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Iodite The ion, or iodine dioxide anion, is the halite with the chemical formula . Within the ion the Iodine exists in the oxidation state of +3. Iodites (including Iodous acid) are highly unstable and have been observed but never isolated. They will rapidly disproportionate to molecular Iodine and Iodates. However, they have been detected as intermediates in the conversion between iodide and iodate. Iodous acid is acid form of the iodite ion, with the formula HIO. Iodine can assume oxidation states of −1, +1, +3, +5, or +7. A number of neutral iodine oxides are also known. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41894055 |
Museum of the Sea (Uruguay) The Museum of the Sea, opened in 1996, is a museum of natural history located in La Barra, in the department of Maldonado, Uruguay. It occupies about and is divided into four large halls, which are open to the public all year round. The museum contains over 5,000 specimens of marine fauna, all of which are clearly labelled. Among these specimens are whale skeletons, sea urchins, starfish and turtle shells. In addition, there are old photographs and an old bathing machine used by women in the early days of the 20th century, as well as telescopes and blunderbusses of the period. There is also an exhibit about the most famous pirates. This huge collection of objects, exhibits, photographs and stories is the work of the museum's creator, Pablo Etchegaray. This self-taught collector began his collection of marine-related items many years ago. The Museum of the Sea is composed of four museums in one. In the Museum of the Sea, everything is related to marine life: whale skeletons, seashells, a deep sea room, interactive exhibits, an area where children can draw their own pictures, a section devoted to pirates and another to treasure. The Beach Resort Museum shows the history of holiday resorts, some of which are now city neighbourhoods, such as Pocitos and Carrasco, while others are tourist destinations, such as Punta del Este, La Paloma, Piriápolis, Atlántida, Mar del Plata and Copacabana | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41904215 |
Museum of the Sea (Uruguay) The Nostalgia Museum holds collections of vintage objects such as jars, tins, radio sets, medical remedies, photographs, and beach-related items such as beach umbrellas and pails that were used decades ago. Three collections and 38,000 specimens of insects are exhibited in the Insectarium. Most of the specimens are beetles, but there are also moths, cicadas, and grasshoppers, among other species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41904215 |
Toponomics is a discipline in systems biology, molecular cell biology, and histology. It concerns the study of the toponome of organisms. The toponome is the spatial network code of proteins and other biomolecules in morphologically intact cells and tissues. The terms toponome and toponomics were introduced by Walter Schubert in 2003 based on observations with imaging cycler microscopes (ICM). The term “toponome” is derived from the ancient Greek nouns “topos” (τόπος; place, position) and “nomos” (νόμος; law). Hence the term toponomics is descriptive term addressing the fact that the spatial network of biomolecules in cells follows topological rules enabling coordinated actions. This spatial organization is directly revealed by imaging cycler microscopy with parameter- and dimension-unlimited functional resolution. The resulting toponome structures are hierarchically organized and can be described by a three symbol code. is the field of study that has at its goal to decode the complete toponome in health and disease (The human toponome project) – the next big challenge in human biotechnology after having decoded the human genome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41909058 |
Stellar archaeology is the study of the early history of the universe, based on its early composition. By examining the chemical abundances of the earliest stars in the universe: metal-poor, Population II stars; insights are gained into their earlier, metal-free, Population III progenitors. This sheds light on such processes as early star formation, nucleosynthesis in stars and supernovae, and the formation processes of the galactic halo. The field has already discovered that the Milky Way cannibalizes surrounding dwarf galaxies, giving it a youthful appearance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41914285 |
Metal ion buffer A metal-ion buffer provides a controlled source of free metal ions in a manner similar to the regulation of hydrogen ion concentration by a pH buffer A metal-ion buffer solution contains the free (hydrated) metal ion along with a complex compound formed by the association of the ion with a ligand in excess. The concentration of free metal ion depends on the total concentration of each component (ligand and metal ion) as well as on the stability constant of the complex. If the ligand can undergo protonation, the concentration of the free metal ion depends also on solution pH. A considerable improvement in the detection limit of a liquid-membrane ion-selective electrode has been achieved by using a metal-ion buffer as internal solution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41929942 |
Aaron Goldberg (botanist) Aaron Goldberg (November 4, 1917 – December 13, 2014) was an American botanist and parasitologist. He died in December 2014 at the Holy Cross Hospital in Silver Spring, Maryland, at the age of 97. Ph.D. (1962) George Washington University He received his B.A. in 1939 from Brooklyn College, an M.S. in 1954 from De Paul University, and a Ph.D. from George Washington University in 1962. He worked for the US Department of Agriculture as a parasitologist till 1972. Since then he has been a Research Associate in Botany with the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution) in Washington, D.C. Member of the Botanical Society of America. He is best known for the Goldberg system, a treatise on the classification, evolution, and phylogeny of the Monocotyledon and Dicotyledons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41939215 |
NGC 65 (ESO 473-10A/PGC 1229) is a galaxy in the constellation Cetus. Its apparent magnitude is 13.4. It is located at RA 18h 58m 7s, Dec -22°52'48". It was first discovered in 1886, and is also known as PGC 1229. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41940112 |
Accretion (meteorology) Accretion is defined as the gradual collection of something over time. In meteorology or atmospheric science it is the process of accumulation of frozen water as precipitation over time as it descends through the atmosphere, in particular when an ice crystal or snowflake hits a supercooled liquid droplet, which then freeze together, increasing the size of the water particle. The collection of these particles eventually forms snow or hail in clouds and depending on lower atmosphere temperatures may become rain, sleet, or graupel. Accretion is the basis for cloud formation and can also be seen as water accumulates on the particulate matter and form jet contrails. This is because water vapor in the air requires condensation nuclei to form large droplets of solid or liquid water. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41943372 |
Adria virus (ADRV), named after the Adriatic Sea, is a phlebovirus transmitted by sandflies that can cause a febrile illness in people. It has been found in sandfly populations in Albania and northern Greece. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41948243 |
List of unsolved problems in geoscience This list provides references to notable unsolved problems in geoscience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41960512 |
Abell 70 is a planetary nebula located 13,500-17,500 light years away in the constellation of Aquila. It is approaching the earth at 79 kilometers per second and expanding 38 kilometers per second. There is a galaxy named PMN J2033-0656 behind Abell 70, giving it a diamond ring effect. The faint OIII ring structure can be seen through a telescope. The central star of is a binary star consisting of a white dwarf and a barium star. PMN J2033-0656 is an edge-on radio galaxy. Its position gives a diamond ring effect at its northern edge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41963828 |
N. Sasidharan (born 1952) is an Indian Botanist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41966982 |
II Zwicky 73 (also known as Zw II 73) is a lenticular and polar-ring galaxy in the constellation Boötes, and about 250 million light years distant from Earth. It is an object of great scientific interest as there have been very few polar ring galaxies discovered. II Zw 73 is a very gas-rich environment. DSS and SDSS images show that it is very similar to polar ring galaxy NGC 660, the best-known of all the polar ring galaxies. This object is also known as "PGC 54461", "UGC 9796", "MCG+07-31-48", and "PRC A-06" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41974498 |
NGC 2685 (also known as the Helix Galaxy) is a lenticular and polar ring Seyfert Type 2 galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major. It is about 50,000 light-years across and about 42 million light-years away from Earth. It is receding from Earth at 883 kilometers per second. It is an object of great scientific interest, because polar-ring galaxies are very rare galaxies. They are thought to form when two galaxies gravitationally interact with each other. "The bizarre configuration could be caused by the chance capture of material from another galaxy by a disk galaxy, with the captured debris strung out in a rotating ring. Still, observed properties of suggest that the rotating ring structure is remarkably old and stable." Allan Sandage referred to as "perhaps the most peculiar galaxy in the Shapley-Ames Catalog". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41974762 |
Gravitational instability The key idea in explaining the way in which structures evolve in the universe is gravitational instability. If material is to be brought together to form structures, then a long-range force is required, and gravity is the only known possibility. (Although electromagnetism is a long-range force, charge neutrality demands that its influence is unimportant on large scales.) The basic picture is as follows. Suppose that at some initial time, say decoupling, there are small irregularities in the distribution of matter. Those regions with more matter will exert a greater gravitational force on their neighboring regions, and hence tend to draw in the surrounding material. This extra material makes them even more dense than before, increasing their gravitational attraction and further enhancing their pull on their neighbors. An irregular distribution of matter is therefore unstable under the influence of gravity, becoming more and more irregular as time goes by. This instability is exactly what is needed to explain the observation that the Universe is much more irregular now than at decoupling, and gravitational instability is almost universally accepted to be the primary influence leading to the formation of structures in the Universe. It is an appealingly simple picture, rather spoiled in real life by the fact that while gravity may have the lead role, numerous other processes also have a part to play and things become quite complicated | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41975063 |
