text stringlengths 11 1.65k | source stringlengths 38 44 |
|---|---|
Ludwik Młokosiewicz Ludwik Franciszek Młokosiewicz (August 25, 1831 – 1909) was a Polish explorer, zoologist and botanist, who studied extensively in the Caucasus Mountains. He is one of the sons of Franciszek Młokosiewicz. Młokosiewicz was born in Warsaw, into a wealthy and aristocratic family. At the age of twenty-two he joined the Caucasian Division of the Russian Army. He used his botanical talents to plant a regimental park, orchard and water garden at Lagodekhi, on the south-eastern slopes of the Caucasus, in Georgia. In 1861 he resigned from the army and travelled south to explore the deserts of Persia. On his return he was arrested and charged with inciting revolt amongst the Poles in the Caucasus. Despite his innocence of the charges, he was sentenced to six years' enforced residence in the province of Voronezh, and his botanical collections were confiscated. In 1876 after restrictions had been lifted Młokosiewicz explored the mountains of Dagestan, and two years later returned to Persia, travelling as far as Balochistan. On his return he was appointed Inspector of Forests for the Signakhi District, remaining at Lagodekhi for the rest of his life. He supplied foreign museums with botanical and zoological specimens. Species that he discovered and that were named after him include the Caucasian black grouse ("Tetrao mlokosiewiczi") and the golden peony ("Paeonia mlokosewitschii") | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5377342 |
Ludwik Młokosiewicz Beginning in 1889, Młokosiewicz urged the protection of the forested area at Lagodekhi; in 1912, three years after his death, the Russian viceregent in the Caucasus region declared what is now Lagodekhi Protected Areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5377342 |
Sport (botany) In botany, a sport or bud sport, traditionally called lusus, is a part of a plant that shows morphological differences from the rest of the plant. Sports may differ by foliage shape or color, flowers, fruit, or branch structure. The cause is generally thought to be a chance genetic mutation. Sports with desirable characteristics are often propagated vegetatively to form new cultivars that retain the characteristics of the new morphology. Such selections are often prone to "reversion", meaning that part or all of the plant reverts to its original form. An example of a bud sport is the nectarine, at least some of which developed as a bud sport from peaches. Other common fruits resulting from a sport mutation are the red Anjou pear and the 'Pink Lemonade' lemon which is a sport of the "Eureka" lemon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5377564 |
Osmotic shock or osmotic stress is physiologic dysfunction caused by a sudden change in the solute concentration around a cell, which causes a rapid change in the movement of water across its cell membrane. Under conditions of high concentrations of either salts, substrates or any solute in the supernatant, water is drawn out of the cells through osmosis. This also inhibits the transport of substrates and cofactors into the cell thus “shocking” the cell. Alternatively, at low concentrations of solutes, water enters the cell in large amounts, causing it to swell and either burst or undergo apoptosis. All organisms have mechanisms to respond to osmotic shock, with sensors and signal transduction networks providing information to the cell about the osmolarity of its surroundings; these signals activate responses to deal with extreme conditions. Although single-celled organisms are more vulnerable to osmotic shock, since they are directly exposed to their environment, cells in large animals such as mammals still suffer these stresses under some conditions. Current research also suggests that osmotic stress in cells and tissues may significantly contribute to many human diseases. In eukaryotes, calcium acts as one of the primary regulators of osmotic stress. Intracellular calcium levels rise during hypo-osmotic and hyper-osmotic stresses. extracellular sequestering of Calcium by blood Albumin. Transient intracellular Ca increase | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5386941 |
Osmotic shock intracellular Ca increase and Extracellular ATP Release Calcium dependent efflux of the osmolyte Taurine. Extracellular calcium removal was found to prevent Taurine efflux by 50%, and removal of extracellular Ca and simultaneous depletion of intracellular Ca stores with thapsigargin decreased it by 85%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5386941 |
Commissure A commissure () is the location at which two objects abut or are joined. The term is used especially in the fields of anatomy and biology. In biology, the meeting of the two valves of a brachiopod or clam is a commissure; in botany, the term is used to denote the place where a fern's laterally expanded vein endings come together in a continuous marginal sorus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5387903 |
Plietesials are plants that grow for a number of years, flower gregariously (synchronously), set seed and then die. The length of the cycle can vary between 8 and 16 years. For example, the Neelakurinji plant flowers every 12 years and bloomed as expected in 2006 in the Munnar region of Kerala, India. Certain species of unrelated families of flowering plants (including Poaceae, Arecaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Acanthaceae) are plietesial. The term plietesial has been used in reference to perennial monocarpic plants “of the kind most often met with in the Strobilanthinae” (a subtribe of Acanthaceae containing Strobilanthes and allied genera) that usually grow gregariously, flower simultaneously following a long interval, set seed, and die. Other commonly used expressions or terms describing a plietesial life history include gregarious flowering, mast seeding, and supra-annual synchronized semelparity (semelparity = monocarpy). It is not clear why gregarious flowering after long vegetative intervals would be associated with death after flowering, although both are associated with higher reproductive outputs. A good description of this Natural History aspect of a plant's life cycle can be found in the following report: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5390541 |
Edwin Felix Thomas Atkinson Edwin Felix Thomas Atkinson, (September 6, 1840 – September 15, 1890) was an Irish lawyer and entomologist in the Indian Civil Service. He was born in County Tipperary, Ireland, studied at Trinity College, Dublin and sat the Indian Civil Service Examinations in 1861. He joined the Indian Civil Service in 1862 and served in Bengal Presidency and the North-Western Provinces. Atkinson was a lawyer specialising in Indian law, and successively worked as Judge in a Small Cause Court, Deputy Commissioner of Paper Currency in Allahabad, and Accountant General of the North West Provinces. He was commissioned to produce a Gazetteer of Northwestern India and also wrote several books. He was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and a member of the Entomological Society of London. As an entomologist he had a particular interest in Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) and was credited with identifying several new specimens both in Britain and in India. He was President of The Asiatic Society (of Bengal) for 1886-87 and awarded the title of Companion of the Indian Empire (CIE). He died in Calcutta in 1890 from Bright's disease. He had married Caroline, the daughter of Major Nicholettes of the Bengal Native Infantry, with whom he had a son, Francis. Heteroptera collection Natural History Museum BMNH and Dresden (via Staudinger & Otto Bang-Haas). Poggi and Conci (1996) for biographical information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5392317 |
Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory The or NPOL is a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), under the Ministry of Defence, India. It is situated in Thrikkakara, Kochi, Kerala. NPOL is responsible for the Research & Development of sonar systems, technologies for underwater surveillance, study of ocean environment and underwater materials. The Indian Naval Physical Laboratory (INPL) was established in Kochi by Indian Navy in 1952. It worked initially as a field laboratory for fleet support activities. It was merged with DRDO in 1958 and started working on underwater systems. INPL was rechristened as Naval Physical Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL). Till 1990, NPOL functioned from within the Naval Base in Kochi. In 1990, it moved into a new campus at Thrikkakara, a suburb of Kochi. The new campus has a main technical complex and two residential complexes - SAGAR and VARUNA. The technical complex houses the main building, Abhinavam building and several test facilities including an acoustic tank. Besides the campus in Thrikkakara, NPOL has an offsite setup of underwater acoustic research facility at Idukki Lake, 100 km east of Kochi. Since 1995, NPOL has operated INS Sagardhwani, a 2000-ton Oceanographic research vessel used for oceanographic data collection. NPOL is developing a technology called seabed arrays that will be laid over the seabed surface for ocean surveillance which will provide measurements and inform the control centre about the happenings underneath through satellite | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5396268 |
Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory DRDO is planning a dedicated satellite for the coastal surveillance system. All the future inductions planned by the Indian Navy are to be fitted with NPOL designed sonars. The sonars under development are HUMSA NG (upgrade of the HUMSA sonar), the submarine sonars USHUS (for the Sindhugosh class) and PAYAL for the Arihant class. Underwater acoustics is another area which NPOL is looking at. The Physical Oceanographic conditions which will decide the propagation of the sound waves inside water is studied with the help of DRDO's Research Vessel INS Sagardhwani and in-house developed Ocean models. Different Sonar Range Prediction models are also developed by NPOL in the recent years which are used by Indian Navy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5396268 |
Window (geology) A tectonic window (or Fenster (lit. "window" in German)) is a geologic structure formed by erosion or normal faulting on a thrust system. In such a system the rock mass (hanging wall block) that has been transported by movement along the thrust is called a nappe. When erosion or normal faulting produces a hole in the nappe where the underlying autochthonous (i.e. un-transported) rocks crop out this is called a window. Klippen are also a feature near windows. The klippe is the remnant portion of a nappe after erosion has removed connecting portions of the nappe. This process results in an outlier of exotic, often nearly horizontally translated strata overlying autochthonous strata. Windows can be almost any size, from a couple of metres to hundreds of kilometres. Well known examples of tectonic windows are Hohe Tauern window in Eastern Alps or Hrzdavá dolina tectonic window in Western Carpathians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5412244 |
Gheorghe Munteanu-Murgoci Gheorghe Munteanu Murgoci (July 20, 1872-March 5, 1925) was a renowned Romanian geologist, founder of the South-Eastern European Studies Institute in Bucharest. He was a member of the Romanian Academy. As part of a group of professors, physicians, soldiers, etc., he helped bring Scouting to Romania. Munteanu Murgoci was a native of Măcin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5414614 |
Associazione Friulana di Astronomia e Meteorologia The (AFAM) is a non-profit cultural association whose goal is the promotion of astronomy and meteorology to the public and the development of scientific research activities, often in collaboration with professional scientists. Established in 1969, now AFAM has its own operating structures in Remanzacco (Friuli, Italy). AFAM is member of the Unione Astrofili Italiani (the Italian union of amateur astronomers). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5416952 |
Wildlife biologist A wildlife biologist studies animals and their behavior along with the role each animal plays in its natural habitat. The duties of a wildlife biologist can include: developing and conducting experiments/studies on animals in their natural habitats, studying the characteristics of animals such as their interaction with different species, their reproductive and movement patterns, the dynamic with in a population, and the transmission of diseases. Wildlife biologists can also play important roles in managing and monitoring population dynamics to preserve certain species and/or environments. They observe how animals interact with one another as well as how they interact with humans. Some wildlife biologists study the impacts of human interference on an ecosystem. Wildlife biologists can work with endangered species, advocate for preservation of wildlife, resolve issues pertaining to wildlife, and manage animal populations. Educational requirements for wildlife biologists typically include tertiary education, such as a bachelor's degree in wildlife biology, zoology, wildlife ecology, or general biology. Many universities offer specialist degrees or courses in wildlife biology. Career progression into research or university-based roles will usually require relevant doctoral qualifications. In the United States, the average pay for a wildlife biologist is $62,290 per year or $29.95 per hour. The top 10% of wildlife biologists can earn up to $99,700 a year | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5419732 |
