity of the virus. In some cases, virus-like particles can be formed from capsid proteins. Some assembled virus-like particles can penetrate and infect previously uninfected cells. An example of this is the gypsy, a retroelement found in the "Drosophila melanogaster" genome. The ability to infect other cells is determined by the presence of the retroviral "env" genes which encode coat proteins. are split into the following genera: Families "Metaviridae", "Belpaoviridae", "Pseudoviridae", "Retroviridae", and "Caulimoviridae" constitute the order "Ortervirales".
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Orthohepevirus is a genus of viruses assigned to the family "Hepeviridae". "Orthohepevirus" is a fairly isolated viral genus in which the virions are characterized by round, non-enveloped and isometric capsids with a diameter of 27–34 nm. The type species is "A", more commonly known as "Hepatitis E virus". have RNA genomes of 7176 nucleotides in length and infect vertebrates. Additionally, the genome is monopartite, linear, and single-stranded. The genome is 5' capped with a poly A tail at the 3' end. The genome possesses three main open reading frames. The first encodes non-structural proteins, the second encodes the capsid proteins, and the third encodes a small, multifunctional protein. Viruses from this genus have been isolated from a variety of mammals (including rodents, mustelids and bats) as well as birds. At least three variants of avian hepatitis E virus have been isolated from birds. A Hepatitis E-like virus has been isolated from a Swedish moose. This virus is quite distinct from the other known Hepatitis E viruses. In total, the genus has four recognized species: "A", "B", which was previously known as the avian hepatitis E virus, "C", and "D". Members of the species "Piscihepevirus A" have been isolated from trout ("Oncorhynchus clarkii"). This species has been placed in a different genus—"Piscihepevirus". Hepatitis E was first isolated in 1990. It was thought to be restricted to humans until 1997 when it was isolated from pigs. The first isolation from birds was in 2001
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Orthohepevirus One study has suggested that this species may have originated in birds and then spread to bats and other mammalian species.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1582804
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Polish Institute of Physical Chemistry (Polish Instytut Chemii Fizycznej) is one of numerous institutes belonging to the Polish Academy of Sciences. As its name suggests, the institute's primary research interests are in the field of physical chemistry. The institute is subdivided into departments, including the Department of Soft Condensed Matter and Fluids, the Department of Physical Chemistry of Supramolecular Complexes, the Department of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy and the Department of Quantum Theory of Solids and Molecules, this is also known as the PIPC.
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Felis (constellation) Felis (Latin for "cat") was a constellation created by French astronomer Jérôme Lalande in 1799. He chose the name partly because, as a cat lover, he felt sorry that there was not yet a cat among the constellations (although there are two lions and a lynx). It was between the constellations of Antlia and Hydra. This constellation was first depicted in the "Uranographia sive Astrorum Descriptio" (1801) of Johann Elert Bode. It is now obsolete. Its brightest star, HD 85951, was named "Felis" by the International Astronomical Union on 1 June 2018 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names.
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Globus Aerostaticus (Latin for "hot air balloon") or Ballon Aerostatique (the French equivalent) was a constellation created by Jérôme Lalande in 1798. It lay between the constellations Piscis Austrinus, Capricornus and Microscopium. It is no longer in use. The constellation was created to honor the invention of the Montgolfier brothers, who launched the first hot air balloon in the late eighteenth century.
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Machina Electrica (Latin for "electricity generator") was a constellation created by Johann Bode in 1800. He created it from faint stars between Fornax and Sculptor, to the south of Cetus. It represented an electrostatic generator. The constellation was somewhat popular during the 19th century and had appeared in a number of star charts, but was eventually rendered obsolete when the International Astronomical Union standardized constellation boundaries in 1930 and is now no longer in use.
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Mons Maenalus (Latin for "Mount Maenalus") was a constellation created by Johannes Hevelius in 1687. It was located between the constellations of Boötes and Virgo, and depicts a mountain in Greece that the herdsman is stepping upon. It was increasingly considered obsolete by the latter half of the 19th century. Its brightest star is 31 Boötis, a G-type giant of apparent magnitude 4.86.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1585881
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Psalterium Georgii (also Harpa Georgii) (Latin for "George's harp") was a constellation created by Maximilian Hell in 1789 to honor George III of Great Britain. It was created from northern stars in Eridanus and was next to the constellation Taurus, and included 10 Tauri. It is no longer in use.