Gravitational instability For example, we know that radiation has pressure proportional to its density, and during structure formation the irregularities create pressure gradients which lead to forces opposing the gravitational collapse. We know that neutrinos move relativistically and do not interact with other material, and so they are able to escape from structures as they form. And once structure formation begins, the complex astrophysics of stars, especially supernovae, can inject energy back into the intergalactic regions and influence regions yet to complete their gravitational collapse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41975063 |
Enterovirus C is a species of enterovirus. Its best known subtype is poliovirus, the cause of poliomyelitis. There are three serotypes of poliovirus, PV1, PV2, and PV3. Other subtypes of include EV-C95, EV-C96, EV-C99, EV-C102, EV-C104, EV-C105, EV-C109, EV-C116, EV-C117, and EV-C118. Some non-polio types of have been associated with the polio-like condition AFP (acute flaccid paralysis), including 2 isolates of EV-C95 from Chad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41992604 |
Intrinsic low-dimensional manifold In chemical kinetics, an intrinsic low-dimensional manifold is a technique to simplify the study of reaction mechanisms using dynamical systems, first proposed in 1992. The ILDM approach fixes a low dimensional surface which describes well the slow dynamics and assumes that after a short time the fast dynamics are less important and the system can be described in the lower-dimensional space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42043971 |
Siu Shih Chang (Xui Shi Zhang) (born 1918) is a Chinese botanist and plant collector. The elm species "Ulmus changii" was named for him after he discovered it in 1936. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42045081 |
Chem-seq is a technique that is used to map genome-wide interactions between small molecules and their protein targets in the chromatin of eukaryotic cell nuclei. The method employs chemical affinity capture coupled with massively parallel DNA sequencing to identify genomic sites where small molecules interact with their target proteins or DNA. It was first described by Lars Anders et al. in the January, 2014 issue of "Nature Biotechnology". A substantial number of small-molecule ligands, including therapeutic drugs, elicit their effects by binding specific proteins associated with the genome. Mapping the global interactions of these chemical entities with chromatin in a genome-wide manner could provide insights into the mechanisms by which a small molecule influences cellular functions. When combined with other chromatin analysis techniques such as ChIP-seq, can be utilized to investigate the genome-wide effects of therapeutic modalities and to understand the effects of drugs on nuclear architecture in various biological contexts. In a broader sense, these methods will be useful to enhance our understanding of the therapeutic mechanisms through which small molecules modulate the function and activity of genome-associated proteins. Through the identification of the cellular targets of a drug, it becomes possible to gain an increased understanding of the causes of side effects and toxicity in the early stages of drug development, which should help to reduce the attrition rate in development | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42057374 |
Chem-seq relies on the ability to create a biotinylated version of a small molecule of interest to allow for downstream affinity capture. can be carried out either "In vitro" or "In vivo", although the results from each have proven to be highly similar. "In vivo" During "In vivo" Chem-seq, cultured cells in medium are treated simultaneously with either a biotinylated version of the small molecule under study or DMSO (as a control) and 1% formaldehyde for the crosslinking of DNA, proteins and small molecules. DNA is then extracted from the cells, sonicated and enriched for regions containing the biotinylated molecule of interest by incubation with streptavidin magnetic beads, which have a very high affinity for biotin. The enriched DNA fraction is then purified, eluted from the beads and subjected to next generation sequencing. Genomic regions enriched in the library relative to the control are associated with the small molecule under study. "In vitro" "In vitro" begins with the crosslinking of cultured cells in medium with 0.5% formaldehyde. Cell nuclei are then harvested from the cells and their DNA is extracted. This extract is sonicated before being incubated with streptavidin magnetic beads that are bound to a biotinylated form of our compound of interest. This provides an opportunity for the small molecule of interest to interact with its target genomic regions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42057374 |
Chem-seq These genomic regions are then isolated using a magnet and subjected to next generation sequencing and analysis to determine regions enriched for our small molecule of interest. was tested on three classes of drugs using MM1.S multiple myeloma cells to: 1) Investigate the genome-wide binding of the bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 to the BET bromodomain family members BRD2, BRD3 and BRD4 2) Map the genomic binding sites of AT7519, an inhibitor of the cyclin dependent kinase CDK9, and 3) Study how the DNA intercalating agent psoralen interacts with genomic DNA in vivo. In the first two trials, signals occurred at genomic sites occupied by the drugs' corresponding target proteins and were concordant with ChIP-seq results. However, bio-AT7519 produced weaker signals compared to those observed for bio-JQ1. There was also a substantial number of loci that were not co-occupied by bio-AT7519 and its target CDK9 which might be attributed to the weaker signal obtained for bio-AT7519 or because AT7519 can bind and inhibit other cyclin-dependent kinase like cdks 1, 2, 4, 5. In a third experiment, was efficient in mapping genomic binding sites of the DNA intercalating agent psoralen and showed that bio-psoralen preferentially binds to the transcription start site of active genes. "Advantages" is the first method that provides researchers with a way of determining the location of small molecules throughout the genome | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42057374 |
Chem-seq It can be used in conjunction with ChIP-seq to cross reference the location of certain drugs with DNA binding proteins, like transcription factors, to discover novel interactions and aid in characterizing the molecular mechanisms through which small molecules affect the genome. Because it uses next generation sequencing to determine small molecule binding sites, has a very high sensitivity and is compatible with other next generation sequencing based methods. Previously, another similar technique known as chromatin affinity-precipitation (ChAP) assay was used to map the sites of interaction of metabolic compounds in the yeast genome, but is the first method to assess the genome-wide localization of small molecules in mammalian cells. "Limitations" For to be feasible, the small molecule under study must be amenable to biotinylation without disruption of its natural binding properties. This is simply not possible with certain small molecules and even when it is, the process can require expertise in organic chemistry. Once synthesized, the binding properties of the biotinylated compound must be tested. To date, this has been accomplished by comparing the binding kinetics of the biotinylated and unmodified compounds, a process that requires prior knowledge of the proteins that the compound binds. The locations of Bio-JQ1 throughout the genome, as determined using Chem-seq, are almost identical to the ChIP-seq derived locations of the JQ1’s known target protein, BRD4 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42057374 |
Chem-seq Although this may be viewed as a testament to the accuracy of the method it also highlights redundancies between the two techniques, especially when target proteins are previously known. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42057374 |
Anton Hermann Fassl Anton Heinrich Hermann Fassl (1876, Komotau - 1922, Manaos) was a German entomologist. Fassl collected Lepidoptera and Coleoptera in Colombia (1907-1908), Brazil and Ecuador. He was sometime in Berlin, sometime at a dealership Naturhistorisches-Institut, 948 Zeidlerstrasse, Teplitz, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary (now Teplice, the Czech Republic). He supplied specimens to Ernst Hartert and Karl Jordan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067358 |
Single cell sequencing examines the sequence information from individual cells with optimized next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, providing a higher resolution of cellular differences and a better understanding of the function of an individual cell in the context of its microenvironment. For example, in cancer, sequencing the DNA of individual cells can give information about mutations carried by small populations of cells. In development, sequencing the RNAs expressed by individual cells can give insight into the existence and behavior of different cell types. In microbial systems, a population of the same species can appear to be genetically clonal, but single-cell sequencing of RNA or epigenetic modifications can reveal cell-to-cell variability that may help populations rapidly adapt to survive in changing environments. A typical human cell consists of about 2 x 3.3 billion base pairs of DNA and 600 million bases of mRNA. Usually a mix of millions of cells are used in sequencing the DNA or RNA using traditional methods like Sanger sequencing or Illumina sequencing. By using deep sequencing of DNA and RNA from a single cell, cellular functions can be investigated extensively. Like typical NGS experiments, the protocols of single cell sequencing generally contain the following steps: isolation of a single cell, nucleic acid extraction and amplification, sequencing library preparation, sequencing and bioinformatic data analysis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing It is more challenging to perform single cell sequencing in comparison with sequencing from cells in bulk. The minimal amount of starting materials from a single cell make degradation, sample loss and contamination exert pronounced effects on quality of sequencing data. In addition, due to the picogram level of the amount of nucleic acids used, heavy amplification is often needed during sample preparation of single cell sequencing, resulting in the uneven coverage, noise and inaccurate quantification of sequencing data. Recent technical improvements make single cell sequencing a promising tool for approaching a set of seemingly inaccessible problems. For example, heterogeneous samples, rare cell types, cell lineage relationships, mosaicism of somatic