Wildlife biologist According to the US Department of Labor, employment of wildlife biologists and zoologists is predicted to increase by 8% between 2016 to 2026, which is similar to the projected rate of increase in other occupations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5419732 |
ISIS/Draw was a chemical structure drawing program for Windows, published by MDL Information Systems. It was available free of charge for academic and personal use. It acted as a front end to ISIS/Base, a chemical database program from the same company, as well as some other ISIS (Integrated Scientific Information System) products. The first version of the program was released in 1990, and the last version was 2.5 in 2002; it has since been superseded by Symyx Draw. used its own proprietary file format, with the extension .skc, and also supported standard chemical file formats such as MDL molfile, Rxnfile, and TGfile. Because of its role as a database query preparation program, supported a variety of special atom and bond types used for substructure searching, such as wildcard atoms, aromatic bonds, and ring bonds, as well as atom mapping, required for reaction searches. While was mainly a 2D drawing program, it had some 3D rotation features and could interface with Rasmol for 3D visualization and rendering. also included structure and reaction validation features and could calculate elementary properties such as formula and molecular weight. Now Accelrys Draw (this is a bad parody of the previous program: it works slowly, the functionality has decreased, does not read ISIS files)serves as a replacement of ISIS/Draw. The newest version is 4.0, . As with ISIS/Draw, the program is available free to academics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5427265 |
Misalignment mechanism The misalignment mechanism is a hypothesized effect in the Peccei–Quinn theory proposed solution to the strong-CP problem in quantum mechanics. The effect occurs when a particle's field has an initial value that is not at or near a potential minimum. This causes the particle's field to oscillate around the nearest minimum, eventually dissipating energy by decaying into other particles until the minimum is attained. In the case of hypothesized axions created in the early universe, the initial values are random because of the masslessness of axions in the high temperature plasma. Near the critical temperature of quantum chromodynamics, axions possess a temperature-dependent mass that enters a damped oscillation until the potential minimum is reached. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5434119 |
Hamaker theory After the explanation of van der Waals forces by Fritz London, several scientists soon realised that his definition could be extended from the interaction of two molecules with induced dipoles to macro-scale objects by summing all of the forces between the molecules in each of the bodies involved. The theory is named after H. C. Hamaker, who derived the interaction between two spheres, a sphere and a wall, and presented a general discussion in a heavily cited 1937 paper. The interaction of two bodies is then treated as the pairwise interaction of a set of "N" molecules at positions: "R" {"i":1,2... ...,"N"}. The distance between the molecules "i" and "j" is then: The interaction energy of the system is taken to be: where formula_3 is the interaction of molecules "i" and "j" in the absence of the influence of other molecules. The theory is however only an approximation which assumes that the interactions can be treated independently, the theory must also be adjusted to take into account quantum perturbation theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5436866 |
Carlos Frenk Carlos Silvestre Frenk, (born 27 October 1951) is a Mexican-British-German cosmologist. His main interests lie in the field of cosmology, galaxy formation and computer simulations of cosmic structure formation. Frenk was educated at the University of Mexico and went on to study for a PhD in astronomy at the University of Cambridge where his thesis was supervised by Bernard J. T. Jones and awarded in 1981. Frenk was the inaugural Ogden Professor of Fundamental Physics at Durham University in 2001 following an endowment by Peter Ogden, and still holds the position today. He is Director of the Institute for Computational Cosmology at Durham, which is part of the Ogden Centre for Fundamental Physics. He is also co-Principal Investigator of the Virgo Consortium, alongside Simon White. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2004 and is a member of the Royal Society's Council. He won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 2014. Other awards and honours include: Frenk was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to cosmology and the public dissemination of basic science. He was interviewed by Kirsty Young for "Desert Island Discs", first broadcast in 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5440635 |
Dale Russell Dale Alan Russell (27 December 1937-21 December 2019) was an American-Canadian geologist and palaeontologist. He was Research Professor at the Department of Marine Earth and Atmospheric Sciences (MEAS) at North Carolina State University and Senior Paleontologist at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences. Dinosaurs he has described include "Daspletosaurus" and "Dromiceiomimus", and he was amongst the first paleontologists to consider an extraterrestrial cause (supernova, comet, asteroid) for the extinction of the dinosaurs. In 1982, Russell created the "dinosauroid" thought experiment, which speculated an evolutionary path for "Troodon" if it had not gone extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 65 million years ago, and had instead evolved into an intelligent being. Russell commissioned a model of his dinosauroid by artist Ron Sequin, and the concept became popular. Various later anthropologists have continued Russell's speculations about intelligent "Troodon"-like dinosaurs, though they often find his original idea too anthropomorphic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5444229 |
Spin pumping is a method of generating a spin current, the spintronic analog of a battery in conventional electronics. In order to make a spintronic device, the primary requirement is to have a system that can generate a current of spin-polarized electrons, as well as a system that is sensitive to the spin polarization. Most spintronic devices also have a unit in between these two that changes the current of electrons depending on the spin states. Candidates for such devices include injection schemes based on magnetic semiconductors and ferromagnetic metals, ferromagnetic resonance devices , and a variety of spin-dependent pumps. Optical, microwave and electrical methods are also being explored .These devices could be used for low-power data transmission in spintronic devices or to transmit electrical signals through insulators. The spin pumped into an adjacent layer by a precessing magnetic moment is given by where formula_2 is the spin current (the vector indicates the orientation of the spin, "not" the direction of the current), formula_3 is the spin-mixing conductance, formula_4 is the saturation magnetization, and formula_5 is the time-dependent orientation of the moment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5447381 |
Crow instability In aerodynamics, the Crow instability, or V.C.I. vortex crow instability, is an inviscid line-vortex instability, named after its discoverer S. C. Crow. The is most commonly observed in the skies behind large aircraft such as the Boeing 747. It occurs when the wingtip vortices interact with contrails from the engines, producing visible distortions in the shape of the contrail. The is a vortex pair instability, and typically goes through several stages: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5447834 |
Alexandre Louis Lefèbvre de Cérisy Alexandre Louis Lefebvre de Cérisy (14 November 1798, Paris – 2 December 1867, le Bouchevilliers, near Gisors) was a French entomologist. De Cérisy worked as clerk to a solicitor. It was Jean Baptiste Godart (1775-1825) who introduced him to entomology. Of all insect orders, he was principally interested in Lepidoptera. Basing his studies on the use of the wing veins for the classification of Hymenoptera, he proposed in 1842, a similar system of classification (based on the veins of the wings) for butterflies. He traveled throughout Europe, sometimes accompanied by naturalists such as Achille Rémy Percheron (1797-1869) in Provence and Gabriel Bibron (1805-1848) in Sicily. He was at the founding meeting, February 29, 1832, of the Société entomologique de France Species of Lepidoptera named in honor of Cérisy are: "Allancastria cerisyi" and "Smerinthus cerisyi" . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5450319 |
Dember effect In physics, the is when the electron current from a cathode formula_1 subjected to both illumination and a simultaneous electron bombardment is greater than the sum of the photoelectric current formula_2 and the secondary emission current formula_3. Discovered by Harry Dember (1882–1943) in 1925, this effect is due to the sum of the excitations of an electron by two means: photonic illumination and electron bombardment (i.e. the sum of the two excitations extracts the electron). In Dember’s initial study, he referred only to metals; however, more complex materials have been analyzed since then. The photoelectric effect due to the illumination of the metallic surface extracts electrons (if the energy of the photon is greater than the extraction work) and excites the electrons which the photons don’t have the energy to extract. In a similar process, the electron bombardment of the metal both extracts and excites electrons inside the metal. If one considers formula_5 a constant and increases formula_6, it can be observed that formula_7 has a maximum of about 150 times formula_5. On the other hand, considering formula_6 a constant and increasing the intensity of the illumination formula_6 the formula_7, supplementary current, tends to saturate. This is due to the usage in the photoelectric effect of all the electrons excited (sufficiently) by the primary electrons of formula_5. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5452697 |
Axilrod–Teller potential The is a three-body potential that results from a third-order perturbation correction to the attractive London dispersion interactions (instantaneous induced dipole-induced dipole) where formula_2 is the distance between atoms formula_3 and formula_4, and formula_5 is the angle between the vectors formula_6 and formula_7. The coefficient formula_8 is positive and of the order formula_9, where formula_10 is the ionization energy and formula_11 is the mean atomic polarizability; the exact value of formula_8 depends on the magnitudes of the dipole matrix elements and on the energies of the formula_13 orbitals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5455427 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. (), also known as Teva Pharmaceuticals, is a multinational pharmaceutical company with dual headquarters in Petah Tikva, Israel (global) and Parsippany, New Jersey, U.S. (commercial). It specializes primarily in generic drugs, but other business interests include active pharmaceutical ingredients and, to a lesser extent, proprietary pharmaceuticals. It is the largest generic drug manufacturer in the world and one of the 15 largest pharmaceutical companies worldwide. In October 2019 Teva faced criticism for making a “business decision to discontinue the drug” Vincristine, essential for the treatment of most childhood cancers according to the Food and Drug Administration. Teva's facilities are located in Israel, North America, Europe, Australia, and South America. Teva shares are listed on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. The company is a member of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA). Teva's earliest predecessor was Salomon, Levin, and Elstein Ltd., a wholesale distributor based in Jerusalem, then part of Ottoman Syria, that was founded in 1901, and used camels to make deliveries. During the 1930s, new immigrants from Europe founded several pharmaceutical companies including Teva ("nature" in Hebrew) and Zori. In the 1930s, Salomon, Levin, and Elstein Ltd. also founded Assia, a pharmaceutical company. Teva Pharmaceutical Industries was founded by Günther Friedländer and his aunt Else Kober on May 1, 1935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals The original registration was under the name "Teva Middle East Pharmaceutical & Chemical Works Co. Ltd." in Jerusalem. Friedländer was a German pharmacist, botanist and pharmacognos, who immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1934, following the Nazi Party Rise to power. The company was built with an investment of 4,900 pounds sterling, which came from the family's own capital and partly from loans from other German immigrants. Capital shortage led to the joining of the banker Alfred Feuchtwanger as a partner in Teva, who received 33% of the shares in return for his investment. In 1951, Feuchtwanger initiated an initial public offering to raise capital through the newly founded Tel-Aviv Stock Exchange, and Teva became a public company. Friedländer's business philosophy opined that the pharmaceutical industry has a reliable