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Quadrans Muralis (Latin for "mural quadrant") was a constellation created by the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande in 1795. It depicted a wall-mounted quadrant with which he and his nephew Michel Lefrançois de Lalande had charted the celestial sphere, and was named Le Mural in the French atlas. It was between the constellations of Boötes and Draco, near the tail of Ursa Major, containing stars between β Bootis (Nekkar) and η Ursae Majoris (Alkaid). Johann Elert Bode converted its name to Latin as "Quadrans Muralis" and shrank the constellation a little in his 1801 "Uranographia" star atlas, to avoid it clashing with neighboring constellations. In 1922, was omitted when the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formalised its list of officially recognized constellations.
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Robur Carolinum (Latin for "Charles' oak") was a constellation created by the English astronomer Edmond Halley in 1679. The name refers to the Royal Oak where Charles II was said to have hidden from the troops of Oliver Cromwell after the Battle of Worcester. It was between the constellations of Centaurus and Carina, extending into half of Vela. as a constellation never gained popularity, probably because it used the star Eta Carinae and the Eta Carinae Nebula, and was soon dropped from use after only fifty years. Nicolas Louis de Lacaille also complained bitterly that it took some of the finest stars from Argo Navis. Its brightest star was Beta Carinae (β Car) or Miaplacidus, which was known as α Roburis or α Roburis Carolii.
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Sceptrum Brandenburgicum (or "Sceptrum Brandenburgium" – Latin for "scepter of Brandenburg") was a constellation created in 1688 by Gottfried Kirch, astronomer of the Prussian Royal Society of Sciences. It represented the scepter used by the royal family of the Brandenburgs. It was west from the constellation of Lepus. The constellation was quickly forgotten and is no longer in use. Its name was, however, partially inherited by one of its brightest stars, "Sceptrum", which today is denoted 53 Eridani. This name is still in use today.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586599
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Rangifer (constellation) Rangifer was a small constellation between the constellations of Cassiopeia and Camelopardalis. It is also known as Tarandus. Both words mean "reindeer" in Latin. ""Rangifer"" is the generic name of the reindeer, and ""tarandus"" is the specific name. The constellation Rangifer was created by the French astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier in 1736 to commemorate the expedition of Maupertuis to Lapland. Geodetical observations from the expedition proved Earth's oblateness. The constellation is no longer in use.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586664
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Solarium (constellation) Solarium (Latin for "sundial") was a constellation located between the constellations of Horologium, Dorado and Hydrus. It was introduced in 1822 on the "Celestial Atlas" of Alexander Jamieson, who substituted it for the constellation Reticulum invented by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. A decade later it was picked up by Elijah Hinsdale Burritt to whom it is sometimes attributed. It was never popular and is no longer in use.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586674
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Triangulum Minus (Latin for the "Smaller Triangle") was a constellation created by Johannes Hevelius. Its name is sometimes wrongly written as Triangulum Min"or". It was formed from the southern parts of his "Triangula" (plural form of "Triangulum"), but is no longer in use. The triangle was defined by the fifth-magnitude stars 6 Trianguli, 10 Trianguli, and 12 Trianguli. Also known as TZ Trianguli, 6 Trianguli is a multiple star system with a combined magnitude of 4.7, whose main component is a yellow giant of spectral type G5III.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586724
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Turdus Solitarius (Latin for "solitary thrush") was a constellation created by French astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier in 1776 from stars of Hydra's tail. It was named after the Rodrigues solitaire, an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Rodrigues East of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. It was replaced by another constellation, Noctua (the Owl), in "A Celestial Atlas" (1822) by the British amateur astronomer Alexander Jamieson. , neither constellation is in use.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586760
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Cerberus (constellation) Cerberus is an obsolete constellation created by Hevelius, whose stars are now included in the constellation Hercules. It was depicted as a three-headed snake that Hercules is holding in his hand. The constellation is no longer in use. This constellation "figure typified the serpent ... infesting the country around Taenarum the Μέτωπον of Greece, the modern Cape Matapan." The presence of Cerberus (Kerberos) at Taenarum (Tainaron) is mentioned by Strabo, Statius, and Seneca the Younger. John Senex combined this constellation with the likewise obsolete constellation Ramus Pomifer, an apple branch held by Hercules, in his 1721 star map to create "Cerberus et Ramus".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586839
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Custos Messium (Latin for "harvest-keeper") was a constellation created by Jérôme Lalande in 1775 to honor Charles Messier. It was located between the constellations of Camelopardalis, Cassiopeia and Cepheus. It is no longer recognized.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586849
