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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/stjohnsco/2021/06/24/technical-and-financial-assistance-available-for-producers-to-implement-agriculture-best-management-practices-bmps-in-central-florida/ | Technical and Financial Assistance Available for Producers to Implement Agriculture Best Management Practices (BMPs) in Central Florida | University of Florida | [
"Yilin"
] | 2021-06-24 | [
"Agribusiness",
"Agriculture",
"Crops",
"Farm Management",
"Livestock",
"Water",
"Ag BMP",
"best management practices",
"cost share",
"water",
"water quality",
"water quantity"
] | FL | ## Technical and Financial Assistance Available for Producers to Implement Agriculture Best Management Practices (BMPs) in Central Florida
Producers have implemented Best Management Practices (BMPs) that maintain or improve water quality, quantity, and soil conditions on their farms for many years. For the purposes of the Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services (FDACS) Office of Agricultural Water Policy (OAWP) BMP program, a BMP is defined by law as means, a practice or combination of practices determined by the coordinating agencies, based on research, fieldtesting, and expert review, to be the most effective and practicable on-location means, including economic and technological considerations, for improving water quality in agricultural and urban discharges. BMPs for agricultural discharges must reflect a balance between water quality improvements and agricultural productivity (Section 373. 4595(2)(a), Florida Statutes). During the development of the BMP manuals, the technical and economic feasibility of a practice is considered. BMP enrollment and site visits provide opportunities for producers and FDACS-OAWP representatives to evaluate potential cost-share opportunities on the enrolled property.
Producers in an area with a Basin Management Action Plan (BMAP) are required by the 2016 Water Bill to either enroll in the FDACS- OAWP BMP program and implement all applicable BMPs identified, or conduct water quality monitoring as prescribed by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) at their own expense to demonstrate compliance with water quality standards. Multiple agencies in Central Florida recognize this and offer financial assistance to reduce the cost to the producers for implementation through cost-share programs. Multiple agencies in Central Florida recognize this and offer financial assistance to reduce the cost to
the farmers for implementation through cost-share programs. Farmers are encouraged to work with agency staff to determine which practices are feasible on their operation.
## Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Office of Agricultural Water Policy
Recommended BMPs are outlined by FDACS-OAWP in BMP manuals specific to agricultural commodities. Manuals are available for citrus, cow/calf, dairy, equine, nurseries, poultry, sod, specialty fruit and nut crops, vegetable and agronomic crops, and state imperiled wildlife. BMP Manuals can be downloaded from the FDACS-OAWP Agricultural Best Management Practices webpage.
FDACS-OAWP field staff work one-on-one with producers to develop a feasible BMP plan, identifying the BMPs that are applicable on their agricultural operation. Their funding is largely for cost-share of equipment purchases.
Cost-share funding falls under three broad BMP categories: nutrient management, irrigation management, and water resources protection. Examples of funded equipment for improved nutrient management include conservation tillage equipment, GPS guidance systems, variable rate applicators, and fertilizers banding machines for side dressing. To improve irrigation efficiency, they provide stockshare for soil moisture sensors, irrigation retrofits, nozzle packages, smart irrigation control panels, and more. BMPs for water resource protection include cattle exclusion fences and alternate water sources, like solar wells, among others.
FDACS funds up to 75% of the equipment cost, which they reimburse once the producer purchases the item. In most cases, the cost share reimbursement cap is $50,000. Cost-share is distributed on a case-by-case basis. Producers must be enrolled in the BMP program to receive funds. Applications are accepted year-round.
Contact your local FDACS field office for information about the BMP program.
| FDACS_OAW | Contact | Contact email | County |
|---------------|-----------------|-----------------------|----------|
| P | phone | Lauren.Dorval@fdacs.g | Lake; |
| Lauren Dorval | (850) 901- 4556 | ov | Seminole |
| Nick Zurasky (850) 688- 5600 | Nick.Zurasky@fdacs.g ov | Orange |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|
| Sol Looker (850) 688- 5953 | Sol.Looker@fdacs.gov | Flagler, Putnam, St. Johns |
| Patricia (850) 688- 0158 | Patricia.Coffey@fdacs. gov | Volusia; Northern Breward |
| Lida Iravani (352) 390- 0142 | Lida.Iravani@fdacs.gov | Nassau, Duval, Baker, Clay |
| Nick Godano (352) 622- 3971 | Nicholas.Godano@fda cs.gov | Marion |
## USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
NRCS offers financial assistance for producers through three
programs: EQIP (General Environmental Quality Incentives Program),
CSP (Conservation Stewardship Program), and RCPP (Regional
Conservation Partnership Program). NRCS staff work with producers
to develop conservation plans to address natural resource concerns.
These conservation practices, in most cases, are synonymous with BMPs. Depending on the producer's objectives, these plans can include erosion control and improving soil conditions, improved nutrient management and water quality, increased water-use efficiency, and improving wildlife habitat.
The conservation plan outlines practices to achieve specified goals, and NRCS provides technical and financial assistance to carry them out. For example, NRCS provides financial assistance for cover crops, no-till management, cattle exclusion fences along streams and alternative watering systems, including wells. Other funded BMPs include soil sampling, irrigation retrofits, cross-fencing for grazing management, waste storage facilities for dairies, forest stand improvement, increasing pollinators and improving bird habitat. These are just a few examples; there are many more.
Financial assistance is provided through a payment rate established for each individual conservation practice. For example, per foot for fencing, per acre for cover crops and weed treatment, per item for a well, and more. They generally do not offer financial assistance for equipment.
Contact your local NRCS office for more information on technical and financial assistance provided. Applications for assistance are accepted year-round.
## Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD)
SWFWMD offers FARMS (Facilitating Agricultural Resource Management Systems) and Mini-FARMS programs for producers located in the district: Citrus, DeSoto, Hardee, Hernando, Hillsborough, Manatee, Pasco, Pinellas, Sarasota and Sumter counties, as well as portions of Charlotte, Highlands, Lake, Levy, Marion and Polk counties.
The FARMS program encourages producers to engage in new or alternative BMPs to help decrease groundwater used for irrigation and promote water quality improvements. Some examples of BMPs that can be cost-shared are alternative water supply reservoir pump stations, water control structures, filtration systems, main-line piping to connect into the existing irrigation system, automated pump and valve control, soil moisture sensors, and fertigation systems. There is no cost share reimbursement cap of FARMS, however the total project cost needs to be proportional to the benefit derived from the implementation of the BMP. Reimbursement can amount to as much as 75 percent of total project costs with both water quality and groundwater conservation BMPs, or as much as 50 percent with water quality or groundwater conservation BMPs.
Mini-FARMS is a cost-share program that assists agricultural operations of 100 acres or less to conserve water and protect water quality within the district. The district will reimburse producers 75 percent of their project costs up to $8,000 per project.
For more information, contact Carole Estes at (941) 377-3722 ext. 6570, or by email at CaroleEstes@waterMatters.org.
## St. Johns River Water Management District (JSRWMD)
SJRWMD offers cost-share programs for producers located in the district: Brevard, Clay, Duval, Flagler, Indian River, Nassau, Putnam, Seminole, St. Johns, and Volusia counties, as well as portions of Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Lake, Marion, Okeechobee, Orange, and Osceola counties.
The SJRWMD agricultural cost-share program is to engage producers in water conservation and runoff nutrient reduction. Past projects include irrigation conversions from less to more efficient systems, irrigation retrofits of existing systems, soil moisture sensors, weather stations, tailwater recovery and reuse, fertigation, and precision fertilizer application equipment, but other projects are welcome. Mobile Irrigation Lab audits are encouraged for irrigation proposals.
Cost-share will be up to 75%, not to exceed $250,000 annually, for the engineering, design, construction, and implementation costs of an approved project. The applicant will be expected to cover maintenance costs; however, requests for items associated with long-term maintenance (such as drip tape or center pivot retrofits) may be considered for funding. The cost-share projects and items in SJRWMD and SWFWMD are similar. Some examples of projects include irrigation retrofits and tailwater recovery and reuse. Equipment may include items such as variable rate fertilizer spreaders, soil moisture sensors and irrigation controllers.
For more information, contact Suzanne Archer at (407) 215-1450, or by email at sarcher@sjrwmd.com.
```
o
by Yilin
Posted: June 24, 2021
```
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/azalea-stem-borer-1 | Azalea Stem Borer | NC State Extension | [
"Steven Frank",
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"Pest Management",
"Horticulture"
] | NC | ## Azalea Stem Borer
Entomology Insect Notes
## General Information
Azalea stem borers ( Oberea myops , aka rhododendron stem borer and blueberry stem borer) are slender long-horned beetles about ½ to ½ inch long with yellowish brown heads and thoraxes. The wing covers are yellowish gray with dark outer margins, and there are two black spots on the thorax. The egg has been described as "yellow." The eggs occur under the bark.
The azalea stem borer is a slender, yellow, leggless grub found inside the stem. No description is available for the pupa.
## Biology
The azalea stem borer is found throughout the eastern United States wherever azaleas and related plants grow. Azalea stem borers infest azalea, rhododendron, blueberry and mountain laurel. Infested twigs wit and die as the larvae bore downward inside. At this stage, symptoms may resemble those from aerial phytophthora blight. Later in the season, infested stems often break off at the base leaving the plant lopsided and unattractive. Small plants may break off completely.
Adult azalea stem borers emerge from mid-May through June. Eggs are inserted under the bark between two rows of holes chewed through the bark about half inch apart (Figure 4 and Figure 5).
The larva hatches and bores down the twig into the stem and eventually all the way to the crown of the plant. The stem is greatly weakened at the base. The larvae then bore down into the roots where thy spend the winter. Coarse sawdustlike frass is expelled through holes in the bark of the stem and at the base of the plant (Figure 7). Infested twigs wilt as the larva bore downwards inside. The larvae pupate the following spring or two or three years later.
Cutting off and burning infested stems as soon as they are noticed in the growing season is recommended for control. If shrubs have been reinstated year after year, be helpful to protect the plants with a pyrethroid insecticide such as permethrin or cyfluthrin. When used as directed , pyrethroids are very toxic to insects but are not particularly hazardous to humans and pets (other than fish-avoid using pyrethroids around pools, ponds, and streams). They should give adequate control if applied after the new growth has emerged and hardened off sometime from mid-May to early\_June . Consult the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual for specific recommendations. Look in the Trees and Woody Ornamentals section, under "Any Plant: Borers." Be sure to read and follow all label instructions.
## Other Resources
- · Arthropod Pests of Azalea
- Azalea Pest Management Calendar . Frank, S. and J. Baker. 2019 (revised). Entomology Insect Notes, NC State Extension Publications.
- Natural History and Recommendations for Control of the Rhododendron Stem Borer, Oberea myops. Culin, J. D., C. S. Gorsuch and R. M Pizzuto. 1993. J. Amer. Rhododendron Soc. 47(4): 1 page.
- Insect and Related Pests of Shrubs
- NC State Extension Horticultural Science Publications
- NC State Extension Plant Pathology Publications
- North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension center.
## Authors
Steven Frank Professor and Extension Specialist Entomology & Plant Pathology
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Jan. 1, 1994
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 12, 2020
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/4h/poultry-project/ | Alabama 4-H Poultry Project | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Brigid McCrea"
] | 2023-10-16 | [
"4-H",
"Poultry",
"Agriculture",
"Youth Programs"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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button.hustle-button-close {color: #38C5B5;background: transparent;border-radius: 0;position: absolute;z-index: 1;display: block;width: 32px;height: 32px;right: 0;left: auto;top: 0;bottom: auto;transform: unset;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close .hustle-icon-close {font-size: 12px;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:hover {color: #49E2D1;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:focus {color: #49E2D1;} .hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content blockquote {border-left-color: #38C5B5;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
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top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-6774 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-42403308"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 8:00-12:00; 12:30-4:30 ~ Phone: (334) 749-3353</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
<div class="mission-statement" id="header-mission" style="display:none;"><p>The <strong>Alabama
Cooperative Extension System</strong> operates as the primary outreach organization
that ensures all people have access to information that improves their quality of life
and economic well-being.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div><!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
<div class="page-wrapper">
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top-mobile">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-87310891"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 8:00-12:00; 12:30-4:30 ~ Phone: (334) 749-3353</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF Removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<!-- Header Bottom Container -->
<div class="header-bottom header-top mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row">
<!-- Navigation -->
<div class="navbar navbar-inverse bg-primary">
<nav class=" navbar-collapse js-navbar-collapse pull-left" role="navigation"
aria-label="main navigation">
<ul class="nav navbar-nav nav-mobile">
<li class="dropdown mega-dropdown">
<a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle nav-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown">Topics <i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i> </a>
<div id="topics-dropdown" class="container dropdown-menu mega-dropdown-menu">
<ul class="container mega-nav-wrapper">
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/4h/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/4h.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="kids in 4 H">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Alabama 4-H<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
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<article id="post-6774" class="post-6774 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-4h category-animals-4-h category-programs-4-h tag-4-h tag-4hyd-2308 tag-alabama-4-h tag-animal-science tag-animals tag-anr2391 tag-poultry tag-poultry-project first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Poultry Project">
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Poultry Project </div>
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<li>October 16, 2023</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Brigid McCrea</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/4h/poultry-project/"></div><p>The 4-H Poultry Project is a long-term project with monthly meetings for members of all skill levels. They learn how to care for and raise a poultry flock, show personal growth and knowledge gained through showmanship, make good decisions about their flock’s nutrition and health, excel at biosecurity and food safety, participate in team and individual activities, and demonstrate record-keeping skills and profitability through table egg or hatching egg production.</p>
<h1>Requirements</h1>
<p>In general, all 4-H members are expected to meet the following standards each year. These are the minimum requirements. Your particular county or club may have additional requirements.</p>
<ul>
<li>be enrolled in 4-H through 4-H Online</li>
<li>pay the fee associated with your county or region’s 4-H Poultry Project</li>
<li>attend 80 percent or more of the monthly meetings</li>
<li>raise a poultry flock</li>
<li>attend your local poultry show or county fair</li>
<li>enter other 4-H poultry or related activities</li>
<li>compete your Alabama 4-H Poultry Project Record Book</li>
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<h1>Poultry Project Curriculum Materials</h1>
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<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/4HYD-2308_Poultry-Project-Record-Book_writableL.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Download a PDF of Poultry Project Record Book, 4HYD-2308.</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/poultry/biosecurity-for-backyard-poultry-flocks/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">View Biosecurity for Backyard Flocks, ANR-2391.</a></li>
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/polk-county-forestry-impacts-2018 | Polk County Forestry Impacts 2018 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Morgan Hoy",
"Olakunle Sodiya",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Economics"
] | NC | ## Polk County Forestry Impacts 2018
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
July 13, 2020
Authors
Rajan Para¸uli
Stephanie Chizmar
Morgan Hoy
Olakunle Sodiya
Robert Bardon
❑ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=polk-county -forestry-impacts-2018#zoom=page-fit
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This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/coastal-programs/oyster-gardening-in-mobile-bay/ | Oyster Gardening in Mobile Bay | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"P. J. Waters"
] | 2018-08-21 | [
"Oyster Gardening",
"Coastal Programs",
"Aquaculture"
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.hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ol:not([class*="forminator-"]),.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ul:not([class*="forminator-"]) {margin: 0 0 10px;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ol:not([class*="forminator-"]):last-child,.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ul:not([class*="forminator-"]):last-child {margin-bottom: 0;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content li:not([class*="forminator-"]) {margin: 0 0 5px;color: #ADB5B7;font: normal 14px/1.45em Open Sans;font-style: normal;letter-spacing: 0px;text-transform: none;text-decoration: none;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content li:not([class*="forminator-"]):last-child {margin-bottom: 0;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ol:not([class*="forminator-"]) li:before {color: #ADB5B7}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ul:not([class*="forminator-"]) li:before {background-color: #ADB5B7}@media screen and (min-width: 783px) {.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ol:not([class*="forminator-"]),.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ul:not([class*="forminator-"]) {margin: 0 0 20px;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ol:not([class*="forminator-"]):last-child,.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content ul:not([class*="forminator-"]):last-child {margin: 0;}}@media screen and (min-width: 783px) {.hustle-ui:not(.hustle-size--small).module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content li:not([class*="forminator-"]) {margin: 0 0 5px;}.hustle-ui:not(.hustle-size--small).module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content li:not([class*="forminator-"]):last-child {margin-bottom: 0;}}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content blockquote {margin-right: 0;margin-left: 0;}button.hustle-button-close .hustle-icon-close:before {font-size: inherit;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close {color: #38C5B5;background: transparent;border-radius: 0;position: absolute;z-index: 1;display: block;width: 32px;height: 32px;right: 0;left: auto;top: 0;bottom: auto;transform: unset;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close .hustle-icon-close {font-size: 12px;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:hover {color: #49E2D1;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:focus {color: #49E2D1;} .hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content blockquote {border-left-color: #38C5B5;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-5182 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-21469224"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
<div class="mission-statement" id="header-mission" style="display:none;"><p>The <strong>Alabama
Cooperative Extension System</strong> operates as the primary outreach organization
that ensures all people have access to information that improves their quality of life
and economic well-being.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div><!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
<div class="page-wrapper">
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top-mobile">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-55592249"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF Removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<!-- Header Bottom Container -->
<div class="header-bottom header-top mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row">
<!-- Navigation -->
<div class="navbar navbar-inverse bg-primary">
<nav class=" navbar-collapse js-navbar-collapse pull-left" role="navigation"
aria-label="main navigation">
<ul class="nav navbar-nav nav-mobile">
<li class="dropdown mega-dropdown">
<a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle nav-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown">Topics <i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i> </a>
<div id="topics-dropdown" class="container dropdown-menu mega-dropdown-menu">
<ul class="container mega-nav-wrapper">
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/4h/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/4h.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="kids in 4 H">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Alabama 4-H<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/farming/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/algriculture.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="a corn field">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Farming<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/fish-water/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/iStock-150021694-300x300-e1517416086533.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="school of fish">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Fish & Water<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/food-safety/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/economic-development.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="peaches for sale at a farmers market">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Food Safety<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/forestry-wildlife/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/natural-resources.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="rows of trees">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Forestry & Wildlife<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/home-family/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/family-health.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="two kids running in front of an adult">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Home & Family<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/lawn-garden/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/home-garden.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="a home garden with flowers">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Lawn & Garden<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/urban-extension/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/urban-extension.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="a city skyline">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Urban Extension<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li class="">
<a class="nav-link " href="/blog/category/counties/">
Counties </a>
</li>
<li class="">
<a class="nav-link " href="https://ssl.acesag.auburn.edu/directory-new/">
Directory </a>
</li>
<li class="">
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Oyster Gardening in Mobile Bay </div>
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<li>August 21, 2018</li>
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<p>The eastern oyster, <em>Crassostrea virginica</em>, is an important species both commercially and ecologically, but it has been on the decline in Alabama. In 2019, oyster harvests in the Gulf of Mexico were 12.348 million pounds, representing 67.4 percent of all United States commercial landings; however, only 234,000 pounds of oyster meats (less than 2 percent of the Gulf-wide landings) were reported in Alabama.</p>
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<h1>Oysters in Estuarine Ecology</h1>
<div id="attachment_73534" style="width: 476px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-73534" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class=" wp-image-73534" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Figure-1-600x399.jpg" alt="Figure 1. Juvenile oysters affix themselves to adult oyster shells or other hard substrates and become what is called spat.." width="466" height="294" /><p id="caption-attachment-73534" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1. Juvenile oysters affix themselves to adult oyster shells or other hard substrates and become what is called spat..</p></div>
<p>The oyster plays an important role in estuarine ecology. Oysters grow naturally in groups referred to as beds or reefs. Juvenile oyster larvae swim for about 10 days to 2 weeks and then settle and permanently affix themselves to adult oyster shells or other hard substrates, becoming what is called spat (figure 1). Oyster reefs serve as habitat for about 300 species of vertebrates and invertebrates that help form the food web of the estuarine ecosystem.</p>
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<p>Adult oysters filter as much as 2 gallons of water per hour, which helps remove phytoplankton from the estuarine waters they inhabit. This filtering improves the water quality in critical nursery areas where numerous fish and shellfish species develop.</p>
<p>The health of oyster reefs varies widely and is affected by both natural and human impacts. Oyster drills (figure 2), for example, can significantly reduce oyster populations by taking advantage of the elevated salinities in Mobile Bay during drought years in the watershed. Over time, sediment from upstream sources can bury oyster reefs as can sediment formed in a single day from a hurricane.</p>
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<p>Oyster aquaculture is designed to help reduce variability in the consumer market supply as well as enhance restoration. In Alabama, culture techniques are primarily off-bottom applications with farming efforts using hatchery-reared larvae set as single units for use in the half shell market. Restoration efforts include planting shells for natural larvae to set on as well as planting hatchery-reared larvae set shell to form clumps. In each method, oyster larvae are spawned naturally or in a hatchery. The larvae develop, settle, and undergo metamorphosis, becoming permanently affixed to hard substrate (figure 3). The resulting spat are grown to a desired market size for farming or a desired planting size for restoration.</p>
<div id="attachment_5197" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5197" decoding="async" class="size-medium wp-image-5197" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure202-1-600x277.jpg" alt="Figure 2. Oyster drills are a primary predator of oysters." width="600" height="277" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure202-1-600x277.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure202-1-768x355.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure202-1.jpg 1846w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5197" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 2. Oyster drills are a primary predator of oysters.</p></div>
<div id="attachment_5203" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5203" decoding="async" class="size-medium wp-image-5203" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure-3-600x318.jpg" alt="Figure 3. Microcultch is finely ground oyster shell used to set larvae for the half-shell market." width="600" height="318" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure-3-600x318.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure-3-768x408.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Figure-3.jpg 1867w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5203" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 3. Microcultch is finely ground oyster shell used to set larvae for the half-shell market.</p></div>
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<p>Oyster gardening started in the Chesapeake Bay region. In Alabama, it is a group of individuals who provide nursery care for spat set shell from May or June through November. When the season ends, all oysters are returned to the program for planting on restoration sites or inclusion in restoration projects such as living shorelines within Mobile Bay and the Alabama side of the Mississippi Sound. There is no consumption within the oyster gardening program; however, a similar program has recently been established in Alabama that demonstrates growing oysters for personal consumption. The gardening program provides dime- to quarter-size spat set shell to each gardening site. By the time the oysters are ready to be picked up for planting, the nursery care provided by the gardeners results in oysters averaging 2.5 inches. Commercial farming methods including hatchery-spawned oyster larvae that are set on whole, recycled shell are used to obtain the spat set shell.</p>
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<h1>Mobile Bay Volunteer Oyster Gardeners</h1>
<p>As with the Chesapeake Bay program, the Mobile Bay program relies on volunteer gardeners from Mobile and Baldwin Counties who have piers located in conditionally open waters as classified by the Alabama Department of Public Health (figure 4).</p>
<p>Each gardener grows oysters in up to four gardens from late May to November or December. During this time, the juvenile oysters grow from a few millimeters to more than 2 inches. The gardens are suspended from the gardeners’ piers so they remain off the bottom and away from pilings. This increases the water flow through the garden, which brings more food and oxygen while removing wastes from the oysters and other inhabitants of the gardens (figure 5). Keeping the gardens off the bottom and away from pilings also better protects the juvenile oysters from predators including oyster drills. On average, each volunteer produces 250 to 300 oysters ready for planting per garden, with average site totals of approximately 1,100 per season.</p>
<p><em>Click on images below to see the full image.</em></p>
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/coastal-programs/oyster-gardening-in-mobile-bay/figure-4-9/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Figure-4-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 4. Alabama Department of Public Health pier classifications." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-73536" loading="lazy" /></a>
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Figure 4. Alabama Department of Public Health pier classifications.
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Figure 5. Oyster gardens are suspended to remain off the bottom and away from pilings.
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Figure 6. Gardeners can rinse their oysters by rapidly raising and lowering the gardens at the water surface several times.
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<p>Once each week, gardeners pull each of their gardens out of the water and rinse the mud, algae, and any other fouling material from them. A water hose is helpful but not required. Gardeners who do not have running water on their piers can rinse their oysters by rapidly raising and lowering the gardens at the water surface several times (figure 6). Alabama gardens are also outfitted with a clipping system that allows the gardens to be quickly disconnected from their lines, allowing them to be easily moved to more convenient locations for cleaning.</p>
<p>After rinsing the fouling material from the oysters, gardeners inspect the gardens for predators including blue crabs, stone crabs, and oyster drills. Any predators are removed, and the gardens are returned to the water until the next week. This weekly maintenance enhances the oysters’ growth and prevents them from growing through the mesh, which would make them impossible to stock on the restoration reefs. The maintenance process for four gardens typically takes about 30 minutes.</p>
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<h1>Checking for Oyster Growth</h1>
<p>Throughout the season, Mobile Bay Oyster Gardening Program personnel visit to survey the oyster growth. If the oysters grow rapidly, a mid-season pickup is scheduled to remove a portion for early planting and to give the remaining oysters more room to grow. This has the added benefit of making the gardens lighter and the weekly maintenance more effective.</p>
<p>In mid-November, program personnel return to each oyster gardening site, collect the remaining oysters, and stock them on restoration reef sites or projects in Mobile Bay or on the Alabama side of the Mississippi Sound. Reef restocking efforts are coordinated with the Alabama Marine Resources Division to ensure that selected sites are outside of the harvestable area. The protection and maintenance that gardeners give their oysters allow the oysters to grow larger and more rapidly than they would in the wild. This larger size helps improve the survival rate, increasing the probability of restoration success.</p>
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<h1>Considering Participating in Oyster Gardening?</h1>
<p>The Mobile Bay Oyster Gardening Program is always looking for new gardeners. Some questions to think about when considering participating in this program include the following:</p>
<ul>
<li>Do you have a pier or access to a pier in waters considered conditionally open for shellfish harvesting by the Alabama Department of Public Health? (See figure 4 or e-mail oystergardening@auburn.edu for help).</li>
<li>Are you at the location or can you arrange for the necessary weekly maintenance from June to November?</li>
<li>Are you able to spend about 30 minutes a week maintaining the oysters?</li>
<li>Will you allow program personnel access to your pier periodically to deliver spat, check on oyster growth, and collect oysters for planting?</li>
</ul>
<p>If you answered yes to these questions, contact us at oystergardening@auburn.edu to join us for the next gardening season.</p>
<p> </p>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ANR-1207-Oyster-Gardening-on-Mobile-Bay_020821LG.pdf">Download a PDF of Oyster Gardening in Mobile Bay, ANR-1207. </a></p>
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/control-options-for-chinese-privet/ | Control Options for Chinese Privet | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
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button.hustle-button-close {color: #38C5B5;background: transparent;border-radius: 0;position: absolute;z-index: 1;display: block;width: 32px;height: 32px;right: 0;left: auto;top: 0;bottom: auto;transform: unset;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close .hustle-icon-close {font-size: 12px;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:hover {color: #49E2D1;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:focus {color: #49E2D1;} .hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content blockquote {border-left-color: #38C5B5;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
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top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-5731 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-78882407"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
<div class="mission-statement" id="header-mission" style="display:none;"><p>The <strong>Alabama
Cooperative Extension System</strong> operates as the primary outreach organization
that ensures all people have access to information that improves their quality of life
and economic well-being.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div><!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
<div class="page-wrapper">
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top-mobile">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-43436532"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF Removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<!-- Header Bottom Container -->
<div class="header-bottom header-top mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row">
<!-- Navigation -->
<div class="navbar navbar-inverse bg-primary">
<nav class=" navbar-collapse js-navbar-collapse pull-left" role="navigation"
aria-label="main navigation">
<ul class="nav navbar-nav nav-mobile">
<li class="dropdown mega-dropdown">
<a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle nav-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown">Topics <i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i> </a>
<div id="topics-dropdown" class="container dropdown-menu mega-dropdown-menu">
<ul class="container mega-nav-wrapper">
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/4h/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/4h.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="kids in 4 H">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Alabama 4-H<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
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Control Options for Chinese Privet </div>
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<li>December 13, 2023</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Nancy Loewenstein, David Russell, and Stephen Enloe</li>
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<img alt="Figure 1. Chinese privet is a woody shrub with opposite leaves that remain green throughout the winter and with dark blue fruit that ripens in the fall. (Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org)" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig1-1.jpg">
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/control-options-for-chinese-privet/"></div><p>Chinese privet (<em>Ligustrum sinense</em>) and other invasive privets in the genus Ligustrum are a serious problem for many homeowners, farmers, foresters, and land managers in Alabama.</p>
<p>Privet control often seems impossible because of its aggressive growth, prolific root and stump sprouting, copious seed production, and widespread seed dispersal by birds and other animals. However, with the correct approach and diligent follow-up treatments, privet can be effectively controlled.</p>
<p>The following recommendations for widely available privet control options can be used across a range of land management scenarios. This is not, however, exhaustive as certain herbicides used in forestry and rights-of-way are not covered.</p>
<h1>Identification</h1>
<div id="attachment_5732" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5732" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class="wp-image-5732" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig1-1-600x400.jpg" alt="Figure 1. Chinese privet is a woody shrub with opposite leaves that remain green throughout the winter and with dark blue fruit that ripens in the fall. (Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org)" width="400" height="267" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig1-1-600x400.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig1-1-768x512.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig1-1.jpg 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5732" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1. Chinese privet is a woody shrub with opposite leaves that remain green throughout the winter and with dark blue fruit that ripens in the fall. (Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org)</p></div>
<p>Chinese privet is a semievergreen to evergreen medium-sized shrub or small tree that can reach up to 30 feet in height. It has oval-shaped, lustrous green leaves that occur opposite one another in two rows along stems. Leaves range in size from 0.75 to 1.5 inches long and 0.4 to 1.2 inches wide. The light gray to brownish bark is thin and smooth with scattered lenticels (small dots). Plants produce an abundance of fragrant white flowers from April to June. These mature into dense elliptical drupes about 0.2 inches in diameter that are pale green in the summer and ripen to dark purple to black in late fall.</p>
<p>Japanese privet (<em>Ligustrum japonicum</em>) and glossy privet (<em>L. lucidum</em>) are small evergreen trees ranging from 20 to 40 feet. Leaves are opposite, but significantly larger (1.5 to 4 inches long) and more leathery than Chinese privet. Bark, flowers, and fruit are similar to those of Chinese privet.</p>
<h1>Hand Pulling</h1>
<p>Hand pulling is a good option for privet seedlings and small saplings. It can be done any time of year but is easiest when soils are moist. Grab the base of the privet stem with your fingers or a pair of pliers and pull upward, trying to remove as much of the roots as possible. If the plant does not come up easily, it might be a sprout from a lateral root, and hand pulling will not work.</p>
<h1>Weed Wrenching</h1>
<p>Weed wrenches are effective for removing privet saplings up to 2 inches in diameter. Weed wrenches are handheld steel tools that grasp woody stems at the base and use leverage to lift the plant out of the ground (figure 2). They work best for single-stemmed plants but can also be used for some multistemmed clumps. Because privet has a shallow fibrous root system, pulling may severely disturb the soil and is not recommended along stream banks or steeply sloped areas where erosion may occur.</p>
<h1>Hand Cutting</h1>
<p>Cutting, when used alone, does not provide satisfactory control because of rapid stump sprouting. However, it can be used with cut stump or foliar herbicide treatments described below.</p>
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/control-options-for-chinese-privet/fig2edit/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig2edit-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 2. A weed wrench uses leverage to easily lift privet saplings out of the ground." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5733" loading="lazy" /></a>
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Figure 2. A weed wrench uses leverage to easily lift privet saplings out of the ground.
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/control-options-for-chinese-privet/fig3-2/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig3-1-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 3. Skid steer mulchers can quickly grind dense stands of privet to the ground." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5734" loading="lazy" /></a>
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Figure 3. Skid steer mulchers can quickly grind dense stands of privet to the ground.
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/control-options-for-chinese-privet/fig4-3/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig4-1-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 4. Following mulching or other mechanical treatments, privet rapidly sprouts from stumps and lateral roots. This creates a good setup for a late fall foliar treatment with the herbicide glyphosate." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5735" loading="lazy" /></a>
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<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-5735'>
Figure 4. Following mulching or other mechanical treatments, privet rapidly sprouts from stumps and lateral roots. This creates a good setup for a late fall foliar treatment with the herbicide glyphosate.
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<h1>Brush Mulching and Mowing</h1>
<p>Brush mulchers (figure 3) are typically mounted on skid steers and grind or mulch entire shrubs and small trees. They quickly remove dense stands of privet, providing immediate access to an area. Most brush mulchers can mulch all sizes of privet and often leave a thick mulch layer. Mowing can also minimize dense stands, but this method is limited to small trunk diameters when using typical tractor equipment and rotary mowers. They do not remove the root system, and sprouting will inevitably occur (figure 4). Brush mulching cannot be effectively integrated with cut stump treatment because stumps will be buried under the mulch layer. However, brush mulching often results in uniform privet regrowth that can easily be sprayed. Brush mulching can be used anytime but may spread privet seed if used in the fall.</p>
<h1>Herbicide Treatment</h1>
<p>Privet can be effectively controlled with foliar, cut stump, and basal bark herbicide treatments. Hack and squirt treatments can be used in some situations. Always read and follow the herbicide label, paying attention to site and rate restrictions and safety recommendations for applicators.</p>
<h1>Foliar Herbicide Treatment</h1>
<div id="attachment_5736" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5736" decoding="async" class="wp-image-5736" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig5-600x402.jpg" alt="Figure 5. A blue spray indicator or dye improves spray visibility for the applicator." width="400" height="268" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig5-600x402.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig5-768x514.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig5.jpg 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5736" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 5. A blue spray indicator or dye improves spray visibility for the applicator.</p></div>
<p>Spot treatments to the foliage can be applied with several types of sprayers, but single nozzle backpack sprayers are used in many situations (figure 5). Spray the foliage to wet, but not to the point of runoff. Good spray coverage over the entire plant is important as privet shrubs sprayed only on the sides will not be completely killed. If the privet is taller than 6 to 8 feet, consider using other methods such as brush mulching, basal bark, or cut stump treatment. Broadcast herbicide applications applied to foliage can be effective if you are treating large areas where a spray boom can effectively reach over the top of the privet canopy.</p>
<p>For many situations, herbicides with the active ingredient glyphosate are the most effective option. However, not all glyphosate products are created equally. They can vary in concentration of the active ingredient and may or may not include a surfactant, which improves absorption into the leaves. Use a concentrate-type product with at least 41 percent glyphosate. Do not use glyphosate formulations called “Ready to Use” because they generally do not contain enough glyphosate to be effective. Mix the herbicide with water, preparing a 3 to 5 percent solution (4 to 6 fluid ounces of herbicide product per gallon). If the label recommends additional surfactant, add a nonionic surfactant at 0.5 percent (0.6 fluid ounces per gallon).</p>
<p>The optimal timing for glyphosate treatment is late fall to early winter (November through early January) when day temperatures are mild. However, do not treat during extended cold weather when temperatures are at or below freezing. This late-fall timing is advantageous as most other vegetation is dormant and will not be harmed by glyphosate. Glyphosate treatments applied in the spring and summer may not provide effective control, and the risk of damage to surrounding vegetation is much greater.</p>
<p>When applying glyphosate, volatility and soil activity are not a concern. Drift, however, can be a serious problem, especially on windy days. Be careful where spray drift can damage or kill nearby desirable vegetation. Additionally, when spraying along streams, ponds, and lakes where there is a risk of spray going into the water, use a glyphosate product and nonionic surfactant labeled for use in aquatic environments. Glyphosate products not labeled for use in or near water often contain a surfactant that may harm aquatic organisms.</p>
<p>If privet populations occur in forage pastures or hayfields, Remedy Ultra or Vastlan may be broadcast- applied at 2 quarts per acre or in a 2 percent volume per volume (v/v) solution with at least 20 gallons of water per acre (GPA) output. Higher output volume allows the herbicide to penetrate farther into thick foliage canopies. This treatment is most effective when applied from summer to fall.</p>
<h1>Cut Stump Herbicide Treatment</h1>
<div id="attachment_5739" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5739" decoding="async" class="wp-image-5739" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig6-600x400.jpg" alt="Figure 6. Spray to wet the entire surface of small stumps. A spray indicator helps keep track of what has been treated." width="400" height="267" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig6-600x400.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig6-768x512.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/fig6.jpg 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5739" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 6. Spray to wet the entire surface of small stumps. A spray indicator helps keep track of what has been treated.</p></div>
<p>This method entails cutting followed by the application of an herbicide to the surface of the stump. For best results, cut privet stems close to the ground and remove any sawdust from the stump. Then, within a few minutes at most, spray or paint the cut surface with the herbicide solution (figure 6). The most critical area of the stump to spray is just inside the bark or about 2 inches around the entire circumference. For smaller stems, it is often easier to treat the entire stem. Spray to wet, but do not puddle the herbicide around the stump. Use an herbicide concentrate product with either 41 percent or higher active ingredient glyphosate or 44 percent active ingredient triclopyr amine. Mix the herbicide with water, preparing a 25 percent solution (32 fluid ounces of herbicide product per gallon).</p>
<p>Herbicide products with lower concentrations of glyphosate or triclopyr amine are available. These types of “brush killer” products should be applied to stumps at full strength. Avoid formulations with concentrations with less than ~20 percent glyphosate or 8 percent triclopyr amine, as they do not contain enough herbicide to be effective.</p>
<p>If the herbicide treatment must be delayed following cutting, a different approach must be used. Within a few weeks of cutting, use a triclopyr ester herbicide product mixed with oil instead of water. Mix the herbicide with an oil carrier such as bark oil or diesel, preparing a 20 percent solution (26 fluid ounces of herbicide product per gallon). There is also a triclopyr ester ready-to-use product with no mixing required. Spray the entire surface and sides of the stump.</p>
<div id="attachment_5740" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5740" decoding="async" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-5740" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Fig7-400x600.jpg" alt="Figure 7. Chinese privet is thin barked and even large-diameter shrubs can be controlled with the basal bark treatment method." width="300" height="450" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Fig7-400x600.jpg 400w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Fig7-768x1152.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Fig7.jpg 1365w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5740" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 7. Chinese privet is thin barked and even large-diameter shrubs can be controlled with the basal bark treatment method.</p></div>
<p>Both water- and oil-based cut stump treatments work on any size privet, but it is critical to treat every cut stem. Untreated cut stems will sprout. Cut stump treatments can be done almost any time of year, but late fall is the easiest from an operational standpoint. The only time cut stump treatments should not be done is in the early spring when privet shrubs are experiencing strong upward sap flow. This is evident when stumps appear to “bleed” water following cutting.</p>
<h1>Basal Bark Herbicide Treatment</h1>
<p>Basil bark herbicide treatment entails spraying the entire circumference of the bottom 12 to 18 inches of each stem with an oil-soluble herbicide (figure 7). Because privet is thin barked, even large-diameter shrubs can be effectively controlled with this approach. Use a triclopyr ester (e.g., Garlon 4 or Remedy Ultra) or triclopyr acid (Trycera) herbicide-formulated product. Mix the herbicide with an oil carrier such as bark oil or diesel, preparing a 20 percent solution (26 fluid ounces of herbicide product per gallon). There is also a triclopyr ester ready-to-use product with no mixing required. Spray to wet, getting complete coverage of each woody stem, but do not puddle the herbicide on the soil. Fall is generally the best time for this treatment, but it may be used any time of the year. This treatment may take a few months to kill privet, but it is effective. Triclopyr ester does have some soil activity, and damage to nontarget species can occur when numerous privet stems are treated in a small area.</p>
<p>In pastures or other areas where damage to surrounding vegetation (especially hardwood species) is not a concern, a 20 percent imazapyr solution (Arsenal or Polaris) can be used. This is not recommended for residential use due to the soil activity of imazapyr.</p>
<h1>Hack-and-Squirt</h1>
<div id="attachment_123080" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-123080" decoding="async" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-123080" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/IMG_0712-002-842x1122.jpg" alt="Figure 8. Fall is generally the best time for hack-and-quirt treatments." width="300" height="400" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/IMG_0712-002-scaled.jpg 842w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/IMG_0712-002-768x1024.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/IMG_0712-002-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/IMG_0712-002-1536x2048.jpg 1536w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /><p id="caption-attachment-123080" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 8. Fall is generally the best time for hack-and-quirt treatments.</p></div>
<p>Hack-and-squirt involves making incisions in the stem at a 45-degree angle for every 2 to 3 inches in stem diameter (figure 8). Squirt 1 ml of undiluted herbicide in each incision so that it comes in direct contact with the cambium layer. Several herbicides, including glyphosate, triclopyr amine, imazapyr, and aminocyclopyrachlor can be used. Fall is generally the best time for this treatment, but it may be used any time of the year. As with basal bark treatments, this treatment may take a few months to kill privet.</p>
<h1>Realities of Privet Control</h1>
<p>No single treatment will eradicate privet. There will almost always be a flush of new seedlings in the year following intensive control, especially along woodland edges. Some sprouting from lateral roots and stumps missed during initial treatment will also be inevitable. These seedlings and sprouts can be easily controlled with foliar glyphosate treatment, which is best done in the late fall. While privet seeds in the soil seed bank only survive for about 1 year, birds and flooding can reintroduce seed into the area. Follow-up monitoring and spot treatment of newly established plants should be done to prevent reinfestation.</p>
<p>Following privet control, many factors influence which species naturally recolonize the site. In addition to sunlight and moisture availability, these factors include surrounding vegetation and prior land use. To direct this process of recolonization and site restoration, land managers may choose to plant desired species actively. If replanting, continued monitoring and spot treatment of new privet are critical as there are no known plant communities in the southeastern United States that will completely resist privet invasion.</p>
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<p><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-112893 alignleft" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/MicrosoftTeams-image-1.png" alt="Peer Review mark" width="160" height="110" />Revised by <strong>Nancy Loewenstein</strong>, <em>Extension Specialist</em>, Forestry, Wildlife and Natural Resources Management; and <strong>David Russell</strong>, <em>Assistant Extension Professor</em>, Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, both with Auburn University. Originally written by <strong>Stephen Enloe</strong>, former <em>Extension Specialist</em>; <strong>Nancy Loewenstein</strong>, <em>Extension Specialist</em>, Forestry, Wildlife and Natural Resources Management; and <strong>David Russell</strong>, <em>Assistant Extension Professor</em>, Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, all with Auburn University.</p>
<p>Revised December 2023, <strong>Control Options for Chinese Privet</strong>, ANR-1468</p>
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/avery-county-forestry-impacts-2018 | Avery County Forestry Impacts 2018 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Morgan Hoy",
"Olakunle Sodiya",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Avery County Forestry Impacts 2018
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
July 10, 2020
Authors
Rajan Parauli
Stephanie Chizmar
Morgan Hoy
Olakunle Sodiya
Robert Bardon
☐ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617aa9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=ayery- county-forestry-impacts-2018#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/tips-for-effective-ant-baiting | Tips for Effective Ant Baiting | NC State Extension | [
"Patricia Alder",
"Michael Waldvogel",
"Christopher Hayes"
] | null | [
"Household Pests",
"Ant Control",
"Insect Baits"
] | NC | ## Tips for Effective Ant Baiting
Household Pests
## Introduction
A bait is a mixture of a toxic chemical (an insecticide) mixed with some food item (such as sugar) that attracts an insect pest. For pests such as ants and cockroaches, the baits only attract the insects when they come into contact with the bait while foraging (looking for food). Insect baits are available in many different forms, from granules that are used mostly outdoors (such as the fire ant bait shown in Figure 1) to gels and soft solid materials that are commonly used in offices, kitchens and other areas where ants are active. You can find information about commonly used insect baits in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual .
For an ant bait to be truly effective requires several steps. You want the worker ants to:
- Find the bait
- Carry small quantities of the bait back to their nest where they feed it to the queen(s), brood (Figure 2) and other workers.
- Recruit other workers in the nest to go collect the bait.
Bafts have some advantages over other types of insecticides. First, baits can work when the nest cannot be found or it is inaccessible for treating with other chemicals. Second, they pose less of a risk to children and pets by reducing possible contact with any toxic chemical. Third, baits can kill the entire colony whereas most insecticides sprayed on a surface kill only the workers that contact it and some sprays may actually be repellent (which doesn't kill the ants but may only "detour" them to another food source temporarily). A disadvantage of baits is that the workers must find it and so you need to have some idea of where ant activity is consistently occurring.
What is critical to remember is that baits are effective only if they are eaten by the ants and not all baits are equally attractive to different ant species. You may need to get help from your local N.C., Cooperative Extension center to identify the ants in question. Make sure that the bait you use is acceptable to the ants. Place a small amount of bait where you see ants foraging (walking back and forth) and then watch how they respond to the bait for a few minutes. If the ants show no interest in the bait, try a different bait until you find one that they will readily eat. Once you find a bait that is acceptable to the ants, there are several other important details to controlling the ants with the bait:
- Proper placement - Bait should be placed in known or suspected areas of ant activity, such as near a cabinet or piece of equipment (Figure 3). Be sure to place the bait out of the reach of children, pets, and wildlife. Never place bait directly on countertops where food is prepared or an area where it will get wet and contaminated or where it may accidentally contaminate water in a sink, pet drinking bowl or a drain.
- Amount of bait - Make sure you provide enough bait and check it daily to make sure that it isn't depleted. If the ants carry away all of the bait before you return, then they may leave that area and go somewhere else before enough bait is spread within the colony. Large ant colonies may require multiple locations and amounts the bait. Leave the bait in place for 3-4 days after you see no more signs of feeding by the ants.
Patience is important to successful baiting. Most ant baits are slow-acting and do not kill the ants quickly. Therefore, you may continue to see ants for a week or more after baiting. However, successful baiting requires that the ants are able to return to the nest with the bait so it can be fed to other colony members (particularly the queen). Do not disturb or kill the ants with insect sprays or other means. Spraying the ants (or the area baited) will contaminate the bait and likely repel the ants away from the area. If you are baiting indoors and do not wish to see ants, try placing the bait in less obvious areas (but where you see some ant activity) such as under/behind appliances, sinks, etc.
For additional information on ant control, consult A Guide to House-Invading Ants and Their Control .
## Authors
Patricia Alder
Training Coordinator Entomology and Plant Pathology
Michael Waldvogel
Extension Specialist (Household & Structural Entomology) Entomology and Plant Pathology
Christopher Hayes
Postdoctoral Research Scholar Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: May 1, 2018
Reviewed/Revised: May 11, 2023
The use of brand names in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University of the products or services named nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/biochar-production-through-slow-pyrolysis-of-animal-manure | Biochar Production through Slow Pyrolysis of Animal Manure | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Joseph Sanford",
"Horacio Aguirre-Villegas",
"Rebecca Larson",
"Mahmoud Sharara",
"Zong Liu",
"Linda Schott"
] | null | [
"Biochar",
"Animal Manure",
"Pyrolysis",
"Sustainability"
] | NC | Biochar Production through Slow Pyrolysis of Animal Manure
Manure Processing for Farm Sustainability
## Abstract
Transporting livestock manure to nutrient deficient fields can often be cost prohibitive without manure processing. Pyrolysis converts manure solids into biochar resulting in significant mass and volume reduction, while retaining high nutrient value. This fact sheet introduces the basics of pyrolysis technology, discusses the benefits and end uses of manure-derived biochar, and provides an overview of cost and technology limitations.
A pdf version of this publication is available from The Learning Store . Division of Extension , University of Wisconsin-Madison.
## Authors
Joseph Sanford
Assistant Professor, Soil and Crop Sciences University of Wisconsin-Platteville
Horacio Aguirre-Villegas
Associate Scientist, Biological Systems Engineering University of Wisconsin-Madison
Rebecca Larson
Associate Professor, Biological Systems Engineering University of Wisconsin-Madison
Mahmoud Sharara
Waste Management Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Zong Liu
Assistant Professor, Biological and Agricultural Engineering Texas A&M University
Linda Schott
Assistant Professor, Soil and Water Systems University of Idaho
Publication date: Jan. 1, 2022
AG-919-06
EXTENSION
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/smith-county-economic-contribution-agricultural-sales | Smith County Economic Contribution of Agricultural Sales | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Smith County Economic Contribution of Agricultural Sales
## Smith County Economic Contribution of Agricultural Sales
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3389-66
Filed Under: Economic Development
View as PDF: P3389-66.pdf
Publication File:
·
smith\_county\_ag\_sales\_presentation.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes
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Dr. Devon Patricia Mills
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Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/leeco/2021/03/10/having-a-record-year-lee-county-4-h-performance-standard-awards-and-guidelines/ | Having A Record Year? Lee County 4-H Performance Standard Awards and Guidelines | University of Florida | [
"Arielle Pierce"
] | 2021-03-10 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"4-H",
"awards",
"Bronze",
"clover",
"Emerald",
"Gold",
"Lee County 4-H",
"Performance Standard Awards",
"Record Book",
"silver"
] | FL | ## Having A Record Year? Lee County 4-H Performance Standard Awards and Guidelines
Have you ever questioned why turning in Record Books at the end of the year was a thing in 4-H?
A lot of unspoken hours and hard work goes into youth's completion of their 4-H Projects. Performance Standard Awards are a way to not only gain recognition for completing 4-H activities, but implement careful planning and development that enhances a youth's personal growth and life skills. It is important to note that there are different levels of Standard Performance Awards that a youth can reach. Coupled with Record Books, Performance Standards help give youth direction. Record Books are a longstanding tradition that helps youth map out their plans, growth, and successes throughout the year.
You may be asking "Why are End of the Year Awards so important?". Rightfully so, when youth are having a record year, they should be recognized for their hard earned accomplishments! Performance Standard Awards promote a positive self-concept through participating in educational experiences and teach youth to progress toward self-set goals. This allows youth to gain insights into their own interests, efforts, and abilities. The growth in a youth throughout the year can often be measured through their Record Book.
Record Books for the current 4-H year are typically due in June, with the Awards Ceremony falling in July. Please Consult your 4-H leader for any club requirements prior to county turn in. End of the Year Awards are not required on a county level, however we encourage all youth to strive for county level awards. Many of our Lee County youth already meet many of the requirements in their normal scheduled 4-H year, and they certainly deserve to be recognized for their hard work.
## Requirements for End of the Year Awards
The Performance Standard Awards sheet helps break down the youth's requirements for Bronze, Silver, Gold, and Emerald levels. These awards levels are open to all Lee County 4-H enrolled youth ages 8 to 18 in the current 4-H year. Similarly, Cloverbud's (ages 5 to 7) have their own requirements for the Clover Award, and will receive a participation award upon completion.
The Lee County 4-H Awards Program Guidelines walk youth through the requirements and examples for each level of award. Additionally, they cover how to put together their Record Book for judging at the end of the year. It is important to note that while many activities are available throughout the 4-H Year for Awards Credit, youth may be able to think outside of the box. Some activities needed for awards may require approval by the 4-H Agent. To get approval for a 4-H Workshop or Talk, please fill out the 4-H Workshop & Talk approval form.
If a youth isn't going for End of the Year Awards, they must fill out a Member in Good Standing form. This form states that the youth has attended 2/3's of their club meetings, has followed all club by-laws, and has completed in full at least one project book. The form must have a parent and leader signature as well, before turning it into the 4-H office.
To view all documents discussed, please click here.
Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to reach out to your leader or the 4-H office!
```
O
by Arielle Pierce
Posted: March 10, 2021
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Category: 4-H & Youth
Tags: 4-H, Awards, Bronze, Clover, Emerald, Gold, Lee County 4-H,
Performance Standard Awards, Record Book, Silver
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
```
More From Blogs.IFAS
Lee County 4-H: 2021 County Events
- Florida's Cosmetic Manufacturer Exemption
- Lee County 4-H: FAQ
- Clover Corner: January 2022 |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/drying-softwoods-for-value-added-markets | Drying Softwoods for Value Added Markets | NC State Extension | [
"Joe Denig"
] | null | [
"Wood Products",
"Drying",
"Softwoods"
] | NC | ## Drying Softwoods for Value Added Markets
Wood Products Notes
## Introduction
There is a great opportunity for softwood mills to enter into the value added markets arena, including lumber used for moulding, doors, windows, and furniture. However, to be successful in this market, quality drying is a prerequisite. That is, the lumber must be dried to a customer's target moisture content with little variability in the final moisture content. Also, in some cases the lumber needs to be stress relieved. In this paper, suggestions on how to select a proper target moisture content, conventional temperature schedules for quality drying, equalizing for a uniform final moisture content, and conditioning for stress relief will be discussed.
## Why the Concern
Why the concern over final moisture content? Small changes in moisture content can add up to big problems for re-manufacturers. An example is a manufacturer making a table top that is 30 inches wide. Wood will lose moisture until it comes into equilibrium with its environment, that is the temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding air. If the table manufacturer uses 15 percent moisture content lumber and the table top eventually dries down to 8 percent moisture content, the top will shrink over one-half of an inch. You can imagine the problems created by this shrinkage.
There are similar examples in moulding, doors, and windows. What happens when a window manufacturer uses lumber that is too wet to make windows? As the lumber dries in use to the equilibrium moisture content, the wood warms resulting in a window that is difficult to open or close. The problem of wood shrinkage and swelling due to not drying the lumber to the target moisture content is aggravated by juvenile and compression wood. In both juvenile wood and compression wood, longitudinal shrinkage is much greater than in normal wood. The only way of avoiding these problems is to dry wood to the moisture content that it will come into equilibrium with when it is in use.
Relieving drying stresses is critical if wood is to be machined after drying. If the wood is not stress relieved prior to machining, the stresses in the lumber will cause the parts to move during machining. This results in moulding blanks that are warped, window and door parts that do not fit, and panel parts that will not glue properly.
Today's manufacturers seek to consistently manufacture products of good quality, if their raw material does not let them manufacture a good quality product on a consistent basis, you can expect them to change their raw material. One must also consider that the closer a manufacturer is to the final consumer of a product, the more expensive quality problems become that are not detected early in the manufacturing process. Let's get back to our window example. What happens when the window warps and can not be easily opened or closed? The cost of this quality failure is not the cost of equalising the lumber in the kiln longer, but rather the cost of replacing the defective windows in service. The window manufacturer will have a long memory when it comes to a raw material problem.
If you are planning to enter the value added market for softwoods, proper drying can not be over emphasized!
## Know Where To Start
A good place to start when drying softwoods for value added markets is to read the literature and visit other operations. I have included three tables in the appendix that were extracted from the Dry Klin Operators Manual. Table 9 is the specific gravity of various softwoods found in North America. Woods with similar specific gravity often dry in a similar fashion. Table 10 lists the heartwood and sapwood moisture content for various softwood species. What one can see from this table is that sapwood of most softwood species is very wet. When designing a kiln schedule this should be taken into account. Also, the heartwood of many of the softwood species is much dryer than the sapwood. If a uniform final moisture content is expected, we will have to equalize the lumber in order to avoid over drying the dry boards or having wet boards.
Table 11 lists the common drying defects encountered in drying different softwood species. This table is very handy for identifying specific problems and gives you some clues for modifying schedules in order to avoid some of the listed problems.
Two species that I will discuss in detail are Southern pine (lobolly) and Eastern white pine. From Table 10 you can see that the heartwood moisture content for loblyl pine is 33 percent while the sapwood moisture content is 110 percent. From studies that I have conducted, the moisture content ranged from approximately 40 percent to 140 percent. Common drying defects for lobolly pine include brown sapwood stain, checks, and splits attributed in part to excessive drying temperatures (Table 11). Experience has shown that brown stain is usually not a problem in thinner stock. Checks are caused by high initial wet bulb depressions. Splits are often caused by over drying, and are usually amplified when the over dried, often cupped lumber is run through a planer. Considering the split problem and high variability in initial moisture equalizing is critical.
For Eastern white pine, the sapwood moisture content is listed as 175 percent while the heartwood moisture content is 50 percent. Common defects for Eastern white pine are brown stain and ring failure, both attributed to wetwood. Brown stain is termed a chemical stain. Studies of Eastern white pine show that one of the largest factors in eliminating brown stain is moving the felled tree through the lumber manufacturing process into the dry kiln as rapidly as possible. Other contributing factors to brown stain are high ambient temperatures and relative humidity and high initial kiln temperatures and relative humidities. Wet pockets are also a common kiln defect in drying Eastern white pine which can be eliminated by a long equalization period. Over drying becomes a problem when equalizing at too low an equilibrium moisture content (EMC). Over drying is manifested at the planner in the form of splits.
## Know Where You Want To Go
The target moisture content is the average moisture content one hopes to achieve at the end of a kiln charge. The target is going to depend on the type of end product that will be manufactured from the lumber and the environment in which the product will be used. In general, the closer to the 10 to 12 percent moisture content range, the better the machining with softwoods. The EMC inside a house may range from 4 to 12 percent depending on the location (the desert versus the coast) and season (winter versus summer). Some processes, such as radio frequency gluing, are extremely difficult with lumber over 12 percent moisture. Another important quality characteristic in many secondary operations is that the pitch is fixed, that is, all of the volatile resins should be driven from the wood.
The decision to stress relieve lumber is based on whether the wood will be machined after drying. If the lumber is to be ripped, run through a moulder or glued, it should probably be stress relieved during drying. Suggested target moisture contents for various softwood products are given below.
| PRODUCT | TARGET MOISTURE CONTENT | CONDITIONING REQUIRED |
|-----------------|---------------------------|-------------------------|
| Finished Boards | 11% | No |
| Moulding Stock | 10% | Yes |
| Furniture Stock | 7 or 8% | Yes |
## Basic Schedule
A conventional kiln schedule can be divided into four stages. In the initial stage, a small wet bulb depression is used to prevent surface checking while a moisture gradient is established. To prevent stain and mold from developing on the lumber in the kiln, it is important to get the dry bulb temperature above 130 degrees Fahrenheit. During the second stage, drying is speed up by raising the dry bulb and increasing the wet bulb depression. The third stage is equalization which prevents the further drying of the dry pieces while letting the wet pieces dry down to the target moisture content. Many drying manuals separate the drying of the lumber from equalization. That is, the dry bulb is raised and the EMC is lowered throughout the drying schedule. Once the driest part of the charge is dry, equalizing is initiated. Because the moisture content in many pine kils is not accurately tracked, we use time schedules versus schedules controlled by moisture content. It may be better to never go lower than an EMC that would be used during equalizing throughout the entire kiln schedule. This will be illustrated later on. The last stage of drying is conditioning the lumber to obtain stress relief.
## Equalizing And Conditioning
The next step in the drying process is equalization. Equalization is a method of preventing over drying and for bringing all of the pieces of lumber in a kiln charge to a nearly uniform moisture content. It is the surest way to reduce the variability in final moisture content between boards in a charge. Equalization is usually done near the end of the drying cycle, and is accomplished by adjusting the kiln operating conditions to achieve an EMC that is 2 or 3 percentage points below the target moisture content. Whether you use an EMC 2 or 3 below the target depends on how closely grouped you want the final moisture content of the lumber to be. For extremely uniform final moisture content use 2 percentage points below your target, however, the time to dry the remaining wet boards will be slightly extended. If you can live with a little more variability and need faster drying times, use an EMC 3 percentage points below the target. The kiln is maintained at these conditions until the moisture content of the wettest board reaches the target moisture content.
The tables below present equalizing data for six different target moisture contents. To use the table, find the line corresponding to the final desired moisture content. The second column gives the moisture content that the driest sample should reach before the equalization process is started. During equalization, kiln operating conditions should be adjusted to achieve the EMC given by the third column. The fourth column shows when the equalization process can be terminated based on the moisture content of the wettest board.
To fine tune equalizing, a kiln operator will have to get some feedback on the final moisture content distribution. In-line moisture meters are a great tool for this process. Equalizing time will depend on factors such as the length of air travel in a kiln before reheating and air flow.
| Target Moisture Content of Driest (percent) | Equalizing Moisture Content of Start Sample at Start (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) (percent) | Moisture Content of Wettest Sample at End (percent) |
|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| 7 | 5 | 5 | 7 |
| 8 | 6 | 6 | 8 |
| 9 | 7 | 7 | 9 |
| 10 | 8 | 8 | 10 |
| 11 | 9 | 9 | 11 |
| 12 | 10 | 10 | 12 |
| Target Moisture Content (percent) | Equalizing Moisture Content of Driest Sample at Start (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) (percent) | Moisture Content of Wettest Sample at End (percent) |
|-------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| 7 | 4 | 4 | 7 |
| 8 | 5 | 5 | 8 |
| 9 | 6 | 6 | 9 |
| 10 | 7 | 7 | 10 |
| 11 | 8 | 8 | 11 |
| 12 | 9 | 9 | 12 |
The table below gives the wet bulb temperature needed to achieve an equilibrium moisture content for equalizing from 4 to 11 percent at various dry bulb temperatures. For example, if the desired EMC is 8 percent, and the dry bulb setting is at 180°F, a wet bulb of 161°F would be needed. In terms of speed it is best to equalize at the highest temperature possible. Looking at the EMC tables for dry bulbs over 212°F one can see that above the boiling point one can not obtain higher EMC's required for equalizing and conditioning.
| Dry bulb temperature | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| (°F) | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
| 160 | 121 | 128 | 133 | 137 | 141 | 143 | 146 | 148 |
| 170 | 130 | 138 | 143 | 147 | 151 | 154 | 156 | 158 |
| 180 | 140 | 148 | 154 | 158 | 161 | 164 | 166 | 169 |
| 190 | 151 | 158 | 164 | 168 | 172 | 174 | 177 | 179 |
| 200 | 160 | 168 | 174 | 178 | 182 | 185 | 187 | 190 |
| 210 | 170 | 179 | 184 | 180 | 193 | 195 | 198 | 200 |
As mentioned above, equalizing through the entire kiln schedule is not a bad idea. That is, the EMC in the kiln schedule should never be more than three percentage points below the target moisture content.
The final step in kiln drying is conditioning. The purpose of conditioning is to relieve the stresses induced by drying (to relieve case hardening) so that the wood will not warp when the lumber is resawn or non-uniformly machined. This step is extremely important if consistent results are to be obtained in the re-manufacturing plant. To properly relieve drying stresses or condition the lumber, the lumber first must be well equalized. If it is not well equalized, the results of conditioning will be sporadic. Like equalization, conditioning is accomplished by controlling the EMC of the kiln. The EMC required for conditioning is 3 percentage points higher than the target moisture content. This will raise the moisture content of the outside shell of the pieces of lumber. When lumber is properly conditioned, one can expect that the average board moisture content will be increased by 1 to 1½ percentage points compared to the moisture content prior to conditioning. For example, if the target moisture content for the lumber is 9 percent, the desired EMC for conditioning is 12 percent.
The table below gives the wet bulb temperature to achieve EMC's of 10 to 14 percent that are commonly used in conditioning.
| | TARGET | TARGET | TARGET | TARGET |
|----------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| Dry Bulb Temperature | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) | Equilibrium Moisture Content (percent) |
| (°F) | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 |
| 160 | 146 | 148 | 150 | 151 |
| 170 | 156 | 158 | 160 | 162 |
| 180 | 166 | 168 | 170 | 172 |
| 190 | 187 | 189 | 191 | 193 |
| 200 | 187 | 189 | 191 | 193 |
When conditioning lumber a very common occurrence is the dry bulb temperature inside the kiln rises. This rise in the dry bulb will alter the actual EMC versus the desired EMC. In other words, the actual EMC will be lower than the desired EMC and conditioning will not occur. It is important that the kiln operator remember the actual dry and wet bulb dictate the conditions in the kiln. If one has a difficult time obtaining a high EMC, one method of trying to obtain a higher EMC is to let the kiln cool down prior to conditioning for several hours. Then just turn on the steam spray by raising only the wet bulb on the control. Observe the controller and see what EMC the kiln conditions achieve.
Conditioning is completed only when the drying stresses are relieved. Conditioning may take from 4 to 8 hours for 4/4 softwood lumber depending on the amount of stress and how quickly the desired conditions are obtained in the kiln. When boards are being conditioned, the moisture content of the surface of the lumber will be about 3 percentage points above the core of the lumber. To determine if the lumber is conditioned, stress samples should be cut. The thickness of the prongs should be ¼ the thickness of the lumber. The stress samples should be evaluated several hours after they are cut. If after several hours the prongs are standing straight up, the lumber is properly conditioned. If the prongs are pinched together, the lumber still contains stress. If the prongs are spread apart, reverse case hardening has occurred. Reverse case hardening occurs when the EMC used in conditioning is much higher than the moisture content of the lumber. This is one of the reasons having the lumber well equalized prior to conditioning is critical.
## Some Examples
A basic conventional temperature schedule for Southern pine for the first two stages in drying is listed below. One item to note in this basic schedule is the low equilibrium moisture content (EMC's) at the end of the schedule. The schedule is also time based, not based on the moisture content of the wood or drying rate.
| Hours in Kiln | Dry Bulb Temperature (°F) | Wet Bulb Temperature (°F) | EMC% |
|-----------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|--------|
| 1 to 24 | 165 | 150 | 9.7 |
| 24 to 48 | 170 | 150 | 7.8 |
| 48 to 72 | 180 | 150 | 5.3 |
| 72 to 96 | 185 | 150 | 4.6 |
Before the above schedule can be used it should be modified or adapted to a specific product and/or kiln. Some kiln operators have found the schedule a little too harsh - that is, it produces too many checks in the beginning. To correct this problem, they operate their kiln with a 160° F dry bulb for the first 12 hours and 150° F wet bulb temperature. This slight modification lowers the EMC and thus slows down the rate of drying in the first step of the drying process.
| Hours in Kiln | Dry Bulb Temperature (°F) | Wet Bulb Temperature (°F) | EMC% |
|-----------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|--------|
| 1 to 12 | 160 | 150 | 12.3 |
| 12 to 24 | 165 | 150 | 9.7 |
| 24 to 48 | 170 | 150 | 7.8 |
| 48 to 72 | 180 | 161 | 7.9 |
| 72 to 96 | 185 | 166 | 7.9 |
| Condition | 185 | 177 | 13 |
The second modification may be to raise the EMC at the end of the schedule, between 48 and 96 hours, in order to insure that you do not over dry any of the pieces of the lumber in the charge. This is especially important if you are targeting a higher final moisture content, for example ten percent. In this case the wet bulb in the final two steps may be raised so that the EMC for these steps is no lower than 2 or 3 percentage points below the target, or 7.8 percent in our example. This will insure the lumber will not be over dried. In effect we are equalizing the lumber during the second stage of drying. One reason this is recommended is that, unlike hardwood dry kiln schedules in which we adjust the schedule based on the moisture content of lumber, pine schedules are based on time because of their short duration.
Based on specific drying conditions, such as actual thickness and air flow in the kiln, the length of the schedule's steps can be modified. The exact schedule is based on experimentation, namely, how long it takes to dry a specific product in a specific kiln. Setting the pitch is another concern. Pitch is set by vaporizing the volatile oils and resins in the lumber by exposing it to high temperature. The setting of pitch by exposing the lumber to high temperature is also time dependent. This can be
illustrated by high temperature dried lumber still exuding pitch after drying. Thus, the lumber must reach sufficient temperature to set the pitch. Finishing with a dry bulb temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit is usually sufficient when drying thinner stock in a conventional schedule to set the pitch.
In recent years Eastern white pine has become a player in the millwork market. A marketing representative asked me to assist one of their suppliers in drying Eastern white pine, since much of the lumber being produced by their supplier was over dried and split when surfaced. I visited the operation and saw that the kiln operator knew what he was doing and his kiln was in good working order. The kiln schedule being used when the splits occurred is listed below. The target used by the operator was 9.5 percent.
| | Temperature | Temperature | Equilibrium | Equilibrium |
|--------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| Step | Moisture Content (MC%) | Dry Bulb (°F) | Wet Bulb (°F) | Moisture Content (EMC%) |
| 1 | Above 100 | 120 | 105$^{2}$ | 9.6 |
| 2 | 100 to 85 | 120 | 105 | 9.6 |
| 3 | 85 to 60 | 120 | 100 | 7.9 |
| 4 | 60 to 40 | 130 | 105 | 6.7 |
| 5 | 45 to 30 | 130 | 100 | 5.7 |
| 6 | 30 to 25 | 140 | 105 | 4.9 |
| 7 | 25 to 20 | 150 | 115 | 5.0 |
| 8 | 20 to 15 | 160 | 125 | 5.1 |
| 9 | 15 to Final | 180 | 152 | 6.0 |
| Equalize and condition as necessary. | Equalize and condition as necessary. | Equalize and condition as necessary. | Equalize and condition as necessary. | Equalize and condition as necessary. |
| 1 | Extracted from Dry Kiln Schedules for Commercial Wood | Extracted from Dry Kiln Schedules for Commercial Wood | Extracted from Dry Kiln Schedules for Commercial Wood | Extracted from Dry Kiln Schedules for Commercial Wood |
The basic white pine schedule starts at a very low temperature and a relatively large wet bulb depression in order to rapidly remove the free water and not brown stain the lumber. As you can see, the last half of the schedule is very severe in terms of a low EMC. Considering the moisture content of the heartwood was 50 percent and the sapwood was 175 percent by Table 10, much of the heartwood was dry halfway through the schedule. The schedule was modified by raising the EMC to 7.5 during the last half of drying.
| | Temperature | Temperature | Equilibrium | Equilibrium |
|------|------------------------|----------------|----------------|-------------------------|
| Step | Moisture Content (MC%) | Dry Bulb (°F) | Wet Bulb (°F) | Moisture Content (EMC%) |
| 1 | Above 100 | 120 | 105$^{1}$ | 9.6 |
| 2 | 100 to 85 | 120 | 105 | 9.6 |
| 3 | 85 to 60 | 120 | 100 | 7.9 |
| 4 | 60 to 40 | 130 | 105 | 6.7 |
| 5 | 45 to 30 | 130 | 108 | 7.5 |
| 6 | 30 to 25 | 140 | 118 | 7.5 |
| 7 | 25 to 20 | 150 | 128 | 7.5 |
| 8 | 20 to 15 | 160 | 138 | 7.5 |
| 9 | 15 to Final | 180 | 158 | 7.5 |
1 Spray off, vents working
By using the above modified schedule, planer splits were reduced from 12 percent down to 0.4 percent. The moisture content was tightened up from a standard deviation of 2.7 percent to a standard deviation of 1.1. Part of the success in the above schedule can be attributed to an outstanding operator. He realized by raising the EMC towards the end of the schedule it would slow down his drying and he would have to adjust the length of time the lumber dried.
## Conclusion
Using the basic softwood kiln schedules and an understanding of equalizing and conditioning, stress free lumber with a very uniform final moisture content can be produced. These basic principles can be extended to other softwood species to produce lumber for the value added market.