basis in difficult economic times, since "A Jewish mother will always buy medicine for her children". In the Second World War, the company provided medicine to the allied forces and in particular to the British army present in the Middle East. After the war, Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham, the last of the High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan, visited Teva on behalf of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. His visit promoted Teva's reputation in the pharmaceutical market and created a momentum for Teva's development. During the Second World War and until the termination of the British Mandatory Palestine regime, Teva exported its medical products to Arab countries | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals In 1941, Friedländer presented Teva products in an exhibition held in Cairo, Egypt. The exhibition was sponsored by the General Agent and Sole Distribution of medicine in Egypt and Sudan, Syria and Lebanon. Later on, Teva exported its products to the US, Soviet Union (USSR), health institutes in Denmark, Czechoslovakia, Persia and Burma. In 1954, Teva received a Certificate Excellence in Training award from the Israeli President, Yitzhak Ben Zvi. In 1964, Teva partnered with Sintex, a company from Mexico, and Schering Plough. In 1964, Assia and Zori merged and in 1968 acquired a controlling stake in Teva. In 1976, the three companies merged into the modern-day Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. In 1980, Teva acquired Ikapharm, then Israel's second largest drug manufacturer. In 1982, Teva was granted approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for its Kfar Saba manufacturing plant. In 1980, Teva acquired Plantex. In 1995, Teva acquired Biogal Gyógyszergyár Rt. (Debrecen, Hungary) and acquired ICI (Italy). In 2000, Teva acquired Canada-based Novopharm. In October 2003, Teva announced its intentions to acquire Sicor Inc. for $3.4 billion. Following the announcement, the acquisition was completed on January 22, 2004, which marked Teva's entry into biosimilars' market. In 2005, Teva opened a new, state-of-the-art pharmaceutical manufacturing plant in Har Hotzvim, a technology park in Jerusalem. The plant received FDA approval in early 2007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals Teva entered the Japanese market in 2005, and in 2008 established a generics joint venture with Kowa. In January 2006, Teva said it had completed the acquisition of IVAX Corporation for $7.4 billion. In 2008, sales totalled $11.08 billion, $13.9 billion in 2009, and in 2010 total sales rose to $16.1 billion, of which a major portion was in Europe and North America. Teva acquired its U.S. rival Ivax Corporation in January 2006, Barr in 2007 and Ratiopharm in 2010. On December 23, 2008, Teva acquired Barr Pharmaceuticals for $7.5 billion, making Barr and Pliva (which Barr bought earlier) part of Teva. On March 18, 2010, Teva said it planned to acquire German generic Ratiopharm for US$5 billion. The deal was completed in August 2010. In May 2011, Teva bought Cephalon for US$6.8 billion. The same month, Teva announced the ¥40 billion purchase of a majority stake in Japanese generic drug company Taiyo Pharmaceutical Industry, a move to secure a Japan-local production facility. Teva completed the $934 million acquisition in July 2011. In June 2013, Teva acquired US firm MicroDose Therapeutx for $40 million with as much as $125 million being paid in regulatory and developmental milestones In 2010, Teva announced that it would build its main distribution center for the Americas in Philadelphia, PA, and was considering opening its US headquarters in the area. In 2010, it had 39,660 employees. In Israel, the number of workers rose 7.5% by 6,774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals In March 2010, Teva acquired German-based company Ratiopharm in a deal worth almost $5 billion, significantly expanding its European coverage. In October 2010, Teva entered a licensing agreement with BioTime to develop and market BioTime's OpRegen for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, an effort that in 2013 received $1.5 billion in funding from Israel's Office of the Chief Scientist. In May 2011, Teva announced it would purchase Cephalon for US$6.8 billion. In January 2014, Teva acquired NuPathe, after outbidding Endo, for $144 million. In June 2014, Teva acquired Labrys Biologics for up to $825 million, the aim being to strengthen the company's migraine pipeline through addition of LBR-101, an anti-CGRP monoclonal antibody therapeutic. In March 2015, Teva acquired Auspex Pharmaceuticals for $3.5 billion growing its CNS portfolio. In April, Teva offered to acquire Mylan for $40 billion, only a fortnight after Mylan offered to buy Perrigo for $29 billion. Teva's offer for Mylan was contingent on Mylan abandoning its pursuit of Perrigo. Mylan stated in June 2015 that Teva's disclosure that it had a 1.35 percent stake in Mylan violated US antitrust rules. In October, the company acquired Mexico-based Representaciones e Investigaciones Medicas (Rimsa) for around $2.3 billion. In the same month Teva acquired Gecko Health Innovations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals In November 2015, the company announced it would collaborate with Heptares Therapeutics with its work on small-molecule calcitonin gene-related peptide antagonists for migraine treatment, with the deal generating up to $410 million. Teva Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (TAPI) operates within Teva as a stand-alone business unit. In 2009, TAPI's sales to third parties totaled $565 million, and in 2010 sales rose by 13% to a total of $641 million. In July 2017, it was reported that Pascal Soriot, CEO of AstraZeneca since 2012, would become the next CEO of Teva, succeeding Erez Vigodman, however this was soon refuted. As of August 2017, the company has struggled to attract a new CEO, leading to mounting questions for the board. In August 2017, the board of directors announced a 75% cut in the dividend, reflecting declining profitability, and the share price fell by almost half in the days following. As of September 11, 2017, Teva remained the “world’s biggest seller of generics medicines.” On September 11, 2017, it was reported that they had selected Kåre Schultz as the new Teva CEO. A day later the company announced it would sell its Paragard contraceptive brand to Cooper Cos for $1.1 billion, with the funds being used to pay down debt. Days later the company announced further divestments: a sale of contraception, fertility, menopause and osteoporosis products to CVC Capital Partners Fund VI for $703 million and its emergency contraception brands for $675 million to Foundation Consumer Healthcare | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals By December, the company had announced a drastic 25 percent workforce reduction (greater than 14,000 employees) as part of a two-year cost-reduction strategy. Following considerable lobbying by the Israeli Government, from whom Teva received considerable tax breaks, and from Israel's labor federation, the Histadrut, Teva agreed to delay some of the layoffs in Israel. In July 2015, Allergan agreed to sell its generic drug business (Actavis Generics) to Teva for $40.5 billion ($33.75 billion in cash and $6.75 billion worth of shares). As a result, Teva dropped its pursuit of Mylan. In order for the deal to gain regulatory approval, Teva sold off a number of assets, including a portfolio of five generic drugs to Sagent Pharmaceuticals for $40 million, as well as a further eight medicines to Dr. Reddy's in a $350 million deal. Teva also sold a further 15 marketed generics, as well as three others which were close to market, for $586 million to Impax Laboratories. In July, Teva sold off a further 42 products to Australian generics company, Mayne Pharma, for $652 million; the deal moved Mayne up 50 spots, into the top-25 companies of US generic companies. As part of the deal Teva will seek to raise $20 to $25 billion through a bond sale. After completing the $39 billion acquisition of Actavis Generics, Teva announced another, smaller, deal with Allergan, agreeing to acquire its generic distribution business Anda for $500 million | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors (this is not a comprehensive list): On October 21, 2011, Par Pharmaceutical has sealed the deal to three products from Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, which the Israeli firm was required by the US Federal Trade Commission to divest before it could acquire US biotech Cephalon for $6.8 billion. Following the acquisition of Allergan plc generic division some assets have sold off to meet US antitrust requirements. In June 2016 Indian pharmaceutical company Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd bought 8 (ANDA) Abbreviated New Drug Applications for $350 million in cash. Also in June 2016 Teva sold two abbreviated new drug applications (ANDAs) to Indian pharmaceutical company Zydus Cadilla strengthen its US portfolio. On June 21, 2016, American pharmaceutical company Amneal Pharmaceutical previously known as Impax Laboratories bought a portfolio of generic drugs from Teva Pharmaceutical Industries for about $586 million. On July 29, Cipla an Indian pharmaceutical company bought three products from Teva. Indian pharmaceutical company, Aurobindo, was in the race to buy some Teva assets. In October 2016, Teva has sold off part of its UK and Ireland generic business to Indian pharmaceutical company Intas Pharma for 600 million pounds (5083 crore Indian rupees)in cash | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals In August 2016, Australia pharmaceutical company Mayne Pharmaceutical bought a portfolio of drugs from pharmaceutical giant last year for $845 million Australian dollars. In February 2018, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd has completed the sale of a portfolio of products within its global women's health business across contraception, fertility, menopause and osteoporosis for $703 million in cash to CVC Capital Partners Fund VI. Teva also agreed to sell its Plan B One-Step and its brands of emergency contraception to Foundation Consumer Healthcare for $675 million in cash. Combined annual net sales of these products were $140 million last year. It also sold Paragard to a unit of Cooper Companies Inc (COO.N) for $1.1 billion. Teva holds patents on multiple drugs, including: Copaxone, a specialty drug (for the treatment of multiple sclerosis), now the world's best selling MS drug, and Azilect (sold as Agilect in some countries) for treatment of Parkinson's disease. By July 2015, Copaxone held a "31.2 percent shares of total MS prescriptions in the United States." Teva's new 40 mg version of Copaxone taken three times a week "accounted for 68.5 percent of total Copaxone prescriptions in the United States." Copaxone accounts for about fifty percent of "Teva's profit and 20 percent of revenue." Competitors' Glatopa, 20 mg version of Copaxone, is taken once a day. In June 2006, Teva received from the FDA a 180-day exclusivity period to sell simvastatin (Zocor) in the U.S | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals as a generic drug in all strengths except 80 mg. Teva presently competes with the maker of brand-name Zocor, Merck & Co.; Ranbaxy Laboratories, which has 180-day exclusivity for the 80 mg strength; and Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, whose authorized generic version (licensed by Merck) is exempt from exclusivity. In June 2010, the company announced it would discontinue its production of propofol, a major sedative estimated to be used in 75% of all US anesthetic procedures. In March 2015, Teva sold four anti-cancer compounds to Ignyta Inc. for $41.6 million. As part of the deal Teva sold the following compounds which were then renamed: In July 2019, the company stopped production of Vincristine, a critical drug used to treat the most common forms of childhood cancer, and was criticized by media for creating a worldwide shortage of the drug. On 28 January 2020, the company announced that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had approved an autoinjector device for Ajovy (fremanezumab-vfrm) injection. On June 25, 2010, Bayer sued Teva for falsely claiming that Gianvi, Teva's Generic of Yaz, was "stabilized by betadex as a clathrate." The lawsuit stems from Bayer's US patent, 5798338, on the binding and preservative agents that were not in fact present in Gianvi | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals "In the preparation of such low-dosed dosage forms, strong fluctuations of the active ingredient concentrations in the dosage units occur almost unavoidably (inadequate content uniformity), which manifest themselves more strongly, the smaller the amount of the active ingredient. It has now been found that the drawbacks that are observed especially in the preparation and storage of dosage forms which contain low-dosed steroidal sex hormones can be avoided, at least to a large extent, if dosage forms are prepared that contain powdery cyclodextrin clathrates of these active ingredients." The settlement of the lawsuit resulted in Teva changing its product marketing to remove the claim that it used the same ingredients as Yaz. Bayer's patent is on a method specifically designed to prevent oxidative degradation of the estrogen. In January 2015, the Supreme Court of the United States decided on the Copaxone patent in "USA, Inc. v. Sandoz, Inc.". In December 2016, the attorneys general of 20 states filed a civil complaint accusing Teva of a coordinated scheme to artificially maintain high prices for a generic antibiotic and diabetes drug. The complaint alleged price collusion schemes between six pharmaceutical firms including informal gatherings, telephone calls, and text messages. In January 2019, the Supreme Court of the United States decided for Teva in "Helsinn Healthcare S.A. v. USA Inc | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Teva Pharmaceuticals " In May 2019, USA was one of 19 drug companies sued for price fixing in the United States by 44 states for inflating its prices, sometimes up to 1000%, in an illegal agreement among it and its competitors. Also in May 2019, USA agreed to pay $85 million to the U.S. state of Oklahoma to settle an opioid over prescription lawsuit. In July 2019, Teva paid $69 million to settle pay-for-delay claims. A full list of products is available from www.tevagenerics.com. In 2018, USA recalled tablets containing valsartan due to the detection of "N"-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) which is a probable human carcinogen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5460692 |