tissues, analyses of microbes that cannot be cultured, and disease evolution can all be elucidated through single cell sequencing. was selected as the method of the year 2013 by Nature Publishing Group. Single-cell DNA genome sequencing involves isolating a single cell, amplifying the whole genome or region of interest, constructing sequencing libraries, and then applying next-generation DNA sequencing (ex. Illumina, Ion Torrent). In mammalian systems, single-cell DNA sequencing has been widely applied to study normal physiology and disease. Single-cell resolution can uncover the roles of genetic mosaicism or intra-tumor genetic heterogeneity in cancer development or treatment response | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing In the context of microbiomes, a genome from a single unicellular organism is referred to as a single amplified genome (SAG). Advancements in single-cell DNA sequencing have enabled the collection of genomic data from uncultivated prokaryotic species present in complex microbiomes. Although SAGs are characterized by low completeness and significant bias, recent computational advances have achieved the assembly of near-complete genomes from composite SAGs. Data obtained from microorganisms might establish processes for culturing in the future. Some of the genome assembly tools that can be used in single cell genome sequencing include: SPAdes, IDBA-UD, Cortex and HyDA. A list of more than 100 different single cell omics methods have been published. Multiple displacement amplification (MDA) is a widely used technique, enabling amplifying femtograms of DNA from bacterium to micrograms for the use of sequencing. Reagents required for MDA reactions include: random primers and DNA polymerase from bacteriophage phi29. In 30 degree isothermal reaction, DNA is amplified with included reagents. As the polymerases manufacture new strands, a strand displacement reaction takes place, synthesizing multiple copies from each template DNA. At the same time, the strands that were extended antecedently will be displaced. MDA products result in a length of about 12 kb and ranges up to around 100 kb, enabling its use in DNA sequencing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing In 2017, a major improvement to this technique, called WGA-X, was introduced by taking advantage of a thermostable mutant of the phi29 polymerase, leading to better genome recovery from individual cells, in particular those with high G+C content. MDA has also been implemented in a microfluidic droplet-based system to achieve a highly parallelized single-cell whole genome amplification. By encapsulating single-cells in droplets for DNA capture and amplification, this method offers reduced bias and enhanced throughput compared to conventional MDA. Another common method is MALBAC. This method begins with isothermal amplification as done in MDA, but the primers are flanked with a “common” sequence for downstream PCR amplification. As the preliminary amplicons are generated, the common sequence promotes self-ligation and the formation of “loops” to prevent further amplification. In contrast with MDA, the highly branched DNA network is not formed. Instead, in another temperature cycle, the loops are denatured, allowing the fragments to be amplified with PCR. MALBAC has also been implemented in a microfluidic device, but the amplification performance was not significantly improved by encapsulation in nanoliter droplets. Comparing MDA and MALBAC, MDA results in better genome coverage, but MALBAC provides more even coverage across the genome. MDA could be more effective for identifying SNPs, whereas MALBAC is preferred for detecting copy number variants | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing While performing MDA with a microfluidic device markedly reduces bias and contamination, the chemistry involved in MALBAC does not demonstrate the same potential for improved efficiency. The choice of method depends on the goal of the sequencing because each method presents different advantages. MDA of individual cell genomes results in highly uneven genome coverage, i.e. relative overrepresentation and underrepresentation of various regions of the template, leading to loss of some sequences. There are two components to this process: a) stochastic over- and under-amplification of random regions; and b) systematic bias against high %GC regions. The stochastic component may be addressed by pooling single-cell MDA reactions from the same cell type, by employing fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and/or post-sequencing confirmation. The bias of MDA against high %GC regions can be addressed by using thermostable polymerases, such as in the process called WGA-X. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are a big part of genetic variation in the human genome, and copy number variation (CNV), pose problems in single cell sequencing, as well as the limited amount of DNA extracted from a single cell. Due to scant amounts of DNA, accurate analysis of DNA poses problems even after amplification since coverage is low and is susceptible to errors. With MDA, average genome coverage is less than 80% and SNPs that are not covered by sequencing reads will be opted out | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing In addition, MDA shows a high ratio of allele dropout, not detecting alleles from heterozygous samples. Various SNP algorithms are currently in use but none are specific to single cell sequencing. MDA with CNV also poses the problem of identifying false CNVs that conceal the real CNVs. To solve this, when patterns can be generated from false CNVs, algorithms can detect and eradicate this noise to produce true variants. Microbiomes are among the main targets of single cell genomics due to the difficulty of culturing the majority of microorganisms in most environments. Single-cell genomics is a powerful way to obtain microbial genome sequences without cultivation. This approach has been widely applied on marine, soil, subsurface, organismal, and other types of microbiomes in order to address a wide array of questions related to microbial ecology, evolution, public health and biotechnology potential. Cancer sequencing is also an emerging application of scDNAseq. Fresh or frozen tumors may be analyzed and categorized with respect to SCNAs, SNVs, and rearrangements quite well using whole genome DNAS approaches. Cancer scDNAseq is particularly useful for examining the depth of complexity and compound mutations present in amplified therapeutic targets such as receptor tyrosine kinase genes (EGFR, PDGFRA etc.) where conventional population-level approaches of the bulk tumor are not able to resolve the co-occurrence patterns of these mutations within single cells of the tumor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing Such overlap may provide redundancy of pathway activation and tumor cell resistance. Single-cell DNA methylome sequencing quantifies DNA methylation. There are several known types of methylation that occur in nature, including 5-methylcytosine (5mC), 5-hydroymethylcytosine (5hmC), 6-methyladenine (6mA), and 4mC 4-methylcytosine (4mC). In eukaryotes, especially animals, 5mC is widespread along the genome and plays an important role in regulating gene expression by repressing transposable elements. Sequencing 5mC in individual cells can reveal how epigenetic changes across genetically identical cells from a single tissue or population give rise to cells with different phenotypes. Bisulfite sequencing has become the gold standard in detecting and sequencing 5mC in single cells. Treatment of DNA with bisulfite converts cytosine residues to uracil, but leaves 5-methylcytosine residues unaffected. Therefore, DNA that has been treated with bisulfite retains only methylated cytosines. To obtain the methylome readout, the bisulfite-treated sequence is aligned to an unmodified genome. Whole genome bisulfite sequencing was achieved in single cells in 2014. The method overcomes the loss of DNA associated with the typical procedure, where sequencing adapters are added prior to bisulfite fragmentation. Instead, the adapters are added after the DNA is treated and fragmented with bisulfite, allowing all fragments to be amplified by PCR. Using deep sequencing, this method captures ~40% of the total CpGs in each cell | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing One way to improve the coverage of the method further would be to improve CpG capture efficiency by amplifying the DNA prior to bisulfite treatment. Single-cell reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (scRRBS) is another method. This method leverages the tendency of methylated cytosines to cluster at CpG islands (CGIs) to enrich for areas of the genome with a high CpG content. This reduces the cost of sequencing compared to whole genome bisulfite sequencing, but limits the coverage of this method. When RRBS is applied to bulk samples, majority of the CpG sites in gene promoters are detected, but site in gene promoters only account for 10% of CpG sites in the entire genome. In single cells, 40% of the CpG sites from the bulk sample are detected. To increase coverage, this method can also be applied to a small pool of single cells. In a sample of 20 pooled single cells, 63% of the CpG sites from the bulk sample were detected. Pooling single cells is one strategy to increase methylome coverage, but at the cost of obscuring the heterogeneity in the population of cells. While bisulfite sequencing remains the most widely used approach for 5mC detection, the chemical treatment is harsh and fragments and degrades the DNA. This effect is exacerbated when moving from bulk samples to single cells. Other methods to detect DNA methylation include methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes also enable the detection of other types of methylation, such as 6mA with DpnI | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing Nanopore-based sequencing also offers a route for direct methylation sequencing without fragmentation or modification to the original DNA. Nanopore sequencing has been used to sequence the methylomes of bacteria, which are dominated by 6mA and 4mC (as opposed to 5mC in eukaryotes), but this technique has not yet been scaled down to single cells. Single-cell DNA methylation sequencing has been widely used to explore epigenetic differences in genetically similar cells. To validate these methods during their development, the single-cell methylome data of a mixed population were successfully classified by hierarchal clustering to identify distinct cell types. Another application is studying single cells during the first few cell divisions in early development to understand how different cell types emerge from a single embryo. Single-cell whole genome bisulfite sequencing has also been used to study rare but highly active cell types in cancer such as circulating tumor cells (CTCs). Single cell transposes-accessible chromatin sequencing maps chromatin accessibility across the genome. A transposase inserts sequencing adapters directly into open regions of chromatin, allowing those regions to be amplified and sequenced. Standard methods such as microarrays and bulk RNA-seq analysis