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Lochium Funis (Latin for "the log and line") was a constellation created by Johann Bode in 1801 next to the constellation Pyxis, an earlier invention of Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. It represented the log and line used by seamen for measuring a ship's speed through the water. It was never used by other astronomers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586871
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Malus (constellation) Malus (Latin for "mast") was a subdivision of the ancient constellation Argo Navis proposed in 1844 by the English astronomer John Herschel. It would have replaced Pyxis, the compass, which was introduced in the 1750s by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Herschel's suggestion was not widely adopted and Malus is not now recognized by astronomers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586886
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Sceptrum et Manus Iustitiae (Latin for "scepter and hand of justice") was a constellation created by Augustin Royer in 1679 to honor king Louis XIV of France. It was formed from stars of what is today the constellations Lacerta and western Andromeda. Due to the awkward name the constellation was modified and name changed a couple of times, for example some old star maps show "Sceptrum Imperiale", "Stellio" and "Scettro", and Johannes Hevelius's star map divides the area between the new Lacerta and as a chain end fettering Andromeda. The connection with the later constellation Frederici Honores, that occupied the chain end of Andromeda, is unclear, except that both represent a regal spire attributed to varying regents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1586949
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Lithotope A lithotope is either an environment in which a sediment was deposited or an area of uniform sedimentation. 1. Surface or area of uniform precipitation. 2. Sediment having a relatively homogeneous sedimentation environment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1588581
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Huchra's lens is the lensing galaxy of the Einstein Cross ("Quasar 2237+30"); it is also called "ZW 2237+030" or "QSO 2237+0305 G". It exhibits the phenomenon of gravitational lensing that was postulated by Albert Einstein when he realized that gravity would be able to bend light and thus could have lens-like effects. The galaxy is named for astronomer John Huchra.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1591646
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Edward W. Berry Edward Wilber Berry (February 10, 1875 – September 20, 1945) was an American paleontologist and botanist; the principal focus of his research was paleobotany. Berry studied North and South American flora and published taxonomic studies with theoretical reconstructions of paleoecology and phytogeography. He started his scientific career as an amateur scientist. At Johns Hopkins University he held various positions including teacher, research scientist, scientific editor and administrator.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1596852
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Orestes Cendrero was a Spanish naturalist and professor of biology at Instituto Nacional de Segunda Enseñanza in Santander. He was a colombophilia researcher, (studied pigeons), and was editor of the pigeon scientific journal: "Boletín Colombófilo Español". vol. 4º.288.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1596917
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Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions is a European Union directive in the field of patent law, made under the internal market provisions of the Treaty of Rome. It was intended to harmonise the laws of Member States regarding the patentability of biotechnological inventions, including plant varieties (as legally defined) and human genes. The Directive is divided into the following five chapters: The original proposal was adopted by the European Commission in 1988. The procedure for its adoption was slowed down by primarily ethical issues regarding the patentability of living matter. The European Parliament eventually rejected the joint text from the final Conciliation meeting at 3rd reading on 1 March 1995 so the first directive process did not yield a directive. On 13 December 1995, the Commission adopted a new proposal was nearly identical to the rejected version, was changed again, but the Parliament put aside its ethical concerns on patenting of human genes in on 12 July 1998 in its second reading and adopted the Common Position of the Council, so in the second legislative process, the directive was adopted
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1596974
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Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions The drafts person of the Parliament for this second procedure was Willi Rothley and the vote with the most yes votes was Amendment 9 from the Greens which got 221 against 294 votes out of 532 members voting with 17 abstentions but 314 yes votes would have been required to reach the required an absolute majority to adopt it. On 6 July 1998, a final version was adopted. Its code is 98/44/EC. The Kingdom of the Netherlands brought Case C-377/98 before the European Court of Justice against the adoption of the directive with six different pleas but the Court granted none of them. Nevertheless, the ECJ decision does not preclude a further test of the validity of the directive on the ground that it is inconsistent with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Art. 27.1 TRIPS provides that patents are only to be granted with respect to 'inventions'. The directive, however, provides that "biological material which is isolated from its natural environment ... may be the subject of an invention even if it previously occurred in nature." It is clearly arguable that merely isolating a human gene or protein from its natural environment is not an activity that can come within the meaning of the word 'invention'