Ernst R. G. Eckert Ernst Rudolph Georg Eckert (September 13, 1904 – July 8, 2004) was an Austrian American engineer and scientist who advanced the film cooling technique for aeronautical engines. He earned his Diplom Ingenieur and doctorate in 1927 and 1931, respectively, and habilitated in 1938. Eckert worked as a jet engine scientist at the Aeronautical Research Institute in Braunschweig, Germany, then via Operation Paperclip, began jet propulsion research in 1945 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. In 1951, Eckert joined the University of Minnesota in the department of mechanical engineering. Eckert published over 550 scientific papers and books. The Eckert number in fluid dynamics was named after him. In 1995 the National Academy of Engineering honored Eckert with its thirteenth Founders Award. Eckert's son-in-law Horst Henning Winter, a specialist in rheology, is professor at UMass Amherst. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5472952 |
Parachlamydiaceae is a family of bacteria in the order Chlamydiales. Species in this family have a "Chlamydia"–like cycle of replication and their ribosomal RNA genes are 80–90% identical to ribosomal genes in the Chlamydiaceae. The naturally infect amoebae and can be grown in cultured Vero cells. The are not recognized by monoclonal antibodies that detect Chlamydiaceae lipopolysaccharide. species currently include: Isolated Endosymbionts include: Uncultured lineages include: "Parachlamydia acanthamoebae" has variable Gram staining characteristics and is mesophilic. Trophozoites of "Acanthamoeba" hosting these strains were isolated from asymptomatic women in Germany and also in an outbreak of humidifier fever (‘Hall’s coccus’) in Vermont USA. Four patients from Nova Scotia whose sera recognized Hall’s coccus did not show serological cross-reaction with antigens from the Chlamydiaceae. "Metachlamydia lacustris" and "Protochlamydia" species were found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) but have no standing with the Bacteriological Code (1990 and subsequent Revision) as detailed by List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) as a result of the following reasons: • No pure culture isolated or available for prokaryotes. • Not validly published because the effective publication only documents deposit of the type strain in a single recognized culture collection | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5473827 |
Parachlamydiaceae • Not approved and published by the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology or the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (IJSB/IJSEM). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5473827 |
Waddlia is a genus of bacteria in its own family, Waddliaceae. Species in this genus have a "Chlamydia"-like cycle of replication and their ribosomal RNA genes are 80–90% identical to ribosomal genes in the Chlamydiaceae. The type species is "chondrophila" strain WSU 86-1044T, which was isolated from the tissues of a first-trimester aborted bovine fetus. Isolated in 1986, this species was originally characterized as a "Rickettsia". DNA sequencing of the ribosomal genes corrected the characterization. Another "W. chondrophila" strain, 2032/99, was found along with "Neospora caninum" in a septic stillborn calf. "chondrophila" may be linked to miscarriages in pregnant women. A study found "chondrophila" present in the placenta and vagina of 32 women, 10 of which who had miscarriages. It is hypothesized that the bacterial grows in placental cells, damaging the placenta. The species "malaysiensis" G817 has been proposed. "W. malaysiensis" was identified in the urine of Malaysian fruit bats ("Eonycteris spelaea"). No strains lodged at National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and or listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5474092 |
XMMXCS 2215-1738 is a galaxy cluster that lies 10 billion light-years away and has a redshift value of z=1.45. It was discovered by the XMM Cluster Survey in 2006. Discovered in 2006, is one of the most distant galaxy clusters known. It is embedded in intergalactic gas that has a temperature of 10 million degrees. The estimated mass of the cluster is 500 trillion solar masses, most coming from dark matter. The cluster was discovered and studied using the "XMM-Newton" and Keck Telescopes. The cluster is surprisingly large and evolved for a cluster that existed when the universe was only 3 billion years old. Led by University of Sussex researchers, part of the XMM Cluster Survey (XCS) used X-ray Multi Mirror (XMM) Newton satellite to find it, Keck Telescope to determine distance, and used the Hubble Space Telescope to further image it. It contains hundreds of reddish galaxys surrounded by x-ray-emitting gas. The galaxy is called XMMXCS 2215-1734 in many references, with some news sources listing both names. The source of the naming contradiction between XMMXCS 2215-1734 and is not known. However, seems to be the more accurate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482472 |
Gardasil Gardasil, technically known as recombinant human papillomavirus vaccine [types 6, 11, 16, 18], is a vaccine for use in the prevention of certain strains of human papillomavirus (HPV). High-risk human papilloma virus (hr-HPV) genital infection is the most common sexually transmitted infection among women. The HPV strains that protects against are sexually transmitted, specifically HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18. HPV types 16 and 18 cause an estimated 70% of cervical cancers, and are responsible for most HPV-induced anal, vulvar, vaginal, and penile cancer cases. HPV types 6 and 11 cause an estimated 90% of genital warts cases. Though does not treat existing infection, vaccination is still recommended for HPV-positive individuals, as it may protect against one or more different strains of the disease. The vaccine was approved for medical use in the United States in 2006, initially for use in females aged 9–26. In 2007, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended gardasil for routine vaccination of girls aged 11 and 12 years. As of August 2009, vaccination was recommended before adolescence and the beginning of potential sexual activity. By 2011, the vaccine had been approved in 120 other countries. In 2014, the FDA approved a nine-valent version, 9, to protect against infection with the strains covered by the first generation of as well as five other HPV strains responsible for 20% of cervical cancers (types 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil In 2018, the FDA approved expanded use of 9 for individuals 27 through 45 years old. is a vaccine to prevent HPV, that, for maximum effect, is recommended for girls prior to their becoming sexually active. Moreover, evidence supports the conclusion that women who were already infected with one or more of the four HPV types targeted by the vaccine (HPV types 6, 11, 16, or 18) were protected from clinical disease caused by the remaining HPV types in the vaccine. HPV types 16 and 18 cause an estimated 70% of cervical cancers, and are responsible for most HPV-induced anal cancers. also protects against vulvar and vaginal cancers caused by HPV types 16 and 18, as well as most penile cancers caused by these two HPV types. Since will not prevent infection with "all" of the HPV types that can cause cervical cancer, the vaccine is not considered a substitute for routine pap smears. In addition, protection against HPV types 6 and 11 may eliminate up to 90% of the cases of genital warts. Common plantar warts—e.g., caused by HPV types 1, 2, and 4—are not prevented by this vaccine. Reports state the expectation that fewer HPV infections will necessarily lead to fewer complications from the virus, and less time and money spent on the detection, work-up, and treatment of cervical cancer (and its precursor, cervical dysplasia) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil In addition, it is expected that vaccination will reduce the severe respiratory problems of laryngeal papillomatosis in children infected with HPV by their mothers, and that it will prevent infertility caused by cervical biopsies. In 2010, was approved by the FDA for prevention of anal cancer and associated precancerous lesions due to HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18 in people ages 9 through 26 years. HPV infections, especially HPV 16, contribute to some head and neck cancer (HPV is found in an estimated 26–35% of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma).<ref name="doi:10.1186/1758-3284-1-36"></ref> In principle, HPV vaccines may help reduce incidence of such cancers caused by HPV, but this has not been demonstrated. The FDA approved 9 for women and men aged 27 to 45 based on the vaccine being 88% effective against persistent HPV infections that cause certain types genital warts and cancers in females. Vaccine efficacy in males in this age group was inferred. An alternative vaccine known as Cervarix protects against two oncogenic strains of HPV, 16 and 18. The National Cancer Institute says, "To date, protection against the targeted HPV types has been found to last for at least 10 years with (10), at least 9 years with Cervarix (11), and at least 6 years with 9 (12). Long-term studies of vaccine efficacy that are still in progress will help scientists better understand the total duration of protection | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil " has been shown to be partially effective (approximately 38%) in preventing cervical cancer caused by ten other high-risk HPV types. Antibody levels at month 3 (one month post-dose number two) are substantially higher than at month 24 (18 months post-dose number three), suggesting that protection is achieved by month 3 and perhaps earlier. In 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that countries offer the vaccine in a two dose schedule to girls aged under 15, with each dose at least six months apart. The United Kingdom, Switzerland, Mexico, and Quebec province of Canada are among the countries or territories that have implemented this . The CDC recommended the vaccines be delivered in two shots over six months. is also effective in males, providing protection against genital warts, anal warts, anal cancer, and some potentially precancerous lesions caused by some HPV types. vaccine has been shown to decrease the risk of young men contracting genital warts. In the United States, the FDA approved administration of the vaccine to males between ages 9 and 26 in 2009. The FDA approved administration of the 9 vaccine to males between ages 9 and 15 in 2014, and extended the age indication, by including males between ages 16 and 26, in 2015. In the UK, HPV vaccines are licensed for males aged 9 to 15 and for females aged 9 to 26 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil Men who have sex with men (MSM) are particularly at risk for conditions associated with HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18; diseases and cancers that have a higher incidence among MSM include anal intraepithelial neoplasias, anal cancers, and genital warts. Type 16 is also associated with oropharyngeal squamous-cell carcinoma, a form of throat cancer. A 2005 study found that 95% of HIV-infected gay men also had anal HPV infection, of whom 50% had precancerous HPV-caused lesions. is given in three injections over six months. The second injection is two months after the first, and the third injection is six months after the first shot was administered. Alternatively, in some countries it is given as two injections with at least six months between them, for individuals aged 9 years up to and including 13 years. , more than 170 million doses of had been distributed worldwide. The vaccine was tested in thousands of females (ages 9 to 26). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) consider the vaccine to be safe. It does not contain mercury, thiomersal, live viruses or dead viruses, but virus-like particles, which cannot reproduce in the human body. The vaccine has mostly minor side effects, such as pain around the injection area. Fainting is more common among adolescents receiving the vaccine than in other kinds of vaccinations. Patients should remain seated for 15 minutes after they receive the HPV vaccine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil There have been reports that the shot is more painful than other common vaccines, and the manufacturer Merck partly attributes this to the virus-like particles within the vaccine. General side effects of the shot may include joint and muscle pain, fatigue, physical weakness and general malaise. The FDA and the CDC said that with millions of vaccinations "by chance alone some serious adverse effects and deaths" will occur in the time period following vaccination, but they have nothing to do with the vaccine. More than twenty women who received the vaccine have died, but these deaths have not been causally connected to the shot, as correlation does not imply causation. Where information has been available, the cause of death was explained by other factors. Likewise, a small number of cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) have been reported following vaccination with Gardasil, though there is no evidence linking GBS to the vaccine. It is unknown why a person develops GBS, or what initiates the disease. The FDA and the CDC monitor events to see if there are patterns, or more serious events than would be expected from chance alone. The majority (68%) of side effects data were reported by the manufacturer, but in about 90% of the manufacturer reported events, no follow-up information was given that would be useful to investigate the event further | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil In February 2009, the Spanish Ministry of Health suspended use of one batch of after health authorities in the Valencia region reported that two girls had become ill after receiving the injection. Merck has stated that there was no evidence was responsible for the two illnesses. The following are the ingredients found in the different formulations of HPV vaccines: The HPV major capsid protein, L1, can spontaneously self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs) that resemble authentic HPV virions. contains recombinant VLPs assembled from the L1 proteins of HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18. Since VLPs lack the viral DNA, they cannot induce cancer. They do, however, trigger an antibody response that protects vaccine recipients from becoming infected with the HPV types represented in the vaccine. The L1 proteins are produced by separate fermentations in recombinant "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" and self-assembled into VLPs. The National Cancer Institute writes: Widespread HPV vaccination has the potential to reduce cervical cancer incidence around the world by as much as 90%. In addition, the vaccines may reduce the need for screening and subsequent medical care, biopsies, and invasive procedures associated with follow-up from abnormal cervical screening, thus helping to reduce health care costs and anxieties related to follow-up procedures. Whether the effects are temporary or lifelong, widespread vaccination could have a substantial public health impact | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil As of 2018, studies have proven that cervical cancer rates have dropped significantly since the introduction of Gardasil. Before was introduced in 2006, 270,000 women died of cervical cancer worldwide in 2002. As of 2014, the mortality rate from cervical cancer has dropped 50% from 1975 which is due to the vaccination along with increased focus on cervical screening. Acting FDA administrator Andrew von Eschenbach said the vaccine will have "a dramatic effect" on the health of women around the world. is an important tool in reducing cervical cancer rates even in countries where screening programs are routine. The National Cancer Institute estimated that 9,700 women would develop cervical cancer in 2006, and 3,700 would die. Merck and CSL Limited are expected to market as a cancer vaccine, rather than an STD vaccine. In the early years of Gardasil's introduction it was unclear how widespread the use of the three-shot series would be, in part because of its $525 list price ($175 each for three shots). But as of 2013, vaccine coverage has been rising. In 2013, about 55% of girls ages 13–17 years had at least one dose of the vaccination covered, up from 29% in 2007. Coverage for women ages 18–34 also has increased significantly since 2007. Studies using different pharmacoeconomic models predict that vaccinating young women with in combination with screening programs may be more cost effective than screening alone. These results have been important in decisions by many countries to start vaccination programs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil For example, the Canadian government approved $300 million to buy the HPV vaccine in 2008 after deciding from studies that the vaccine would be cost-effective especially by immunizing young women. Marc Steben, an investigator for the vaccine, wrote that the financial burden of HPV related cancers on the Canadian people was already $300 million per year in 2005, so the vaccine could reduce this burden and be cost-effective. Since penile and anal cancers are much less common than cervical cancer, HPV vaccination of young men is likely to be much less cost-effective than for young women yet is still recommended due to the existent risk (including oral cancer). The August 2009 issue of the "Journal of the American Medical Association" had an article reiterating the safety of and another questioning the way it was presented to doctors and parents. The new vaccine against 4 types of human papillomavirus (HPV), Gardasil, like other immunizations appears to be a cost-effective intervention with the potential to enhance both adolescent health and the quality of their adult lives. However, the messages and the methods by which the vaccine was marketed present important challenges to physician practice and medical professionalism. By making the vaccine's target disease cervical cancer, the sexual transmission of HPV was minimized, the threat of cervical cancer to adolescents was maximized, and the subpopulations most at risk practically ignored | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil The vaccine manufacturer also provided educational grants to professional medical associations (PMAs) concerned with adolescent and women's health and oncology. The funding encouraged many PMAs to create educational programs and product-specific speakers' bureaus to promote vaccine use. However, much of the material did not address the full complexity of the issues surrounding the vaccine and did not provide balanced recommendations on risks and benefits. As important and appropriate as it is for PMAs to advocate for vaccination as a public good, their recommendations must be consistent with appropriate and cost-effective use. According to the CDC, as of 2012, use of the HPV vaccine had cut rates of infection with HPV-6, -11, -16 and -18 in half in American teenagers (from 11.5% to 4.3%) and by one third in American women in their early twenties (from 18.5% to 12.1%). Research findings that pioneered the development of the vaccine began in 1991 by investigators Jian Zhou and Ian Frazer in The University of Queensland, Australia. Researchers at UQ found a way to form non-infectious virus-like particles (VLP), which could also strongly activate the immune system. Subsequently, the final form of the vaccine was developed in parallel, by researchers at Georgetown University Medical Center, the University of Rochester, the University of Queensland in Australia, and the U.S. National Cancer Institute. In December 2014, the FDA approved Gardasil-9, which protects against nine strains of HPV | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil The governor of Texas, Rick Perry, issued an executive order adding to the state's required vaccination list, which was later overturned by the Texas legislature. Perry has also allowed parents to opt out of the program more easily. Through lobbying efforts, Merck has suggested that state governments make vaccination with mandatory for school attendance, which has upset some conservative and libertarian groups. A few conservative groups, such as the Family Research Council (FRC), have expressed their fears that vaccination with might give girls a false sense of security regarding sex and lead to promiscuity, but no evidence exists to suggest that girls who were vaccinated went on to engage in more sexual activity than unvaccinated girls. Those who oppose a vaccination requirement for young, school aged girls are concerned that it may lead to a decrease in their sexual inhibitions and an increase in their sexual risk taking. People who oppose the requirement would also suggest that adolescents do not fully understand what protects against. does not protect from other sexually transmitted infections, so the risk of teenagers experiencing a decrease in sexual inhibitions due to the false sense of protection from the vaccination could be harmful. Furthermore, awareness among teens of HPV is very low meaning that they may catch HPV without knowing what it is or that there is a vaccine for it | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Gardasil Perry's decision was later criticized on September 12, 2011, by fellow presidential candidates Rick Santorum and Michele Bachmann during the Republican Party presidential debate as being an overreach of state power in a decision properly left to parents. In June 2013, the Japanese government issued a notice that "cervical cancer vaccinations should no longer be recommended for girls aged 12 to 16" while an investigation is conducted into certain adverse events including pain and numbness in 38 girls. The vaccines sold in Japan are Cervarix, made by GlaxoSmithKline of the United Kingdom, and Gardasil, made by Merck Sharp & Dohme. An estimated 3.28 million people have received the vaccination; 1,968 cases of possible side effects have been reported. In January 2014, the Vaccine Adverse Reactions Review Committee concluded that there was no evidence to suggest a causal association between the HPV vaccine and the reported adverse events, but did not reinstate proactive recommendations for its use. A study on girls in Sapporo showed that since the Japanese government's suspension of recommending the vaccine, completion rates for the full course of vaccination have dropped to 0.6%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482977 |
Available energy (particle collision) In particle physics, the available energy is the energy in a particle collision available to produce new matter from the kinetic energy of the colliding particles. Since the conservation of momentum must be held, a system of two particles with a net momentum may not convert all their kinetic energy into mass - and thus the available energy is always less than or equal to the kinetic energy of the colliding particles. The available energy for a system of one stationary particle and one moving particle is defined as: where This derivation will use the fact that: From the principle of the conservation of linear momentum: Where formula_9 and formula_10 are the momentums of the created and the initially moving particle respectively. From the conservation of energy: Where formula_12 is the total energy of the created particle. We know that after the collision: Denoting this last equation (1). But and since the stationary particle has no momentum Therefore from (1) we have Square rooting both sides and we get | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5489639 |
Georgiy Jacobson Georgiy Georgiyevich Jacobson (, 1871 – 23 November 1926) was a pioneering Russian entomologist, known especially for his 900-page book on Beetles. Jacobson was born in St Petersburg, and in 1893 he graduated from St Petersburg University's Physics and Mathematics faculty. He was a zoologist at the Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He was posted to different parts of Russia to study its insects. He published papers mainly on the systematics and zoogeography of Chrysomelidae beetles. Jacobson's "Beetles" was first published in 1905 by Devriena, St Petersburg. The eleventh and last edition appeared in 1915. Many of the fine colour plates were based on Carl Gustav Calwer's "Kaeferbuch", with updates to the names of some of the beetles. This saving of effort on illustration allowed Jacobson to focus on illustrating species of beetle that had never been illustrated before. The monograph covered over 2000 species. Jacobson is best known as the author of the magisterial 900-page "Beetles of Russia, Western Europe and neighbouring countries" (1905), and co-author, with Valentin Lvovich Bianchi, of "Orthoptera and Pseudoneuroptera of the Russian Empire" (1905). His other works include the following: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5490708 |
Paul Stein (entomologist) Paul Stein (1852–1921) was a German museum curator and entomologist . He specialised in Diptera especially the family Anthomyiidae. In this group he studied the world fauna describing many new genera and species. Stein worked with Theodor Becker, Mario Bezzi and Kálmán Kertész on "Katalog der Paläarktischen dipteren" (1903 onwards) published in Budapest from 1903.His collection is in the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5491363 |
Harry Rosenbusch (Karl) Heinrich/Harry (Ferdinand) Rosenbusch (June 24, 1836 – January 20, 1914) was a German petrographer. was born in Einbeck. He taught at Heidelberg University (1877-1908), where he founded the "Mineralogisches-geologisches Institut". He died, aged 77, in Heidelberg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5494632 |