analyze the expression of RNAs from large populations of cells. In mixed cell populations, these measurements may obscure critical differences between individual cells within these populations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) provides the expression profiles of individual cells. Although it is not possible to obtain complete information on every RNA expressed by each cell, due to the small amount of material available, patterns of gene expression can be identified through gene clustering analyses. This can uncover the existence of rare cell types within a cell population that may never have been seen before. For example, rare specialized cells in the lung called pulmonary ionocytes that express the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator were identified in 2018 by two groups performing scRNA-Seq on lung airway epithelia. Current scRNA-seq protocols involve isolating single cells and their RNA, and then following the same steps as bulk RNA-seq: reverse transcription (RT), amplification, library generation and sequencing. Early methods separated individual cells into separate wells; more recent methods encapsulate individual cells in droplets in a microfluidic device, where the reverse transcription reaction takes place, converting RNAs to cDNAs. Each droplet carries a DNA "barcode" that uniquely labels the cDNAs derived from a single cell. Once reverse transcription is complete, the cDNAs from many cells can be mixed together for sequencing; transcripts from a particular cell are identified by the unique barcode. Challenges for scRNA-Seq include preserving the initial relative abundance of mRNA in a cell and identifying rare transcripts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing The reverse transcription step is critical as the efficiency of the RT reaction determines how much of the cell’s RNA population will be eventually analyzed by the sequencer. The processivity of reverse transcriptases and the priming strategies used may affect full-length cDNA production and the generation of libraries biased toward 3’ or 5' end of genes. In the amplification step, either PCR or in vitro transcription (IVT) is currently used to amplify cDNA. One of the advantages of PCR-based methods is the ability to generate full-length cDNA. However, different PCR efficiency on particular sequences (for instance, GC content and snapback structure) may also be exponentially amplified, producing libraries with uneven coverage. On the other hand, while libraries generated by IVT can avoid PCR-induced sequence bias, specific sequences may be transcribed inefficiently, thus causing sequence drop-out or generating incomplete sequences. Several scRNA-seq protocols have been published: Tang et al., STRT, SMART-seq, CEL-seq, RAGE-seq, Quartz-seq. and C1-CAGE. These protocols differ in terms of strategies for reverse transcription, cDNA synthesis and amplification, and the possibility to accommodate sequence-specific barcodes (i.e. UMIs) or the ability to process pooled samples. In 2017, two approaches were introduced to simultaneously measure single-cell mRNA and protein expression through oligonucleotide-labeled antibodies known as REAP-seq, and CITE-seq | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing Most RNA-Seq methods depend on poly(A) tail capture to enrich mRNA and deplete abundant and uninformative rRNA. Thus, they are often restricted to sequencing polyadenylated mRNA molecules. However, recent studies are now starting to appreciate the importance of non-poly(A) RNA, such as long-noncoding RNA and microRNAs in gene expression regulation. Small-seq is a single-cell method that captures small RNAs (<300 nucleotides) such as microRNAs, fragments of tRNAs and small nucleolar RNAs in mammalian cells. This method uses a combination of “oligonucleotide masks” (that inhibit the capture of highly abundant 5.8S rRNA molecules) and size selection to exclude large RNA species such as other highly abundant rRNA molecules. To target larger non-poly(A) RNAs, such as long non-coding mRNA, histone mRNA, circular RNA, and enhancer RNA, size selection is not applicable for depleting the highly abundant ribosomal RNA molecules (18S and 28s rRNA). Single-cell RamDA-Seq is a method that achieves this by performing reverse transcription with random priming (random displacement amplification) in the presence of “not so random” (NSR) primers specifically designed to avoid priming on rRNA molecule. While this method successfully captures full-length total RNA transcripts for sequencing and detected a variety of non-poly(A) RNAs with high sensitivity, it has some limitations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing The NSR primers were carefully designed according to rRNA sequences in the specific organism (mouse), and designing new primer sets for other species would take considerable effort. Bacteria and other prokaryotes are currently not amenable to single-cell RNA-seq due to the lack of polyadenylated mRNA. Thus, the development of single-cell RNA-seq methods that do not depend on poly(A) tail capture will also be instrumental in enabling single-cell resolution microbiome studies. Bulk bacterial studies typically apply general rRNA depletion to overcome the lack of polyadenylated mRNA on bacteria, but at the single-cell level, the total RNA found in one cell is too small. Lack of polyadenylated mRNA and scarcity of total RNA found in single bacteria cells are two important barriers limiting the deployment of scRNA-seq in bacteria. scRNA-Seq is becoming widely used across biological disciplines including Developmental biology, , Neurology, Oncology, Immunology, and Infectious disease. Some scRNA-seq methods have also been applied to single cell microorganisms. SMART-seq2 has been used to analyze single cell eukaryotic microbes, but since it relies on poly(A) tail capture, it has not been applied in prokaryotic cells. Microfluidic approaches such as Drop-seq and the Fluidigm IFC-C1 devices have been used to sequence single malaria parasites or single yeast cells | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing The single-cell yeast study sought to characterize the heterogeneous stress tolerance in isogenic yeast cells before and after the yeast are exposed to salt stress. Single-cell analysis of the several transcription factors by scRNA-seq revealed heterogeneity across the population. These results suggest that regulation varies among members of a population to increase the chances of survival for a fraction of the population. The first single-cell transcriptome analysis in a prokaryotic species was accomplished using the terminator exonuclease enzyme to selectively degrade rRNA and rolling circle amplification (RCA) of mRNA. In this method, the ends of single stranded DNA were ligated together to form a circle, and the resulting loop was then used as a template for linear RNA amplification. The final product library was then analyzed by microarray, with low bias and good coverage. However, RCA has not been tested with RNA-seq, which typically employs next-generation sequencing. Single-cell RNA-seq for bacteria would be highly useful for studying microbiomes. It would address issues encountered in conventional bulk metatranscriptomics approaches, such as failing to capture species present in low abundance, and failing to resolve heterogeneity among cell populations. scRNA-Seq has provided considerable insight into the development of embryos and organisms, including the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, and the regenerative planarian Schmidtea mediterranea and axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing The first vertebrate animals to be mapped in this way were Zebrafish and "Xenopus laevis". In each case multiple stages of the embryo were studied, allowing the entire process of development to be mapped on a cell-by-cell basis. Science recognized these advances as the 2018 Breakthrough of the Year. There are several ways to isolate individual cells prior to whole genome amplification and sequencing. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) is a widely used approach. Individual cells can also be collected by micromanipulation, for example by serial dilution or by using a patch pipette or nanotube to harvest a single cell. The advantages of micromanipulation are ease and low cost, but they are laborious and susceptible to misidentification of cell types under microscope. Laser-capture microdissection (LCM) can also be used for collecting single cells. Although LCM preserves the knowledge of the spatial location of a sampled cell within a tissue, it is hard to capture a whole single cell without also collecting the materials from neighboring cells. High-throughput methods for single cell isolation also include microfluidics. Both FACS and microfluidics are accurate, automatic and capable of isolating unbiased samples. However, both methods require detaching cells from their microenvironments first, thereby causing perturbation to the transcriptional profiles in RNA expression analysis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Single cell sequencing Generally speaking, for a typical bulk cell RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) experiment, ten million reads are generated and a gene with higher than the threshold of 50 reads per kb per million reads (RPKM) is considered expressed. For a gene that is 1kb long, this corresponds to 500 reads and a minimum coefficient of variation (CV) of 4% under the assumption of the Poisson distribution. For a typical mammalian cell containing 200,000 mRNA, sequencing data from at least 50 single cells need to be pooled in order to achieve this minimum CV value. However, due to the efficiency of reverse transcription and other noise introduced in the experiments, more cells are required for accurate expression analyses and cell type identification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42067613 |
Otto Garlepp (20 August 1864, Cörmigk – 25 November 1959, Köthen), was a German naturalist and with his brother Gustav Garlepp (1862–1907) a professional collector. The brothers and Gustav Garlepp are honoured in the butterfly name "Papilio garleppi", the bird name "Compsospiza garleppi" the mammal name Garlepp's mouse, a subspecies of the Pampas cat and another of Darwin's rhea amongst many others. They were professional collectors in South America from 1883. At first Gustav worked alone, arriving in Brazil where there were many people of German descent ("Deutschbrasilianer") to collect insects for Dresden Zoological Museum. Gustav returned to Germany in 1892 following 4 years in Peru, a short trip to Germany and then an expedition to Bolivia. He returned to Bolivia in 1893 with his wife and Otto. He visited Germany for the last time in 1900 when he demonstrated 600 Neotropical bird species at a meeting of the Deutsche Ornithologen-Gesellschaft in Leipzig.Gustav Garlepp settled in Paraguay in 1901. He was murdered there in 1907. Otto returned to Germany in 1911. He married Elise Ida Schulz in Germany and the couple returned to South America. Through Dr. F. Ris in Switzerland, specimens of Lepidoptera are detailed, saying [translated]: "Mr. Fassl conveyed me collections that the very well-known tropical collector in lepidopterology circles had collected for him in Panama and Costarica in the same years 1912-13. In Panama are called as Lino and bugabita, after a written letter in the area of the Chiriqui volcano | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42073694 |