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1596974
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Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions The Danish Council of Bioethics in its Patenting Human Genes and Stem Cells Report noted that "In the members' view, it cannot be said with any reasonableness that a sequence or partial sequence of a gene ceases to be part of the human body merely because an identical copy of the sequence is isolated from or produced outside of the human body." TRIPS applies to the European Community as it is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in its own right and accordingly must ensure "the conformity of its laws, regulations and administrative procedures with obligations as provided" by the WTO. On 14 January 2002, the Commission submitted an assessment of the implications for basic genetic engineering research of failure to publish, or late publication of, papers on subjects which could be patentable as required under Article 16(b) of this directive. According to SmithKline Beecham lobbyist Simon Gentry, the company allocated 30 million ECU for a pro-Directive campaign. Part of this campaign was direct support of patient charities and organisations. On the day of the July 1997 vote, a number of people in wheelchairs from these groups demonstrated outside the main hall in Strasbourg, chanting the pharmaceutical industry's slogan, "No Patents, No Cure" in an emotional appeal to Parliamentarians to vote for the Directive. As of 15 January 2007, all of the 27 EU member states had implemented the Directive.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1596974
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Size Strength classification In geology, size strength classification is a two-parameter rock classification based on the strength of intact rock and the spacing of discontinuities in the rock mass. It was developed by Louis and Franklin (1970-75). The size-strength approach to rock mass characterisation has been found helpful in various mining and civil engineering applications. The concept of block size is analogous to that of grain size but on macroscopic scale. The rock is considered as a conglomerate of discrete intact blocks bounded by joints. The behaviour of this conglomerate depends on the size and strength of a typical block. Block size is defined as the average diameter of a typical rock block in the unit to be classified. On the surface block size is measured by observing exposed rock surface. Underground block size is measured from drill cores. The intact strength of the rock material may be estimated by using a rock hammer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1597212
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Leopold Fitzinger Leopold Joseph Franz Johann Fitzinger (13 April 1802 – 20 September 1884) was an Austrian zoologist. Fitzinger was born in Vienna and studied botany at the University of Vienna under Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin. He worked at the Vienna Naturhistorisches Museum between 1817, when he joined as a volunteer assistant, and 1821, when he left to become secretary to the provincial legislature of Lower Austria; after a hiatus he was appointed assistant curator in 1844 and remained at the Naturhistorisches Museum until 1861. Later he became director of the zoos of Munich and Budapest. In 1826 he published "Neue Classification der Reptilien", based partly on the work of his friends Friedrich Wilhelm Hemprich and Heinrich Boie. In 1843 he published "Systema Reptilium", covering geckos, chameleons and iguanas. Fitzinger is commemorated in the scientific names of five reptiles: "Algyroides fitzingeri", "Leptotyphlops fitzingeri", "Liolaemus fitzingerii", "Micrurus tener fitzingeri", and "oxyrhopus fitzingeri". Works
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1598551
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Astronomer Royal for Scotland was the title of the director of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh until 1995. It has since been an honorary title. The following have served as Astronomers Royal for Scotland:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1599913
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Steric factor The steric factor, usually denoted "ρ", is a quantity used in collision theory. Also called the "probability factor", the steric factor is defined as the ratio between the experimental value of the rate constant and the one predicted by collision theory. It can also be defined as the ratio between the pre-exponential factor and the collision frequency, and it is most often less than unity. Physically, the steric factor can be interpreted as the ratio of the cross section for reactive collisions to the total collision cross section. Usually, the more complex the reactant molecules, the lower the steric factors. Nevertheless, some reactions exhibit steric factors greater than unity: the harpoon reactions, which involve atoms that exchange electrons, producing ions. The deviation from unity can have different causes: the molecules are not spherical, so different geometries are possible; not all the kinetic energy is delivered into the right spot; the presence of a solvent (when applied to solutions); and so on. When collision theory is applied to reactions in solution, the solvent cage has an effect on the reactant molecules, as several collisions can take place in a single encounter, which leads to predicted preexponential factors being too large. "ρ" values greater than unity can be attributed to favorable entropic contributions. Usually there is no simple way to accurately estimate steric factors without performing trajectory or scattering calculations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1604816