Aleksandr Grigorevich Sharov (А.Г. Шаров, 1922—1973) was a Russian palaeoentomologist, paleontologist and expert on Pterosauria. He graduated from Moscow State University. In 1951 he defended Candidate of Science dissertation on the embryology of Apterygota. Since 1951 he worked at the Paleontological Institute in Moscow, where in 1966 he defended dissertation of Doctor of Science. His major contribution to the phylogeny of Arthropods was published in 1966. He worked during the 1960s and 1970s on the Karatau rocks and discovered many of the fossils, of which some have been named after him, as in the case of the "Karatausuchus sharovi" (a crocodile), and "Sharovipteryx" (a reptile related to pterosaurs). He also discovered and described the specimen "Sordes pilosus" in 1971 and "Longisquama insignis. Sharov, A. G. 1966 "Unique finds of reptiles from Mesozoic of Central Asia". Byull. Mosc. Obshch. Ispyit. Prirod., Otd. Geol. Sharov, A. G. 1970 "Unusual reptile from the Lower Triassic of Fergana". Pal. Zh. Sharov, A. G. 1971 "Novyiye lyetayushchiye reptili iz myezozoya Kazakhstana i Kirgizii. New flying reptiles from the Mesozoic of Kazakhstan and Kirghizia". Trudy paleont. Inst. Moscow. Russian text with end plates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5521304 |
Progenitor cell A progenitor cell is a biological cell that, like a stem cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific type of cell, but is already more specific than a stem cell and is pushed to differentiate into its "target" cell. The most important difference between stem cells and progenitor cells is that stem cells can replicate indefinitely, whereas progenitor cells can divide only a limited number of times. Controversy about the exact definition remains and the concept is still evolving. The terms "progenitor cell" and "stem cell" are sometimes equated. Most progenitors are described as oligopotent. In this point of view, they may be compared to adult stem cells. But progenitors are said to be in a further stage of cell differentiation. They are in the “center” between stem cells and fully differentiated cells. The kind of potency they have depends on the type of their "parent" stem cell and also on their niche. Some progenitor cells were found during research, and were isolated. After their marker was found, it was proven that these progenitor cells could move through the body and migrate towards the tissue where they are needed. Many properties are shared by adult stem cells and progenitor cells. Progenitor cells are found in adult organisms and they act as a repair system for the body. They replenish special cells, but also maintain the blood, skin and intestinal tissues. They can also be found in developing embryonic pancreatic tissue | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5523586 |
Progenitor cell The majority of progenitor cells lie dormant or possess little activity in the tissue in which they reside. They exhibit slow growth and their main role is to replace cells lost by normal attrition. In case of tissue injury, damaged or dead cells, progenitor cells can be activated. Growth factors or cytokines are two substances that trigger the progenitors to mobilize toward the damaged tissue. At the same time, they start to differentiate into the target cells. Not all progenitors are mobile and are situated near the tissue of their target differentiation. When the cytokines, growth factors and other cell division-enhancing stimulators take on the progenitors, a higher rate of cell division is introduced. It leads to the recovery of the tissue. The characterization or the defining principle of progenitor cells, in order to separate them from others, is based on the different cell markers rather than their morphological appearance. Before embryonic day 40 (E40), progenitor cells generate other progenitor cells; after that period, progenitor cells produce only dissimilar mesenchymal stem cell daughters. The cells from a single progenitor cell form a proliferative unit that creates one cortical column; these columns contain a variety of neurons with different shapes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5523586 |
Clastic wedge In geology, clastic wedge usually refers to a thick assemblage of sediments--often lens-shaped in profile--eroded and deposited landward of a mountain chain; they begin at the mountain front, thicken considerably landwards of it to a peak depth, and progressively thin with increasing distance inland. Perhaps the best examples of clastic wedges in the United States are the Catskill Delta in Appalachia and the sequence of Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments deposited in the Cordilleran foreland basin in the Rocky Mountain region. Not all clastic wedges are associated with mountains. They are also characteristic of passive continental margins such as the Gulf Coast; these are quiescent environments, where sediments have accumulated to great thickness over a long period of time. These passive margin continental shelf sediment sequences are termed miogeoclines. Clastic wedges are often separated into one of two distinct types: flysch, mostly dark shales that originate from moderate to deep marine water; and molasse, which is composed mainly of red sandstones, conglomerates and shales that were deposited in terrestrial or shallow marine environments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5523804 |
Picture (string theory) In superstring theory, each state may be represented in many ways, depending on how the ground state is defined. Each representation is called a picture, and is denoted by a number, such as 0 picture or −1 picture. The difference between the ground states is according to the action of the superghosts oscillators on them, and the number of the picture (plus 1/2) reflects the highest superghost oscillator which does not annihilate the ground state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5527836 |
Least-concern species A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation. They do not qualify as threatened, near threatened, or (before 2001) conservation dependent. Species cannot be assigned the Least Concern category unless they have had their population status evaluated. That is, adequate information is needed to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution or population status. Since 2001 the category has had the abbreviation "LC", following the IUCN 2001 Categories & Criteria (version 3.1). However, around 20% of least concern taxa (3261 of 15636) in the IUCN database use the code "LR/lc", which indicates they have not been re-evaluated since 2000. Before 2001 "least concern" was a subcategory of the "Lower Risk" category and assigned the code "LR/lc" or lc. While "least concern" is not considered a "red listed" category by the IUCN, the 2006 IUCN Red List still assigns the category to 15636 taxa. The number of animal species listed in this category totals 14033 (which includes several undescribed species such as a frog from the genus "Philautus"). There are also 101 animal subspecies listed and 1500 plant taxa (1410 species, 55 subspecies, and 35 varieties). There are also two animal subpopulations listed: the Australasian and Southern African subpopulations of spiny dogfish | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5529962 |
Least-concern species No fungi or protista have the classification, though only four species in those kingdoms have been evaluated by the IUCN. Humans qualify for this category, and in 2008 were formally assessed as such by the IUCN. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5529962 |
Louis Gabriel d'Antessanty Louis Gabriel d’Antessanty (or Abbé G.) (October 26, 1834, in Troyes – January 6, 1922, in Troyes) was a French entomologist. His principal publications are: And on general natural history: The types of the new species of Hemiptera described by d’Antessanty are listed in Royer, M. 1922. Les types de la collection d'Hémipt Pres de l'abbé G. d'Antessanty. "Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France" 1922:268-269. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5542625 |
Bovine papular stomatitis is a disease caused by virus, of the family "Poxviridae" and the genus "Parapoxvirus". It occurs worldwide in cattle. Symptoms include reddish, raised, sometimes ulcerative lesions on the lips, muzzle, and in the mouth. It usually occurs before the age of two years. Reinfection is possible because of the short duration of immunity. Clinically, the disease is mild, but its importance lies in the need to differentiate it from foot-and-mouth disease. There have been reports of both lesions on the hands of milkers and similar infections in sheep and goats, as well as humans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5551093 |
Melanosome (geology) In geology, a melanosome is a dark, mafic mineral band formed in migmatite which is melting into a eutaxitic texture ; often, this leads to the formation of granite. The melanosomes form bands with leucosomes, and in that context may be described as "schlieren" or "migmatitic". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5562753 |
Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). "Climate" is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components. The "atmosphere" envelops the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (0.9%) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system Some trace gases in the atmosphere, such as water vapour and carbon dioxide, are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are greenhouse gases which allow visible light from the Sun to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the infra-red radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise. The hydrological cycle is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of precipitation, it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system. The "hydrosphere" proper contains all the liquid water on Earth, with most of it contained in the world's oceans. The ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface to an average depth of nearly , and can hold substantially more heat than the atmosphere. It contains seawater with a salt content of about 3.5% on average, but this varies spatially. Brackish water is found in estuaries and some lakes, and most freshwater, 2.5% of all water, is held in ice and snow. The "cryosphere" contains all parts of the climate system where water is solid. This includes sea ice, ice sheets, permafrost and snow cover. Because there is more land in the Northern Hemisphere compared to the Southern Hemisphere, a larger part of that hemisphere is covered in snow. Both hemispheres have about the same amount of sea ice. Most frozen water is contained in the ice sheets on Greenland and Antarctica, which average about in height | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system These ice sheets slowly flow towards their margins. The "Earth's crust," specifically mountains and valleys, shapes global wind patterns: vast mountain ranges form a barrier to winds and impact where and how much it rains. Land closer to open ocean has a more moderate climate than land farther from the ocean. For the purpose of modelling the climate, the land is often considered static as it changes very slowly compared to the other elements that make up the climate system. The position of the continents determines the geometry of the oceans and therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate. Lastly, the "biosphere" also interacts with the rest of the climate system. Vegetation is often darker or lighter than the soil beneath, so that more or less of the Sun's heat gets trapped in areas with vegetation. Vegetation is good at trapping water, which is then taken up by its roots. Without vegetation, this water would have run off to the closest rivers or other water bodies. Water taken up by plants instead evaporates, contributing to the hydrological cycle. Precipitation and temperature influences the distribution of different vegetation zones. Carbon assimilation from seawater by the growth of small phytoplankton is almost as much as land plants from the atmosphere | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system While humans are technically part of the biosphere, they are often treated as a separate components of Earth's climate system, the "anthroposphere," because of human's large impact on the planet. The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it emits infra-red radiation as black-body radiation. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the total of incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling. More energy reaches the tropics than the polar regions and the subsequent temperature difference drives the global circulation of the atmosphere and oceans. Air rises when it warms, flows polewards and sinks again when it cools, returning to the equator. Due to the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation diverts the air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, thus forming distinct atmospheric cells. Monsoons, seasonal changes in wind and precipitation that occur mostly in the tropics, form due to the fact that land masses heat up more easily than the ocean | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system The temperature difference induces a pressure difference between land and ocean, driving a steady wind. Ocean water that has more salt has a higher density and differences in density play an important role in ocean circulation. The thermohaline circulation transports heat from the tropics to the polar regions. Ocean circulation is further driven by the interaction with wind. The salt component also influences the freezing point temperature. Vertical movements can bring up colder water to the surface in a process called upwelling, which cools down the air above. The hydrological cycle or water cycle describes how it is constantly moved between the surface of the Earth and the atmosphere. Plants evapotranspirate and sunlight evaporates water from oceans and other water bodies, leaving behind salt and other minerals. The evaporated freshwater later rains back onto the surface. Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall. The evaporation of water requires substantial quantities of energy, whereas a lot of heat is released during condensation. This "latent heat" is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere. Chemical elements, vital for life, are also constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system The carbon cycle is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: and methane. In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using photosynthesis; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures. As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle. As in the atmosphere makes rain a bit acidic, this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as "weathering". The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form sedimentary rocks, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere. The nitrogen cycle describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric nitrogen is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called "fixing nitrogen", before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere. Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of fossil fuels has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of fertilizers has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen. Climate is constantly varying, on timescales that range from seasons to the lifetime of the Earth. Changes caused by the system's own components and dynamics are called "internal climate variability" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system The system can also experience "external forcing" from phenomena outside of the system (e.g. a change in Earth's orbit). Longer changes, usually defined as changes that persist for at least 30 years, are referred to as "climate changes", although this phrase usually refers to the current global climate change. When the climate changes, the effects may build on each other, cascading through the other parts of the system in a series of climate feedbacks (e.g. albedo changes), producing many different effects (e.g. sea level rise). Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese Azores typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over Iceland. The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central Eurasia. For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO. Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades. The ocean and atmosphere can also work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Examples of this type of variability include the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere; but also by altering the cloud, water vapour or sea ice distribution, which can affect the total energy budget of the earth. The oceanic aspects of these oscillations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than the atmosphere, and therefore very high thermal inertia. For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Understanding internal variability helped scientists to attribute recent climate change to greenhouse gases. On long timescales, the climate is determined mostly by how much energy is in the system and where it goes. When the Earth's energy budget changes, the climate follows. A change in the energy budget is called a forcing, and when the change is caused by something outside of the five components of the climate system, it is called an "external forcing". Volcanoes, for example, result from deep processes within the earth that are not considered part of the climate system. Off-planet changes, such as solar variation and incoming asteroids, are also "external" to the climate system's five components, as are human actions. The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth and drives atmospheric circulation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system The amount of energy coming from the Sun varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term time scales. While the solar cycle is too small to directly warm and cool Earth's surface, it does influence a higher layer of the atmosphere directly, the stratosphere, which may have an effect on the atmosphere near the surface. Slight variations in the Earth's motion can cause large changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe, although not to the global and yearly average sunlight. The three types of kinematic change are variations in Earth's eccentricity, changes in the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation, and precession of Earth's axis. Together these produce Milankovitch cycles, which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower part of the atmosphere by absorbing longwave radiation. In the Earth's past, many processes contributed to variations in greenhouse gas concentrations. Currently, emissions by humans are the cause of increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, such as , methane and . The dominant contributor to the greenhouse effect is water vapour (~50%), with clouds (~25%) and (~20%) also playing an important role | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system When concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases such as are increased and temperature rises, the amount of water vapour increases as well, so that water vapour and clouds are not seen as external forcings, but instead as feedbacks. Rock weathering is a very slow process that removes carbon from the atmosphere. Liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere, collectively named "aerosols", have diverse effects on the climate. Some primarily scatter sunlight and thereby cool the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere. Indirect effects include the fact that aerosols can act as cloud condensation nuclei, stimulating cloud formation. Natural sources of aerosols include sea spray, mineral dust and volcanoes, but humans also contribute as the combustion of fossil fuels releases aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols counteract a part of the warming effects of emitted greenhouse gases, but only until they fall back to the surface in a few years or less. Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent. On average, there are only several volcanic eruptions per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting tons of SO into the stratosphere. The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Climate system Deforestation, or other changes to human use of the land, can affect the climate. The reflectivity of the area can change, causing the region to capture more or less sunlight. In addition, vegetation interacts with the hydrological cycle, so that precipitation is also affected. Landscape fires release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and release black carbon, which darkens snow making it easier to melt. The different elements of the climate system respond to external forcing in different ways. One important difference between the components is the speed at which they react to a forcing. The atmosphere typically responds within a couple of hours to weeks, while the deep ocean and ice sheets take centuries to millennia to reach a new equilibrium. The initial response of a component to an external forcing can be damped by negative feedbacks and enhanced by positive feedbacks. For example, a significant decrease of solar intensity would quickly lead to a temperature decrease on Earth, which would then allow ice and snow cover to expand. The extra snow and ice has a higher albedo or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5565588 |
Hertzsprung gap The Hertzsprung Gap is a feature of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for a star cluster. It is named after Ejnar Hertzsprung, who first noticed the absence of stars in the region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram between A5 and G0 spectral type and between +1 and −3 absolute magnitudes (i.e. between the top of the main sequence and the red giants for stars above roughly 1.5 solar mass. When a star during its evolution crosses the Hertzsprung gap, it means that it has finished core hydrogen burning, but has yet to start hydrogen shell burning. Stars do exist in the region, but because they move through this section of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram very quickly in comparison to the lifetime of the star (thousands of years, compared to tens of billions of years for the lifetime of the star), that portion of the diagram is less densely populated. Full Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams of the 11,000 Hipparcos mission targets show a handful of stars in that region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5571591 |
Muriel Bristol Dr Blanche (21 April 1888 – 15 March 1950) was a phycologist who worked at Rothamsted Research (then named Rothamsted Experimental Station) in 1919. Her research focused on the mechanisms by which algae acquire nutrients. One day at Rothamsted, Ronald Fisher offered Bristol a cup of hot tea that he had just drawn from an urn. Bristol declined it, saying that she preferred the flavour when the milk was poured into the cup before the tea. Fisher scoffed that the order of pouring could not affect the flavour. Bristol insisted that it did and that she could tell the difference. Overhearing this debate, William Roach said, "Let's test her." Fisher and Roach hastily put together an experiment to test Bristol's ability to identify the order in which the two liquids were poured into several cups. At the conclusion of this experiment, Roach proclaimed that "Bristol divined correctly more than enough of those cups into which tea had been poured first to prove her case". This has come to be known as the lady tasting tea experiment. This incident led Fisher to do important work in the design of statistically valid experiments based on the statistical significance of experimental results. He developed Fisher's exact test to assess the probabilities and statistical significance of experiments. Bristol was born on 21 April 1888, the daughter of Alfred Bristol, a commercial traveller, and Annie Eliza, "née" Davies. She studied botany and did a PhD on algae. Bristol married William Roach in 1923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5571750 |
Muriel Bristol She died in Bristol on 15 March 1950 of ovarian cancer. The genus of green algae "Muriella" is named after her. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5571750 |
Water reducer Water reducers are special chemical products added to a concrete mixture before it is poured. They are from the same family of products as retarders. The first class of water reducers was the lignosulfonates which has been used since the 1930s. These inexpensive products were derived from wood and paper industry, but are now advantageously replaced by other synthetic sulfonate and polycarboxylate, also known as superplasticizers. Water reducers offer several advantages in their use, listed below: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5572019 |
Siltation Siltation, or sans, is water pollution caused by particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments and to the increased accumulation (temporary or permanent) of fine sediments on bottoms where they are undesirable. is most often caused by soil erosion or sediment spill. Sometimes siltation is called "sediment pollution", but that is an undesirable term since it is ambiguous and also refer to a chemical contamination of sediments accumulated on the bottom or to pollutants bound to sediment particles. is the preferred term for being unambiguous although it is not entirely stringent since it also includes particle sizes other than silt. The origin of the increased sediment transport into an area may be erosion on land or activities in the water. In rural areas, the erosion source is typically soil degradation by intensive or inadequate agricultural practices, leading to soil erosion, especially in fine-grained soils such as loess. The result will be an increased amount of silt and clay in the water bodies that drain the area. In urban areas, the erosion source is typically construction activities, which involve clearing the original land-covering vegetation and temporarily creating something akin to an urban desert from which fines are easily washed out during rainstorms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573115 |