## Appendix
| Species | Average Specific Gravity |
|------------------|----------------------------|
| Baldcypress | 0.42 |
| Cedar | |
| Alaska | 0.42 |
| Atlantic white | 0.31 |
| Eastern redcedar | 0.44 |
| Incense | 0.35 |
| Northern white | 0.29 |
| Port-Orford | 0.39 |
| Western redcedar | 0.31 |
| Douglas-fir | |
| Coast type | 0.45 |
| Interior West | 0.46 |
| Interior North | 0.45 |
| Interior South | 0.43 |
| Fir | |
| Balsam | 0.33 |
| California red | 0.36 |
| Grand | 0.35 |
| Noble | 0.37 |
| Pacific silver | 0.40 |
| Subalpine | 0.31 |
| White | 0.37 |
| Species | Average Specific Gravity |
|----------------|----------------------------|
| Eastern | 0.38 |
| Western | 0.42 |
| Larch, Western | 0.48 |
| Pine | |
| Eastern white | 0.34 |
| Lodgepole | 0.38 |
| Ponderosa | 0.38 |
| Red | 0.41 |
| Southern pine | |
| Loblolly | 0.47 |
| Longleaf | 0.54 |
| Shortleaf | 0.47 |
| Sugar | 0.34 |
| Western white | 0.35 |
| Redwood | |
| Old-growth | 0.38 |
| Second-growth | 0.34 |
| Spruce | |
| Black | 0.38 |
| Engelmann | 0.33 |
| Red | 0.37 |
| Sitka | 0.37 |
| Tamarack | 0.49 |
| | Moisture content (percent) | Moisture content (percent) |
|---------------------|------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| Species | Heartwood | Sapwood Mixed Heart and Sapwood |
| Baldcypress | 121 | 171 |
| Cedar | - | 32 |
| Alaska | 32 | 166 - |
| Atlantic white | - | 35 - |
| Eastern redcedar | 33 - | - |
| Incense | 40 213 - | - |
| Northern white | 32 240 93 | - |
| Port-Orford | 50 98 - | - |
| Western redcedar | 58 249 62 | - |
| Douglas-fir | - | 37 |
| Coast type | Intemediate type | 115 45 |
| Rocky Mountain type | 34 112 43 | - |
| Fir | Balsam | 88 173 117 |
| California red | - - | 108 |
| Grand | 91 136 - | - |
| Noble | 34 115 - | - |
| Pacific Silver | 55 164 - | - |
| Subalpine | - - | 47 |
| White | 98 160 - | - |
| Hemlock | Eastern | 97 119 - |
| | Moisture content (percent) | Moisture content (percent) | Moisture content (percent) |
|----------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Western | 85 | 170 | - |
| Larch, Western | 54 | 119 | - |
| Pine | | | |
| Eastern white | 50 | 175 | 90 |
| Lodgepole | 41 | 120 | - |
| Ponderosa | 40 | 148 | - |
| Red | 32 | 134 | - |
| Southern | | | |
| Loblolly | 33 | 110 | - |
| Longleaf | 31 | 106 | - |
| Shortleaf | 32 | 122 | - |
| Sugar | 98 | 219 | - |
| Western white | 62 | 148 | - |
| Redwood | | | |
| Old-growth | 86 | 210 | - |
| Second-growth | - | - | 127 |
| Spruce | | | |
| Black | 52 | 113 | 77 |
| Engelmann | 51 | 173 | - |
| Sitka | 41 | 142 | 43 |
| Tamarack | 49 | - | |
| Species | Drying Defect | Contributing Factor |
|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| Baldcypress | | |
| Old growth | End checks, water pockets | Refractory wood, extractive |
| Young growth | Chemical brown stain | Wood extractive, poor air circulation |
| Cedar | | |
| Alaskan yellow | Resin exudate | Extractive |
| Eastern redcedar | Knot checks, excessive loss of aromatic oils | Excessive drying temperatures |
| Incense cedar | | |
| Heavy stock | Water pockets, collapse | Wetwood, excessive drying temperatures |
| Port-Orford | Resin exudate | Extractive |
| Western redcedar | | |
| Heavy stock | Uneven moisture content, collapse, honeycomb, chemical stains, iron stains, resin exudate | Wetwood (sinker stock), extractive |
| Douglas-fir | | |
| Coastal | Red-brown chemical stains | Wood extractive |
| | Gray sapwood stains | Sapwood extractive |
| | Ring failure, honeycomb | Wetwood (infrequent occurrence) |
| Fir | | |
| Balsam | Uneven moisture content | Wetwood |
| California red | Uneven moisture content, splits, warp | Wetwood, compression wood |
| Grand | Uneven moisture content, shake, splits | Wetwood |
| Species | Drying Defect | Contributing Factor |
|----------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Pacific silver | Uneven moisture content, shake, splits, chemical brown stains | Wetwood |
| White | Uneven moisture content, shake, splits, chemical brown stains | Wetwood |
| Subalpine | Uneven moisture content, shake, splits | Wetwood, compression wood |
| Noble | Warp, splits | Wetwood, compression wood |
| Hemlock | | |
| Eastern | Uneven moisture content, warp, ring shake | Wetwood, compression wood |
| Western | Uneven moisture content, warp, chemical stains, shake, iron stains | Wetwood |
| Larch | | |
| Western | Shake (ring failure, checks, resin exudate) | Wetwood |
| Pine | | |
| Eastern white | Brown stain, ring failure | Wetwood |
| Western white | Brown stain | Wetwood |
| Sugar | Brown stain | Wetwood |
| Ponderosa | Brown stain | Wetwood (less common in ponderosa pine than in the soft pines) |
| Young growth | Warp | Juvenile wood, compression wood |
| Lodgepole | Warp | Compression wood |
| Loblolly | Brown sapwood stain, checks, splits | Excessive drying temperatures |
| Longleaf | Brown sapwood stain, checks, splits | Excessive drying temperatures |
| Shortleaf | Brown sapwood stain, checks, splits | Excessive drying temperatures |
| Species | Drying Defect | Contributing Factor |
|--------------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Slash | Brown sapwood stain, checks, splits | Excessive drying temperatures |
| Virginia | Brown sapwood stain, checks, splits | Excessive drying temperatures |
| Pond | Water pockets, dark chemical stains, honeycomb | Wetwood (infrequent occurrence) |
| Redwood | | |
| Heavy stock | Uneven moisture content, collapse, ring failure | Wetwood (usually in old growth) |
| Spruce | | |
| White | Water pockets, collapse, ring failure | Wetwood (rare occurrence in northern and southern limits of botanical range) |
| Sitka | | |
| Young growth | Checks, splits, raised grain | Fast growth juvenile wood |
## Author
Joe Denig
Department Extension Leader and Extension Specialist (Sawmills) Wood & Paper Science
Publication date: May 1, 1997
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/EP627 | Common Wetland and Aquatic Plants of Lake Apopka, Florida (USA) | University of Florida | [
"Carrie Reinhardt Adams",
"Laura Reynolds",
"Charles W. Martin",
"Christine Rohal",
"Ryan Goebel",
"Jodi Slater"
] | 2023-03-09 | [
"2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply"
] | FL | Common Wetland and Aquatic Plans of Lake Apopka, Florida (USA)
Carrie Reinhardt Adams, Laura Reynolds, Charles W. Martin, Christine Rohal, Ryan Goebel, and Jodi Slater
## Brief History of Lake Apopka
Lake Apopka in central Florida (Figure 1) is the state's fourth largest lake (124 km$^{2}$) and was formerly a clear-water macrophyte-dominated clastic composed of consolidated sediments). Lake the transitioned to a eutrophic state, i.e., so enriched with nutrient desigurations that contributed to decomposition of plants leads to low oxygen and impaired habitat) due to marsh loss, agricultural inputs, wastewaters, and other stressors (Conrow et al. 2011; Research on Lake Apopka has highlighted rapid autophagic potential for restoration, and restoration progress and setbacks, with a focus on nutrient removal and planting vegetation to facilitate recovery (Dunne et al. 2015; Dunne et al. 2012; Slagle and Allen 2018); More recent work has examined the best ways to maximize successful plantings and restoration efforts for submerged aquatic vegetation (SAVY) (Reynolds et al. 2021; Roldan et al. 2020a;
Apopka is the result of increased public access and enthusiasm for improving these habitats for recreation, and therefore there is considerable interest in the lake's plant community. This publication profiles common wetland and aquatic plants of Lake Apopka. The intended audience is the public and natural resource professionals with an interest in the common flora of this region. For more detailed information on identification of a broader set of aquatic species, consult the UFIFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants Directory https://plants.fias.ufu.edu/plant\_directory/) and Identification and Biology of Nonnative Plants in Florida's Natural Area, 2018. McKern, and C.A. Kraddock (Burdicks Books), 2008(which are available from the UFIFAS Extension bookbook (http://fisabs.flookus.edu). Therefore many additional types can be found in the Florida Natural Community Classification Guide (Florida Natural Areas Inventory [FNAI], 2010). Several EDIS publications also complement this publication, some with more wetland onland native plants (e.g., Moore et al. 2015), and others covering topics including invasive species terminology (Janomen et al. 2011), a guide to nominative plant lists (Liurence and Gettsy 2019), native wetland and aquatic plant biology (e.g., Robalh et al. 2020b; Totoochchi et al. 2019), and SAV planning techniques (Reynds et al. 2020). Bolded botanical terms are defined in a glossary at the end of this document.
## Restoration and Recreation
After decades of water quality degradation and associated decline of fisheries in Lake Apopka, restoration efforts have contributed to habitat improvement within the lake. Actions include establishment of a marsh flow way that removes nutrient-rich sediment (Dunne et al. 2012), restoration of surroundings marshes (Bowen and Slater 2016), and reductions in nutrient inputs (Coveyen et al. 2005), all of which have contributed to long-term improvements in water quality (Ji and Havens 2019). Subsequently, characteristic aquatic plants have returned to Lake Apopka, via both natural colonization and planting; their persistence is a sign of habitat recovery, but also these plants will help consolidate floating suspended sediments, sequester nutrients and continue to improve water quality. Habitat restoration and the wildlife that benefit from these improvements have again made Lake Apopka a recreation destination for boating, fishing, hiking, biking, bird-watching, and wildlife photography.
## Importance of Aquatic Plants
A major emphasis for restoration of Lake Apopka is the restsustainablement of desired wetland and aquatic plant communities within the lake. Plants are essential to the ecology of all Florida lakes and wetlands, including Lake Apopka, and allow for shoreline and bottom sediment stabilization, improved water clarity, and habitat for wildlife. Wetland plants also perform important functions, including providing habitat, abating the effects of flooding, and improving water quality.
While in general plants provide beneficial functions, some species can create problems such as habitat change or access limitations. Nonnative species can be particularly problematic nuisance species, and even some native species with high growth rates can in some situations turn into nuisance species. Nuisance species can suppress other desired plant species, create undesirable lake conditions, impede navigation, and limit recreational activities. In part due to elevated nutrients and other sources of degradation, Lake Apopka harbors some of these nuisance species that can limit desirable vegetation and other functions and are therefore the focus of plant management efforts.
The common plants of Lake Apopka, with descriptions and management context, are profiled by according to the type of aquatic plant: (1) shrubs that colonize terrestrial brush and higher elevation features; (2) emergent wetland plants that occur along the shoreline and shallower zone of the lake; (3) submerged aquatic plants that occur in deeper zones, are rooted to the lake bottom, and remain mostly beneath the water surface; and (4) floating plants that utilize leaves that float on the water surface and may or may not be rooted in sediment.
## Document Goals
This document serves as a tool to acquaint the public and natural resource professionals with knowledge of the common flora of this region of interest. The species profiled include the dominant characteristic species according to natural community descriptions (Florida Natural Areas Inventory [FNAI] 2010 and species that are common according to data from citizen volunteer lake monitoring most 2006 to 2010 in Lake Apopka (UFA IFLAS Lawaketch Program 2020), from vegetation perimeter surveyers by St. Johns River Water Management District in 2012 to 2017, and from our observations from 2019 to 2021. We provide identification tips, cultural relevance, and management issues. A more complete list of plants detected in Lake Apopka is provided in Table 1.
## Profiles of Common Plants
These profiles describe common plants of Lake Apopka. Information on each species has been combined from selected databases (UFA IFLAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants 2021; USDA, NRCS 2018). Notes on occurrence on Lake Apopka draw on information from historical accounts (Chemsunt and Barman 1974; Clugston 1963) and more recent surveys (Murphy 2005; UFIFAS Lakewatch Program 2020). Profiles include both native species (evolved in this geographic location) and nonnative species (did not evolve in this geographic location) and the status nuance of species such as (latenet et al. 2021). Invasive plants (noninvasive innate introduced species that cause ecological harm), as classified by the Florida Invasive Species Council (FiSIC) 2019) and published by the Florida State and Federal Noxious Weed Lists (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry 2022 and United States Government Publishing Office 1975), are noted in the text and Table 1.
Shrubs often line aquatic features and occupy terrestrial brush, higher elevations, or drained areas of marshes. When water levels are low, shrubs may increase in cover and provide habitat for many species of marsh and perching birds, but they can also persist in fire-deprived areas and suppress other desirable vegetation. Drought and low lake levels can result in problematic encroachment of shrubs into formerly open water and emergent marsh, reducing habitat quality.
Willow is a large shrub, growing 15-30 h in height with a spreading, open, irregular crown and short, often leaning trunks. This shrub is often as broad as it is tall and common in many wet thickets and swamps throughout Florida and much of the eastern and central United States. It provides significant food and cover for wildlife. For instance, it is a larval host plant for viceroy butterflies ( Limecenitis archippus ). Willow is a dominant shrub on the higher ground shoreline of Lake Apopka. Although this species is native and characteristic of the ecosystem, it can be more prevalent in areas of disturbance, occupy former open water areas, outcompete other desirable plants, and become a nuisance.
## Elderberry (Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis)
Elderberry is a large, branched shrub native to Florida that typically grows 10 h or more and produces blue-black berries that are toxic when raw. Leaves are arranged oppositely on the stem, and each leaf consists of 5 to 11 leaflets . Fragrant white flowers produce large clusters (2-10 inches across) throughout spring and fall. Many wetland plants with large white clusters of flowers (including some that are edible) are easily confused with elderberry; therefore, to prevent ingesting toxins, it is best to avoid all aquatic plants with large clusters of white flowers. Elderberry is a dominant shrub on the higher elevation shoreline of Lake Apopka. Although this species is native and characteristic of the ecosystem, it can be more prevalent in areas of drainage and disturbance, replacing other more desirable plants and becoming a nuisance.
Figure 4.
Credit: Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org
Saltbush is a native, salt-tolerant plant found on beaches, marshes, and disturbed areas throughout Florida. Saltbrush grows as a perennial shrub up to 10 feet tall with dark-green leaves alternatively arranged on its stems. The leaves are thick and egg-shaped, and they have smooth or coarsely toothed margins. At the tips of stems are stalked clusters of white, cotton-like flower heads with small fruits that are dispersed by the wind. Because saltbush can grow in dense clusters, it may become widely. However, it can be beneficial to wildlife by providing shelter and nesting sites to birds.
## Buttonbush ( Cephalanthus occidentalis )
Figure 5 Credit: Vic Ramey and Ann Murray, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants Buttonbush is a native-to-Florida perennial species that grows as a shrub or small tree up to 20 feet tall. It flowers from early spring to late summer, producing small white flowers arranged in ball-like clusters at the ends of branches. The flower balls surround dense round fruits and can be over an inch in diameter. Arranged oppositely on the stems are tapered, pointed leaves two to six inches in length. Buttonbush seeds are a source of food for waterfowl and shorebirds, and its structure is used for shelter by nesting wood ducks. In addition, the dense stands it forms makes this plant useful for erosion control along shorelines. Buttonbush is a common wetland shrub throughout Florida and a prominent shore species at Lake Apopka.
## Emergent Wetland Plants
Emergent wetland plants are located in water-saturated areas throughout marshes and near lake shorelines; in Lake Apopka, emergent plants grow from the water's edge to a depth of 3 feet. Although the leaves and stems of these plants are usually the only vegetation visible above the water line, survival is possible during periods of low water in exposed and damp sediment. Fluctuation of water levels can create different flooding conditions that shift zones and plant communities, such that emergent plant abundance is decreased during times of sustained high or low water levels. Emergent plants are responsible for several functions, including shoreline stabilization, wildlife habitat, and organic matter addition to sediment through shed leaves and other debris. Management of emergent species is sometimes required when large stands of plants create navigational hazards.
Alligatorweed (Alternanthera phileoxoides)
Figure 6.
Credit: Vc Ramey, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
Alligatorweed is not native to Florida but was introduced from South America and began invading Florida waterways in the early 1900s; now this perennial herb is common throughout the state and is present in some areas of Lake Apopka. Alligatorweed has smooth stems that trail along the ground or across the water's surface and distinctive white flower clusters that bloom in summer months. This species forms floating mats over deep water and edges of waterbodies, which can block drains and water intake valves, limit light availability, and displace native species. Introduced biological control agents (Center et al., 2022; Wells and Minter 2022) effectively reduce alligatorsweed in much of its range for open water conditions, but not in swampy or terrestrial scenarios. Alligatorweed is regulated because it appears on the State Noxious Weed list (unlawful to introduce, multiply, possess or transport) and is classified as a Category II invasive, meaning that it has increased in abundance or frequency, yet alteration of Florida plant communities is not as extensive as with Category I species (FISC 2019), so control on Lake Apopka is secondary to that for other more impactful invaders.
Cattail (Typha domingensix , Typha latifolia , and hybrids)
## Credit: Ann Murray, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
Cattails are an upright, perennial species that can create large monodominant stands. There are two Florida native species (Typha domingensis , southern catalil, and Typha latifolia , common caitlall) that share many characteristics and likely hybridize, so it is difficult to confirm their identity without genetic testing. Leaf stalks emerge from rhizomes (underground stems) below the soil surface and produce long, tapered leaves with smooth margins. Getting their name from their large cylindrical flower spikes, they are not often mistaken for other species. The densely packed flower spikes include a narrower upper portion containing male flowers and a wider base of female flowers. Leaves from the bottom half of catalils appear straight but begin to twist and spiral in the top half of the plant. Catalits are known for their phosphorus retention potential and grow well in high nutrient conditions such as Lake Apopka. Providing benefits such as nesting habitat and protective cover for wildlife, catalils do require management action when monocultures get too dense and expansive and reduce habitat by outcompeting other desirable plants.
## Common Arrowhead ( Sagittaria latifolia )
## Each stalk of the inflorescence holds a dense spherical head of reddish-brown spikellets . Cuban bulrush spreads by rhizomes to form large colonies, which may float on the surface of slow-moving water. These floating mats pose a risk to other emergent plant species, which may be crowded out or excluded. Cuban bulrush is known to be "aggressively weedy" in Georgia and Alabama and may be becoming more present in Florida.
Giant Bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus )
Figure 10. Credit: Vic Ramey and Anne Murray, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
Giant bulrush is a native plant often seen growing along banks or in several feet of water along the shores of Lake Apopka. This species reaches 10 feet or taller and is an emergent plant but can be found in deeper water, up to 3 feet. Giant bulrush is recognizable by its tallest-like flower spike with irregular drooping branches at the pinnacle of the tall stem with no leaf blades. It blooms from spring to summer, with the brown spikelets contrasting against the smooth, dark-green stems. Flowers are wind pollinated and eventually create a long redbrown seed. Along with seed dispersal, giant bulrush can aggressively reproduce via rhizomes below the surface. This rush is known for its high wind resistance and lakeshore stabilization. Seeds are utilized by waterflow as an important food source, and the structure of the stems provides important cover for birds and other wildlife. Because of all the benefits provided by giant bulrush, this species is actively planted in Lake Apopka and is typically not a nuisance.
Lance-Leaved Duck Potato (Sagitartia lanciifolia )
Credit: Ann Murray and Vic Ramey, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
Another Sagittaria species , lance-leaved duck potato is the largest of the arrowhoods and is frequently observed along the shoreline of Lake Apopka, forming critical habitat and rarely becoming a nuisance. Leaves on the duck potato are typically four inches wide and up to two feet long. These leaves are tappered near the stem and grow as a rosette from rhizomes . The name "duck potato" is derived from large bulbous stem parts ( corns ) growing underground. White flowers are seen above leafy vegetation with petals in whorls of three. Fruiting heads are composed of hooked seeds that readily attach to fur or feathers for an effective dispersal system. Despite the common name of this plant, ducks do not eat the corns , yet humans have used them as a food source for centuries. Though waterfowl do sometimes consume seeds, duck potato is not generally considered an important food source for them. However, the large leaves and firm stems of this species offer an ideal substrate for the attachment of apple snail eggs, an important food source for birds like limpkins and kite species.
Credit: Vic Ramey and Ann Murray, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
## Maidencane is a native grass with tall narrow stems and an extensive root system. It grows in moist soil but can also grow in relatively dry soils above the water line. The stems can
reach 6 feet in length and contain flat or folded leaves that grow to one inch wide and a foot long. The points of these leaves are generally smooth. The inflorescence is a very narrow spike-like panicle, containing green flowers up to 1/8 inch pressed against the branches. Dispersal methods for maidencane are either vegetatively through rhizomes or through seed production. This is an essential species to Lake Apopka, because it is an important aquatic plant for fish management. Adding cover and spawning habitat to the shallow shoreline, maidencane creates great habitat around its roots. From a land management perspective, this grass is generally not a problem unless dense mats cause navigation and recreation problems, which can be reduced with herbicide.
## Para grass ( Urochloa mutica )
| Figure 13. Credit: Vic Ramey, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants and Forest & Kim Starr (left); CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons (right) | Figure 13. Credit: Vic Ramey, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants and Forest & Kim Starr (left); CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons (right) |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Parra grass is a nonnative perennial species that was first introduced to the United States as a forage plant for livestock. It is now distributed throughout south, central, and northeast Florida and can be found in some areas of Lake Apopka. Parra grass grows stems up to eight feet tall from long creeping stolons growing horizontally above soil. The stem has hairy nodes and sheaths, and its leaves are long and narrow (4 - 12 inches long, % inch wide). At the tip of the stem is the inflorescence as a branched panicle. Along the panicle branches are many small spikelets with inconspicuous purplish flower. Parra grass spreads aggressively by creeping stolons, cuttings, and need, and it can form large, fast-growing colonies that crowd out native plants. Floating mats formed in drainage ditches or irrigation canals impede water flow and restrict the navigational and recreational usage of waterways. Parra grass is classified as a category 1 invasive species, meaning that it alters native plant communities by displacing native species, causing considerable ecological damage (FISC 2019). | |
On nonflowering plants, to tell the difference between pickleweed and common arrowhead, one must look at the leaf lobes . Lobes of pickleweed are rounded and heart-shaped as opposed to the pointed lobes of common arrowhead. Depending on density of pickleweed stands, water birds and small mammals can use this species as a staple of their diet and cover. This beneficial plant is easily visible on the shores of Lake Appopka and does not typically pose a nuisance.
## Torpedograss ( Panicum repens )
First introduced as a forage crop for cattle, toporgrass is now a widespread invasive in Florida and has been noted to occur in isolated stands of aquatic grasses at Lake Apopka. This nonnative grass is found on marshy shorelines and readily invades disturbed or open areas. Torpedograss is named for the sharply pointed growing tips that emerge from rhizomes in the mid. These growing tips become stems up to 40 inches tall and short with flat or folded leaves. Toporgrass leaves have its air on upper lands and forms a waxy coating on the surface. At the tip of the stem is the inflorescence, which is a branched panicle with straw-colored spikelets. It spreads aggressively by rhizomes and stem fragments, creating large mats that clog waterways and block shorelines. Once established, torpedograss is difficult and expensive to control. Torrograss is classified as a category I invasive species, meaning that it alters native plant communities by displacing native species, causing considerable ecological damage (FISC 2019).
## Wild Taro ( Colocasia excellenta )
WILD TARO ( Colocasia excellenza ) Wild Taro ( Colocasia excellenza ) is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia ). The wild tree species is a common native species with a few species of the wild tree (Chorus acacia '.
Plants growing nearly entirely underwater, commonly referred to as submersed aquatic vegetation, or SAV, are either rooted on rootrooted below the water line in permanently saturated areas. Because they are fully submersed, factors such as pH, water clarity, light, nutrient availability, and soil stability impact where these species will be found. Ecosystem functions of submersed plants include increasing water clarity, mud and sediment stabilization, catalyzing nutrient cycling, and benefiting wildlife. Submersed vegetation offers ideal habitat, cover, and food for countless aquatic species. While most submersed plants are desirable, depending on management goals and growth rates of vegetation, submersed plant life can become a nuisance to recreation, navigation, and flood control. Management action is assessed and dealt with on a case-by-case basis.
Eelgrass/Tape Grass ( Valisneria americana )
A submersed plant with ribonilike leaves, egrelass is another species currently being used for the revegetation of Lake Apopka, Fallineria americana grows from underground rhizomes and produces leaves with rounded tips about an inch wide and up to several feet long. Depending on rooting depth, it is not uncommon to see leaves of this species floating across the water’s surface. Flowering for this species occurs in the summer and fall but has been observed during fall, winter, and spring at Lake Apopka. A long slender peddle wil lor grow from the base of the leaves, carrying a single white tubular “female” (pistillite) flower for surface pollination. There is also an underwater "male" (staminate) flower at the base of the plant, which is not visible from the surface. Once pollen floats to the surface and fertilization is complete, the surficial (female) flower will coil and lower the fruit to the bottom of the lake. Like other fast-growing submersed aquatic plants, egrelass has the ability to cause water-use problems for boating and fishing, but management action is not often required. Egrelrass is a beneficial species that is a valuable food source for waterfowl, useful for fish habitat (Looby, Reynolds, Adams, and Martin 2011; Looby, Reynolds, Adams, Walsh, et al. 2021) and spawning areas, and the most abundant native submerged aquatic vegetation in Lake Apopka. It is an obvious choice for revegetation projects (Reynolds et al. 2020; Toonetchi et al. 2019).
Figure 18. Credit: Graves Lovell, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bugwood.org Coontail is a native aquatic herb with slender and elongated stems with whorled leaves that is found within Lake Apopka. This species does not have "true roots" and therefore is sometimes considered a free-floating species, but it is able to lodge itself in the sediment with modified leaf structures. Described as looking like a raccoon tail, leaves are feathery and fan-shaped, divided into several narrow segments. The midrib of leaves contains several small teeth, which make coontal rough to the touch. Flowers occur annually but are seldom seen because they are very small and grow on the base of the leaf. Common in calmer streams and lakes, this species is very tolerant of fluctuating water levels and moderate turbidity.
Reproduction is either through seeding or fragmentation, though plant can be damaged by manaquinate management problems and has trouble levels in high-infertile waters, coontal is generally common as beneficial to fisheries, because small fish and insects often utilize this species as cover. This species was occasionally detected in surveys of Lake Apopka during 2019 and 2020, with some large areas in sheltered coves.
## Hydrilla ( Hydrilla verticulata )
## Credit: Leslie J. Mehroff, University of Connecticut, and Chris Evans, University of Illinois, Bugwood.org
Introduced to Florida in the 1950s through the aquarium trade (from Asia and/or India; there is genetic evidence for two intrusions), nonnative hydrilla quickly established itself around the state. Now on the Federal Noxious Weed List, Hydrilla can thrive in almost any freshwater habitat, Lake Apopka included. This is a species that can grow at any depth of the lake and can even flourish in 1% of full sunlight. Hydrilla branching stems that fragment and form dense mats. It can be distinguished from other species by its small, bright-green, pointed leaves with serrated edges; these leaves are less than an inch long and are generally arranged in whorts of 3 - 8 , which are connected to the stem. As a prolific grower, the stem of hydrilla is thin and can grow up to an inch per day. At the base of underground stems, potato-like tubers used for reproduction and food storage are produced. In fact, reproduction, hydrilla provides habitat for fish and food for diving ducks. Anglers are particularly interested in this species for "enhanced bass habitat." However, hydrilla has the potential to rapidly expand, often becoming a hazard to navigation; large populations of hydrilla are common targets of management in lake Apopka. Proper identification of hydrilla is critical for management; although it has not been detected in Lake Apopka, native elodea ( Elodoea canadensis ) may be mistaken for hydrilla but can be distinguished by its leaves in whorks of 3 . Hydrilla is regulated as it appears on the State Noxious Weed list (unlawful to introduce, multiply, possess or transport) and the Federal Noxious Weed List (all interstate movement is prohibited) and is classified as a Category I invasive species, meaning that it alters native plant communities by displacing native species, causing considerable ecological damage (FISC 2019). For more information on hydrilla in Florida, see Elloae et al. (2012) and Gettys and Enloge (2016).
## Illinois Pondweed ( Potamogeton illinonis )
| Commonly referred to as pondweed, Potamogeton illinonis is a submerged plant growing from a large network of horizontal rhizomes. This native species grows well in shallow |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| areas and is currently being used in restoration/revegetation projects in Lake Apopka. Pondweed can be characterized by its submersed and free-floating leaves that vary in shape; |
| submersed leaves are typically lance-shaped with pointings tips, yet floating leaves have a more elliptical shape. Submersed and floating leaves are more or less the same size (up to 8 inches in length). Sometimes seen sticking above floating leaves, the inflorescence is a vertical spike that is up to three inches long, containing greenish flowers. When not dispersed |
| through seeds, pondweed can reproduce via rhizomes and vegetative fragments, creating a large network of plants. Pondweed further benefits overall aquatic ecosystems by creating |
| cover for fish and an important food source for waterfowl. Though occasionally regarded as a nuisance species due to its rapid growth under specific conditions, pondweed is highly |
| desirable in Lake Apopka. Historical presence in the lake, as well as promising performance in less-than-ideal conditions, has led pondweed to be selected as a major species for |
| restoration of submerged aquatic habitat. Although naturally colonizing populations of Illinois pondweed have not been recently detected in Lake Apopka, some patches have been |
| established via restoration efforts (Reynolds et al. 2020; Rohal et al. 2020b). |
Figure 21. Credit: Vie Ramey and Ann Murray, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
Several species of Chara are present in Florida, and all grown attached to the bottom of lakes. But muskgrass is not a true higher plant--it is actually a multicellular macroalga. Muskgrass has no leaves, but spines and calcium deposits that make it rough to the touch and give it a grainy texture. Muskgrass is named for its distinctive garlic odor. Found cocooccurring with other submersed plants in Lake Apopka, muskgrass has no flower, will not extend above the water surface, and can reproduce rapidly and form dense beds. With cylindrical, whorled branches, this plant appears gray-green in color. Muskgrass is consumed by ducks and houses invertebrates, providing a food source and cover for fish, but rapid growth makes this species an occasional nuisance to recreation.
## Southern Naiad (Najas guadalupensis)
## This Florida native species is found throughout the state, in all contiguous 48 US states, and in most of Canada. Southern naiad is characterized by many-branched stems, extremely
narrow leaves (less than 1/16 inch), and teeth on leaf margins when observed under magnification. Inconspicuous green flowers bloom through the growing season. Although there are five species of Najas found in Florida, this species is the most common. Ducks and waterfowl eat the seeds, stems, and leaves of southern naiad, which rarely reaches nuisance levels. More recent surveys suggest that this species is present in small amounts in Lake Apopka, but surveys from decades ago describe it as more abundant.
## Floating Plants
Floating plants are a category of aquatic plants that include free-floating and floating-leaved plants. Free-floating plants are not anchored into the sediment and retain nutrients from the water column. Floating-leaved plants are typically rooted in the sediment and utilize leaves that float nearly exclusively on the surface of the water (submersed aquatic plants may have submersed as well as floating leaves). Floating plants (both free-floating and floating-leaved) are generally seen lakeward of emergent species and are useful for protection from shoreline erosion and habitat creation. These types of plants can be especially concerning for lake managers, because navigation and recreation can be limited by vegetation on the lake surface. Lake Apopka has both native and nonnative floating plants that are present in small areas protected from wave action.
## Common Duckweed (Lemma minor)
| Credit: Jon Sullivan, CC BY-NC 2.0, and Matt Lavin, CC-BY-SA 2.0, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| This aptly named plant provides food and habitat for ducks, as well invertebrate food sources, and ducks often disperse duckweed from one water body to another. Duckweed has |
## Cone-Spur Bladderwort ( Urricularia gibba )
Figure 24.
Credit: Graves Lovell, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bugwood.org
Cone-spur bladderwort is a rootless and free-floating plant with sparse, extremely segmented leaves that appear bushy underwater. Showy two-lipped yellow flowers are borne atop a tall pedicel. The "cone-spur" name comes from small spurs on the pedicels below the flowers. Small, spherical carnivorous bladders occur on leaves underwater and trap aquatic prey. Cone-spur bladderwort occurs in open water and still areas, forming floating mats. Many types of wildlife use this species as shelter, including turtles and frogs, and it also provides forage for waterfowl.
## Fragrant Water Lily (Nymphaea odorata)
Figure 27. Credit: Vic Ramey, UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
Spatterdock is a very common Lake Apopka species, forming dense mats in shallow areas. Arrow-shaped leaves (sometimes resembling elongated hearts) with wavy margins are attached to stout, strong stems that arise from spongy rhizomes rooted below the surface. A deep cut by the leaf base differentiates this species from other floating-leaved plants. Blooming from spring to summer, spatterdock has spheroidal-shaped flowers containing numerous yellow petals. Flowers are often described as 'half open,' seen in a cup shape at or above the water surface. Reproduction occurs through horizontally spreading rhizomes or seed heads to the bottom and germinate in circular colonies. Waterflowi are known to feed on small seeds as a secondary food source. Bluegill and red-eared sunfish fisheries are supported by this species because it is a host plant for the common bonnet worm, a major source of food. Because of these benefits, spatterdock is commonly planted for restoration purposes, as it is in Lake Apopka (Sangle and Allen 2018).
## Water Fern (Salvinia minima)
Water fern is a floating plant that grows together with other aquatic plants. Its joined oval leaves are % inch wide with obvious stiff hairs. Although this species has no true roots, it does have modified leaf structures that grow under the water surface and are about 4 inches long. This species is common in Lake Apopka in still-water areas and occurs in association with duckweed species in open-water areas. Water fern is classified as a Category I invasive species, meaning that it alters native plant communities by displacing native species, causing considerable ecological damage (FISC 2019).
## Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Figure 30.
Although the native distribution of water lettuce is unclear, this aquatic herb is known to invade Florida aquatic systems and can be found statewide. Water lettuce has thick, light-green, water-repellant leaves with wavy margins and short hairs. The leaves are arranged in a floating rosette at the plant's base, from which long, feathery roots hang in the water below. Water lettuce spreads rapidly to form dense mats, which can close and restrict the usage of waterways as well as disrupt other plant and animal communities. Water lettuce is a prohibited aquatic plant on the Florida Noxious Weed list and is classified as a Category I invasive species, meaning that it alters native plant communities by displacing native species, causing considerable ecological damage (FISC 2019).
## Water Penrwynt (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides and Hydrocytole umbellata)
Knowledge of current plant communities can help guide restoration efforts, design management plans, and increase recreational experiences in natural areas. This resource will help generate familiarity with the plant species that characterize the culturally and ecologically significant habitats of Lake Apopka. By highlighting significant plant species here, we support the goal of increasing recognition and enjoyment of this key natural resource of the state of Florida.
## Glossary of Botanical Terms
Bract: Modified, usually small, leaflike structure often positioned beneath a flower or inflorescence.
Corn: A bulbous stem part that is firm-fleshed and subterranean and produces aerial stems, leaves and flowers.
Emergent wetland plants: Aquatic plants that are rooted in sediment but have leaves at or above the water surface; they occur along the shoreline and shallower zone of lakes.
Floating plants: Plants with leaves that float on the water surface and may be rooted in sediment or not rooted and floating in the water column.
Inforescence: A structure with multiple individual flowers.
Lance: A leaf shape resembling a lance (sword), generally several times longer than wide, broadest toward the base and tapering toward the leaf tip.
Leaf margin: The edge of a leaf.
Leaflet: A segment of a compound leaf.
Lobe: A usually rounded or pointed projecting part, typically one of two or more, each separated by a fissure or sinus.
Macrophyte: A plant, large enough to be visible to the naked eye, and a term commonly used to describe aquatic plants.
Panicle: An inflorescence in which the flowers are borne on branches of the main axis or on further branches of these.
Pedicel: The stalk of an individual flower.
Peltate: The point of attachment is the underside of the leaf as opposed to the margin.
Rhizome: A stem, usually prostrate, that is growing below the ground surface.
Scape: The stemlike flowering stalk of a plant.
Segmented: Having free or almost free parts or subdivisions of an organ (e.g., leaves, flowers).
Serrated: Toothed so toes as resemble a saw with teeth pointing forward.
Shrub: Woody plant typically less than 20 feet tall with many stems; in aquatic and wetland environments they colonize terrestrial brush and higher-elevation features.
Spike: A flower (or fruit) arrangement that has grouped flowers that are directly attached to a stem.
Spiketel: An often small unit of an inflorescence (flower cluster) typical of grasses, sedges, and other monocots.
Stolon: Crepking, horizontal aboveground plant stem or runner that takes root at points along its length to form new plants.
Submerged aquatic plants/submersed aquatic vegetation: Plants that have stems and leaves growing entirely underwater, may have floating leaves, and occur in deeper zones, rooted to the lake bottom; also abbreviated as "SAV."
Tuber: A stem, usually underground, enlarged as a storage organ.
Whorl: A ringlike arrangement of similar parts (e.g., leaves, flowers, branches) arising from a common point or node.
This work was supported by the St. John's River Water Management District (contracts 30247, and 31945). We thank Megz Kelly and Alex Matys for technical support.
## Works Cited
Boven, P., and J. Slater. 2016. Lake Apopka North Shore Biological Assessment for Phase 2 West Active Management Phase. S. Johns River Water Management District.
Center, T. D.; J. P. Cudda, M. Grodowitz, and C. Minister. 2022. "Aligatorweed Flea Betula Agichesyl hyphrologia Selman and Vogt (Coleoptera: Chrysomeloidea): Haticinaceae," EDIS 2022 (https://idsis.fsi.edu/publication/NIR31).
Chestnut, L. T., and E. H. Barnam. 1974. "Aquatic Vascular Plants of Lake Apopka, Florida." Fla. Sci. 37:60-64.
Clutgston, J. P. 1963. "Lake Apopka, Florida: Changing and Its Vegetation." Q. J. Fila Acad. Sci. 26:168-174.
Conrow, R., E. F. Lowe, M. F. Covney, R. H. Ruschenberger, and G. Masson. 2011. "Restoration of Lake Apopka's Northeast Shore: High Hopes, Tough Times, and Persistent Progress." In Wildlife Ecotoxicology, edited by E. J. Elliott, B. C. Bishop, and C. Moray, 1981-219. New York: Springer: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89432-4\_6
Coveney, M. F., E. F. Lowe, L. E. Battoe, B. R. Marzolf, and R. Connow. 2005. "Response of a Euphrotitic, Shallow Subtropical Lake to Reduced Nutrient Loading." Freshw. Biol. 50 (17):1180-1775. doi:10.1115/j.dol.1115/10.16247/2020.pdf.
Dunne, E. J. M. F. Conevaey, R. V. Horege, C. Connow, R. Nalleyev, E. F. Lowe, I. L. Battoe, and W. Yang. 2015. "Phosphorus Removal Performance of a Large-Scale Constructed Wetland Treatment Wetland Regenerating Euthrophic Lakewater." Ecosol. Eng. 79:137-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/cclo@eng.2015.02.013.
Dunne, E. J., M. F. Conevaey, R. E. Marzolf, V. R. Horege, Connow, R. Nalleyev, E. F. Lowe, and L. E. Battoe. 2012. "Efficacy of a Large-Scale Constructed Wetland to Remove Phosphorus and Suspended Acid Solutions from Lake Appokpa, Florida." Ecol. Eng. 42:50-49. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolsol.2012.01.019.
Ensole, F. S., L. A. Gettyis, J. Leary, and K. A. Langeland. 2012. "Hydrilla Management in Florida Lakes." EDIS 2012 (3): https://doi.org/10.32473/edicis-370-2012
FISC. 2019. List of Invasive Plant Species. Florida Invasive Species Council.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 2022. "Florida Noxious Weed List." Accessed January 18, 2022. https://www.flores.net/gateway/chapterHome.asp?chap=SB37-52
Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI). 2010. FNAI Natural Community Classification Guide. Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Tallahassee, FL.
Gettles, L., and S. F. Enonce. 2016. "Hyrillida: Florida's Most Subversive Weed." EDIS 2016 (3): https://journals.journalisticarticle.view/127808
Inanone III, B. V., E. C. Bell, S. Carneville, E. J. Hill, M. ConnecMell, M. S. F. Enonce, S. A. Johnson, J. P. Cuda, S. Baker, and M. Andreu. 2021. "Standardized Invasive Species Terminology for Effective Outreach." EDIS 2021 (4): 8: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-frf39-2021
Jr., G., and K. Havens. 2019. "Periods of Extreme Shallow Depth hinder Bind Do Not Stop Long-Term Improvements of Water Quality in Lake Apopka, Florida (USA)." Water 11 (3): 538. https://doi.org/10.3309/wi1030558
Lieuance, D., and L. Gettsky. 2019. "Lost in the Weed?: A Comprehensive Guide to Florida's Many Non-Native Plant Lists." EDIS 2019 (5): 6. https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-ag346. 2019.
Loebby, A., L. K Reynolds, C. R. Adams, and C. W. Martin. 2021. "Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Patch Size Affects Fish Communities in a Turbid-Algal Lake." Front. Conserv. Sci. 26:6751. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcsc2021\_65761
Loobya, A., L. K Reynolds, C. R. Adams, S. J. Walsh, and C. W. Martin. 2021. "Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Habitat Use of Age-O Florida Bass Micropterus floridanus." Environ. Biol. Fisheries 104:947-958. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10614-021-01162-3
Moore, K., L. Fisher, C. della Torre III, and L. Gettys. 2015. "Native Aquatic and Wetlands Plants: Duck Potato, Sagittaria frigolia. EDIS 2016 (1): 3. https://doi.org/10.32473/eds-2015-2015
Murphy, S. 2005. "Assessment of Fish and Plant Communities in Lake Apopka, Florida." MS thesis, University of Florida.
Reynolds, L., C. R. Adams, E. Laitimer, C. W. Martin, C. Rohal, and J. Slater. 2020. "A Comparison of Planting Techniques for Submerged Aquatic Vegetation." EDIS 2020 (4). https://doi.org/10.32473/ediags856-2020
Reynolds, L., K. C. B. Rohal, W. A. Scheefhl, C. R. Adams, C. W. Martin, and J. Slater. 2021. "Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Species and Populations within Species Respond Differentially to Environmental Stressors Common in Restrictions." Environ. Manage. 68:47-490. https://doi.org/10.1007/d027667-021-01517-3
Rohal, C., L. K. Reynolds, C. Reinhardt Adams, and C. Martin. 2020b. "Pondweeds of Florida." EDIS 2020 (5): https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-sss66-2020
Rochal, B. L., C. K. Reynolds, R. C. Adams, R. C. Martin, E. L. Latimer, S. J. Walsh, and J. Slater. 2020b. "Biological and Practical Tradeoffs in Planting Techniques for Submerged Aquatic Vegetation." Aquat. Bot. 170:1030473. https://doi.org/10.1016/ajubaq.2020.103347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajubaq.2020.103347
Slagle, Z., J. M. Sallen, E. M. Silestie, "Should We Plant Microphys"? Restored Habitat Use by the Fish Community of Lake Apopka, Florida." Lake Reserv. Manag. 34 (3): 296-305. https://doi.org/10.1048/2014134179
Tootoonchi, M., L. A. Gettys, and J. H. Bladhau. 2019. "Topegrass, Elgrass, or Wild Celery (Wallisiamerica americana) : Native Aquatic and Wetland Plant." EDIS 2019 (5). https://doi.org/10.32473/ediqs-37-2019
UF/IFAS Lakewatch Program, 2020. Lakewatch Data. University of Florida.
United States Government Publishing Office. 1975. "The Federal Noxious Weed Act." Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.yagin.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-SATE-P&#164;pdf
## USDA, NRCS. 2018. "The PLANTS Database." http://plantsusda.gov/
Wells, B., and C. Minter. 2022. "Alligatorweed Stem Borver (suggested common name) Arcola malloi Pastrana (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Pyralidinae): P(YEIS) 2021 (1): 4. https://doi.org/10.32473/eds-in-1300-2020
Table 1. Plants commonly observed in Lake Apopkia in the lake and along the immediate lakeshore (UF/IFAS Lakewatch Program, 2020, q = SJRWMD lake vegetation perimeter surveys and b - personal observations from 2019 to 2021). Species profiled in this publication are marked in the last column. (1 - FISC Category I: increased abundance causes significant ecological damage, 2 - FISC Category II: Increased abundance causes some ecological damage, 3 - State of Florida Noxious Weed List, 4 - Federal Noxious Weed List * nuisance species that can be a focus of management efforts.)
View Table
Release Date:
March 10, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-EP627-2023
Critical Issue: 2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply
Contactes: Carrie Reinhardt Adams
## HU
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About this Publication
This document is ENH13163, one of a series of the UF/IFAS Environmental Horticulture Department. Original publication date January 2023. Visit the EDIS website at https:/ /edu/.sfu.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Carrie Reinhardt Adams, associate professor, Environmental Horticulture Department; Laura Reynolds, assistant professor, Department of Soil, Water, and Ecosystem Sciences; Charles W. Martin, research assistant professor, UF/IFAS Nature Coast Biological Station; Christine Roal, postdoctoral associate, Environmental Horticulture Department and Department of Soil, Water, and Ecosystem Sciences; Ryan Gioebel, Environmental Horticulture Department; and Jodi Slater, environmental scientist, St. Johns River Water Management District; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Environmental Horticulture
Central Florida |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2022/01/25/study-white-clay-spray-mix-repels-major-crop-pest/ | Study: White clay spray mix repels major crop pest | University of Florida | [
"Kirsten Romaguera Rabin"
] | 2022-01-25 | [
"Agriculture",
"Crops",
"Pests & Disease",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"Entomology",
"Josh Freeman",
"kaolin",
"Mathews Paret",
"North Florida Research and Education Center",
"pest control",
"plant pathology",
"Tomato",
"tomato yellow leaf curl",
"Whiteflies",
"whitefly",
"Xavier Martini"
] | FL | ## Study: White clay spray mix repels major crop pest
QUINCY, Fla. -Tomatoes are big business in Florida, the nation's top producer of the popular fruit, but an insect no bigger than a grain of rice threatens growers' fields each season.
The whitefly prefers the underside of leaves, enjoying a variety of plants and spreading a few diseases, including Tomato yellow leaf curl virus. The pests are also persistent, said Xavier Martini, an entomologist at the UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center (NFREC) in Quincy. Most commonly, growers apply insecticides weekly to the plants, which may not prevent the disease from reaching and spreading throughout a field, he said.
"I was contacted by a local tomato producer, who has now had two recent seasons with his fields overtaken by this virus, despite weekly spraying," Martini said. "The whitefly is able to use other plants as hosts, including
surrounding row crops and weeds, which helps it to remain near crop fields even where insecticides are being used."
The farmer's plight inspired Martini and Nicholas Johnston, a Ph.D. student in his lab, to look into another remedy. They assembled a team of NFREC researchers: Mathews Paret, associate professor of plant pathology; Josh Freeman, associate professor of horticultural science; and Thomson Paris, postdoctoral researcher in entomology.
Previous studies helped narrow their testing focus to a white clay called kaolin and an essential oil called limonene, each of which is approved by the Environmental Protection Agency for agricultural use. Although previous publications have not documented use of the two in combination, kaolin's absorbency of essential oils is well- noted.
'These products are easily found and relatively inexpensive, and they can be applied using a tractor that is standard spray equipment on most farms,' Martini said. 'They also happen to meet the
requirements for organic production, so although that was not a specific goal for this study, it is a bonus."
The study, published in the journal Crop Protection, details applications in both closed-cage plants and open-field test plots, with some plants receiving a single type of treatment and others a combination of the two. While the single treatments resulted in fewer nymphs and adults than non-treated control plants, the combination resulted in the smallest whitefly counts.
```
"It's not clear why The next iteration of the study is testing the same combination on squash. (Tyler Jones, UF/IFAS)
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apply to the plant growth and the trials required weekly applications due to plant growth and rainfall, although Martini noted the clay's water solubility can also be viewed as a positive for producers. Any spray that may remain on harvested produce can be easily rinsed off during processing.
AFU/IFAS research on kaolin-limonene treatments is continuing, Martini said, and will next focus on squash and other cucurbits. These plants are also susceptible to whiteflies and contract diseases like cucurbit leaf crumple virus.
The publication, "Repelling whitefly ( Bemisia tabacu ) using limonenescented kaolin: A novel pest management strategy," can be accessed at doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2022.105905 . Research was funded through a USDA grant administered by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.
-30-
The mission of the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is to develop knowledge relevant to agricultural, human and natural resources and to make that knowledge available to sustain and enhance the quality of human life. With more than a dozen research facilities, 67 county Extension offices, and award-winning students and faculty in the UF College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, UF/IFAS brings science-based
solutions to the state's agricultural and natural resources industries, and all Florida residents.
ifas.ufl.edu | @UF IFSAS
4
by Kirsten Romaguera Rabin
Posted: January 25, 2022
Category: Agriculture, Crops, Pests & Disease, UF/IFAS Research
Tags: Entomology, Josh Freeman, Kaolin, Mathews Paret, North
Florida Research And Education Center, Pest Control, Plant
Pathology, Tomato, Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl, Whiteflies, Whitefly,
Xavier Martini
## More From Blogs.IFAS
UF/IFAS new global ecologist to address biodiversity in South Florida and beyond
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST049 | Acer saccharinum 'Pyramidale': 'Pyramidale' Silver Maple | University of Florida | [
"Edward F. Gilman",
"Dennis G. Watson",
"Ryan W. Klein",
"Deborah R. Hilbert"
] | 2024-02-12 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Acer saccharinum 'Pyramidale': 'Pyramidale' Silver Maple
Edward F. Gilman, Dennis G. Watson, Ryan W. Klein, and Deborah R. Hilbert
## Introduction
This cultivar of silver maple has a broad columnar shape with essentially one trunk and is a rapidly growing, fairly weakwooded tree that reaches a height of about 60 to 70 feet on a moist to wet site. The tree is useful in wet areas, transplants easily, and can grow where few others can. It should be saved for planting in wet areas away from people or where nothing else will thrive. Roots often grow on the surface of the soil, making mowing grass difficult under the canopy. They also are aggressive, growing into septic tank drain fields and into broken or leaky water and sewer pipes. It is also hard to plant shrubs and other plants beneath the branches due to the dense root system.
## General Information
Scientific name: Acer saccharinum
Pronunciation: AY-ser sack-uh-RYE-num
Common name(s): 'Pyramidale' silver maple
Family: Aceraceae
USDA hardiness zones: 3A through 9B (Figure 2)
Origin: native to North America
Invasive potential: native cultivar
Uses: urban tolerant; reclamation
## Description
Height: 60 to 70 feet
Spread: 25 to 35 feet
Crown uniformity: symmetrical
Crown shape: columnar, pyramidal
Crown density: moderate
Growth rate: fast
Texture: medium
Foliage
Leaf arrangement: opposite/subpopposite (Figure 3)
Leaf type: simple
Leaf margin: parted
Leaf shape: star-shaped
Leaf venation: palmate
Leaf type and persistence: deciduous
Leaf blade length: 2 to 4 inches, 4 to 8 inches
Leaf color: green
Fall color: yellow
Fall characteristic: showy
Credit: UF/IFAS
## Flower
Flower color: red
Flower characteristics: showy
Fruit
Fruit shape: elongated
Fruit length: 1 to 3 inches
Fruit covering: dry or hard
Fruit color: green, brown
Fruit characteristics: does not attract wildlife; showy; fruit/leaves a litter problem
## Trunk and Branches
Trunk/bark/branches: branches droop; not showy; typically one trunk; thorns
Pruning requirement: needed for strong structure
Breakage: susceptible to breakage
Current year twig color: reddish, brown
Current year twig thickness: thin, medium
Wood specific gravity: 0.47
Culture
Light requirement: full sun, partial sun or partial shade
Soil tolerances: sand; loam; clay; acidic; well-drained; extended flooding
Drought tolerance:
high
Aerosol salt tolerance: moderate
## Other
Roots: can form large surface roots
Winter interest: no
Outstanding tree: no
Ozone sensitivity: unknown
Verticillium wilt susceptibility: susceptible
Pest resistance: resistant to pests/diseases
## Use and Management
Silver maple will grow in areas that have standing water for several weeks at a time. It grows best on acidic soil, which remains moist, but adapts to very dry, alkaline soil. Leaves may scorch in areas with restricted soil space during dry spells in the summer but will tolerate drought if roots can grow unrestricted into a large soil volume.
The bright yellow fall color can attract attention in early fall, but you will pay the price with the abundant number of leaves to rake. To develop a stronger, more durable tree, prune so that major limbs remain smaller than half the diameter of the trunk.
Silver maple can be a prolific seed producer giving rise to many volunteer trees. It often sends up sprouts from the trunk and branches, producing an unkempt appearance. There are numerous insect and disease problems. There are too many other superior trees to warrant wide use of this species, but it does have its place in tough sites away from buildings and people. The species grows extremely fast so creates almost instant shade, making it a popular tree among homeowners throughout its hardiness range. This cultivar shares the fast growth rate.
Trees are susceptible to many pest problems.
There are a few cultivars, but these also have weak wood: 'Silver Queen'-bright green leaves with lower leaf surfaces silvery; 'Skinneri'-somewhat weeping, pyramidal form, dissected leaves with a better branching habit; 'Weiri'-cutleaved form with pendulous branches.
Trees are propagated from seeds and from cuttings.
## Pests
Leaf stalk borer and petiole borer cause the same type of injury. Both insects bore into the leaf stalk just below the leaf blade. The leaf stalk shrivels, turns black, and the leaf blade falls off. The leaf drop may appear heavy but serious injury to a healthy tree is rare.
Gall mites stimulate the formation of growths or galls on the leaves. The galls are small but can be so numerous that individual leaves curl up. The most common gall is bladder gall mite found on silver maple. The galls are round and at first green but later turn red, then black, then dry up. Galls of other shapes are seen less frequently on other types of maples. Galls are not serious, so chemical controls are not needed.
Crimson ererinum mite is usually found on silver maple and causes the formation of red fuzzy patches on the lower leaf surfaces. The problem is not serious, so control measures are not suggested.
Apthids infept maples, usually Norway maple, and may be numerous at times. High populations can cause leaf drop. Another sign of heavy aphid infestation is honeyy dew on lower leaves and objects beneath the tree. Aphids are controlled by spraying or they may be left alone. If not sprayed, predatory insects will bring the aphid population under control.
Scales are an occasional problem on maples. Perhaps the most common cottony maple scale. The insect forms a cottony mass on the lower sides of branches. Scales are usually controlled with horticultural oil sprays. Scales may also be controlled with well-timed sprays to kill the crawlers.
If borers become a problem, it is an indication the tree is not growing well. Controlling borers involves keeping trees healthy. Chemical controls of existing infestations are more difficult. Proper control involves identification of the borer infesting the tree then applying insecticides at the proper time.
## Diseases
Verticillium wilt symptoms are wilting and death of branches. Infected sapwood will be stained a dark or olive green, but staining can't always be found. If staining cannot be found, do not assume the problem is not verticillium wilt. Severely infected trees probably cannot be saved. Lightly infected trees showing only a few witted branches may be pulled through. Fertilize and prune lightly infected trees. This treatment will not cure the problem but may allow the tree to outgrow the infection. Girdling roots will cause symptoms that mimic vermicellium wilt.
Scorch occurs during periods of high temperatures accompanied by wind. Trees with diseased or inadequate root systems will also show scorching. When trees do not get enough water, they scorch. Scorch symptoms are light brown or tan dead areas between leaf veins. The symptoms are on all parts of the tree or only on the side exposed to sun and wind. Scoring due to dry soil may be overcome by watering. If scorching is due to an inadequate or diseased root system, watering will have no effect.
Tar spot and a variety of leaf spots cause some concern among homeowners but are rarely serious enough for control.
Publication #ENH-208
Release Date:
February 13, 2024
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Michael Andreu
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is ENH-208, one of a series of the Department of Environmental Horticulture, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date November 1993. Revised December 2006 and November 2023. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Edward F. Gilman, professor emeritus; Dennis G. Watson, former associate professor, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; Ryan W. Klein, assistant professor, arboriculture; and Deborah R. Hilbert, Gulf Coast Research and Education Center; Department of Environmental Horticulture; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
staff
University of Florida |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/woolly-oak-aphids-1 | Woolly Oak Aphids | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"Aphid",
"Oak"
] | NC | ## Woolly Oak Aphids
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
Several species of woolly oak aphids, Stegophylla spp., are found on red oaks in North Carolina. These small, pale aphids secrete a fluffy substance from which their common name is derived. Not much is known of the biology of Stegophylla aphids. The aphids are usually noticed in mid to late spring because they cause the leaves to curl to form a shelter in which these aphids feed and reproduce. Although this damage is unsightly, it does not seem to affect the overall health of the trees. In severe cases they may cause leaf curl with obvious patches of woolly-looking secretions in the leaves. These aphids probably have alternate hosts.
## Host Plants
Willow oaks, red oaks, and live oaks are the most reported hosts of woolly oak aphids. The majority of records for Stegophylla brevirostris in Florida came from live oak (a few records came from other species of oaks).
## Residential Recommendation
By the time woolly oak aphid damage is noticed, it's usually too late to correct damage by woolly oak aphids for the current year (Applying an insecticide will not uncurl the leaves.). If one is compelled to try and eliminate the aphids, small trees can be sprayed with water from a garden hose. That should dislodge and drown many of the woolly oak aphids. Horticultural oils or insecticidal soaps are also effective, but spraying large trees may be difficult, expensive, and certainly not worth the effort.
## References
- · Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide. 3rd edition. Dreistadt, S. H. 2016. U. of California Agr. and Nat.I Resources pub. 437. pp.
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension Center.
This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: July 22, 2013
Reviewed/Revised: May 9, 2023
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/collierco/2021/06/28/fish-of-florida-hogfish-lachnolaimus-maximus-species-profile/ | Fish of Florida: Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus) Species Profile | University of Florida | [
"Michael Sipos"
] | 2021-06-28 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"Conservation",
"Food Safety",
"Health & Nutrition",
"Livestock",
"Natural Resources",
"Recreation",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Water",
"Wildlife",
"Work & Life",
"bahamas",
"cuban hogfish",
"diving",
"fillet",
"fish facts",
"Fish Fillet Friday",
"Fish of Florida",
"fishing",
"Florida",
"Florida Sea Grant",
"freedive",
"freediving",
"Fried Fish",
"FWC",
"hog fish",
"hog snapper",
"hogfish",
"hogsnapper",
"pole spear",
"Reef",
"Regulations",
"scuba",
"seafood",
"spanish hogfish",
"spearfishing",
"species profile"
] | FL | ## Fish of Florida: Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus) Species Profile
of the Western Atlantic wrasses (reaching lengths of up to 3 feet) and while diving the reefs in the Southern Atlantic and Caribbean you may stumble upon their smaller, more colorful cousins the Spanish hogfish which is yellow and purple and the Cuban hogfish which is red and yellow in color.
It's hard to misidentify ahogfish as they look so distinctive and easy to spot in a crowd; however, hogfish are sometimes called hog snapper but actually don't belong to the Lutianidae snapper family. Its easy to see how one may be mistaken as they live in the same or similar habitats, have similar coloration and relative body shape however hogs and many species of wrasses have characteristics typical of their family like some super movable and kinetic mouths (take a look at the slingjawwrasse ) and are hermaphroditic. The name wrasse originates to the Cornish word of 'wraith' which means old woman who then the genus of the hogfish, Lachnolaimus is of Greek origin with Lachen translate to "more covered with hair than others" and Laimos meaning "throat". The common name hogfish is a result of their pronounced snout and rooting behavior they display while searching for prey in the sand.
## Distribution and Diet
Hogfish can be spotted in the Western Atlantic from North Carolina, Bermuda to all the way down to Brazil. These fish inhabit depths of up to 200 ft however are more commonly found in 100 ft or less where they can use corals such as sea fans cover. While juveniles, hogfish often are found in patchy reef or seagrass beds and later move to the more predominate reef or ledge structure where they tend to stay as surrounding sand where they forage in the sediment for mollusks like clams, crustaceans like crabs and shrimp and even echinoderms like sea urchins. This species has a set of crushing plates located in their throat called pharyngeal jaws that help break down the shells of their prey making them easier to digest.
Reproduction and Growth
Hogfish are protoyagnous hermaphrodites meaning they are all born female and later transition to males later in life due to social cues in their local population. These fish that tend to stick to their spots spawn in groups where one male can have a rare of 5-15 females. When the male is removed from the population the largest female begins their transition to having male gonads and develop the typical male physical characteristics of a more dramatic sloping snout as well as darker pigmentation around the face almost resembling a mask. It is believed this process of gonad transition can take up to 2 months while the external physical characteristics continue to become more pronounced over time. Sex change from female to male in a typical population occurs at around 3 years of age and 14 inches however if there are no cues to transition there have been documented females as old as 12 years of age and around 25 inches fork length with the oldest hogfish found to be a male at 23 years of age; conversely in populations with heavy harvesting hogfish have been known to transition at a much smaller size. In a 2001 study of 2169 hogfish harvested from the Eastern Gulf of Mexico they found that 50 percent of females matured at about -7 inches fork length and around -15 inches for males.
Hogs spawn in the winter/spring season where the males perform interesting behaviors of quivering and raising fins before rushing a few feet off the bottom with the female while expelled their eggs and sperm to be externally fertilized. A single male can spawn multiple times in a day with members of his harem while a female hogsh can spawn multiple times per season as their eggs mature in batches from 1,700 (-10 inch female) to 64,600 eggs (~24 inch female). These floating eggs hatch within 24 hours and are in the larval form for 26 +/- 3 days until they settle out of the water column as juveniles.
## Sustainability
When considering seafood sustainability, hogfish harvested in the United States with hand implements are listed as a best choice by the Monterey Bay Seafood Watch. The IUCN has listed the species population as declining which is echoed by the yearly number of commercial landings in Florida so it's important to take proper care when handling and releasing this fish if caught on hook and line or follow most current fisheries regulations via spearfishing. This species does not handle barotrauma well (injuries caused by changes in pressure as they ascend in the water column) most likely because of their compressed body not allowing trapped gasses to expand as nicely as bigger bodied cylindrical fish as grouper as well as their pharyngeal jaws stopping expansion from moving out the throat venting or descending gear should be considered if your hogfish is displaying symptoms or having difficulty heading back down post release.
A hogfish displaying symptoms of barotrauma with liver tissue displaced in the esophagus
Some food for thought as a fellow hogfish harvester, if harvesting hogfish during their spawning season and removing a male from the population in areas where they may be limited, the time it takes for the female to transition may take longer than the rest of the season meaning that group may not spawn to its fullest potential.
For Current Florida Hogfish Harvesting Regulations Check Out This Page
## To read more about sustainability or hogfish stock information check out these links:
Hogfish SEDAR 37
https://grunt.sfcse.noaa.gov/P\_OryLDS/download/MF34\_NA87FF0422.pdf?id=LD$
https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11130/124708500
https://www.seafoodwatch.org/recommendation/hogfish/green-hogfish-hogfish-united-states-florida-guilt-of-mexico-hand-implements? species=143
To learn more about the species more can be found below:
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-cjfish/species-profiles/lachnolimits+maximus/
https://hsworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1480&context=occ\_stucted
https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Ialachnomaimus-maximum.html
https:/ /sta.uu.edu/.fest/lifesciences/sites/fe/default/files/lifesciences/documents/goatt./lachnoclaimuss maximus%20-%s20Hogfish.pdf
https:/ /scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=983388 context=etd
Some more Hog shots!
Hogfish teeth. This species also has a set of pharyngeal jaws located in the throat which are used to crush up its shellly prey!
Elongated dorsal spines of a male hogfish
Dorsal fin of a hogfish. Note the black marking.
Tail of a male hogfish. This species can develop long projections at the tail tips and therefore is measured at the fork for regulation purposes. The "fork" for this species is the straight area of fin between the two projections.
Anal fin of a hogfish.
Yellow pectoral fin of a hogfish.
5
by Michael Sipos
Posted: June 28, 2021
Category: Coasts & Marine, Conservation, Food Safety, Health & Nutrition, Livestock, Natural Resources, Recreation, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Teaching, Water, Wildlife, Work & Life
- Tags: Bahamas. Cuban Hoggish. Diving. Eiffel. Fish Facts. Fish Fillet Friday. Fish Of Florida, Fishing. Florida. Florida Sea Grant. Freedive. Freedliving. Fried Efish. EWC. Hog Fish. Snapper. Hoggfish. Hogsnapper. Pole Spear. Reef. Regulations. Scuba Seafood. Spanish Hoggish. Spearfishing.
## Species Profile
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Living And Working Safely In The Florida Sun!
- Inshore Fishing Is Hot In SWFL But Remember To Check The Regulations!
- Limited Commercial Landscape Maintenance Class And Exam
- A Southwest Florida Guide To Everything You Want To Know About Spiny Lobster! |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/10/21/trick-or-treat-smell-my-feet-lets-talk-saftey-for-halloween/ | Trick or Treat Smell my Feet…Let’s talk Saftey for Halloween | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-10-21 | [
"Children",
"Family",
"Holidays",
"Safety"
] | GA | ## Trick or Treat Smell my Feet…Let's talk Saftey for Halloween
Written by
October 21, 2013
Pamela Turner
Some fun Halloween facts.
- · In 2012 there were 41 million potential trick-or-treaters across the U.S.
- · In 2012 47,800 acres of pumpkins were harvested
- · The top 6 pumpkin-producing states are Illinois, California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York and Michigan.
- · The self-proclaimed "Halloween Capital of the World" is Anoka, Minnesota. It was one of the first cities in the U.S. to hold a Halloween celebration that discouraged playing tricks.
- · The origin of Halloween can be traced back to the ancient Celtic festival of the dead -Samhain (pronounced SOW-in).
As you prepare for this Halloween, take time to keep your children and yourself safe. Here are some tips:
- · Make sure costumes are flame resistant
- · If you use face paint, be sure it is lead-free
- · Carry a flashlight trick-or-treating
- · Wear a light colored costume or add reflective tape to your costume
- · Trick-or-treat with a responsible adult
For mote Halloween tidbits and safety tips go to https://www.usa.gov/Topics/Halloween.shtml.
## HAPPY HALLOWEEN!
Posted in: Children, Family, Holidays, Safety.
Tags: Georgia, Halloween, Halloween safety, holidays, lead face paint, October 31, safe costumes, Trick orTreat, UGA
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/healthy-caregiving.html | Healthy Caregiving - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Emily Roberts",
"Kristopher M. Struckmeyer",
"Whitney A. Bailey",
"Luis Mejia Puig",
"Sarah Gorden"
] | 2019-01-09 | [] | OK | ## Healthy Caregiving
Published Sep. 2019 |
Id: T-616
By Emily Roberts, Kristopher M. Struckmeyer, Luis Mejia Puig, Whitney A. Bailey, Sarah Gorden
Print-friendly PDF sheets/print- publications/t/healthy-caregiving t-6116.pdf)
JUMP TO: The Caregiving Experience / Identifying the Care Team / Roles and Responsibilities / Stages of Care / Pre-care Action Steps / Care Activation / Crisis Care / Sustained Care / Care Transitions / Taking Care of Yourself / References
## The Caregiving Experience
Caregivers experience different journeys, some care for a care recipient with a short acute illness or surgery. Some caregivers give lifelong care to one person over decades or take on several care roles intermittently. This means that a caregiver may have various roles in hands-on tasks like bathing or toileting or other support through cooking, cleaning and paying bills.
The way the family (as a whole) and each member views the role of the caregiver can be complex. It may be because that person took care of me, now it is my turn. Others may feel that it is their duty because they love the person who needs help. They may take on the caregiving role whether they are ready for the responsibility or not.
With little information or training on how to provide care, there are ri
sks in being a caregiver. Often there are strains in family relationships because of poor communication, this may lead to stress and illness for the caregiver. Feeling stressed or anxious all day, every day is exhausting. It is not good for your body, heart or mind. The following tips will help you understand the caregiving role and the role of the people around you in the caregiving journey.
## Identifying the Care Team
Many friends and family around you do not know what kind of help is needed. Think about who you can call on when an extra hand is needed. Use their strengths to help you and assign tasks to them that you feel comfortable allowing them to do like running errands, house cleaning, grocery shopping, etc.
## Roles and Responsibilities
Every once in a while, step back and assess the situation. What is being done? What is not being completed? Manage your care team accordingly. Don't be afraid to check in!
## Stages of Care
- Pre-care
- Care Activation
- Crisis Care
- Sustained Care
- Care Transitions
There are many steps that you can take to protect yourself from the health risks of caregiving journey. These steps will help you see the warning signs when extra help is needed and will allow you to remain resilient (strong mentally and physically) in the caregiving role through all of the stages of care.
## Pre-care Action Steps
In the pre-care stage, caregivers have not begun to provide care yet. The healthy way for families to provide care in this stage is to discuss the care plan. It is important for you and your family to identify risks in caregiving so you know who can do what. Do not forget to ask the care recipient's opinion on what they may want!
A good strategy is to write down everyone's wishes, expectations and resources the care team has access to. This will help in later stages.
## Tips:
- · Be able to name all of the duties of your caregiving role
## Care Activation
In this step, you begin to activate your care plan. One of the most important things in this stage is to know when care has been activated. This may seem silly but caregiving can sneak up on people. It is important to know when care needs warrant the care plan being activated. A common pitfall is when individuals avoid taking the planned action mapped out in the pre-care phase.
As you begin to provide care, needs will change, so find out how the family's goals may have changed. Continually check in to identify current and new resources.
## Tips:
- Modify the care plan as needs and expectations change
- Identify family goals as needs change
- Identify and access resources
One of the most important reminders is that family members often have the one common goal (ex. keeping a person safe, in the home, near family, etc.) for the care recipient. It is a great tool to remind one another about this common goal. One strategy to keep families anchored is to focus on the "musts" of the care plan. Sometimes other things come up that seem urgent but aren't as important as the larger caregiving goal.
- Identify the most important priority and structure other priorities around it.
- Limit to three things that must be done that day. This keeps you from feeling overwhelmed
- Think before you commit. Make sure you have the resources and time to complete the activities. If not, delegate to someone else.
## Crisis Care
Crisis care is a very stressful time for families. This can be at the time of a fall or life-threatening illness or at a time when the care recipient is not feeling in control. During this time, it is important that families keep communication open between members, stick to the care plan and only adapt that plan if necessary.
A good strategy is to always use family goals to anchor conversations back to what is important. Do not forget to promote the care recipient's autonomy. If there are changes, be sure to ask the individual about what they'd like.
## Tips:
· Promote the care recipient's autonomy and discuss changes with the individual
## Sustained Care
As families move to sustained care, routines begin to set in. Be sure to continually check to see what new resources have appeared and begin to assess resources when needed.