Otto Garlepp In Costa Rica he collected in the areas the railway line in the valley of the Rio Reventazon and on the volcanoes Irazu and Turrialba. Both areas are well known through the Biologia Centrali Americana". Otto's collecting ceased in 1913. The Garlepp zoological specimens are from Bolivia, Peru Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica Paraguay, Chile and Argentina. Many are holotypes. 4,000 Garlepp bird skins were purchased by Hans von Berlepsch who had trained Otto and who described the new species. The specimens are now in Naturmuseum Senckenberg and Naturhistorisches Museum Braunschweig. Further specimens are in Naumann Museum, Köthener Schloss (Website).Oology specimens are held by the Staatliches Museum für Tierkunde in Dresden (from the collection of Maximilian Kuschel), and by Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna (from the collection of Josef Seilern (1883–1939)). Mammal specimens are in Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin. Butterflies went to the dealership Otto Staudinger. These are now widely dispersed as are insects of other orders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42073694 |
Emaravirus is a genus of plant viruses. The genus has 11 species. The type species "European mountain ash ringspot-associated emaravirus" is associated with a leaf mottling and ringspot disease of European mountain ash "Sorbus aucuparia". It can be transmitted by grafting and possibly mites. The virion particle is between 80-100 nm and consists of an enveloped ribonucleocapsid that exhibits helical symmetry. The genomes are segmented, consisting of four strands of negative-sense single-stranded RNA. "Emaravirus" has the closest phylogenetic relationship with members of the genera "Orthotospovirus" and "Orthobunyavirus". The 3' and 5' ends of the genomic RNAs are complementary (similar to viruses of the "Bunyavirales" order), with the sequence 5'-AGUAGUGUUCUCC-3' at the 5' terminus and 5'-GGAGUUCACUACU-3' at the 3' terminus. However, the number of genome segments and gene sequences distinguishes emaraviruses from bunyaviruses and tenuiviruses. The following species are recognized: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42084535 |
Mednax MEDNAX is an American company founded in 1979 and is headquartered in Sunrise, Florida. The company focuses on neonatal, anesthesia, maternal-fetal and pediatric physician subspecialty services in all 50 states and Puerto Rico. There are two subsidiaries in the company, Pediatrix Medical Group and American Anesthesiology. Pediatrix was established in 1979, and is the United States' largest provider of newborn hearing screening. MEDNAX is a national medical group comprising providers of neonatal, anesthesia, maternal-fetal and pediatric physician subspecialty services. Pediatrix Medical Group, a division of MEDNAX , was founded in 1979 and includes neonatal physicians who provide services at more than 360 neonatal intensive care units, and collaborate with affiliated maternal-fetal medicine, pediatric cardiology, pediatric critical care and other physician subspecialists to provide a clinical care continuum. Pediatrix is also the nation's largest provider of newborn hearing screens. American Anesthesiology, a division of MEDNAX , was established in 2007 and includes more than 2,350 anesthesiologists and advanced practitioners who provide anesthesia care to patients in connection with surgical and other procedures as well as pain management. MEDNAX , through its affiliated professional corporations, employs more than 2,625 physicians in 34 states and Puerto Rico. In 2013, the company acquired Neonatology Center of Winchester, P.C., Dayton Newborn Care Specialists, Inc | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42091723 |
Mednax (being part of Pediatrix Medical Group) In early 2014, MEDNAX acquired Summit Anesthesia Associates, P.A., Physicians Anesthesia Associates, P.A., and Great Lakes Anesthesia Associates, P.C. (being part of American Anesthesiology) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42091723 |
David E. Weston (19 January 1929 – 16 November 2001) was an English physicist, who worked at the Admiralty Research Establishment. During his early career he worked with A B Wood, and is best known for his contributions to underwater acoustics. He published more than 65 papers, including 32 in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, and was awarded the Rayleigh Medal by the Institute of Acoustics in 1970 and the ASA Silver Medal by the Acoustical Society of America in 1998. Dr Weston was president of the UK Institute of Acoustics between 1982 and 1984. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42095025 |
Witold Rybczyński Witold Rybczynski Erasmus (June 2, 1881 in Stanisławowo – August 13, 1949) was a Polish physicist and mathematician, a professor at the Lviv Polytechnic, and a high-school teacher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42109045 |
NGC 6845 (also known as Klemola 30) is an interacting system of four galaxies in the constellation Telescopium. The cluster has certain similarities with Stephan's Quintet. Its distance is estimated to be about 90 Mpc. The components of the galaxy cluster are the two spiral galaxies NGC 6845A and NGC 6845B as well as the two lenticular galaxies NGC 6845C and NGC 6845D. The four galaxies occupy an area of about 4' x 2' in the sky. The largest galaxy in this compact galaxy cluster is NGC 6845A, a barred spiral galaxy. SN 2008DA was a Type II supernova observed in NGC 6845A in June 2008. The dwarf galaxy ATCA J2001-4659, which is found around 4.4' northeast of NGC 6845B, was identified as a companion of NGC 6845. was discovered on July 7, 1834 by John Herschel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42131453 |
Candiru phlebovirus (CDUV) is a species in the genus "Phlebovirus". The Candiru antigenic complex consists of "Candiru phlebovirus" along with 70 named viruses among which 6 are known to cause disease in humans. Here are some : | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42137996 |
Instrumental magnitude refers to an uncalibrated apparent magnitude, and, like its counterpart, it refers to the brightness of an astronomical object seen from an observer on Earth, but unlike its counterpart, it is only useful in relative comparisons to other astronomical objects in the same image (assuming the photometric calibration does not spatially vary across the image; in the case of images from the Palomar Transient Factory, the absolute photometric calibration involves a zero point that varies over the image by up to 0.16 magnitudes to make a required illumination correction). is defined in various ways, and so when working with instrumental magnitudes, it is important to know how they are defined. The most basic definition of instrumental magnitude, formula_1, is given by where formula_3 is the intensity of the source object in known physical units. For example, in the paper by Mighell, it was assumed that the data are in units of electron number (generated within pixels of a charge-coupled device). The physical units of the source intensity are thus part of the definition required for any instrumental magnitudes that are employed. The factor of 2.5 in the above formula originates from the established fact that the human eye can only clearly distinguish the brightness of two objects if one is at least approximately 2.5 times brighter than the other | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42186414 |
Instrumental magnitude The instrumental magnitude is defined such that two objects with a brightness ratio of exactly 100 will differ by precisely 5 magnitudes, and this is based on Pogson's system of defining each successive magnitude as being fainter by formula_4. We can now relate this to the base-10 logarithmic function and the leading coefficient in the above formula: The approximate value of 2.5 is used as a convenience, its negative sign assures that brighter objects will have smaller and possibly negative values, and tabulated values of base-10 logarithms were available more than three centuries before the advent of computers and calculators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42186414 |
Natural History Museum of Isfahan The is located in a building from the Timurid era in the 15th century. The building includes some large halls and a veranda, which are decorated by muqarnas and stucco. The museum has 7 halls: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42193249 |
Vat Green 1 is an organic compound that is used as a vat dye. It is a derivative of benzanthrone. It is a dark green solid. can dye viscose, silk, wool, paper, and soap. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42208547 |
Vat Yellow 1 is a vat dye, yellow in appearance under some conditions used in cloth dying. Its synonyms are flavanthrone and Indofast Yellow, and it is in the class of anthraquinone-type compounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42208674 |
Grant Mossop (1948 - 7 October 2005) was a geologist from Canada. He earned a B.Sc. in 1970 and an M.Sc. in 1971 from the University of Calgary followed by a Ph.D. in geology from the University of London. He served as the Director of the Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada Calgary. A graduate scholarship in his name was established in 2009. He was awarded the Ambrose Medal of the Geological Association of Canada in 1995. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42221636 |
CFBDS J005910.90–011401.3 CFBDS J005910.90−011401.3 (also CFBDS J0059−0114 or CFBDS0059) is a brown dwarf with a low temperature of only 625 K, located in constellation Cetus about 30 light-years away. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42224258 |
Synthetic virology is a branch of virology engaged in the study and engineering of synthetic man-made viruses. It is a multidisciplinary research field at the intersection of virology, synthetic biology, computational biology, and DNA nanotechnology, from which it borrows and integrates its concepts and methodologies. There is a wide range of applications for synthetic viral technology such as medical treatments, investigative tools, and reviving organisms. Advances in genome sequencing technology and oligonucleotide synthesis paved the way for construction of synthetic genomes based on previously sequenced genomes. Both RNA and DNA viruses can be made using existing methods. RNA viruses have historically been utilized due to the typically small genome size and existing reverse transcription machinery present. The first man-made infectious viruses generated without any natural template were of the polio virus and the φX174 bacteriophage. With synthetic live viruses, it is not whole viruses that are synthesized but rather their genome at first, both in the case of DNA and RNA viruses. For many viruses, viral RNA is infectious when introduced into a cell (during infection or after reverse transcription). These organisms are able to sustain an infectious life cycle upon introduction "in vivo". This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42224368 |