Siltation In water, the main pollution source is sediment spill from dredging, the transportation of dredged material on barges, and the deposition of dredged material in or near water. Such deposition may be made to get rid of unwanted material, such as the offshore dumping of material dredged from harbours and navigation channels. The deposition may also be to build up the coastline, for artificial islands, or for beach replenishment. Climate change also affect siltation rates. Another important cause of siltation is the septage and other sewage sludges that are discharged from households or business establishments with no septic tanks or wastewater treatment facilities to bodies of water. While the sediment in transport is in suspension, it acts as a pollutant for those who require clean water, such as for cooling or in industrial processes, and it includes aquatic life that are sensitive to suspended material in the water. While nekton have been found to avoid spill plumes in the water (e.g. the environmental monitoring project during the building of the Øresund Bridge), filtering benthic organisms have no way of escape. Among the most sensitive organisms are coral polyps. Generally speaking, hard bottom communities and mussel banks (including oysters) are more sensitive to siltation than sand and mud bottoms. Unlike in the sea, in a stream the plume will cover the entire channel, except possibly for backwaters, and so fish will also be directly affected in most cases | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573115 |
Siltation can also affect navigation channels, or irrigation channels. It refers to the undesired accumulation of sediments in channels intended for vessels or for distributing water. One may distinguish between measurements at the source, during transport, and within the affected area. Source measurements of erosion may be very difficult since the lost material may be a fraction of a millimeter per year. Therefore, the approach taken is typically to measure the sediment in transport in the stream, by measuring the sediment concentration and multiplying that with the discharge; for example, 50 mg/L times 30 m/s gives 1.5 kg/s. Also, sediment spill is better measured in transport than at the source. The sediment transport in open water is estimated by measuring the turbidity, correlating turbidity to sediment concentration (using a regression developed from water samples that are filtered, dried, and weighed), multiplying the concentration with the discharge as above, and integrating over the entire plume. To distinguish the spill contribution, the background turbidity is subtracted from the spill plume turbidity. Since the spill plume in open water varies in space and time, an integration over the entire plume is required, and repeated many times to get acceptably-low uncertainty in the results. The measurements are made close to the source, in the order of a few hundred meters. Anything beyond a work area buffer zone for sediment spill is considered the potential impact area | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573115 |
Siltation In the open sea, the impact of concern is almost exclusively with the sessile bottom communities.since empirical data show that fish effectively avoid the impacted area. The siltation affects the bottom community in two main ways. The suspended sediment may interfere with the food gathering of filtering organisms, and the sediment accumulation on the bottom may bury organisms to the point that they starve or even die. It is only if the concentration is extreme that it decreases the light level sufficiently for impacting primary productivity. An accumulation of as little as 1 mm may kill coral polyps. While the effect of the siltation on the biota (once the harm is already done) can be studied by repeated inspection of selected test plots, the magnitude of the siltation process in the impact area may be measured directly by monitoring in real time. Parameters to measure are sediment accumulation, turbidity at the level of the filtering biota, and optionally incident light. of the magnitude that it affects shipping can also be monitored by repeated bathymetric surveys. In rural areas, the first line of defense is to maintain land cover and prevent soil erosion in the first place. The second line of defense is to trap the material before it reaches the stream network (known as sediment control). In urban areas, the defenses are to keep land uncovered for as short a time as possible during construction and to use silt screens to prevent the sediment from getting released in water bodies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573115 |
Siltation During dredging, the spill can be minimized but not eliminated completely by the way the dredger is designed and operated. If the material is deposited on land, efficient sedimentation basins can be constructed. If it is dumped into relatively deep water, there will be a significant spill during dumpin but not thereafter, and the spill that arises has minimal impact if there are only fine-sediment bottoms nearby. One of the most difficult conflicts of interest to resolve, as regards siltation mitigation, is perhaps beach nourishment. When sediments are placed on or near beaches in order to replenish an eroding beach, any fines in the material will continue to be washed out for as long as the sand is being reworked. Since all replenished beaches are eroding or they would not need replenishment, they will contribute to nearshore siltation almost for as long as it takes to erode away what was added, albeit with somewhat decreasing intensity over time. Since the leakage is detrimental to coral reefs, the practice leads to a direct conflict between the public interest of saving beaches, and preserving any nearshore coral reefs. To minimize the conflict, beach replenishment should not be done with sand containing any silt or clay fractions. In practice the sand is often taken from offshore areas, and since the proportion of fines in sediments typically increases in the offshore direction, the deposited sand will inevitably contain a significant percentage of siltation-contributing fines | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573115 |
Siltation It is desirable to minimize the siltation of irrigation channels by hydrologic design, the objective being not to create zones with falling sediment transport capacity, as that is conducive to sedimentation. Once sedimentation has occurred, in irrigation or navigation channels, dredging is often the only remedy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573115 |
Magnetic field viewing film is used to show stationary or (less often) slowly changing magnetic fields; it shows their location and direction. It is a translucent thin flexible sheet, coated with micro-capsules containing nickel flakes suspended in oil. When magnetic lines of force are parallel to the surface of the carrier sheet, the surfaces of the flakes are reflective, and appear bright. When lines of force are perpendicular to the sheet, the flakes are edge-on, and appear significantly darker. When the film is placed on a magnet's pole, the latter case applies. together with a ruler can be used to measure the poles per inch of a magnet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5576639 |
Sulfur trioxide pyridine complex is the compound with the formula CHNSO. It is a colourless solid that dissolves in polar organic solvents. It is the adduct formed from the Lewis base pyridine and the Lewis acid sulfur trioxide. The compound is mainly used as a source of sulfur trioxide, for example in the synthesis of sulfate esters from alcohols: This is useful for sulfonylation reactions, especially in the sulfonylation of furans. It is also an activating electrophile in a Parikh-Doering oxidation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5578011 |
Polar surface area The polar surface area (PSA) or topological polar surface area (TPSA) of a molecule is defined as the surface sum over all polar atoms or molecules, primarily oxygen and nitrogen, also including their attached hydrogen atoms. PSA is a commonly used medicinal chemistry metric for the optimization of a drug's ability to permeate cells. Molecules with a polar surface area of greater than 140 angstroms squared tend to be poor at permeating cell membranes. For molecules to penetrate the blood–brain barrier (and thus act on receptors in the central nervous system), a PSA less than 90 angstroms squared is usually needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5578072 |
Eugene O'Mahony ( 1899 Dublin - 21 June 1951 Dublin ) was an Irish museum curator and entomologist who worked on Coleoptera, Mallophaga and Siphonaptera. O'Mahony worked in the National Museum, Dublin. He was a Technical Assistant working with Albert Russell Nichols, James Nathaniel Halbert and Arthur Wilson Stelfox. O'Mahony wrote over fifty articles on Irish Coleoptera between 1924 and 1951 (listed in Ryan et al. (1984) pp. 80–83.) Most appeared in the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine and many introduced new national and county records. "Coleoptera" in Praeger R.L. (ed.) Report on recent additions to the Irish fauna and folra (terrestrial and freshwater) "Proc. R. Irish Academy", 93(B), pp. 22–36(1929). 12,209 species in the Hope Department of Entomology, University Museum. The collection is accompanied by manuscript material including a notebook titled 'Records of beetles in Co. Dublin (North East)' and there is some correspondence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5587811 |
Albert Russell Nichols (1859–1933 ) was an English museum curator and zoologist who worked mainly in Ireland. Nichols was educated at Clare College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in mathematics as 16th wrangler in 1882. Nichols came from England to Dublin in 1883 as Assistant in the Museum of Science and Art (now the National Museum of Ireland). He worked on zoology, classifying and arranging the invertebrates throughout his forty-one years of service. He eventually became Keeper of the Natural History Division. Nichols took part in the Lord Bandon dredging expedition of 1886 with Haddon, sponsored by the Royal Irish Academy, and in the biological surveys of Lambay, Clare Island and Malahide. He compiled or revised lists of echinoderms, marine Mollusca and birds of Ireland, issued by the Museum or by the Royal Irish Academy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5588041 |
Picotee describes flowers whose edge is a different colour than the flower's base colour. The word originates from the French "picoté", meaning 'marked with points'. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5589680 |
NGC 2500 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Lynx which was discovered by William Herschel in 1788. Much like the local group in which our own Milky Way galaxy is situated, is part of NGC 2841 group of galaxies which also includes NGC 2541, NGC 2537 and NGC 2552. It has a H II nucleus and exhibits a weak inner ring structure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5590879 |
Khazri () is the name of the cold north Caspian Sea wind that blows across the Absheron Peninsula throughout the year, particularly in Baku. "Khazri" is a gale-force coastal wind and one of the prevailing winds in the area. The speed of "khazri" sometimes reaches . It damages some economic sectors. However, the wind provides cool temperatures during the summer. The wind is opposed to the Gilavar, the warm wind from the south, usually felt throughout the summertime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5591701 |
Dermott's law is an empirical formula for the orbital period of major satellites orbiting planets in the Solar System. It was identified by the celestial mechanics researcher Stanley Dermott in the 1960s and takes the form: for formula_2 Where "T"("n") is the orbital period of the "n" satellite, "T"(0) is of the order of days and "C" is a constant of the satellite system in question. Specific values are: Such power-laws may be a consequence of collapsing-cloud models of planetary and satellite systems possessing various symmetries; see Titius-Bode law. They may also reflect the effect of resonance-driven commensurabilities in the various systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5597800 |
Commensurability (astronomy) Commensurability is the property of two orbiting objects, such as planets, satellites, or asteroids, whose orbital periods are in a rational proportion. Examples include the 2:3 commensurability between the orbital periods of Neptune and Pluto, the 3:4 commensurability between the orbital periods of the Saturnian satellites Titan and Hyperion, the orbital periods associated with the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt relative to that of Jupiter, and the 2:1 commensurability between Gliese 876 b and Gliese 876 c. Commensurabilities are normally the result of an orbital resonance, rather than being due to coincidence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5597859 |
Tekin Dereli (November 30, 1949) is a Turkish theoretical physicist. He studied at Ankara Science High School and the Middle East Technical University. He was an associate professor and a Professor of Physics at Middle East Technical University (1984–1987, 1993–2001); professor at Faculty of Science at Ankara University (1987–1993), Leverhulme Visiting Professor at Lancaster University UK (2000–2001) and since 2001, he is a professor at the department of physics at Koc University. TUBITAK honored him with TUBITAK Junior Science Price in 1982 and TUBITAK Science Price in 1996. He also was awarded prestigious Turkish prizes for science by "Sedat Simavi Trust" in 1989 and "Prof. Mustafa Parlar Foundation" in (1993). He is a member of Turkish Academy of Sciences (TAS) since 1993. He is married with two children. His research interests are Yang-Mills gauge theories, supersymmetry, supergravity, quaternion and octonion algebras, spin structures, generalised theories of gravity, cosmological solutions, integrable systems and phase space quantisation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5598795 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.