Remember -only to assist individuals on tasks when assistance is needed. Help promote a level of independence by ensuring their abilities are not undermined (remember that you like to be independent). Stick to the care plan and support yourself with the care team. Remember that you don't have to do everything yourself. Finally, make sure to continue to identify family goals as needs change.
## Tips:
- Identify resources and assess long-term opportunities (ex. home health aid)
- Maintain the independence of the individual
- Continued implementation of care plan
- Utilize care team frequently
- Identify family goals as needs change
## Care Transitions
There will be numerous transitions along the care journey. Care transitions can mean a major change in care (move from home to facility) OR an end to care, as with death. In this stage, it is very important to identify and access resources that can help you along the way (ex. Lawyer, long-term care facility, etc.). Care transition options should be discussed early in the caregiving journey with family members.
## Tips:
## Taking Care of Yourself
As the primary caregiver for your loved one, it is important you take care of yourself! If you aren't feeling well, there is an increased risk of hurting both you and the care recipient. It's not healthy for you to feel exhausted and stressed all day, high stress levels can weaken your immune system, cause emotional problems and even cardiovascular problems. It is important to you take time for yourself. Get away from your loved one and take some time to de-stress. Read a book, go for a walk or see a movie to promote better physical and emotional health.
## Always remember:
- · Be honest with yourself about what you really need to de-stress.
- · When you're feeling ill, go see a doctor. If you begin to feel ill, you cannot provide the best care.
- · As a caregiver, you're a busy person. It is okay if you need to quit things. You need to take care of you!
- · Take care of your relationships. Depend on support from your care team so you can go socialize. Everyone is entitled to a break, so do not feel guilty if you need some time to yourself.
- · For more information about the many aspects of the caregiving role, please look to other fact sheets in our Caregiving Series.
## References
Bailey, W. A., & Gordon, S. R. (2016). Family caregiving amidst age-associated cognitive changes: Implications for practice and future generations. Family Relations , 65, 225-238. doi:10.1111/fare.12176
Eifert, E. K., Adams, R., Dudley, W., & Perko, M. (2015). Family caregiver identity: A literature review. American Journal of Health Education , 46, 357-367. doi:10.1080/19325037.2015.1099482
National Alliance for Caregiving, & AARP Public Policy Institute. (2015). Caregiving in the U.S. 2015 . Retrieved from http://www.caregiving.org/caregiving2015
Roberts, E., & Struckmeyer, K. (2018). The impact of respite programming on caregiver resilience: Perspectives of primary family caregivers of individuals with dementia. Inquiry-The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing. 55,1-11.
```
Print-friendly PDF /fact-
sheets/print-
sheets/print-
t-6116.pdf)
```
## Topics:
Aging & Caregiving /(topics/youth-family-health-and-home/aging-and-
caregiving/)
Caregiving /(topics/youth-family-health-and-home/aging-and- caregiving/caregiving/)
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-agricultural-chemicals-manual/insect-control | Insect Control | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Reisig Tarpy",
"et. al."
] | null | [
"Agriculture",
"Chemicals",
"Insect Control"
] | NC | ## Insect Control
Extension Administration
Publication Date
Feb. 14, 2024
Authors
Reisig
Tarpy, et. al.
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=insectcontrol#zoom=page-fit
## Other Publications in 2024 North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
## Abbreviations
Pesticide Use and Safety Information
Chemical Application Equipment
How to Send Specimens for Disease, Insect, and Weed Identification
Fertilizer Use
Insect Control
Insect and Disease Control of Fruits
Chemical Weed Control
Plant Growth Regulators
Animal Damage Control
Disease Control
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/WC060 | Evaluating Learning in Laboratory Settings | University of Florida | [
"Wendy J. Warner",
"Brian E. Myers"
] | 2019-03-07 | [
"Families and Communities"
] | FL | ## Evaluating Learning in Laboratory Settings
Wendy J. Warner and Brian E. Myers
Assessment is used to evaluate the strengths and needs of learners, guide instruction, and measure progress and achievement. When using laboratory activities in Extension programming or in formal courses, developing an appropriate assessment can appear challenging. Laboratory settings are any location where the learner is able to interact with materials and/or models to better observe and understand the topic at hand (Myers, 2005). These settings may be gardens, ranches, or any other setting where learning is "hands-on." Using traditional forms of assessment such as quizzes and tests can make it much easier to quantify learner performance, but these approaches often do not adequately assess actual learner achievement. As Donaldson and Odom (2001) stated, "traditional lab assessments indicate students ability to follow lab instructions rather than showing that they have the thought processes that are necessary for them to question, design, conduct, and analyze an experiment" (p. 29). Concept maps, Vee maps, and portfolios are alternate forms of assessment that can replace traditional quizzes and tests and can be used to more effectively assess student learning in a lab setting.
## Concept Maps
Concept maps are organizing tools used to identify relationships among multiple concepts (Llewellyn, 2005). These can be used at the end of instruction (summative assessment) or to show progress of learning of the course of a unit (formative assessment) (Edmondson, 2000). For example, prior to instruction on a topic, participants may construct a concept map based on their initial knowledge of that area. New knowledge can be added to their original concept map over the course of the investigation or workshop. Items in the original concept map that are found to lack support can be deleted. The use of different colors can help individuals monitor their progress by differentiating between prior knowledge and acquired knowledge (Lewellyn, 2005). This is an effective way for instructors to assess their participants level of understanding so instruction can be better tailored to meet their needs.
Concept maps can be designed using a variety of formats and for varying purposes. They can be created to define or describe concepts, classify objects, or map the cause and effect of an event (Hyerle, 1995). The most common organizational structure is a web-like or hierarchical orientation with the main idea either in the center or at the top of the map. Words, arrows, or phrases help identify the relationship between the main concept and subconcepts (Llewellyn, 2005). The use of a software program such as Inspiration® can be very helpful when creating concept maps, although basic sketches are also effective.
A compare/contrast map (Figure 1) can be used to identify the similarities and differences between two concepts (Hyerle, 1995). When using this kind of map, the primary concepts are placed in the two large circles. The commonalities are placed in the circles between the two concepts, and the differences are placed in the outside circles.
A flow map (Figure 2) can be used to detail a sequence of events (Hyerle, 1995). This type of concept map is best used when events or ideas occur in a specific order. Having participants complete this type of concept map is an excellent way to assess their knowledge and understanding of a technique or event.
A brace map (Figure 3) can help identify the parts and subparts of an object (Hyerle, 1995). Participants begin with a major topic or idea. They then can work to identify each of the subparts and identify how they are related to the main idea. This type of graphic organizeriser is an excellent way to assist individuals in understanding how various items are related and how different subparts interact to form the larger concept.
Figure 3. Example brace map of the parts of a flower Credit: UF/IFAS
Figure 3. Example brace map of the parts of a flower
## Vee Map
At the conclusion of a laboratory activity, participants are often responsible for completing a laboratory report that details the use of the scientific method. A Vee map (Figure 4) is a quick and easy way for educators to evaluate the learning of their participants in this situation. Roehrig, Luft, and Edwards (2001) described the six components of a Vee map: focus question, word list, concept map, events, data and analysis, and conclusions. The Vee map provides for a simple, one-page report that is less time consuming for individuals to create and presenters to evaluate. Yet, Vee maps contain all the important information, assist learners in developing key science process skills, and provide another tool for the instructor to use in assessing laboratory instruction.
When using Vee maps, the laboratory activity is designed around a focus question (see Figure 4). The participants then create a word list that includes vocabulary relevant to the question under investigation. The concept man encourages learners to begin to make connections and understand relationships among the terms and the focus question. The inclusion of the word list and concept map can help the participants gain a better understanding of the important terms and ideas. This is also an important reading comprehension strategy and assists individuals in developing key reading skills and science process skills.
In the events section, participants design a procedure to examine the focus question. After conducting the procedure, they record their data and include appropriate charts, graphs, and tables. The final step in completing the Vee map is reporting conclusions and suggesting additional areas for further research. These portions of the report address the important science process skills of reporting and interpretation that are vital to a persons understanding of scientific principles.
## Portfolios
The use of portfolios allows individuals to demonstrate their learning through a collection of their work. The following framework (Vitale & Romance, 2000) can be used to establish the criteria for the portfolio:
- 1. Use a concept map to acquaint learners with the content that will be assessed.
- 2. Determine the setting (e.g., workshop, in the field, at an individual's home, etc.) where the content will be applied.
- 3. Referring to the concept map, identify the specific concept or sub-concepts that will be assessed.
- 4. Clarify the work samples that should be included in the portfolio. These samples may include, but are not limited to the following:
- o Literature review of the concept being examined.
- o Documentation of the laboratory investigation (full reports and/or Vee maps).
- o Journals detailing the thoughts and observations of the student related to the laboratory investigation.
- o Visual representations of the laboratory processes and results.
## Summary
Many of the concepts included in Extension programming and formal courses in agricultural and life sciences can be taught using a laboratory investigation approach. Yet in this age of accountability, educators are faced with the daunting task of developing appropriate methods of assessment that may not include the traditional paper and pencil approach. The use of concept maps, Vee maps, and portfolios can assist Extension educators and other teachers in developing more suitable and meaningful forms of assessment of student learning.
A relevant concern is related to the amount of time required to utilize these assessment techniques. It may take additional time to initially develop and implement alternate methods of assessment, but educators may find it easier to evaluate the more visual or oral products prepared by learners. As educators begin to move beyond the use of tests and quizzes, these assessment measures can promote and measure student learning.
## References
Donaldson, N.L., & Odom, A.L. (2001). What makes swing time? A directed inquiry-based lab assessment. Science Activities , 38(2), 29-33.
Edmondson, K.M. (2000). Assessing science understanding through concept maps. In J.J. Mintzes, J.H. Wandersee & J.D. Novak (Eds.), Assessing science understanding: A human constructivist view (pp. 15 - 40). San Diego: Academic Press.
Herley, D. (1995). Thinking maps: Tools for learning. Raleigh, NC: Innovative Sciences.
Llewellyn, D. (2005). Teaching high school science through inquiry: A case study approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Myers, B. E. (2005). Incorporating science, math, and reading into the agriculture classroom: The role of the laboratory. The Agricultural Education Magazine, 77(5), 14-16.
Roehrig, G., Luft, J.A., & Edwards, M. (2001). Versatile vee maps. The Science Teacher, 28 - 31.
Vitale, M.R., & Romance, N.R. (2000). Portfolios in science assessment: A knowledge-based model for classroom practice. In J.I. Mintzes, L.H. Wandersee, & J.D. Novak (Eds.), Assessing science understanding: A human constructivist view (pp.167 - 196). San Diego: Academic Press.
Publication #AEC 379
Release Date: March 8, 2019
Reviewed At: April 6, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-wc060-2006
Critical Issue: Families and Communities
Contacts: Brian Myers
View PDF
## Disclaimers
The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. UF/IFAS does not guarantee or warranty the products named, and references to them in this publication do not signify our approval to the exclusion of other products of suitable composition.
This document is AEC 379, one of a series of the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date November 2006. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Wendy J. Warner, alumna (Ph.D., Agricultural Education, 2006), Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; and Brian E. Myers, professor, Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
## Teaching Methods
Science Education
Myers, Brian E
## Specialist
University of Florida
Agricultural Education and Communication |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/wheat-research-and-extension/wheat-publications/economics-show-oklahoma-wheat-growers-must-maximize-yields-and-protein-content-in-their-crop.html | Economics Show Oklahoma Wheat Growers Must Maximize Yields & Protein Content in Their Crop - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-11-08 | [] | OK | ## ECONOMICS SHOW OKLAHOMA WHEAT GROWERS MUST MAXIMIZE YIELDS & PROTEIN CONTENT IN THEIR CROP
It is no secret wheat prices have been less than stellar overall in recent years, but that only underscores the need for wheat
growers to do what they can to produce as competitive a product as possible.
For example, go back a few decades and the relative difference between Oklahoma wheat and Russian wheat was essentially no difference at all: a little more than 30 bushels per acre being the norm. Since that time, Oklahoma wheat has remained essentially unchanged while Russian wheat has enhanced its performance to about 50 bushels per acre with better protein content.
"By staying the same Oklahoma wheat has essentially lost ground over the decades, meaning state wheat producers need to be doing all they can to improve both quality and
quantity," said Kim Anderson, Oklahoma State University Cooperative Extension grain marketing specialist.
The Kansas City July contract placed against the basis yields indicated a price of about $4 or perhaps slightly less for producers' 2018 wheat crop. However, Anderson contends the right management decisions made during the growing season could potentially demand $5 wheat come harvest.
"The world is awash with wheat right now and the demand for high-quality protein is high." Anderson said. "If producers can grow a crop that delivers on both good protein and high test weight, the price paid to them will go up."
While it is true analysts expect planted acres of hard red winter wheat in Oklahoma to decrease compared to last year, price support is a bit more complicated than that. Some early estimates put total acreage at about 5 percent to 10 percent less than last year, somewhere around 4 million acres, the lowest total since 1942.
Nationally, there has been a declining interest in planting winter wheat. The crop seeded for the 2017 harvest nationally was down 24 percent from five years before. Furthermore, the acreage decline has been increasing over the last several years. The acreage decline between 2014 and 2015 was 6.4 percent, between 2015 and 2016 it was 8.9 percent and between 2016 and 2017 it was 9.6 percent. Furthermore, acreage decline does not necessarily mean production decline. The crop harvested in 2016 had record-smashing yields and was the largest since 2008.
'Some people hear acreage decrease in the United States and automatically think less supply, but the world of wheat is very much a global marketplace,'
Anderson said. "The big problem lies across the Atlantic, meaning Russia and the Ukraine. These former Soviet Union states have produced nearly 3 billion bushels of high-quality wheat with protein content at 12.4 percent, on average.'
Anderson added these countries are cornering the protein market and absorbing export market sales from the European Union, Australia, Argentina and yes, even the United States.
Milling operations in Oklahoma historically have had to import wheat in from northern states such as the Dakotas and mix that wheat flour with what is produced in Oklahoma to increase the protein content of their supplies.
Troy Rigel of Farmers Grain Company said they and other grain elevators may pay a premium for protein above the 11 percent typically seen in Oklahoma wheat, but elevators also may apply a price deduction for wheat with protein content less than 11 percent.
"It's tough to sell 11 percent protein wheat," he said. "The biggest consideration determining if a grain elevator will pay a premium for extra protein in delivered wheat is whether or not the elevator is able to test the wheat as it comes in and then segregate the grain accordingly."
Often, Rigel said, it just depends on the specific grain elevator in question. Farmers Grain Company is a full-service multifaceted agricultural cooperative with 14 locations in northcentral Oklahoma and south-central Kansas. "The more antiquated the grain elevator is, the less likely premiums for protein content will be paid. It is a matter of available resources."
Agronomic practices are available to boost wheat grain protein without sacrificing yield. First, make sure to select appropriate varieties for specific Oklahoma growing conditions. The six most popular hard red winter wheat varieties planted for the 2016-2017 growing season were all developed by the OSU Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources' Wheat Improvement Team:
- 1. Gallagher at 20.5 percent of acres planted;
- 2. Duster at 5.7 percent of acres planted;
- 3. Endurance at 5.7 percent of acres planted;
"OSU-developed wheat varieties accounted for nearly half of the total wheat acres planted in the state last year," said David Marburger, former OSU Cooperative Extension small grains specialist. "These varieties are bred specifically for the region and possess enhanced traits relative to drought, disease and insect resistance while producing good yields, improved protein content and high-quality baking and milling characteristics."
Other recommended best management practices include producers knowing residual soil and crop nitrogen status, selecting an appropriate pre-plant and in-season nitrogen rate, utilizing effective weed controls and using fertilization practices that minimize nitrogen losses, among others.
'Best management practices should result in maximizing wheat grain yield potential, as well as providing an acceptable level of protein content, say 11.5 percent at the very least,' Marburger said. 'For nitrogen fertilizer management, these practices can help ensure producers are maximizing returns on their nitrogen fertilizer investment into the crop, ensuring less money is spent on unused nitrogen fertilizer which can be lost multiple ways.'
OSU Extension fact sheets detailing a number of best management practices relative to wheat production in Oklahoma are available online at http://osufacts.okstate.edu/(fact-sheets/). Additional assistance is available through OSU Cooperative Extension county offices, typically listed under "County Government" in local directories. |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2018/04/22/happy-earth-day/ | Happy Earth Day! | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2018-04-22 | [
"Earth Day",
"Environment"
] | GA | ## Happy Earth Day!
Written by
April 22, 2018
Pamela Turner
Forty-eight years ago the first Earth Day was observed. We have made some positive changes including phasing lead out of gasoline, removing asbestos from many products, and improving regulations on health and environment impacts of pesticides.
This year the focus is on reducing single-use plastics. Each year around 300 million tons of plastic go into the items we often use only one time. One study estimated that of all the plastics made, less than 10% were recycled. Most of the waste ends up in landfills and as trash blowing around on land and in water.
You can make a difference. Calculate yourplastic consumption and make a pledge to reduce your use. Some things you can do include:
- 1. Switch to reusable shopping bags
- 2. Stop using exfoliating scrubs that contain plastic microbeads
- 3. Skip the straw and encourage restaurants to use paper straws
- 4. If you see plastic trash, pick it up and recycle it
- 5. Wash clothing made from synthetic fiber less frequently (reduces the microfibers that are released)
- 6. Pack lunch in reusable containers instead of plastic bags
- 7. Switch from limited use disposables like plastic handled toothbrushes and razors to longer use or recyclable options
- 8. Reduce plastic containerwaste by making green cleaners. (Recipes available from UGA Extension.)
- 9. Use cloth rags instead of paper towels
- 10. Stir drinks with dried pasta or add sweetener and cream to the cup before adding your beverage
- 11. Carry reusable bottles and eating utensils
- 12. Choose hotels that use dispensers for shower-products rather than individual bottles
- 13. Educate others
## Resources:
Learn the history of Earth Day
Learn more about plastic pollution
Check out UGA researcher Dr. Jernna R. Jambeck who has been part of research teams on plastic waste.
Your carbon footprint
Posted in: Earth Day, Environment
Tags: environment, green living, plastic waste, sustainable, UGA
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/farming/forage-systems-for-cow-calf-operations-in-central-alabama/ | Forage Systems for Cow-Calf Operations in Central Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Kim Mullenix",
"Leanne Dillard"
] | 2018-08-28 | [
"Farming",
"Forage Systems",
"Cow-Calf Operations"
] | AL | ## Forage Systems for Cow-Calf Operations in Central Alabama
Make the right forage choices for your cow-calf operation with the help of the diagrams provided.
A sound grazing program includes combinations of adapted forage crops which will provide good grazing over the longest possible period of time. Many forage crops are adapted to Alabama conditions. Because each crop has its own distinctive pattern of forage growth, choosing the right combination of crops for a given situation isn't always easy.
The diagrams for various crops are grouped into northern, central, and southern regions of Alabama, and also grouped as either perennials or annuals and grass or legume crops. Each diagram shows when a particular crop normally makes growth available for grazing. By looking up and down the page, you can see at a glance which crops make the best early, middle, or late season growth, and you can pick out the ones which would best complement each other in your forage program.
The height of the growth symbols is not to exact scale, but will give you an idea of the relative amounts of forage produced by the different crops. Several of the crops listed grow well in combination. Often, growing mixtures of forage crops is the best and most economical way to meet the nutritive requirements of cattle for the maximum length of time.
The diagrams give only the normal or average situation. In given year, actual forage availability will depend on moisture availability, planting time, grazing pressure, and other factors. In some cases, accumulated forage can be grazed during times when temperature or other factors slow down plant growth.
Each crop listed is adapted to be grown within the area specified, but a crop may be adapted only under certain conditions or on certain soils. Matching a forage species to the conditions to which it is adapted is important.
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Kim Mullenix, Extension Specialist, Assistant Professor, Animal Sciences, Auburn University, and Leanne Dillard, Extension Foreign Spécialist; Auburn University
Sprécialist; Auburn University
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oaep/privrtyaeyephp): C22, Forrage Sisyûnisû for Cow-Calf Operations in Central Alabama, ANR-0155
## Download this article as a PDF
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/farm-market-walk-refrigerator | Farm Market Walk-In Refrigerator | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | " Publications " Building & Construction Plans Archive " Farm Market Walk-In Refrigerator
## Farm Market Walk-In Refrigerator
BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION PLANS ARCHIVE
Publication Number: 6380
View as PDF: 6380.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY |
https://extension.okstate.edu/announcements/sunup-tv/february-4-2023.html | Hydrating During Winter, Wheat Grazing & USDA Cattle Report - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2023-02-02 | [] | OK | ## Hydrating During Winter, Wheat Grazing & USDA Cattle Report
Saturday, February 4, 2023
This week on SUNUP:
- · Janice Hermann(https://experts.okstate.edu/janice.hermann). OSU Extension adult and older adult nutrition specialist, explains why it's important to stay hydrated during the winter months.
- · Wes Lee (https://experts.oksstate.edu/wes\_lee). OSU Extension Mesonet(http://mesonet.org/) agricultural coordinator, discusses the recent cold spell and says warm weather is on its way for next week. State climatologist Gary McManus updates the latest drought monitor and predicts increased odds of precipitation for February.
- · Roger Sahs, OSU Extension enterprise budget and land values specialist, has information on a new fact ( /fact-sheets/print-publications/agec/wheat-graze-out-versus-harvest-forsheet grain-agec-241-a.pdf)
that examines wheat graze out versus wheat harvest for grain.
- · Derrell Peel(https://experts.okstate.edu/derrell.peel). OSU Extension livestock marketing specialist, breaks down the USDA's latest
cattle inventory numbers(https://www.nass.usda.gov/Newsroom/2023/01-31-2023.php).
- · Kim Anderson(https://experts.oksstate.edu/kim.anderson). OSU Extension grain marketing specialist, says only a small percentage of the 2023 wheat crop is in good condition, but all it takes is a little rain to help it along.
- · Mark Johnson(https://experts.oksstate.edu/mark.johnson), OSU Extension beef cattle breeding specialist, discusses
calf ( https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/cook-calf-corner-thescours newsletter-archives/index-old.html )
- .
Finally, after both NFL Conference Championship games were played on turfgrass developed by OSU scientists, we take a look back at what it took to develop the bermudagrass(https://news.okstate.edu/articles/agriculture/2021/ellis\_turfgrass\_legacy.html)
varieties
Join us for SUNUP(https://videos.oeta.tv/show/sunup/).
Saturday at 7:30 a.m. & Sunday at 6 a.m. on OETA(https://www.oeta.tv/) (PBS) YouTube.com/SUNUPTv(https://www.youtube.com/SUNUPtv) |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2015/07/13/exploring-malta-with-ifhe/ | Exploring Malta with IFHE | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2015-07-13 | [
"Healthy Housing",
"Travel"
] | GA | ## Exploring Malta with IFHE
Written by
July 13, 2015
Pamela Turner
Not too long ago, I had the opportunity to travel to Malta to present a paper on healthy housing (definition of healthy housing) at the International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE) conference, It was a great conference, with researchers from around the world sharing their research and insights into issues that impact individuals and families around the world. The conference provided opportunities to network while exploring the fascinating country of Malta. Over the next few weeks I'll share with you some of the things I saw and learned in Malta.
To start off, do you know where Malta is located? I must confess that even though I travel a lot, I had to open up Google maps to find it. It's a small country of only 122 square miles (316 km²) that is located in the Mediterranean Sea just south of Sicily. The population is around 450,000, making it the 4 th most densely populated country in the world. The country has a long history of occupation by others, including the Phoenicians, Romans, Moors, Normans, Sicilians, Spanish, Knight of St. John, French, and British. Malta gained independence from British rule in 1964 and joined the European Union (EU) in 2004.
When you fly in, it looks like everything is made of stone, which makes sense once you learn that Malta is predominately limestone. Limestone has been used over the centuries to construct many different structures, ranging from the megalithic Ôgantija Temples on Gozo to churches (there are 359 churches on the islands of Malta and Gozo) to a plethora of rubble (or stone) walls.
A very distinct characteristic of Maltese buildings are the balconies. There are several different styles and types, mostly made of limestone or wood. The painted wooden balconies started to appear in Valletta (the capital city of Malta) in the middle of the 18 th century. The variety and number of balconies in Malta are memorable.
## One response to "Exploring Malta with IFHE"
Sharon mS Gibson July13,2015
Like it Oh Joan was offered the EPA job.
Sent from my iPhone
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Thank you for everything and for the valuable information.
Thanks for posting when you've got the opportunity.Thank you so much for sharing this. Very interesting.
As a professional declutterter in London, I see health benefits around decluttering all the time. From people who are depressed...
These tips are really helpful! I never thought about putting my luggage on a stand or unpacking outside. It's good...
Check with you local county Extension Office to learn more about trees that grow well in your state.
Find an…
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Select Month |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/dixieco/2020/08/21/catch-the-nature-coast-currents/ | Catch the Nature Coast Currents | University of Florida | [
"Savanna Barry"
] | 2020-08-21 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"Events",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"Water",
"Wildlife",
"applied research",
"Cedar Key",
"coastal habitat",
"coastal systems",
"ecosystem models",
"fisheries",
"fisheries management",
"fishing",
"FWC",
"InsideNatureCoast",
"living shoreline",
"Lone Cabbage Reef",
"marsh",
"NCBS Graduate Students",
"oysters",
"research",
"restoration",
"seagrass",
"shoreline restoration",
"snook",
"Suwannee River",
"virtual learning",
"water quality"
] | FL | ## Catch the Nature Coast Currents
## Nature Coast Currents
## 2022-2023
We are pleased to announce registration is open for the 2022-2023 webinar series, NatureCoastCurrents! This free monthly webinar is designed to publicly communicate the results of the newest science and research conducted in the Nature Coast, especially along the southern portion that is encompassed by the Nature Coast Aquatic Preserve (Citrus, Hernando, and Pasco County waters). You can explore the full schedule, program archive, and register for upcoming programs here: https://bit.ly/NatureCoastCurrens .
We look forward to a great program kicking off the series at 2 PM EDT, Weds, September 21, 2022. What can mollusk shells tell us about the past and future of our coastal marine systems? Find out in this talk from Dr. Michal Kowalewski where he will present findings from several Conservation Paleobiology projects conducted in the region.
## 2020 Nature Coast
## Currents
Since our ribbon cutting in 2017, the UE/IFAES Nature Coast Biological Station has hosted annual Open House events. Our staff looked forward to it every year as a valuable chance to chat about our work. This year, we are not letting the pandemic get in the way! Even though we cannot host an in-person event like normal, we are still excited about connecting with you. We are launching a series called "Nature Coast Currents" to provide a platform to share. Read on to see the lineup of virtual events and how to register to interact with our scientists and learn about current science in the Nature Coast (see what we did, there?).
Estuarine Ecology - Investigating where the river meets the sea! 4:00 pm, Thursday, Sept 17th
catch and harvest, is an ever-changing system driven by the interactions of freshwater rivers and springs meeting saltwater at the coast. These nearby regions are highly productive nursery grounds for a multitude of recreational and commercially harvested fisheries species, however the health of these systems relies on the quality and quantity of freshwater input from terrestrial sources.
This Nature Coast Currents session will introduce the habitats and organisms that are formed by and rely on estuaries, discuss how freshwater input dynamics influence this unique environment, and show a variety of "field work" techniques that our scientists use to investigate critical estuarine ecology research questions. And stick around for a Q&A with our panel of estuarine scientists including Dr. Charlie Martin, Dr. Laura Reynolds, and their lab staff/students. REGISTER HERE.
## Keeping it reel - Let's talk about snook! 4:30pm on Thursday, Sept 17th
Snook have expanded northward throughout the Gulf of Mexico over the last decade. In this edition of Nature Coast currents, we will present information for anglers regarding snook life
history, seasonal movement patterns, and spatial expansion northward in the Nature Coast. Long term data sets will be used to follow the changing distribution of snook, and we will discuss the implications of the "neonative" predators (snook) on coastal food webs in the Nature Coast region. Be sure to stick around for a Q&A session with our panel of fish scientists including Dr. Mike Allen and Dr. Charlie Martin. REGISTER HERE.
Fisheries & Ecosystem Modeling - Getting schooled on fisheries! 4:00 PM on Thursday, Sept 24th
Ecosystem-based fisheries management, or EBMF, recognizes that individual species are connected to their surrounding environment through food web interactions and habitat relationships. EBFM is necessary to ensure that our ecosystems and fisheries are sustainable into the future, even as the surrounding environment is changing. In this session, we will discuss research projects that aim to understand how environmental drivers affect fish populations
his students! REGISTER HERE.
## What's GROWING on? Building living Shorelines in Cedar Key. 4:30 PM on Thursday, Sept 24th
Chagaris and
Coastal
change is
obvious along
Cedar Key's
shorelines.
One of the
most
noticeable
changes
rapid erosion
along the
shorelines of
Daughtry Bayou in Cedar Key. Erosion is a natural process in coastal ecosystems but becomes an issue when it threatens homes and infrastructure. The loss of beach, oyster reefs, and marshes along these populated areas leaves property and infrastructure exposed to the damaging effects of storms, among other impacts. Further, the loss of these coastal systems translates into the loss of habitat and other services, such as water filtration and nutrient storage. So, what can be done?
Join us for this Nature Coast Currents session where we will talk about newer but increasingly popular method of erosion control - the living shoreline - and our efforts to install them in Cedar Key.
And stick around for a Q&A with our panel of living shoreline scientists, including Dr. Mark Clark and Dr. Savanna Barry. REGISTER HERE.
Lone Cabbage Oyster Reef Restoration Project, 4:00 PM on Thursday, Oct 1st
In less than 30 years, 3,000year-old oyster reefs off Florida's Big Bend
coastline have declined by 88 percent. With an award from the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, a UF/IFAS team worked with
contractors and the community to restore about 3 linear miles of oyster reef along the historic footprint of the Lone Cabbage Reef tract. In this edition of Nature Coast Currents, you'll hear an update about the reef's status and meet the researchers working to measure its effects. Stick around for a Q&A with our panel of oyster scientists, including Dr. Peter Frederick, Bradley Ennis, and their field biologists/students! REGISTER HERE.
## Nature Coast Currents: LIVE Tour of the UF/IFAS Nature Coast Biological Station
Join our Director, Dr. Mike Allen, as he guides you through the UF/IFAS Nature Coast Biological Station. You'll see many improvements to the facilities since 2019, including progress on the
the UF/IFAS Team worked with
state-of-the-art wet lab, new attractions in the discovery center (aquarium), and major improvements on the way for the 3rd floor and grounds. Stick around to ask questions about the NCBS in this finale edition of Nature Coast Currents . REGISTER HERE.
## o
by Savanna Barry
Posted: August 21, 2020
Category: Coasts & Marine, Events, Natural Resources, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research, Water, Wildlife
Tags: Applied Research, Cedar Key, Coastal Habitat, Coastal
Systems, Ecosystem Models, Fisheries, Fisheries Management,
Fishing, FWC, InsideNatureCoast, Living Shoreline, Lone Cabbage
Refe, Marsh, NCBS Graduate Students, Oysters, Research,
Restoration, Seagrass, Shoreline Restoration, Snook, Suwannee
River, Virtual Learning, Water Quality
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Cedar Key Coastal Cleanup 2021
- · Water Watch Comes To Horseshoe Beach
- · Coastal Shoreline Restoration From The Couch
- · Derelict Crab Trap Cleanups Continue In 2022 |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/dairy-cattle/milking-parlor-3-stall | Milking Parlor - 3 Stall | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Jessica Halfen"
] | null | [
"Dairy",
"Agriculture",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Dairy-Cattle » Milking Parlor - 3 Stall
## Milking Parlor - 3 Stall
DAIRY CATTLE
Publication Number: 6331
View as PDF: 6331.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webtem or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
APRIL 4, 2024
Bird flu health risks to public remain low despite human case
FEBRUARY 28, 2023
Northeast Miss. producers discuss educational needs
JUNE 3, 2022
High costs and low prices stress state dairy industry
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4-H Dairy Poster Contest
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4069
Environmental Enrichment for Dairy Cattle: Music
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3814-3
2024 Mississippi State Fair and 2025 Dixie National Junior Round-Up: Dairy Cattle Division
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/reduce-soybean-harvest-losses | Reduce Soybean Harvest Losses | NC State Extension | [
"Jim Dunphy",
"E. O. Beasley"
] | null | [
"Soybean Production",
"Soybean",
"Field Crop"
] | NC | ## Reduce Soybean Harvest Losses
## Introduction
Harvested yields of soybeans in many North Carolina fields can easily be increased by 5 to 10 percent just by leaving fewer beans in the field when combining. Studies have shown that field losses average about 10 percent of yield, but run as high as 15 to 20 percent in many cases. A machine harvesting loss of only 3 to 4 percent (1¼ to 1½ bu/a in 40 bushel beans) is practical to achieve with carefully operated modern equipment. Careful combining costs nothing extra, so the additional beans harvested go directly into the net profit column.
Unless you know how much you are losing and from what part of the machine the loss is coming, you don't know how to make corrections. It is essential to measure losses and pinpoint their source to see where machine adjustments are needed. Always recheck losses after making adjustments to see if they had the desired effect. Once you learn the procedure, a loss check can be made in just a few minutes.
## Types of Losses
Soybean field losses fall into one of the following categories:
Preharvest Loss . Loose beans or beans in detached pods which are on the ground prior to harvesting.
Gathering Unit Loss . All beans which are attached to plants at harvest, but which never get into the combine. Most harvesting losses are in this category. There are four types of gathering unit losses:
- Shatter loss - loose beans and detached pods resulting from harvesting,
- Stubble loss - beans remaining in pods attached to stubble,
- Lodged stalk loss - beans remaining in pods attached to stalks which were not cut, and
- Loose stalk loss - beans remaining in pods attached to stalks which were cut but not delivered to the threshing unit.
Cylinder loss . Beans which pass through the combine but remain in the pod.
Separation loss . Threshed beans which go out of the combine with the trash.
## Procedure for Checking Losses
Estimates of the bushels per acre of soybeans lost are based on the number of beans per square foot left in the field after harvesting. About four average-size beans per square foot are equivalent to one bushel per acre. It may require up to 10 very small beans or only two very large beans per square foot to equal one bushel per acre.
Bean counts are made in a 10-square-foot area. It is convenient to mark the area with a collapsible rectangular frame made from four stiff wire pegs and string, which can be rolled up and carried on the combine. Width of the rectangle should equal the swath width of the combine header. The length
EXTENSION
needed to enclose 10 square feet can be determined from Table 1.
- 1. Determine the total field loss . Stop the combine (do not clear), well in from the end of the field, where the crop is typical of the whole field. Disengage the gathering unit and back up about 15 feet. Place the rectangular frame across the harvested swath at the rear of the machine. Count all beans within the frame area and record in column A , line 1 of Table 2. Divide by 40 (in average-size beans) to get ba/preharvest plus harvesting loss and record in column B , line 1.
If the total field loss is not more than 3 percent of yield (1.2 bu/a in 40 bu/a beans), continue harvesting. If total loss exceeds 3 percent, follow steps 2 through 5 to see where the losses occur and make adjustments to reduce them.
- 2. Determine the preharvest loss . Place the rectangular frame in standing soybeans in front of the combine, and count all beans lying loose on the ground within the frame, both in and out of pods. Record the total count in column A , line 2 of Table 2. Divide by 40 to get bu/a, and enter in column B , line 2.
- 3. Determine the overall machine loss . Subtract the preharvest loss (line 2) from the total field loss (line 1) in columns A and B , respectively, of Table 2. If the machine loss is not more than about 3 percent of yield (1.2 bu/a in 40 bu/baans), continue harvesting. If more, proceed with the remainder of the loss analysis and make adjustments to reduce losses where needed.
- 4. Determine the gathering unit losses . Place the frame across the harvested swath between the combine header and the standing beans. Make counts as follows:
- 1. Shatter loss . Count all loose beans and beans in detached pods lying on the ground.
- Subtract preharvest loss (column A , line 2) and record remainder in column A , line 4a. Divide by 40 and enter bu/a in column B , line 4a.
- 2. Stubble loss . Count beans in pods attached to stubble, and enter in column A , line 4b. Divide by 40 and enter bu/a in column B , line 4b.
- 3. Lodged stalk loss . Count beans in pods attached to stalks which were not cut, and enter in column A , line 4c. Divide by 40 and enter bu/a in column B , line 4c.
- 4. Loose stalk loss . Count beans in pods attached to loose stalks or portions of stalks which were cut but not gathered by the header, and enter in column A , line 4d. Divide by 40 and enter bu/a in column B , line 4d.
Determine total gathering unit losses by adding the number of beans representing shatter, stubble, lodged and loose stalk loss (column A , lines 4a-4d). Enter total in column A , line 4. Divide by 40 and enter bu/a (total gathering unit loss) in column B , line 4.
- 5. Determine cylinder and separating losses . Subtract gathering unit loss (column B , line 4) from overall machine loss (column B , line 3), and record in column B , line 5.
Examine the various types of gathering unit losses, and the cylinder and separating losses to see where adjustments should be made. Comparison with the "acceptable" losses in column C , lines 4a4d should be helpful in identifying the problem source. If your yield is much different from 40 bu/a, these "acceptable" bushel-per-acre losses should be adjusted accordingly. Make only one change in combine adjustment (i.e., reel speed, reel height, ground speed, cutter-bar height, cylinder speed, concave clearance, etc.) at a time, and recheck losses to see if the change improved performance.
If not, go back to the original setting and try another approach, rechecking losses after each change. Only with this systematic approach can you isolate and correct the cause of excessive harvesting losses.
## Operational Guidelines
Typically more than 75 percent of soybean machine harvesting losses are gathering losses, so greatest attention should be given to proper header adjustment and operation. Some of the more important things to remember are:
- 1. Keep ground speed to 3 mph or less . Long stubble, uneven cutting height and shatter losses due to knife stripping are indications that ground speed is too fast.
- 2. Operate cutterbar as close to the ground as possible at all times . A floating flexible cutterbar with automatic header height control is virtually essential for low loss levels.
- 3. Keep knife sections sharp , and make sure guards, wear plates and hold- down clips are in good condition and properly adjusted. Narrow-section knives reduce shatter and may permit slightly higher ground speeds.
- 4. Operate reel about 25 percent faster than ground speed . Position reel axis 6 to 12 inches ahead of cutterbar. Bats should enter crop only enough to gain control.
- 5. Complete harvest as quickly as possible after beans first reach 15 percent moisture . When beans reach 13 percent moisture or less, take advantage of damp pod conditions brought on by dew, light rain or high humidity to reduce shattering.
- 6. Operate the cylinder at the slowest speed which will give complete threshing to reduce splitting . Check and adjust if necessary as conditions change from damp to dry.
- 7. Measure losses when field and crop conditions, varieties or machine settings change.
| Swath width (ft) | Distance along row to enclose 10 square feet (inches) |
|--------------------|---------------------------------------------------------|
| 8 | 15 |
| 10 | 12 |
| 12 | 10 |
| 13 | 9.25 |
| 14 | 8.6 |
| 15 | 8 |
| 16 | 7.5 |
| 18 | 6.7 |
| 20 | 6 |
| | Step | Type of Loss | Frame location or How Calculated | Column A | Column B | Column C |
|----|------------------------|----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|-------------|------------|------------|
| 1 | Total | Behind combine | In standing beans | Loss, bu/a* | in 40 bu/a | |
| 2 | Preharvest | Total minus preharvest | Between header and standing beans | 1.2 | 1.2 | |
| 3 | Machine | Total minsus preharvest | Between header and standing beans | 1.1 | 1.1 | |
| 4 | Gathering unit | All loose beans minus preharvest loss | between a. shutter | 0.4 | 0.3 | |
| 5 | Cylinder & separation | All bears in pods still attached in stubble | all bents in pods still attached to lodged stalks | 0.3 | 0.2 | |
## Authors
Jim Dunphy
Professor and Extension Soybean Specialist Crop and Soil Sciences
E. O. Beasley
Extension Specialist Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Publication date: Nov. 22, 2017
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/jackson-county | Jackson County Forestry Impacts | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"James Jeuck",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel",
"Corey Sugerik"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Extension Publications"
] | NC | ## Jackson County Forestry Impacts 2012
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan. 1, 2014
Authors
James Jeuck
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
Corey Sugerik
[ ] View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=jackson- county#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/pinellasco/2024/08/12/preparing-for-success-back-to-school-tips-from-pinellas-4-h/ | Preparing for Success: Back-to-School Tips from Pinellas 4-H | University of Florida | [
"T"
] | 2024-08-12 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"4-H",
"school",
"tips"
] | FL | ## Preparing for Success: Back-to-School Tips from Pinellas 4-H
As summer fades and the school year approaches, it's time for youth to gear up for another exciting and productive year. Preparing for school involves more than just buying supplies; it's about setting yourself up for success academically, socially, and personally. With a little planning and the right mindset, you can start the school year with confidence and enthusiasm. Here are 4 essential back-toschool tips from Pinellas 4-H to help you make this year your best yet.
## 1. Organize Your Space and Supplies
A well-organized space can make a big difference in your ability to focus and succeed. Take some time before the school year starts to declutter and organize your study area. Make sure you have all the supplies you need, such as notebooks, pens, folders, and a reliable planner. Organizing your materials now will save you time and stress later on.
- · Create a Dedicated Study Area : Find a quiet spot in your home where you can study and do homework without distractions. Having a designated space for schoolwork helps you focus and establish a routine.
- · Use a Planner : A planner is a great tool to keep track of assignments, tests, and extracurricular activities. Pinellas 4-H members can use planners to schedule 4-H club meetings and events, ensuring that you balance schoolwork and 4-H commitments effectively.
- · Set Up a Filing System : Organize your papers and assignments with a filing system. Use folders or binders to keep track of different subjects and projects, making it easy to find what you need when you need it.
## 2. Set Clear Goals
Setting clear, achievable goals is key to success. Apply this to your school year by setting both academic and personal goals!
- · Academic Goals: Determine what you want to achieve academically this year. Whether it's improving your grades, exceiling in a particular subject, or mastering a new skill, having a clear goal gives you a sense of direction and motivation.
- · Personal Goals: School is also a time for personal growth. Consider setting goals related to extracurricular activities, such as joining a new club or taking on a leadership role in your community. These goals can help you develop new skills and build confidence.
- · Review and Adjust: Regularly review your goals and make adjustments as needed. Celebrate your achievements and learn from any setbacks, using them as opportunities for growth.
## 3. Build Strong Relationships
Building strong relationships with your teachers, peers, and mentors can enhance your school experience and provide valuable support throughout the year.
- · Communicate with Teachers : Don't hesitate to reach out to your teachers if you have questions or need help- they are there to support you!
- · Get Involved : Participate in school activities and join clubs that interest you. Being involved in the school community helps you make new friends and develop a sense of belonging.
- · Connect with Peers and Mentors : Lean on your friends and mentors for support and encouragement. Life will always have challenges; these connections will help you navigate difficult times.
## 4. Maintain a Healthy Lifestyle
A healthy lifestyle is key to performing well academically and enjoying your time at school. Prioritize your physical and mental well-being to ensure you're at your best.
- · Eat Nutritious Meals : Fuel your body with nutritious meals and snacks that keep your energy levels up throughout the day.
Avoid skipping meals and make healthy choices that support your overall well-being.
- · Stay Active : Regular physical activity is important for both physical and mental health. Participate in sports, go for walks, or engage in other activities that keep you moving.
- · Get Enough Sleep : Ensure you get enough sleep each night to recharge and stay focused during the day. Aim for 8-10 hours of sleep per night to support your learning and growth.
## Conclusion
As you prepare for the upcoming school year, remember that success is a combination of organization, goal-setting, strong relationships, and a healthy lifestyle. By implementing these backto-school tips from Pinellas 4-H, you'll be well-equipped to tackle the challenges and opportunities that come your way. Be confident and don't forget to make time for fun!
Let's support each other as we embark on this exciting journey together. Here's to a successful and rewarding school year with Pinellas 4-H!
```
```
Category: 4-H & Youth Tags: 4-H, School, Tips
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Giving Thanks For Trees
- · Thriving Through The Holidays: Nurturing Resilience With The Power Of 4H
- · Welcoming A New Face To The Pinellas 4-H Blog Team: Meet Truong "T" Tran
- · Pinellas Parks And Preserves Are Open For Socially-Distant Recreation |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/escambiaco/2021/01/08/video-growing-and-preparing-horseradish/ | Video: Growing and Preparing Horseradish | University of Florida | [
"Beth Bolles"
] | 2021-01-08 | [
"Food Safety",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Health & Nutrition",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"container gardening",
"edibles",
"food safety",
"garden to table",
"horseradish",
"making horseradish",
"vegetable gardening",
"vegetables"
] | FL | ## Video: Growing and Preparing Horseradish
Grow your own horseradish in your home garden. You can then harvest roots to make a delicious, spicy sauce for your favorite dish. Learn outdoor care and kitchen prep with UF IFAS Extension Escambia County. #gardentotable #homegrown #homegardening
```
O
by Beth Bolles
Posted: January 8, 2021
Category: Food Safety, Fruits & Vegetables, Health & Nutrition,
HOME LANDSCAPES, Horticulture
Tags: Container Gardening, Edibles, Food Safety, Garden To Table,
Horseradish, Making Horseradish, Vegetable Gardening, Vegetables
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
More From Blogs.IFAS
• Weekly "What Is It?": Carolina Wolfberry
• Produce Pointer s - Okra
• Weekly "What Is It?": The Great Southeast Pollinator Census
• Weekly "What Is It?": Swamp Bay
```
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- • Weekly "What Is It?": Carolina Wolfberry
- • Produce Pointer s - Okra
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/rowan-county | Rowan County Forestry Impacts | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"James Jeuck",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel",
"Corey Sugerik"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Extension Publications"
] | NC | ## Rowan County Forestry Impacts 2012
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan. 1, 2014
Authors
James Jeuck
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
Corey Sugerik |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1976/rr76_23.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090120140007-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | The results obtained in this study suggest that PMS injections may be timed from an estrus induced by injecting prostaglandins. They further suggest that a combination of PMS plus prostaglandin may be used to induce superovulation at mid-cycle or to improve the superovulatory response to PMS injected late in the cycle.
## Reproductive Performance of Range Cows with Various Suckling Intensities
R. P. Wetemann, E. J. Turman, R. D. Wyatt, Leon Knori and Robert Totusek
## Story in Brief
At calving, 44 Hereford x Holstein cows were assigned to one of three suckling intensities; own single calf, a single foster calf or a foster calf and their own calf. The cows were maintained under range conditions and supplemented so body weight loss during October to April was similar for all treatments. Cows nursing two calves had a longer interval after calving until plasma progesterone increased to greater than I ng/ml than cows nursing only one calf. Increasing the suckling intensity also increased the interval until the first heat after calving. By 90 days after calving, 71.4% of the cows nursing their own calves had exhibited estrus but only 42.8% of the cows nursing two calves had been in heat. These data indicate that increasing the suckling intensity increased the postpartum anestrous period in range cows although percent body weight loss was similar in cows nursing one or two calves.
## Introduction
Any effort to improve the productive efficiency of range cows must be directed towards assuring that every cow weans a calf each year. If a cow is to have a calving interval of 12 months or less, she must calve, resume having estrous cycles, be bred and conceive within a period of no
more than 90 days. Thus, the length of the postpartum anestrous interval (period when cows do not have estrus or heat) becomes of vital concern. It is usually not a problem in cow herds receiving adequate nutrition. However, many range cow herds are on their poorest nutritional levels of the year (late winter and early spring) during late pregnancy, calving and for most of the early postpartum period. The result is that too many range cows have undesirably long postpartum anestrous intervals and reproductive performance is greatly reduced.
In addition to level of nutrition, there are a number of other factors known to influence the length of the postpartum anestrous interval. One of these is suckling intensity; that is the total length of time a cow is nursed per day. Obviously, twins would impose a more intense suckling intensity on a cow than would a single calf. However, there is also the possibility that selection for larger, faster gaining calves would result in calves that nurse more frequently. Whatever the cause, however, it appears desirable to learn more about the relationship between suckling intensity and reproductive performance.
The purpose of this experiment was to study the effect of suckling intensity on the onset of ovarian activity and the number of days to the first estrus after calving. Another objective was to determine if cows have a "silent" estrus and ovulate prior to the first postpartum estrus.
## Materials and Methods
This study was conducted during October 1974 through April 1975 and utilized 44 six year old Hereford x Holstein cows. The cows were maintained under range conditions receiving supplementary feed necessary to maintain a similar body weight loss during October through April for the cows on all treatments (about 20% of fall weight).
At the time of calving, during November through February, the cows were assigned to one of three treatments. One group of cows kept their own calf; another group of cows received a foster calf to replace their own; and the third group was given a fosser calf in addition to their own calf. These treatments created varying levels of suckling intensity. Sterile bulls were used to detect estrus and blood samples were obtained once weekly following calving until about day 90 postpartum. Plasma progesterone was quantified by radiomunoassay.
## Results and Discussion
Body weight loss (including calving weight loss) for cows on all treatments was similar. By April, most cows had lost about 20% of their Fall weight (Table 1). Even though cows with two calves produced about
| Criterion | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment |
|-------------------------------|-----------------|-------------------|-------------|
| | Own Calf | Foster Calf | Two Calves |
| Cows, no. | 14 | 16 | 14 |
| Winter weight loss, % | 19.0 ± .9$^{a}$ | 20.4±1.1 | 18.6± 1.2 |
| First PP estrus, da. | 67.0±6.4 | 62.1±9.1 | 94.6±11.5 |
| Time PP when progesterone | 65.0±5.8 | 51.1±6.8 | 84.7± 7.8 |
| was greater than 1 ng/ml, da. | 32.4±2.9 | ................. | 46.1± 4.1 |
Mean ± SE
39% more milk than cows with their own single calf it was possible to have all cows in similar body condition during the postpartum period by increasing the protein and energy supplementation.
Table 1 further reveals that, on the average, the first postpartum estrus occurred earlier after calving in cows nursing their own (67 days) or foster calves (62 days) than in cows nursing two calves (95 days). Thus, increasing the suckling intensity increased the postpartum anestrous interval. This effect was apparently independent of nutrition, since all cows lost similar weight during the winter period.
The average interval from calving to first estrus is somewhat misleading as to how quickly all cows in the herd could be rebred. Table 2 presents the percentage of the total cows in each treatment group that had exhibited estrus, and could have been bred, by 30, 60 and 90 days after calving. Cows nursing a single calf, whether their own or a foster calf, were similar although slightly more cows nursing a foster calf had resumed estrual activity at each time. However, cows nursing two calves were defenitely inhibited in return to estrus following calving. Only 42.8% had shown estrus by 90 days postpartum compared to 88.8% of those suckling foster calves and 71.4% of those nursing their own calves. It is important to emphasize that in no group were all of the cows ready to rebreed by 90 days postpartum.
After estrus, if ovulation occurs, the corpus luteum begins to form
Table 2. Estrural Activity of Postpartum (PP) Range Cows with Various Suckling Intensities.
| Item | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment |
|----------------------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
| | Own Calf | Foster Calf | Two Calves |
| Cows that exhibited estrus | 0 | 11.0 | 0 |
| 30 days PP, % | 35.7 | 44.4 | 14.2 |
| 60 days PP, % | 71.4 | 88.8 | 42.8 |
| | | | |
on the ovary and secrete progesterone. Non-cycling or anestrous cows have plasma progesterone concentrations of less than 1 ng/ml, whereas, progesterone levels of more than 1 ng/ml is an indication that ovulation has occurred and a corpus luteum is present. Therefore, blood plasma concentrations of progesterone can be used as an indicator to determine whether ovulation has occurred in cows. Cows nursing two calves had longer intervals postpartum until plasma progesterone was greater than 1 ng/ml than did cows suckling either their own calf or a foster calf (Table 1). Thus, increasing the suckling intensity increased the interval to the onset of ovarian activity and ovulation, as well as the interval to first estrus.
Plasma progesterone concentrations were assayed in the blood col lected before and after estrus was first detected. Thus, it could be de termined whether the cows had ovulated before the first standing heat and whether they ovulated after the first estrus. All cows could not be used in this part of the study, because blood samples were not collected for a long enough interval before or after the first estrus. Of the cows nursing their own calves, none of 11 ovulated prior to first estrus as indicated by plasma progesterone levels less than 1 ng/ml (Table 3). However, 3 of 8 cows with two calves had progesterone greater than 1 ng/ml before their first estrus, which is evidence that they had ovulated without exhibiting estrus (silent heat). Six of the 7 cows nursing their own calf had progesterone concentrations greater than 1 ng/ml, which indicates that they ovulated after their first observed estrus. All of the 6 cows nursing two calves ovated after their first postpartum estrus.
Data obtained in this study indicates that increasing the suckling intensity increases the interval from calving until the time when the ovary becomes functional. Since this effect is independent of the nutri tional status of the cows, it suggests that suckling probably inhibits secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary. Gonadotropic hormones normally cause follicular growth and ovulation. It is significant that the cows nursing their own calf had only 71% in estrus by 90 days after calving. This is probably the result of the level of nutrition being
| Item | Own Calf | Treatment |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------|---------------|
| Cows with progesterone greater than 1 ng/ml before first estrus, no. Cows with progesterone greater than 1 ng/ml after first estrus, no. | 0 of 11 6 of 7 | 3 of 8 6 of 6 |
somewhat lower than that necessary for maximum performance. This nutritionally induced reduction in ovarian activity may also be caused by a reduced level of secretion of gonadotropic hormones. When less than desirable nutrition is combined with an increased suckling intensity, a serious problem of reduced ovarian activity is created. Thus, suckling intensity must be taken into account in developing proper feeding and management techniques designed to achieve the goal of a calf per cow per year.
## Testosterone in Boars after Treatment with Gonadotropins
L. W. Brock and R. P. Wetemann
## Story in Brief
Two experiments were conducted to evaluate changes in serum testosterone after the intravenous infusion of luteinizing hormone (LH) or the intramuscular injections of Pregnant Mare Serum (PMS). Four yearing Yorkshire boors of proven fertility were anesthetized and indwelling cannulae were placed in the anterior venae cavae. On the 8th day after cannulation, blood samples were collected at various times before and after infusion of 1 mg NH-LH-S18. Serum testosterone increased to 16.7 ng/ml at one hour after LH infusion and remained elevated for at least 6 hours.
On the tenth day after cannulation, blood samples were collected before and after intramuscular injection of 1000 IU of PMS. Serum testosterone was significantly higher during 6 to 36 hours after injection, than during the preinjection or early post injection periods. Maximum serum testosterone occurred sooner after LH infusion than after PMS injection.
## Introduction
Some of the problems associated with reduced reproductive efficiency in boars, such as loss of libido and decreased sperm production, may be due to reduced testosterone production by the testicle. It has | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/protein-concentration-of-winter-wheat-varieties-in-oklahoma-2021-2022.html | Protein Concentration of Winter Wheat Varieties in Oklahoma 2021–2022 - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Amanda de Oliveira Silva",
"Tyler Lynch",
"Brett Carver",
"Israel Molina Cyrineu",
"Samson Abiola Olaniyi",
"Yuri De Lacerda Barbosa",
"Cassidy Stowers",
"Teresa Swantek",
"Danille Connors",
"Melanie Carrol"
] | 2023-01-01 | [] | OK | ## Protein Concentration of Winter Wheat Varieties in Oklahoma 2021-2022
Published Jan. 2023 |
Id: CR-2135
By Amanda de Oliveira Silva, Tyler Lynch, Brett Carver, Israel Molina Cyrineu, Samson Abiola Olaniyi, Yuri De Lacerda Barbosa, Cassidy Stowers, Teresa Swantek, Danille Connors, Melanie Carrol
Print-friendly PDF sheets/print- publications/cr/protein concentration-of-winter-wheat varieties-in-oklahoma-2021-2022 cr-2135-a.pdf)
JUMP TO: General Information / Procedures / Data Interpretation / Participating Seed Companies
## General Information
Protein is just one of many attributes that determines enduse quality and marketability of winter wheat. In fact, some millers and bakers would argue that functionality of wheat protein is more important than the quantity of protein. While varietal differences exist, variability in protein among environments is generally much larger. Factors such as nitrogen (N) fertilization and drought stress, for example, can sharply impact final wheat protein concentration.
To reflect these management and environmental impacts on wheat protein concentration, data are reported by variety and location in Table 1. In Table 2, we report the wheat protein concentration by variety as a deviation from the location mean. This allows for easier comparison of wheat protein among varieties across locations. Doublestop CL Plus and
Green Hammer, for example, showed positive deviation from the location mean in all of this year's trials where it was
planted, indicating a tendency for above-average wheat protein concentration. Iba, on the other hand, showed a negative deviation from location mean in all of the trials where it was planted, indicating a tendency for lower than average wheat protein concentration. Adequate and timely N fertility as recommended by a recent soil test or sensor-based N management program can help ensure that varieties with lower than average protein produce wheat or four protein within the acceptable range for the end-users.
However, protein quantity should not be considered a barometer for protein quality (i.e., dough strength and functionality), though high protein quantity and quality can occur in the same variety. Doublestop CL Plus is one example. Iba is a prime example of how protein data can sometimes be misleading, as the functionality of the protein in Iba is above average, which can offset lower absolute protein concentration. More information on end-use quality is available in Current Report 2165 Wheat and Flour Quality for Varieties Tested in the 2016 OSU Variety Performance Tests.
## Procedures
Approximately 600 g subsamples of wheat grain were collected at harvest from four field replicates of all entries for each OSU Wheat Variety Performance Test. Each test was properly fertilized and managed according to OSU Cooperative Extension recommendations. Additional information on test locations and management practices is available in Current Report 2143 2021-2022 Oklahoma Small Grains Variety Performance Tests online at www.wheat.okstate.edu. Samples were analyzed nondestructively immediately after harvest for wheat protein concentration on a 12% moisture basis, using a Diode Array Near Infrared (NIR) moisture and protein determinator (model DA 7200, Perten Instruments, Sweden).
## Data Interpretation
At the bottom of each table, the mean and least significant difference (LSD) values are reported. The LSD is a test statistic that aids in determining whether there is a true difference in protein. In this report, one can be 95% confident that the difference between two varieties is real if the difference is greater than the LSD value. Data that is not statistically different is indicated by "NS". For example, if the LSD value is 1% in a trial where Variety A had 13% protein and Variety B had 10% protein, then Variety A would be considered to have a statistically higher protein. However, if Variety C had 12% protein, then Variety A and Variety C would be considered to have a similar protein. In that same example trial, there is a 5% chance that the 1% protein difference between Variety A and Variety B does not truly exist, but random chance caused the difference. These chance factors may include differences in fertility, moisture availability, and diseases. To aid in visualizing the varieties with the highest protein, values highlighted in gray do not differ statistically from the highest value within a column.
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko |
|------------|---------------|-----------------------|--------------|---------|
| - | - | protein concentrati % | | |
| AgriMaXX | AM Cartwright | 21.3 | 16.8 | 14.8 |
| AGSECO | AG Golden | - | - | |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 18.8 | 15.2 | 13.5 |
| AgriMaXX | AM Cartwright | 21.3 | 16.8 | 14.8 |
|------------------|-----------------|--------|--------|--------|
| AGSECO | AG Golden | - | - | |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 18.8 | 15.2 | 13.5 |
| Mean (LSD 0.05) | 19.1 | 15.1 | 13.2 | |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko |
|------------|------------------|----------|--------------|----------|
| AGSECO | AG Radical | - | - | - |
| Croplan | CP7017AX | 17.3 | 13.5 | 12.7 |
| Croplan | CP72166AX | - | - | - |
| KWA | KS Ahearn | - | - | - |
| KWA | KS Hamilton | 17.8 | 13.6 | 12.2 |
| KWA | KS Western Star | 17.8 | 14.4 | 13.4 |
| KWA | KS Providence | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Atomic AX | 16.8 | 13.3 | 12.5 |
| LCS | LCS Chrome | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Helix AX | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Julep | - | 16.0 | - |
| LCS | LCS Photon AX | 19.6 | 15.3 | 13.2 |
| LCS | LCS Runner | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Steel AX | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Valiant | 21.6 | - | 13.8 |
| OGI | Baker's Ann | - | - | 13.2 |
| | Mean (LSD0.05) | 19.1 1.7 | 15.1 0.5 | 13.2 1.1 |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko |
|------------|------------------------------|--------|--------------|---------|
| OGI | Bentley | - | - | 13.9 |
| OGI | Big Country | 21.4 | 16.4 | - |
| OGI | Breakthrough | - | - | 12.8 |
| OGI | Butler's Gold | 19.4 | 15.7 | 13.6 |
| OGI | Butler's Gold (late-planted) | 20.2 | 17.7 | - |
| OGI | Doublestop CL+ | 20.1 | 16.7 | - |
| OGI | Duster | - | - | - |
| OGI | Gallagher | 19.3 | 15.4 | 13.4 |
| OGI | Green Hammer | 21.5 | 16.3 | - |
| OGI | Iba | - | - | 12.8 |
| OGI | Lonerider | - | - | 15.0 |
| OGI | OK Corral | 17.9 | 15.1 | 13.0 |
| OGI | Showdown | 18.0 | 13.3 | 12.8 |
| OGI | Skydance | 20.2 | 16.3 | - |
| OGI | Smith's Gold | 18.6 | 15.4 | 13.0 |
| OGI | Spirit Rider | - | - | - |
| | Mean (LSD0.05) | 19.1 | 15.1 | 13.2 |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko |
|------------|----------------|--------|--------------|---------|
| OGI | Strad CL+ | 19.4 | 15.4 | 13.8 |
| OGI | Uncharted | - | 15.1 | - |
| PlainsGold | Breck | - | - | - |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | 17.7 | 13.6 | 12.4 |
| PlainsGold | Crescent AX | 18.9 | - | 12.1 |
| PlainsGold | Guardian | 17.6 | 14.7 | 13.4 |
| PlainsGold | Sunshine | - | - | - |
| Syngenta | AP EverRock | 19.7 | - | - |
| Syngenta | AP Roadrunner | 19.3 | 14.2 | 13.6 |
| Syngenta | AP 18 AX | - | 13.9 | 12.7 |
| Syngenta | Bob Dole | 20.3 | - | - |
| Syngenta | AP Prolific | - | - | - |
| Syngenta | SY Achieve CL2 | - | - | - |
| Westbred | WB4401 | 20.0 | 14.0 | 00 |
| Westbred | WB4422 | - | - | - |
| Westbred | WB4523 | - | - | - |
| | Mean (LSDO.05) | 19.1 | 15.1 | 13.2 |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko |
|------------|-----------|--------|--------------|---------|
| Westbred | WB4699 | 18 | - | - |
| Westbred | WB4792 | 17.1 | 15.3 | 12.8 |
## Experimental s
| | OK15DMASBx7 ARS 6-8 | | - | 15.1 | - |
|----|------------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----|
| | OK15MASBx7 ARS 8-29 | | 19.7 | - | - |
| | OK16103083 | - | - | - | - |
| | Mean (LSDO.05) | 19.1 1.7 | 15.1 0.5 | 13.2 1.1 | |
Notes: Protein was adjusted to 12% moisture content. Shaded values are not statistically different from the highest value within a column. NS = not significant. Single-dash "-" = data not available.
The extremely high grain protein concentration values for Cherokee possibly reflect a combination of drought stress and the inability of the NIR machine to precisely measure values above the calibration curve (>17-18%), and thus are not included in this final report.
| Table 1. Wheat protein concentration (12% moisture basis) of varieties and experimental lines tested in the 2021-2022 |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Oklaoma Wheat Variety Performance Tests. (cont'd) |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | El Reno GO | Hooker |
|------------|------------------|----------------|---------------|-----------|
| | | | - | - |
| AgriMaXX | AM Cartwright | 15.6 | 15.2 | 15.5 |
| AGSECO | AG Golden | - | 1- | 14.3 |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 13.2 | 14.9 | 15.2 |
| AGSECO | AG Radical | 12.8 | 14.8 | 16.0 |
| Croplan | CP7017AX | 11.2 | 13.8 | 15.2 |
| Cropplan | CP72166AX | - | - | - |
| KWA | KS Ahearn | 12.9 | 14.4 | 14.9 |
| KWA | KS Hamilton | - | - | 15.6 |
| KWA | KS Western Star | - | - | 15.1 |
| KWA | KS Providence | - | - | 15.7 |
| LCS | LCS Atomic AX | 11.6 | 12.6 | 14.8 |
| LCS | LCS Chrome | 13.1 | 15.0 | 16.0 |
| LCS | LCS Helix AX | - | - | 14.8 |
| LCS | LCS Julep | - | - | 16.1 |
| | Mean (LSD0.05) | 13.0 1.1 | 14.5 1.3 | 15.3 0.9 |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | El Reno GO | Hooker |
|------------|------------------------------|--------------|--------------|----------|
| LCS | LCS Photon AX | 12.2 | 14.8 | 16.2 |
| LCS | LCS Runner | - | - | 14.3 |
| LCS | LCS Steel AX | - | - | 14.7 |
| LCS | LCS Valiant | - | - | 16.3 |
| OGI | Baker's Ann | - | - | 16.2 |
| OGI | Bentley | - | - | 15.7 |
| OGI | Big Country | 14.9 | 14.8 | - |
| OGI | Breakthrough | - | - | 15.4 |
| OGI | Butler's Gold | - | - | - |
| OGI | Butler's Gold (late-planted) | - | - | - |
| OGI | Doublestop CL+ | 14.0 | 15.8 | - |
| OGI | Duster | - | - | 15.0 |
| OGI | Gallagher | 12.2 | 14.3 | 15.4 |
| OGI | Green Hammer | 14.4 | 16.7 | - |
| OGI | Iba | - | - | 14.4 |
| OGI | Lonerider | - | - | 16.5 |
| | Mean (LSD0.05) | 13.0 | 14.5 | 15.3 |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | El Reno GO | Hooker |
|------------|----------------|--------------|--------------|----------|
| OGI | OK Corral | 12.7 | 14.7 | 15.6 |
| OGI | Showdown | 12.1 | 14.1 | 15.2 |
| OGI | Skydance | - | - | - |
| OGI | Smith's Gold | 13.4 | 14.0 | 15.7 |
| OGI | Spirit Rider | - | - | - |
| OGI | Strad CL+ | 14.2 | 14.9 | 15.9 |
| OGI | Uncharted | 12.7 | 14.7 | - |
| PlainsGold | Breck | - | - | 15.5 |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | - | - | 14.1 |
| PlainsGold | Crescent AX | 11.7 | 13.8 | 14.8 |
| PlainsGold | Guardian | - | - | 16.1 |
| PlainsGold | Sunshine | - | - | 16.0 |
| Syngenta | AP EverRock | 13.9 | 14.7 | - |
| Syngenta | AP Roadrunner | 12.4 | 14.3 | 14.6 |
| Syngenta | AP18 AX | - | - | 15.3 |
| Syngenta | Bob Dole | - | - | - |
| | Mean (LSD0.05) | 13.0 | 14.5 | 15.3 |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | El Reno GO | Hooker |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------|--------------|--------------|--------------|
| Syngenta | AP Prolific | - | - | |
| Syngenta | AP Achieve CL2 | - | - | |
| Westbred | WB4401 | 13.5 | 13.6 | 15.1 |
| Westbred | WB4422 | - | - | 16.1 |
| Westbred | WB4523 | - | - | 15.0 |
| Westbred | WB4699 | 12.3 | 14.0 | - |
| Westbred | WB4792 | - | - | 14.6 |
| Experimental | Experimental | Experimental | Experimental | Experimental |
| | OK15DMASbX7 ARS 6-8 | - | - | - |
| | OK15MASbX7 ARS 8-29 | 12.6 | 14.4 | - |
| | OK16103083 | - | - | - |
| | Mean (LSDO.05) | 13.0 1.1 | 14.5 1.3 | 15.3 0.9 |
| Notes: Protein was adjusted to 12% moisture content. Shaded values are not statistically different from the highest value within a column. NS = not significant. Single - dash "-" = data not available. | | | | |
Table 2. Wheat protein concentration relative to the location mean (expressed as a deviation) for varieties and experimental lines in the 2021-2022 Oklahoma Wheat Variety Performance Tests.