Synthetic virology The ability to synthesize viruses has far-reaching consequences, since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct, as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and permissive cells are available. As of March 2020, the full-length genome sequences of 9,240 different viruses, including the smallpox virus, are publicly available in an online database maintained by the National Institutes of Health. Synthetic viruses have also been researched as potential gene therapy tools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42224368 |
Hugo P. Kortschak Hugo Peter Kortschak (or Kortschack; 4 September 1911, in Chicago, Illinois – 20 August 1983) was an American biologist who discovered the C4 pathway in 1957. This pathway is an adaptation found in plants which reduces loss of energy via the inefficient C2 pathway. It is found in several plants, such as maize and sugarcane. The C4 pathway was rediscovered by Hatch and Slack (to whom the discovery is sometimes wrongly credited). He was the son of the Austrian-American violinist Hugo Kortschak, father of Alice M Kortschak and Nonnie Winifred Kortschak. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42233461 |
Stripe 82 is a 300 deg equatorial field of sky that was imaged multiple times by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey from 2000 to 2008. It approximately covers the region with right ascension from 20:00h to 4:00h and declination from -1.26° to +1.26°. has also been observed using many other telescopes and instruments, a list of which is given below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42242509 |
Chibaite is a rare silicate mineral. It is a silica clathrate with formula SiO·n(CH,CH,CH,i-CH) (n = 3/17 (max)). The mineral is cubic (diploidal class, m) and the silica hosts or traps various hydrocarbon molecules, such as methane, ethane, propane and isobutane. was first described for specimens collected from Arakawa, Minamibōsō, Chiba Prefecture, Honshu Island, Japan. The mineral was approved by the IMA in 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42242866 |
NGC 66 is a barred spiral galaxy discovered by Frank Muller in 1886, and is located in the Cetus constellation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42256136 |
Neelima Gupte Neelima M. Gupte is an Indian physicist. She obtained her B.Sc. from Bombay University in 1976, M.Sc. from IIT Bombay in 1978 and Ph.D from SUNY at Stony Brook in 1983. She has subsequently worked at the University of Hyderabad, and was on the faculty of Pune University from 1985 to 1993. She is presently Professor in the Department of Physics, IIT Madras. Her research interests lie in the field of nonlinear dynamics, and chaos. Some important results obtained by her and her collaborators include the phase transition analogs of the thermodynamics of multifractals, the method of impulsive synchronisation and the enhancement of the efficiency of load-bearing and communication networks. Her current research interests include the analysis of spatiotemporal intermittency in extended systems, chaotic advection and the study of networks. In addition to her academic interests, she has also participated in the activities of the 'Women in Physics' group of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics. She is included in Lilavati's Daughters, the compendium of biographical and autobiographical essays on Women Scientists of India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42257649 |
Slug flow In fluid mechanics, slug flow in liquid–gas two-phase flow is type of flow pattern. Lighter, faster moving "continuous" fluid which contains gas bubbles - pushes along a "disperse" gas bubble. Pressure oscillations within piping can be caused by slug flow. The word slug usually refers to the heavier, slower moving fluid, but can also be used to refer to the bubbles of the lighter fluid. This flow is characterised by the intermittent sequence of liquid slugs followed by longer gas bubbles flowing through a pipe. The flow regime is similar to plug flow, but the bubbles are larger and move at a greater velocity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42261806 |
Immune Therapy Holdings AB or ITH is a Swedish biotechnology R&D holding company headquartered at the Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm. ITH's research is primarily focused on its Tailored Leukapheresis (TLA) treatment for immune mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs). Tailored Leukapheresis (TLA) treatment is an apheresis immunotherapy for selective removal of disease-causing pro-inflammatory cells extracorporeally, which has therapeutic application in various IMIDs that are caused and maintained by inflammation. TLA utilises the natural affinity of chemokines and chemokine receptors to selectively attract, bind, and deplete circulating pro-inflammatory cells "en route" to the site of inflammation. It is the first, and hitherto novel, apheresis technology with a demonstrated efficacy in targeting and removing selected leukocytes while leaving all other blood cells unaffected. The immunotherapy has been evaluated in a Phase I/II placebo-controlled clinical trial, where all primary and secondary clinical endpoints were met and the treatment showed an absence of any side effects of clinical significance. TLA received the Dagens Medicin's Athena Prize (Sweden, 2013) and Universal Biotech Innovation Prize (France, 2012). During 2014, TLA was selected by the Swedish Institute for its Innovative Sweden exhibition that highlights Swedish innovativeness worldwide. TLA has received competitive research funding from the following sources: The global anti-inflammatory therapeutics market was $57 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42277447 |
Immune Therapy Holdings 8 billion in 2010 and is estimated to increase at a CAGR of 5.8% between 2010 and 2017 to a total value of $85.9 billion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42277447 |
Corotation circle The corotation circle is the circle around the galactic center of a spiral galaxy, where the stars move at the same speed as the spiral arms. The radius of this circle is called corotation radius. Inside the circle the stars move faster and outside they move slower than the spiral arms. The Sun is located near the corotation circle of the Milky Way. The corotation circle takes on particular importance referencing to dark matter. In barred spiral galaxies (our Milky Way could be galaxy of this type according to the most recent studies), the stars arranged along the bar structures rotate faster than those arranged along the arm structures, due to gravitational attraction. It has been calculated if radius of corotation were placed at a distance from center of the galaxy greater than 1.4 times length of the bar, this would constitute evidence that rotation of galaxy is curbed by dark matter halos are supposed to permeate space around the galaxy. All the measurements made, where galaxies have made it possible, have so far placed the circles of corotation at distances of less than 1.4; which would lead to conclude dark matter does not influence galactic's rotation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42279243 |
Corotation circle However, a study published in the Astrophysical Journal (ApJ) conducted by researchers from the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias has shown the arms of galaxies rotate more slowly than previously thought, implicating that dark matter can likewise influence the rotation of the galaxy also where the corotation circle is placed at distance less than the value of 1.4 mentioned above. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42279243 |
Persephonella guaymasensis is a thermophilic, hydrogen-oxidizing microaerophile first isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. It is strictly chemolithoautotrophic, microaerophilic, motile, 2-4 micrometres in size, rod-shaped, Gram-negative and non-sporulating. Its type strain is EX-H2. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42294948 |
Jean-Pierre Gosse is a biologist who discovered a type of angelfish called Pterophyllum leopoldi | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42307766 |
Edaphobacter modestus is a species of bacteria. It is the type species of the genus "Edaphobacter" and was originally isolated from an alpine soil sample rich in calcium carbonate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42316915 |
Minigene A minigene is a minimal gene fragment that includes an exon and the control regions necessary for the gene to express itself in the same way as a wild type gene fragment. This is a minigene in its most basic sense. More complex minigenes can be constructed containing multiple exons and intron(s). Minigenes provide a valuable tool for researchers evaluating splicing patterns both "in vivo" and "in vitro" biochemically assessed experiments. Specifically, minigenes are used as splice reporter vectors (also called exon-trapping vectors) and act as a probe to determine which factors are important in splicing outcomes. They can be constructed to test the way both cis-regulatory elements (RNA effects) and trans-regulatory elements (associated proteins/splicing factors) affect gene expression. Minigenes were first described as the somatic assembly of DNA segments and consisted of DNA regions known to encode the protein and the flanking regions required to express the protein. The term was first used in a paper in 1977 to describe the cloning of two minigenes that were designed to express a peptide. RNA splicing was discovered in the late 1970s through the study of adenoviruses that invade mammals and replicate inside them. Researchers identified RNA molecules that contained sequences from noncontiguous parts of the virus’s genome. This discovery led to the conclusion that regulatory mechanisms existed which affected mature RNA and the genes it expresses | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42318629 |
Minigene Using minigenes as a splice reporting vector to explore the effects of RNA splicing regulation naturally followed and remains the major use of minigenes to date. In order to provide a good minigene model, the gene fragment should have all of the necessary elements to ensure it exhibits the same alternative splicing (AS) patterns as the wild type gene, i.e., the length of the fragment must include all upstream and downstream sequences which can affect its splicing. Therefore, most minigene designs begin with a thorough "in silico" analysis of the requirements of the experiment before any "wet" lab work is conducted. With the advent of Bioinformatics and widespread use of computers, several good programs now exist for the identification of cis-acting control regions that affect the splicing outcomes of a gene and advanced programs can even consider splicing outcomes in various tissue types. Differences in minigenes are usually reflected in the final size of the fragment, which is in turn a reflection of the complexity of the minigene itself. The number of foreign DNA elements (exon and introns) inserted into the constitutive exons and introns of a given fragment varies with the type of experiment and the information being sought. A typical experiment might involve wild type minigenes which are expected to express genes normally in a comparison run against genetically engineered allelic variations which replace the wild-type gene and have been cloned into the same flanking sequences as the original fragment | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42318629 |