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Dow process The is the electrolytic method of bromine extraction from brine, and was Herbert Henry Dow's second revolutionary process for generating bromine commercially. This process was patented in 1891. In the original invention, bromide-containing brines are treated with sulfuric acid and bleaching powder to oxidize bromide to bromine, which remains dissolved in the water. The aqueous solution is dripped onto burlap, and water is blown through causing bromine to volatilize. Bromine is trapped with iron turnings to give a solution of ferric bromide. Treatment with more iron metal converted the ferric bromide to ferrous bromide via comproportionation. Where desired, free bromine may be obtained by thermal decomposition of ferrous bromide. Before Dow got into the bromine business, brine was evaporated by heating with wood scraps and then crystallized sodium chloride was removed. An oxidizing agent was added, and bromine was formed in the solution. Then bromine was distilled. This was a very complicated and costly process. Dow's Process may also refer to the hydrolysis of chlorobenzene in the preparation of phenol. Benzene can be easily converted to chlorobenzene by electrophilic aromatic substitution. It is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide at 350 °C and 300 bar or molten sodium hydroxide at 350 °C to convert it to sodium phenoxide, which yields phenol upon acidification
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1606222
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Dow process When 1-[C]-1-chlorobenzene was subjected to aqueous NaOH at 395 °C, "ipso" substitution product 1-[C]-phenol was formed in 54% yield, while "cine" substitution product 2-[C]-phenol was formed in 43% yield, indicating that an elimination-addition (benzyne) mechanism is predominant, with perhaps a small amount of product from addition-elimination (SAr).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1606222
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Hunter process The was the first industrial process to produce pure ductile metallic titanium. It was invented in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter, a chemist born in New Zealand, who worked in the US. The process involves reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl) with sodium (Na) in a batch reactor with an inert atmosphere at a temperature of 1,000°C. Dilute hydrochloric acid is then used to leach the salt from the product. Prior to the Hunter process, all efforts to produce Ti metal afforded highly impure material, often titanium nitride (which resembles a metal). The was replaced by the more economical Kroll process in the 1940s. In the Kroll process, TiCl is reduced by magnesium.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1606301
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Proton conductor A proton conductor is an electrolyte, typically a solid electrolyte, in which H are the primary charge carriers. Acid solutions exhibit proton-conductivity, while pure Proton Conductors are usually dry solids. Typical materials are polymers or ceramic. Typically, the pores in practical materials are small such that protons dominate direct current and transport of cations or bulk solvent is prevented. Water ice is a common example of a pure proton conductor, albeit a relatively poor one. Solid-phase proton conduction was first suggested by Alfred Rene Jean Paul Ubbelohde and S. E. Rogers. in 1950, although electrolyte proton currents have been recognized since 1806. Proton conduction has also been observed in the new type of proton conductors for fuel cells – protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs), such as 1,2,4-triazolium perfluorobutanesulfonate and imidazolium methanesulfonate. In particular, a high ionic conductivity of 10 mS/cm is reached at 185 °C in the plastic phase of imidazolium methanesulfonate. When in the form of thin membranes, proton conductors are an essential part of small, inexpensive fuel cells. The polymer nafion is a typical proton conductor in fuel cells. A jelly-like substance similar to nafion residing in the ampullae of Lorenzini of sharks has proton conductivity only slightly lower than nafion. High proton conductivity has been reported among alkaline-earth cerates and zirconate based perovskite materials such as acceptor doped SrCeO, BaCeO and BaZrO
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1607154
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Proton conductor Relatively high proton conductivity has also been found in rare-earth ortho-niobates and ortho-tantalates as well as rare-earth tungstates.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1607154
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Alex Grossmann Alexander Grossmann (5 August 1930 – 12 February 2019) was a French-American physicist of Croatian origin at the Université de la Méditerranée Aix-Marseille II in Luminy campus who did pioneering work on wavelet analysis with Jean Morlet in 1984. In effet, Grossmann and Morlet rediscovered Alberto Calderón's identity (1960) 20 years later, providing a proof using the tools of quantum mechanics. This in effect showed this identity's applicability to signal analysis. He died on 12 February 2019.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1608605
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