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko | |
|------------|------------------|--------|--------------|---------|----|
| AgriMaXX | AM Cartwright | 2.2 | 1.7 | - | 1 |
| AGSECO | AG Golden | - | - | - | - |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | -0.3 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 1 |
| AGSECO | AG Radical | - | - | - | ( |
| Croplan | CP7017AX | -1.8 | -1.6 | - | ( |
| Croplan | CP72166AX | - | - | - | ( |
| KWA | KS Ahearn | - | - | - | - |
| KWA | KS Hamilton | -1.3 | -1.5 | - | ( |
| KWA | KS Western Star | -1.4 | -0.7 | -0.1 | - |
| KWA | KS Providence | - | - | - | ( |
| LCS | LCS Atomic AX | -2.3 | -1.8 | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Fusion AX | - | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Helix AX | - | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Julep | - | 0.9 | - | ( |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko |
|------------|-------------------------------|--------|--------------|---------|
| LCS | LCS Photon AX | 0.2 | 0.2 | - |
| LCS | LCS Runner | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Steel AX | - | - | - |
| LCS | LCS Valiant | 2.5 | - | ( |
| OGI | Baker's Ann | - | - | 0.2 ( |
| OGI | Bentley | - | - | -0.2 - |
| OGI | Big Country | 2.2 | 1.3 | 0.6 ( |
| OGI | Breakthrough | - | - | 0.1 ( |
| OGI | Butler's Gold | 0.3 | 0.6 | - ( |
| OGI | Butler's Gold (late-planted) | - | - | - |
| OGI | Doublestop CL+ | 1.0 | 1.6 | 1.1 ( |
| OGI | Duster | - | - | - |
| OGI | Gallagher | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 ( |
| OGI | Green Hammer | 2.4 | 1.2 | - |
| OGI | Iba | - | - | -0.4 |
| OGI | Lonerider | - | - | 0.0 - |
| OGI | OK Corral | -1.2 | 0.0 | 0.2 ( |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko | |
|------------|----------------|--------|--------------|---------|----|
| OGI | Showdown | -1.1 | -1.8 | 0.0 - | |
| OGI | Skydance | 1.1 | 1.2 | - | ( |
| OGI | Smith's Gold | -0.5 | 0.3 | 0.1 | - |
| OGI | Spirit Rider | - | - | - | - |
| OGI | Strad CL+ | 0.3 | 0.3 | - | ( |
| OGI | Uncharted | - | 0.0 | - | ( |
| PlainsGold | Breck | - | - | - | ( |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | -1.5 | -1.5 | -0.5 | - |
| PlainsGold | Crescent AX | -0.2 | - | -0.4 | - |
| PlainsGold | Guardian | -1.6 | -0.4 | -0.7 | 1 |
| PlainsGold | Sunshine | - | - | - | ( |
| Syngenta | AP EverRock | 0.5 | - | - | - |
| Syngenta | AP Roadrunner | 0.2 | -0.9 | - | - |
| Syngenta | AP18AX | - | -1.2 | - | - |
| Syngenta | Bob Dole | 1.2 | - | 0.6 | ( |
| Syngenta | AP Prolific | - | - | - | - |
| Syngenta | SY Achieve Cl2 | - | - | 0.9 | - |
| Licensee | Variety | Alva | Apache IM | Balko | |
|---------------------|---------------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
| Westbred | WB4401 | 0.8 | -1.1 | - | - |
| Westbred | WB4422 | - | - | - | - |
| Westbred | WB4523 | - | - | - | - |
| Westbred | WB4699 | -1.2 | - | -1.2 | - |
| Westbred | WB4792 | -2.0 | 0.2 | -0.8 | - |
| Experimental s | Experimental s | Experimental s | Experimental s | Experimental s | Experimental s |
| OK15DMASBx7 ARS 6-8 | Ok15MASBx7 ARS 8-29 | - | 0.0 | - | ( |
| OK16103083 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Location Mean | 19.1 | 15.1 | 13.2 | 1 | 1 |
Table 2. Wheat protein concentration relative to the location mean (expressed as a deviation) for varieties and experimental lines in the 2021-2022 Oklahoma Wheat Variety Performance Tests. (cont)
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | Eli Reno GO | Hooker | L |
|---------------|-----------------|--------------|---------------|----------|------|
| | | | | | w |
| | | | | | pi |
| | | | | re | tc |
| | | | | lo | |
| | | | | m | |
| AgriMaXX | AM Cartwright | 2.6 | 0.6 | 0.2 | - ( |
| AGSECO | AG Golden | - | - | -1.0 | -1 |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 0.2 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 1: |
| AGSECO | AG Radical | -0.2 | 0.3 | 0.7 | - ( |
| Croplane | CP7017AX | -1.8 | -0.8 | -0.2 | -1 |
| Croplane | CP72166AX | - | - | 0.1 | - ( |
| KWA | KS Ahearn | -0.1 | -0.1 | -0.5 | - ( |
| KWA | KS Hamilton | - | - | 0.2 | - ( |
| KWA | KS Western Star | - | - | -0.3 | -1 |
| KWA | KS Providence | - | - | 0.3 | 0. |
| LCS | LCS Atomic AX | -1.4 | -1.9 | -0.5 | - (- |
| LCS | LCS Chrome | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 1. |
| LCS | LCS Helix AX | - | - | -0.6 | -1 |
| LCS | LCS Julep | - | - | 0.7 | 0. |
| Location Mean | 13.0 | 14.5 | 15.3 | 1.1 | |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | EI Reno GO | Hooker | L |
|------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------|----------|-----|
| LCS | LCS Photon AX | -0.8 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0. |
| LCS | LCS Runner | - | - | -1.0 | -1 |
| LCS | LCS Steel AX | - | - | -0.7 | -( |
| LCS | LCS Valiant | - | - | 1.0 | 0. |
| OGI | Baker's Ann | - | - | 0.9 | 0. |
| OGI | Bentley | - | - | 0.3 | (- |
| OGI | Big Country | 1.3 | 0.3 | - | 1. |
| OGI | Breakthrough | - | - | 0.0 | - |
| OGI | Butler's Gold | - | - | - | 1. |
| OGI | Butler's Gold (late-planted) | - | - | - | 2. |
| OGI | Doublestop CL+ | 1.0 | 1.2 | - | 1. |
| OGI | Duster | - | - | -0.4 | -( |
| OGI | Gallagher | -8 | -0.2 | 0.1 | 0. |
| OGI | Green Hammer | 1.4 | 2.2 | - | 2. |
| OGI | Iba | - | - | -0.9 | - |
| OGI | Lonerider | - | - | 1.1 | - |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | EI Reno GO | Hooker | L |
|------------|---------------|--------------|--------------|----------|-----|
| OGI | OK Corral | -0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | -( |
| OGI | Showdown | -0.9 | -0.4 | -0.2 | -( |
| OGI | Skydance | - | - | - | 1: |
| OGI | Smith's Gold | 0.4 | -0.5 | 0.4 | -( |
| OGI | Spirit Rider | - | - | - | - |
| OGI | Strad CL+ | 1.2 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 2. |
| OGI | Uncharted | -0.3 | 0.1 | - | 0. |
| PlainsGold | Breck | - | - | -0.1 | (- |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | - | - | -1.3 | (- |
| PlainsGold | Crescent AX | -1.3 | -0.8 | -0.5 | (- |
| PlainsGold | Guardian | - | - | 0.7 | 0. |
| PlainsGold | Sunshine | - | - | 0.7 | 0. |
| Syngenta | AP EverRock | 0.9 | 0.1 | - | 0. |
| Syngenta | AP Roadrunner | -0.6 | -0.3 | -0.8 | (- |
| Syngenta | AP18 X | - | - | 0.0 | (- |
| Syngenta | Bob Dole | - | - | - | 0. |
| Licensee | Variety | El Reno DP | Reno GO | Hooker L |
|------------|-------------------|---------------------|-----------|------------|
| Syngenta | AP Prolific | - | - | -( |
| Syngenta | SY Achieve CL2 | - | - | 0. |
| Westbred | WB4401 | 0.5 | -0.9 | -0.3 |
| Westbred | WB4422 | - | - | 0.7 |
| Westbred | WB4523 | - | - | -0.3 |
| Westbred | WB4699 | -0.7 | -0.6 | -1 |
| Westbred | WB4792 | - | - | -0.8 |
| | Experimental | OK15DMASbX7 ARS 6-8 | - | - |
| | AKMSABx7 ARS 8-29 | -0.4 | -0.2 | - (- |
| | OK16103083 | - | - | - |
| | Location Mean | 13.0 | 14.5 | 15.3 |
Notes: Protein was adjusted to 12% moisture content. Shaded
## Participating Seed Companies
## Company Information
AgriMAXX Wheat Company
Matt Wehmeyer
7167 Highbanks Road
Mascoutah, IL 62258
Phone: (855) 629-9432(tel:8556299432)
Email:
matt@agrimaxwheat.com(mailto:matt@agrimaxwhite
subject=Protein%20Concer
www.agrimaxwheat.com(https://www.agrimaxwhc
Variety: AM Cartwright
## AgriPro
Greg McCormack
8750 NW 66th st.
Silver Lake, KS 66539
Phone: (620) 532-6283(tel:6205326283)
Email:
greg.mccormack@syngenta.com(mailto:greg.mccorm; subject=Protein%20C
www.agriprowheat.com(https://www.agripowheat.co Varieties: AP EverRock, AP Prolific, AP Roadrunner, AP18 .
## AGSECO, Inc.
Steve Ahring
P.O. Box 7
Girard, KS 66743
Phone: (620) 724-6223(tel:6207246223)
Email:
steve@delangeseed.com(mailto:steve@delangeseed.co subject=Protein%20Concentr
www.agseco.com(https://www.agseco.com)
Varieties: AG Icon, AG Golden, AG Radical
## Company Information
CROPLAN by Winfield United (https://www.chswester
500 North 1st street
Vincent, IA 50594
Garrison, ND 58540
Phone:(515)356-4524(tel:5153564524)
Email: claker@landolakes.com(mailto:claker@landolakc
www.croplan.com(https://www.croplan.com)
Varieties: CP7017 AX, CP72166 AX
Kansas Wheat Alliance (KWA) Daryl Strouts1990 Kimba
66502 Phone:(785)320-4080(tel:7853204080) Email
kwa@kansas.net(mailto:kwa@kansas.net?subject=Fac
www.kswheatalliance.org(https://www.kswheatallian
Hamilton, KS Providence, KS Western Star
Print-friendly PDF /factsheets/print- publications/cr/proteinconcentration-of-winter-wheatvarieties-in-oklahoma-2021-2022 cr-2135-a.pdf)
Topics: Crops/(topics/plants-and-animals/crops/)
Grains & Oilseeds/(topics/plants-and-animals/crops/grains-and-oilseeds/)
Wheat (/topics/plants-and-animals/crops/grains-and-oilseeds/wheat/)
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/2022-msu-wheat-variety-suggestions-0 | 2022 MSU Wheat Variety Suggestions | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Erick Larson",
"Dr. Christine E. Coker",
"Dr. Drew Miller Gholson",
"Dr. Rocky Lemus"
] | null | [
"Agriculture",
"Crops",
"Wheat",
"Farming"
] | MS | The website encountered an unexpected error. Please try again later.
PDOException : SQLSTATE[HY000] [2002] No such file or directory in lock\_may\_be\_available() (line 167 of /websites/muscares/content/includes/lock.inc). |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/what-can-be-home-composted | What CAN Be Composted? | NC State Extension | [
"Rhonda Sherman"
] | null | [
"Gardening",
"Composting",
"Compost"
] | NC | ## What CAN Be Composted?
## What CAN Be Composted in a Home Composting Bin?
- · Autumn leaves, twigs, yard trimmings
- · Grass clippings
- · Vegetables and their trimmings
- · Fruit and their peels
- · Coffee grounds and filters
- · Tea leaves and bags
- · Paper napkins
- · Cereal boxes
- · Sawdust from deciduous hardwood trees
- · Bamboo skewers
- · Paper egg cartons
- · Pizza boxes
- · Twigs
- · Paper bags
- · Houseplant leaves
- · Paper rolls (towel, toilet paper, wrapping paper)
- · Cotton balls and swabs
- · Paper plates
- · Straw and hay (no persistent herbicides: https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/herbicide-carryover)
- · Nut shells (no walnut shells--they can be toxic to plants)
- · Stale herbs and spices
- · Wine corks
- · Toothpicks
- · Paper baking cups
- · Hair and fur
- · Dryer lint
- · Vacuum contents & floor sweepings
- · Pencil shavings
- · Newspaper
Backyard composting bin.
Attribution: Rhonda Sherman
## What NOT to Compost at Home
## Author
Rhonda Sherman
Extension Solid Waste Specialist Horticultural Science
Publication date: April 11, 2011
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/sharp-shinned-hawk/ | Sharp-Shinned Hawk | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Deforrest R. Allgood",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Birds",
"Wildlife",
"Forestry"
] | AL | ## Sharp-Shinned Hawk
'This is an excerpt from Common Birds of Prey of Alabama, ANR - 1386.
Averaging less than 7 ounces, the sharp-shinned hawk is one of Alabama's smallest raptors. Most of Alabama falls only within its winter range, but they are found year round and in some northern counties. Sharp-shinned hawks are mostly gray birds with dark ly banded tails and reddish barred breasts. Very few characteristics distinguish this species from the closely related Cooper's hawk. Distinguishing features include a shorter, more squared tail than that of the Cooper's hawk as well as a smaller head and thinner legs. Feeding primarily on smaller songbirds, sharp-shinned sparrows prefer mixed forests and pine forests.
Read here to learn more about common birds of prey of Alabama. (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/bird-watching/common-birds-ofprey-of-alabama/)
Download a PDF of Common Birds of Prey of Alabama.ANR - 1386.( https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR 1386.BBirdsofPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf )
■ Read More
Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php)
## Read More
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birds-of-prey-of-alabama/)
Common Birds of Prey of Alabama ( https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birds- of-prey-of-alabama/)
Sep 20, 2018
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/garden-tabloid | Garden Tabloid | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Alan Henn"
] | null | [
"Publications",
"Gardening",
"Agriculture"
] | MS | Home
» Publications » Publications » Garden Tabloid
## Garden Tabloid
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under:
Herb Gardens, Vegetable Gardens
Publication Number: P1091
P
Looking for MSU Extension's popular Garden Tabloid (P1091)? It has a new look and publication number!
Click here for Publication 3616 Mississippi Vegetable Gardener's Guide .
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
FEBRUARY 21, 2024
Sustainable practices can extend to gardens, lawns
MARCH 10, 2023
Keep America Beautiful awards MSU Extension
JANUARY 4, 2023
Master Gardener volunteers reach 1,000 salad tables built
Related Publications
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: M2064 How to Build a Salad Table
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Microgreen Varieties for the Mississippi Gardener
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Cucurbit Downy Mildew
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4003
Becoming a Certified Organic Grower in Mississippi
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BUG'S EYE VIEW Preharvest Interval PHI, Vol. 10, No. 09
BUG'S EYE VIEW
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BUG'S EYE VIEW
Brown Stink Bug, Vol. 5, No. 11 |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/lincoln-county-retail-profile | Lincoln County Retail Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | ## Lincoln County Retail Profile
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Economic Development
Publication Number: P2943-44
View as PDF: P2943-44.pdf
Publication File:
Lincoln retail profile presentation pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Lincoln County
Print PDF
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
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|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/family-attachment-matters-skills-for-strong-families | Family Attachment Matters: Skills for Strong Families | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Lori Elmore-Staton",
"Audrey Reid",
"Alisha M. Hardman"
] | null | [
"Children and Parenting",
"Family Dynamics"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Family Attachment Matters: Skills for Strong Families
## Family Attachment Matters: Skills for Strong Families
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Children and Parenting, Family Dynamics |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3925 | |
| View as PDF: P3925.pdf | |
| We all strive to form strong families because loving connections are critical for our children's and our own well-being. Having a strong family brings us comfort, safety, joy, and a lifetime of love. Research indicates that strong family bonds can help prevent or reduce the effects of negative mental health issues and behavioral problems in children. Strong family bonds also lead to positive decision-making and ease difficult times in adulthood. To strengthen your family, use these five skills as building blocks: | |
| nurturing parenting · social support · protection and safety · positive conflict management · positive co-parenting | · nurturing parenting · social support · protection and safety · positive conflict management · one of the top skills that predicts positive outcomes for children is warm, responsive, and nurturing parenting. You are likely already practicing nurturing parenting in some ways. Here are some examples of ways to express warmth to your children. |
| Being responsive to your child's basic needs (e.g., picking up and comforting a crying baby; helping a young child make a snack). | establishes and strengthens trust between you and your child. |
| Responding calmly when your child brings bad news to you or misbehaves… | reinforces your unconditional love for your child and increases the likelihood that they will come to you if something more serious happens. |
| Spending one-on-one time with each child… | gives you the opportunity to nurture your individual relationship with your child. |
| What does that look like? | How does this help families? |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Consistently showing up for your child's activities when you are able and knowing their friends… | demonstrates to your child that their interests and relationships are important to you. |
Social support is important for your child, and it's also important for you as a parent. Having people in your family or community who you and your child can rely on is critical for the health and wellbeing of your family.
| What does that look like? | How does this help families? |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Having a friend or family member you trust to look after your child when you need a break… | provides you time to recharge and better show up for your family. |
| Relying on friends or family members for advice and comfort… | allows you the support you need to work through the good times and the hard times. |
| Accessing community resources when needed… | offers you additional help when something unexpected or difficult happens. |
| Your child being involved in sports, clubs, or religious activities… | gives your child positive and trusting relationships with other children and adults. |
## Protection and Safety
Protection and safety may sound straightforward, but some aspects of this skill are not so obvious. Creating safety for your child includes both physically safe environments and emotionally safe relationships. See below for some examples of protection and safety you can implement with your child.
| What does that look like? | How does this help families? |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ensuring that your child is not only physically safe, but feels safe to be themselves, talk openly with you about their worries, etc… | builds trust and encourages your child to talk openly with you. |
| What does that look like? | How does this help families? |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Knowing your child's friends and adults they are frequently around… | establishes a network of security around your child and allows you to catch early signs of danger. |
| Maintaining a reliable schedule with family-centered routines such as regular mealtime together at the table… | creates a predictable daily routine and consistent, reliable contact between all family members. |
| Establishing family rules together as a family and working together to enforce those rules… | gives everyone a voice in the family's expectations, leading to higher cooperation with the rules. |
| What does that look like? | How does this help families? |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Coming together as a family to discuss and overcome challenges… | provides everyone an opportunity to express their feelings and come up with a compromise or solution everyone agrees with. |
| Talking through concerns with your partner as they come up… | prevents frustrations from building and causing larger arguments. |
| Reminding children to talk kindly to one another during disagreements… | focuses on how they feel rather than actions of others and can break up major fights. |
| Modeling calm conflict management with your partner or other family members in front of your children… | gives children positive tools for managing their own conflicts and keeps the brain and body in a healthy state of regulation. |
## Positive Co-parenting
Positive co-parenting is important for parents who live in the same household and are partners, and for those who live in different households and are not partners.
| What does that look like? | How does this help families? |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Providing consistent rules and guidance to your child… | eliminates confusion about family rules. |
| Speaking kindly about your child's other parent in front of your child… | shows your child that you have a positive and cooperative relationship with your co-parent. |
| Ensuring that both you and your co-parent have a strong bond with your child… | instills feelings of security for your child in both of their parental relationships. |
| Discussing plans to overcome any parenting challenges with your co-parent… | ensures that your child receives consistent and appropriate support from both parents. |
| References | |
| Sanchez-Prieto, Orte, Ballester, and Amer (2020). Can better parenting be achieved through short prevention programs? The challenge of universal prevention through Strengthening Families Program 11- 14. Child and Family Social Work, 25(3). | Can better parenting be achieved through short prevention programs? The challenge of universal prevention through Strengthening Families Program 11- |
| Vanderbilt-Adariance, Shaw, Brennan, Dishion, Gardner, and Wilson (2015). Child, Family, and Community Protective Factors in the Development of Children's Early Conduct Problems. Family Relations Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Science, 64(1). | Children's Early Conduct Problems. Family Relations |
| Burgos, Al-Adeimi, and Brown (2017). Protective Factors of Family Life for Immigrant Youth. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 34. | Ridings, Beasley, and Silovsky (2017). Consideration of Risk and Protective Factors for Families at Risk for Child Maltreatment: An Intervention Approach. Journal of Family Violence, 32. |
Sanchez-Prieto, Orte, Ballester, and Amer (2020). Can better parenting be achieved through short prevention programs? The challenge of universal prevention through Strengthening Families Program 1114. Child and Family Social Work, 25(3).
Vanderbilt-Adiance, Shaw, Brennan, Dishion, Gardner, and Wilson (2015). Child, Family, and Community Protective Factors in the Development of Children's Early Conduct Problems. Family Relations Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Science, 64(1).
Burgos, Al-Adeimi, and Brown (2017). Protective Factors of Family Life for Immigrant Youth. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 34.
Ridings, Beasley, and Silovsky (2017). Consideration of Risk and Protective Factors for Families at Risk for Child Maltreatment: An Intervention Approach. Journal of Family Violence, 32.
McCoy, George, Cummings, and Davies (2013). Constructive and Destructive Marital Conflict, Parenting, and Children's School and Social Adjustment. Social Development, 22(4).
Teubert and Pinquart (2010). The Association Between Coparenting and Child Adjustment: A MetaAnalysis. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10.
## Publication 3925 (POD-09-23)
Distributed by Lori Elmore-Station, PhD, Associate Professor, Human Sciences. Written by Audrey Reid, former Extension Associate, and Alisha M. Hardman , PhD, CFLE, former Assistant Professor and Extension Family Life Specialist.
For more information about this and other relevant parenting topics, go
to tipps.extension.msstate.edu.
Department: Human Sciences-Early Childhood
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY | SELECT A COUNTY |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| Authors | Dr. Lori Dean Elmore-Staton Associate Professor |
| Your Extension Experts Ms. Jamila B Taylor Executive Director Related News FEBRUARY 17, 2025 Taylor to lead MSU Extension early childhood programs JANUARY 31, 2025 MSU Extension program helps transform in-home childcare DECEMBER 18, 2024 Conference aids responses to trauma-exposed youth, families SEPTEMBER 16, 2024 New Gluckstadt center open to parents, child care providers | |
| SEPTEMBER 11, 2024 Training familiarizes early childhood teachers with SmartJr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... next > last > Related Publications PUBLICATION NUMBER: M0915 Halloween Safety Tips | |
Did You Know You Can Make Your Own Baby Food?
```
PUBLICATION NUMBER: IS1697
Children Need Help Coping with Disaster
```
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3599
When You Are Away from Your Child
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/highlandsco/2022/09/27/baby-its-cold-outside/ | Baby it’s cold outside! | University of Florida | [
"David Austin"
] | 2022-09-27 | [
"Agriculture",
"Crops",
"Disaster Preparation",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Uncategorized",
"classes",
"gardening",
"Highlands County",
"Highlands Horticulture Digest",
"Hometown Gardener",
"Master Gardener volunteers"
] | FL | ## Baby it's cold outside!
Florida has been through a period of warm winters. When I say warm I mean Central Florida has not seen many hard freezes in the last 11 years. During these warm periods, homeowners forget those tortuous cold nights on their tropical plants. For a few years, homeowners fret and purchase more cold-hardly plants. After a few warm winters, they forget and the cycle repeats itself.
## Planning for Success
Last year we had a cold spell in February. It was just enough for a few eyebrows to be raised, but sometimes, gardeners can have short-term memories. The lure of lush tropical landscapes with exotic flowers is just too strong for some. Those that love that tropical look, with a little work and planning, they can have their cake and eat it too. They will need to learn some tricks to protect those plants and also have a basic understanding of how cold affects plants.
## Did you say microclimate?
Central Florida has quite a varying climate. Although knowing which USDA plant zone you live in is helpful for generalities, it becomes vague when you are considering cold-hardiness. Microclimates can change the game and knowing how to locate them is even more important. Microclimates are areas small areas of varying climates. They can cover square miles or only square feet. Large areas often depend on topography such as elevation, slopes, and geographical locations. Small areas can be geographical features or manmade things. In Florida, a large warm microclimate may be on the southern and eastern sides of a body of water, at a higher elevation, or on a southern slope. a small microclimate may be on the southern side of a house or under the canopy of a tree.
## Covering your Plants
There are lots of considerations when deciding how to protect your plants. Covering them to trap heat can be very effective. Frost cloth has become popular and can replace your grandma's sheets,
although sheets and blankets can still be useful in a pinch. To learn the best tricks for keeping your plants you will want to come to our
Cold protection workshop. We will also be selling frost cloth there so don't miss the opportunity to get ready for winter.
## Learn from UF/IFAS
Learning where to place plants within your yard and neighborhood can be the difference between success and failure. How you treat those plants and tricks to protecting them is something that takes a little know-how. On December 10th we are offering a free coldprotection class at the Bert J Harris Agricultural Center at 4509 George Blvd in Sebring. Register by clicking HERE! or call the UF/IFAS Extension office at (863) 402-6540 for more information.
## Keep in Touch with UF/IFAS Extension, Highlands County
That's what's new from the Hometown Gardener. Like and Follow me on Facebook at Hometown Gardener.
Read my other blogs by clicking here.
Sign up for our Highlands County Master Gardener Volunteer, "Putting Down Root" Newsletter Here.
Join our Facebook groups Highlands County Master Gardeners, Central Florida Butterfly and Pollinator Club, Science-Based Florida Gardening Answers, and Heartland Beekeepers
o
by David Austin
Posted: September 27, 2022
Category: Agriculture, Crops, Disaster Preparation, Fruits &
Vegetables, Home Landscapes, Horticulture, UE/IFAS Extension,
UF/IJEAS Teaching,
Tags: Agriculture, Classes, Gardening, Highlands County, Highlands
Horticulture Digest, Hometown Gardener, Master Gardener
Volunteers, UF/IFAS Extension
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Bird Watching Series: Woodpeckers
- · Florida-Friendly Landscape™ Is What Your Yard Needs
- · Homemade Hand Sanitizer And Wipes
- · Feeding After The Frost |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/orangeco/2021/06/11/low-maintenance-florida-friendly-alternatives-to-turfgrass-lawns/ | Low Maintenance Florida-Friendly Alternatives to Turfgrass Lawns | University of Florida | [
"Tia Silvasy"
] | 2021-06-11 | [
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"Lawn",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"butterfly",
"fertilizer",
"Florida native",
"garden",
"gardening",
"horticulture",
"landscape",
"lawn alternative",
"ocextension",
"Orange County",
"Perennial Peanut",
"tsilvasy",
"Turf",
"Twinflower",
"UFIFASExtension",
"water conservation",
"Wildflower",
"wildflower lawn"
] | FL | ## Low Maintenance Florida Friendly Alternatives to Turfgrass Lawns
Lawns planted with turfgrass can require a lot of maintenance. Bahia grass is a drought-tolerant turfgrass with minimal pest and disease problems and a low nitrogen requirement. St. Augustinegrass has a high demand for water and fertilizer and is affected with chinch bugs and fungal diseases. Many homeowners are looking for a lower maintenance alternative to turfgrass. There is a large variety of native and Florida-Friendly plants that can be used that have numerous environmental benefits such as water conservation, providing nitrogen, and food for wildlife. Here are some options for alternative lawns for Florida:
## Perennial Peanut
Scientific name: Arachis glabrata
Cultivars: ' Ecoturf ', ' Arblick ', ' Florigraze '
Plant Status: not native
Mowable: yes
Flowers: yes, yellow
edible pea flowers
Butterfly host plant: no
Notes: may reduce
growth, freeze back, or
go dormant in the winter. This plant fixes nitrogen and requires little fertilizer.
Read more about establishing, perennial peanut in this EDIS publication or watch this YouTube video.
Scientific name: Mimosa strigillosa Plant Status: native
Mowable: yes
flowers: yes, pink
powderpuff flowers
Butterfly host plant: yes
Notes: may reduce growth
and go dormant in the
winter. Be careful it spreads
and may need a barrier.
Good for easements and
also a nitrogen fixer.
Read more about mimosa on Gardening Solutions.
Frogfruit , also known as
Fogfruit
Scientific name: Phyla
nodiflora
Plant Status: native
Mowable: yes
Flowers: yes, small purple
and white flowers
Butterfly host plant: yes,
Frogfruit growing as an alternative lawn.
for the phaon crescent,
Photo: Tia Silvasy, UF/IFAS
buckeye, and white
peacock
Notes: may go dormant in the winter, cannot withstand heavy foot
traffic. This plant is both drought and flood tolerant.
Read more about frogfruit from the Florida Wildflower Foundation.
## Basketgrass
Scientific name:
Opilismenus setarius
Plant Status: native
Mowable: yes
Flowers: yes, but
inconspicuous
Butterfly host plant: yes, for Carolina satyr butterfly Notes: can withstand foot traffic, grows in deep shade, goes completely dormant in the winter
Read more about basketgrass on the Florida Native Plant Society's plant profile or our UF blogg.
## Asiatic Jasmine
Scientific name:
Trachelospermum
asiaticum
A Asiatic jasmine is a great groundcover to fill the space instead of a lawn. Photo: Tia Silvasy, UF/IFAS
Cultivars: 'Bronze Beauty',
'Goshiki', 'Long Leaf',
'Snow and Summer', 'Summer Sunset', 'Variegatum'
Plant Status: not native
Mowable: no, looks best when trimmed
Flowers: yes, but often trimmed before flowering
Butterfly host plant: no
Notes: does well in shade, requires frequent pruning, not meant to
be walked on.
Learn more about Asiatic Jasmine on our Gardening Solutions webpage.
## Twinflower
Scientific name:
Dyschoriste oblongifolia
Twinflower growing as an alternative to a turfgrass lawn. Photo: Dena Wild
Plant Status: native
Mowable: no, or mow at
the highest height
Flowers: yes, purple flowers
Butterfly host plant: yes, for Buckeye butterfly
Notes: a low growing evergreen wildflower that serves as a groundcover. Buy plants from native plant nurseries.
Learn more about twinflower from the Florida Wildflower
Foundation.
There are many other species of groundcovers and low growing plants that can be used in an alternative lawn that are mowable.
Some native species include oakleaf fleabane, elephant's foot, lyre-leaved sage, white clover, and spiderwort . Try a small patch and see what works in your yard. They require special management; let it grow in the winter and wait until after flowering and seeding to mow. Mixed together, they can be a beautiful display of wildflowers that is green, covers the soil, and attracts pollinators!
Want to learn more? Check out horticulture classes offered by UF/IFAS Extension Orange County on Eventbrite. Read about Florida-Friendly Landscaping™. Follow us on Facebook, Instagram and visit our website https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/orange/home-lawnslandscapes-and-gardens/florida-friendly-landscaping/.
## 11
by Tia Silvasy
Posted: June 11, 2021
Category: Florida-Friendly Landscaping, HOME LANDSCAPES, Horticulture, Lawn, Natural Resources, UF/IFAS Extension Tags: Butterfly, Fertilizer, Florida Native, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Garden, Gardening, Horticulture, Landscape, Lawn, Lawn Alternative, Ocetextension, Orange County, Perennial Peanut, Tsilvasy, Turf, Twinflower, Uffasextension, Water Conservation, Wildflower, Wildflower Lawn
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Are Rock Yards Florida-Friendly?
- 2024 Spring Ranchers Forum
- Flushable Or Not
- Landscape University--VIRTUAL--2023 |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2023/05/10/animal-moms/ | Cheers to moms, including the wild ones | University of Florida | [
"Lourdes Mederos"
] | 2023-05-10 | [
"Conservation",
"SFYL Hot Topic",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"Wildlife",
"alligators",
"babies",
"Bats",
"bluebirds",
"burrowing owls",
"Corey Callaghan",
"Croc Docs",
"Eastern bluebird",
"ecology",
"Florida bats",
"Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center",
"Frank Mazzotti",
"Kathryn Sieving",
"Katie Sieving",
"Ken Gioeli",
"Maia McGuire",
"Manatees",
"Mother's Day",
"News",
"songbirds",
"termites",
"Thomas Chouvenc",
"UF-IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Fort Lauderdale Research Education Center",
"wildlife babies",
"Wildlife Ecology and Conservation",
"wildlife young"
] | FL | ## Cheers to moms, including the wild ones
No two moms' parenting methods are alike, and the same can be said about motherhood in the animal kingdom.
To share some fun facts about animal moms frequently spotted in Florida, we went to University of Florida experts.
## Burrowing owls are dedicated mothers
As we celebrate Mother's Day, the hardworking burrowing owl mothers deserve recognition, said Corey Callaghan, a UF/IFAS assistant professor of global ecology at Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center.
"These fascinating birds exhibit dedicated parental care, with females solely responsible for incubation, while males provide food," he said. "Interestingly, one burrowing owls find an area they like to nest in, they use it year after year, with 50 percent of females returning to within 200 meters of their previous nest burrow."
One of the distinctive maternal traits of burrowing owl mothers is that they also play an essential role in hunting for their young once they reach about two weeks old, Callaghan said.
'As a species that exhibits parental care, burrowing owls provide an excellent example of how animals can teach us the value of dedication and nurturing their young ones,' he said.
Mama bluebird wants peace and quiet
Like the burrowing owl, Eastern bluebird nestlings wait for a bite most female songbirds are primarily responsible for this stage, but Mom had the hard job of incubating the eggs until they hatched. true of the Eastern (credit: Hance Ellington, UF/IFAS) bluebird, a species Kathryn Sieving has been studying.
The male bluebird will sometimes feed the incubating female, so she won't need a break. Later, the males work hard to help feed the nestlings after they hatch. But keeping the eggs warm requires a calm and well-fed mom bluebird.
"While incubating, female bluebirds must contend with urban noises, disturbances and buzzing mosquitoes at their nest boxes," said Sieving, a UF/IFAS wildlife ecologist who specializes in avian behavior. "Altogether, this can cause her to fidget so much her eggs get cold and don't hatch."
Hatching success is affected by both steady hums and intermittent noises - think ordinary traffic and a loud truck rolling past. Combine those disturbances with buzzing mosquitoes, and hatching success is at its lowest, Sieving said.
'It's a lesson for the kids and dads out there: Protect mom's rest so she can do better for the family,' Sieving said about the birds - and as a playful nod to humans, too.' No bugs, no noise, and if Dad can feed her and the kids often, this can extend her rest periods and, therefore, the kids' wellbeing.'
## Alligators: Don't let the tough exterior fool you
Despite being large powerful predators, alligators are extremely protective mothers, said Frank Mazzotti, a professor of wildlife ecology at the UE/IFEAS Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center.
"Maternal care starts before eggs are laid and continues beyond when eggs hatch. Females equip with food in the form of yolk sacs that give newly hatched babies a head start," he said.
When it comes to maternal instincts, there is more to this fierce female than her extreme strength.
"Alligators, which have a bite force of 2,000 pounds per square inch, can gently roll an egg between their tongue and roof of their mouth, helping to crack the egg and release the hatchling," Mazzotti said of a sometimes-necessary process. "Many times, hatchling alligators are scooped up by mom in her mouth and carried to a nearby pond or other nursery habitat."
Baby alligators can stay with mom for up to 18 months. Throughout that time, mom will respond to the baby's distress calls.
Motherhood through the eyes of a Florida biologist is simply astonishing, said Ken Gioeli , a natural resources and environment agent at UF/IFAS Extension St. Lucie County.
"Just look at our nocturnal mothers, they have a 'wild life' at night. Mama bats, for example, give birth to pups upside down," he said.
'The pup will cling to the mother's fur and move into position to begin suckling. This bonding time is important during maternity season, which runs from April through August in Florida.'
Eventually, the mama bat flies off to find insects for her own nourishment, Gioeli said. "When she returns, she must find her pup to enable it to nurse again. Pups would literally starve to death if separated from their mothers, because they are completely dependent on mom's milk for the first few months of their lives."
This is why it is critically important that mother bats not separate from their pups during maternity season. Gioeli stresses that using exclusion devices when bats are living in buildings can be deadly for the species.
## Termite queens' reign promotes smart growth
A termite queen can lay thousands of eggs per day, once the colony is established. (Credit: Thomas Chouvenc, UF/IFAS)
In the termite world, initial parental love is mandatory to produce a successful colony, said Thomas Chouvenc, an assistant professor of urban
entomology at the UF/IFAS Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center.
The termite queen makes parenting a family affair, sharing all parenting responsibilities of child rearing with the king.
'During the early colony growth, the queen and the king provide care and dedication to their first few eggs, so that they can develop successfully into workers,' Chouvenc said.
Once workers are produced, the queen and king focus completely on reproduction. Once the colony is established, the queen can lay thousands of eggs per day, making a termite queen one of most productive mothers in the animal kingdom.
'To make matters more interesting, termite queens and kings are the most dedicated parents at first sight, until they become fully dependent on their own offspring,' he said. "Without the initial
investment of parental care from the mother and the father, colony would fail to establish."
## Manatee moms, with baby in tow
When it comes to sea creatures, manatee moms are some of the most attentive around, said Maia McGuire, UF/IFAS Extension associate director for Florida Sea Grant.
"Manatees are very social creatures, and babies spend two years with their moms nursing and learning the ropes," she said. But those learned behaviors can be for better or for worse.
'It's been documented that manatees return to the same place year after year,' McGuire said. "They may frequent an area where entanglement in things like crab traps is more of a risk, or there could be a shift in food abundance or the warm water source.'
It's especially important that humans let manatee mothers do the training, though.
"Don't offer manatees food or water," McGuire said. "This trains them to approach docks, which could make them vulnerable to being hit by a boat. We also don't want people touching or getting between a mama manatee and her calf - that tail is powerful."
5
by Lourdes Mederos and Kirsten Romaguera Rabin Posted: May 10, 2023
Category: Conservation, SFYL Hot Topic, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research, Wildlife
Tags: Alligators, Babies, Bats, Bluebirds, Burrowing Owls, Corey Callaghan, CROC Docs, Eastern Bluebird, Ecology, Florida Bats, Fort Lauderdale Research And Education Center, Frank Mazzotti,
Kathryn Sieving, Katie Sieving, Ken Gioeli, Maia McGuire, Manatees, Mother's Day, News, Songbirds, Termites, Thomas Chouvenc, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Fort Lauderdale Research Education Center, Wildlife Babies, Wildlife Ecology And Conservation, Wildlife Young
Come across this giant whip scorpion in your area? UF/IFAS expert explains what to expect
Estudio de UF/IFAS: Etiquetas nutricionales para una alimentación saludable podrían afectar su comp...
Aliftetime passion for livestock attracts new agent to UF/IFAS Extension Highlands County |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/okeechobeeco/2021/08/30/downstream-of-covid-19/ | Downstream of COVID-19 | University of Florida | [
"Lisa Krimsky"
] | 2021-08-30 | [
"Change Category",
"Coasts & Marine",
"Conservation",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Water",
"Covid-19",
"Florida Sea Grant",
"IFASwater",
"UF IFAS Water Agents",
"water quality"
] | FL | ## Downstream of COVID-19
As a UF/IFAS extension agent I, like all my extension colleagues, receive a lot of resources about the state of the current COVID-19 pandemic. However, as someone who specializes in water resources, I couldn't envision how COVID-19 would impact those areas where I spend most of my working hours - water quality and harmful algal blooms. Recent news headlines over the last few weeks have led me to re-evaluate my original perception. This blog highlights the unusual ways in which the pandemic and water resources intersect, both good and bad.
## Wastewater surveillance
For more than a year, scientists and wastewater utility managers have recognized the opportunity to use wastewater as a way conduct cost-effective epidemiological surveillance of the COVID-19 virus. The virus and its RNA remain stable throughout the long wastewater process from toilet, to sewer, to treatment, and can be detected in wastewater before symptoms even arise in the person. This surveillance can detect trends in COVID infections and provide municipalities the ability to anticipate COVID loads 5-10 days in advance. It's important to note that just because viral RNA is detectable, the virus is not infectious, and wastewater is not a likely transmission route.
## Drinking water supply
In Florida, the delta variant has led to a spike in the number of COVID cases and a heightened need for oxygen in area hospitals. Liquid oxygen, used to treat patients, is also used for the treatment of potable water, wastewater, and reclaimed water. During the water purification process, liquid oxygen is converted to ozone and used to disinfect the water and to breakdown hydrogen sulfide. For some of Florida's water treatment plants, the increased demand for oxygen to treat COVID patients has led to a shortage. This shortage is directly impacting the potable water supply. In the Orlando area, the Orlando Utilities Commission (OUC), urged residents to conserve water, including cutting back on their landscape irrigation, to ensure an adequate drinking water supply. Nearly two-weeks after the
request, residents have failed to make sufficient conservation efforts and OUC may be forced to issue a boil water notice. OUC is not unique. In Hillsborough County, Tampa Bay Water has also seen a reduction in their liquid oxygen supply. In addition to asking residents to use less water, they have responded by temporarily treating their water with sodium hypochlorite instead of liquid oxygen. They are also adjusting the mix of sourced water - groundwater, river water, and desalinated water. This is a trend that is likely to continue throughout the state as cases continue to rise.
## Harmful algal blooms
The increased demand for oxygen has also impacted the supply chain transportation structure and the turnaround time for harmful algal bloom toxin analysis. The state of Florida has a robust harmful algal bloom (HAB) monitoring program which includes routine and response monitoring. Water samples are collected and analyzed for algae species, toxin type, and concentration. The Florida Department of Health issues public health warnings based on this data. Nitrogen gas is required for the accurate processing of HAB toxin samples in the laboratory. However, the trucks that are normally used to transport nitrogen are being used to transport oxygen for the treatment of infected patients instead. This has impacted the normal supply chain. Nitrogen deliveries are delayed and thus, so is sample processing time. This can directly impact the timeliness of public health notifications. Residents are urged to use the precautionary principle - if water looks discolored of scummy assume there are toxins in it. Do not drink or recreate in it, this includes pets and other animals.
These "downstream" impacts of the pandemic highlight how linked our public health system is and underscores the idea that all health is One Health.
## References:
Larsen, D.A., Wigginton, K.R. Tracking COVID-19 with wastewater. Nat Biotechnol 38 , 1151-1153 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-020-0690-1
Jones, D. (2021, August 25). Couple weeks' supply of liquid oxyg en to treat your home's water left. WFTV9.
https://www.wftv.com/news/local/orange-county/couple-weekssupply-liquid-oxygen-treat-your-homes-waterleft/7W4ZB5OQDBAYXKRFUK7GF2NPM/
Gannon, M. (2021, August 26). Tampa Bay Water changes water treatment process due to liquid oxygen shortage . News Channel 8. https://www.wfla.com/news/hillsborough-county/tampa-baywater-changes-water-treatment-process-due-to-liquid-oxygen shortages/.
Harada, K., Kondo, F. & Lawton, L. (1999). Chapter 13: Laboratory analysis of cyanotoxins. In: Toxic cyanobacteria in water: A guide to their public health consequences , monitoring and management . World Health Organization.
## o
by Lisa Krimsky
Posted: August 30, 2021
, Coasts & Marine, Conservation, NATURAL RESOURCES, UE/IFAS Extension, Water Tags: #IFASWater, COVID-19, Florida Sea Grant, UF IFAS Water Agents, Water Quality
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · 2023 Water Ambassador Webinar Series
- · Hooked On Conservation A Fun And Educational Fish Camp Experience
- · Cowboys And Calves: Educating Florida's Students On Cattle's Impact On Environment, Economy, And Nut…
- · Helping Buyers And Sellers Connect During COVID-19 Disruptions To Florida Food Markets |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/epp-entomology-and-plant-pathologhy/anthracnose-and-other-common-leaf-diseases-of-deciduous-shade-trees-epp-7634.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20150108091016-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Jennifer Olson
Plant Disease Diagnostician
Home gardeners are justifiably concerned when foliage of their yard trees become diseased, especially when these diseases cause defoliation, twig and limb death, and perhaps death of a tree that has been defoliated several years in a row. Concerned home gardeners need information on how to prevent or otherwise control leaf diseases. This fact sheet was produced to describe the symptoms and control of leaf diseases of deciduous hardwood trees commonly planted in yards. Leaf spot and blight diseases of coniferous trees (junipers, pines, etc.) are covered in several other factsheets including EPP-7330 "Diphodia Tip Blight and Canker of Pine" and EPP-7331 "Dothisma Needle Blight of Pine." Powdery mildew diseases of shade trees are covered in Extension Fact Sheet EPP-7617,"Powdery Mildews of Ornamentals and Fruit, Shade, and Nut Trees." Though the pecan tree is sometimes used as a shade tree, its leaf diseases are not covered here; pecan leaf disease control is discussed in Extension Fact Sheet EPP-7642," Pecan Diseases: Prevention and Control." Diseases of fruit trees are covered by several Extension Fact Sheets and Current Reports.
## Leaf Disease Types
Leaf diseases of deciduous hardwood trees are grouped into six categories, to simplify their identification, as follows". (See Figure 1a-for a pictorial representation of the symptoms.) Anthracnose--Irregular dead areas on leaf margins, between and across and/or along veins, often moving onto the shoots and small twigs; sometimes whole leaves are engulfed.
Leaf spot--Dead spot on the leaf that is well defined from healthy tissue.
Leaf blotch--Dead area on the leaf that often diffuses into healthy tissues.
Shot-hole--Loss of dead areas inside of spots that result in a series of holes in the leaf.
Leaf blister--Least spot or blotch that is swollen or raised, so the area appears blister-like on the upper surface of the leaf.
Powdery mildew--Superficial growth of white to gray-white fungus material on leaves and shoots.
## Anthracnose and Other Common Leaf Diseases of Deciduous Shade Trees
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at: http://osufacts.okstate.edu
## Common Leaf Diseases of Deciduous Trees 2
## Anthracnose and Leaf Blotch
Ash, green, and red ( Fraxinus spp.)--The common leaf spot and scorch on ash leaves is caused by the anthracnose fungus , Glioseopriorum aridium . Large areas of infectedleaves, especially along the edges, turn brown (Figure 2). Premature leaf drop may occur.
Birch ( Betula spp.)--Anthracnose of birch leaves is caused by Gloeosporium betularum . This fungus causes brown spots with dark brown to black margins.
Maple ( Acerspp.)--Anthracnose,causedbythe fungus Glioseoporium apocrypum , can be serious on sugarand silver mapples and boxelder, during rainy seasons. Indefinite light brown spots appear early; they may enlarge and run together causing blotch or death of infected leaves (Figure 3). Partially killed leaves appear scorched. The sycamore anthracnose fungus, Apigonomia venerata , also infects maple leaves.
Oak ( Quercus spp.)--Anthracnose, causedby the fungi, Apignomonia errabunda or Discuba quercina , is a common disease of oaks. Rainy weather favors infection and defoliation may result. Infected areas frequently run together and cause the appearance of a leaf blotch or blight. The dead areas follow smaller veins and are bound by larger veins.
Sweetgut ( Liquidambar spp.)--Anthracnose of sweetgut leaves is caused by the fungus Glioseoporium nervisquemulg (syn. Discula nervisquequal ). Infection by this fungus causes black areas on the leaves.
Sycamore and London plane tree ( Platanus spp.)--Anthracnose of sycamore and London plane tree is caused by the fungus, Apigonomia venetana (syn. Gonmonia platani ).
The London plane tree is more resistant to anthracnose infection than are sycamore trees. Anthracnose is the most serious disease of sycamore. The first symptoms appear in early spring as the leaves begin to unfurl from the leaf buds, and at this stage the disease may be mistaken for frost damage. Infected leaves that do not drop will develop light brown dead areas, usually along the veins. The spots may enlarge to cover entire leaves and cause premature defoliation.
Walnuts and butternut ( Juglans spp.) -Anthracnose, sometimes called brown leaf spot, is caused by the fungus Gnomonia leptostyla(syn. Marssoniajuglandis). Anthracnose is a common disease of these trees. Leaflets are infected during the summer and irregular brown spots develop. Defoliation may result.
## Leaf Spot Diseases
Ash, green, and red ( Fraxinus spp.) -Several leaf spot diseases occur on ash, but these are considered to be minor. The most common leaf spot disease is caused by Phyllosticta fractinicola . This fungus causes large, yellowish brown lesions
with small black spots developing on the lower side of infected leaves. Cylindrosporium fraxini (syn. Pseudocercosporella fraxini ) has also been reported in Oklahoma.
Basswood, linden ( Tilia americana ) -A leaf blight, caused by the fungus Cercospora microsora ( syn. Passalora microsora ), causes circular brown spots with dark borders. When the spots are numerous, the entire leaf may turn brown and fall off the tree.
Catalpa ( Catalpa spp.) -Brown leaf spots are caused by three species of fungi ( Alternaria catalpae , Cercoscpora catalpae , and Phyllosticta catalpae ).
Cottonwood, Lombardy poplar, white poplar ( Populus spp.)-Leaf spots on Populus trees are caused by a variety of fungi of which Marsonia spp. are the most common. It causes brown spots and premature defoliation. Septoria spp. have also been found.
Elm ( Ulmus spp) -There are many fungi that cause leaf spots of elm. The most common one is black spot (caused by Gnomonia ulmea , syn. Stegophora ilma ). The first symptoms of black spot appear early in the spring as small white or yellow flecks on the upper leaf surface. The flecks enlarge and their centers turn black (Figure 4). If infections are heavy, leaves may drop prematurely. Usually, the disease becomes prevalent in the fall about the time of normal leaf drop and little damage to the tree occurs. Another common leaf spot is anthracnose caused by Gloesporium ultimum . Infections by this fungus result in reddish brown spots.
leaf spots on dogwood. Two species are found in Oklahoma. Septoria cornicola causes brown angular lesions, and the dogwood spot anthracnose fungus, Elsinoe corni , causes small, reddish spots. Another serious disease of dogwood is Discula anthracnose (Discula destructiva ), which has not been identified in Oklahoma.
Hackberry ( Celtis spp.)-Many fungi cause leaf spots on leaves of hackberry during rainy seasons. These leaf spots are seldom serious enough to require a fungicide application.
## Hockey ( Hockingstr. )-Many fungi cause leaf spots on leaves of hackberry during rainy seasons.
Honey locust ( Gleditis spp.)-A leaf spot of honey locust is caused by Melasmia spp. or Linospora gleditischae. Numerous black fruiting bodies of the fungus form on the lower side of the leaves.
Kentucky coffretee ( Gymnocladus violica )-Several fungi cause leaf spots on leaves of the Kentucky coffretee, but special control measures are rarely required.
Magnolia ( Magnolia sp.)-Fifteen species of fungi cause leaf spots on leaves of magnolia trees. Septoria magnolia is found most commonly in Oklahoma. It causes brown lesions. Leaf spots of magnolia are seldom serious.
Maple ( Acer spp.)-Many fungi cause leaf spots on maple. One common species is Phytolictista minima which is characterized by large irregular spots with brownish centers and purple-brown margins. Black fruiting structures develop in the center of the spots. The disease is most severe on red, sugar, and silver maples.
The tar spot fungus, Rhythisma acerunum , seldom infects street trees, but red maples in forests are frequently infected. Mulberry ( Morus spp.)-Leaves of mulberry trees are spotted by two fungi, Cercospora morciola and Cercosporella mori , which cause reddish-brown spots. These diseases are most severe during rainy weather.
A blight of mulberry leaves is caused by a bacterium, Pseudomonas syringae pv. mori , which at first appears as water-soaked spots. The spots later become sunken and black. The leaves become distorted, and infected leaves on the twig tips wilt and die.
Oak ( Quercus spp.)-Leaf spots on oak leaves are caused by many fungal species. In Oklahoma, the most common one is caused by actinophyllaceae dryn (Syta. Kubaka
Credit is extended to Sharon von Broembsen, retired Extension Entomologist, for original content of this publication.
Okahoma State University, in compliance with Title VII and Vll and of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in any of its policies, practices, or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Director of Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at cost of $15 per copy. Revised 0115 GH
dryina) ( Figure 5). Actinopelete leaf spot is common on pin oak and on oak trees planted in soils with pH greater than 7.0. Leaf spot diseases rarely cause much damage, as they become numerous only late in the season.
Redbud ( Cercis spp.)-Redbud has two fungal leaf spot diseases in Oklahoma caused by Cercospora spp. (syn. Passalora spp.) (Figure 6)
Sweetgamut ( Liquidambar sp.)-A leaf spot disease caused by the fungus Cercospora liquidambaris (syn. Pseudoceroscorpa liquidambarcila) occurs in the southeasternemp states and Texas and may eventually occur in Oklahoma.
Sycamore and London plane tree ( Platanus spp.) Brown and angular leaf spots caused by Septoria platanifolia and Cercospo raplanetica occur on sv camore leaves.
Walnuts and butternut ( Juglans spp.)-Brown leaf spot, caused by the fungus Gnomonia leptostyla ( syn. Marsonaison jagluandis), is a common disease of walnuts and butternut. Leaflets are infected in the summer and develop irregular dark brown or blackish spots. Defoliation may result.
Downy spot or yellow leaf blotch, caused by Microstro maja julgandsita, causes a yellow blotching on the upper side of leaves and a matching white coating on the underside of infected leaves.
## Leaf Blister
Elm ( Ulmus spp.)-Leaf cul is caused by Taprhina uli . Infection by this fungus occurs in early spring and results in small blisters, which eventually cause abnormal leaf development.
Oak (Quercus spp.)-During cool, wet springs almost all species of oaks can become infected by the leaf blister fungus, Taphria caerulescens. Circular raised areas occur on the upper leaf surface, causing matching depressions on the lower surface ( Figure 7).
## Control
Most leaf diseases of yard trees are controlled by gathering and destroying fallen, infected leaves. Shoot tips and twigs that have been blighted by anthracnose should be removed by pruning. Avoid irrigation methods that wet the lower canopy of the tree. Consider thinning the canopy to allow for greater air circulation which reduces periods of leaf wetness.
Where fallen, diseased leaves and twigs have not been destroyed, chemical control is the alternative approach. For suggested fungicides, consult the current Extension circular E-832, "OSU Extension Agents" Handbook of Insect, Plant Disease, and Weed Control." During very rainy springs when leaf diseases become severe, two three fungicide applications are needed for good control. Begin when the leaves are first unfurling from the buds. Repeat when the leaves are half grown, and again when the leaves are fully developed.
Trees that have been affected by leaf diseases every season should also be well fertilized and watered to maintain vigor. Do not fertilize during early fall. Fertilize only after the trees are dormant in early spring. | |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2016/05/05/should-i-recycle-my-laptop-a-guide-to-recycling-electronics/ | Should I recycle my laptop? A guide to recycling electronics | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2016-05-05 | [
"eCycling",
"Recycling",
"Sustainability"
] | GA | ## Should I recycle my laptop? A guide to recycling electronics
Written by
May 5, 2016
Pamela Turner
Every day in the United States, about 130,000 computers are thrown away. The recyclable material that makes up a computer includes plastic, metal, and glass. Even the attachments you use with your computer can be recycled, like the keyboard, the mouse, the computer speakers, external hard drives, printers and scanners.
While most electronics can be recycled at the local Waste Management authority, some retailers and manufacturers also oversee the process. For example, the Kodak Scanner Recycling Program was created in cooperation with waste management company and recycling companies to ensure that Kodak document scanners were recycled at the end of their operating life. Kodak collects the scanners at designated eCycling drop-off centers nation-wide. Apple launched the Apple Recycle Program which offers an Apple Store Gift Card for your old equipment. Devices that qualify for this program are iPhones or eligible smartphones, iPad, and Mac or PC desktop, notebook computers, and iPods. Several office supply stores also provide recycling options. Visit the EPA website for more information.
Other options for recycling electronics depend on where you live, so look locally. Here in Athens, Georgia, the local electronics recycler is CHARM (Center for Hard to Recycle Materials). This is a great one stop place for several hard to recycle items. There is no charge for one five gallon bucket of mixed materials and a small fee for larger items. Another great all-volunteer organization that takes
computers, monitors, printers and accessories is Free I.I.Athens. They reclaim and refurbish items and offer them for sale or you can volunteer your time and service for a computer.
For general information on items that can be recycled, check with your local recycler or waste management company. Waste Management provides a general listing of items that can be recycled. To search for recycling options for specific items, go to Earth91 where you can search by zip code. Batteries can be recycled through call2recycle . A listing of state eCycling programs is available on E- cycling Central.
Written by Guest Blogger: Mary Fenwick Parish, Graduate Student at the University of Georgia, Master of Historic Preservation
Posted in: eCycling , Recycling , Sustainability
Tags: Athens, environment, EPA, Georgia, green living, recycle, recycling electronics, sustainable, UGA, waste
One response to "Should I recycle my laptop? A guide to recycling electronics"
Arbitrage Recycling
March 13, 2024
Vielen Dank, dass Sie diesen aufschlussreichen Beitrag geteilt haben. Es ist erfrischend, auf Inhalte zu stoßen, die praktische Ratschläge bieten, die auf Forschung basieren. Machen Sie weiter so! Wenn Sie weitere Informationen benötigen. Du kannst beuchen Lithium Akku
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/water-works-extension-the-ground | Water Works with Extension From the Ground Up | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Drew Miller Gholson",
"Dr. Mary L. Tagert"
] | null | [
"Irrigation",
"Water",
"Miscellaneous"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Miscellaneous » Water Works with Extension From the Ground Up
## Water Works with Extension From the Ground Up
MISCELLANEOUS
Publication Number: M2182
Filed Under: Irrigation, Water
View as PDF: M2182.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service brings practical, research-based education to Mississippians who manage water issues, including water conservation, crop irrigation, water recreation, wastewater management, public water systems, and private wells.
## Sustaining Mississippi's Economy
RISER -Row Crop Irrigation Science & Extension Research
RISER is a science-based approach to identifying, evaluating, and demonstrating irrigation best management practices. RISER assists producers in maintaining yields and profitability while reducing water use. For every $1 invested in RISER, Mississippi producers earn approximately $2.
RISER personnel conduct hands-on training and learning opportunities with producers; promote adoption of irrigation water management practices; and continue to offer assistance to producers who already use integrated water management practices.
## REACH-Research & Education to Advance Conservation & Habitat
Producers working with Extension's REACH program discover the benefits that adopting conservation practices can have for conserving water resources and improving water quality.
REACH combines research with outreach to help landowners document the environmental benefits of integrating water-conservation practices into production systems. The goal of REACH is to identify conservation practices that help farmers build resiliency and sustainability into their operations and maintain farm profitability.
## Keeping our water safe
When Mississippi residents rely on household wells to meet their water needs, they can participate in the Mississippi Well-Owner Network.
Well owners discover how to maintain their private wells, and they learn about water quality, groundwater resources, and water treatment. Participants may have their water screened for total coliform and E. coli bacteria, too. This program equips well owners to monitor their wells and ensure that their water is safe.
## Agricultural Water Management and Waste Pesticide Disposal
Producers are learning and applying strategies that help conserve water and improve its quality, including using on-farm water storage systems and low-cost soil moisture sensors for better irrigation timing.
Extension offers waste pesticide disposal days so landowners can safely dispose of unneeded or expired agricultural pesticides, at no cost to them. This program ensures these waste products do not contaminate water resources.
Visit extension.msstate.edu today to learn more about Extension's continuing commitment to share reliable, research-based information about water quality, conservation, and irrigation.
Copyright 2020 by Mississippi State University. All rights reserved. This publication may be copied and distributed without alteration for nonprofit educational purposes provided that credit is given to the Mississippi State University Extension Service.
Produced by Agricultural Communications.
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Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. GARY B. JACKSON, Director
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY | ▶ |
|------------------------|-------------------------------|
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| | MARCH 25, 2025 | |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE105 | Handbook of Florida Fence and Property Law: Duty to Fence | University of Florida | [
"Michael T. Olexa",
"Jeffery Van Treese II",
"Christopher A. Hill"
] | 2022-10-02 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Handbook of Florida Fence and Property Law: Duty to Fence
Michael T. Olexa, Jeffery Van Treese II, and Christopher A. Hill
## Preface
With approximately 19,000 livestock farms in the state, along with horse farms; orange groves; croplands of; soybeans, sugarcane, cotton, peanuts and many other agricultural and livestock facilities, livestock and farming have a significant impact on Florida's economy. Florida's agricultural economy has been required to coexist with rapid population and commercial growth in the state over the last twenty-five years. Conflicts between these interests bring prominence to issues such as the rights and responsibilities of adjoining landowners, farmers, and property owners in general. Due to the added importance placed on these areas of real property, the legal aspects of fences in the state of Florida have taken on significant importance.
This handbook is designed to inform property owners of their rights and responsibilities in terms of their duty to fence. Discussed areas include a property owner's responsibility to fence when livestock is kept on the property, the rights of adjoining landowners to fence, placement of fences, encroachments, boundary lines, easements, contracts, nuisances, and a landowner's responsibilities towards persons who enter his or her property.
This handbook is intended to provide a basic overview of the many rights and responsibilities that farmers and farmland owners have under Florida's fencing and property law. Readers may value this handbook because it informs them about these rights and responsibilities. However, the reader should be aware that because the laws, administrative rulings, and court decisions on which this booklet is based are subject to constant revision, portions of this booklet could become outdated at any time. This handbook should not be viewed as a comprehensive guide to fencing and property laws. Additionally, many details of cited laws are left out due to space limitations. This handbook should not be seen as a statement of legal opinion or advice by the authors on any of the legal issues discussed within. This handbook is not a replacement for personal legal advice, but is only a guide to educate and inform the public on issues relating to fencing and property laws in Florida. For these reasons, the use of these materials by any person constitutes an agreement to hold the authors, the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, the Center for Agricultural and Natural Resource Law, and the University of Florida harmless for any liability claims, damages, or expenses that may be incurred by any person as a result of reference to or reliance on the information contained in this handbook.
Readers wishing to find further information from the Florida Statutes may access those statutes online at http://www.leg.state.us/STATUTES/.
## Acknowledgments
We wish to acknowledge Susan Gildersleeve at the University of Florida for her assistance in editing this handbook.
## Duty to Fence
As a livestock owner, do I have a duty to fence?
Florida law does not impose on the owners of livestock and animals the duty to fence, Fisel v. Wynns , 667 So.2d 761, 762 (Fla. 1996), but as discussed below, owners may be civilly or criminally liable for animals that stray onto public roads.
## What if I do not have a fence and my livestock escape?
Owners who intentionally, knowingly, or negligently permit their animals or livestock to run at large or stray upon the public roads are liable for any resulting injuries or property damage, and may even be guilty of a second-degree misdemeanor. Fla. Stat. §§ 588.15, 588.24 (2021). Criminal penalties may include a term of imprisonment not exceeding 60 days and/or a fine of as much as $500. Fla. Stat. §§ 588.24 (2021), citing Fla. Stat. §§ 775.082, 775.083 (2021). Similar criminal penalties may apply to the owner of livestock carrying any contagious diseases, who knowingly and without permission from another owner allows his livestock to run at large or come into contact with other animals. Fla. Stat. § 828.16 (2021). Case law examples for civil liability include Hughes v. Landers , 215 So.2d 773 (Fla. 2DCA 1968) (involving an automobile collision with a horse), Prevatt v. Carter , 315 So.2d 503 (Fla. 2d DaC 1975) (involving a motorcycle collision with a cow), and Fisel v. Wynns , 650 Davis v. Johnson , 288 So.2d 554 (Fla. 2d DCA 1974) (involving a motorcycle collision with a cow), and Fisel v. Wynns , 650 So.2d 46 (Fla. 5th DCA 1994), afff d, 607 So.2d 671 (Fka. 1996). Under current Florida law, officials have the right to impound and sell off animals found running at large, regardless of the owner's liability. Fla. Stat. §§ 588.16-588.25 (2021).
## Is there any liability if a car strikes an animal that strains onto a public highway?
Whenever a car or truck collides with an animal that is at large on a public highway and the driver is killed by the resulting collision, the owner of the animal "shall have no cause of action against the personal representative of the estate of the said
deceased operator" for damage to the animal. Fla. Stat. § 768.12 (2021) If the animal owner is not negligent, the animal owner may bring suit for negligence against a driver who survives the collision and causes damage to the animal. See Toole
- v. Dupuis , 735 So.d 528, 582-83 (Fla. 4th DCA 1999); Boswell v. Russell , 819 So.d 225, 926-228 (Fla. 5th DCA 2002).
The driver or the driver's estate may have a cause of action against the animal owner for injury to or death of the driver or any passengers if the complainant can prove both ownership of the animal and that the owner at least allowed the animals to stray. See Fla. Stat. § 588.15 (2021); Shevly v. Bullock , 287 So.d 28, 10-21 (Fla. 1973).
Liability may be assessed or not assessed against the owner of an escaped animal based on the facts of the case. Generally, a landowner can be liable for negligence if they failed to take reasonable steps to prevent injury caused by an escaped animal. However, if an animal escapes and causes injury despite the landowner taking all reasonable precautions, there may be no civil liability. For example, in Hughes v. Landers , Hughes and his daughter collided with a horse while driving their automobile resulting in the daughter's death. 215 So.d 20.64 (The lawsuit against the animal's owner provided evidence showing the general disrepair of the fence used to corral the horse. Id. (The fence was negligently maintained as shown by the facts that there were no hinges or locks on the cattle gap gate, the gate was secured only by two rotted and flimsy ropes, the bottom rope was untied, and a section of the fence had loose wire where two posts were leaning at a forty-five-degree angle). Also, In Pavrvi v. Carter , where a motorcycle driving at night surfaced furiously when he collided with a black cow, the court said the motorcyclist could establish the owner's negligence by showing that the fence surrounding the livestock was in discrepancy and that the owner knew his livestock were escaping from the grazing area. 315 So.d 2.02 at 505 (The mere fact that livestock are running at large on a public highway does not automatically mean that the owner intentionally or negligently permitted a miles around at large. The plaintiff carries the burden of proving negligence. For example, there would be no negligenceifheescapefromaclosedgatethatcouldonlybeopenedbyhumanhands,seeLeeV.Hinson , 10 So.d 166, 166-67 (Fla. 2DCA 1964), but negligence could exist if an animal could open the gate by slipping a chain off a bent nail, see James V. Skinner , 46 DoS 528, 589 (Fla. 2DCA 1985) (distinguishing the facts from those in Lee ). Courts have determined that an owner whose cows broke through three separate enclosures before reaching a public road was not careless or negligent, see Welch v. Baker , 184 So.d 28, 1982, (Fla. 1StA 19C1966) ("The undisputed evidence showed that the defendant had placed his cattle ... within three fenced enclosures, so that the cattle would have to break down all three fences ... before they could reach the public road."), but reasoned that negligence may exist when a properly maintained fence was not strong enough to contain a large bull. Hanson v. Scharber , 79 So.d 563, 564 (Fla. 2DCA 2000). An owner might escape liability if there is evidence, such as unknown time track or a different knot used to tie a gate, that another person caused the animals' release. See Gordon v. Sutherland , 131 So.d 2520, 521-22 (Fla. 3d DCA 1961).
If my fence is broken or damaged, can someone other than the owner of the property be held liable?
A person who causes the destruction of part of someone else's fence could be liable for any losses resulting from the fence being brought down. Fla. Stat. § 810.15(3).
## Is there any liability if I do not own the animals that are kept on the land I own?
Liability for damages resulting from an animal that is at large remains with the legal owner of the animal and not the person who is merely the legal owner of the land on which the animal is located. See Davidison v. Howard , 438 So.d 899, 902 (Fla. 4th DCA 1983); Florida Power & Light Co. v. Morris , 944 So.d 207, 409-410 (Fla. 4th DCA 2006).
Who is liable if only one family member is at fault and the entire family owns the animal?
Under Florida law, a wife is not liable for her husband's torture when she has no knowledge of his tortious conduct and does not authorize or participate in the act. Boswell v. Russell , 819 So.d 225, 927 (Fla. 5th DCA 2002). Under the Warren Act, a wife's ownership of a bull merely imposes a duty on her to not act negligently in allowing it to stray upon the public roads. Id . At 928. It did not impute her husband's knowledge or negligence to her. Id .
## Do any industries have a duty to fence in Florida?
Several industries have a duty to fence under certain circumstances. Any company or individual not engaged in actual bona fide mining operations must either fill or fence any hole that is larger than two feet wide and two feet deep to prevent livestock or domestic animals from falling into any holes. Fla. Stat. § 768.10 (2021); Fla. Stat. § 768.11 (2021) (discussing measure of damages). Landfills, solid waste facilities, and construction and demolition debris disposal facilities must include fences to prevent unauthorized access to waste disposal. Fla. Admin. Code. R. 62-701.500(5) (2015); 62-701.710(4)(f) (2015); 62-701.730(4)(e),(7)(c)(2016). The owner and manager of an amusement ride must fence or otherwise restrict any areas where people may be endangered by the operation of the ride. Fla. Stat. § 616.242(11)(e)(2021).
Any junkyard within 1,000 feet of any interstate or federal-aid highway must be screened by natural objects, plantings, fences, or other appropriate means so that the junkyard cannot be seen from the road. Fla. Stat. § 339.241(3)(a)(2021). The law also requires that the fence always be kept in a condition of good repair. Fla. Stat. § 339.241(4)(a)(2021). Failure to do so may result in fines against the owner of the facility. Fla. Stat. § 339.241(6)(2021).
Florida law no longer imposes a duty on railroads to erect fences to prevent livestock from getting on the tracks and causing collisions. Fla. Stat. § 337.401 (2021). Some Florida case law, however, still indicates that railroads passing through livestock farms have the duty to keep a fence in good repair to prevent livestock from getting onto the railroad tracks, because the railroad could be liable for the death or injury of livestock resulting from the failure to maintain the fence. Seaboard Air Line Ry. Co. v. Maige, 147 So. 215, 216-17 (Fla. 1933), aff'd, Doral Country Club, Inc. v. Klatzkin, 433 So.2d 57 (mem.) (Fla. 3d DCA 1983).
## Do any individuals other than livestock owners have a duty to fence in Florida?
Private game preserves or farms must face the area to prevent the escape of domestic game and the entrance of wild game. Fla. Stat. § 379.302(2) (2021). Special fencing requirements exist for anyone who keeps captive wildlife classified as a Class I or Class II carnivore. Fla. Admin. Code Ann. R. 68A-6.010(4)(a)(1) 2019); 68A-6.013(4)(b)(4) 2019). Residential pool owners may opt to enclose their pools to meet the safety feature requirement and to pass the final pool inspection. Fla. Stat. §§ 515.27(1)(a), 515.29 (2021). Additionally, local ordinances may impose duties on swimming pool owners to erect and maintain a fence around pools.
## Do any prohibitions on fencing exist under Florida law?
It is a first-degree misdemeanor for anyone to obstruct a public road or highway with a fence or other obstruction. Fla. Stat. §§ 861.01 (2021). The confinement of animals without fresh water, food, regular exercise, and a change of air could result in a charge for a first-degree misdemeanor. Fla. Stat. § 828.13(2) (2021). Until June 2000, it was illegal to fix or cause to be fixed on unfenced property any stakes or canes or anything that could kill or maim cattle or other livestock. Fla. Stat. § 588.07 (1999).
## Summary
Florida law requires waste disposal facilities, companies that dig open pits, and owners of junkyards to fence their property. Railroad companies may still be liable for any injuries to livestock resulting from their failure to keep their fence in good repair. For junkyards, the duty to fence arises from those junkyards which are within 1,000 feet of any interstate or federalaid highway. Special fencing requirements also exist for private game preserves, swimming pools, and amusement rides. It is illegal for anyone to obstruct a public highway with a fence, or to confine animals without food and water.
## Further Information
Handbook of Florida Fence and Property Law
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/entity/topic/BOOK\_Florida\_Fence\_and\_Property\_Law
Publication #FE105
Release Date:
October 3, 2022
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-fe105-2010
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Mike Olexa
View PDF
Also Available in
Español
About this Publication
This document is FEI05, one of a series of the Food and Resource Economics Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date November 1999. Revised December 2006, August 2010, November 2014, November 2018, and September 2022. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Michael T. Olexa, Ph.D., J.D. professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, and Director, Center for Agricultural and Natural Resource Law, UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL, and member, The Florida Bar; Jeffrey W. Van Treese II, J.D., Ph.D. attorney with Zappolo and Farwell, P.A. in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, practicing, commercial litigation and director of the Palm Beach Lakes High School Law Academy, member, The Florida Bar, and conducts research in horticulture with an emphasis on tree hazard risk assessment; and Christopher A. Hill, law student, University of Florida, Levin College of Law; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Food and Resource Economics
Florida Fence and Property Law handbook
13 Publication(s)
Olexa, Michael T.
Specialist
University of Florida
Food and Resource Economics
## Florida Fence and Property Law handbook
13 Publication(s) |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/vardaman-retail-analysis | Vardaman Retail Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Vardaman Retail Analysis
## Vardaman Retail Analysis
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2945-286 | |
| View as PDF: P2945-286.pdf | |
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY | ▶ |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Your Extension Experts Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor Related News OCTOBER 3, 2024 Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition | |
| Extension provides training for tourism professionals FEBRUARY 1, 2024 | Extension provides training for tourism professionals FEBRUARY 1, 2024 |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE1057 | Valuing Florida Water Resources: Water Use in Irrigated Agriculture | University of Florida | [
"Tatiana Borisova",
"Syed Irfan Ali Shah",
"Tara Wade",
"Kelly Grogan",
"Xiang Bi"
] | 2019-05-12 | [
"2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply"
] | FL | ## Valuing Florida Water Resources: Water Use in Irrigated Agriculture
Tatiana Borisova, Syed Irfan Ali Shah, Tara Wade, Kelly Grogan, and Xiang Bi
## Introduction
This paper is a part of the series "Economic Value of Florida Water Resources." Water resources provide us with a variety of goods and services (together often referred to as "ecosystem services" or "environmental services"). The overall goal of this and other publications in this series is to discuss the economic assessments of the value of the ecosystem services, and to show the importance of water resource protection and restoration. Readers can select the economic value estimates that are most relevant for a given geographic area or type of water use.