Minigene These types of experiments help to determine the effect of various mutations on pre-mRNA splicing. Once a suitable genomic fragment is chosen (Step 1), the exons and introns of the fragment can be inserted and amplified, along with the flanking constitutive exons and introns of the original gene, by PCR. The primers for PCR can be chosen so that they leave "sticky ends" at 3' sense and anti-sense strands (Step 2). These "sticky-ends" can be easily incorporated into a TOPO Vector by ligation into a commercially available source which has ligase already attached to it at the sight of incorporation (Step 3). The subsequent TOPO Vectors can be transfected into E.coli cells (Step 4). After incubation, total RNA can be extracted from the bacterial colonies and analyzed using RT-PCR to quantify ratios of exon inclusion/exclusion (step 5). The minigene can be transfected into different cell types with various splicing factors to test trans-acting elements (Step 6). The expressed genes or the proteins they encode can be analyzed to evaluate splicing components and their effects via a variety of methods including hybridization or size-exclusion chromatography. RNA splicing errors have been estimated to occur in a third of genetic diseases. To understand pathogenesis and identify potential targets of therapeutic intervention in these diseases, explicating the splicing elements involved is essential | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42318629 |
Minigene Determining the complete set of components involved in splicing presents many challenges due to the abundance of alternative splicing, which occurs in most human genes, and the specificity in which splicing is carried out "in vivo". Splicing is distinctly conducted from cell type to cell type and across different stages of cellular development. Therefore, it is critical that any "in vitro" or bioinformatic assumptions about splicing regulation are confirmed "in vivo". Minigenes are used to elucidate "cis"-regulatory elements, "trans"-regulatory elements and other regulators of pre-mature RNA splicing "in vivo". Minigenes have been applied to the study of a diverse array of genetic diseases due to the aforementioned abundance of alternatively spliced genes and the specificity and variation observed in splicing regulation. The following are examples of minigene use in various diseases. While it is not an exhaustive list, it does provide a better understanding of how minigenes are utilized. RNA splicing errors can have drastic effects on how proteins function, including the hormones secreted by the endocrine system. These effects on hormones have been identified as the cause of many endocrine disorders including thyroid-related pathological conditions, rickets, hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia and congenital adrenal hyperplasia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42318629 |
Minigene One specific example of a splicing error causing an endocrine disease that has been studied using minigenes is a type of growth hormone deficiency called isolated growth hormone deficiency (IGHD), a disease that results in growth failure. IGHD type II is an autosomal dominant form caused by a mutation in the intervening sequence (IVS) adjacent to exon 3 of the gene encoding growth hormone 1, the GH-1 gene. This mutated form of IVS3 causes exon 3 to be skipped in the mRNA product. The mRNA (-E3) encodes a truncated form of hGH that then inhibits normal hGH secretion. Minigenes were used to determine that a point mutation within an intron splice enhancer (ISE) embedded in IVS3 was to blame for the skipping of E3. Moreover, it was determined that the function of the ISE is influenced by a nearby transposable AC element, revealing that this particular splicing error is caused by a trans-acting factor. Accumulation of tau protein is associated with neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases as well as other tauopathies. Tau protein isoforms are created by alternative splicing of exons 2, 3 and 10. The regulation of tau splicing is specific to stage of development, physiology and location. Errors in tau splicing can occur in both exons and introns and, depending on the error, result in changes to protein structure or loss of function. Aggregation of these abnormal tau proteins correlates directly with pathogenesis and disease progression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42318629 |
Minigene Minigenes have been used by several researchers to help understand the regulatory components responsible for mRNA splicing of the TAU gene. Cancer is a complex, heterogeneous disease that can be hereditary or the result of environmental stimuli. Minigenes are used to help oncologists understand the roles pre-mRNA splicing plays in different cancer types. Of particular interest are cancer specific genetic mutations that disrupt normal splicing events, including those affecting spliceosome components and RNA-binding proteins such as heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoparticules (hnRNP), serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins and small ribonucleoproteins (snRNP). Proteins encoded by aberrantly spliced pre-mRNAs are functionally different and contribute to the characteristic anomalies exhibited by cancer cells, including their ability to proliferate, invade and undergo angiogenesis, and metastasis. Minigenes help researchers identify genetic mutations in cancer that result in splicing errors and determine the downstream effects those splicing errors have on gene expression. Using knowledge obtained from studies employing minigenes, oncologists have proposed tests designed to detect products of abnormal gene expression for diagnostic purposes. Additionally, the prospect of using minigenes as a cancer immunotherapy is being explored. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42318629 |
CALUX Chemical Activated LUciferase gene eXpression (CALUX) is a ligand-dependent nuclear receptor-based bioassay used in the detection of specific chemicals or classes of chemicals in samples. It consists of a modified cell line that has been stably transfected with a DNA construct with a luciferase reporter gene under control of receptor-specific DNA response elements that can stimulate transcription of the inserted luciferase gene and produce the light-generating enzyme which can be easily measured. The DNA response elements can be varied in order to provide binding sites for other receptors that are regulated by a chemical or class of chemicals of interest that want to be detected. Thus, numerous bioassays have been developed for detection of diverse chemicals of interest. Most applications have been directed toward the detection of environmentally harmful chemicals, such as those affecting the endocrine system (environmental hormones). is an effect based screening method as it measures the total effect ligands (from a sample) have on a specific receptor. Unlike chemical analysis, is thus able to measure total activity on the receptor of interest. This includes both identified and unidentified activators (agonists) and inhibitors (receptor antagonists). The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-responsive (AhR-CALUX) bioassay is commonly used in the detection of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds in sample extracts. It is based on the molecular mechanism by which the AhR activates gene expression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42325019 |
CALUX AhR-is used by researchers and companies that want to screen for the presence of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds in a wide variety of biological and environmental matrices, commercial and consumer products and in food and feed in order to evaluate their safety and/or level of contamination. While the measurement of dioxin and related dioxin-like chemicals in a sample extract using the AhR-bioassay is significantly cheaper than the chemical analysis requiring gas chromatography - high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS), it only provides a measurement of the total level of AhR-active dioxins and related dioxin-like chemicals in a sample extract and determination of the specific congeners requires analysis any GC-HRMS. Additionally, given the recently established role of the AhR in human health and disease, the AhR-bioassay is also being used widely as a high-throughput screening method to identify and characterize AhR-active chemicals as potential human therapeutic drugs. Environmental chemicals having sex hormone-like activity are detected by similar bioassays as well, including the Estrogen Receptor-Responsive (ER-CALUX) and Androgen Receptor-Responsive (AR-CALUX). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42325019 |
Tropicos is an online botanical database containing taxonomic information on plants, mainly from the Neotropical realm (Central, and South America). It is maintained by the Missouri Botanical Garden and was established over 25 years ago. The database contains images and taxonomical and bibliographical data on more than 4.2 million herbarium specimens. In addition, it contains data on over 49,000 scientific publications. The database can be queried in English, French, and Spanish. The oldest records in the database go back to 1703. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42325606 |
Franz Engel (1834 in Röbel – 1920 in Neubrandenburg) was a German explorer and naturalist. He traveled extensively in South America in the years 1857–63 and published the results of his explorations in several volumes, including "Studien unter den Tropen Amerikas" (“Studies among the American tropics,” 2d ed., 1879), ‘Aus dem Pflanzerstaate Zulia’ (“From the plantation state of Zulia,” 1881). From 1872 to 1896 he published the "Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbücher" (“Agricultural yearbooks”). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42329332 |
Scientists against Nuclear Arms (SANA) was formed in 1981 by the physicist and peace activist Mike Pentz together with Steven Rose, both academics at the Open University, to oppose nuclear arms. SANA was one of the forerunner organisations of Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42338324 |
Laser printing of single nanoparticles The laser printing of single nanoparticles is a method of applying optical forces that direct single nanoparticles to targeted substrate regions. Van der Waals interactions cause attachment of the single nanoparticles to the substrate areas. This has been accomplished with gold and silicon nanoparticles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42347710 |