Irrigation for agriculture is one example of an ecosystem service provided by water resources (other papers in this series discuss other ecosystem services, such as tap water supply, recreation, and amenity value for waterfront properties). Many of the fruits and vegetables in grocery stores are produced in Florida, and yields for many of them depend on access to irrigation water. In 2015, 47,300 commercial farms and ranches operated in Florida covering over 9.45 million acres (FDACS 2015). Irrigated crops were about 24 percent, or just under 2 million acres, an area roughly equal to the state of Delaware. Favorable climate and access to water allow Florida to be a leader in production value of many crops (Table 1). For example, Florida is the first in the nation in the production value of oranges, fresh market tomatoes, watermelons, grapefruit, sugarcane, fresh market snap beans, and fresh market cucumbers. Florida is ranked second in the United States in the value of greenhouse and nursery products, as well as such fruits and vegetables as bell peppers, strawberries, fresh market sweet corn, spring potatoes, peanuts, tangerines, and avocados. Florida ranked seventh in the country for agricultural exports, with over $4 billion of agriculture commodities shipped in 2015 (FDACS 2015). As mentioned above, access to water for irrigation is key for production of many of these crops in Florida.
Agriculture is the second largest freshwater use category in Florida (after public supply), accounting for 2,089 Mgal/d of freshwater withdrawal in 2015 (Marella and Dixon 2018), with the major Florida crops accounting for a large share of agricultural water use (Figure 1). How is agricultural irrigation water use related to the value of agricultural products? What is the value of water in agricultural use? Three studies were found that examine the effect of water use change on agriculture in Florida and Georgia. The studies employ different estimation methods and data; however, their estimates of the water values are relatively close.
## The Value of Water for Florida Agriculture: Results from a Nationwide Study
DeBodisco (2007) examined the value of irrigation water across US regions, including the 20 largest irrigation states. This study developed a statistical model of agricultural profits (estimated on a per-acre basis) by accounting for a wide range of profit determinants (such as types of crops and their sale prices; labor, fuel, machinery, and chemical costs; soil, climate, water supply, and irrigation technologies). The value of water is then estimated as the change in profits for a given change in water use.
For Florida, the estimated change in agricultural profit (i.e., the value of water for agriculture) was $11.49 for 0.1 acre ft -f of water (estimated for the statewide average level of water use of 0.69 acre-ft per acre). Assuming the water value was estimated for mid-2007 (when the study was completed), and accounting for inflation using the consumer price index (BLS 2018), the estimated average statewide value of irrigation water for Florida agriculture is $13.90 for 0.1 acre-ft (in mid-2018 dollars). Note that the value can be higher or lower in specific Florida regions based on the value of crops produced, soil quality, etc.; however, these details were not explored given the national scope of this study.
## Value of Irrigation Water in Cropland Farming: South Florida Case Study
Takatsuka et al. (2018) examined variation in the value of irrigation water among regions in south Florida. The methodology employed in this study differs from DeBodiso (2007). Specifically, the study did not have access to data on all the production costs, and therefore, it focused on "economic penalties" for changes in water use, rather than the profit reduction analyzed in DeBodiso (2007). A model was developed to relate the value of farm cropland products sold in each region (in $) to the share of irrigated and fertilized land in each region, employment in cropland (number of full-time equivalent), and groundwater/or surface water use in cropland (acre-ft/year). This model then was used to assess the economic penalties for changes in surface or groundwater use. Economic penalty is defined in this article as the change in the value of farm cropland products sold ($) after accounting for the changes in water pumping costs. Note that the study did not account for cost of agricultural inputs except water (due to the lack of data), and therefore, the economic penalty is not the same as changes in agricultural profits assessed in DeBodisco (2007).
Overall, the Takatsuka et al. study shows that reduction in agricultural water use in the jurisdiction of the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) can significantly impact the agricultural economy. It also shows wide variations in the economic penalties, from $0.07 to $518.56 per 0.1 acre-ft per year per acre. Following SFWMD's water supply planning, the study divides the District into four regions: 1) Kissimmee Basin; 2) Lower East Coast; 3) Lower West Coast; and 4) Upper East Coast, with each region further sub-divided into counties or portions of counties (Figure 2). The water-use data were analyzed for 2000, 2005, and 2010.
Figure 2. SFWMD map and area number. Credit: Takatsuka et al. (2018)
Table 2 shows the estimated economic penalties associated with surface or groundwater water-use reduction in cropland irrigation in each sub-region. On a regional level, because many regions largely depend on groundwater, the estimated results show higher economic penalties given groundwater-use reduction, as compared with surface-water use reduction. The difference in the economic penalties among sub-regions is related to variations in the values of crops produced, with counties producing higher-valued crops generally showing higher value for water use.
Generally, the study shows that reduction in water use can result in significant reduction in the value of crops produced. For example, in the portion of Orange County within Kissimmee Basin, if groundwater use is reduced by 1000 acre-ft per year, the cropland farming value drops by almost 2.9 million (even after considering the reductions in water pumping costs due to the water-use cuts). Cropland farming crop value losses are also above $1 million in Polk and Broward Counties (again, after taking into consideration the drop in pumping cost due to water-use reduction). For surface-water use, 1000 acre-ft/year reduction results in approximately $0.5 million economic penalties in portions of the Lower East Coast region in Collier and Miami-Dade counties, as well as in Osceola County (in the Kissimmee Basin). Note that Table 2 reports estimates for 1000 acre-ft per year, and the losses will be higher for a more sizable reduction in water use.
The per-acre analysis shows that the economic penalty is the highest for Miami-Dade County for surface-water use reduction: 0.1 acre-ft/year per acre water-use reduction is estimated to lead to $518.56/acre economic penalty (Table 2). The penalty is the lowest for Glades County ($0.07/acre). The median value for surface water among the regions is $0.91 / acre for 0.1 acre-ft/year per acre, or $0.91 for 0.1 acre-ft/year. The median value for groundwater is $4.75 / acre for 0.1 acreft/year per acre, or $4.75 for 0.1 acre-ft/year.
## The Value of Agricultural Water Use Permits: South Georgia Case Study
Petrie and Taylor (2007) is a study conducted just north of Florida's border in Dooly County, Georgia. The study compared the price of agricultural land parcels sold from 1993 to 2003, accounting for whether the parcels had water use permits attached to them or not, as well as other land characteristics. This method of comparing sales to analyze the effects on sale prices of such property characteristics as size, soil quality, conservation use, share of the property dedicated to crops or woodland, and access to irrigation permit is called the "hedonic method."
Dooly County was the largest producer of cotton in Georgia and also a leading producer of wheat. Peanuts and soybeans were important crops for the county as well. In other words, agricultural crops were somewhat similar to those produced in the Florida panhandle. Focusing on Dooly County allowed the authors to explore the effect of a particular agricultural wateruse restriction, a moratorium, because the moratorium affected some but not all areas of the county. The moratorium was imposed on the issuance of agricultural water-use permits in the Flint River Basin in 1999 in response to a drought, growing water demand for public supply and agriculture, and litigations between Florida and Alabama. The permits were still required for any water use in excess of 100,000 gallons of water a day. The right of existing water-permit holders to irrigate was respected. The permits were attached to the land, and if a land parcel with an existing permit was sold, the permit was transferred to the new landowner. Landowners without permits were allowed to dryland crop or to irrigate less than 100,000 gallons a day. Approximately half of Dooly County was in the Flint River Basin, and affected by the moratorium; the other half was not, which allowed for a comparison of sale prices to explore the effects of the moratorium.
The sale price of agricultural land reflects the value of future profits expected from that land (discounted to reflect the fact that the future profits are valued less than the current profits). Even after the study accounted for various land characteristics (such as soil quality, designation for recreational uses, woodland and timberlands shares, and price of the structures on the land), access to a water-use permit still had a statistically significant effect on the land sale price, reflecting the dependence of the future profits on the access to a water-use permit. For productive agricultural acreage, land with a permit was sold for approximately $500/acre more than land with no permit (and therefore limited irrigation allowed). The median sale price of an acre during the study period was $1,500 (in 2003 dollars), and, therefore, approximately a 30% increase in property values was associated with an irrigation permit granted to the parcel. The authors translated this estimate into approximately $3.54 for 0.1 acre-ft of water per year (in 2003 dollars); assuming 30-year planning horizon and annual average irrigation needs of 0.7 acre-feet per acre). After accounting for inflation (using consumer price index for mid-2003 to mid-2018 range (BLS 2018)), translates into $4.85 for 0.1 acre-ft/ year. This estimate is generally similar to the results reported by Takatsuka et al. (2018) and described above.
## Conclusion
Three studies estimating the value of water for agricultural irrigation in Florida and Georgia were found and reviewed for this publication. The studies rely on different methodologies and indicators of the value. DeBodisco (2007) examined the change in agricultural profits resulting from changes in agricultural water use, where profit accounts for sale revenue and the cost of production inputs. In turn, Petri and Taylor (2007) also examined the effect of water use on agricultural profits, but they estimated growth through sale prices of agricultural parcels (which are a reflection of expected future profits from the parcels). While both studies focus on the relationship between agricultural profits and water use, the differences in the estimation methods and geographical scope of the studies (county vs. regional) explain in part the difference in the results.
Further, Takatsuka et al. (2018) examined economic penalty that is reduction in revenue (as opposed to the difference in profits). Due to the lack of relevant data, only water-pumping costs were accounted for in the study. Economic penalties are expected to be higher than agricultural profit change because they do not consider reductions in the input costs (other than water) that can potentially offset some of the revenue loss.
Overall, $13.90 per 0.1 acre-ft (in 2018 dollars) could be used as a mean value of agricultural irrigation water, based on DeBodiso (2007). Since the statewide value masks some of the important variation among Florida regions, an interested reader can also refer to the study by Takatsuka et al. (2018), that reports the economic penalty (i.e., crop value less pumping costs) ranging from $0.07 to $518.56 for 0.1 acre-ft of water use reduction in south Florida croplands, depending on the type of crops grown and surface and groundwater availability. Finally, a reader working in the Florida panhandle may refer to the estimate reported for Dooly County, Georgia (producer of cotton, wheat, peanut, and soybean) that estimated the value of $4.85 for 0.1 acre-ft, as well as 30 percent reduction in the value of agricultural land parcels if the parcel is stripped of the right to irrigate more than 100,000 gallon per day.
Note that an important assumption made in these studies is that the current water-use level maximizes the cropland farming profits (given water-resource policy and other possible constraints). The reader should note that new technologies or
management approaches could increase water-use efficiency, and, therefore, allow increased profits for the same or lower per-acre agricultural water-use levels in future.
## References
DeBodisco, C. 2007. The Regional Value Of Water In Agriculture . PhD Dissertation, Department of Economics, Vanderbilt University. Nashville, TN, 136p. https://etd.library.vanderbilt.edu/available/etd-07242007003333/unrestricted/debodiscosis717pdf
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS). 2015. Florida Agriculture Overview and Statistics. Extracted from http://www.freshfromflora.com.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS). 2018. Florida Statewide Agricultural Irrigation Demand (FSAID): Predicting the amounts and spatial distribution of irrigation water use. https://fdacs-fsaid.com/fsaid4/
Marella, R. L., and J. F. Dixon. 2018. Data tables summarizing the source-specific estimated water withdrawals in Florida by water source, category, county, and water management district, 2015: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/sa4ce955e4b00d5ee8c4caaca
Petrie, R. A., and L. O. Taylor. 2007. "Estimating the Value of Water Use Permits: A Hedonic Approach Applied to Farmland in the Southeastern United States." Land Economics 83(3), 302-318. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27647774
Takatsuka, Y., M. R. Niekus, J. Harrington, S. Feng, D. Watkins, A. Mirchi, H. Nguyen, and M. Sukop. 2018. "Value of irrigation water usage in South Florida agriculture." Science of the Total Environment 626, 486-496. https://www.sciencedirect.com/sciencearticle/pii/S0048969717336732
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2018. CPI Inflation Calculator. https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl? cost=3.54&year=200307&year2=201807
## Tables
View Table
Release Date: May 13, 2019
Reviewed At: March 30, 2022
Contacts: Tara Wade
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is FEI057, one of a series of the Food and Resource Economics Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date April 2019. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Tatiana Borisova, assistant professor and Extension specialist, Food and Resource Economics Department; Syed Irfan Ali Shah, project assistant; Tara Wade, assistant professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, UF/IFAS Southwest Florida Research and Education Center; Kelly Grogan, associate professor, Food and Resource Economics Department; and Xiang Bi, assistant professor, Food and Resource Economics Department; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Food and Resource Economics
Valuing Florida Water Resources series
9 Publication(s) |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS1290 | Citrus Fruit Disorders and Physical/Chemical Injuries | University of Florida | [
"Mark A. Ritenour",
"Jamie D. Burrow",
"Megan M. Dewdney",
"John Zhang"
] | 2020-05-31 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Citrus Fruit Disorders and Physical/Chemical Injuries
Mark A. Ritenour, Jamie D. Burrow, Megan M. Dewdney, and John Zhang
This quick reference guide is an identification tool for common disorders and injuries in Florida citrus. It is best viewed as a pdf. Citrus Fruit Disorders and Physical/Chemical Injuries (pdf).
## Publication #HIS1290
Release Date: June 1, 2020
Reviewed At: March 31, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-hs1290-2017
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Mark Ritenour
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is HIS1290, one of a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date March 2017. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Mark A. Ritenour, professor, UF/IFAS Indian River Research and Education Center, Horticultural Sciences Department; Jamie D. Burrow, Extension program manager, UF/IFAS Citrus Research and Education Center; Megan M. Dewdney, associate professor, Plant Pathology Department, UF/IFAS Citrus Research and Education Center, and John Zhang, Florida Department of Citrus, UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Citrus Quick Reference Guide Series |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN884 | Eye Gnats, Grass Flies, Eye Flies, Frit Flies Liohippelates spp. (Insecta: Diptera: Chloropidae) | University of Florida | [
"Erika Machtinger",
"Phillip E. Kaufman"
] | 2018-11-13 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | Skip
Eye Gnats, Grass Flies, Eye Flies, Frit Flies Liohippelates spp. (Insecta: Diptera: Chloropidae)
Erika Machtinger and Phillip E. Kaufman
The Featured Creatures collection provides in-depth profiles of insects, nematodes, arachnids and other organisms relevant to Florida. These profiles are intended for the use of interested laypersons with some knowledge of biology as well as academic audiences.
## Introduction
Members of the genus Liohippelates , formerly Hippelates , are very small true flies and a common occurrence in much of North and South America (Sabrosky 1980, Kumm 1935). These non-biting pests are attracted to fluids secreted by the eyes, nose, and ears on both humans and animals. Some species are attracted to discharge from open wounds and excrement (Goddard 2007). Because of their propensity for hovering around the eyes, this genus has been referred to commonly as "eye gnats," but are also known as grass flies, eye flies, and frit flies.
Extremely large aggregations of eye gns are common in areas that have loose sandy soils, especially in the southern United States. These high concentrations of flies are a great nuisance to humans and animals in rural towns as well as agricultural, recreational, and tourist areas. While they do not bite, Liohippelates spp. have been implicated in the transmission of several diseases to humans and livestock including human acute conjunctivitis (pike eye). Due to the increase of transmission of pink eye and the reduction in labor efficiency caused by extreme numbers of eye gns in the Coachella Valley, California, a control project was initiated by the Buraeu of Entomology in the 1920s to focus on the life history and possible control measures for this pest. Hall (1932) subsequently implicated Liohippelates pusio (Loew) as one of the limiting factors in the development of the Coachella Valley.
The majority of the flies encountered in the southeastern region of the United States are L. pusio and L. bishoppi (Sabrosky), and as a result the biological information below will focus broadly on these two species.
## Synonymy
Lioppelates pusio was first named Hippelates pusio by Loew in 1872, and L. bishoppi was described by Sabrosky as H. bishoppi in 1941. In 1929, Duda described the genus Liohippelates , which now contains the most important common species of eye gnats in the southeastern United States including what was H. pusio and H. bishoppi .
Liohippelates pusio (Loew)
Hippelates pusio Loew, 1872
Hippelates splendens Adams, 1904
Hippelates lituratus Becker, 1912
Liohippelates pusio ; Duda
Liohippelates bishoppi (Sabrosky)
Hippelates bishoppi Sabrosky, 1941
Liohippelates bishoppi; Duda
## Distribution
Both Liohippelates spp. and closely related Hippelates spp. occur throughout much of North America (Sabrosky 1941) and 270 species have been described (Sabrosky 1987). Bingham (1941) determined during his investigations of Liohippelates in the southeastern U.S. that L. pusio was the most common pest of this genus. Later that year, Sabrosky (1941) found and described a new species, L. bishoppi , misidentified by Bingham as L. pusio , which made up a moderate portion of the southeastern Liohippelates .
Liohippelates bishoppi is found from February through September, and L. pusio year round. Liohippelates pusio can be found from Washington to North Dakota, south to Pennsylvania, as well as California south to Mexico and east to the southeastern United States and Bermuda (GNI 2010). Liohippelates bishoppi is found from Saskatchewan to Quebec, south to Colorado, Texas and Florida. Other Liohippelates species found in the southeastern and eastern U.S. are L. bicolor (Coquillett) and L. pallipes (Loew), whereas Hippelates species found in the same area include H. nobilis Loew, H. plebejus Loew, and H. dorsalis Loew (Sabrosky 1941).
## Description
## Adults
Adult Liohippelates are true flies (bearing only two wings) and are very small, approximately 1.5 to 2 mm long, and shiny black or grayish in color with clear wings. Some species have reddish or yellowish heads. Legs tend to be reddish-yellow to brown with brown bands (Hall 1932).
Eggs
The eggs of Liohippelates flies are a pearlescent white and approximately 0.5 mm long. They are half as wide (0.25 mm) as long, resembling a banana with one side curved and one nearly straight (Hall 1932). Eggs are deposited below the surface of loose soils.
Larvae
The larvae hatch in seven to 11 days and feed on organic matter (Kahn 2008). The larvae average 3 mm in length and are a whitish color (Hermes and Burgess 1930). Larvae are pointed towards the anterior end and rounded towards the posterior. The mouth hook is darker than the rest of the body and curved gently downward.
## Pupae
The pupae are approximately 2.25 mm in length, depending on the media in which larvae developed and grew (Hall 1932), and a reddish-brown color, turning darker as they age. Liohippelates pupate in or around sand mixed with organic matter, such as manure, hay, and remaining harvested crop debris.
## Life Cycle
Liohippelates spp. are holometabolous, meaning they have four distinct life stages: egg, larvae, pupa and adult. The life cycle of Liohippelates can range from 11 days to three months depending on development conditions such as temperature and moisture (Hall 1932). Development from egg emergence to the adult is completed in approximately three weeks during the summer in Florida (Bigham 1941) and multiple generations can occur each year. Breeding sites are primarily those with freshly disturbed soil mixed with organic matter, such as cut grass and hay, and moisture. Disturbances can be caused by digging, plowing, harrowing, or even by livestock activities (Bigham 1941, Mulla 1962).
Medical and Veterinary Importance
Liohippelates are not host specific and will feed on the fluid from wounds, eyes, nose, and other areas on humans as well as livestock and domestic pets in a variety of situations. While they do not bite, due to their persistent feeding behavior this group of insects is responsible for extreme annoyance to people and animals when they occur in large numbers. In livestock, it has been suggested that high numbers of Liohippelales can cause losses in condition, such as weight, due to continuous and unreleived attack (Hinkle et al. 2001).
Many species of Liohippelates have been implicated in the mechanical transmission of several diseases and conditions in humans and livestock. Mechanical transmission of pathogens causing disease from Liophilippotes to humans or livestock occurs when a fly comes in contact with a pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus, and subsequently feeds or rests on a human or animal, transmitting the pathogen from one location to another by contact. As feeding occurs on the blood, mucus, and other fluids around natural orifices of mammals, pathogens can be carried easily into the body.
Human acute conjunctivitis, also known as "pink eye" or "sore eyes," is caused by one or more bacteria that can be mechanically transmitted by Liohippelettes. Pink eye causes pain, swelling, changes in vision and extreme sensitivity to light (MIDEHA 2010). Incidents of conjunctivitis have been shown to increase during Liohippleplates outbreaks (Dow and Hines 1957, Greenberg 1973). In California, Hall (1926) correlated pink eye to high populations of Lioppelleplaves flavipes (Loew).
Liohippleplates flavipes and L. pallipes have been shown to mechanically transmit the spirochette Treponema pertenue , the causative agent of yaws, in Jamaica and parts of South America (Kumpn 1935, Kumm and Turner 1936, Saunders et al. 1936). Yaws is a skin infection that causes ulceration and, in severe cases, can affect bone and cartilage. Yaws occurs mainly in warm and humid regions of the world, including much of South America, and primarily affects children under the age of 15. Yaws is especially common in poor communities and those in crowded conditions (DNZ 2010).
Another form of acute conjunctivitis caused by the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae biotype aegyptius has been linked to a few species of Liohippelates (Tendella et al. 1994). This bacterium has been linked to the cause of Brazilian purpuric fever, which causes sepsis in children (Harrison et al. 1989, The Brazilian Purpur Fever Study Group 1992). Sepsis is a serious condition caused by extremely high numbers of foreign microbes in the bloodstream that results in hyperactivity of the body's natural immune response, negatively affecting other body functions. Additionally, Liohippelates is capable of mechanically transmitting streptococci infections to human skin (Francy et al. 1988). While they do not bite or bloodfeed, Liohippelates possess sponging mouthparts with "spines" which have the potential to cause ocular lesions in animals (Hinkle et al. 2001). Two species of Hippelales found in Florida, H. blepeguis and H. nobilis, are larger species with raspating mouthparts capable of producing a biting sensation when feeding on sensitive skin (Bigham 1941).
Liohippelates has been implicated in mechanical transmission of pathogens between animals as well. In cattle, Liohippelates can transmit the causative agents of acute bovine mastitis (Sanders 1940) and vesicular stomatitis (Taplin et al. 1967). Acute bovine mastitis is inflammation of the mammary glands, primarily caused by bacterial infection, which can be extremely painful and compromise milk quality. Mastitis may also cause death in extreme cases (Bradley 2002). Treatment for mastitis includes the use of antibiotics, which has possible implications in public health as resistant bacterial strains may not respond to treatment (Bradley 2002) and milk from treated cattle cannot be sold for human consumption until the required withholding time has elapsed.
Vesicular stomatitis is a reemerging viral disease that presents as lesions on the tongue, coronary bands, and other body regions of cattle as well as horses, sheep, goats, and pigs (USDA 2007). This disease is remarkably similar in presentation to the deadly foot-and-mouth disease, which was eradicated from the United States in 1929 (USDA 2007), and infection can transfer to people who handle infected animals.
Figure 7. Congregation of adult Liohippelates around the puncture wound of a horse. Credit: Erika T. Machtinger, University of Florida
## Management
Currently, there is no effective area-wide control. Various insecticides, fogs, and soil treatments have been tested, but due to the incredible numbers of flies produced in the soil, area-wide treatment is nearly impossible. Insecticides applied on a community level for mosquito control may reduce attack, but development sites quickly repopulate as the insecticide dissipates (Kahn 2008).
Physical barriers, such as screened pores and windows on houses and fly masks or fly sheets (which resemble a fine cloth mesh, largely impenetrable by even the smallest pests) on livestock, can provide some relief from annoyance and protection from possible pathogen transmission. Sanitation methods to eliminate potential breeding sites, such as reducing manure and organic matter in soil and reducing loose soil matter, may reduce breeding at the location. However, often reducing Liohippleles and Hippelates breeding sites is nearly impossible in livestock facilities as manure, moisture, and soil disturbance are inseparable from animals.
Repellents containing diethyl toluamide (DEET) provide temporary protection from eye gnats (Hall and Gerhardt 2009), and many commercial livestock insecticides that contain pyrethrins, piperonyl butoxide, or other common ingredients may provide some relief to animals.
Florida Insect Management Guide for external parasites around animal facilities
Florida Insect Management Guide for filth-breeding flies
## Selected References
Bigham JT. 1941. Hippelates (eye gnats) investigations in the southeastern states. Journal of Economic Entomology 34: 439-444.
(BPFGSG) The Brazilian Purpur Fever Study Group. 1992. Brazilian purpur fever identified in a new region of Brazil. Journal of Infectious Disease 163: 516-519.
Bradley A. 2002. Bovine mastitis: an evolving disease. The Veterinary Journal 164: 116-128.
(DNZ) DermNet NZ. (January 2010). Yaws. DermNet NZ: the dermatology resource.
http://dermnetnz.org/bacterial/yaws.html (28 February 2011).
Dow RP, Hines JD. 1957. Conjunctivitis in southwest Georgia. Public Heath Reports 72: 441-448.
Dow RP, Bigham JT, Sabrosky CW. 1951. Seuel to "Hippellates (eye gnat) investigations in the southeastern states" by John T. Bigham. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 53: 263-271.
Francy DB, Moore LG, Smith GC, Jakob WL, Taylor SA, Calisher CH. 1988. Epizootic vesicular stomatitis in Colorado, 1982: Isolation of virus from insects collected along the northern Colorado Rocky Mountain Front Range. Journal of Medical Entomology 25: 343-347.
(GNI) Global Names Index. (2010). GGLobal Names Index - Index of Scientific Names . https://index.globalnames.org (8 February 2023).
Goddard J. 2007. Non-biting Flies. pp. 191-200. In Physicians Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance, 5th edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 480 pp.
Greenberg B. 1973. Flies and Disease. Vol. 2. Biology and Disease Transmission. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. 856 pp.
Hall RD, Gerhardt RR. 2009. Flies (Diptera). In Mullen Gr, Durden LA (editors), Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Second Edition. Elsevier, Burlington, MA. 637 pp.
Hall Jr. DG. 1932. Some studies on the breeding media, development, and stages of the eye gnat Hippelates pusio Loew (Diptera: Chloropidae). American Journal of Epidemiology 16: 854-864.
Harrison IH, Da Silva GA, Pitman M, Fleming DW, Vranjac A, Broome CV. 1989. Epidemiology and clinical spectrum of Brazilian purpurc fever. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 27: 599-604.
Herms WB, Burgess, RW. 1930. A description of the immature stages of Hippelates pusio Loew and a brief account of its life history. Journal of Economic Entomology 23: 600-603.
Hinkle NC, Scholl PJ, Mock DE and Warner WB. 2001. Research and extension needs for integrated pest management for arthropods of veterinary importance. pp. 261-262. In Geden CJ, Hogsett JA (editors), Proceedings of a workshop in Lincoln, Nebraska. Second Edition. 328 pp.
(ITIS) (2010). Lohiplletales. Integrated Taxanic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/ (28 February 2011).
Kahn C (ed.). (2008). Eye gnats. The Merck Veterinary Manual.
http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet\_integumentary\_system/flies\_eyes\_gnats.html?q=eye\_gnats&alt=shftop (15 May 2014).
Kumm HW. 1935. The natural infection of Hippelates pallipes Loew with the spirochete of yaws. Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 29: 265-272.
Kumm HW, Turner TB. 1936. The transmission of yaws from man to rabbits by an insect vector, Hippelates pallipes Loew. American Journal of Tropical Medicine 16: 1-16
Looper M, Stokes SR, Waldner DN, and Jordan ER. (2001). Feeding waste milk to dairy calves. New Mexico State University College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences. http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/d\_d-208.html (28 February 2011).
(MIDEHA) Infectious Disease and Environmental Health Administration. (2010). Conjunctivitis ("Pink Eye"). Maryland Department of Health & Mental Hygiene. https://health.maryland.gov/phpa/IDEHASHaredDocuments/conjunctivitis.pdf (8 February 2023).
Mulla MS. 1962. The breeding niches of Hippelates gnats. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 55: 389-393.
Sabrosky CW. 1941. The Hippelates flies or eye gnats: preliminary notes. Canadian Entomologist 73: 23-27.
Sabrosky CW. 1987. Chloropicidae. pp. 1049-1067. In McAlpine JF, et al. (editors), Manual of Nearctic. Diptera. Volume 2. Research Branch Agriculture. Canada Monograph 28: 675-1332.
Sanders DA. 1940. Hippelates flies as vectors of bovine mastitis (preliminary report). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 97: 306-308.
Saunders GM, Kumm HW, Rerrie JL. 1936. The relationship of certain environmental factors to the distribution of yaws in Jamaica. American Journal of Hygiene 23: 558-579.
Taplin D, Zaiais N, Rebell G. 1967. Infection by Hippelates flies. Lancet 2: 472.
Tondella MLC, Paganelli CH, Bortolombo IM, Tankano OA, Trinko K and Brandileone MCC. 1994. Isolamento de Harmophilus aegyptius associado a febre purpurica Brasileira de cloropideos (Diperta) dos generous Hippelates e
Liohippelates . Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 36: 105-109.
(USDA) United States Department of Agriculture. (2007). Vesicular stomatitis. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal\_health/content/printable\_version/fs\_vesicular\_stomatitis\_07.pdf (6 May 2011).
Publication #EENY485
Release Date:
November 14, 2018
Reviewed At:
July 17, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-in884-2011
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Ted Burgess
## About this Publication
This document is EENY485, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date April 2011. Revised October 2015. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. for the currently supported version of this publication. This document is also available on the Featured Creatures website at https://entemndept.ufl.edu/creatures/.
## About the Authors
Erika Machtinger, graduate student; and Phillip E. Kaufman, Entomology and Nematology Department; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/07/01/recycling-the-european-way/ | Recycling the European way | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-07-01 | [
"Environment",
"Recycling",
"Sustainability"
] | GA | ## Recycling the European way
Written by
July 1, 2013
Pamela Turner
Recycling seems to be a part of everyday life for most Europeans. I saw large recycling bins along the roads in Spain, France, Germany and Austria. All of the containers I saw required people to separate their trash (i.e. glass, paper, cans, etc.). Interestingly the university in Spain where the conference I attended was held did not have any recycling trash bins located on the campus, at least not any I could easily find. In contrast, at the Maraíster Abbey outside Hohenweiler, Austria, they provided a trash can for "Biomüll" which is organic waste like fruit and veggie waste.
## Other recyclables
Recycling seems to be a natural part of everyday life over here. People separate their trash and even walk or drive to large bins to drop it off. According to the European Environment Agency, Austria, Germany and Belgium recycled the greatest amount of waste in Europe in 2010. Austria recycles 63%, Germany (62%), and Belgium (58%). Close behind are the Netherlands (51%) and Switzerland (51%). Approximately 35% of municipal waste in Europe was recycled in 2010, which represents a great improvement from 2001 when only 23% was recycled. The EU-mandated target is for 50% of household waste to be recycled by 2020.
In the U.S. the recycling rate is also showing improvement. In 2011, we generated about 250 million tons of trash and recycled and composted 34.7%, which is an improvement from 2000 when our recycling rate was 24.5%. Many cities, like Athens, Georgia, have moved to single-stream recycling to increase the recycling rate. People can put all types of recyclables into one container. It seems to be working.
There are many ways to look at recycling and how we can encourage people to reduce waste and recycle things they no longer need. One solution doesn't work in all countries. We need to develop policies and initiatives designed with the people who live in that country in mind. I think the keyis to encouragepeople to "rethink" howthey manage waste. Check out tips for reducing, reusing, and recycling on the UGA College of Family and Consumer Sciences Cooperative Extension webpage.
Posted in: Environment, Recycling, Sustainability
Tags: Athens, Austria, biomull, compost, Cooperative Extension, environment, EU, Europe, European Environment Agency, Georgia, Germany, green living, household waste, Mariastern Abbey, organic waste, recycle, recycling, recycling rate, rethinkwaste, single-stream recycling, Spain, sustainable, U.S., UGA
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE1003 | An Overview of the Grapefruit Market in South Korea | University of Florida | [
"Yan Heng",
"Hyeyoung Kim",
"Lisa House"
] | 2021-03-03 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | An Overview of the Grapefruit Market in South Korea
Yan Heng, Hyeyoung Kim, and Lisa House
## Introduction
According to the Foreign Agricultural Service/USDA (2016), worldwide consumption of fresh grapefruit has grown from 4.2 million metric tons (MT) in 2010/11 to 5.2 million MT in 2014/15. The increase in consumption is mostly attributed to China, which is also the largest producer, therefore doesn't impact the international market to a large degree. (The numbers reported by the FAS do not distinguish grapefruit and ponelo, but generally the production and consumption in China are attributed to pomelo, while the production and consumption in other countries are attributed to grapefruit.) Estimated grapefruit consumption in China was 3.8 million MT in 2014/15, followed by the European Union (EU) with 435,000 MT.
Consumption in many other countries shrunk between 2010/11 and 2014/15. For example, consumption of grapefruit in Japan, a major importer of grapefruit, shrunk 40%, while consumption in the United States and Canada decreased by approximately 16% and 10%, respectively. Many factors are pressureing grapefruit consumption, such as price, changes in consumer preferences, and competition from other fruit categories. Particularly, the reported interaction effect of grapefruit with certain medications, such as cholesterol drugs, may prevent the older population from consuming the fruit, while the younger generation may prefer grab-and-go fruits and sweeter taste.
On the production side, there have also been major changes. In the United States, the production of grapefruit declined nearly 30% in 2015 compared to 2011/UDA (FASEA). 6 This decrease is largely attributed to decreases in acreage and grinning disease, particularly in Florida, the largest producer of grapefruit in the United States. In 2014/15, production of Florida grapefruit was 548,000 tons, a weekly rate of nearly 35% compared to 2010/11 (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services [FDACS]) 2016. Other major producers include Mexico and South Africa, each with approximately 400,000/Mm 400,000 in 2011/UDA.
Regarding trade, the major grapefruit experts include the United States, South Africa, and Turkey. The EU is the largest importer of grapefruit, followed by Russia and Japan (FUSA/FASA 2016). The United States exports fresh grapefruit from Japan, the EU, Canada, and most recently, South Korea. With the United States, Florida is the major exporting state, accounting for 72% of US exports in 2014 (FDACS 2015). However, export trends for US grapefruit have been changing. Due to the shrinking domestic market and weakened local currency, US grapefruit exports to Japan and the EU have decreased 65% and 35%, respectively. However, South Korea has become a fast growing market for the US citrus. This study aims to provide an overview of the grapefruit market in South Korea and evaluate the potential of this market for free grapefruit producers using a consumer survey.
## Fresh Fruit Market in South Korea
South Korea ranked eleven by nominal gross domestic product (GDP); in the world in 2015, with 1,393 billion dollars. The buying power leads to consumers' interests in food quality and diversity; reflecting consumers' demand for health food. South Korea produces various vegetables and fruits, and the value of fresh vegetable and fruit accounts for nearly one third of the total agricultural output value in the country. However, majority of Korea's fruit production results were limited to apple, pear, peach, tangerine and personminister. Moreover, domestic producers no longer fully satisfy Korean consumers' growing demand and taste and tastes, and the annual capitula consumption of fruits increased from 41.8kg in 1996 to 60.2kg in 2013. Fruit imports have increased from $13.9 million to $19.6 million in (Korea Rural Economic Institute 2015).
South Korea has been reducing import barriers and imports having fruit to meet consumers' growing demand. Fruit imports have increased from $25 million in 2000 to $16.640 million in 2014 (Korea International Trade Association, 2016). The United States has been a major exporter of agricultural products to South Korea for decades. South Korea was the sixth largest US importer in 2016, with $6.01 billion in agricultural purchases (USDA/ERS). 2016, South Korea imports various fruits from the United States, including oranges, grapefruit lemons, grapes, and sweet cherries. Although the harvest season for many fruits is the same in the United States as South Korea's, US producers are finding markets in South Korea because of the quality and relative low costs.
## Grapefruit Market in South Korea
South Korea first imported grapefruit from the United States in 1988, with imports peaking in 1989. For the decade that followed, South Korean imports of US grapefruit declined because of a misinterpreted laboratory test on grapefruit for Alar, a chemical with a potential for causing cancer. Even though the mistake was corrected, it took time for consumers perception of US grapefruit to improve. Grapefruit imports eventually increased, reaching a historical record of 19,491 MT in 2014. As the increasing trend continued in 2015, the share of imports from the rest of the world also began to increase, from 10% in 2010 to 43% in 2015. Monthly grapefruit imports from the United States and rest of the world between 2010 and 2015 are shown in Figure 1.
Source: Korea International Trade Association
| | Grapefruit Imports in Volume (MT) | |
|------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|---------|
| 25000 | 20000 | |
| 20000 | 15000 | |
| 15000 | 10000 | |
| 5000 | 0 | |
| 2010/11 | 2011/12 | 2012/13 |
| Source: Korean International Trade Association | Source: Korean International Trade Association | |
## Source: Korean International Trade Association
South Korea imports fresh grapefruit from Florida from October to March, from California from April to June, and from South Africa from May to September. While the harvest season in South Africa is different from other exporters, US fresh grapefruit is competing head-to-head with red grapefruit from Israel, in particular, a variety Star Ruby, which is usually called 'Sweetie'. Grapefruit imports from South Africa and Israel have increased dramatically since 2012/13 to meet the increasing demand, whereas the rate of imports from the United States is increasing, but at a relatively slower rate. US grapefruit accounted for over 80% of South Korean imports until 2013, but decreased to 56% in 2014. One reason is that the import price of US grapefruit is still higher than grapefruit imported from Israel and South Africa. According to the Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which was implemented on March 15, 2012, the 30% tariff rate on US grapefruit will be reduced to zero in five equal annual installments. As a result, the price of US grapefruit is expected to decline in the future and help US grapefruit gain back the market share gradually.
## Korea Grapefruit Consumer Survey
As expanding consumption in the Korean market will benefit Florida grapefruit producers and exporters, the Florida Department of Citrus has recently focused on export promotions in South Korea. As part of the monitoring of this program, a national online survey was conducted in May 2015 regarding Korean consumer behavior and trends related to grapefruit consumption, as well as perception of US grapefruit. The targeted consumers in the survey were female shoppers, over 20 years of age and responsible for household food purchases. The survey consisted of questions regarding purchase decisions, shopping behavior, consumption frequency and habits, as well as the perceptions of grapefruit. A validation question was used to ensure the quality of the responses to the survey (Jones, House, and Gao, 2015). Demographic information, including age, education, marital status, and employment were also collected and are reported in Table 1.
A sample of 929 respondents was collected. Within the sample, about 26% of respondents reported that they have purchased grapefruit in the last six months (defined as active consumers). Of these active consumers, nearly 70% consumed grapefruit at least once per month (Figure 3). The top reasons for grapefruit consumers to purchase more grapefruit include eating grapefruit regularly (47%) and trying to eat healthier (46%). The top three factors that influence consumers' freshness are freshness (67%), good value (60%), and sweetness (50%). Over 67% of respondents who have purchased or intend to purchase grapefruit associated vitamin C:immune system support with grapefruit.
Figure 3. Consumption frequency over the last six months
The most popular occasions to consume grapefruit in South Korea is as a dessert and as a snack (Figure 4). Of respondents who purchased or intend to purchase grapefruit, 70% eat or would eat grapefruit as a dessert, and over half of them or would cut grapefruit as a snack.
| About 42% and 40% of respondents were aware that California and Florida produce grapefruit, 37% of grapefruit consumers indicated that they believe California was the source of their purchased grapefruit, and 35% indicated that Florida was their source of purchased grapefruit. Nearly half of the total respondents indicated that they will definitely or probably buy Florida |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| about grapefruit in the upcoming year. Respondents indicate that the major factor that would increase purchases of Florida grapefruit are price promotions (50%), better quality (48%), and |
Unlike traditional markets where consumers tend to be older, the survey shows that Korean active grapefruit consumers consist of younger respondents. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents by age and consumer type. The upper section compares grapefruit consumers and non-grapefruit consumers, where grapefruit consumers are defined as consumers who either purchased grapefruit in the past six months (active consumers) or those who did not purchase in the past six months but purchased in the past two years (lapsed consumers), and non-grapefruit consumers are defined as consumers who did not purchase grapefruit in the last two years. The bottom section compares the active grapefruit consumers and lapsed
grafiteur consumers. T-tests are used to test for the age differences between two types of consumers. Results show that a larger proportion of senior consumers (age 50 and above) have consumed grapefruit in the past two years, but consumers of age 30-are significantly more likely to be active consumers. Such results indicate that senior consumers are likely to stop purchasing grapefruit while younger consumers are likely to continue purchasing grapefruit in the current Korea market,
## Summary
The Korean grapefruit market has been increasing in recent years and is expected to keep growing. The United States has dominated the Korean grapefruit market but is facing fierce competition from other suppliers with lower import prices and different harvest seasons. According to a survey conducted with consumers in South Korea, grapefruit is perceived as a healthy food diet and providing vitamin C/supporting immune system. The United States is recognized as the top grower of grapefruit and the source of purchased grapefruit. Price and quality are key factors that influence consumers' grapefruit product with and with the implementation of Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement (which will gradually phase out the 30% grape tariff on US grapefruit), prices for US grapefruit in South Korea are expected to decrease. However, the price will be also influenced by production of the US grapefruit, which is likely to continue declining in the near future as the industry battles centrifuging.
Korean grapefruit consumers tend to be younger compared to traditional markets and usually consume grapefruit in drinks and desserts. As many older consumers are leaving the market because of the concern about the interaction effect between grapefruit and medication, the larger proportion of younger consumers in South Korea provides a potential market for grapefruit producers, and a market to learn from to see if the increase in consumption among young consumers can be replicated in other parts of the world.
## References
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. 2015. Fresth From Florida How to Export to Asia 'Available at:
https://www.flores.gov/standards/governorland/2018/14/15\_flowto\_Export.asp
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. 2016. Florida Citrus Statistics 2014-2015' Available at:
https://www.nass.usda.gov/statistics\_by\_state/FloridaPublications/Citrus/Statistics/2014-15/fsa1415.pdf
Jones, M., L. House, and Z. Gao. 2015. "Respondent Screening and SARP: Testing Quaranting Methods for Better Data Quality in Web Panel Surveys." Public Opinion Quarterly , 79(3):687-709.
Korea International Trade Association. 2016. "K-Statistics-By Commodity-All Countries" Available at: http://www.kita.org.ks/Stat/byCorn.AllCount.do.
Korea Rural Economic Institute, 2015. "Agriculture in Korea" Available at: https://www.krre.ke rz DATE/portlet-repositories/area/files/144854031908.pdf.
USDA-ERS. 2016. "Top 15 U.S. Agricultural Export Destinations, by calendar year, U.S. value." Available at: https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/foreign-agricultural-trade-of-theunited-states-fattics/calendar-year/.
USDA-FAS. 2016. "Citrus: World Markets and Trade" Available at: https://downloads.usda.library.cornell.edu/usa-edis/misc/files/wx6343603.1/148h542x96rkg87criuixwm-07-20. 2016.pdf
Table 1.
Summary statistics for demographic measures
View Table
Age differences: Active versus non-active consumers, active versus lapsed consumers
View Table
Release Date:
March 4, 2021
Reviewed At: April 9, 2024
DOI: 10.32473/edis-fei-F003-2017
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Lisa House
View PDF
## About this Publication
This is EDIS document FEI.003, a publication of the Food and Resource Economics Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Published February 2017. Revised April 2020. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
Yan Heng, assistant research scientist; Hyeyoung Kim, former research scientist; and Lisa House, professor and chair, Food and Resource Economics Department, UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL. Support for this study was provided by the Florida Department of Citrus.
## Related Pages
Food and Resource Economics |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/forage-conservation-troubleshooting-hay-and-silage-production | Forage Conservation: Troubleshooting Hay and Silage Production | NC State Extension | [
"Miguel Castillo",
"J. J. Romero"
] | null | [
"Hay",
"Forage Conservation",
"Forage Crop",
"Forage"
] | NC | ## Forage Conservation: Troubleshooting Hay and Silage Production
Forage Notes
Forages can be conserved in the form of hay, baleage, and silage. It is important to keep in mind that, at best, conserved forages can rarely match the nutritive value of fresh forage . Some losses of highly digestible nutrients start immediately after cutting and are unavoidable. The goal in forage conservation is to focus on minimizing losses.
## Should I Make Hay, Baleage, or Silage?
Take into account the suitability of the forage for either method, storage capability, weather conditions, and the intended use of the conserved forage (e.g. on-site vs. off-site consumption). Corn is usually considered an ideal crop for ensiling because of higher water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) concentration compared to other forages and because dry matter (DM) concentration is usually ideal (30% to 35% DM concentration) when harvested at milk stage. In general, crop suitability for ensiling follows the order of: corn, sorghum > ryegrass, orchardgrass, fescue, smallgrains > switchgrass, bermudagrass > legumes. In terms of hay production, as plant stem thickness increases, the less suitable the crop is for hay production. Thicker stems translate in greater radial distance from the stem core to the epidermis, which is the distance that water must travel to move out of the plant. Therefore, achieving high DM concentration (80 to 90% DM concentration) and consequently low moisture (
## What is the Difference Between Hay and Silage?
Hay is forage conserved in aerobic and limited moisture conditions (target should be
## Production of Hay
## What weather conditions are conducive to good haymaking?
High temperature, high solar radiation, and moderate wind speed (up to 12 mph). Also, look for low relative humidity (no more than 70%) and dry soils.
## At what plant maturity stage and how frequently should I mow?
The goal should be to mow at appropriate stubble height and frequency to ensure plant persistence and achieve high yields of high nutritive value forage. As a general rule, legumes should be clipped at early bloom and grasses (specially annuals) at boot to early head stages (Table 1). Clipping heights should ~2-4 in for alfalfa and smallgrains, 3-4 in for tall fescue, orchardgrass, and ~2-3 in for bermudagrass. Estimates of nutritive value at a given physiological stage can be found in Ext Pub , AG-803.
| Forage | Time of Harvest |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Alfalfa | Late bud to first flower for first cutting, first flower to 1/10 bloom for second and later cuttings. |
| Bluegrass, Orchardgrass, | Boot$^{1}$ to early head stage for first cut, aftermath cuts at 4- to 6-week intervals. |
| Tall Fescue, or Timothy | First flower to 1/10 bloom. |
| Red Clover or Crimson Clover | Oats, Barley, or Wheat |
| Rye and Triticale | Boot stage or before. |
| Annual Lespedeza | Early bloom and before bottom leaves begin to fall. |
| Ladino Clover or White Clover, | Cut at correct stage for companion plant. 30 to 40-inch height or early boot stage, whichever comes first. |
| Sudangrass, Sorghum Hybrids, | Pearl Millet, and Johnsongrass |
| Bermudagrass | Cut when height is 15 to 18 inches. |
| Caucasian Bluestem | Boot to early head stage. |
| Big Bluestem, Indiangrass, | Early head stage. |
| and Switchgrass | 1$^{o}$Boolst stage of growth of a grass just prior to seedhead emergence. This stage can be identified by the presence of an enlarged or swollen area near the top of the main stem. |
$^{1}$Boot is stage of growth of a grass just prior to seedhead emergence. This stage can be identified by the presence of an enlarged or swollen area near the top of the main stem.
## What can I do to speed up drying?
Conditioning (crimps and crashes stems an increases surface area exposed to air) can speed up drying rate and lower drying time by 1-2 days by physically breaking the stems. For alfalfa, check for crimped/broken stems every 4*, 90% stems should be crimped/broken, 40% moisture to prevent leaf losses (shattering).
## At what moisture should I bale for hay?
Bale when forage moisture concentration is lower than 20% (or DM concentration is higher than 80%). For every unit increase of moisture over 10% moisture there is a 1%-unit loss in dry matter during storage.
## What will happen if I bale my hay too wet?
Spoilage starts, plant respiration and microbial activity consume sugars and proteins, leaving behind fiber. As a consequence of microbial activity, heat will be generated (trigger Mailaillard reactions that result in less digestible compounds) and temperature can easily surpass 110ºF after a few days, lasting for many days. Risk of fire (instant combustion) is also significant under these conditions. In addition, molds can proliferate producing mycotoxins that can impact animal health and create a potential health hazard for humans consuming animal products. Heat generated can reduce the availability of remaining digestible protein and sugars for livestock.
## What can I do if I cannot avoid baling the hay wet?
One option is to use the wrapable balde forage and produce baleage (when moisture is 45 - 55%), if you have the equipment available for baleage production. Another option could be to apply acetic or propionic acid-based products (if moisture is 20 - 30%) while baling the material. These acids reduce microbial activity greatly and result in adequate conserved forages. Ammoniation or urea application are good options too. The economics and logistics (handling of acids) of these techniques should be specifically evaluated.
## Silage and H a l g e P ro d u c t i o n
## What is the difference between silage, haylage, and baleage?
Haylage is a type of low-moisture silage (40-55% dry matter concentration), also called baleage when baled and wrapped. As moisture in the forage decreases (meaning that DM concentration increases), fermentation activity decreases, and results in less acid production generation and higher pH compare to silage. Spoilage microbes do not proliferate under low moisture conditions; consequently, low moisture compensates for the less acidity to keep spoilage microbes under control.
## What are the keys for successful silage production?
Rapid air removal (good compaction), rapid acidification, and rapid feedout once the silo has been opened. Target characteristics of food silage production are:
## How do I achieve optimum silage conditions?
Ensilé at recommended moisture for crop and silo type (Table 2), pack to at least 14 lbs of DM/ft3, chop to 3/8 - ¼ inches for unprocessed corn, grasses, cereals, and legumes and ¾ inches for kernel-processed corn. Completely seal silo with silo-grade plastics (> 5mm UV resistant, dual layer). Extended shelf life at feedout can be achieved by using inoculants applied during ensiling.
| | Stage to harvest | ~ Dry matter (DM) concentration at harvest (%) | Management suggestions for ensiling |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Crop | Budge to 10% flower | 15-30 | Wilt to 30-50% DM |
| | | | |
| Alfalfa | flower | 15-30 | Wilt to 35-50% DM |
| Annual ryegrass, Tall Fescue, Orchardgrass | Boot to heading | 15-30 | Wilt to 35-50% DM |
| Bermudagrass | 1st cut: Pre-head (12-15" tall); Additional cuts: 4-5 weeks | 18-30 | Wilt to 40-50% DM |
| Corn | 1/4-2/3 milk-line down the kernel | 30-35 | Direct cut. Use 32- 40%DM for bags and 33-38% DM for tower silos. |
| Forage sorghum, Sorghum-sudan, millet | Boot or soft dough | 30-35 | Direct cut |
| Small grains | Boot to soft dough | 20-30 | Wilt to 35-45% DM |
| Switchgrass, gamagra s | Boot to heading | 25-30 | Direct cut |
## Why doing baleage is beneficial in certain situations?
Legumes are very hard to ensile due to their relatively low sugar concentration and high buffering capacity (that is the resistance to decrease pH). Certain spoilage bacteria can thrive in legumes (especially) and grass silages if pH is too high (> 4.5) and forage is too wet (
Baleage is an excellent option due to its flexibility, low capital cost (almost the same equipment for hay and a wrapper), and marketability. However, there is a very high risk of large spoilage and high variable cost (plastic).
## What is the suggested moisture for baleage?
Moisture should be between 45% and 55%. Try to make the bales as dense as possible and wrap immediately after baiting. If moisture is lower, for example 40%, chopping the material before wrapping may be necessary to promote fermentation.
## What extra care should I take during storage of baleage?
Since forage is not usually chopped (some equipment exceptions) and material is low-moisture, fermentation is limited (unlike silage). Under these conditions, anaerobic conditions and integrity of the bales is critical. If there is any loss of sea integrity, spoilage will move fast due to high porosity of bales and large surface exposed per unit of weight (especially for bale rows).
## What about the plastic wraps?
Plastic wrap or bags can be expensive and they should not be reused as they lose their flexibility and become more permeable. When baling use minimum 4 layers, ideally 7. Do not use treated sisal twine when baling as its oils can damage the wrap. If you make bale rows you will save in plastic. Average wrap cost is roughly $3-4 per bale.
## How do dry matter losses compare across forage conservation methods?
Greater DM losses occur during storage for silage and during harvest for hay (Figure 2.) The advantage of silage in reducing field losses is especially apparent in humid regions because it avoids most weather-related harvesting losses associated with hay.
## Literature Cited
Hoglund, C.R. 1964. Comparative storage losses and feeding values of alfalfa and corn silage crops when harvested at different moisture levels and stored in gas-tight and conventional tower silos. An appraisal of research results. Mich. State Univ., Dept. Agric. Econ. Mimeorg. 946.
Collins, M., and V.N. Owens. 2013. Preservation of forage as hay and silage. In Forages: An introduction to grassland agriculture, edited by R.F. Barnes R.F. e. al., Vol. 1, 6th ed., 443-471.
## Authors
Miguel Castillo
Forage Specialist & Assistant Professor -Forage and Grassland Program Crop and Soil Sciences
J. J. Romero
Research Associate Crop and Soil Sciences
Publication date: Jan. 1, 2013
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/choosing-the-right-cover-crop/ | Choosing the Right Cover Crop | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2018-07-30 | [
"Healthy Soils",
"Farming",
"Cover Crops"
] | AL | Choosing the right cover crop for your cropping system is an important step in the planning process.
What does the cover need to provide for the following crop? What is the planting time frame? Generally, producers should choose a cover crop of an opposite type to the next year's crop (ex: broadleaf versus grass, etc.).
## Cookie Notice
Consider the following factors when choosing cover crops.
- · Amount of biomass . For producers working to maximize weed suppression and increase soil organic matter, selecting cover crops or mixtures with a high biomass is key. However, producers who are new to planting cover crops, lower residue systems may be desirable as they adapt to planting
- · Soil/ pest problems . Consider the cover crop properties that are most desirable for the subsequent cash crop. Some covers may be better suited to controlling specific pest or soil problems.
- · Nitrogen requirements of subsequent crop. The timing of nitrogen release from decomposing cover crop residues is dependent on the type and quality of residue, so selecting appropriate covers and termination timing is key to maximizing the amount of nitrogen available to the next cash crop.
- · Planting/management costs . Consider the costs of seed, planting, fertilizing and termination of any given cover before choosing to plant.
- · Pesticide selection . Check all labels for rotation restrictions. Some labels have a special cover crop selection. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/waste-management/site-files/docs/articles/fish-breath-ok-porkpartner-a.pdf | Keep Manure out of The Creek and Thousands of Fish will Call You Friend | Oklahoma State University | [
"Hamilton",
"Douglas"
] | Error: time data "D:20141015094820-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Keep Manure out of The Creek and Thousands of Fish will Call You Friend
Doug Hamilton
Waste Management Specialist Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Fish have a hard time when it comes to finding enough oxygen to breathe. Oxygen must first dissolve into water before their gills can extract it. Oxygen dissolved in water is called dissolved oxygen (believe it or not) and it is usually referred to by the initials DO. If oxygen is used by plants and animals faster than it can dissolve into the water, DO concentration drops. If DO drops far enough, fish can no longer extract oxygen and they die.
There are two ways adding manure to water speeds up DO depletion.
The first one is eutrophication. Eutrophication occurs when excess plant nutrients cause algae, plankton, and aquatic plants to flourish. During the day, these organisms pump oxygen into the water. At night they remove oxygen. If nighttime removal outpaces daytime replenishment, DO drops to zero. Eutrophication takes place in lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries -- often far downstream from where the nutrients were introduced.
The second cause of DO depletion occurs when the organisms that decompose organic matter remove oxygen faster than it can be replaced. Nature stores energy as organic matter. Oxygen is a key ingredient in unlocking this energy. Paper is made almost entirely of organic matter. Burning a sheet of paper removes oxygen from the atmosphere. If you put a bucket on top of the burning paper, the fire will go out as soon as the oxygen is consumed. Aerobic microorganisms use the energy stored in organic matter to reproduce and grow. And just like a fire, these organisms consume oxygen from the environment. If they take too much DO from water, they and everything else living in the water dies.
Dissolved oxygen depletion due to microbial blooms happens close to the source of organic matter addition.
Microbial blooms are so devastating that the ability of organic matter to remove oxygen from water is the primary way we measure the pollutant strength of wastewater and manure. The two basic parameters are Oxygen Demand and Respiration Rate. The relationship between oxygen demand and respiration rate is illustrated in Figure 1.
Let's say wastewater is placed in a sealed container with an infinite amount of DO. The curve in Figure 1 represents the cumulative amount of DO removed from the liquid as microorganisms eat the organic matter. To determine the amount of DO removed from the liquid at any point in time, draw a line up from the x axis until you reach the curve, then pivot 90° to the left, and extend the line until you reach the y axis. The value given on the y axis is cumulative DO removed (mg) from the liquid, divided by the volume of liquid (L). This value is the oxygen demand of the OM. It is called "demand ", because the oxygen demand test was originally devised so sewage treatment plant operators could decide how much oxygen to pump into wastewater to degrade its organic matter. A common way of expressing oxygen demand is BOD. The initials BOD stand for Biological Oxygen Demand. BOD comes in two varieties: Ultimate BOD (BOD$\_{U}$) and Five Day BOD (BOD$\_{S}$). BOD$\_{U }$is the total amount of oxygen needed to completely degrade organic matter. In Figure 1, BOD$\_{U }$of the material in the bottle is 510 mg DO per liter. It usually takes 30 to 60 days to completely use up all the organic matter in wastes. To shorten the BOD test, we only measure the DO removed in the first 5 days of the experiment. Five days is important because this is the typical amount of time it takes wastewater to flow through a sewage treatment plant. The BOD$\_{S }$of the material in the bottle in Figure 1 is 390 mg DO per liter.
Respiration rate is the slope of the cumulative DO removal cure in the BOD test. As you can see in Figure 1, respiration rate is constantly changing over time. Oxygen removal rate is great early on in the test as the organisms consume the readily available energy. Further along, oxygen consumption
slows as the food supply dries up. To calculate respiration rate, pick any point on the curve and draw a line with a slope equal to slope of the curve at that point. Units for respiration rate are the slope (mg/time) divided by the volume (L).
Manure has been used in agriculture as long as man has raised animals and grown crops. It is a great source of organic matter and plant nutrients. Organic matter provided by manure builds soil moisture holding capacity, nutrient holding capacity, and particle aggregation. Decomposing soil organic matter supplies nutrients to the soil. The nutrients in manure and lagoon effluent add fertilizer elements directly to the soil.
Manure organic matter and nutrients, so good for soil, are a disaster when they hit water. In the next issue of OK pork partner, I will outline the steps to take when manure is spilled directly into or is split in a location making it likely to flow into aquatic habitats.
To read more about organic matter and how it is measured see OSU Factsheet BAE-1760, Organic Matter Content of Wastewater and Manure. This factsheet, and many others, can be found at http://osuwastemanage.bae.okstate.edu/. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/polk-county-forestry-impacts-2020 | Polk County Forestry Impacts 2020 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Suzanne Teague",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Natural Resources",
"Economics"
] | NC | ## Polk County Forestry Impacts 2020
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 9, 2022
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Suzanne Teague
Rajan Parajiuli
Robert Bardon
NC STATE EXTENSION |
https://extension.okstate.edu/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/soil/soil-testing/index.html | Soil Testing - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2019-12-19 | [] | OK | ## SOIL TESTING
## Filter by
Sort by: Date posted
## Soil Testing, The Right First Step Toward Proper Care of Your Lawn and Garden (https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/soil-testing.html)
Understanding soil tests allow lawn managers to effectively grow lawns and productive gardens by knowing what is missing from the soil and how to improve it.
Soil ((tags/soil/)
Soil Testing ((tags/soil-testing/)
## Chapter 1
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/stokes-county-forestry-impacts-2016 | Stokes County Forestry Impacts 2016 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Stokes County Forestry Impacts 2016
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 22, 2018
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Rajan Parajiul
Robert Bardon
□ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=stokes - county-forestry-impacts-2016#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/woodville-retail-analysis | Woodville Retail Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Woodville Retail Analysis
## Woodville Retail Analysis
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2945-305 | |
| View as PDF: P2945-305.pdf | |
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY | ► |
|----------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
| Your Extension Experts | Dr. James Newton Barnes |
| Extension Professor | Dr. Rachael Carter |
| Extension Specialist II | |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor | |
| Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor | |
| Related News | |
| OCTOBER 3, 2024 | OCTOBER 3, 2024 |
| Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition | Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition |
| FEBRUARY 1, 2024 | FEBRUARY 1, 2024 |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/07/03/renewable-energy-in-europe/ | Renewable Energy in Europe | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-07-03 | [
"Energy",
"Environment"
] | GA | ## Renewable Energy in Europe
Written by Pamela Turner
I was surprised that I saw few alternative sources of energy during my visit to Barcelona and Tarragona. I began to see wind turbines and solar panels when I crossed the border into France and even more as I traveled into Germany and Austria.
I did some research to see how much of Spain's energy comes from alternative sources when compared to other European countries. Although I did not see buildings using solar energy, Spain is a leader in the development of solar energy. Recently it was announced that renewable energy contributed 54% of Spain's electricity, mostly from hydropower and wind with photovoltaics and solar thermal accounting for about 5%. Sounds great, but the industry has been heavily subsidized and the economic crisis has not helped. Renewable energy is still a viable choice and things will improve in Spain, but it will take time.
In several European countries nuclear power still provides a significant amount of energy. After the Fukushima disaster in 2011 Germany vowed to shut down nuclear power in 10 years and replace it with renewable energy sources, thus reducing risks and cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2020. They have reduced nuclear power to less than 25% and about to 21% of their electricity comes from renewable sources like wind (37%), hydroelectric (19%) and solar (15%). In France about 75% of electricity comes from nuclear power and around 12% from renewable sources. The country that uses the most renewable energy is Iceland, where 100% of their energy comes from hydroelectric or geothermal sources.
The European Union(EU) isaiming at 20% of energy coming from renewable sources by 2020. This includes wind, solar, hydroelectric, geothermal and biomass. Using these sources of energy should help the EUreduce greenhouse emissions and make them less dependent on imported energy.
Posted in: Energy, Environment
Tags: Austria, climate change, energy, energy conservation, EU, Europe, European Union, France, geothermal, Germany, greenhouse gas, hydroelectric, hydropower, nuclear, nuclear power, photovoltaic, renewable energy, solar, solar panels, Spain, UGA, wind
## One response to "Renewable Energy in Europe"
easterbrookgibson July3,2013
Great cannot wait to start on our home in VA.
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https://extension.okstate.edu/articles/2023/bloat-wheat-grazing.html | Beef specialists warn of bloat on wheat pasture - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2023-03-16 | [] | OK | Cattle may have been turned on wheat pasture for grazing a little later than normal this year, but bloat from the new growth is still a concern. (Photo by OSU Agriculture)
## Beef specialists warn of bloat on wheat pasture
Thursday, March 16, 2023
Media Contact: Gail Ellis | Editorial Communications Coordinator | 405-744-9152 | gail.ellis@okstate.edu(mailto:gail.ellis@okstate.edu)
## Share
Varying degrees of drought across the state have caused cool-season grasses to grow a little later than usual this year, and Oklahoma State University Extension(https://extension.okstate.edu/index.html) specialists have received reports of bloat in calves grazing wheat and other small grain pastures.
Growing conditions improved for these pastures, which have been grazed short this winter with regrowth that is all highly digestible leaf.
"We have also had some late winter frost events that can damage the cell walls in the new growth, releasing the cell contents for rapid availability in the rumen, said
specialist. "These plant fractions are the most bloat provocative and can very quickly cause bloat in grazing calves."
Death can occur rapidly from bloat, but so can relief.
Calves can return to normal soon after supplements containing Bloatguard (Poloxalene 6.6%). Bloatguard is commercially available in blocks, mineral supplements and topdresses for concentrate supplements.
- · Don't wait until the bloat outbreak occurs. Have some type of block, supplement or mineral on hand that contains Bloatguard. Not all feed stores carry this item. Ranchers
may have to travel to another town to find it.
- · Feed calves a few days a week throughout the winter to keep them coming up to troughs so they can be easily gathered if bloat occurs.
- · Mineral or supplements providing ionophore monensin decrease the incidence and severity of bloat. This will make it more manageable to identify bloat outbreaks before they cause death losses and allow time to take corrective measures.
OSU Extension also offers the following guidelines in herd management this time of year(https://youtu.be/YHojEh9UE2o).
## Replacement heifers and spring breeding
- · Should be 14 to 15 months of age
- · Roughly at 2/3 of their mature weight
- · Over 90% of heifers at this age and weight will be fertile, ready to conceive and on schedule to calve at 2 years of age
"At this point in the year, typically if we've got normal wheat pasture in Oklahoma, it's relatively easy to get those heifers to that target weight, but if we've been in a situation with limited hay and feed resources and we've not had any winter cool-season grass to graze, we might want to take inventory of those beefers," said
Mark Johnson(https://experts.okstate.edu/mark.johnson), OSU Extension beef cattle breeding specialist. "If we've got some wheat pasture coming on or just need to adjust our feeding program, we've still got time to get those heifers to where they need to be to breed at 2 years of age."
## Body Condition score of cow herd
- · Heifers should be at about a 6
- · Cows should be at a 5 %
"Different feeding programs that we consider are supplemental feed, mineral supplementation and protein supplementation," Johnson said. "You could add in an onfore to cows' diets if we need to put on a little weight and body condition score going into calving season. That way, we can get prompt breed back and keep them on schedule for calving once a year."
## Deworming
Deworming can be the least expensive way for cattle to maintain or add body conditioning. Johnson recommends checking records and analyzing the cost effectiveness of deworming the herd.
Read more about preventing boat in the Feb. 6 issue of OSU Extension's
Cow-Calf (https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/cow-calf-cornerCorner the-newsletter-archives/2023/february-6-2023.html)
Newsletter
.
## Share
Animal Health and Sciences (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Animal%20Health%20and%20Sciences)
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Cattle (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Cattle)
OSU Agriculture (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=OSU%20Agriculture)
OSU Extension (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=OSU%20Extension)
grazing (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=grazing)
wheat (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=wheat) |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/stonewall-census-profile-2010-2020 | Stonewall Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s Stonewall Census Profile (2010-2020)
## Stonewall Census Profile (2010-2020)
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3716-396
View as PDF: P3716-396.pdf
Presentation File:
stonewall\_census\_presentation.pdf
Department: MSU Extension- Clarke County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
Filed Under: Economic Development
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/in-schools/meet-graino-supa/ | In Schools | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-17 | [
"Nutrition",
"Childhood Obesity",
"Education"
] | AL | extension
## Meet Graino Supa
Body Quest Warrior Graino Supa has the power of energy because he eats whole grains every day. Graino also likes to get together with his friends and family to play outdoor games.
(?post\_type=aces\_content\_piece&p=3223&preview=true)
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/mole-cricket-in-turf | Mole Crickets in Turf | NC State Extension | [
"Rick Brandenburg",
"Terri Billeisen"
] | null | [
"Pest Management",
"Insect",
"Insect Pest",
"Turfgrass Pest",
"Mole Cricket"
] | NC | ## Mole Crickets in Turf
TurffFiles
## Description
Over the past several years mole crickets have become the number one insect pest of home lawns,
golf courses, municipal and commercial properties, and sod farms along the North Carolina coast.
Two species are present as pests along the southeastern coast: the tawny mole cricket ( Scapteriscus vicinus ) and the southern mole cricket ( S. borellii ). The tawny is the most destructive species of mole cricket since it feeds almost exclusively on the roots and shoots of grass. Southern mole crickets may feed a little on the roots, but are primarily predators feeding on small creatures that live in the soil. Both species do considerable tunneling. A third species, the northern mole cricket ( Neocurtilla hexadactyla ) occurs throughout the state but is less damaging. The tawny mole cricket has been a pest in North Carolina only since 1987 but has become the most damaging species. This pest remains a challenge to effective management. Mole cricket management requires a full-scale program for best results. This publication recommends the most economical and effective mole cricket management plan.
Mole crickets require advanced planning and appropriate preinfestation management strategies, unlike other insects that can be effectively controlled once a threatening population is observed. If serious damage is allowed to occur before control is begun, the battle has already been lost for that particular year.
## Cultural Control
There is great interest and demand to develop nonchemical control technology for mole crickets in turfgrass. Great advances have been made in nonchemical control in the past few years; however, few approaches provide acceptable control at this time. The future does hold promise for new innovations. Studies have shown that the coarser textured bermudagrass cultivars are less susceptible to mole crickets than the finer textured hybrids. This knowledge may be used in turf areas where fine texture is not important. There has been considerable work on biological control of mole cricket in North Carolina. A parasitic fly has been released and studies are underway to determine its ability to establish here. In addition, work is still underway evaluating a parasitic nematode that attacks the mole cricket. Nematode sprays can be applied with conventional application technology. This nematode has shown good potential.
## Chemical Control
| Insecticide and Formulation | Amount per 1,000 sq ft | Precaution and Remarks |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| acephate* (Orthene T, T&O, Lesco-Fate) | 1 to 1.9 oz in. | Water soil before application. Do not water |
| bifenthrin* (Menace, Talstar, others) F. GC; G form also available | 0.5 to 1 fl oz | Use GC formulation for golf course. |
| carbaryl* (Sevin) baits | See label | |
| chlorpyrifos* (Dursban) B | 0.2 fl oz | Home lawn use only. |
| cyfluthrin* (Tempo 2, Tempo Ultra) | 2 to 3 lb | delamethrin (Deltagard) G |
| entomogenous nematodes* | See label | Various formulations now available. Adequate soil moisture critical for good control. |
| fipronil (Chippo Choice, others) 0.1 G (Top Choice, Fipronil, others) 0.0143 | 12.5-25 lb/A 2 lb | Use slit placement equipment. Apply as a broadcast. |
| imidacloprid (Merit) 75 WP 0.5G | 4 level tsp 1.8 lb | Apply while crickets are less than ½ inch long (June, early July). |
| indoxacarb (Advion) Insect G | 50 to 200 lbl/acre | Not for use on sod farms. DO NOT water in after application. |
| indoxacarb (Provaunt) | 0.275 oz | Must be in possession of a supplemental label for this use at the time of application. Two applications 2-4 weeks apart works best, following egg hatch. |
| lambda-cyalothrin* (Battle, Scimar, Cyonara) | See label | Do not make applications within 20 feet of any body of water. No reentry until spray has dried. |
| dinofeturan (Zylam) 20SG | See label | Apply at egg hatch. |
| zeta-Cypermethrin, bifenthrin, and imadacloprid | 20-35 fl oz/acre | do not make applications within 20 feet of any body of water. No reentry until spray has dried. |
## References
- · common name: shortwinged mole cricket scientific name: Neoscapteriscus abbreviatus
(Scudder) (Insecta: Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae): common name: southern mole cricket, scientific name: Neoscapteriscus borelli (Giglio-Tos). (Insecta: Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae): common name: tawny mole cricket, scientific name: Neoscapteriscus vicinus (Scudder). (Insecta: Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae). Capineira, J. L. and N. C. Leppla. 2018 (revised). Featured Creatures, Entomology & Nematology, DACS/DPI, EDIS Publication EENY-235
- · Mole Crickets and Their Natural Enemies. Anonymous. No Date. University of Florida. 2018 Pest Control for Professional Turfgrass Managers. Bowman, D. et al. 2017. NC State Extension Publication AG-408. 81 pp.
- · NC State Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- · NC State Horticultural Science Department Publications
- North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
## Authors
## Rick Brandenburg
Extension Specialist (Peanuts & Turf) & Department Extension Leader Entomology & Plant Pathology
## Terri Billieisen
Extension Associate Entomology & Plant Pathology
## Publication date: Oct. 25, 2017
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A.State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/starkville-covid-19-sales-subject-sales-tax-analysis | Starkville COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | ## Starkville COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3480-338
View as PDF: P3480-338.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Oktibbeha County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
FEBRUARY 1, 2024
Extension provides training for tourism professionals
Filed Under: Economic Development
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/nitrogen-release-from-cover-crops/ | Healthy Soils | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Healthy Soils",
"Farming",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-4221 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
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<article id="post-4221" class="post-4221 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-healthy-soils category-indicators-of-soil-health category-soil-health-benefits category-what-is-soil tag-alabama-healthy-soils tag-conservation-cropping-systems tag-conservation-practices tag-conservation-systems tag-cover-crop-selection tag-farm-conservation-practices tag-planting-cover-crops tag-soil-conservation tag-soil-conservation-systems tag-soil-health tag-soil-health-benefits first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Nitrogen Release from Cover Crops">
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Nitrogen Release from Cover Crops </div>
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<li>July 26, 2018</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Audrey Gamble</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/nitrogen-release-from-cover-crops/"></div><p>Producers have been planting legumes in crop rotations to improve soil fertility for many decades, especially in the southeastern United States. Legumes are also recognized as valuable crops in water and soil conservation programs. Therefore, producers have a renewed interest in these plants because of the benefits observed in systems that use conservation tillage for grain production.</p>
<p>Nutrient management boils down to determining the right rate, source, timing, and placement of nutrients. Of particular concern is nitrogen (N). Because it readily leaches down through the soil, runs off into surface water, and volatilizes into the atmosphere, it is important for farmers to have a strong handle on their N application.</p>
<p>Cover crops can greatly influence nitrogen management by providing available N for cash crops. They also immobilize nitrogen and create the need for more fertilizer for cash crops. The amount of available N and the timing of release is complex. Plant biomass quantity and quality have a direct effect on the availability of nitrogen available from cover crop decomposition. Other factors include: species mixture composition, cover crop management—or termination timing—and climate.</p>
<p>A producer’s ultimate goal is to maximize N efficiency by decreasing nitrogen loss from the system. Producers should also work to maximize synchronization between nitrogen release from cover crop biomass and cash crop N demand.</p>
<h1>More Information</h1>
<p><a href="https://www.southernsare.org/SARE-in-Your-State/North-Carolina/State-News/Cover-Crops-Research-Across-the-Southern-Region/Nitrogen-Release-from-Cover-Crops">For more information on N release from cover crops, download a PDF from Southern SARE. </a></p>
<p><i>This product was developed with support from the Southern Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (Southern SARE) program, which is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture—National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA). Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed within do not necessarily reflect the view of the Southern SARE program or the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.</i></p>
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Duncan Hall<br />
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/EP593 | Biology and Management of Galinsoga (Galinsoga quadriradiata) in Ornamental Crop Production | University of Florida | [
"Thomas Smith",
"Chris Marble",
"Shawn Steed",
"Nathan Boyd"
] | 2020-10-19 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Biology and Management of Galinsoga (Galinsoga quadriradiata) in Ornamental Crop Production
Thomas Smith, Chris Marble, Shawn Steed, and Nathan Boyd
## Introduction
Galinsoga ( Galinisoga quadriradiata ) is an erect ( upright ), herbaceous, short-lived warm-season annual weed in Florida landscapes, container nurseries, and other agricultural production systems ( Figure 1 ). In nurseries and landscapes, galinisoga can be a troublesome weed, but it has been utilized by some cultures for food or medicinal purposes ( Nafici 2016). This article is written for green-industry professionals and others to aid in the identification and management of galinisoga in and around ornamental plants.
## Species Description
## Class
Dicotyledon
## Family
Asteraceae ( Aster family)
## Other Common Names
Peruvian diazinys , shaggysoidsherry, hairy galinisoga
## Life Span
Warm-season annual
## Habitat
Galinisoga is a common weed in agricultural fields, contain-grown ornamentals, landscape planting beds, lawns, gardens, and other disturbed areas. In container nurseries, galinosa can be found in containers, in pot drain holes, growing through weed mats, and in noncrop areas around the nursery. In landscaping, it is frequently found growing in turfgrass or in mulched planting beds but is also commonly found in cracks in sidewalks and between patio pavers. Galinisga has a strong competitive advantage in high-light environments and prefers warm and sunny locations ( Damalas 2008 ).
## Distribution
Galinisoga is native to Central and South America. Due to its highly invasive potential, galinisga has naturalized throughout the Americas, Europe, and Africa and is considered invasive in at least 40 countries ( Rajas - Sandoval and Acevedo - Rodriguez 2014). In Florida, galinisga is found throughout the state, but it is more commonly a nuisance in central and south Florida ( Wunderlin et al., 2020 ).
## Growth Habit
Stems are upright and reach 8 to 32 inches in height. Plants grow and mature quickly and can seed multiple generations per growing season ( Kajas - Sandoval and Acevedo -Rodríguez 2014 ).
## Seedling
Seeding are erect with round cotyledons and a multilibed stem. Sterns are usually sparsely hairy ( Warwick and Sweet 1933 ) ( Figure 2 ). Seedling germination is highest during the spring and throughout summer and early fall, from March to October. In field soils, germination is common after the soil is disturbed ( tillage, planting, etc.), but seeds germinate readily in nursery potting soils. In warmer regions of central and south Florida, germination may occur year-round. Germination can occur between 50°F and 95°F and tends to increase as light increases, indicating that it readily germinates on the soil surface ( Damallas 2008 ).
Figure 2. Galinsoga (Galinsoga quadradiata) seedlings. Credit: Annette Chandler, UF/IFAS
## Shoots
Stemers emerge from a shallow, fibrous root system. Leaves are simple, oppositely arranged, and narrow to oblong, and they have a pointed tip (Figure 3). Leaf margins are described as crenulate, meaning that they have small, rounded teeth or seerations. Leafs are 0.4 to 4.3 inches long and 0.2 to 1.6 inches wide (Warwick and Sweet 1983). On the lower region of stems, leaves have a petiole connecting the leafblade and stem. Leaves on the upper regions of the stems, however, are without a petiole (sessile) (Rajas-Sandoval and Acevedodriguizió).
## Roots
Galinsoga has a shallow and somewhat fibrous root system. It does not form rhizomes.
## Inforescence
The inflorescence, or flower, is typical of plants in Asteraceae (sunflower or daisy family). What is typically described as being a single flower on plants in this family is actually a cluster of many small flowers grouped together in a flower head. In galinsoga, the white 'petals' are ray flowers. There are five of these white ray flowers, which have three 'teeth' at the tip of the ray. The center of the flower head is yellow and is comprised of many disc flowers. The entire flower head (ray and disc flowers) measures 0.2 to 0.3 inches in diameter, and several hundred flower heads can form on a mature gallinosa plant (Rajas-Sandoval and Aceveddo-Rodríguez 2014; Damalas 2008) (Figure 3).
Credit: Annette Chandler, UF/IFAS
## Fruit and Seeds
Fruit are achenes (dry, one-seeded fruit). Seeds are black and 1 to 1.5 mm long. Seeds can remain viable for more than 2 years and are the primary mechanism of galinsoga spread. Seeds are easily transported by wind and water (Dalamas 2008).
## Similar Species
While there are 14 species of Galinsoga worldwide (Rajas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez 2014), the two most common species of Galinsoga found in nurseries are G. quadriradiata and G. parviflora (small-flower galinosa). Currently, only G. quadriradiata is documented in Florida (Wunderlin 2020). Both species are summer annuals and can be troublesome weeds in landscapes or container ornamentals. The primary difference between the two species is that G. parviflora has fewer hairs (pubescence) on its stems and leaves compared with G. quadriradiata (Dalamas 2008; Warwick and Sweet 1983).
## Plant Biology
Galinisga is one of the most troublesome weeds of nurseries and landscapes in many parts of the world. It is fast growing and can produce up to 7,500 seeds within only 8 to 9 weeks after germination (Kagima 2000). After seeds mature on the plant, they are immediately viable and can begin to germinate and grow after making contact with the soil, which leads to multiple generations per season (Dalamas 2008).
## Management
## Physical and Cultural Control
Due to limited herbicide options, prevention of weed establishment is the most successful method of management for galinosga and most other weed species in container nurseries and landscapes. Scout and monitor fields regularly and hand-weaved escaped seedlings before flowering occurs. Because galinosga can regrow after being cut, ensure that roots are removed and plants are not simply clipped during weeding. Research has shown that galinosa germination is significantly reduced as planting depth increases (Cauwer et al., 2013). Therefore, application of mulch may prevent or reduce establishment and spread. In nursery containers, much such as pine bark nuggets, rice hulls, or wood chips can be applied at depths of 1 to 2 inches. In landscapes, pine bark nuggets, pine straw, or other materials can be applied at depths from 2 to 4 inches. Mowing and tillage have not been effective long-term strategies for gallinasgo because plants can tolerate mowing, and tillage may increase germination due to soil disturbance (Dalamis 2008).
## Chemical Control
Most selective postemergence herbicides labeled for use in nurseries and landscapes control guilanosa. In noncrop areas or planting beds, nonselective systemic (translocated) herbicides such as glyphosate can be used. Smaller gallinasoga may be controlled by nonselective contact herbicides, such as glafosinate (Finale), diquat (Reward), or pelargonic acid
(Scythe), but repeated applications may be needed for larger plants.
Many broad-spectrum preemergence herbicides can be used for gallinosoga control. Herbicides such as flumioxazin (Broadstar or SureGuard), dimethen amid -P + pendimethalin (Freeland, and isoxab (Gallenay) have been shown to be effective for gallosigna control and are labeled for use in nurseries or in landscape planting beds. A complete list of preemergence herbicide options, including the use sites where the herbicides are registered, is included in Table 1.
## References
Cauber, B. R., D. Revsos, S. Clachorout, R. Bulcke, and D. Rehuel. 2013. "Seed Dormancy, Germination, Emergence, and Seed Longevity in Galinsoga parviflora and G. quadrifida radiana." Weed Res. 54:38-47.
- Damalas, C. 2008. "Distribution, Biology, and Agricultural Importance of Galinsoga parviflora (Asteraceae)." Weed Biology and Management 8 (3): 147-153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1456-6642.2008.00290.x
Kagima, D. 2000. "Bibliography and Biology of Galinsoga spp." Ames, IA: The ISU Weed Biology Library, Iowa State University.
Nafcii, S. 2016. "Weed of the Month: Gallinas' Urban hardening and Ecology Garden News Blog, Brooklyn Botanical Gardens. Accessed 18 Feb. 2020. https://www.blogg.harv.com/news/weeded\_of\_the\_month\_gallasingo.sa
Rojansandova, J., and P. Acevedoro-Rodríguez. 2014. "Giannasquada quadrifidata (Shagy Soldier) Datashie" CAB International. Accessed 16 Mar. 2020. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/10145
USDA, NDC's. 2020. "The PLANTS Database: Accessed 20 Feb. 2020; https://plants.annual-pourl.ca/pages/mega-baza/PABA.pdf
Warwick, S., and R. Sweet. 1983. "The Biology of Canadian Weeds. 58. Galinsoga parviflora and G. quadrifida." Canadian Journal of Plant Science 63:695-709. Accessed 18 Feb. 2020. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjsps3.807
Wunderlin, R. P., B. F. Hansen, R. Franck, and F. B. Essig. 2020. "Atlas of Florida Plants." Accessed 4 Mar. 2020. http://flordiaplanatlas.usf.edu
View Table
Publication #ENH1329
Release Date: October 20, 2020
Reviewed At: November 28, 2023
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-epf593-2020
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Chris Marble
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is ENH11329, one of a series of the Department of Environmental Horticulture, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date October 2020. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Thomas Smith, graduate research assistant, Department of Environmental Horticulture; Chris Marble, assistant professor, Department of Environmental Horticulture, UF/IFAS MidFlorida Research and Education Center; Shawn Steed, militcity environmental horticulture extension agent III; and Nathan Boyd, associate professor, Horticultural Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Gulf Coast REC; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/symposiums/site-files/documents/blue-print-for-the-right-kind-1988/13-bull-power-merrill-page-71.pdf | Blue print May 1988.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [
"alavick"
] | Error: time data "D:20150828144745-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Bull Power
A Commercial Cow-calf Perspective
John L. Merrill XX Ranch Crowley, Texas
Two disclaimers should open this discussion: The views expressed are my own, not those of the sponsors, which I am sure will be a great relief to them. Secondly, as the title is meant to convey, these thoughts are one perspective, not a summary, for there probably are almost as many viewpoints as there are cow-calf producers.
Son John and I represent the fourth and fifth generations to ranch in Texas from before the War between the States. We have used the XXX and Running M brands since 1872, when my grandfather ran Longhorns, subsequently using Durham (Shorthorn) bulls and then Herefords. I grew up in a registered commercial Hereford operation followed by 20 years with registered Angus together with and later separate from my father. We were charter members of Performance Registry International, weighed every calf, and kept individual performance records for many years. Since 1967, I have run a commercial crossbred cow-calf and stocker operation. During this time we have used four breeds of bulls extensively and six other breeds of bulls to a lesser extent. I certainly must be color-blind, and hopefully not very prejudiced.
We have evolved into a spring calving, four breed rotational cross using Angus, Brown Swiss, Hereford, and Santa Gertrudis sires, mostly on native tallgrass rangeland with 41% bulk cottonseed cake or whole cottonseed as protein supplement or small grain grazing when available. When we do things well, we averaged a 94% weaned calf crop percent from all cows exposed over a four year period. When we do things less well, that percentage drops. At weaning and yearling time, we run budget projections to decide whether we should own the cattle longer, or let someone else. Whether for ourselves or others, we are very concerned that our cattle perform well at every stage to the consumers' plate. We try to take optimum advantage of new technology from researchers themselves and from extension and industry people and publications in a lifelong learning mode.
Regardless of breed, our criteria for bull selection to meet our needs and those of our customers have remained fairly stable over the years. Show judges can change their minds on traits between shows or seasons, but cow herds cannot and should not change that much nor that often.
Our first concern is functional and reproductive soundness in the broadcast context. Don Dwyer's detailed animal behavior studies indicated that range bulls travel twice as far as cows and grazed only half as long during the breeding season. We check eyes, teeth, feet and legs for functional soundness. The forelegs should be relatively straight from both front and side views. The hind legs should be relatively straight from the rear, but only enough curve from the side
to provide a spring effect without being either post-legged or sicklehocked. Feet and leg problems increase with increasing age and weight.
Reproductive soundness would include internal and external examination of reproductive organs with special attention to scrotal circumference or size in proportion to age and sheath attachment with no extended prepuce. A satisfactory semen exam and indications of libido with strong expression of male secondary sexual characteristics would complete this area of concern.
There are two other major categories of economically significant characteristics that relate back to reproduction and forward through production to quantity and quality of the product. In economic priority, the next concern would be to discern the maximum growth rate level of performance that would not result in increased birth weight to the point of calving difficulty, that would not produce a replacement heifer whose requirements exceed our resources, and that would not result in a desirably finished carcass too big to fit the boxed beef trade.
To be more specific, in our area that bull would have a birth weight of 80 pounds or less, a 205 day adjusted weaning weight of 530 plus or minus 20 pounds, an A.D.G. on feed of 3.5 plus or minus 0.5 pounds, and a 12 month weight of 1000 plus or minus 50 pounds with a frame score of 5 to 6. At maturity he would weigh 1800 pounds. These weight ranges would be higher for cooler, drier regions and lower for hotter, more humid regions. It is important not to confuse genetics and environment related to growth and size.
His steers would wean at about 500 pounds, gain 2 pounds per day on high quality forage, at least 3 pounds per day in the feedlot, and at 1050-1200 pounds liveweight have a high percent of choice YG 2 carcasses weighing 700-750 pounds. His heifers would conceive at a 90% rate at 13 to 15 months of age, calve easily, milk well, and weigh 900 to 1100 pounds at maturity.
Since we need all the flexibility we can get to adjust to widely varying and rapidly changing conditions, and since half our calves are heifers, we have no interest in a bull, breed, or cross that will not produce good steer s and good replacement heifers for ourselves or someone else. A normal (whatever that is) spread between steers and heifers as calves and yearlings is $2.00 per hundred weight, when there is replacement interest competing with stocker and feeder buyers. When that interest is absent due to declining female numbers or the heifers are not desirable as replacements, that spread widens to $8.00 to $15.00 per hundred. At that spread, only the heaviest heifers will even repay their cost of production at weaning.
The matter of body size and growth rate reflect directly in the amount of nutrients available above those requirements for reliable reproduction in both bulls and females as shown in Table l. I repeat for emphasis that for efficiency and economy, performance data and E.P.D.'s should be used to select not for maximum growth, milk production and size, but to select the optimum range of performance
levels commensurate with resources, management level, and desired weight and size of end product.
| Breeding Female | Bull | Steer |
|--------------------|-------------|-------------|
| Fattening | Fattening | Fattening |
| Breeding | Breeding | Growth |
| Growth | Growth | Growth |
| Lactation | | |
| Feetus Development | | |
| Maintenance | Maintenance | Maintenance |
The third major category of selection in terms of economic priority is conformation. In bulls, we select for a shoulder that is muscular, but not coarse, and smoothly laid in at an angle that contributes not only to soundness and easy movement, but easy calving as well. The back should be rounded or quinset-shaped when in breeding condition, rather than flat. The rump should be long from hooks to pins and wide between hooks and between pins. The hindquarter should be deep, as measured from pins to shocks, and with a good cross-section from hook to hock and pin to stifle. From the rear, the hindquarters should be widest through the stifle with good width between the legs.
Notice that those dimensions emphasize muscle mass in length of muscle versus bulge of muscle that increases calving difficulty. No one has yet sold a big, muscle-bound calf that died at birth, perhaps taking his dam with him. The length of rump and depth of hindquarter with the hind leg placed in the center of the hindquarter contribute not only to desirable muscularity, but also to soundness and a more rectangular side view related to reproductive efficiency.
Reliance on bone structure to indicate muscularity and familiarity with particular sites of fat deposition will help differentiate between muscle and fatness. Increasing refinement of ultrasound and other techniques will provide a giant step forward in objective measurement of muscularity and fat deposition in live animals instead of the gross visual estimates most often used. Excessively large ribbons may become more of a liability than asset.
In the current emphasis on lean end product, we must not overlook the functions of fat in production and reproduction as insulation and stored energy. In the cow, a desirable level must be restored at least from weaning to next parturition with some carryover reflected in a condition score of 5 to 6 for reliable rebbreeding. In colder climates, the energy requirement and fat level is higher for maintaining body temperature. Previous reference to bulls' lower intake and higher energy use during breeding requires that bulls gain sufficient fat levels before breeding to provide an adequate reserve of energy during breeding.
The history of the beef cattle business is one of immoderate reaction from too small to too large and, unless we are careful, now
References
Bonsma, J.C. 1965. Wortham lectures in animal science. pp. 53- 82. Texas A & M University Press, College Station, TX.
Dwyer, D.D. 1961. Activities and grazing preferences of cows with calves in osage county oklahoma. Oklahoma State University B-588, Stillwater, OK.
Taylor, R.E. Beef production and the beef industry. pp. 376-393. Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, Minn. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/articles/2022/pesticide_disposal_spring.html | Unwanted pesticide disposal events set for Ada and Hobart - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-04-11 | [] | OK | Oklahoma State University's Pesticide Safety Education Program is partnering with the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry to host two unwanted pesticide disposal days. (Photo by Todd Johnson, OSU Agricultural Communications Services)
## Unwanted pesticide disposal events set for Ada and Hobart
Monday, April 11, 2022
Media Contact: Trisha Gedon | Communications Specialist | 405-744-3625 | trisha.gedon@okstate.edu(mailto:trisha.gedon@okstate.edu)
## Share
Now that spring has sprung, many Oklahomaans are busy with seasonal cleaning. While much of the focus is on removing dust bunnies in the corners and uncluttering closets and cabinets, one shouldn't forget about old pesticides lurking on dusty shelves in the barn or garage.
To help make disposing of these unwanted chemicals easier, Oklahoma State University's Pesticide Safety Education (https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticicide-safetyprogram education/index.html)
is partnering with the
Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry (https://ag.ok.gov/) to host two unwanted pesticide disposal days in Ada on April 26 and Hobart on April 28.
The Oklahoma Unwanted Pesticide Disposal Program events will take place from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. at the Pontotoc County Agri-Plex, 1710 N. Broadway in Ada; and the Kiowa County Fairgrounds, 302 N. Lincoln St. in Hobart.
Farmers, ranchers, applicators, pesticide dealers and homeowners are invited to bring up to 2,000 pounds of pesticides to the drop-off sites for proper disposal at no charge. A fee will be required for those bringing more than 2,000 pounds of pesticides.
Charles Luper, an OSU Extension(https://extension.okstate.edu/) associate with the OSU Pesticide Safety Education Program, said the disposal days began in 2006 and have collected and properly disposed of more than 1.2 million pounds of unwanted pesticides.
"The last thing we want to see is these products disposed of improperly. By offering this free service a couple of times per year around the state, we're helping keep these chemicals out of landfills, rivers, streams, storm drains and illegal roadside dumps," Luper said. "This has a positive impact on our environment, lessens the chance of groundwater contamination and helps people get rid of containers taking up space in their barns, garages or businesses in an environmentally safe manner."
Aside from cleaning out their own property, some families may be faced with cleaning out barns and storage buildings of older relatives who have passed away. Some of the chemicals they come across could be 40 or 50 years old. The Oklahoma Unwanted Pesticide Disposal Program is a great opportunity to safely get rid of these chemicals.
ODAFF has contracted with Clean Earth, a licensed hazardous waste company, to collect and properly dispose of waste pesticides. Pesticide dealers are asked to preregister (https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticide-safetypreregister(https://extended-pesticide-disposal-program/index.html)
through the OSU Pesticide Safety Education Program. Applicators and agricultural producers are not required to preregister.
'Pesticide dealers are asked to preregister because of the potential for large quantities of pesticides coming from multiple dealers or multiple locations,' Luper said. 'This will help the Clean Earth company know what will be needed on site to effectively handle the quantity of pesticides collected. Please keep in mind paint, batteries, oil or fertilizer will not be accepted.'
Participants will need to safely transport their pesticides to one of the collection sites. Pick-up services are not available. Please check out these
safe ( https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticide-safetytransportationeducation/unwanted-pesticide-disposal-program/index.html) tips .
For more information, visit the OSU Pesticide Safety Education Program website or contact Luper at 405-744-5808.
## Share
```
Food Land and Natural Resources (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?
tags=Food%20Land%20and%20Natural%20Resources)
Human Health and Wellness (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Human%20Health%20and%20Wellness)
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Outreach and Engagement (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Outreach%20and%20Engagement)
environment (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=environment)
insecticides (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=insecticides)
pesticides (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=pesticides)
``` |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/bakerco/2022/02/24/floridas-native-redbud-leafcutting-bees/ | Florida’s Native Flora & Fauna: Eastern Redbud & Leafcutting Bees | University of Florida | [
"Alicia Lamborn"
] | 2022-02-24 | [
"Conservation",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"Natural Resources",
"SFYL Hot Topic",
"Wildlife",
"bees",
"featured",
"Landscaping",
"native plants",
"special topics",
"wildlife habitat"
] | FL | Home » UF/IFAS Extension Baker County » Florida's Native Flora & Fauna: Eastern Redbud & Leafcutting Bees
## Florida's Native Flora & Fauna: Eastern Redbud & Leafcutting Bees
Featuring some of Florida's native flora (plant life) and fauna (animal life) so you can learn to recognize, appreciate, and protect native species.
by Alicia Lamborn
Posted: February 24, 2022
Category: Conservation, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Home Landscapes, Horticulture, Natural Resources, SFYL HotTopic, Wildlife
Tags: Bees, Featured, Landscaping, Native Plants, Special Topics, Wildlife, Wildlife Habitat
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Upcoming Virtual Events
- City Tree Planting Project & Florida-Friendly Landscaping Class
- Growing Strawberries: Free Online Class
- Houseplant & Succulent Plant Sale |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1980/80-35.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090306102215-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Corn Processing and Alfalfa Level Effect on Digestibility
S.R. Rust, F.N. Owens and D.R. Gill
## Story in Brief
The influence of alfalfa level (0 to 92 percent) on nutrient digestibility of rations containing whole shelled corn or steam flaked corn was tested with 16 growing beef steers. Steers were fed ad libitum, and all rations contained more than 13 percent crude protein. Increasing the alfalfa level in the diet decreased organic matter intakes and digestibility, increased ruminal ammonia (up to 40 percent alfalfa), increased ruminal and fecal pH and decreased fecal starch. Starch from steam flaked corn was 6.2 percentage units more digestible than the starch from whole shelled corn. Studies with other types of roughages (silage, cottonseed hulls, etc.) indicate that starch digestion in the small intestine is depressed with added roughage. At intakes achieved in this study (2 percent of body weight), digestion in the cecum compensated so the starch digestibil- ity was not depressed.
## Introduction
Starch is the main chemical component of high concentrate-finishing diets for feedlot steers. Therefore starch digestion is of considerable economic interest. The site as well as the extent of starch digestion can be influenced by grain processing, residence time in the rumen, rougheage level, feed intake, protein level, salivary input and other factors. This study was conducted to measure digestibility of steam flaked and whole shelled corn rations with different levels of added chopped alfalfa.
## Materials and Methods
Sixteen steers (869 lb) were fed whole shelled or steam flaked corn rations with different levels of alfalfa (5, 15 and 40 percent). Steers were housed in individual pens and fed ad libitum with fresh feed added once daily. Feed refusals were visually observed for sorting and recorded daily. The diet (Table I) was formulated to contain at least 13 percent crude protein. Chemical analysis of the ration components is provided in Table 2. The supplement was fed a 7.8 percent of the diet. The supplement (Table 3) was formulated to contain adequate concentrations of vitamins and minerals. Chromic oxide was added to the supplement such that the total diet contained .2 percent. This indigestible marker was used to determine nutrient digestibility. Fecal samples were gathered at 0600 hrs for 3 to 5 days after a 9- day adjustment period. Rumen samples were collected the final day of each period via stomach tube.
## Results and Discussion
As the roughage content of the diet increased, organic matter intake and digestibil -ity decreased (Table 4). However, the digestibilities of starch and nitrogen were not altered. Added fiber in the ration can account for the reduced organic matter digestion. Other studies in this report suggest that roughage substitution for concentrate shifts the
site of starch digestion from the small intestine to the rumen and also reduces digestion in the small intestine. Remaining starch can be partially digested in the cecum and large intestine. At the feed intake of steers in this study (about 8 kg or 2 percent of body weight), digestion in the large intestine apparently compensated so that total starch digestion was unaltered. At higher intakes, the digestive capacity of the lower gut might
| | WSCa | SFCa | <nl> | |
|----------------|--------|--------|---------------------------|---------------------|
| Roughage level | 0 | 5 | 15 40 92 5 | 15 40 |
| Cornb | 92.16 | 87.16 | 77.16 52.16 0 | 87.16 77.16 52.16 |
| Alfalfa | 0 | 5 | 15.00 40.00 92.16 5.00 | 15.00 40.00 40.00 |
| Supplement | 7.84 | 7.84 | 7.84 7.84 7.84 | 7.84 7.84 7.84 |
```
wsc = whole shelled corn; SFC = steam flaked corn.
ingredients expressed as a percentage of "as fed" ration.
```
| | SFc^ | WSCa | Alfalfa |
|------------------|--------|--------|-----------|
| Dry matter, % | 80.83 | 84.47 | 89.38 |
| Crude protein b | 9.76 | 9.72 | 18.73 |
| Ash content b | 1.38 | 1.47 | 8.93 |
| Starch content b | 64.58 | 64.97 | 5.43 |
```
\begin{array} { l } { { \mathrm WSC = \, \, \,
%Ground corn17.4Alfalfa dehy4.9Soybean meal39.3Cane molasses3.0Dicalcium phosphate2.6Calcium carbonate10.9Potassium chloride1.5Salt.2Urea8.8Sodium sulfate1.8Chromic oxide2.5Trace mineral mix.2Vitamin A+Vitamin D+
dry matter basis.
```
be exceeded, causing a depression in starch digestion. Older animals may have less ability to handle starch as well.
Digestibilities of the mixed rations may be compared with digestibility of alfalfa hay alone or the higher concentrate ration to see if associative effects were present. Organic matter digestibility was reduced by 3, 4 and 6 percent at 5, 15 and 40 percent alfalfa levels, respectively. This slight drop in digestibility can be costly to feed efficiency and cattle feeding profits. Therefore, alfalfa level in rations should probably be either high or low to maximize digestibility. Ruminal ammonia concentration was highest at the 40 percent level of alfalfa (Table 5). Ruminal and fecal pH decreased as level of roughage increased. Fecal starch percentage was directly related to the proportion of corn in the diet.
| Roughage level | |
|---------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| Intake (kg/day) | |
| Dry matter | 7.19 7.51 7.58 6.51 5.75 |
| Organic matter | 6.94ab 7.22a 7.23a 6.08bc 5.19c |
| Digestible dry matter | 5.78ab 5.79a 5.67ab 4.49bc 3.60bc |
| Digestible organic matter | 5.64ab 5.66a 5.49a 4.33bc 3.41bc |
| Digestibility (%) | |
| Dry matter | 80.8d 77.3d 74.9de 68.8eff 62.9f |
| Organic matter | 81.7d 78.7de 76.2de 71.0ef 65.8f |
| Starch | 91.1 91.9 89.4 91.9 |
| Nitrogen | 71.6 68.9 71.7 70.0 72.9 |
| Ash | 56.0 43.8 48.1 36.6 35.8 |
abcMeans in a row with different superscripts differ statistically (P
| Roughage level | 0 | 5 | 15 | 40 | 92 |
|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|
| Rumen characteristics | Rumen characteristics | Rumen characteristics | Rumen characteristics | Rumen characteristics | Rumen characteristics |
| Ammonia (mg/dl) | 12.gd | 15.4d | 20.5de | 31.0e | 13.5d |
| pH | 5.6a | 5.8a | 5.9ab | 6.3b | 7.1c |
| Fecal dry matter (%) | 29.4a | 27.4ab | 25.6b | 21.3c | 19.5c |
| Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics |
| (% of dry matter) | | | | | |
| Organic matter | 91.9a | 90.2a | 90.0a | 86.8b | 83.3c |
| Starch | 26.9a | 20.3a | 21.2a | 10.1b | 1.7c |
| Nitrogen | 3.09d | 2.99d | 2.64de | 2.58e | 2.33e |
| pH | 5.9a | 6.1a | 6.2a | 6.7b | 7.4c |
abcMeans in a row with different superscripts differ statistically (P
| | WSCa | SFCa |
|---------------------------|-----------------|-----------------|
| Intake (kg/day) | Intake (kg/day) | Intake (kg/day) |
| Dry matter | 7.17 | 7.23 |
| Organic matter | 6.81 | 6.88 |
| Digestible dry matter | 5.28 | 5.53 |
| Digestibie organic matter | 5.13 | 5.39 |
| Digestibility (%) | 73.7d | 76.5e |
| Dry matter | 75.3d | 78.4e |
| Organic matter | 91.1b | 97.3c |
| Starch | 70.6 | 68.8 |
| Nitrogen | 42.8 | 39.0 |
'wSC = whole shelled corn; SFC = steam flaked corn. bCMeans in a row with different superscripts differ statistically (P
| | WSCa | SFCa |
|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|
| Ruminal characteristics | Ruminal characteristics | Ruminal characteristics |
| Ammonia (mg/dl) | 20.5e | 10.3e |
| pH | 6.0 | 6.0 |
| Fecal dry matter (%) | 24.9b | 21.8c |
| Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics |
| (% of dry matter) | 88.9 | 87.3 |
| Organic matter | 17.4b | 5.2c |
| Starch | 2.70b | 3.22c |
| Nitrogen | 6.4 | 6.2 |
"WSC = whole shelled corn; SFC = steam flaked corn. bCMeans in a row with different superscripts differ statistically (P
Steam flaked corn had a higher digestion coefficient for organic matter and starch than whole shelled corn. Increased digestibility of steam flaked corn reduced fecal starch concentration. Ruminal ammonia concentrations were lower with the steam flaked corn. This may reflect greater use of ammonia for microbial protein synthesis with steam flaked corn as the amount of carbohydrate digested in the rumen should be greater.
The roughage effects on intake, digestibility and ruminal and fecal parameters within each corn processing type are presented in Tables 8 and 9. Similar trends were noted with increasing roughage levels with both corn types for all parameters monitored except fecal starch. Fecal starch declined as roughage increased with whole shelled corn; however, roughage had no effect on fecal starch with steam flaked corn. Failure of added roughage to depress starch digestion was surprising; corn silage levels
| Roughage level | WSCa | WSCa | SFCa | SFCa |
|---------------------|-----------------|-----------------|-----------------|-----------------|
| | 5 | 15 | 40 | 5 15 40 |
| Intake (kg/day) | Intake (kg/day) | Intake (kg/day) | Intake (kg/day) | Intake (kg/day) |
| Dry matter | 7.42 | 7.58 | 6.51 | 7.21 7.45 7.03 |
| Organic matter | 7.13 | 7.23 | 6.08 | 6.95 7.11 6.58 |
| Digestible dry | 5.74 | 5.68 | 4.48 | 5.88 5.73 4.98 |
| Digestibile organic | 5.62 | 5.51 | 4.32 | 5.78 5.59 4.81 |
| Digestibility (%) | 77.4 | 74.9 | 68.8 | 81.6 77.0 70.9 |
| Dry matter | 78.4 | 76.2 | 71.0 | 83.2 78.7 73.2 |
| Organic matter | 78.8 | 99.4 | 91.9 | 98.5 97.4 96.1 |
| Nitrogen | 70.2 | 71.7 | 70.0 | 69.4 69.2 67.7 |
| Ash | 43.6 | 48.1 | 36.6 | 39.4 40.4 37.0 |
Table 9. Roughage effects on ruminal and fecal parameters with whole shelled corn and steam flaked corn.
| Roughage level | WSCa | WSCa | SFCa | SFCa |
|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|
| | 5 | 15 | 40 | 5 15 40 |
| Ruminal characteristics | Ruminal characteristics | Ruminal characteristics | Ruminal characteristics | Ruminal characteristics |
| Ammonia (mg/d) | 10.1 | 20.5 | 31.0 | 6.3 6.8 17.9 |
| pH | 5.8 | 5.9 | 6.3 | 5.8 6.3 |
| Fecal dry matter (%) | 27.7 | 25.6 | 21.3 | 24.0 22.1 19.2 |
| Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics | Fecal characteristics |
| (% dry matter) | 89.9 | 90.0 | 86.8 | 87.6 88.1 86.1 |
| Organic matter | 21.0b | 21.2b | 10.1c | 5.0g 5.6d 4.8d |
| Starch | 2.87 | 2.64 | 2.58 | 3.59 3.08 3.00 |
| Nitrogen | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.7 | 5.9 6.0 6.6 |
| | | | | |
above 5 percent depress gain and feed efficiency of feedlot steers fed whole corn grain. Perhaps digestibility of starch may vary with roughage type and animal age as well as roughage level. Alternatively, feedlot performance does not always apply parallel digestibility. How site of digestion influences metabolizable energy value of a feed for growing and finishing steers needs closer examination. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/afs/artificial-insemination-for-beef-cattle-afs-3164.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20070515114449-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Artificial Insemination for Beef Cattle
Glenn Selk Extension Animal Reproduction Specialist
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at: http://www.osuextra.com
Many producers of purebred and commercial beef cattle can profitably utilize artificial insemination (AI) on virgin heifers or on the cow herd or both. Success with artificial insemination requires attention to detail in all areas of herd management. One of the most important factors affecting the success of the program is the manager's attitude. He or she must totally desire to make AI work and install this commitment into each link in the chain of management decision. The weakest link sets the level of success of the operation. Should any aspect of management become subpar, AI conception rates will be reduced, most likely to the extent it will cancel many of the benefits the technique offers. Many managerial decisions relative to feeding, facilities, fences and corrals, equipment, sire selection, will be necessary. Both a sound health program and good nutrition are requirements of any breeding program but become an absolute essential ingredient for artificial insemination. In addition, more labor and skill are needed especially in the initial phases of the program.
## Learning Artificial Insemination
Supervised instruction and guidance are essential because without adequate training, valuable AI equipment and semen could be seriously damaged. In order to ensure high fertility, frozen semen requires very special storage and handling techniques. Adequate training is also essential to minimize risk of injury to either a valuable animal or to yourself.
Al Training Schools are available from several semen suppliers. The objective of these schools is to teach the skills required to handle semen, inseminate cows, and manage a successful AI program. Three basic areas of instruction should be provided by AI Training Schools including:
- 1. Insemination technique , developing through live animal practice, the ability to skillfully and accurately place semen at the proper location within the reproductive tract using sanitary and correct techniques. 2. Semen handling , developing through practice, the ability to properly handle, thaw and prepare semen for insemination, according to the recommendations of semen-producing organizations.
The National AssociationofAnimal Breeders (NAAB) is an association of companies that service the artificial insemination business. NAAB has recommended minimum standards for AI Training Schools. Address inquiries to: Technical Director, National Association of Animal Breeders, P.O. Box 10333, Columbia, MO 65205. A potential student should ask if the school considered meets the following recommendations:
- 1. Six hours of live cow insemination practice done over a minimum of three separate sessions.
- 2. At least two cows per student per course, with each student having access to a minimum of ten practice cows.
- 3. A maximum of eight students per instructor.
Do not expect an AI Training School to do it all for you. Supervised training is just the beginning; after that, continuous practice is necessary to fully develop the required skills.
## Heat Detection and Beef AI Programs
The most limiting factor in artificial insemination programs is the proper detection of cows or heifers in estrus. Estrus, or "heat," is that period of time that occurs every 18-24 days in sexually nature, nonpregnant female cattle when they are receptive to mounting activity by bulls or other cows. In beef cattle operations where artificial insemination is the means of breeding the females, the herdsman must recognize and interpret a cow's heat signals. Proper timing of the artificial insemination is necessary to accomplish a high percentage of conceptions in the cows that are bred artificially.
Considerable amounts of research have been conducted on the various factors contributing to the efficiency with which cows are detected in heat. When all is considered, one of the key factors is the skill of the human performing the heat detection. With an AI
program, people assume the same responsibility as the bull for accurately detecting heat and the proper timing of insemination. Thus, the dilemma for the inseminator is determining which cows are in a "standing heat" and when that heat occurs.
A cow is fertile only when an egg has been released (or ovulated) from the ovary. This occurs about 10-14 hours after the period called "standing heat" ends. Because sperm need time in the cow's reproductive tract before they are capable of fertilizing the egg, insemination should be made several hours before ovulation. This means that for the highest fertility, cows or heifers should be inseminated in the latter two-thirds of heat or within a few hours after having gone out of heat. This represents approximately 12-18 hours after the cow first comes in "standing heat."
## Heat Detection Efficiency
Heat detection efficiency (rate) is defined as the percentage of eligible cows that are actually seen or detected in heat. Several methods of calculating the efficiency with which heat is detected are available. A detection rate of 80-85 percent should be achievable. The detection rate can be measured by the 24-Day Heat Detection Rate Test, which is a test that the producer can implement to self-evaluate the heat detection efficiency (or inefficiency).
In order for cows to be included in the test, they should be eligible to have heat cycles, at least 50 days post-calving for beef cows; be free of reproductive disorders such as cystic ovaries, pyometra, or other reproductive tract infections; and be nonpregnant. In addition, cows must have adequate body condition to expect most of them to be cycling. What producers are looking for is a group of cows that are most likely to display estrus in the next 24 days. Some of these cows will in fact be serviced during that interval, which will exclude them from the next 24-day list. At the end of the 24-day period, the number of cows detected in heat is divided by the total number of cows eligible to have estrous cycles. If the producer observed 50 cows but only 15 were detected in heat in 24 days that is a 30% detection rate-not too good. If the producer finds 40 or more cows in heat during the 24-day test period for 80% or better detection rate, then a good AI program is possible.
Assecond method of self-evaluation of heat detection can be performed by keeping an accurate record of heat dates. The average interval (in days) between detected heats is divided into the "expected" interval or 21 days. For example, if the average interval between detected heats for all eligible cows is 25 days, then the detection efficiency would be computed at 21/25, or 84%.
## Heat Detection Requires Observation
The surest sign of estrus is that of a cow or heifer that permits other animals to mount her while she remains standing. This is the best sign of a cow's fertile period. Therefore, the most productive means of determining which cows are in "standing heat" is to observe the cattle carefully for about 30 minutes at least twice per day. More frequent observations may also be beneficial whenever it is practical. Estrous synchronization will aid in accurate heat detection and shorten the number of days that heat detection must be done. Learn more about estrous synchronization by reading OSU Fact Sheet ANSI-3163, "Estrous Synchronization of Cattle."
The best times of the day to observe cattle for heat detection are early in the morning and at the last daylight in the evening. However, heat detection while cattle are eating at feed-burns or hayracks is difficult because hungry cattle are often more interested in the feed than in each other. Table 1 from Cornell University researchers describes the percentage of cows showing signs of heat at different times of the day.
By far the largest percentage of cows exhibit signs of estrus at the least convenient time of the day for accurate heat detection. This fact alone is considered a major cause of heat detection inefficiency. Many of the cows that do have a "standing heat" from midnight to 6 a.m. can be observed as having "secondary" signs of heat at the time of normal heat-detection on the previous evening. The secondary signs of heat include (1) a willingness to mount other cows, even though neither cow may be willing to stand for the mount, (2) roughened tail head or mud on the rump, which is evidence that other animals have tried to mount her, (3) restlessness, which may be indicative of a cow about to exhibit heat (cows in pre-heat may bawl more than usual, head-butt, pace the fence, sniff or lick other cattle) and (4) clear stringy mucus discharge which may be hanging from the vulva or smeared on the pin-bones or rump of a cow about to have estrus or one already in estrus. Bloody mucus often appears 2-3 days after estrus has occurred and should be recorded in order to closely watch for heat in 17-21 days.
## Aids to Heat Detection
Several aids to heat detection are available for producers with artificial insemination programs. These aids include chin-ball markers placed on androgenized
| | Percent cows showing | Percent cows showing |
|-----------------|------------------------|------------------------|
| | Time | heal signs |
| 6 a.m.-noon | 22% | |
| noon-6 p.m. | 10% | |
| 6 p.m.-midnight | 25% | |
| midnight-6 a.m. | 43% | |
cows or deviated "gomer" bulls. This is a device similar to a ball-point pen that is strapped on the underneath side of the chin of an animal expected to mount cows or heifers in heat. The ink in the chin-ball marker leaves colorful streaks on the back or rump of a cow that has been mounted or was attempted to be mounted. Another commercially available aid to heat detection is the "Kamar heatmount detector" (tradename). This device is glued to the rump (just forward of the tailhead) of cows suspected to be in heat in the near future. Prolonged pressure (at least 3 seconds) from the brisket or chest of mounting animals will turn the originally white detector to red. Using the heatmount detector will be more effective in those pastures with little or no low-hanging tree limbs, brush, or backrubbing devices since false readings can occur.
An economical heat detection aid is used at many U.S. dairies. This method is called "tail-chalking" and involves only the small expense of an oil-based "salebarm" paint stick. The paint stick is available at many farm and livestock supply stores and comes in a variety of colors. Orange is often the color of choice, especially with producers who are color-blind.
The chalk (or livestock paint) is rubbed on the tailhead of cows to be hat detected. The chalk should be placed from the imaginary line between the hook or hip bones back to and including the corner where the tail begins its vertical descent.
Some producers choose to chalk in a narrow strip in summer months (after shedding has occurred) and wider bands on winter hair coats. Most tail-chalking veteras put the chalk in a strip two to three inches wide. The length is important because of the different contact points possible when the cow is mounted. In the spring, when cows are shedding, it is just about imperative that the area be curry-combed so the applicator will deposit chalk instead of just rub off winter hair.
Beef cattle producers can tail-chalk cows, at about 50 days after calving, while the cows are crowded in a long working chute or alley. Replacement beef heifers could be expected to have a high percentage of cycling animals when they are about 13-14 months of age and weigh approximately 65% of their expected mature body weight.
Reading the chalk strip is not hard but does require close observation and some practice. When a cow is just coming into heat and is being riden ting, the chalk will be slightly smeared. Also,itwilloften have some of the riding animal's hair in it and both the hair and chalk will beruffed forward, with a feathered appearance. When those conditions are spotted, write down the cow's number and watch her more closely.
When she is in "standing heat" and being ridden repeatedly, the chalk will be mostly rubbed off. This cow may have been in "standing heat" during the previous night. The cow should be watched to see if she does in fact allow other animals to mount her. If she does, then
she is in "standing heat." If you do not observe the cow in "standing heat" but your barn records indicate that it is 18-24 days since she was last observed in heat or bred, then it is time for the cow to be bred. The rubbed off chalk indicates that she has been in "standing heat" since you last observed her and still would be a good bet to insinemate.
The oil-based chalk is relatively rain-resistant and unlikely to be rubbed off in brush. After seven to ten days, it will take on a flaky, crusted appearance as it dries. Some Al technicians choose to re-chalk cows when the chalk becomes weathered and dried, but no signs of riding have been apparent. Occasionally,a cow will lick off the chalk. Usually, the obvious lick marks on the hair of the tail-head indicate that she had not been ridden.
Tail-chalking and other heat detection aids are tools to aid good heat detection. However, these "tools" should not be expected to replace the trusted method of spending a half-hour in the morning and a half-hour in the evening each day carefully observing the cattle. See OSU Fact Sheet ANSI-4154, "Heat Detection Aids for Beef and Dairy."
## Timing of Artificial Insemination
Maximum fertility to artificial insemination occurs when cows are bred near the end of "standing heat." Ovulation occurs about 12 hours after the end of standing heat. The 12-hour lead time allows the sperm cells to go through a process known as capacitation by the time the egg is released. Fertility decreases slightly when cows are bred a few hours on either side of this target, and decreased markedly when breeding occurs more than 12 hours away from the end of "standing heat."
A guide that has proved to work well for timing AI is called the AM/PM rule (Table 2). At the end of the morning heat detection period, animals detected the prior evening are bred; at the end of the evening heat detection period, those observed that morning are bred. In some situations, AI must be employed once-a-day wherein all animals detected in the prior 24 hours are bred. Some studies show little decrease in fertility when this approach is used.
## Semen Handling
The quality of frozen semen when it arrives at your farm or ranch is determined by the bull and organization
| Cows First | Cows First | Should be | Should be | Too late for | Too late for |
|----------------|----------------|-----------------|--------------|----------------|----------------|
| | Showing Estrus | Bred | Good Results | | |
| In the morning | That evening | Next day | | | |
| In the evening | The next | After 3:00 p.m. | next day | | |
that processed it. But once it arrives, it is up to you to take proper steps to ensure its viability.
Frozen bull semen can be stored indefinitely, if it is maintained constantly at very low temperatures. The critical temperature is approximately -112 degrees. Semen which is exposed to temperatures warmer than -112° F (even for a short time) and then returned to the storage tank may be damaged.
The extent of damage depends upon how long the semen is exposed to the elevated temperatures. Although it is easy to maintain frozen semen at a safe temperature, it is also easy to destroy it in a few mo-
## Tank Management
The semen storage tank is a large vacuum-sealed metal bottle with an extremely efficient insulation system. Because of the vacuum bottle construction, the temperature can remain at -320° F (liquid nitrogen temperature) as long as at least two inches of liquid nitrogen is present. Technical advances in design and construction have produced storage tanks with a liquid nitrogen holding time of six to nine months.
Although semen storage tanks are well constructed, they still are susceptible to damage from mishandling. Semen tanks should be kept in clean, dry, and well-ventilated areas. Avoid excessive movement of the tank. The inner chamber, which contains liquid nitrogen, is suspended from the outer shell by the neck tube. Any abnormal stress on the neck tube, caused by sudden jarring or an excessive swinging motion, can crack the tube. This results in vacuum loss from the outer chamber.
To increase holding time, keep the tank in a cool location away from direct sunlight. Avoiding drafts from furnaces and outside air also helps prevent excessive nitrogen evaporation. However, make sure there is sufficient ventilation in the room to prevent possible suffocation which can be caused by excessive nitrogen gas in the air you breathe.
Protectthetankfromcorrosionbykeepingitelevated above concrete or wet floors. Use boards or pallets. Pick a location that is safe from children and vandals, but do not hide the tank; it must be placed where it can be seen daily and where it can be monitored routinely for nitrogen level.
Finally, always be watchful for a lid that is left off and for frost or sweat on the tank. Give particular attention to the neck and vacuum fitting. Frost indicates that the vacuum insulation has been lost, and liquid nitrogen has been or is evaporating rapidly. If you suspect this has happened, use a wooden yardstick to measure the amount of liquid in the tank. If the tank contains liquid nitrogen, the semen must be transferred to a good tank immediately. Should the tank be empty of liquid nitrogen it is doubtful that the semen is viable; it should be evaluated before it is used.
## Retrieving Semen
In the typical farm semen tank, dangerous temperatures exist in the upper half of the neck tube. Exposure to these temperatures can occur when trying to locate a specific unit of semen or when transferring semen from tank to tank (Figure 1). Thermal injury to sperm is permanent and cannot be corrected by returning semen to liquid nitrogen.
## In order to minimize thermal damage:
- · Identify which canister contains the desired semen. Asemen inventory which keeps track of the location of each bull prevents unnecessary searching.
- · Remove the canister from its storage position to the middle of the tank. Raise the canister just high enough in the neck region to grasp the desired cane of semen. Keep the canister tops no higher than the frost line, or keep the tops of the canes no higher than two to three inches from the tank's top.
- · Grasp the desired cane, and immediately lower the caniser to the tank floor. Keep the cane as low in the tank as possible while removing the unit of semen. Use tweezers to remove the straw. If the straw is located in the upper goblet, bend back the top tab of the cane to a 45 degree angle. This will keep the straw from bending or breaking. The straw should be removed within 10 seconds from the time the canister is raised into position.
- · Immediately after the unit of semen is immersed in water, return the cane to the canister by raising the canister up over the cane. Return the canister to its storage position.
- · Any time it takes more than 8 to 10 seconds to locate a particular cane, the caniser should be lowered back into the tank to cool completely. Never return a unit of semen to the tank once it has been removed from the cane.
## Thawing Procedures
The correct thawing recommendation for semen in straws is not the same for all Al organizations. However, almost all organizations now recommend warm-water thawing of straws for 10 to 60 seconds. For optimum results, follow the specific recommendations of the semen processor. Breeders may use semen from various AI organizations, but practice only one thawing procedure. The National Association of Animal Breeders has recommended that, when in doubt, 90 degrees to 95 degrees for a minimum of 40 seconds should be used as a universal thawing recommendation.
A major concern with warmth-water thaw is the danger of cold shock when the straw is mishandled after thawing. Cold shock is the permanent injury to sperm caused by a sudden decrease in semen temperature after thawing. It occurs when semen is thawed and then subjected to cold environmental temperatures before reaching the cow.
The severity of damage depends on rate and span of temperature drop. If precautions are taken to prevent cold shock, the advantage of warm thaw will be realized.
## Here are some thawing tips :
- · Always keep insemination equipment clean, dry and warm.
- · Use a thermometer; do not guess at the temperature. Check the thermometer for accuracy at least every six months with a reference thermometer.
- · Use an insulated water bath designed for thawing semen or a one-pint wide-mouth thermos which is deep enough to immerse the entire straw. Recently, electronic thawing devices which maintain water temperature accurately between 95 degrees and 98 degrees have been developed. These are convenient to use when breeding many cows at one time.
- · Never thaw more than one unit of semen at a time. You breed your cows individually, so you should thaw units of semen individually.
- · Gently shake the straw as it is taken from the tank to remove any liquid nitrogen that may be retained in the cotton plug end of the straw.
Time the thaw with a watch to avoid guessing. When possible or practical, use thawing recommendations of theAI organization fromwhichthesemenwasprocessed.
degrees to 95 degrees for a minimum of 40 seconds.
## During Insemination
One of the most frequent chances for semen damage is during transport to the cow. After thawing, the semen temperature must be maintained as close to 95 degrees
as possible. Handling thawed semen and preparing the insemination rod should be done in a sheltered, heated area.
## Proper steps for handling semen include :
- 1. While the semen is thawing, warm the insemination rod by rubbing it briskly with a paper towel. In cold weather, place the warm rod within clothing so it will be close to the body and maintain warmth.
- 2. After the semen is thawed for the required time, dry it thoroughly with a paper towel and protect it from rapid cooling.
- 3. Adjust the air space in the straw to assure that no semen is lost when the end of the straw is cut off. This can be done by slightly flicking the wrist while holding the straw at the crimp sealed end.
- 4. Transfer the straw to the rod and cut the tip of the crimp-sealed end of the straw squarely and through the air space. Only sharp scissors or a specially designed straw cutter should be used. Make sure to cut the straw "square" to achieve a good seal with the sheath.
- 5. Wrap the assembled insemination rod in a clean, dry paper towel, and tuck it within your clothing for transportation to the cow. Do not place the rod in your mouth or carry it uncovered in your hand.
- 6. Inseminate the cow within minutes after the semen has been thawed. The period of time between removing the semen from the tank and depositing the semen in the cow should not exceed 15 minutes.
## Semen Transfer
When transferring semen between tanks, follow these tips:
- 1. Have the tanks side by side and as close as possible. Fill the tanks with nitrogen before transfer, if possible.
- 2. Have the appropriate canister in each semen tank in the center position.
- 3. Transfer the canes quickly (within three to five seconds). Never touch the units of semen with bare fingers.
It is essential that frozen semen be handled and thawed carefully and properly in order to obtainoptimum results. It also is important to deal only with reputable, well-established AI organizations because their semen has been processed under standard, controlled conditions that are evaluated routinely.
## Insemination Process
Although not part of the female genital tract, the rectum (terminal portion of the large intestine) is an important organ for you to become familiar with because your arm inside the cow will be working through this
thin-walled tube. The rectum is 10 to 12 inches long and very stretchable. That is important because it is through the rectum that you will manipulate the cervix.
The anus serves as a valve between the rectum and the outside. It is made up of a circular (purse string) muscle located directly under the skin. It surrounds the very end of the rectum. Again, the anus is stretchable, hence, your hand and arm can easily slip into the rectum.
Circular muscle contractions move along the rectal wall toward the outside. When strong, these contractions may block your hand from moving forward and make it difficult to manipulate the genital organs through the rectal wall.
## Semen Placement
The insemination process is quite straightforward. However, since relatively few sperm cells will be used, their placement is critical. The semen should be placed in the body of the uterus just in front of the cervix. You can recognize the proper site by the change in tissue consistency-from firm and hard in the cervix to soft and spongy in the uterus. To achieve the highest possible fertility rate, semen should be deposited at the very front end of the cervix. The internal (or front) end of the cervix is often called the anterior cervical os. To deposit semen at this location requires the use of a special device called Cassou pipette, or "Al gun." The recto-vaginal insemination process is used. The insinerator places his hand in the rectum and manipulates the reproductive tract so that the gun passes through the vagina, then it is manipulated through the cervical rings, and then held at the internal opening of the cervix for semen deposition. In adequately restrained cattle this will take 30 seconds to 2 minutes. At first, however, passing an insemination syringe might not be easy because you might encounter natural obstructions on your way to the target.
Beware of obstacles . The front end of the vagina forms a circular blind pouch where it joins the backward
projecting cervix. This blind pouch is usually from .5 to 1 inch deep, surrounding the entire dome-shaped back end of the cervix. You'll meet other obstacles once you're inside the cervical canal. Firm, finger-like projections arranged in three to four circular rings extend into the canal. These cause the passageway to be crookedand contain blind pockets, or dead ends. The circular blind pouch of the vagina and the winding cervical canal with its dead ends are the two major stumbling blocks for anyone learning how to artificially inseminate.
Next to estrus detection, semen placement error (by the technician) is most likely to affect fertility. Correct semen placement is very difficult to confirm in the field. It is impossible to check pipette placement. The pipette position changes too easily. Postmortem tracts or examining culled cows inseminated with dye can be used to check semen placement after slaughter. Studies using dye deposition followed by slaughter have shown that up to 70 percent of the cows are inseminated incorrectly. The dye was placed in the vagina, posterior cervix, uterine horn, or bladder. The target for semen deposition is the anterior cervical os, a difficult site to find. Inexperience insinormators often do not pass the pipette far enough, or they pass it too far into the uterine horns. Since the body of the uterus is only .5 to .75 inches in length, pipette passage 1 inch into the uterus results in most of the semen entering only one horn, effectively reducing conception. Semen deposition is often made too rapidly, and semen takes the avenue of least resistance. If one horn is not as open as the other, it does not receive enough semen. Take your time while breeding a cow and depositing the semen. It only takes a few extra seconds to make sure semen is deposited correctly. The plunger should be depressed over a 5-second period, allowing the semen to flow slowly and evenly, dividedbetween horns. In nonpregnant cows, walls of the uterus are soft and spongy. Inseminating syringes should never go beyond the front end of the cervix, because it is too easy to poke into or through the uterine wall. This could cause infection and perhaps even fatal peritonitis.
## Sanitary technique
Wash your hands. Inseminating cows is an invasion into the delicate uterine environment that is very conducive to growing bacteria. Bacteria on your hands could be transferred to your inseminating gun during the loading procedure. If carried into the uterus during insemination, these organisms could thrive and grow rapidly resulting in metritis and infertility.
## Using technicians
Professional technicians are more successful at insemination than inexperienced owners or managers. Insinerators should periodically attend Al courses in
order to improve or correct techniques. Selection of a qualified inseminator is an important element in the success of the artificial insemination program. While the insemination process is simple to understand, it does require considerable manipulative skill. Semen-selling companies conduct three or four day training programs, which will provide individuals with sufficient skill to begin gin inseminating. However, recently trained individuals generally experience lower conception rates until they have inseminated a number of animals. Regular practice at inseminating is required to maintain high conception rates. In many localities, Al studs have trained inseminators who provide insemination service for a reasonable fee. Cattle operations where artificial insemination is routinely used often have a well-trained individual who may be available as a technician.
Before producers make a decision whether to hire a trained technician or to train a member of the farm team, they should weigh the considerable cost of a reduced conception rate during the learning process against the fees paid to a trained technician.
## References
A.I. Management Manual (2nd Edition) American Breeders Service, DeForest WI. "Estrous synchronization and artificial insemination in beef herds." (1988). Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Publication 400-034. Blacksburg, VA.
"Recommended minimum standards for artificial insemination training." (1988). National Association of Animal Breeders. Columbia, MO.
"Semen - handle with care." (1987). Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, VA.
## The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Bringing the University to You!
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest, most successful informal educational organization in the world. It is a nationwide system funded and guided by a partnership of federal, state, and local governments that delivers information to help people help themselves through the land-grant university system.
Extension carries out programs in the broad categories of agriculture, natural resources and environment; family and consumer sciences; 4-H and other youth; and community resource development. Extension staff members live and work among the people they serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to plan ahead and cope with their problems.
Some characteristics of the Cooperative Extension system are:
- · The federal, state, and local governments cooperatively share in its financial support and program direction.
- · It is administered by the land-grant university as designated by the state legislature through an Extension director.
- · Extension programs are nonpolitical, objective, and research-based information.
- · It provides practical, problem-oriented education for people of all ages. It is designated to take the knowledge of the university to those persons who do not or cannot participate in the formal classroom instruction of the university.
- · It utilizes research from university, government, and other sources to help people make their own decisions.
- · More than a million volunteers help multiply the impact of the Extension professional staff.
- · It dispenses no funds to the public.
- · It is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform people of regulations and of their options in meeting them.
- · Local programs are developed and carried out in full recognition of national problems and goals.
- · The Extension staff educates people through personal contacts, meetings, demonstrations, and the mass media.
- · Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjust its programs and subject matter to meet new needs. Activities shift from year to year as citizen groups and Extension workers close to the problems advise changes. | |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/alabama-stumpage-price-trends-2007-2016/ | Alabama Stumpage Price Trends (2007–2016) | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Adam Maggard",
"Becky Barlow"
] | 2018-07-25 | [
"Forestry",
"Timber",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | Timber production is the second-largest agricultural commodity in Alabama. Understanding the factors related to market and price trends is essential for landowners and producers of timber products.
## Alabama Timber Facts
There are approximately 23 million acres of timberland in Alabama. This comprises 71 percent of the state's total land area. Of the 48 contiguous states in the nation, Alabama is third in overall timberland coverage and second in private timberland coverage. Eighty- eight percent of timberland in the state is owned by nonindustrial private landowners. Of this timberland, approximately 44 percent is softwood stands, 43 percent hardwood stands, and 13 percent mixed hardwood/pine stands.
As of 2015, the production of timber in Alabama is second only to broilers (chickens raised for meat production) in all agricultural commodities. The timber product industry is likely to remain strong in the state for years to come, as money invested in new and expanding forestry products companies has been consistent. Investments in the state's forest industry increased by nearly 29 percent from 2014 to 2015 alone.
Timber price reports for Alabama are produced by TimberMart-South (TMS), based in the Wannell School of Forestry and Natural Resources at the University of Georgia. TMS provides quarterly and annual timber price updates, market newsletters, and historical price reports for eleven southern states.
Timber prices in Alabama are divided into two reporting regions, Northern and Southern (fig. 1). For this publication, timber prices reflect the average annual nominal (not adjusted for inflation) stumpage price per ton for north Alabama, south Alabama, and statewide.
## Stumpage Price Trends
With slight improvement in the housing market, southern pine sawtimber harvests have increased in recent years. More sawmills are resuming operation, and new sawmills are scheduled to open. Nevertheless, southern pine sawtimber prices have not rebounded; this can be attributed largely to the surplus of sawtimber class southern pine in the state.
## Southern pine pulpwood
The average price per ton of southern pine pulpwood in Alabama increased by 34 percent in the decade 2007-2016. It averaged 20.6 percent higher per year in the Southern Region compared to the Northern Region (fig. 3). The price per ton also fluctuated more than that of coconut Notice
## Mixed hardwood sawtimber and oak sawtimber
The most dramatic increase in stumpage price in the decade 20072016 was in mixed hardwood sawtimber and oak hardwood sawtimber.
The average price per ton of mixed hardwood sawtimber in Alabama increased by 64 percent, peaking in 2016 (fig. 4). Stumpage fluctuated between 2007 and 2011, before considerably increasing each year thereafter (fig. A4). Beginning in 2014, hardwood sawtimber stumpage averaged 8.3 percent higher per ton in the Northern Region compared to the Southern Region (fig. 4A).
Similarly, oak sawtimber stumpage increased considerably in price from 2012 through 2014, before holding relatively steady in 2015 and 2016 (fig. 4B). The average price per ton across the state increased by 46 percent in the decade 2007-2016, peaking in 2014 (fig. 4B). Beginning in 2013, oak sawtimber stumpage averaged 5.9 percent higher per ton in the Northern Region compared to the Southern Region (fig. 4B).
High hardwood sawtimber prices are linked to a strong demand for hardwood lumber exports; 2014 and 2015 were record years for exports. An increase in the housing market, increases in demand for pallet and railroad tie materials, and an overall improving domestic economy also support high stumpage prices. In addition, there is a high demand for white oak logs used to make whiskey barrel staves. Brown-Forman Corporation, which specializes in making oak stavess for whiskey barrels, opened a mill in Stevenson, Alabama, in 2012 that maintains a constant demand for high-quality oak logs.
## Mixed hardwood pulpwood
The average price per ton of mixed hardwood pulpwood in Alabama more than doubled in the decade 2007-2016 (fig. 5). The peak average price per ton was in 2014 (fig. 5).
Mixed hardwood pulpwood stumpage increased in both regions of the state from 2007 through 2010. It then decreased abruptly in 2011, before increasing considerably from 2012 through 2014 (fig. 5). Stumpage prices were fairly consistent between the Northern and Southern regions. They were separated by an average of about a dollar per ton over the 10-year period.
Mixed hardwood pulpwood production has been on the decline in recent years as a result of decreasing demand for hardwood pulpwood products such as newspaper and writing paper. In addition, southern pine pulpwood is cheaper for mills to produce; demand is therefore increasing for that over hardwood pulpwood.
## Conclusion
Along with a strong or improving economy, housing market, and demand for products, other factors such as precipitation can have an effect on timber prices. One consistency among the different timber types and size classes is the decrease in stumpage prices in 2011. This was due in part to decreased precipitation in 2010 that continued into much of 2011, causing a readingiment in the timber market.
Above-average precipitation in 2013 paired with increases in the housing market and demand for pulp and paper led the way for a rebound in timber prices. This was reflected by increases in stumpage prices in 2013 and 2014.
Stumpage prices for southern pine pulpwood in the decade 20072016 was fairly consistent. In general, this can be attributed to strong markets for global pulp and paper, oriented strand board (OSB), and wood pellets, as well as the lack of available chip residues from sawmills.
Stumpage price reports provide insight into recent trends and the current timber market demand. These reports can be useful when contemplating selling timber by providing a general idea of what timber is worth. Prices can fluctuate widely, however; this is especially true for sawtimber and other high-value timber products.
There are multiple items to consider along with price when contemplating selling timber and determining the fair market value of a specific timber sale. The fair market value of a certain stand of timber will vary broadly based on specific factors such as species size, class quality of timber, volume, logistics (e.g., logging conditions and distance to the mill), current demand, and local competition of timber.
From a financial standpoint, landowners deciding whether or not to sell their timber should consider the timber value growth rate and alternative return of a discount rate). The value growth rate can be determined for an individual tree or stand. It is estimated from the value increase of an individual tree or stand from one year to the next and then dividing that value by the previous value of the tree or stand. This can be done annually or over a specific time period greater than a single year (e.g., every 5 years).
If the value growth rate is less than the discount rate, then the decision would be to harvest the stand. If the value growth rate is greater than the discount rate, then the landowner should postpone the harvest for at least another year.
## Download this article as a PDF
\_(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/FOR-2048.pdf) Alabama Stumpage Price Trends,(2007-2016).FOR-2048 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/FOR-2048.pdf)
Forestry Products, Alabama Department of Commerce
www.madeinalabama.com/industries/industry/forestryproducts
Timber Markets Review-January 2016, FORECON
www.foreconinc.com/timber-markets-review-january-2016
TimerBartMarth-South
www.timbermart-south.com
WARN List, Alabama Department of Commerce
www.madeinalabama.com/warn-list
Wood Supply Trends in the US South 1995-2015, Forest2Market, Inc.
www.theusipa.org/Documents/USSouthWoodSupplyTrends.I
Download a PDF of Alabama Stumpage Price Trends.(2007-2016). FOR-2048.(https://www.aces.edu/wyp-content/uploads/2018/07/FOR2048.pdf) |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/irrec/2020/09/08/sandra-guzman-named-2020-outstanding-young-extension-worker-by-the-florida-section-of-american-society-of-agricultural-and-biological-engineers/ | Sandra Guzmán named 2020 Outstanding Young Extension Worker by the Florida Section of American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers | University of Florida | [
"Robin Koestoyo"
] | 2020-09-08 | [
"Agribusiness",
"Agriculture",
"Crops",
"Horticulture",
"AI",
"Artificial Intelligence"
] | FL | Home » UF/IFAS Indian River Research And Education Center » Sandra Guzmán Named 2020 Outstanding Young Extension Worker By The Florida Section Of American Society Of Agricultural
## Sandra Guzmán named 2020 Outstanding Young Extension Worker by the Florida Section of American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers
Sandra Guzmán, a precision irrigation scientist with expertise in artificial intelligence for water management, was recently named a 2020 Outstanding Young Extension Worker by the Florida Section of American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers .
Guzmán is one of twelve scientists who conduct research at the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Indian River Research and Education Center (UF/IAS-IRREC) in Fort Pierce, Florida. The Indian River district is celebrated as the world's premier grapefruit production region, where Guzmán works directly with citrus growers and stakeholders.
The award recognizes young engineers whose excellence and contributions in the development of extension-related programs and leadership character through their work to represent the agricultural engineering profession.
"Sandra Guzmán began her position as an assistant professor in late 2018. Her program is already robust," said Ronald D. Cave, director of IRREC. "Sandra has a number of working relationships with local citrus growers, several graduate students, and has published journal articles that advance irrigation practices."
The focus of Guzmán's research and extension program is to apply precision irrigation technologies for the management of water resources in specialty crops, data analysis from field devices, and
translation of technology to implementation in the Indian River district. Her published work appears in industry magazines and UF/IFAS's Electronic Document Information System, or EDIS. Guzmán's most recent story, Water Resources Management , Agricultural Systems, and Environmental Modeling and Assessment .
appeared in Citrus Industry magazine. She published How Changes in Citrus Irrigation Scheduling Method Affect Water Use. on EDIS, where growers may access the document.
Cave said Guzmán's work involves the most current smart technologies. Engineering science in crop fields and groves includes computer modeling programs to forecast irrigation needs. Data collection and analysis from field devices such as soil moisture sensors help growers determine how much water their crops require so that they may conserve water.
Guzmán's vision is to provide growers with easy to use tools to manage irrigation and to increase automation.
During the last year, Guzmán published extension documents and articles for grower magazines to highlight the value of water management for specialty crops. She organizes extension events for growers and extension agents to teach new technologies in irrigation for specialty crop growers. Guzmán currently has many ongoing collaborative field trials with growers in southeast Florida.
## 7
by Robin Koestoyo
Posted: September 8, 2020
Category: Agribusiness, Agriculture, Crops, Horticulture
Tags: Al, Artificial Intelligence
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/cotton/site-files/docs/spindle-picker-harvesting-ci.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20100825102412-07'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## M.H. Willcut
Mississippi State University Mississippi State, Mississippi
## M.J. Buschemohle
University of Tennessee Knoxville, Tennessee
## G.W. Huitink
University of Arkansas (retired) Little Rock, Arkansas
## E.M. Barnes
Cotton Incorporated Cary, North Carolina
## J.D. Wanjura
USDA-ARS Lubbock, Texas
## S.W. Searcy
Texas A&M University College Station, Texas
## Acknowledgements:
Special thanks to the engineering staff at John Deere and Case IH for their review comments and input on this document. Funding for the production of this document has been by Cotton Incorporated, America's Cotton Producers and Importers.