Schlenk-frit A is a laboratory filtration device operating under inert gas conditions (schlenk conditions). It separates air- and water-sensitive suspensions into liquid and solid parts. A is made of a glass tube with a ground glass joint at both ends, a fused filter (a porous glass disk) and valves at both sides. Before usage, the has to be heated, to remove water traces. The is put onto the product flask using an inert gas counterflow and closed at the top end with a second flask. The whole is turned 180° to start filtration. The liquid parts of the reaction mix go through the filter while the solid parts remain. To speed up the filtration pressure can be lowered at the bottom part of the filter. Care has to be taken that the solvent does not evaporate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42352334 |
Orland Emile White (1885–1972) was a botanist who travelled to the Amazon basin on the Mulford Expedition. He directed the arboretum now known as the Orland E. White Research Arboretum in Virginia. A collection of his papers (3300 items) is at the UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA LIBRARY | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42361765 |
Overstep An overstep is a geological form that has a deposition of a stratum across inclined, progressively older rocks. An onlap is a more general term than overstep, in which the younger beds overlap onto successively older beds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42363850 |
Recycling antimatter pertains to recycling antiprotons and antihydrogen atoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42406424 |
Anaerolinea thermophila is a species of filamentous thermophilic bacteria, the type and only species of its genus. It is Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, with type strain UNI-1 (=JCM 11387 =DSM 14523). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42428351 |
Caldilinea aerophila is a species of filamentous thermophilic bacteria, and the type species of its genus. It is Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, with type strain STL-6-O1 (=JCM 11388 =DSM 14525). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42428380 |
Ferro-actinolite is the ferrous iron-rich endmember of the actinolite-tremolite continuous solid solution series of the double chain calcareous amphibole group of inosilicate minerals. All the series members belong to the monoclinic crystal system. The following formula comparison indicates the position of individual well-known members within the series: Some other substitute cations that may replace either Ca, Mg, or Fe include potassium (K), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), and chromium (Cr). A fluorine (F) anion may partially replace the hydroxyl (OH). Ferroactinolite prisms are much darker in color than actinolite due to their higher iron content affecting opacity, but may be dark green in thin slices or around the edges. Its crystals are brittle, with a hardness of 5-6 on the Mohs scale, and have a white streak. Ferroactinolite is pleochroic and has a higher refractive index and surface relief than actinolite. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42439891 |
Journal of Structural Geology The is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering on the field of structural geology. It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is C.W. Passchier (University of Mainz). According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 2.884. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42476125 |
Harry Brailovsky Alperowits Harry Urad Brailovsky Alperowitz (born in Mexico City on May 30, 1946) is a biologist. He earned his BA, MA and Ph.D. in biological sciences at the Faculty of Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico. His main academic interest is the taxonomy, biology, and biogeography of Coreidae, especially those found in Mexico (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). As an entomological authority he is cited as Brailovsky. Brailovsky has published over 200 academic works on Coreoidea describing over 660 new species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42478293 |
Topera Medical Topera, Inc. is a cardiac arrhythmia mapping company for targeting catheter ablation company launched in San Diego, California and specializes in mapping electrical signals of the heart. Topera's headquarters are located in Palo Alto, California. The company uses 3D analysis and mapping to detect the sources of atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and atrial tachycardia and ventricular tachycardia to identify targets for catheter ablation. In 2010, Dr. Sanjiv Narayan and Dr. Ruchir Sehra founded Topera in San Diego, California . Narayan founded the company to commercialize the technology he developed which maps irregular heartbeats. Prior to founding the company, he had collected cardiac electrophysiological data from patients and wrote software to code and analyze collected data. He conducted clinical studies to prove that conventional pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) plus targeting and ablating rotors and focal impulses would increase the success rate of single procedure atrial fibrillation ablations. His training includes a master's degree in software engineering, a clinical fellowship at Harvard Medical School, and a position as a faculty tutor for the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology program. In 2011, Topera opened an office in Lexington, Massachusetts. Edward Kerslake, former corporate vice president of Boston Scientific became the CEO of Topera in 2010. In 2011, the firm created a management advisory board. In 2012, the FDA cleared Topera's 3D mapping and analysis system, RhythmView | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42503038 |
Topera Medical The system was presented at the Heart Rhythm Society's 2012 scientific sessions in Boston, Massachusetts. The company raised $2.75 million in its seed funding round in 2012; A few months later, it received an additional $3.77 million in partial close funding. In May 2013, the company closed on $25 million in a C series of funding led by New Enterprise Associates. Topera developed a 3D mapping tool to assists physicians in identifying the electrical source of complex cardiac arrhythmias. The FIRMap catheter, used with the RhythmView workstation, received CE clearance and FDA clearance in 2013. The tip of the catheter has a spherical wire basket that has 64 evenly placed electrodes over the 8 splines that make up the basket. The basket expands, capturing the contours of the heart chambers and creating a panoramic map of the electrical heart activity. This information is sent to the workstation and creates a near real-time 3D reconstruction of the heart and its electrophysiological activity. The data from the workstation is used to help diagnose the source of atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and atrial tachycardia and ventricular tachycardia. Prior to the company's FIRMap catheter being commercially available, the workstation was compatible with other multi-polar mapping catheters. The Focal Impulse and Rotor Modulation procedure decreases procedure times and reduces re-ablation rates by targeting the source of arrhythmia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42503038 |
Topera Medical Narayan and six other independent clinical investigators performed clinical trials that followed post-ablation procedure patients for a year. Published as a comprehensive study in August 2012, the trials showed that 88 percent of the patients in the trial who received the FIRM (Focal Impulse and Rotor Modulation) procedure had a successful termination or slowing of their atrial fibrillation. Long-term success was achieved in 82 percent of patients with a single FIRM procedure. Ten centers reported that Topera Medical's FIRM mapping system identifies patient specific sources of atrial fibrillation (rotors), and that ablation of the rotors improves treatment success with a single procedure. A second, broader clinical study at ten centers independently confirmed the findings of the first study with a success rate of 80.5% where FIRM was used. The first and second set of trials reported success after the patients were followed for one year. At the beginning of 2014, three-year results showed a success rate of 78% compared to the traditional PVI success rate of 39%. Other published studies have shown that rotors are located in both atria of the heart and in locations that are not targeted and ablated in traditional procedures. Eliminating rotors increases success rates, even in patients with whom traditional techniques are less successful because of pre-existing conditions such as persistent atrial fibrillation, obstructive sleep apnea, metabolic syndrome, or body mass index | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42503038 |
Topera Medical Published studies reporting success rates with Topera's FIRM-guided ablations are based on single procedure results, while other published reports reflect the outcome of multiple ablation procedures. For this reason it is difficult to compare relative success rates. One study reported success rates after a single, as well as those after multiple, procedures. The cumulative long-term success after a mean of 2 procedures was 63% while long-term success after single-procedure was only 29%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42503038 |
NGC 3455 is a spiral galaxy located 65 million light-years away in the constellation of Leo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42503237 |
Heel effect In X-ray tubes, the heel effect, or, more precisely, the anode heel effect is a variation of the intensity of X-rays emitted by the anode depending on the direction of emission along the anode-cathode axis. Due to the geometry of the anode, X-rays emitted towards the cathode are in general more intense than those emitted perpendicular to the cathode–anode axis. The effect stems from the absorption of X-ray photons before they leave the anode in which they are produced. The probability of absorption depends on the distance the photons travel within the anode material, which in turn depends on the direction of emission. The distance from the anode (source of X-rays) to the image receptor greatly influences the apparent magnitude of the anode heel effect. The shorter the distance, the less space the beam has to diverge. The effect is less noticeable at larger source-image distances (SID). Diagnostic X-ray beams can be collimated to large or small beams. A large beam will emit more intensities of the beam along the cathode-anode axis than a small beam. A large image receptor will also capture more of this beam than a small receptor. Both of these factors will greatly influence the visibility of the anode heel effect. A smaller field size results in a less pronounced heel effect. When the angle of the anode is great, the usable X-ray photons will not have to travel through as much of the anode material to exit the tube | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42504282 |
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