Disclaimer: The statements, recommendations, and suggestions contained herein are based on experiments and information believed to be reliable only with regard to the products and/ or processes involved at the time. No guarantee is made of their accuracy, however, and the information is given without warranty as to its accuracy or reproducibility either expressed or implied, and does not authorize use of the information for purposes of advertisement or product endorsement or certification. Likewise, no statement contained herein shall be construed as a permission or recommendation for the use of any information, product, or process that may infringe any existing patents. The use of trade names does not constitute endorsement of any product mentioned, nor is permission granted to use the name Cotton Incorporated or any of its trademarks in conjunction with the products involved.
## Table of Contents
## Introduction
## The Need for an Expert Operator
Production of high-quality cotton lint begins with variety selection, continues with attention to all production practices, and ends with a well-planned and well-executed harvest. As harvest time ears, critical crop management decisions include scheduling defoliation, defoliating effectively, and timing harvest to get the best lint quality and yield.
## Lint Quality
Lint quality is best when the cotton bolls first open and dry out. Several factors may cause you to lose yield and quality, such as weathering after boll opening, harvest delays caused by poor defoliation or timing, improper machinery adjustment, inadequate picking capacity, harvesting or storage of seed cotton with a high moisture content, storage management that allows weather to wet or damage modules before ginning, etc.
## Harvester Factors
Harvester adjustment and operation affects quality and yield. Improper adjustment will reduce quality. For example, poor doffing causes spindle twist. When you do not adjust or operate the harvester properly, you will suffer decreased harvesting efficiency or yield loss. Harvester loss level normally decreases as a percentage of total yield as the yield increases.
## Picking Efficiency Losses
Spindle pickers are capable of harvesting 95-98% of the cotton produced, but some producers experience field harvest loss approaching 20%. Several problems can cause picking efficiency losses:
- · Row units not centered on the row (driver error or row tracking adjustment)
- · Picking too soon after applying defoliants (bolls not open and dried)
- · Picking immature crop with bolls that did not open due to early frost or freezing conditions
- · Selecting varieties with highly "storm-proof" (less open) bolls
- · Compressor door tension and spindle tip clearance not adjusted correctly
- · Poor doffer adjustment relative to spindle position
- · Worn spindles, spindle bushings, or doffers
- · Poor spindle cleaning due to heavy plant buildup (green leaves) or inadequate moistening system adjustment
- · Poor doffing (excessive doffer-to-spindle gap, bar heights not correctly adjusted)
- · Losses in the handling system
## Read Your Operator's Manual
This information is intended to supplement, not replace, your operator's manual. Based on years of research, development, and operation, the manual supplies common procedures for successful operation and adjustment. Read and understand the operator's manual - paying close attention to the safety procedures - before operating your harvester. When you are in doubt or need further clarification, consult the dealer representative or others who are knowledgeable about your machine.
## Maximizing Harvester Capacity and Productivity
Cotton budgets suggest harvesting expenses are about 16% of crop production costs in the spindle-picked regions of the U.S. In other words, harvesting will cost you about $110 per acre, which equals cost of fertilizer and seed and associated technology fees. Proper management decisions can dramatically influence these costs. Following are several steps to help you reduce
- · Spread the principal and interest costs over more acres by operating more hours per season.
- · Increase the capacity (field efficiency) of your harvester operation to gain more actual picking time.
- · Arrange field layout to obtain longer rows.
- · Arrange field layout to have row end turning distances that will allow you to resume picking quickly after turning.
- · Alternatively, you can plant across row ends and then shred stalks to provide a turn space for the field harvest.
- · Arrange operations so that the picker turns from longer to shorter rows where rows intersect the turn row at an angle.
- · Minimize picker road travel with deliberate plans for field and crop selection and management practices.
- · Minimize harvest downtime with improved service and maintenance procedures.
- · Provide proper support equipment to obtain minimum unloading times.
## Maximizing Harvester Capacity and Productivity
- Improve operator skills through training programs and field "coaching."
- Choose row patterns to obtain a wider harvester swath without lowering yields. For example, use 38-inch rows instead of 30-inch rows or use skip-row planting instead of solid planting (Buehring, et al.).
## Picker Drum Arrangements
All pickers manufactured in the U.S. have two drums in a tandem or staggered, opposed drum arrangement. Early research during spindle-picker development compared drum positions on the same side of the row (in-line) and on opposite sides of the row (opposed drum), as well as different numbers of spindles per bar and bars per drum with a variety of plant sizes and cotton conditions. The front drum of the row unit harvests about 75% of the cotton. Current production pickers have a top-to-bottom spindle contact area of about 30 inches using 18 or 20 spindles per bar.
Spindles are spaced 1.625 inches along the bar. Bar cams and cam tracks cause spindles to enter a cotton row pointed slightly toward the rear of the picker and quickly swing to aim slightly forward as they retreat from a row. Bar travel must synchronize with ground speed, causing the spindles' motion relative to the stalk to be "into" and "out of" the row. When bars are not synchronized with ground travel, spindles typically cause damage on the front or rear of the stalks. Incorrect picker tire size, belt slippage of belt-driven picker units, improper picker
A 1946 diagram used to explain how an opposed-drum cotton picker works.
## Maximizing Harvester Capacity and Productivity
adjustment, and incorrectly assembled row-unit drive components are some reasons bars do not synchronize. These situations will result in harvest of trashy seed cotton and excessive power and wear to the row units.
## Opposed Drums
The first cotton pickers introduced had row units with two drums - one on each side of the row. Cotton production at that time had been standardized to 38- to 40-inch rows. So the row units were designed without much consideration of width, other than to prevent the sides from interfering with adjacent rows. The rear drum was generally located just behind the front drum so that the bars of spindles did not interfere. However, length (weight) of the row unit was as short as possible (close to the tractor or carrier).
In the current design, row units are lengthened to allow them to nest and provide a minimum row spacing of about 28-30 inches. These machines have left- and right-handed bars, cam tracks, spindles, and spindle nuts, which increases the number of different parts required to repair a row unit. This design can also cause confusion, leading to spindles being placed in the wrong spindle nut and bar. Such a mistake would cause the spindle to turn in the wrong direction to wrap cotton and then be doffed. Wrong-handed spindles installed in a row unit will wear out doffer and moistening pads and will not pick cotton. The advantage of opposed drum-row units is that they pick from both sides of the plant and will pick a slightly greater percentage of the cotton from the stalk in some field conditions.
## In-Line Drums
In-line drum arrangements have both drums on the right side of the row and only pick from that side of the plant. These units have all right-handed bars, spindles, spindle nuts, and cam tracks for front and rear drums. This arrangement is an advantage for the manufacturer and the producer in parts stocking and assembly.
## VRS Row Units
Variable-Row-Spacing (VRS) pickers have the capability to harvest narrower rows (15-inch rows and skip-row planting patterns). A cutter mechanism ahead and to the right of the front picker drum
cuts and feeds unpicked stalks into the uncut adjacent row. Plants in the left row remain uncut and are picked in the normal fashion with in-line drums. When skips occur in the uncut row, modified ribs on these front drums and feeder fingers between the drums help move cut stalks through this row unit.
This VRS design is a picker option for cotton growers with lower-yielding soils where narrow-row production is more economical or for growers who use certain skip-row patterns with 15-inch row spacing. This design allows the row units to be spaced wider apart and achieve a 45-inch (two planted, one skipped 15-inch drills) or 60-inch (two planted, two skipped 15-inch drills) effective picking width per row unit. Research has shown that these row patterns yield about the same amount of cotton as conventionally planted 15-inch, 30-inch, and 38- to 40-inch plantings. (See Buehring, et al., "Nonirrigated Spindle Picker 15-Inch and Wide-Row Cotton Production Systems Analysis.")
## Seed Cotton Handling Systems
Three methods of handling picked cotton are available, each requiring unique procedures, equipment, and harvest personnel. Each harvesting system has comparative advantages and limitations.
## Basket-Based (Conventional) System
Pickers with simple basket systems typically unload into a boll buggy, which then unloads into a module builder. Under good management, these pickers can spend approximately 70% of their operational time actually picking. This process requires good communications between picker and boll buggy operators. They can communicate verbally, by signaling with vehicle lights, or by routine unloading patterns to signal the boll buggy operator where the picker will need to be unloaded.
## Picking Patterns
Stopping the picker on the row and pulling the boll buggy beside it within a few seconds is most efficient. The basket is then raised,
unloaded and lowered, and then the picker resumes harvesting. Operators should develop picking patterns based on unloading near row ends - even if baskets are only partially full - in order to minimize field compaction from the boll buggy and tractor or making ruts when the soil is wet. Unload the basket into the wind to minimize scattering of the seed cotton on windy days.
## Half-Module System
Case IH manufactures one of two available onboard packaging systems that offer nearnonstop harvesting potential. The systems eliminate module builders and boll buggies, along with their operators and tractors. This onboard rectangular module-forming (OBRMF) harvester forms modules that are 8 feet high (maximum), 8 feet wide, and 16 feet long. Each module requires a cover (fitted tarp) to prevent wind-related losses. These modules typically contain 6 to 7.5 bales of seed cotton, depending on yield, row length and operator decisions (manufacturer's specifications indicate 4,000-12,000 pounds of seed cotton).
When operating this picker, be careful to minimize shearing of cotton from the module as it is ejected. Two modules are usually loaded for transport. When loading, carefully align the truck with each module. Always space modules at least 2 feet apart on the turn row for temporary storage; space them farther apart if necessary to meet fire insurance policy criteria. Loose cotton that is raked or piled at the base of a module will not be covered by the tarp, so it becomes wet when it rains and can wick water into the adjacent module. Also be careful loading loose cotton between two modules on the module truck. If this loose cotton is not separated at an intermediate storage site to await ginning, rainfall will soak into both modules and cause the cotton to rot.
The John Deere On-Board, Round-Module-Building Picker rolls a cylinder of cotton 7.5 feet wide and 7.5 feet in diameter. This picker wraps each cylinder with three layers of plastic film around its circumference just before discharging the module. The wrap practically eliminates losses from wind and movement of the modules. Each module typically holds about 3.75 bales of seed cotton. Do not place the modules closer than 4-8 inches apart to avoid interference during loading and weather damage during storage. This picker has a "surge hopper" that allows harvesting to
John Deere round-module-building picker carries a module before unloading while picking to the end of the row.
continue while the finished module is being wrapped. Currently, each roll of plastic film will wrap 22-24 round modules (depending on manufacturer's supply and criteria). Thus, reloading requires stopping to rethead the wrap after picking 80 or more bales of seed cotton. If the plastic wrap is damaged, you need to repair it quickly.
Stop immediately if a rain shower occurs during harvesting - stop in mid-row if necessary - and wrap or discharge and cover all cotton in the harvester. There is less mixing of seed cotton with onboard module pickers. Thus, wet seed cotton concentrates in a layer on top of or around the module, likely causing quality to degrade. Flag any modules made during rainfall and stage them for immediate ginning; ask gin personnel to gin these modules as soon as possible.
## Basic Safety Precautions
Cotton pickers are very large, costly, complex machines that create blind spots for an operator. Take these steps before starting or operating any cotton picker:
## Basic Procedures
- · Read and understand the operator's manual and the basic safety and operating procedures provided with the harvester.
- Establish procedures and then train and retain all personnel on how row units will be serviced; how they are to be locked when raised for maintenance; how baskets, chambers, and trampers will be operated during service; and when and how the picker transmission, brakes, etc., are to be positioned if the operator leaves the picker seat.
- Keep windows and mirrors clean for good visibility.
- Keep all lighting and alarms in proper working order.
- Scrape mud from shoes before climbing on the picker.
- When climbing or descending a ladder, face the ladder with both hands on the handrails.
- Be sure that other personnel in the area are free and clear of the picker by loudly calling "Clear," and wait to hear a response before starting the engine or moving the picker.
- Always engage controls gently and smoothly.
## Avoid Potential Hazards
- Block or lock any raised component so it cannot be accidentally lowered when working around or under the component.
- Get assistance to back the picker when it must be reversed to ensure avoiding all personnel, parked vehicles and equipment, and other obstacles.
- Always be alert for and avoid contact with overhead obstacles such as overhaanging trees, power lines, cables, etc.
- Never raise a basket or module chamber near overhead power lines.
- Never position a module where the retrieving truck will be forced to raise under wires or obstacles.
- · Always lower baskets or module trampers and chambers to their lowest positions before travel to and from the field.
- · Travel at safe speeds on the road and field/turn row for conditions.
- · Use an escort and turn on all (flashing) lights when traveling on public roads.
- · Never attempt to clear a choke from a machine while it is powered.
## Fire Precautions
- · Never park an idling picker or other support equipment where the exhaust is released toward a nearby module.
- · Pickers should have at least one 10-pound ABC fire extinguisher located near the exterior of the cab door and one 20-pound ABC fire extinguisher located on the left side near the engine compartment, accessible from the ground. Plan, train employees, and practice how to use fire extinguishers, the spindle solution, and any other practices to control fire on the picker. Inspect and service fire extinguishers before each harvest season begins and replace any extinguisher that was used.
- · Never enter a basket or chamber suspected of containing fire. Upon first indication of fire, move the picker to a nearby area free of combustible material that can provide fuel or allow the fire to spread. Unload the seed cotton immediately. Identify the location and extent of the fire. Extinguish the fire with the correct procedure and extinguisher. See the operator's manual for specific recommendations for your picker.
## Operator Safety
- · Wash hands and immediately treat any cuts or scrapes that break the skin. Many bacteria living on plant materials or in the trash in a row unit may cause serious infections when cuts are left uncleaned and untreated. Spindle solution is a quick, convenient hand-cleaning option. However, you need better cleansing and antiseptic supplies to curb potentially serious infection.
- · Ensure that everyone is safely out of harm's way before unloading or moving any picker.
- · Get assistance and establish a procedure both of you understand if it is necessary to power row units while washing or blowing trash from cabinets. Never wedge the tether behind steps or otherwise run row units in a "constant on" condition when servicing or cleaning.
- · Find a secure location away from traffic and potential sources of fire and clear of grass and weeds. Lower all raised components to their lowest positions. Turn off all power, remove the key, and lock the cab when leaving the picker for extended periods of time.
## Preseason Procedures
Spindle pickers are complex, close-tolerance machines, requiring skilled training to operate. They also require precision shop equipment for repairs and adjustments, especially to the row units. Many producers rely on a dealer or specialty shop with trained service technicians for major repairs and adjustments. Pickers must be properly prepared to make sure they are capable of minimizing harvest losses.
Study and use the operator's manual provided for your picker; it is the best source of information concerning adjustments. This reference gives insight into most common problems faced by picker operators, and it offers solutions to these problems. Preparation can begin with a thorough cleaning and inspection of all row units. Tighten or replace loose or missing or damaged fasteners.
## Tire Condition and Pressure
Check and inflate tires to the pressure specified for that tire and picker load before making other adjustments. Low pressure in picker tires on one side can cause that side's row unit height to be several inches lower. Low tire pressure can also promote a springing or bouncing effect of the row unit height control system. Low pressure eventually damages the tire. A damaged tire may burst and cause the picker operator to lose control during high-speed travel or cause a serious harvest delay during prime picking.
## Row Unit Tilt
Row units of a cotton picker are tilted somewhat to cause the lowest spindles in the bars to enter the plants at the lowest possible height, maintaining the bottom of the row units about 1 inch above the soil. Proper tilt gives spindles a very slight vertical motion relative to the plant from entry to exit of the picking zone. Proper row unit tilt positions the front and rear spindles at slightly different heights within each plant. This arrangement leaves very little gap between spindles moving through the plants and provides greater harvesting efficiency. Tilt also provides relief at the rear of
the cabinets to shed trash easier, thus reducing accumulation and dragging of shed leaves and plant debris. Faster clearing of debris reduces wear on the bottom of the cabinets.
## Tilt Adjustments
Row units should attach to the toolbar with the front of the cabinet or front drum about 1-1.5 inches lower than the rear of the cabinet when positioned at picking height. Raising and operating row units higher may change the tilt slightly. Manufacturers (within the operator's manual) typically specify a "pin-to-pin center" adjustment on the turnbuckle or adjustment link to obtain the specified tilt. Consider their specification a guide for average conditions - a starting point. Cotton fruiting very low, such as a crop planted "no-till" with little or no row bed, may retrieve much better with reduced tilt that puts the entire picking head closer to the ground. A greater amount of tilt may pick a higher percentage of larger plants with higher fruit set.
## Spindles and Spindle Bushings
Picker spindles should be sharp at the front of the bar in order to grasp, hold, and pull seed cotton from the bur. Spindles tend to wear at the heights both where more cotton is picked and where more soil splashes onto the cotton before picking. Thus, wear occurs at different heights on the bars in different crop conditions. Usually, the bottom one-half to two-thirds of the spindles in a bar wear faster. Spindle wear can cause rust during picker storage, reducing aggressiveness and harvesting efficiency. Bushing wear is more rapid in the same height zones due to greater side force on spindles passing beneath the dofters.
Be sure that spindle assemblies are the correct left- or right-hand spindles to match both the nut thread and the drum where they are to be installed. The tips of the bars should rotate into the cotton and point in the direction that the nut is turned when screwed into the bar. Immediately replace any broken or damaged spindles to prevent further damage to doffers, spindle moistening pads, and supports. Remove and identify the cause of any non-rotating or "dead" spindles - even if the bar needs removal and disassembly - to correct the problem.
## Spindle Adjustments
A spindle assembly should have about 0.003-to.017-inch end play before insertion into the bar. Once it is in the bar, you should feel some slack between the drive gear in the bar and the spindle gear when rotating the spindle back and forth between your thumb and forefinger. If the spindle binds or has no slack between the gears, remove it, add shims, and retighten it until you can feel the slack. You can use a dial indicator to measure bushing wear when gauging the bar heights. Center the probe directly over the spindle between the dust collar and the start of taper on each spindle. Observe variations in the reading when forcing the spindle fully up to fully down vertically. Vertical movement in excess of 0.006 inch signals a need to replace the spindle bushings. Excess end play here may also be caused by wear of the thrust flange bushing on the base of the spindle nut.
## Replacing Worn Parts
Worn thrust flanges prevent spindle gears from meshing correctly with the drive gear; this problem accelerates the wear of the drive gear. Usually, spindle bushings are replaced when new spindles are installed. Several factors can shorten spindle life, such as weather, yield, crop and soil conditions, and the amount of leaf, sand, and trash in the cotton. However, spindle and bushing life should typically be approximately 600 hours of picking (fan hours).
## Bar Height and Condition
A uniform picker bar height is critical in maintaining the correct gap between the spindles and the doffers and moistening system. A low bar may not doff cotton from the spindles well; a high bar may gouge or dig into the doffers and moistening pads. Certainly, check the bar height each year before the start of the harvest season. You should also take the following steps:
- · Thoroughly clean all row units, paying special attention to cleaning the base of each bar.
- · Raise or remove the doffers and moisture system columns to provide clearance and easy rotation of the drums.
- · Number each bar and its position in the drum with a permanent marker or steel stamp.
- · Replace the bottom row of spindle nut assemblies in both drums with new or renewed spindle nutsumbles.
- · Position the dial indicator probe on the bottom plate of the row unit to strike the top of the bottom spindle of each bar between the dust collar and the start of taper on each spindle to indicate a depression of the dial probe for each bar.
- · Rotate the drum by hand, recording the bar position and the dial indicator reading (at the maximum point for the spindle) to the nearest 0.001 inch for each bar.
- · After you measure all bars, scan the readings for the bar with the greatest reading (highest bar).
- · Calculate the shim thickness (amount of shims) needed to bring each bar to the height of the highest bar.
- · Loosen the pivot pads for each low bar, add the proper amount of shims, and retighten.
- · Measure the bar heights again, and repeat the process until all bars are within 0.003- to 0.008inch of each other.
- · Reinstall/adjust the doffer and moisture system columns to within 0.003-inch of the closest spindles.
Note : Doffers should barely touch the spindles in the highest bar. If a feeler gauge is not available, a crisp dollar bill should slide with slight drag between the doffer lugs centered over the high point on the spindles.
## Doffers
Doffers remove the seed cotton from the spindles with an unwinding, wiping, and stripping motion toward the end of the spindle. The surface speed of the doffer is many times faster than the surface rotation of the spindle. Follow these tips to maintain the doffers:
- · Doffer lugs should operate within about 0.003 inch from the spindle surface.
- · When crop conditions are very good, doffer-to-spindle clearances of as much as 0.020 inch may doff very well.
- · Do not lower a doffer column first before determining the cause of poor doffing. At times, this action only accelerates the wear of the doffers, spindles, and bushings without improving doffing appreciably.
- · The doffer material must be flexible enough to allow seed cotton, trash, and other material to pass between the lug and the spindle without damage. Weather, sunlight, and other factors may age and harden doffers.
- · Severely worsen doffer lugs have reduced clearance for seed cotton to pass between the plate and the spindle. This problem can increase cracked seed, which is particularly important when
cotton is harvested for planting seed.
- · Polyurethane (beige colored) doffers have reduced wear or "shavings" that are less prone to contaminate lint.
- · Doffer lugs with leading edges that become rounded from wear are less effective and should be reground or replaced with doffers with sharp leading edges. One cause of wear and rounding of the doffer lug leading edge is poorly shrimmed bar height. It may also cause frequent spindle wrap and twist on low bars.
- · Replace doffer columns that have broken, torn, or rounded-edge doffer lugs with a properly ground doffer column. Adjust the height correctly.
- · See your operator's manual for a recommended doffer adjustment procedure.
- · Here is one effective doffer height adjustment method: Power the row unit slowly using your tether. Lower the doffer column slowly while listening for a regular "thump, thump, thump" as the bars pass beneath the doffer column (use a stethoscope or a screwdriver from the doffer column bearing area to your ear). Then, slowly raise the adjustment until the thumping sound becomes faint to undetectable. This method also confirms that bar height is nearly correct when the thumbs occur at regularly spaced intervals. Bar height needs to be serviced when the thumps you hear are random or at irregular intervals.
Some row units are adjusted at the bottom of the doffer column to assure that the column is correctly positioned in relation to the bar. Follow your operator's manual for alignment instructions. Inspect daily and ensure that all mounting hardware for doffer and moisture pad columns are tight. Routinely remove trash, dirt, and grease accumulation from the doffer column enclosure. Removing this buildup may prevent conveying chokes.
## Spindle Moistening System
The purpose of the spindle moistening system is to constantly supply cleaning solution onto the spindles to remove plant gums and resins. This cleansing helps keep the spindles aggressive and easier to doff. The solution removes plant residue while seed cotton wipes the spindle, much like a dish cloth washing flatware. A cleaning solution mixed to the correct concentration is essential
for proper function. Follow these recommendations to properly maintain and use the moistening system:
- · Clean any "gummy" or hardened residue from the bottom of the tank and flush the tank before the start of the picking season.
- · Clean the strainers and sediment bowl daily before picking.
- · Fill the tank to approximately 80% of capacity with clean water and add the proper amount of spindle cleaning solution to the tank (approximately 2 ounces per gallon of water or 1.6 gallons per 100 gallons of water). Finish filling the tank with water.
- · Bulk premixing of the spindle-cleaning solution decreases the time needed for filling the tank if you have a solution trailer.
- · Both picker manufacturers offer their own spindle-cleaning agents. Refer to your operator's manual and the dealer for the best spindle cleaner for your crop conditions. A mild dishwashing detergent may do the same job once the correct solution ratio for your crop conditions is identified.
- · Operate the fan system powering the spindle moistening system pump. Check the pump pressure, remove the spray nozzle at the top of the moisture pad column, and see if the spray pattern is full and uniform. Remove the nozzle from its body, clean or replace the nozzle, and then check each moisture pad in both columns of each row unit to verify that sufficient solution is going to each spindle.
- · Adjust the moisture pad column so that the fins on the pads just touch the spindles as they pass beneath the pad.
- · During the day, routinely remove trash (especially cockleburs) and dirty seed cotton from the moisture pad zone. However, limited lint residue on the pads may help distribute cleaning solution to the spindles.
## Picker Ribs
Picker row units clean, in addition to removing the seed cotton from the plant. The rotating spindle slings locks of seed cotton against the ribs as they leave the row, knocking burs and sticks off before cotton enters the doffer and air conveyor. Spindles work with the ribs to perform centrifugal cleaning much like a cotton gin. These tips will help you maintain the picker ribs:
- · Poorly spaced, damaged, or loose ribs may contact bars and/or spindles. This problem causes unusual wear and could potentially spark a fire in the row unit. The spindles, spindle nuts, and bars should not contact the ribs as they rotate.
- · Missing ribs will fail to clean burs, sticks, and leaf trash from the seed cotton as it is picked from the stalk.
- · Inspect the mountings and fasteners at the ends of the ribs for wear, and replace missing fasteners or damage as needed.
- · All ribs should be similar to a new rib. They should not be misshapen or have free movement within the mountings.
## Compressor Door Considerations
Compressor doors should press the plant and open cotton bolls against the spindles. They should have the capability of moving away from and protecting the picking mechanism from damage by large plant volumes, large-diameter stalks, or chunks and rocks passing through each row unit. Doors are hinged and supported by adjustable springs. Rotating or tightening the shaft retaining the springs increases the pressure applied by the compressor door. Ribbed "scraping" inserts are often fastened to the row side of the compressor door to promote a more aggressive contact with bolls toward the entry and plant exit. These steps will help you maintain compressor doors:
- · If the compressor door hinges are worn excessively, the door fails to move smoothly as the volume of stalks varies along a row. The door may drag on the frame of the row unit. Tension springs may break and thus apply less tension to the compressor doors. Inspect and repair or replace worm or damaged hinge pins, mounting holes, scrapping inserts, and tension springs as needed.
- · Reinstall compressor doors upon completion of row unit maintenance and check for smooth movement without drag. Shim if necessary.
- · Adjust the tension springs to approximately 10-15 foot-pounds on the front doors and 30 footpounds on the rear doors (starting point) using a torque wrench.
- · Gap the spindle tip from the pressure door from 1/8- to 1/4-inch clearance on all doors.
- · If dropped cotton lies to the left side of the base of the stalks, check spindle-tip-to-pressuredoor clearance and adjust the gap if needed. Increase spring pressure in approximately 5 foot-pound increments (one hole). Begin with the rear doors and then alternate to the front doors, "tweaking" spring tension. Evaluate each adjustment by any improvement or reduction of unpicked seed cotton. Adjust, pick, and check behind the picker before making additional changes.
- · Install scrapping inserts, tighten compressor door springs, and adjust spindle-tip-to-pressuredoor clearance to clean the stalks of seed cotton if picking once over when few green bolls remain on the stalk.
- · Always check that spindle tips do not contact the compressor door assemblies before operating the picker.
Cotton crop conditions are considerably different in more arid regions where crops are irrigated than in the rain-belt regions. Cotton plants grown in dry conditions tend to be short, wide, and "bushy" with the bulk of the yield concentrated in the lower 20 inches. Sometimes, passage of the large concentrated crop volume through row units causes field loss. General recommendations are to initially set pressure doors quite loose, and then tighten them as needed to improve picking efficiency. Do not use scrapping plates for front or rear drums if limbs are brittle as a result of a freeze.
## Plant Lifters
Plant lifters must float with the contour of the soil surface, gently guiding the open bolls into the row unit. They need to operate within 1 inch of the surface without plowing soil or dragging leaves. These guidelines will help you maintain the lifters:
- · The plant lifters' height should be only low enough to guide the lowest bolls into the bottom spindles.
- · Adjust spring tension so only a few pounds of force are required to raise the plant lifters.
- · Plant lifters should not continue to bounce after the row unit height sensors raise or lower the row units at full picking speed.
- · Operating plant lifters too close to the ground when the lowest bolls are several inches higher on the stalk causes undue wear. This mistake also provides potential for unwarranted damage that might occur if lifters drag on or plow into soil or obstructions.
- · Set the front tip of a plant lifter approximately 1 inch above the front lower edge of the cabinet. This placement will help the bottom of the lifter to slide rather than plow when it contacts the soil.
- · Raise the height adjustment to minimize dragging leaves and plant debris.
- · Use the stalk lifter guides to raise the lower bolls up to the level of the second from the bottom spindle when bolls are set close to the ground. These settings may need to be adjusted for different row bed shapes.
- · If you know that large rocks, bricks, chunks, and debris are present, consider removing the stalk guides to minimize the risk of damage to row units. However, this action will likely increase seed cotton losses.
## Row Unit Operating Height and Height Sensing
The best operating height for row units may be a compromise due to plant size, soil type, soil surface, shed leaves, plant debris, other obstacles, ground speed, and field terrain. Ideally, the bottom spindle on the front drum enters the row just below the bottom bolls. Where bolls have set 5-8 inches above the soil and cotton has grown on a relatively smooth row, this goal is easy to reach. Operating the row units at fairly high setting provides several benefits:
- · Less contact with obstacles
- · Less dragging of leaves and debris
- · Reduced wear and damage of the row units
- · Greater ground speed - higher productivity
## Lower Boll Set Factors
Lower boll set, rows with no or slight beds, or fields rutted by erosion or containing obstacles usually cause some yield sacrifices due to higher stalk and ground seed cotton losses. A lower picking unit reduces speed and the capacity of the picker, and it increases potential for damage and wear of the row units. For low-visibility night operations, choose fields or areas within fields where the cotton fruits higher and the likelihood of obstructions is lower. Simply raising row units as little as 1/2 inch can reduce dragging of shed leaves.
## "Hunting" Procedures
Constant raising and lowering of the row units ("hunting") by the automatic height-sensing system will cause more seed cotton losses along the row and greater wear of the row unit mechanisms. Height-sensing shoes should be set for the average of the row units controlled by that sensor shoe at the chosen field speed of the picker. If a picker height sensor cycles - "begins to hunt" - as the picker moves along the rows, take these steps:
- · Check the tires for proper inflation pressure.
- Check the ground speed.
- Check the oil flow and electronic settings to the sensors.
- Try reducing or increasing picking speed by as little as 1/10 mph. Sometimes, a small speed change may reduce or eliminate the cycling.
Inspect the tracks left by the sensing shoe to find out if a system is adjusted properly. A smooth, even track along the row indicates fairly constant height positioning. A heavy track followed by little or no track several yards down the row may suggest excessive cycling.
## Air Conveyance System
Reliable seed cotton conveyance from each picking unit is essential. Consistent seed cotton movement depends upon adequate air volume delivery by the fan to the cotton conveyor duct. All air ducts must be free of holes, duct connections must be tight, and the air system must be free of sharp edges where lint collects (roping) or debris accumulates. Follow these rules to maintain air conveyance systems:
- Inspect and correct all air piping to ensure that there are no holes, kinks, or sharp turns in the air ducts and that all ducts are connected and secured with clamps and have no air leaks.
- Set the engine throttle and fan speed to the manufacturer's recommendations.
- Duct air velocity should be approximately 5,000 feet per minute, measured in the straight duct's midsection between the row unit and the cotton discharge. A flow rate equal to 20 cubic feet per minute per pound of seed cotton conveyed is recommended for air conveyor systems. Have a service technician measure this rate if conveyance problems persist. Manufacturerspecific airflow requirements may be suggested in dealer service publications.
- Inspect and clean the door/transition, discharge, and air separation areas several times each day, depending upon these operating conditions:
- Picking in green or less mature cotton
- Air humidity is high during morning and late-evening operation
- After greasing the row units
## Row Tracking and Correction
Row unit spacing must match the planter spacing for the row pattern being picked. Attempting to pick row patterns that are not simple subsets of the planter will result in an odd row or rows that have varying spaces as you progress down the row. For example, if you try to pick cotton planted with a 10-row planter using a
6-row picker, there will always be one pass of the picker on well-spaced rows, followed by one or more passes on poorly spaced rows. This problem will result in much higher picker losses at places where the drills from two planter passes diverge.
## Row Guidance Systems
Automatic row guidance provides more uniform row spacing between planter passes than a skilled, unaided operator can obtain at planting. Guidance systems with sensors to detect and correct the position of the row unit relative to the stalks in a row reduce operator fatigue and hold the picker on the row at faster picking speeds. They are capable of reducing field losses when the row units would otherwise vary off the row under manual control.
## Guidance System Adjustments
Poor plant stands in rows where the stand was damaged by standing water, weed infestations, inadequate moisture at planting, or other problems renders the guidance system less effective and may require temporary manual control. Set the guidance system sensors so the stalks enter the row unit halfway between the ribs and compressor door of the front drums.
Newer guidance systems have electronic adjustment from the cab. Setting the sensors on older guidance systems and checking the new systems require starting the picker down the row with the guidance system in operation and then stopping the picker with the hydrostat lever. After stopping, determine the positions of the ribs and spindles relative to the stalks being picked and adjust the unit to drive left or right as needed. You may need to repeat this procedure several times while making adjustments. However, once the system is set, it should not require additional adjustments unless the sensors become bent or damaged.
## In-Season Procedures
## Cotton Picker Fires
A fire that starts on a cotton picker may be minor if the operator reacts correctly. However, poor decisions and reactions may result in a total loss of the picker and any cotton in the machine or surrounding areas. A picker fire that begins as a smoldering mass of trash and lint can become uncontrollable in as few as 3 minutes. In as few as 15 minutes, a cotton picker can become almost unrecognizable - tires burned off and bars melted into puddles under the row unit cabinets. Large amounts of grease in row units, high-pressure hydraulic oil, and diesel fuel accelerate a fire once lines and tanks rupture.
## Preventing Hazardous Conditions
You may be forced to make snap decisions regarding risk of personal injury or saving the picker from a total loss. The best course of prevention is due diligence in recognizing and eliminating or minimizing conditions that often result in a fire on the picker:
- · Dry and windy conditions (humidity in the range of 10-30%) for several days, resulting in seed cotton, trash, and lint with 4-6% moisture content and high potential for static electricity (a condition made worse by light winds and lack of dew formation at night)
- · A malfunction of the picker row unit that results in metal-to-metal contact, such as a loose rib that is struck by spindles
- · Scrap metal, rocks, or bricks (near old house sites) that enter the row unit while picking
- · A row-unit choke or trash accumulation that is undetected, allowing doffers to rub for extended periods on the material
- · Trash and lint accumulation on or near components that can be very hot, such as the transmission, belt drive, hydraulic components, engine manifold, and exhaust system
- · Poorly serviced and cleaned chassis and row units
- · Lint and trash accumulations on hydraulic valve banks
- · Operator carelessness or ignorance in dealing with a fire
## Operator Fire-Prevention Training
Operator training and practice are vital in fire prevention and control. Operators must learn how to react to a fire on a cotton picker before it happens, as well as how to use fire extinguishers and
other fire-control resources. Read and understand the operator's manual section for fires for the cotton picker to be operated. The following steps are suggested as ways of reducing fire losses:
- · Keep a full water trailer and pump in the field whenever possible.
- · Be especially cautious of conditions that are likely to result in a fire. Bluebird skies with a slight dry wind after a passing dry front can result in very low relative humidity and dry cotton. Fire dangers are increased and may reach a critical point in mid- to late afternoon.
- · Be alert to any unusual noise, odors, or visible signs of a pickker malfunction.
- · Be cautious if more frequent row-unit chokes are occurring.
- · Remove large accumulations of trash and lint more frequently.
- · Inspect and clean the row units and conveyor doors more frequently.
- · Slightly increase the spindle cleaner solution application rate, but not to the point that more trash accumulates in the row unit.
- · Be aware of any defoliation practices that are more likely to accelerate a fire (use of sodium chlorate and other desiccant materials).
## Fire-Prevention Procedures
Customize the following procedures for the picker you are operating and practice it as part of fireprevention training:
- · Cotton, oil, belts, and electrical components have very distinct odors when burning. At the first whiff of smoke or indication of fire, stop harvesting, stop the fans immediately, and investigate to identify what might be burning or smoldering.
- · If you have a cell phone or radio, alert an emergency contact that a fire is indicated/probable and request help.
- · Raise the row units and drive onto the closest turn row or back the picker 20-50 yards into a previously picked part of the field (whichever is nearest and quickest).
- · Unload any cotton in the basket, module chamber, or surge hopper, even if you must unload onto the ground. Unload even if you do not see an indication of fire in the basket or module chamber. Delaying this step with a fire burning near a hydraulic hose or fuel line may result in the lines rupturing, fueling the fire with a mist of hot oil or fuel. The seed cotton on the picker only serves as additional fuel for the fire, which would guarantee a complete burn at this point.
- · Leave the picker basket or module chamber in the unload position and move the picker the length of the machine away from the seed cotton that was unloaded.
- · Stop the picker, place the transmission in park, set the brakes, stop the engine, put on a pair of leather gloves, exit the cab, and look for the fire.
- · Inspect the platform area, looking between the duct area and the accumulator, basket, or module chamber. Also look on the tops of the row units. Take a quick look at the top of the picker as you dismount.
- · Unless trash or lint is visibly burning or smoldering near the point of catching fire in the basket, surge hopper, or module chamber, you can wait to extinguish it after finishing your overall inspection of the machine. Fires that ignite on the top of the picker rarely result in a total loss.
- · Use water-based fire extinguishers and the spindle cleaner solution emergency hose for flash lint and seed cotton fires on the platform and on top of the picker.
- · Inspect the chassis as you dismount, looking for indications of fire in the engine compartment area.
- · Remove the Type ABC fire extinguisher mounted in the engine compartment and take it with you for the remainder of the inspection.
- · If there are signs of a fire in the engine compartment, open doors and remove panels slowly and cautiously, observing the hotter engine components first. Inspect the exhaust system.
- · Remove any smoldering lint or trash with a wire hook or stick.
- · Do not rake smoldering trash with a bare hand. Doing so may fan the smoldering ember and cause it to flame up. Not only would this action further ignite a flash fire, burning trash and grease may stick to your hand.
- · Direct the Type ABC fire extinguisher nozzle to the base of any flame and release in short bursts. Do not use long blasts of the extinguisher as this could spread the fire.
- · Begin inspecting each row unit with close attention to doors, doffer areas, and lower conveyor ducts. Open doors cautiously.
- · Inspect the gear compartment for the drum and doffer drives in the top of the row unit.
- · Inspect hydraulic components, paying close attention to valve banks and reservoirs.
- · Once all fire is removed or extinguished from the lower portion of the machine, return to the top of the picker and begin removing and extinguishing any smoldering trash.
- · Thoroughly clean the picker, inspecting and repairing any hydraulic, fuel, or grease lines as needed. It is best to clean with water after a fire.
- · Identify the origin of the fire and correct any deficiencies as needed.
- · Service or replace the fire extinguisher before further picking. If you missed a smoldering fire and go back to work without a functioning extinguisher, it may be the last for that picker.
## Cleaning and Servicing the Picker
Properly cleaning and servicing the cotton picker each night or morning will result in better performance and lower potential of fire throughout the day. Most producers do a thorough cleaning from top to bottom before greasing, adding fluids, and inspecting and repairing. There are several cleaning methods, each with advantages and disadvantages.
## Cleaning Procedures
Check engine oil and coolant levels before starting the picker's engine for the first time in the morning, but be mindful of the following safety rules:
- · Always raise handrails when working on top of picker baskets or bale chambers.
- · Always climb and descend ladders facing the ladder and holding onto handrails.
- Never try to climb to the top of a picker with a hand- or armful of tools or hose. Have someone hand you what you need on top of the picker.
- Always engage proper safety locks for baskets and bale chambers before cleaning or servicing in or near those components.
- Never defeat operator-presence switches or wedge tether switches in order to rotate the row unit drums without a hand on the switch.
Use a broom or your hands to remove large accumulations of lint and trash in the basket or bale chambers. Do this chore any time during the day when waste buildup becomes a fire hazard or if a sensor indicates a false condition. Although it is time-consuming, it can be very effective to go ahead and clean the whole basket/chassis area.
Inspect all sensors and remove any lint tags to prevent false indications. One advantage of hand cleaning is that wiring components are less likely to be harmed by mechanical damage, water from high-pressure washing, or compressed-air removal techniques.
## Low-Pressure Water Washing
Many producers use low-pressure water from home or commercial water systems to wash trash from the row units. This method is effective, but it requires an extreme amount of time on larger multiple-row pickers. It also wetts the ground around the picker, increasing the chance of slip and fall injuries. Some producers use a water trailer with a portable pump to clean the picker, add spindle-cleaning solution, and extinguish fires. These units spray a lot of water at low pressure, so plan to clean more with volume than pressure.
## High-Pressure Water Washing
High-pressure washing is effective at removing trash and grease in row units and is much faster than hand or low-pressure washing. Unfortunately, the water stream can damage seals, wet the ground around the picker, break or unplug wiring harnesses, and force dirt and water into some bearings and grease in gear cases. Always wear adequate personal protective gear - hat, gloves, rain suit, protective eyewear, and boots with slip-resistant soles - when pressure washing a picker. Never direct a flow from a pressure washer towards humans or animals. High-pressure washing is particularly effective at removing grease and trash accumulations inside the row-unit cabinets. It is usually best to wash the tops of the row units last and then move the picker to a dry area before further servicing.
## High-Pressure Air Cleaning
High-volume, high-pressure air (150-250 cfm and 125 psi from an industrial air compressor) is very effective at removing trash and lint buildup from a picker. Lower volume compressors can be effective with their airflow magnified and pressure kept at a safe level (not more than 30 psi at the discharge) with a venture type of nozzle. Volume is directly proportional to cleaning power. A heavy air hose (about 3/4 to 1 inch) with a stiff wand (pipe nozzle) is used to direct air where it is needed.
This equipment can be very heavy for anyone using it on top of the picker. A dead-man valve should be attached to the nozzle to prevent the air hose from whipping around if you drop it.
## Precautions
Always wear personal protective equipment, including eyewear, gloves, boots, long pants, long-sleeve shirt, hearing protection, and respirator or dust mask. Air is less likely than water to break wiring and otherwise damage the picker, but it is still a danger. Do not direct high-volume/high-pressure airflow at radiator electrical and glass components, and air-conditioning glass, damage seals, and puncture or bend thin components. You can better clean out grease and trash inside row-unit cabinets by operating the unit in a slow idle tethered mode and flushing the moistening system periodically. The ground stays relatively dry, reducing mud and slipping injuries. Never use high-pressure air systems to blow dust and dirt from personnel. After overall cleaning of the picker chassis is done, clean the lights and cab glass inside and out with a good glass cleaner and a cloth or towel. Inspect all lights for proper function, and repair or replace as needed. Follow the manufacturer's recommended procedures closely for cleaning your particular make and model of picker. John Deere provides a DVD entitled "7760 Cotton Picker Cleaning & Operation # N382998" for specific instructions on cleaning, servicing, and operating the round-module picker. Service the picker as needed for greasing (see operator's manual), and add fuel, coolant, engine oil, spindle grease, and spindle solution as needed. Round-module picker owners usually replenish the supply of plastic wrap when servicing is complete.
## Timing Field Operations/Moisture Considerations
After the bolls open, dry, and fluff, the moisture of seed cotton during harvest has the greatest potential impact on fiber quality until it is ginned. Deciding when to start harvesting is sometimes complex, especially with weather forecasts uncertain beyond a few days. The main things to consider in this decision are the factors that affect lint quality and your revenues. Most growers will schedule harvest 10-14 days after the first application of defoliants.
Lint moisture content vs. time of day for typical conditions in a Mississippi delta environment.
Daily temperatures, soil moisture, defoliant selection, and boll maturity and plant condition when defoliants are applied may shift harvest a few days earlier or later. Several moisture sources impact storage and quality:
- · Rainfall after cotton opens and before harvesting
- · Applying excessive spindle-cleaning solution
- · Excessive dew and high humidity, causing damp seed cotton to be harvested
- · Green leaf from poor defoliation and regrowth
- · Partially or poorly opened bolls
- · Immature seed
- · Field areas with later crop maturity
## Humidity Concerns
Most of these factors will also reduce picking efficiency. Unless extreme conditions occur - such as delayed harvest late in the season - do not operate pickers when relative humidity is above 70% (lint moisture of 8% or greater). Do not pick until all free moisture from dew or rain has dried from the lint. Heavy morning dews extend the time required for seed cotton to become sufficiently dry.
The "seed cotton moisture vs. relative humidity" figure shown on the previous page suggests a relative humidity pattern a grower might expect for a typical late-September fall day. Note that by 8:00 p.m. most nights the relative humidity exceeds 70%. Relative humidity patterns vary from this chart for atypical days, daylight saving time, and earlier or later days in the harvest season. NonRain-Belt regions will have dramatically lower night humidity, enabling early-morning, lateevening, or night picking to be successful.
## Assessing Moisture Content
Seed cotton containing 12% or less total moisture will usually store for extended periods without quality loss. Green leaf and damp seed usually raise seed cotton moisture above 12%.
Assess the moisture content of lint and seed before starting harvest each morning:
- · Handheld moisture meters are usually within ± 1% percent accuracy.
- · A sharp crack when you bite a seed indicates a brittle seed coat and seed moisture below 12%.
- · One simple test of when harvest may begin is to pick several bolls by hand, ball them into a tight fist, and then release the fist. If the seed cotton springs back to or near the original volume, it is time for harvest.
Excessive green plant material in the harvested seed cotton is another reason to delay harvest, usually several days. Green vegetation stains the seed cotton in storage and requires ginners to increase heat, which may damage fiber quality. Harvesting clean and dry seed cotton reduces drying and cleaning at the gin and attains the highest possible fiber quality considering varietal characteristics and seasonal weather.
## Preventing and Freeing Row Unit Chokes
Row-unit chokes can become very expensive. Frequent chokes may reduce field efficiency by more than 10%, increasing seed cotton losses and costs to the grower and/or picker owner. Several factors affect the frequency of chokes: crop conditions, picking high-moisture seed cotton, the picker's air system capability, and keeping the row units and conveyance system cleared of dirt, trash, grease, and sticks.
Row-unit chokes can occur while picking in high-humidity conditions, in early morning and late evening, and within the first hour after greasing row units. Higher moisture seed cotton is heavier, requiring a higher air-conveying velocity. Excess spindle-cleaner solution collects on the surfaces
of the row-unit cabinet, causing seed cotton to stick. Excess grease can seep out of the spindle nuts and accumulate where seed cotton is conveyed; this buildup collects trash and seed cotton, causing resistance to rapid cotton movement.
Techniques for reducing or eliminating chokes include beginning the day with clean row-unit cabinets, lowering spindle cleaner application rates, using a slower ground speed, and using smaller and more frequent grease applications. Dry, brittle crop conditions, possibly resulting from a freeze, may cause limbs and stalks to break off and plug row units. Slower harvest speeds and delaying harvesting until temperatures exceed 32°F may solve, or at least reduce, this problem.
NOTE : The recommended procedure (see your operator's manual) is to stop the picker, lower row units completely, switch fans off, place the hydrotat control in park, set the brake, allow the engine to idle to cool for a few minutes, stop the engine, exit, lock and remove the key from the door, dismount the picker, and remove the choke, leaving the seed cotton in the row middle.
No amount of seed cotton and time saved is worth death or injury while trying to clear a choke. Picker row units can fall and trap you, and a picker left in gear can crush or roll over you. Be careful opening row-unit doors. Be alert to the possibilities that the choke may have started a fire or that an animal may be entangled but still capable of biting or scratching. Only an operator properly trained and shown how to clear chokes should practice the following procedure:
- · Identify the row unit with the choke from the monitor.
- · Raise the row units, disengage the picking-unit drive, and back the picker 5-10 feet from cotton remaining to be picked.
- · Lower the row units completely, disengage power to the picking units, place the ground travel lever in park, and set the parking brake.
- · Allow the engine to idle to cool and the turbocharger to slow before stopping it.
- · Dismount the picker, and close and lock the cab with a key (to prevent a coworker from moving controls while you are under the machine).
- · Locate the choke, open the appropriate door about halfway, and observe the cause of the choke.
- · Pull the cotton from the door and duct area.
- · Remove dirt/trash/grease buildup, sticks, limbs, or other obstructions.
- · Close and secure the doors.
- · Make a record of row-unit choke.
- · Resume picking operations.
- · Never attempt to clear a row unit with the drums in operation.
- · Never allow or instruct a coworker to crawl under the machine to clean or service it unless you locate that person before restarting the engine.
## Consistent Choke Problems
If you observe a consistent problem of chokes over several days of picking within a particular row unit, you might solve the problem with an inspection of the fans, fan drives, air-delivery ducts, cabinet obstructions, and conveying ducts. Row-unit chokes are common when moisture accumulates on the doors as a result of high spindle moistener application rates, too frequent moistener system flush operation, and/or over-greasing the bars (if grease and trash accumulates inside the cabinet). Picking rows from the opposite direction when second picking or picking extremely dry or brittle plants affected by a freeze may prompt excessive chokes due to broken limbs lodging in the doors or air-duct entries.
## Recordkeeping
A record of breakdowns, chokes, and possibly the remedies can be extremely valuable in improving later operations. At a minimum, records should include the following:
- · Dates and times of routine maintenance
- · Any difficulties, including chokes and the extent of spindle wrap, making notes specific to the row unit and bar(s)
- · Weather and other conditions that may have contributed to chokes
- · Time spent waiting for a boll buggy or module builder
- · Modules containing unusual green leaf, green weeds, or wet cotton (for example) from uniquely different areas of the field
Use these notes to expedite ginning of certain modules. Review the notes before initiating repairs, focusing on identifying and correcting the most frequent problems.
Row-unit chokes (represented by stars) were more frequent early in the morning (picking began at 9:30 a.m., lower part of the figure), after greasing in late afternoon, and during evening operation in this field. Harvest was completed at the top end by 10:00 p.m.
## Appendix: Harvest Loss Calculations
As the price of cotton rises, the value of "fine tuning" picker operation and adjustment can easily exceed $1,000 per day. Estimating stalk and ground losses of seed cotton after the picker has passed can help determine what additional adjustments should be made. Two methods of estimating losses are (1) gleaning and weighing replicated plots (greatest accuracy) and (2) counting seed.
## Seed Count Method of Estimating Picker Loss
- 1. Measure and mark several 10-foot sections of representative rows within the field to be harvested.
- 2. Count the open bolls on every plant within each 10-foot section of row.
- 3. Glean any seed cotton from the ground that fell from the sample row. Count and record the number of seeds in this cotton (preharvest loss).
- 4. Randomly select 20 open bolls, cut the stems, and save the bolls from at least five random but representative plants within the 10-foot section. Bolls should be representative selections, considering fruiting positions and relative yield contribution.
- 5. Count the number of locks in each of the 20 bolls and then record and determine an average number of locks per bell. If roll rot is significant, estimate the percentage of locks that are hard locks.
- 6. Pull one lock of seed cotton from each ball, and count the number of seeds within the locks to estimate an average number of seeds per lock.
- 7. Calculate the base seed count for yield by multiplying the number of bolls per 10-foot sample by the average number of locks per bell and then by the average number of seeds per lock.
- 8. Harvest the field and again select several 10-foot row sections to glean for composite postharvest, stalk, and ground loss. Maintain a separate count of stalk loss. If you determined hard locks in step 5, count the hard locks still on the stalk and those on the ground (loss due to hard lock).
- 9. Count all the seed contained in the cotton gleaned from the post-harvest, stalk, and ground loss samples; record and determine a total seed count.
- 10. Divide the number of seeds in each gleaned portion by the total base seed count (step 6) and multiply this number by 100 to obtain the percent loss in each category.
- 11. To estimate yield, divide the number of bolls counted per 10-foot section in step 2 by 120 bolls (equals approximately 1 bale per acre). However, this is a very preliminary estimate, which is sensitive to variety and weather.
These are estimates for yield and losses. Boll position on the plant affects boll size, yield from that boll, and picking efficiency. Smaller bolls from the top of the plant may not pick as well as big, open, flurry bolls from the middle of the plant. Lower bolls, exposed to more weathering, may have locks that have dropped and lost before picking. Improve your estimate precision by increasing the number of sections, length of row, or number of bolls used for the base seed count and the loss sample.
## Weight Method of Estimating Loss: (More applicable to researchers)
- 1. From the "Row Length Table" on page 36, for the appropriate row spacing determine or calculate the equivalent row length to represent 1/1,000 acre or 1/100 acre be gleaned (43,560 square feet per acre; 1/1,000 acre = 43.56 square feet). For a field with a uniform 38-inch row spacing: 43.56 square feet/38-inch row/12 inches per foot = 13.75 feet of row to equal 1/1,000 acre.
- 2. Harvest the field with the picker keeping accurate records of lint per acre.
- 3. Locate six representative plots within the field to be sampled. Glean the seed cotton from the row length determined in step 1, separating cotton gleaned from the stalks and from the ground in different containers. If preharvest losses are significant, keep weathered seed cotton distinct from ground losses while gleaning. Glean from all rows to be harvested with different row units on the picker. However, gleaning in middles where the tires have been generally results in a lowered amount of ground losses because the tires bury some locks.
- 4. Note appearance and condition of the stalks and losses. Noting this may help explain what seem to be irregularities in loss calculations later.
- 5. Remove the gleaned seed cotton from the field containers and spread it on a table to dry at standard room temperature (72°F) and humidity for 24-48 hours.
- 6. Clean large sticks and burss from the gleaned seed cotton by hand. If a seedotton fractionation device is available, establish a standard "run time" and clean each of the samples to remove leaves and dirt during the standard run time.
- 7. Weigh the seeded cotton in grams. Convert grams to pounds (454 grams = 1 pound) and multiply by 1,000 (or 100 if using 1/100-acre plots) to obtain the seed cotton loss per acre.
- 8. Estimate the turnout (ratio of lint to seed cotton harvested from ginning or assume 38% of the total weight is lint). If a small sample gin is available, the loss samples can be combined and gined to estimate turnout for the samples. Use this ratio only for the sample turnout, since it may not be representative of the picked seed cotton sent to the gin.
- 9. Divide the lint yield per acre by the gin turnout (converted to a decimal) to obtain the seed cotton yield per acre. Add this to the losses in pounds per acre for a total seed cotton yield per acre. Divide the harvested seed cotton by the total seed cotton yield for harvester efficiency. Divide the losses by the total seed cotton yield for picker losses. Multiply these by 100 to obtain the percent loss within each category. Add the losses for a total loss per acre.
Note : 1 gram from 1/1,000 acre is equivalent to 2.2 pounds of seed cotton per acre; 1 gram from 1/100 acre is equivalent to 0.22 pound per acre. Therefore, it is extremely important to glean and clean the samples very carefully. Increasing the number of rows or the multiple lengths of 1/1,000 acre or choosing the 1/100-acre row length in a sample increases the precision of the measurements, if you can justify the increased cost (i.e., time and labor for sample gleaning and preparation). Weather loss is a function of conditions before harvest and is largely an unavoidable loss with the exception of a more timely harvest. Stalk and ground loss from the picker indicate the composite of the picker's mechanical condition and adjustment and the operator's proficiency.
## Row Length Table:
Row length in feet required to glean for 1/1,000 and 1/100 acre to represent each row unit.
| Effective Row Spacing | Row Spacing (inches) | Row Length (feet) to Glean for: | Row Length (feet) |
|-------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Row Unit Coverage (inches) | Regularly Spaced Row Patterns | 1/1,000 acre | 1/100 acre |
| 30 | 15 | 17.4 | 174.2 |
| 30 | 30 | 17.4 | 174.2 |
| 36 | 36 | 14.5 | 145.2 |
| 38 | 38 | 13.8 | 137.6 |
| 40 | 40 | 13.1 | 130.7 |
| Alternating Skip-Row Patterns | Alternating Skip-Row Patterns | Alternating Skip-Row Patterns | Alternating Skip-Row Patterns |
| 45 | 15 with one row skipped for every two planted | 11.6 | 116.2 |
| 60 | 15 with two rows skipped for every two planted | 8.7 | 87.1 |
| 45 | 30 with one row skipped for every two planted | 11.6 | 116.2 |
| 54 | 36 with one row skipped for every two planted | 9.7 | 96.8 |
| 72 | 36 with two rows skipped for every two planted | 7.3 | 72.6 |
| 57 | 38 with one row skipped for every two planted | 9.2 | 91.7 |
| 76 | 38 with two rows skipped for every two planted | 6.9 | 68.8 |
| 60 | 40 with one row skipped for every two planted | 8.7 | 87.1 |
| 80 | 40 with two rows skipped for every two planted | 6.5 | 65.3 |
| 50 | 40 with a 60-inch skip for every two rows planted | 10.5 | 104.5 |
## Suggested Reading on Cotton Pickers
Bader, M.J. 1996. Results from Boll Saver tests. In Proc. 1996 Beltwide Cotton Conf. 2:16581661.
Baker, K.D., and E. Hughs. 2010. Optimizing spindle speed for cotton pickers. In Proc. 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conf. New Orleans, Louisiana.
Balkcom, K.S., J.S. Bergtold, C.D. Monks, A.J. Price, D.P. Delaney. 2010. Planting and defoliation timing impacts on cotton yield and quality. In Proc. 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conf. New Orleans, Louisiana.
Bednarz, C.W., W.D. Shurley, and W.S. Anthony. 2002. Losses in yield, quality, and profitability of cotton from improper harvest timing. Agronomy Journal 94:1004-1011.
Byler, R.K., M.H. Willcutt, M.J. Buschemohle, W.D. Mayfield, and E.M. Barnes. 2010. The effects of three module types on cotton ginning and fiber quality. In Proc. 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conf. New Orleans, Louisiana.
Buehring, N.W., R. Dobbs, M.P. Harrison, M.H. Willcutt, and S. Spurlock. 2009. Non-irrigated spindle picker 15-inch and wide-row cotton production systems analysis. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Bulletin 1178. Mississippi State University.
Calhoun, D.S., T.P. Wallace, W.S. Anthony, and M.E. Barfield. 1996. Comparison of lint fraction and fiber quality data from hand - vs. machine-harvested samples in cotton yield trails. In Proc. 1996 Beltwide Cotton Conf. pp. 1:611-615. Memphis, Tennessee: Nat. Cotton Council. Am.
Cooke Jr., F.T., D. Parvin Jr., and S. Spurlock. 1991. The cost of cotton harvesting systems in the Mississippi Delta. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Bulletin 972. Mississippi State University.
Deutsch, T.A., and H.C. Hadley. 2001. Narrow row crop harvester with lateral conveying of cut row. U.S. Patent Number 6,293,078 B1. Assigned to Deere and Company. Moline, Illinois.
Fairbank, J.P., and K.O. Smith. 1950. Cotton mechanization in California. ASAE Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 219-222. St. Joseph, Michigan.
Faircloth, J.C., R. Hutchinson, J. Barnett, K. Paxton, A. Coco, and P. Price III. 2004. An evaluation of alternative cotton harvesting methods in Northeast Louisiana - A comparison of the brush stripper and spindle harvester. The Journal of Cotton Science 8:55-61. http://journal.cotton.org.
Faulkner, W.B., J. Wanjura, R. Bowman, B. Shaw, and C. Parnell. Evaluation of modern cotton harvest systems on irrigated cotton: Economic returns. In press.
Faulkner, W.B., B.W. Shaw, and E. Hequet. 2008. Effects of harvesting method on foreign matter content, fiber quality, and yarn quality from irrigated cotton on the High Plains. In Proc. 2008 Beltwide Cotton Conf. pp. 612-619. Memphis, Tennessee: Nat. Cotton Council. Am.
Faulkner, W.B., J.D. Wanjura, B.W. Shaw, and E.F. Hequet. 2009. Effect of harvesting method on fiber and yarn quality from irrigated cotton on the High Plains. In Proc. 2009 Beltwide Cotton Conf. Memphis, Tennessee: Nat. Cotton Council. Am. Available on CD-ROM.
Hagen, C.R. 1951. Twenty-five years of cotton picker development. Agricultural Engineering, ASAE Vol. 32, No. 11, pp. 593-599. St. Joseph, Michigan.
Harrison, G.J. 1951. Breeding and adapting cotton to mechanization. Agricultural Engineering, ASAE Vol. 32, No. 9, pp. 486-488. St. Joseph, Michigan.
Hopson Jr., H.H. 1944. Mechanization of a Delta cotton plantation. First Annual Production Mechanization Conference. National Cotton Council of America.
Hughes, R. 1997. John Deere cotton harvesters, the first 60 years: 1930-1990. Green Magazine, February 1997, pp. 9-14.
International Harvester Company. 1942. International harvester has now developed its mechanical cotton picker. Now. 29, 1942, press release. McCormick IH Archives, Wisconsin Historical Society. Madison, Wisconsin.
International Harvester Company. 1948. International harvester's great new cotton picker now in quantity production. McCormick IH Archives, Wisconsin Historical Society. Madison, Wisconsin.
John Deere. 2008. Cotton module staging instructions and truck requirements # N390094. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/e/nitrogen-rich-strips-e-1022.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20100701162220-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Nitrogen Rich Strips for wheat, corn and other crops
Bill Raun, 2John Solie, 1 Jerry May, 1Hailin Zhang, Jonathan Kelly, 2 Randy Taylor, 1 Brian Amall and 3 Ivan Ortiz-Monasterio
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, 2 Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering 3 CIMMYT, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Mexico
## Summary
The optimum nitrogen (N) rate for cereal crops changes dramatically from year to year. Again, the optimum N rate for cereal crops changes dramatically from year to year. It bears repeating because many producers continue to apply the same amount of N, year after year. Farmers are well aware that their yield levels change significantly, but they are not aware that the yield response to additional N changes too (magnitude of response if N is applied). Combined, N responsiveness and yield level dictate precisely how much N should be applied. What farmers have to embrace is that their N use efficiency changes every year too. The GreenSeeker sensor technology, developed at Oklahoma State University, predicts yield potential from NDVI readings measured during the growing season. Using N Rich Strips applied at planting or shortly after, the optimum topdress N rate for maximum yields and economic profitability can be determined. Even if producers don't use the GreenSeeker sensor, the N Rich Strip by itself remains an incredibly valuable tool for deciphering whether or not mid-season N is needed. Applying N Rich Strips, over time and measuring responsiveness with the GreenSeeker sensor, will net producers more than $25.00 per acre.
COVER. Wheat farmer in Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico, illustrating where he applied 300 kg N/ha (about 270 lb N/ac) preplant on the left, and O lns preplant on the right. Because there were no visible differences, he decided not to topdress with added N. As it turns out, he did not need any added N as there was no yield difference between the two at harvest.
## Why are N Rich Strips needed?
It is hard to detect N deficiencies in actively growing crops without comparing the crop to crops with sufficient N . The easiest way to do that is to create strips with sufficient N , applied at non-limiting but not excessive amounts and a strip of the crop with N applied at the normal rates. The two strips are monitored as the growth cycle progresses. While other nutrients other than N might also be limiting, these 'other' nutrients (P, K, S, Fe, Mg, Ca, Cu, Zn, B) are readily and successfully identified with soil testing (http://www.soillestesting.org.okstate.edu/pricelist.htm). Soil testing for NH$\_{4}$-N and NO$\_{x}$-N (readily available N fractions in soils) is commonly used to detect N deficiencies. However, levels of both these fractions change drastically depending on soil moisture, growing conditions up until the sample was taken, time of year, and depth to which the sample was taken. They don't reflect the N released from organic matter during the growing season either. As such, the utility of the inorganic soil N test is limited. While soil testing remains the most effective, and proven tool to improve nutrient management in all crops, and for virtually all the essential elements (N, P, K, S, Ca, Fe, Mg, B, Mn, Cl, Cu, Zn, and Mo), when it comes to better N management, using N Rich Strips delivers more accurate recommendations.
## How do N Rich Strips work?
Nitrogen Rich Strips compared to the farmer practice capitalize on the reality that last year's environment is going to be different from this year's. Figure 1 illustrates this point quite well, where the N fertilized (100-40-60, N-P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$-K$\_{2}$O) plot yields (blue bars) are plotted along with the zero-N check (0-40-60), (yellow bars) from 1972 to 2009, at Lohama, OK. Note that the harvested yields changed drastically from year to year (both blue and yellow bars), suggesting the yields are unpredictable before planting. Not only do yield levels change unpredictably from year to year, but the response to applied N (difference between the blue (fertilized) and yellow (unfertilized) bars) is equally unpredictable.
The Response Index or RI, was developed as a measure of the response of the crop to additional N (Figure 2). The RI was computed as the ratio of the yield of the N Rich (N sufficient) fertilized plot to the yield of the unfertilized 0-N check. Like yield levels, the RI's varied significantly from year to year and were unpredictable (Figure 2). The response index to N was highly variable ranging from 0.7 to 4.0. In some years such as 1972, additional fertilizer reduced grain yield compared to the unfertilized plots (RI
A critical question from these experiments was whether response to N fertilizer predicted grain yield. For Experiment 502 and all other long-term experiments where this was tested, limited or no
relationship existed between N responsiveness (Response Index) and yield level (Figure 3). So what does this mean? It means that farmers are not going to get good estimates of N fertilizer demand unless they consider both the crops ability to respond to additional N and the potential grain yield without additional N fertilizer. In other words, you cannot arrive at an appropriate mid-season N rate using estimated yield potential alone. Similarly, you cannot arrive at an appropriate mid-season N rate using N response (Response index) alone. You could have a year where yield potential is high but the crop does not respond to additional N (warm wet winters
index) alone. You could have a year where yield potential is high but the crop does not respond to additional N (warm wet winters where sufficient N was mineralized from soil organic matter and N deposited in the rainfall). In this environment, added N would not be expected to increase grain yield even though yields were projected to be high. Conversely in a year when the winter months were cool and dry, but where an excellent plant stand was achieved, N demand would likely be higher, yield potential lower, and the topdress N application rate might be moderate to high.
The N Rich Strip represents wheat growth under non-N limiting conditions. By comparing this to the farmer practice where partial N was applied plant, farmers can visually see if there is a difference, mid-season before they decide whether or not to apply more N.
We commonly recommend that farmers apply % of the anticipated total N needed at planting and wait to make the decision on added N until the middle of the season. In general for winter wheat, if no differences can be visually detected prior to jointing (Feekes 6, Figure 4), it is unlikely that added N will result in increased yields. Alternatively if differences are large, there is a high demand for added N. When no differences exist between the N Rich Strip and the farmer practice it means one of two things.
Enough N had been mineralized from soil organic matter or that deposited in the rainfall to meet all of the plant N needs; Growth was possibly restricted by some other variable and that masked the ability to detect N deficiencies.
The N Rich Strip provides an estimate of how much N was delivered to the crop for free (N mineralization, and atmospheric deposition), from planting to sensing. Even if applied late, the N Rich Strip will still provide visual information concerning whether or not you should apply additional N mid-season.
FIGURE 5. N Rich Strip on the left and the farmer practice on the right (Jason Lawes holding the Greenskeer sensor), winter wheat, Hennessey, OK.
FIGURE 6. N Rich Strip down the center and the farmer practice {left and right}. corn, Stillwater, OK.
When should N Rich Strips be applied?
For winter wheat the N Rich Strip should be applied at or before planting. If this is not possible, as soon after planting is best. For corn, N Rich Strips should be applied before or at planting. After planting is not ideal for several reasons. First, N fertilizer applied needs to have time to enter the soil solution, and depending on moisture availability/irrigation this could be a while. Second, the growth cycle for corn is relatively short compared to winter wheat (100-110 versus 200-230 days, respectively). Time is needed to assimilate the available N, thus for corn, the window of opportunity to make a decision when evaluating the N Rich Strip versus the farmer practice is narrow (see Figures 5 and 6). Applying and incorporating the fertilizer if possible prior to planting is preferred for establishing an effective N-Rich Strip.
## What if I don't get my N Rich Strip out at planting?
The N Rich Strip will provide you with more information if established at or before planting. If this is not possible, and farmers choose to apply the N Rich Strip within the growing season, the later you go, the less useful it will be. But as the saying goes, "better late than never." For winter wheat N Rich Strips are applied at planting in early October, but can be applied as late as December for use in making topdress N decisions in late February and March. Why? Because in most years, there will still be growth that takes place over the winter, and the environment from November to March can be conducive for active growth and soil N mineralization. If N Rich Strips are to be applied late, using UAN, it is best to use streamer nozzles to minimize any damage to new growth.
## Where should I put my N Rich Strip?
The best place to put your N Rich Strip is across a portion of the field that you believe is representative of the entire area. Don't put them along the fence line where turning, overlap, and other issues arise that could influence N response. You may have areas in your 40-160 acre field that are distinctly different (e.g., alluvial lowland, vs. eroded backslope), and where you have noticed distinct differences in production. In this case, putting out an N Rich Strip in each area would be advised. You have to remember that the N Rich Strip is a visual guide, and as such needs to represent those areas where you believe final N management might be different.
Why do N Rich Strips work so well?
There is really no mystery as to why they work. When the envi- ronment changes (hot-cold, wet-dry), everything else changes too. Soil biology, soil temperature, soil moisture, and ultimately crop growth, all change as the environment changes. No two years are the same. As a result, N demand, and potential N response change too. The N Rich Strip compared to the Farmer Practice is a tool that integrates environmental change into one, clearly defined variable, that being demand for N. Do you really want to make a mid-season fertilizer N rate decision without an N Rich Strip? Not putting out N Rich Strips will only add to the uncertainty and risk that farmers have to take.
## Will my N Rich Strip still be good for next year if I don't apply any more N?
No. N Rich Strips should be applied each year at a rate where N will not be limiting. Be careful not to apply too-much or too-little N. See Table 1 below for some basic recommendations. Preferably, your N Rich Strip should be placed in a different location each year, being careful not to overlap where you applied N-Rich Strips for at least the last two years.
| | Yield level, bu/ac | Yield level, bu/ac | Yield level, bu/ac | Yield level, bu/ac | |
|----------------------------|----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|
| | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 |
| Winter Wheat | 90 | 120 | 150 | 180 | 210 |
| Grain only, lbs N/ac | 120 | 150 | 180 | 210 | 240 |
| Grain and forage, lbs N/ac | 50 | 100 | 150 | 200 | 250 |
| Corn, lbs N/ac | 75 | 150 | 225 | 300 | 375 |
| Sorghum, lbs N/ac | 70 | 140 | 210 | | |
| | | Yield level, bases/ac | Yield level, bases/ac | Yield level, bases/ac | Yield level, bases/ac |
| Cotton, lbs N/ac | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | --- |
| Cotton, lbs N/ac | 80 | 160 | 200 | 200 | |
TABLE 1. N Rate suggestions for the N Rich Strip
Why aren't N Rich Strips required?
For anyone applying fertilizer N for crop production they should be required. But, they are not. Legislating fertilizer N use is a hot topic in many states where non-point source contamination of key watersheds has been documented. In some states, fertilizer use is regulated, especially in fragile ecosystems where some damage has already been encountered. For these areas, N Rich Strips will go a long way towards minimizing damage from excess N applications.
## My neighbor is using N Rich Strips, but why should I?
If you are anything like your neighbor and you are interested in increasing your bottom line, you need to adopt this practice as soon as possible. Averaged over many sites, over many years, farmers can net at least $25/ac using OSU's N recommendations that require the N Rich Strip.
## Are N Rich Strips a Best Management Practice?
NRCS provides cost shares for implementing better N management strategies in some states and some counties in Oklahoma (many other states as well). Check with your local conservation district office to find out if it is available in your area. If they aren't on the list, they should be. No other agricultural practice used today is as simple, affordable, and as cost effective as N Rich Strips in cereal production. Yet, we still have farmers that won't take the time to put out this visual tool each year, knowing full well that this practice will put money in their pockets. Using N Rich Strips and the OSU mid-season fertilizer N recommendations that employ GreenSeeker sensor NDVI data, is money in the bank.
http://www.soiltesting.okstate.edu/SBNRC/SBNRC.php www.nue.okstate.edu
What about N Rich Strips for crops other than corn and winter wheat?
For virtually any non-legume crop, N rich strips applied at or near planting are going to be useful. Especially in those crops where mid-season N is applied (sorghum, canola, and other cereal and/or oil seed crops). If the crop demands added N to realize near maximum yields, an N Rich Strip will be a useful, diagnostic tool.
## N Rich Strip/GreenSeeker N Recommendation Checklist
- Apply N-rich strips before planting or right after planting.
- Wait until early February or March to sense yield potential and apply top-dress N for winter wheat. Wait until the 8 or 10 leaf stage in corn to sense and apply fertilizer.
- For winter wheat, from February to March (topdress season, depending on plant stand, the environment, etc.) if YOU DO SEE the N-Rich Strip that means there was NOT enough N in the soil at your regular preplant rate and you need to fertilize. Similarly for corn, at the 8 to 10 leaf stage, if you do see the N-Rich Strip, there is obviously a demand for added N.
- Sense the N-Rich Strip and your farmer practice with the GreenSeekerTM sensor and enter these NDVI values on the NUE web site to determine your topadress N rate (corn, winter wheat, spring wheat, sorghum, rice, and cotton):
http://www.soilstesting.okstate.edu/SBNRC/SBNRC.php
- From February to March in winter wheat, if YOU DO NOT SEE the N-Rich Strip that means the field likely has enough available N to meet the maximum yield potential for that field for that year, and you may not need additional N. However, if as a producer you sense that the potential for yield is high, applying a modest amount of tenderness N is still considered prudent. This is especially the case for corn. | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/flaglerco/2021/10/04/meet-flagler-countys-new-4-h-youth-development-agent/ | Meet Flagler County’s New 4-H Youth Development Agent | University of Florida | [
"BLOGS.IFAS"
] | 2021-10-04 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"4-H",
"Flagler",
"New Agent",
"Youth Development"
] | FL | ## Meet Flagler County's New 4-H Youth Development Agent
My name is Bailea GLYPHann, and I am excited to be Flagler County's new 4-H Youth Development Agent. I started my position here with UF/IFAS Extension Flagler County on August 16 and now that I am settled in, I wanted to take the opportunity to introduce myself.
I was born and raised in rural northeast Florida. Agriculture has always been a passion of mine growing up in the industry. My grandparents owned a small cattle operation, so I spent a good portion of my childhood on the farm. In my youth, I was an active member of 4-H and FFA in Clay County, where I participated primarily in livestock and leadership development projects. My background in agriculture inspired me to pursue a degree and career in this field. I received my undergraduate degree from the University of Florida in Agriculture Education, Communications and Leadership Development in 2018 and I am currently pursuing a graduate degree specialized in Extension Education from the University of Florida.
While attending UF for undergraduate school, I had the opportunity to intern with UF/IFAS in Clay County working with their 4-H Youth Development STEM Program. Through this internship, I learned about all of the diverse opportunities offered through UF/IFAS Extension and 4-H Youth Development programs. Growing up in such a rural area, it was easy to believe that 4-H programs were strictly focused on agriculture. Venturing outside of my comfort
zone during my internship, I learned how even rural areas can greatly benefit from 4-H's other program areas: STEM, Healthy Living, and Civic Engagement.
4-H Youth Development programs should provide an opportunity for youth to develop life skills that help them succeed in college and career. STEM and Agriculture programs promote responsibility, problem-solving, and creative thinking skills. Healthy Living programs promote healthy lifestyles through a healthy body and mind. Civic Engagement programs inspire young people to be wellinformed citizens who are actively engaged in their communities while promoting confidence, relationship-building, and decisionmaking skills.
As Flagler County's new 4-H agent, I look forward to continuing the great livestock, equine, shooting sports, robotics, and general youth development programs our community club and school clubs currently offer. I also plan to add/expand programming focused on leadership development, civic engagement, and healthy living as I feel these are all crucial to prepare our youth to make a positive impact in their community and beyond.
Open enrollment for Flagler County 4-H clubs began September 1. With most of our community clubs at full capacity, I look to make more opportunities for potential new youth members in the near future. Volunteers are crucial to our 4-H program. Most of our adult volunteers serve as club leaders for our 147* Flagler County 4-H members, but volunteers of any capacity are always needed.
## Contact Information
Thanks for reading! I look forward to engaging in the community and working "To Make the Best Better" for Flagler County youth. Please feel free to reach out to me directly regarding anything 4-H. You can contact me by email, bgnnan@ufl\_edu, or call our office (386-437-7464) and ask for me.
```
by BLOGS.IFAS
Posted: October 4, 2021
``` |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1979/rr79_1.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090121163056-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Beef Cattle
## NUTRITION-LABORATORY
Effect of Abomasally Infused Methionine, Bypassed Methionine, and Hydrolyzed Feather Meal in Steers
## Story in Brief
Five mature Hereford steers fitted with rumen and abomasal cannulas were fed prairie hay ad libitum and 2.2 lb of 20 percent crude protein supplements with 65 percent of the protein from hydrolyzed feather meal (HFM) or the equivalent from coated slow release urea (SRU) with different levels of oleyl-methionine. Oleyl-methionine levels were 0, 30, 60, and 90 grams (g) per day. The levels 30 and 60 g were continuously infused in the abomasum and the 90 g level was fed orally.
Similar values for the treatments were observed with respect to daily dry matter intake, cellulose digestibility, nitrogen retained (/day or as a percentage ofthe intake) or nitrogen digestibility. Digestibility of dry-matter was greater (P
Hydrolyzed feather meal produced less ammonia and microbial nitrogen in the abomasal digesta than the SRU supplements. No consistent effects ofoleyl-methionine in microbial synthesis and bypass nitrogen were observed. Results suggest that methionine is not the first limiting amino acid for cattle fed poor quality forage.
## Introduction
Several studies have indicated that certain nutrients may be limiting to cattle fed low quality roughages. Nitrogen certainly is the more deficient nutrient in these conditions and is generally supplied as plant protein or NPN.
Under some situations, however, the protein nitrogen supplemented could be used more advantageously to the animal if digested abomasally instead of going through the process of rumen fermentation. This is especially true for high quality protein which may be degraded and resynthzesized to microbial protein of inferior quality in the rumen. The microbial protein has been shown in some studies to have low levels of certain amino acids, especially methionine and depending on the physiological func› tion of the animal, methionine may be limiting to maximum performance.
Hydrolyzed feather meal, a byproduct of the poultry industry, contains approxi› mately 80 to 90 percent crude protein and could possibly be used to increase bypass of protein since this product has a lower solubility than most of the plant proteins commonly used in cattle feeds. Also, its high content of the sulfur amino acid cystine could possibly spare part of the requirement of methionine.
The purpose of this experiment was to compare the effect on the nitrogen utilization by steers fed low quality roughage and urea of methionine treated to bypass rumen fermentation, methionine fed orally, methionine infused abomasally and hydrolyzed feather meal.
## Materials and Methods
Five mature Hereford steers fitted with permanent rumen and abomasal cannulas were used. Treatments (Table 1) consisted of 20 percent crude protein supplements in which 65 percent of the protein was from hydrolyzed feather meal (HFM) or the equivalent from coated slow release urea 1(SRU) with different levels of methionine treated with a mixture of glyceryl tristearate and oleic acid (oleyl-methionine). 2 The levels of oleyl-methionine added were 0, 30, 60 and 90 g per day to the urea based supplements. The 30 and 60 g levels of oleyl-methionine were infused continuously in the abomasum while the 90 g level was fed orally. The steers received 2.2 lb of supplement daily in one meal in addition to prairie hay fed ad libitum.
The experimental design was a 5 x 5 Latin square with each period consisting of an eight-day adjustment and a six-day collection period. Fences were collected daily from day 1 to 5 of each collection period, weighed and a 10 percent aliquot taken. The aliquots were composed for each period and then sampled for laboratory analyses. Urine was also weighed daily and a 5 percent aliquot kept and composited for analysis. Rumen and abdominal samples were taken on day 5 at 0, 4 and 8 hr relative to the a.m. feeding of the supplement and at 2, 6 and 10 hr after feeding on day 6.
Equal aliquots from abomasal samples were combined to provide a single animal composite for analysis. The composite was separated in solid and liquid phases by centrifuging at 10,000 g for 30 minutes. The solid sample was dried and ground; the liquid frozen and stored. Cellulose digestibility was estimated by placing cotton strips of known weight into the rumen for 48 hr on days 2 and 3 and weighing again after washing and drying.
Chromium sesquioxide (Cr$\_{2}$O$\_{3 }$) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) were used as indicators to estimate the amount of solid and liquid digesta reaching the abomasum daily. Chromium sesquioxide was fed twice daily (7.5 g mixed with 200 g of ground corn) and PEG was infused in the rumen twice daily dissolved in water (37.5 g of PEG in 100 ml of water).
"Product of NIPAK Corp., Pryor, Oklahoma.
" Product of Degussa Chemicals Inc., Frankfurt, Germany.
| Item | IRN a | Ration (% DM basis) | Ration (% DM basis) |
|--------------------------|---------|-----------------------|-----------------------|
| Ingredient, % | | | SRU b |
| Slow release urea | | | 6.5 |
| Feather meal, hydrolyzed | | --- | |
| Corn, grnd. | | 5-03-795 | -- |
| Alfalfa, dehy, grnd. | | 4-02-992 | 53.6 |
| Cotton seed hulls | | 1-00-525 | 10.0 |
| Dicalcium phosphate | | 1-01-599 | 11.8 |
| Potassium chloride | | 6-01-080 | 3.0 |
| Trace mineral mix | | 6-03-656 | 2.0 |
| Crude protein, total % | | 20.8 | 2.0 |
Abomasal solid and liquid samples were also analyzed for ribonucleic acid (RNA). Microbial nitrogen was estimated from abomasal RNA assuming a nitrogen content of 13.2 percent in the RNA and that 10 percent of the microbial nitrogen was RNA nitrogen. Protein-nitrogen bypassing rumen degradation was estimated as non› ammonia nitrogen minus microbial nitrogen. Microbial protein was calculated as microbial nitrogen times 5.12 to correct for the nucleic acid content, which has limited value for the host animal (Kropp et al., 1977a).
## Results and Discussion
Dry matter intake was similar for the treatments (Table 2), however, a highly significant effect of animals and periods was observed for these parameters as well as for almost all other parameters studied. The SRU30 treatment resulted in greater dry matter intake and this probably affected the other parameters since an increase in dry matter intake is generally followed by an increase in the rate of passage of the diet and a decrease in total dry matter digestibility. As a result, greater abdominal solid and liquid digesta and lower ruminal and total dry matter digestibility were observed for this SRU30 treatment. Total solid and liquid digesta reaching the abomasum per day were similar for the treatments. Ruminal dry matter digestibility was lower (P
Total nitrogen intake (Table 3) was similar for the treatments except for the SRU30 treatment that had a higher nitrogen intake resulting from the greater dry matter intake as explained earlier. Also as a result from the greater dry matter intake for the SRU30 treatment was an increase (P
| | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | | |
|-------------------------------|----------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------|-------|
| Item | HFM | SRU | SRU30 | SRU60 | SRU90 | SE" | |
| Dry matter intake | (g/day) | 9173 | 9181 | 9723 | 9028 | 0096 | 260.8 |
| Abomasal solid | Aobasal solid | 5053 | 5737 | 5080 | 5120 | 230.0 | |
| Abomasal liquid | DM digested in | 129.9 | 142.1 | 129.1 | 123.4 | 4.4 | |
| Digesta (1/day) | 125.8 | 129.9 | 142.1 | 129.1 | 123.4 | 4.4 | |
| DM digested in | total DM | 44.3 | 45.8 | 40.3 | 43.7 | 43.6 | 2.2 |
| digestibility (%) | 60.3c | 56.9b | 57.8bc | 59.8c | 60.1c | .7 | |
| Cellulose digesti- tility (%) | 15.3 | 19.6 | 19.7 | 17.9 | 19.0 | .8 | |
| | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment |
|-------------------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
| | HFM | SRU | SRU30 | SRU60 | SRU90 | SE a |
| N intake (g) | 107.3 | 109.4 | 114.7 | 109.7 | 108.9 | 4.2 |
| Fecal N (g) | 50.7b | 52.7b | 57.5c | 50.2b | 50.9b | 1.1 |
| Urinary N (g) | 17.9 | 18.9 | 19.0 | 17.5 | 18.0 | 0.2 |
| N retained (g) | 38.7 | 37.8 | 38.1 | 42.2 | 40.0 | 3.1 |
| N retained, % of intake | 35.6 | 34.0 | 33.3 | 38.1 | 36.5 | 1.5 |
| N digested (%) | 52.6 | 51.7 | 49.9 | 54.3 | 53.4 | 1.0 |
aStandard error.
bMeans in the same line with different superscripts are significantly different (P
| Item | HFM | SRU | SRU30 | SRU60 | SRU90 | SE a |
|--------------------------------------------|--------|--------|---------|---------|---------|--------|
| N intake (g) | 107.3 | 109.4 | 114.7 | 109.7 | 108.9 | 6.1 |
| Abomasal N (g) | 146.4b | 142.9b | 163.2c | 148.2b | 143.6b | 3.3 |
| N influx (g) | 39.1 | 33.5 | 48.5 | 38.5 | 34.8 | 3.3 |
| N influx, % above intake Ammonia N (g) | 35.0 | 30.3 | 42.1 | 34.8 | 32.8 | 2.9 |
| Non-ammonia N (g) | 1.7 b | 5.1 d | 6.1d | 5.3d | 3.0 c | 0.2 |
| N (g) | 144.8b | 137.8b | 157.2c | 142.9b | 140.7b | 6.1 |
| Microbiological N (g) | 70.3b | 82.6c | 95.2d | 83.4cd | 80.8bc | 3.4 |
| Microbiial N, % of abomasal N Bypass N (g) | 47.9 | 57.2 | 59.0 | 56.5 | 56.3 | 1.5 |
| Bypass N, | 74.4c | 55.2b | 61.9bc | 59.5c | 59.9bc | 3.9 |
| % of abomasal N Microbial N/100 g | 50.9c | 39.1b | 37.2b | 39.9b | 41.7b | 1.4 |
| DM digested (g) | 9.7 | 10.3 | 13.5 | 11.4 | 10.5 | 0.5 |
' Standard error. bcode'Means in the same line with different superscripts are significantly different (P
| Time after feeding | HFM | SRU | SRU30 | SRU60 | SRU90 | SE a |
|----------------------|-------|-------|---------|---------|---------|--------|
| Hr | 0.3 | 2.1 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 0.4 |
| 2 | 0.6b | 2.6c | 2.4c | 2.1bc | 3.8c | 0.4 |
| 4 | 0.8 | 2.9 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 0.4 |
| 6 | 0.7 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.2 |
| 8 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 0.2 |
| 10 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 0.1 |
amounts with low protein diets. The rumen ammonia nitrogen levels for the different times after feeding (Table 5) were not significantly different in most cases due to the high variability caused apparently by the ingestion of feed and water.
In general, very low rumen ammonia levels were observed indicating that conditions were favorable to nitrogen recycling to the rumen. However, the large amount of nitrogen influx into the runmen in this experiment may also result of incomplete recovery of the markers utilized. This is possibly true with PEG because the recovery was affected by cottonseed hulls present in the ration.
Although a correction factor was estimated by incubating a PEG solution with different amounts of cottonseed hulls for different times, the overestimation of the amount of liquid reaching the abomasum per day may be in part responsible for the results. Although the correction factor may lead to some errors in the absolute values estimated, the comparison on the relative difference among the treatments are thought to be valid.
The amount of ammonia nitrogen in the abomasal digesta was higher (P
Hydrolyzed feather showed less microbial protein synthesis and more bypass (P
Under the conditions of this experiment methionine apparently was not the limiting factor for maximum nitrogen utilization. The requirement of this amino acid may have been met by the diet and further additions caused no effect on nitrogen utilization.
## Literature Cited
Kropp, J. R., 1977, J. Anim. Sci. 45:844.
Owens, F. N., 1978a, Feedstuffs 50(28):23. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/oklahoma-home-and-community-education/site-files/documents/ohce-resources/ldce-score-sheet.pdf | LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT | Oklahoma State University | [
"Shari Monsees"
] | Error: time data "D:20200916121138-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Leadership Development and Citizen Engagement Mini-Grant Score Sheet
Applicant(s):\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Title of Project or Training: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Applicant(s) are: OHCE Member(s) OCES Professional(s)
Other Sponsored by: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Applicant(s) complete requested information above & return with proposal.
Instructions for Selection Committee : An application not following instructions will be disqualified. Indicate the score which best describes your rating of the proposal based on criteria below. Points designated for each item appear in ( ) , with a possible total of 100 points.
## Selection Criteria:
| 1. Brief description of project/training, including how it meets local needs of neighborhood, community, or county. | (5) |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------|
| 2. Significance of need for leadership development. | (15) |
| 3. Expected leadership outcomes/minimum of three skills; Evidence of how emerging leaders will increase/enhance skills and abilities. | (20) |
| 4. Projected impact of leadership training and/or projects on the community. | (20) |
| 5. Target audience: identifies persons to develop/learn leadership skills and abilities. Priority to proposals intended to develop leadership in diverse audiences and/or diverse project team. | (20) |
| 6. Evidence of collaboration among groups and/or individuals. | (10) |
| 7. Budget: clear and concise, including other in-kind and monetary support. | (5) |
| 8. Plans for Report of project/training. | (5) |
Comments by Committee: (use reverse side if additional space is needed) |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN926 | What is biting you? | University of Florida | [
"E. E. Harlow",
"C. A. McNeill",
"R. W. Baldwin",
"R. M. Pereira",
"P. G. Koehler",
"J. C. Medley"
] | 2020-11-05 | [
"Nutrition, Health and Food Safety"
] | FL | ## Skip to main content
## What is biting you?
E. E. Harlow, C. A. McNeill, R. W. Baldwin, R. M. Pereira, P. G. Koehler, and J. C. Medley
Why are you itchy? Identify the problem pest with this handy poster. Click the orange download button to print or view the entire publication. The poster is also available in Spanish: Qué te está picando?
## Publication #ENY-2015
Release Date: November 6, 2020
Reviewed At June 11, 2024
Critical Issue: Nutrition, Health and Food Safety
Contacts: Rebecca Baldwin
Also Available in
## Español
## About this Publication
This document is ENY-2015, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date April 2011. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
E. E. Harlow, commercial horticulture Extension agent; Dr. C. A. McNeill, professor, Union College, Lincoln, Nebraska; Dr. R. W. Baldwin, associate professor; R. M. Pereira, research scientist; Dr. P. G. Koehler, professor emeritus ; and J. C. Medley, senior art/publication production specialist (retired)
## Related Pages |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/specialty-cover-crops-soils/cover-crops-other-options/ | Cover Crops: Other Options | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2018-08-21 | [
"Cover Crops",
"Farming",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | ## Canola/Rapeseed
Brassica napus : Canola/rapeseed is a winter annual. Producers should plant canola between September and early October when soil temperatures are between 45 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. Because brassicas grow rapidly and produce lots of biomass, they are good for choking out weeds. Canola/rapeseed are very good nitrogen scavengers, as well as provide very good erosion control. When brassicas decompose, they produce biotoxins that serve as deterrents for some weeds, nematodes, insects and other soilborne pathogens.
Download a PDF to find more information about brassicas. (https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUSERFiles/60100500/FactSheets/FS04r.pdf)
## Mustards
Brassica spp., Sinapis spp.: Mustards, a member of the brassica family, usually have the highest concentration of biotoxins. Producers should plant mustards between September and early
October when soil temperatures are between 45 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. These plants are great deterrents for some pests, weeds, nematodes and other soil-borne pathogens. Mustards have a fibrous root system and a taproot that extends about 3 feet. These roots make mustard very good phosphorous and potassium scavengers.
More information about mustards is available in a downloadable PDE. (https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUerFiles/60100500/FactSheets/FS04d)
## Radish
Raphanus sativa : Radishes, winter annuals, produce large amounts of biomass. Producers should plant radishes between September and early October when soil temperatures are between 45 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. It decomposes quickly, making nutrients readily available for the subsequent crop. Deep roots scavenge nutrients and develop channels that increase water infiltration and root penetration. Smaller radish roots extend topsoil channels. Radishes also provide excellent weed control, as well as very good compaction reduction and erosion control.
Find more about radishes in a downloadable PDF. (https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUerFiles/60100500/FactSheets/FS04q
## Buckwheat
Fagopyrum esculentum : Buckwheat is a fast-growing summer annual broadleaf grain. It should be planted after the last frost. Buckwheat is an excellent cover crop for suppressing weeds and attracting beneficial insects in addition to building organic matter. It is also an excellent phosphorus and potassium scavenger.
Find more information on buckwheat in a downloadable PDF. (https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUerFiles/60100500/FactSheets/FS04k
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/home-family/farmers-markets-begin-accepting-snap/ | Farmers Markets Begin Accepting SNAP | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer",
"Sofia Sanchez"
] | 2021-03-29 | [
"Home & Family",
"SNAP",
"Farmers Markets",
"Nutrition"
] | AL | Although the number of farmers markets has increased nearly 50 percent since 2006, access to fruits and vegetables in farmers markets remains limited for low-income families. Live Well Alabama (https://www.aces.edu/? post\_type=aces\_content\_piece&p=3108&preview=true) partners with farmers markets across the state to provide food demonstrations and facilitate vendor acceptance of SNAP benefits and senior farmers market nutrition program vouchers.
## Cookie Notice
extension extension ALANAAAMBABUERSUNIVERSITY
Live Well Alabama partnered with 22 farmers markets in 20 Alabama counties reaching 2,104 residents per day in 2019.
- 1. Policy changes improved days and hours of operation to make farmers markets more convenient for local residents.
- 2. Systems changes expanded public transportation routes to farmers markets, began a coupon initiative, and also promoted acceptance of SNAP EBT payment for produce.
- 3. Promotional efforts provided recipe demonstrations, tastings, and also signage.
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement. (blog/category/home-family/nutrition/live-well-alabama/)
LIVE WELL ALBAMA Follow Live Well Alabam:
((blog/category/home-family/nutrition/live-well-alabama/) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/pine-bark-beetles | Pine Bark Beetles | NC State University | [
"Kelly Oten"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Southern Pine Beetle",
"Pine Bark Beetle",
"Beetle"
] | NC | ## Pine Bark Beetles
Several species of bark beetles attack southern pines ( Pinus spp.) and are generally referred to in three groups: the southern pine beetle, three species of lps engraver beetles (often referred to simply as "lps"), and the black turpentine beetle (Figure 1). These beetles primarily attack pines stressed by another agent (e.g., drought, disease). However, in some cases, outbreaks of the southern pine beetle and occasionally, lps engraver beetles, can occur.
All species of pine bark beetles feed on the inner bark of pine trees, girdling the nutrient-conducting tissues just beneath the bark. Removal of this tissue causes bark to slough off during and after heavy infestations. As bark beetles feed, they tunnel beneath the bark, creating galleries. These galleries, if viewed before other organisms (e.g., termites) colonize the dead or dying tree, can be diagnostic of the insect who created it.
During a bark beetle attack, pine needles fade from green to light green, to yellow, to red (Figure 2). These "red-topped" trees stand out amongst an otherwise green forest and are looked for during aerial survey for forest pests (Figure 3).
When bark beetles enter a tree, the tree may defend itself by extruding sap. This sap dries, forming "pitch tubes" (Figure 4). Pitch tubes are a good sign that bark beetles are attacking a tree, but they may not tell you which species. Moreover, stressed trees may have the rootresses available to produce sap, so pitch tubes are not always present.
Proper forest management is critical in keeping infestations of pine bark beetles low, but when they do strike, it is important to be able to distinguish between them so that the appropriate management is implemented. This fact sheet discusses the three most common pine bark beetles in North Carolina and their impacts, identification, and management.
Attribution: Ronald F. Billings, Texas A&M Forest Service , Bugwood.org.
## Southern Pine Beetle
Considered "the worst pest of southern forests," the southern pine beetle (SPB; dendroctonus frontalis) has the potential to cause major destruction during outbreaks (Figure 5). Most years, SPB behaves as a secondary pest, attacking already-stressed trees. However, cyclical outbreaks can result in widespread pine mortality and significant economic losses. From 1960 through 1990, SPB caused an estimated $900 million or damage (Price et al., 1992). An outbreak is defined as "one or more multiple-tree southern pine beetle infestations per 1000 acres of susceptible host type" (Clark and Nowak 2009).
Because of its potential to cause significant loss, SPB is heavily monitored. Each spring, SPB traps are set across the state to predict the SPBP population trends for the upcoming growing season. These results are based primarily on the ratio between SPB and its primary predator, the checkered beetle (clerid beetle) (Figure 6). Trapping results are shared so land managers can make management decisions which may include increased surveillance throughout the season. In addition, aerial surveys are conducted annually by the N.C. Forest Service to detect forest disturbances, with special attention given to looking for SPP spots (Figure 7). If spots are detected, they can be managed more quickly, and damages can be reduced.
SPB spot management consists of cutting down trees with an active infestation in addition to a buffer of green trees. Trees can be removed (cut-and-remove) or left on site (cut-and-leave). Cutand-remove is not only the most effective option at 97% efficacy, but landowners may benefit from the sale of harvested trees.
Attribution: Ronald F. Billings, Texas A&M Forest Service , Bugwood.org.
## Ips Engraver Beetles
Ips engraver beetles are a group of species belonging to the same genus, Ips (Figure 9). They are often referred to simply as "Ips" or pine engraver beetles. Ips engraver beetles are secondary pests, attacking already-stressed trees. Common stress agents that predispose trees to Ips engraver beetle attack include drought, oversstocked or poor stand conditions, storm or fire damage, and lightning strikes. In some cases, Ips engraver beetles may attack small groups of seemingly-healthy trees but populations typically do not become widespread as they do with southern pine beetle. Usually, when the stressing agent subsides (e.g., drought ends), infestations also subside.
Because they primarily attack stressed or damaged trees, Ips engraver beetle infestations usually occur in scattered trees within a stand (Figure 10). Their galleries beneath the bark are I-, Y-, X-, or H-shaped (Figure 11). They can attach any portion of the tree, and therefore pitch tubes and beetle
presence can occur in the canopy, out of reach and view from observers. Management is seldom warranted for Ips engraver beetle infestations, but land managers may remove heavily infested trees to reduce populations and risk to nearby trees.
## Black Turpentine Beetle
The black turpentine beetle (BTB; D. terebrans) (Figure 12) is considered a secondary forest pest, attacking already-stressed trees. It is the largest of the bark beetles of southern pines and attacks the largest portion of the tree: the lower 15 feet of the main stem or trunk (Figure 13). All southern pine species are susceptible.
Infestation occurs most frequently in recently wounded trees (e.g., injured by logging equipment, storm damage, fire) or in overstocked stands. Light infestations cause localized inner bark death and the tree may survive, but in high infestations, trees are killed and BTB populations may spill over into nearby seemingly-healthy trees. Despite this, population outbreaks do not continue expanding in the same manner as southern pine beetle spots. Management is seldom warranted for BTB infestations, but land managers may remove heavily infested trees to reduce populations and risk to nearby trees.
| | Southern Pine Beetle | Ips Engraver Beetles | Black Turpentine Beetle |
|-----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Galleries | S-shaped | I, X, Y, or H- shaped | meandering, wide, frass-filled, lower 15 ft. of main stem/trunk |
| Discolored Needles | whole tree | may be individual branches/tops or whole tree | whole tree |
| Location of Pitch Tubes | in bark crevices | often on bark plates | large, basal 15 ft. of main stem/trunk |
| Stand-level Infestation Pattern | spot (adjacent trees) | scattered trees | scattered trees |
| Prevention | thin overstocked stands | thin overstocked stands | thin overstocked stands; avoid injury (e.g., logging scars); monitor for BTB activity |
| Management | salvage (cut-and- remove) or cut-and- leave; remove infested trees plus a buffer | seldom warranted; remove dead and dying trees | seldom warranted; remove infested trees to prevent population build-up |
## Southern Pine Beetle Prevention Program
Thinning oversotted pine stands is the best way to prevent a pine bark beetle outbreak. The N.C. Forest Service administers the Southern Pine Beetle Prevention Program, a state-operated costshare program sponsored by the U.S. Forest Service. Eligible stands must have 700+ stems per acre and be at least 70% pine. Pre-commercial thinning reduces the density to 300-450 stems per acre, reducing competition between trees and drastically improving their ability to withstand attack to bark beetles. (White pine stands with a basal area greater than 150 ft 2 are eligible and will be reduced to 90 ft$^{2}$ basal area or less.) Some years, other management options (e.g., prescribed burning, mid-rotation herbicide application) are also eligible for cost-share. Funds are available to non-industrial private landowners. Visit the N.C. Forest Service's Southern Pine Beetle Prevention Program website or contact your county ranger for current information.
## Additional Resources
N.C. Forest Service - Southern Pine Beetle Prevention Program
Southern Pine Beetle Prediction Trapping Results
North Carolina Drought Monitor
Clarke, S. and J. Nowak. 2009. Southern Pine Beetle. Forest Insect & Disease Leaflet 49. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service.
Price, T.S., C. Doggett, J.L. Pye, and T.P. Holmes, eds. 1992. A history of southern pine beetle outbreaks in the southeastern United States. Sponsored by the Southern Forest Insect Work Conference. The Georgia Forestry Commission, Macon, GA. 65 p.
## Author
Kelly Oten
Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist Forestry and Environmental Resources
Publication date: Aug. 4, 2022
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/rural-library-hotspot-lending-program/site-files/docs/ok-rural-library-phase-2-patron-survey-results-6-30-19.pdf | OK Rural Library Hotspot Lending Program | Oklahoma State University | [
"Whitacre",
"Brian E"
] | Error: time data "D:20190711085846-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## OK Rural Library Hotspot Lending Program
## Phase IIA Patron Survey Results As of 6-30-19 (9 months)
For more info contact Dr. Brian Whitacre brian.whitacre@okstate.edu
## Program Overview
- · 4 hotspots in each library
- - 1 week checkouts
- · Program began October 2018
- - Update as of June 2019
- · Participating libraries:
- - Atoka County Library
- - Davis Public Library
- - Love County Library
## Check Out the Internet Here!
Mobile hotspots are available for Davis Public Library cardholders!
- Works anywhere a Sprint signal is available (home, around town, on the road)
- Connect up to 10 devices at once (phones, tablets, laptops)
- Connect to 4G LTE (high-speed) service, unlimited data
- 1-week checkout period
Sponsored by:
## Community Statistics
| Site | Population (2017) | % Poverty (2013-17) | Median HH Income (2013- 17) | % Without Internet Subscription |
|----------|---------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| Atoka | 3,077 | 30.0% | $30,042 | 25.2% |
| Davis | 2,774 | 15.7% | $48,295 | 32.9% |
| Marietta | 2,699 | 21.8% | $43,065 | 40.5% |
Source: 2013-17 American Community Survey
## 1-page Survey
## (completed upon return)
## Library Hotspot User Survey
1) On a scale from 1-10, with 1 being low and 10 being high, how would you rate the following?
Q1b. On a scale from 1-10, with 10 being high, how likely are you to recommend the library hotspot program to a friend?
## Q2b. What is the employment status of the head of your household?
## Q2c. What is your annual household income?
Prefer not to answer
## Q2d. What is the highest level of education of any adult in your household?
## Q3a. Which of the following devices did you connect to the hotspot (choose all that apply)?
Q3e. How likely is it that you would purchase broadband Internet service for your household in the next six months?
## Q4. Number of Surveys completed by Library Site
## Sample Patron Comments
- · "It is an awesome device!"
- · "Used for college courses"
- · "I really enjoy the hotspot program - thank you!"
- · "It is a wonderful thing, especially for those who can't afford internet."
- · "So happy the library system is trying this - is a great help"
- · "I was very satisfied with the hotspot and will recommend it to people everywhere"
- · "Great addition to the services of the library"
- · "Used for job search"
- · "I think the program is a good way to help the community out with the way school is now"
- · "I think it's great to have at our library!"
- · "The hotspot is a great idea and more people should try"
- · "This is the greatest thing to help people who can't afford their own connection."
- · "My whole family very much enjoyed using the hotspot. Awesome program!" |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/for-you/quick-tips-for-smart-snacking/ | Quick Tips for Smart Snacking | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Katie Funderburk"
] | 2018-07-17 | [
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating",
"Snacking"
] | AL | ## Quick Tips for Smart Snacking
- 1. Prepare healthy snacks in advance. This will help avoid those last-minute decisions that may not always be a healthy choice.
- 2. Pack healthy snacks to eat away from home.
- 3. Don't forget variety. Choose a variety of healthy snacks for a well-balanced meal plan.
## Healthy Snack Ideas
- 1. Whole-grain crackers with low-fat cheese and apple slices.
- 2. Whole-grain cereal with nuts and dried cranberries.
- 3. Pretzels with carrot sticks and low-fat ranch dip.
- 4. Low-fat yogurt with strawberries.
- 5. Graham crackers and grapes with a glass of skim milk.
- 6. Reduced-fat popcorn with a fresh orange.
- 7. Whole-grain muffin with blueberries and a cup of low-fat
- 8. Whole-wheat pita with vegetables and reduced-fat dip.
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement, (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda nondiscrimination-statement/)
(2post\_type=aces\_content\_piece&p=3223&preview=true)
Cookie Notice
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN881 | Insecticides and Wildlife | University of Florida | [
"John L. Capinera"
] | 2021-04-01 | [] | FL | ## Insecticides and Wildlife
John L. Cupinera
Chemical insecticides (often called 'pesticides') are viewed by some as a boon (a blessing) and others as a haone (b problem or fatal poison), and both views are correct. Most people don't like insects and other invertebrate animals, so they would like all invertebrate animals to die or at least disappear from view. However, when we use chemical insecticides to eliminate insects, we discover that the effects of insecticides are not always limited to 6-legged targets. Vertebrate animals can also be affected by insecticides, and this includes wildlife, pets, and humans. So, one of the great, inadequately met challenges confronting humans is to develop ways to manage insects without affecting non-target organisms, especially vertebrate animals such as wildlife and humans. The purpose of this article is to provide information on pesticides, how they work, and the negative impacts they can have on wildlife. It is intended for anyone who uses or is interested in pesticides.
At this point, 'wildlife' needs to be defined. The American perspective on 'willdife' tends to be mostly limited to vertebrate animals, namely amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and perhaps fish. In contrast, most of the rest of the world recognizes invertebrates (insects, worms, snails, etc.) to be components of 'wildlife'. For the purpose of this discussion, however, we will consider wildlife to consist of wild vertebrate animals rather than invertebrates.
## Why Pesticides Are Used
When confronted by a pest situation, the use of pesticides to solve the 'problem' is often the easy answer. Although most people will readily embrace the idea of using non-pesticidal means of pest control, in the final analysis pesticides tend to be chosen. Why are pesticides used sod? The decision is due to several factors including;
- · the lack of alternatives to pesticides ;
- use of pesticides may be the least expensive or most convenient technique;
- · pesticides may be the most reliable technique, serving to minimize risk and pest-related problems; and
- due to failure to act in a timely manner to prevent a problem from developing, certain alternatives to pesticides cannot be used.
Pesticides often are the most convenient, economic, effective, and reliable technique for pest suppression once the pest situation is out-of-hand (i.e., pests or their damage are so abundant as to cause nuisance or economic loss). However, pesticides sometimes cause serious problems with wildlife conservation, so it may be best to minimise pesticide use or use them carefully or selectively. Thus, it is important to know the characteristics and limits of pesticides so they can be used most appropriately and most safely.
## What is a pesticide ?
Toxicants that are designed to kill pests are called pesticides , though pesticides also can affect wildlife, which we do not generally consider to be pests. Pesticides are used to suppress pests such as insects, plant diseases, weeds, or vertebrates that cause damage or are a health risk or nuisance. Among the many types of pesticides are herbicides (used to kill weeds), insecticides (for insects), fungicides (fungidi), rodents (for rats and mice), carcasses (for mites and ticks), bactericides (for bacteria), nematodes (for nematodes), molluscids (for snails and suave frogs), and parasitic insects (pest flies), for pigs and seafoods (for pigs and seafoods), for chickens, cantards, and coyotes (for sheep and cattle), forages (for algae), Sometimes pesticides are also used to kill vertebrate animals such as coyotes, Cantars, Lamaris, Corygos, Dymms spp. Often, the pesticide of concern to vertebrates is an insecticide, although sometimes herbicides and fungicides can cause problems for wildlife. Less often, molluscias and rodenticides are encountered by wildlife. In any event, the term 'pesticide' actually suggests control of more than just insect pests, despite our tendency to equate 'pests' with 'coyotes'.
## Characteristics of Pesticides
The ability of a pesticide to cause injury or death is called toxicity . The active ingredient causing death is called the toxicant , and the toxicant typically comprises only a small proportion of the formulation that is purchased and applied. The toxicant usually is applied after mixing water, which is an inexpensive and convenient method of diluting the toxicant to the desired concentration.
This toxicity is decreased. Low levels of pesticide may be eliminated (metabolized or excreted) by an animal from its body without suffering harm, or they may have no measurable effect on the animal. High levels of toxin exposure, of course, are more likely to cause injury. Interestingly, most people fail to appreciate this dose phenomenon, instead either treating all pesticides as if they were pesticide exposure, because if they are causing all pesticides and all exposure areas were extremely hazardous. The best approach is to treat pesticides as if they were prescription drugs: relatively safe if used according to directions, and hazardous if misplaced. As with prescription drugs, there is some variation among individuals or among species in terms of susceptibility or adverse reaction.
Another term often used in association with pesticides is hazard. Hazard is the likelihood that a toxicant will cause injury to a non-target organism. Hazard is a function not only of toxicity, but also dose of the toxicant, length of exposure, and method of application. Thus, very toxic products can be applied safely if efforts are made to minimize hazard. Likewise, products with relatively low toxicity can be hazardous if used inappropriately. For example, if an insecticide is toxic that to pollinators is applied to a flowering crop during the day, high mortality to insect pollinators is probable. However, if the same insecticide is applied at dusk when pollinators are inactive, much less mortality to pollinating insects is likely because the product would be partly degraded by light and foliar pH before pollinators became fully active on the following day.
## How do we measure toxicity?
Toxicants vary greatly in their ability to injure wildlife (and humans), and it is always a good idea to be familiar with the toxicity level of any pesticide that you handle or apply. Toxicants are sometimes grouped into categories (see Table 1), with category I pesticides being the most toxic and category IV being the least toxic. Category I chemicals are quite hazardous, and you should avoid them unless you have training on how to handle these materials. To purchase category I chemicals, you must have a restricted use pesticide applicator license. With most category II products, in contrast, farmers and homeowners and others without special knowledge or a license can purchase these from agricultural supply centers, garden centers, and hardware or discount stores without restriction. Category II chemicals, though readily accessible, should be treated with respect because they are capable of harming
humans and wildlife. Category III and IV pesticides are less hazardous than the preceding categories, and of course they are readily available, but they also may cause injury and death if misused or misplaced. If use of a pesticide is necessary, it is advisable to use category III and IV pesticides, if they will be ineffective, based on safety considerations.
Another way to assess toxicity is to obtain the LD$\_{9}$ value. The LD$\_{9}$ value of the dose active in incident, expressed in milligrams (mg) of toxicant per kilogram (kg) of test animal, that will kill 50% of the test subjects. Products with a low LD$\_{9}$ value are more toxic than those with a high value. Exhaustiveness (in this manner adjusts for different sizes (weights)) of subjects. This is necessary because a small organism will be more easily killed by certain dose of toxinant than an large organism that is exposed to the same dose. The route of exposure is also important, although (or ingestion) being a much more hazardous route of exposure than dermal (skin) exposure. For pesticides might be inhaled, a slightly different amount of measure toxicity is used, i.e. the LC-FY value; this represents the concentration of toxicant (in milligrams per liter) intakes toxicity in 50% of the test subjects.
It may be difficult to obtain detailed toxicology data for some pesticides. One source of toxicity, handling, and disposal information is the MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet). The MSDS accompanies all extremely hazardous (restricted) sites(materials), but also is generally accessible from internet (WWW) databases for all toxicants and hazardous materials. Also, toxicity levels for most products are indicated by signal sources found on the label. The signal word indicates the degree of hazard, although unfortunately it does not correspond directly to the aforementioned toxicologies. The signal words are DANGER POLITICO for WARNINGLYPH(cmap:df00) to FORTORY for toxicity category II, and CAUTION for both categories III and IV.
and Pesticides vary in their ability to affect wildlife. The short term risk of poisoning, or acute toxicity, can be quite different than the risk resulting from prolonged exposure, or chronic toxicity. Acute toxicity is mortality resulting from dermatological, contact, inhalation, or ingestion, and typically occurs soon after exposure to recently treated yards, crops, or forests. Chronic toxicity often is a more subtle disruption resulting from all alteration of physiological processes and is manifested by changes in hormone levels, immune responses, reproduction, and behavior. Chronic toxicity typically occurs only after prologue exposure to low levels of toxicant.
In general, herbicides and fungicides are considerably less toxic to wildlife than insecticides (Table 2) and rodenticides. However, some herbicides and fungicides, while not displaying high levels of acute toxicity; are suspected of being toxic when they move into the water supply or food supply or chain food and are ingested over long periods of time. Sometimes there are interactions resulting in greater toxicity of insecticides which are other entities, including pesticides, are present in the environment. In other words, the presence of one toxin exotics (synergizers) the actions of another. Because most wildpoxis pointsiong involves incolects we focus mostly on toxins contacted insects to Insects. Toxicants occur naturally in the environment of people and wildlife, and it is easy to become undue alarmed or overly cautious with toxicants. To compensate for this risk, we have been exposed to daily basis are common, so in toxicity, and some in cases are more toxic than pesticides. For perspective, consider that the LD$\_{9}$ value for pesticide is 192 mg/kg, for acetamiphinnen (TylenioII) is 338, for ammonia is 350, for bleach is 800, and for salt tablets it is 3000.
## How Insecticides Work
Pesticides have various ways of killing pests. The method of killing, or mode of action, depends on the nature of the pest organism and the physiological system within the pest that has been targeted for interference or destruction. Some pesticides are quite selective; some insect growth regulators, for example, infect insects as they molt from stage to stage by interfering with their developmental processes (usually hormones or molting). Vertebrate animals and plants lack many of the developmental systems or physiological processes found in insects, so they are essentially immunite to such growth regulator-based insecticides. Thus, some insecticides are considered to be quite selective, and not too hazardous to the environment. They are not perfectly benign however, because bees come close since relatives of insects such as (e.g., crustaceans) can be affected because beneficial, nonhazardous microbes may also be present.
The mode of action of most insecticides can be described as nerve poisons because they interfere with normal functioning of the nervous system. The specific mode of nerve inhibition varies among the groups of insecticides, but among the organophosphates and carbamines the enzyme cyclotelines are exhibited, resulting in excessive neurotoxicity (nentoprexpressed) as witnessing and leaching of coordination) in insects. Another common form of toxicity is caused by disruption of nerve axon function due to influx of sodium chloride ions. With acetylcholestearic inhibitors, most insecticides causing disruption of nerve axon function also cause overreaction. The effects of nerve poison can lead to the risk of irritation in environments where the effect of nerve poison can be produced in an environment where the wildlife occure. If vertebrates are poisoned by these products, we typically see excessive salvation and terras, convulsions, difficulty in breathing, vomiting, diarrhea, and paralysis in the affected animal. Some of the newer classes of nerve toxins take advantage of the differences the intact between the nerves of vertebrates and insects, providing an important measure of safety.
Within the many classes of insecticides (Table 3), several nerve transmission are affected, and most classes of insecticides target the nervous system. However, despite their parasitism, differences are slightly greater in persistence, never produces suspiciously persistent and less persistent with less health loss, even if the species do not survive. Many other viruses undergo much less harm than those of the species. Many of the new producers are fairly selective, presenting less hazard to wildlife, though fish often are susceptible.
The persistent organohormancers, which were responsible for some serious wildlife problems in the 1950s and 1960s, have been largely eliminated from use. The organophosphates and carbamines, which lack the persistence of the organophosphorus but often causes acute poisoning in wildlife, are also becoming less common. The pyrethroid insecticides are much less hazardous to most wildlife, though fish are quite susceptible. Also, although byproducts little cause direct toxicity to verbetallers, they can be so effective at killing insects as to potentially induce toxicity by depriving wildlife of food. This is called indirect mortality. With the newest classes of insecticides, such as nicotinoids and spinosins, the direct hazards to wildlife are minimized, rather than deprivation remains ownership.
The toxicity of some insecticides is shown in Table 4. Note that the toxicity varies considerably among class of insecticides. The organophosphates and carbamates contain some very toxic metals when they are compared to the pyrethroids. However, even the pyrethroid pesticides seem to compare the insect growth regulators and some of the-called natural products"which are mostly botanical insecticides but also include toxin containing a cornish-containing mushroom ( Bacillus thurginosians ) and a chemical product of soil-dwelling microbes (spinosions). Although no other samples from data from a sample of toxicity was found, the toxicity of the product within a class of insecticide can also avoid a risk. The toxicity of the product is usually a half-periodicity difference in toxicity even within a single class of chemicals. Thus, it is important to note that the toxicity of individual products, and to make assumptions about societal safety based on the chemical class (i.e. is important to not safe to assume that natural products are inherently safer. Bacillus thurginosians and petroleum oils are practically not toxic to test mammals, whereas some plant-derived compounds such as nicotine rank fairly toxic compounds.
Generally, insecticides and fungicides do not affect plants. No herbicides generally have strong effects on insects and plant disease, or fungicides affect infects (see Table 2). There are exceptions, of course, as there are some plants or events of variety plants that are sensitive to certain chemical compounds, including the mixed admixture with the toxicants, making them unsafe to use in certain situations. A few products are bio-friendly, like all life would want to anyone who still calls it all well. How would you want to know? Will biocides be beneficial when you are to be absolutely sure that products such as furniture or grain grains are treated as organic, and that most biocides are fungiagents that are applied to structures to eliminate termite infections, such as termites, or grain grains containing stored grain. The input-out-of-doors of organisms is suffocated, forming humongous fungus, but the fungus can be killed by the virus inside these molds. Most biocides are fumigants that are applied to pests such as insects, and the fungus can be killed by the virus inside these molds. Most biocides are fumigants that are applied to structures to isolate nematodes, plant pathogens, and weeds that can threaten a soybean. Even though the suction coagulation organs out-of-doors, the toxicant is largely retained in the soil and the toxicity is localized. Needlessly to say, biodiesel can be a risk to wildfires in all these situations, though the typically are not, and the toxicity is not the fumigant dissipates quickly. Thus, the hazard to wildlife comprises principally from insecticides, other chemicals directed at animals (nathematics, mollidens, rodentsleuct), but not often from the soil to plants or plants.
## How Wildlife Come Into Contact with Insecticides
Wildlife can come into contact with insecticides in many ways, including:
- · when they walk on plants or soils that contain pesticides;
- · when aquatic organisms are immersed in water that contains a high concentration of pesticide;
- · when the consume plants, water, or insects contaminated with pesticides;
- · when they inadvertently consume pesticide-treated insects or granular insecticides; and
- · when they are sprayed directly by aqueous formulations of pesticide.
Incidents that cause toxicity only after they have been eaten are called stomach poisons . Those that can affect the insect by external exposure (as by walking on the insecticide residue) are called contact poisons . Most modern insecticides are both contact and stomach poisons . Some water-soluble products can be absorbed into the host plant (or animal) and be contacted, contacting the insect wherever it feeds. When applied to soil or plants, these systemic pesticides normally are taken up into the plant through the roots or foliar tissue and move progressively upwards (to the actively growing regions). Systemic pesticides can be translocated in the water-conducting (xyleml) and food-conducting (phloem) systems of a plant, but especially the system. Insects feed on vascular tissues such as xylemLmplorems (with insect-feeding mouthparts) tend to concentrate the insecticide and are especially likely to be poisonous. However, some pesticides move alone without any side-of-one leaf of another, these are said to be to transmitar. Inhalation of toxicants through the insect's cavity ventilation system is also possible, though nothing commonly acceptable, and some products are called famiguants .
Depending on the toxicity of the product and the level of duration of contact, vertebrate animals may be unaffected, sickened or killed following such exposure. Other variables affecting susceptibility to being poisoned include the size, age, and health of the animal. Generally, it is the small, young, very old, or physiologically stressed individuals that are most likely to be affected.
We tend to think of pesticide applications as involving application of liquid formulations, commonly called 'sprays'. Indeed, this is the most common means of pesticide application.
However, some products are not applied in a water-based sprayy, especially the pesticides aimed at vertebrate pests. Often there are applied as bats, which usually are a solid material, but even these usually have been prettied with a liquid formulation of pesticide during the preparation of the bait. Both formulations are also directed at some arthropods and mollusks, especially ants, cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets, molekels, crickets, caribbean, silvershaws, and terrestrial slugs and snails. The other common non-liquid formulations are granules and dusts. Granules are small pesticide-treated pellets of insect clay or fertilizer particles that are applied on or in the soil (coincidentally plants such as the whorls of corn, which are rolled unfolding, leaves that can hold the granules). Dusts are similar, but much smaller in size, and will adhere to vegetation much more readily. Each product type, like the various liquid formulations, has advantages and disadvantages. For example, coverage and penetration of dense vegetation are superior with dusts, but granules are less likely to suffer from drift problems, and liquids are easy to apply and relatively inexpensive.
Some products are subject to bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation results when, during the course of an animal's life, the rate of intake of a chemical exceeds the rate of elimination. With persistent pesticides, a long-lived animal can repeatedly acquire small, non-toxic doses, eventually resulting in the accumulation of high levels of toxicant. Bioaccumulation may result from biomagnification or biocontraception. Biomagnification is an increase in the concentration of a chemical at each trophic level of a food chain. For example, persistent chemicals in water may accumulate in algae, then accumulate in algae-eating insects, then accumulate in insect-eating fish, and finally accumulate in fish-eating vertebrates. The net result of the chemical being passed along the food chain can be a very high concentration in the animal at the top of the food pyramid. Bioconcentration is also an increase in chemical levels but occurs independent of trophic levels. Thus, long-lived wildlife can accumulate high levels of pesticides simply by consuming low levels over a long period of time if they are persistent and are not excreted.
## Acute Effects of Insecticides
All wildlife can be poisoned by excessive exposure to certain insecticides, but the problem is particularly pronounced with birds. A simple example is the occurrence of seed-feeding flies, Delia spp. (Diptera: Anthomyidae), which damage crop seeds planted in the spring. To prevent damage by such insects while the seed is germinating, containing insects are commonly applied to seeds before they are planted, Seed treatment with insecticides (and/or ifflicents) does not germinate the seedling, but if the insecticide acts systematically it may also impact protection to young plants, particularly from piercing-insecting insects such as aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Unfortunately, gravinous (seeded) eating birds often feed on seeds that have been recently planted, and thereby ingesting a lethal dose of insecticide. Also, because sand is sometimes consumed by birds to aid in grinding up seeds, sometimes feeds on grain in summer, again resulting in bird mortality. Finally, application of liquid insecticides sometimes results in a lethal death of insecticide. This effect is generally not affected by directly to wildlife. Though this seems unlikely, when aircraft are used to apply insecticides an extensive land area is treated quickly, and wildlife may not have adequate time to escape. Not only are crops field treated, but often adjacent border areas (hedge rows, fence rings, irrigation ditches, road grass) are treated deliberately or inadvertently. In the case of nesting birds, there is no opportunity to avoid exposure, even from tractor-mounted sprayers.
There can also be a problem with birds flying into fields that were recently treated, perhaps to feast on dying insecticide-containing insects, and thereby ingesting a lethal dose of insecticide. For example, studies of horned larvae, Ermophila australis , McGreen's Longworth, Calcorus Macarney , Merrillon in relation to chlorophylls-treated wheat fields in Montana, USA, showed that these birds fed on recently killed insects were not after the periwinkle growth of the periwinkle stems filled with cutworms was 100% and 95 % for longparsuns and lepsatives, three days after insecticide treatment. When examined 94 days after treatment, after most of the susceptible insects would have been killed and scavenged, the guttern contents had diminished to 71.4%
## Acute Effects of Insecticides
All wildlife can be poisoned by excessive exposure to certain insecticides, but the problem is particularly pronounced with birds. A simple example is the occurrence of seed-feeding flies, Delia spp. (Diptera: Anthomyidae), which damage crop seeds planted in the spring. To prevent damage by such insects while the seed is germinating, containing insects are commonly applied to seeds before they are planted, Seed treatment with insecticides (and/or ifflicents) does not germinate the seedling, but if the insecticide acts systematically it may also impact protection to young plants, particularly from piercing-insecting insects such as aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Unfortunately, gravinous (seeded) eating birds often feed on seeds that have been recently planted, and thereby ingesting a lethal dose of insecticide. Also, because sand is sometimes consumed by birds to aid in grinding up seeds, sometimes feeds on grain in summer, again resulting in bird mortality. Finally, application of liquid insecticides sometimes results in a lethal death of insecticide. This effect is generally not affected by directly to wildlife. Though this seems unlikely, when aircraft are used to apply insecticides an extensive land area is treated quickly, and wildlife may not have adequate time to escape. Not only are crops field treated, but often adjacent border areas (hedge rows, fence rings, irrigation ditches, road grass) are treated deliberately or unintentionally. In the case of nesting birds, there is no opportunity to avoid exposure, even from tractor-mounted sprayers.
There can also be a problem with birds flying into fields that were recently treated, perhaps to feast on dying insecticide-containing insects, and thereby ingesting a lethal dose of insectide. For example, studies of horned larvae, Ermophila australis , McGreen's Longmouth, Calcorus Macarney , Merrillon in relation to chlorophylls-treated wheat fields in Montana, USA, showed that these birds fed on recently killed insects were not after the periwinkle growth of the periwinkle stems filled with cutworms was 100% and 95 % for longparsuns and lepsatives, three days after insecticide treatment. When examined 94 days after treatment, after most of the susceptible insects would have been killed and scavenged, the guttern contents had diminished to 71.4%
and 79.º, respectively. Birds collected from untreated areas, in contrast, had only 27.º and 7.º; 7% cutworms in their stomachs, respectively. Unfortunately, birds scavenging on insecticide-killed outcrops are almost more than an easy local, as brain cholinesterase activity was inhibited by up to 50%. When brain cholinesterase activity is suppressed to this level there are behavioral and physiological consequences, and bird survival diminishes.
Ingestion of insecticide granules is also a particular problem for birds. Insecticide granules are any large carrier particle to which a toxicant will adhere, and from which the toxicant will usually be washed away by rain or soil so that water and he can be available in the soil to kill pests. Unfortunately, birds habitually consume small, hard particles (usually silica or sand) that lodge in their gators, helping to grind food and sunlight accumulate digestion. Not only does it not matter whether or not birds eat affected animals, but if birds feed this poisonous' grl't to nestlings. Grit preferences at different levels of affect their risk of eating pesticide granules, and of being poisoned by granular insecticides. When size and shape preferred grl't with overpasteurization of pesticides, grains of bark being exposed to some of the Canadian prairie showed that there were a negative correlation between grasshopper insecticidal residue and other insects such as European robin, Turgus torynaris , horned lark, Ermotha phalaeis , and other species.
The threat of poisoning extends beyond the birds that feed directly on the granules to also include them into predators. In Canada, potato fields treated with fonofoos for suppression of wirrement were entered by ducks and other waterfowl, making the often performed following ingestion of the insecticide granules. In turn, the dying and dead birds were fed upon by bald eagles, Haltweier's leucophaselops, which also persisted. Not surprisingly, the cadaters of the wiverwater displayed signs of ergonaphosphate poisoning, including an average level of brain cholinoseintestrash 74 .
Other vertebrates are not immune to such poisoning, but it is most pronounced in birds and fish. With fish, the toxicant is contacted primarily via runoff of water from treated fields. Most insecticide labels prohibit treatment of water bodies, and often require a significant barrier zone or untreated border in an effort to limit the drift of liquid pesticide into water. Nevertheless, contamination of water is not unusual.
How severe is the pesticide poisoning problem? The United States Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that over 670 million birds are exposed to pesticide on farmsland in the United States, and that about 10% die immediately as a result. This does not include those that are sickened and die later, eggs left unmatched, or nestlings left to starve. Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides are most commonly implicated. Farms are not the only source of pesticide poisoning, of course, as pesticides are a common element of suburban landscape maintenance, too. Poisoned animals often are found in relatively good condition, or at least they lack wounds and are intact. Such animals should be considered possible poisonings and submitted to laboratories accustomed to dealing with wildlife samples. Diagnosis of poisoning is not a simple task, and standard veterinary laboratories are not often equipped or experienced with wildlife poisoning.
| Figure 4. Passerine birds such as this boat-tailed grleckle, Olicquiss major, are often considered to be omnivorous, but many are very dependent on insects for feeding their young. Rapidly growing bird chicks need high levels of protein and fat in their diet, and insects provide these nutrients. Credit: Lave Riese University, Florida | |
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| Fully growing bird chicks need high levels of protein and fat in their diet, and insects provide these nutrients. | Young.RiveseUniversity,Florida |
| Supraglue | |
| Baldefo | |
| Subtlehal Effects of Insecticides | |
| Various behavioral and physiological processes can be affected by pesticides, resulting in disruptive, though sublethal, effects on wildlife. Though not causing direct mortality, these effects nevertheless may indirectly cause increased mortality among wildlife (e.g., greater susceptibility to predation) or reduced reproduction (e.g., hormonal imbalance or eggshell thinning). Disruption of nervous system function, alteration of hormone levels, and inducemental of oxidative stress via free radical generation are among the subtilehal effects induced by insecticides. | |
| Acyclothellseresthinhationbirdsismuchstudied, especially in relation to organophosphate insecticide exposure. In general, when cholinesterase activity drops to 50% of normal or less, behavioral and physiological irregularities are apparent, with death following 80% inhibition or greater. At subtlehal levels, affected birds may display impairment of memory and learning and inability to thermoregulate properly, make greater use of cover, exhibit reduction of feeding and flying, and show changes in resting posture. Birds may recover within a few hours, however. Similar responses occur in mammal, fishes, reptiles, and amphibians. A study of the western fence lizard, Sceleroportococcidiales, showed that high levels of carbyl exposure resulted in reduction in arboreal sprint speed and endurance. Such subletidal factors could affect fitness by reducing the ability of these lizards to escape predation. | |
Not all insecticides are equally disruptive, of course. For example, a study of northern bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus ) foraging in soybean fields of North Carolina found that broods of young quail were present in the soybeans at the time of year when insecticides were applied. Acetylcholinesterase levels and body size were reduced when chicks were exposed to methyl parathion, but not when exposed to methoyl or monocarb. Methyl parathion is an older product, and its use is now generally banned in the U.S.
Probably the best-documented example of subletal effects is eggshell thinning among predatory birds that was caused by organochlorines. The negative correlation between organochlorine residues in birds and eggshell thickness has been observed for many species, in many areas of the world, causing the eggs to be crushed by the nesting birds. For example, organochlorine residues were negatively correlated with reproductive success in bald eagle, Haliaetus leucoconephala, osprey, Pandion halafiasu, peregrine falcon, Falco peregrusinensis, Eurasian sparrow hawk, Acapterius nisi, American kestrel, Falco sparveri, herring gull, Larus argentatus; brown pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis ; and others. This problem is now known to be due to endocrine (harmone) disruption.
Credit: Lary Reeves, University of Florida
Another interesting and well-documented subeffective effect of pesticides is endocrine disruption in American alligator, Alligator misissippiensis . Male alligators living in Lake Appapka, Florida, have low testosterone levels. Formerly, the area around Lake Appapka was intensively farmed. Lake Apakapo also was the site of a DDT and dicofol (which is closely related to DDT spill), and the insecticides had estrogen-like effects, resulting in feminization of the males. The size of male alligator was reduced by 25%, bone density was affected in females, and egg hatching was larger than alligator numbers. 30% of the pesticides were reduced by 90%, years in the after the pesticide spill. Several organic insecticides are, in addition to DDT and its closely related compounds, including endosophical, tailerine, dibrich and BH, have been shown to have the potential to disturb the physiological processes regulated by hormones. DDT is not acutely toxic to most birds and mammals, but long-term exposure is demanding.
DDT and other organochlorine insecticides were widely used before their adverse effects were fully appreciated, and though their use is prohibited in many areas of the world, they remain in use elsewhere due to their effectiveness, persistence, and cost. Birds migrate that longer distances may move into and out of countries where DDT is used, so it remains a threat even when it is not currently used. DDT and DDE (a degradation product of DDT that is not insecticidal) affect enzymes controlling calcium deposition in bird eggs, sooshill hellstinning occurs, disrupting normal development suggest. Similarly, long-lived fish and marine mammals continue to be exposed to these pesticides because they wash from the land into the oceans, where they are ingested.
Organochlorines are no longer used widely. In Europe and North America (generally only the comprehensive sources of information on this subject) is the organophosphate and carbamate acetylhexanisterhease inhibitors that now cause most of the problems in wildlife. Evidence that the organochlorine solution has improved, and that these pesticides are less of a threat, is apparent in the wildlife literature from many areas of the world. For example, when sperm, Osprey Pandinium, habitats, volunteers monitored recently along the Columbia River system in Oregon, USA, these predators were found to display increased abundance, higher reproductive rates, and significantly lower egg concentrations of most organochlorine insecticides. As recently as the 1985 and 1990s, organochlorine concentrations were high in the fish preyed upon by ospreys in this area, but the situation has improved markedly. This clearly demonstrates that legislation limiting ororganocholine pesticide use has benefited wildlife. In the USA, new restrictions have been placed on the use of acetylchloroestinerates (inhibitors mostly or organochlorides) and initiated in the 1990s, expedites the review and registration process of conventional pesticides that pose less risk to human health and the environment, including non-target organisms, than existing conventional alternatives. These measures further reduce the risk of wildlife poisoning by insecticides in agricultural areas. However, the newer classes of insecticides are not completely unlikely, if they do not include food resources. Also, use of acetylchloroesteinasing inhibits insecticide remains widespread in some areas of the world.
## Indirect Effects of Insecticides on Wildlife
In addition to the direct toxicity caused by insecticides, wildlife may be adversely affected indirectly through deprivation of their primary food source, and these indirect effects may be more important than the direct exposure of wildlife to insects. One important effect is the depletion of insect populations caused by insecticide use. Application of broadsectimun species can cause disease to animals, most often still at rest, and therefore the parasites remain the few days after insect life for weeks. Birds will attempt to compensate an insect loss for food by foraging elsewhere, the few sites are far away from the birds and the population of grasshopper plants are relatively stable, but the number of crops for ecosystem development and garbage generated lives past before the pesticide pests. If the habitat is not affected by such food, the pesticides would remain in the nest with nest for nestlings. If the distance from great offshoot is too great, the plant growth and reproduction quantities would be exceeded, and the species would not survive as much as the species would develop.
Once, however, repeated, can be used extensively over time for control purposes and generate large parasite pigments before the pesticide uses the pesticide. None native selective nature of such broad-spectrum products is particularly damaging to bird populations; if only the pests were affected, some insect fauna would remain to support bird life, but usually other herbivores, predators, parasitoids, pollinators, and scavengers are also affected. Leaving insects to sustain bird life.
Other pesticides (mostly herbicides) also affect wildlife indirectly, mostly through change in floridity of the dissible (loss of edible white and weeds, seed, fungus, and also depletion of habitat or cover) caused by herbicide (and to lesser degree fungi). Agriculture (application). And weed seed can be an important food source, and clean culture of crops--though beneficial in terms of plant growth efficiency, energy and welfare conservation--can reduce biological carbon input. This can lead to the environmental impact of agriculture and natural selection in the ever-increasing scale (field size in agriculture, which results from merging smaller fields, reducing biodiversity, and destroying herb-growth and rodent-control area. These practices have negative effect on wildlife because they may have no place to nest, no place to nest without treatment with pesticides, or no source of shelter from both crops are harvested, etc., Research in Montana, US, wheat shows that fieldbred herbicide use that does not relieve the reduction of the abundance of broad-leaf weeds, but also the abundance and biomass of insects important to important game bird seed chicks. We have avoided the occurrence of groundworm cereals in the monocot growing system. The researchers suggested leaving the edges of free herbies and herbicide treatments, thereby favoring the survival of both beneficial insects and game birds.
Figure 6. Predatory birds such as this burrowing owl, Athene cunicularia , as well as other small owls, hawks, and kites are often thought of as feeding on mammals and birds, but insects are an important part in their diet.
Credit: Lary Reeves, University of Florida
## Risks of Insecticides to Wildlife
Given the long history of negative impacts of pesticides on wildlife, it is tempting to indict all pesticides as hazardous, and suspect all wildlife problems as being caused by pesticides. However, the issue of pesticide toxicity is complicated, and the results of a study investigating the application of malathion (as insecticide) and glyphosate (an herbicide) on tadpoles and predaceous diving beetle larvae (Dytiscidae) serve well to illustrate the issue. The malathion did not greatly affect the tadpoles directly, but glyphosate did reduce survival. The results are complicated by the presence of predators, especially predatory beetles, because they were more susceptible to the insecticide than were the tadpoles. Thus, the addition of insecticide increased tadpole survival by killing their predators? Also, it seems that the glyphosate, which might not be considered to be toxic to animals because it is registered to kill plants, killed tadpoles because the formulation contained surfactant that was toxic.
There are few places where aesthetics are more important than golf courses. Typically, no expense is spared in an effort to have nearly perfect turfgrass. This usually means that pesticides are used liberally, so one might expect that these courses would be a particularly inhospitable environment for birds. However, assessment of reproductive success in eastern bladiensis, similar in Virginia, US, showed that these insecticides can survive quite well, with survival not differing significantly between bluebirds nesting in golf course environments and non-goi-col run forests. On golf course visits, the number of eggs per nest box was higher (28% greater), as the numbers of young birds were the number of young birds. These are compatible under some circumstances. Overall, pesticide use on the golf course does not impose a significant stress on bluebirds, suggesting that pesticide use and wildlife can be compatible under some circumstances.
Sometimes insecticides can be used to enhance wildlife populations. Often there is a negative relationship between arthropod abundance and some aspect of survival or reproductive performance. For example, several studies of great flight, Parris, major Europe have found influences of hen, flea, Ceratophagia glissinae (Phorstona), an aspects of behavior or fitness such as root site selection, nest site selection, timing of breeding, and body mass of nests. Reduction in Flea abundance by application of an insecticide inside nesting bees has shown that to improve elements of fitness and could be used for other threats by flees. Fleas are not much at issue in North America, but nest boxes here may harbor lice, mites, ticks, and certain parasitic flies. Similarly, burn of roses do colonies are sometimes dusted with insecticides to control fleas, the vectors of plague. This serves not only to improve survival of the prairie dogs, but also to protect endangered black-tailed tiger rabbits. Maternias nigraeus, populations.
Animal populations can sometimes be managed for improved health by applying pesticides to them or food to bait suppress and endo-carpetatis; this is especially useful where high densities of wildlife are being maintained, such as zoo and games. Several methods of self-treatment have been developed for wildlife that facilitate application of insecticide control ticks that harbor yellow fever disease. Elimination of threat of Lyme disease makes it more tolerable to have wildlife populations in suburban areas.
## How do we protect wildlife from insecticides?
The obvious solution for the problem of insecticides causing injury to wildlife to is avoid insecticide use. Although insecticides are convenient, practices that reduce the likelihood of pestitating attaining harmless damage caused by potential ingestion of pesticide present in the environment.
careful selection of plant cultivars that are less suitable for insects, timing of planting and harvesting to escape infestation by insects, introduction of plant diversity and smaller plantings of the same species, careful use of fertilizer and irrigation to disrupt insect populations, protection of insect natural enemies such as predatory and parasitic insects, and use of nontoxic pest suppression techniques such as pheromone-based trapping or confusion techniques.
Alternatives to insecticides are not always practical, but it is important to apply insecticides only when necessary rather than in a preventative mode, as this reduces exposure of wildlife to insecticides. It is critically important to select insecticides that act specifically on insects, rather than using broad-spectrum nerve-disrupting products, as this may allow wildlife to exist even where insect control is being implemented. Taken into consideration the time of day when insecticides will be applied in respect to avoiding direct application to plants while beneficial pollinators and predators are active.
Finally, it is important to recognize that many types of wildlife feed on insects, and insect-based food reservoirs need to be maintained in the vicinity of treated areas. Natural areas that are not treated with insecticides, even relatively small areas like roadsides, fence rows, irrigation ditches, parks, and backyards are important in allowing survival of edible insects and the wildlife that feed upon them.
## Summary
If you are concerned about protecting wildlife from pesticide exposure it is important to know that:
- a) number of chemical toxicants are used to manage pests, but perhaps the most important of the pesticides from the perspective of wildlife conservation are the insecticides;
- b) toxicity is dose dependent, and insecticides are neither entirely safe nor entirely hazardous. Insecticides are used most safely when used according to directions, much like the situation with prescription drugs. However, remember that some forms of wildlife are not much bigger than insects, so they can be quite susceptible to injury;
- c) information on toxicity and hazard may be found on the container label in the form of a signal word, but more detailed information is found on the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS);
- d) toxicity can occur rapidly (acute toxicity) or following prolonged exposed exposure (chronic toxicity). lethal effects are difficult to assess, but sublethal effects such as changes in behavior and growth are even more difficult to assess;
- e) the method of killing by most insecticides, or mode of action, is by disruption of nerve function, though some toxins affect other physiological processes. Because the nerve systems of invertebrates and vertebrates are similar, wildlife can be adversely affected by excessive exposure to insecticides;
- in addition to direct toxicity, insecticides can adversely affect wildlife populations if the insecticides are so effective that they eliminate the food supply for animals that feed on insects;
- wildlife comes into contact with insecticides when they walk on or ingest plants; swim in contaminated water; consume contaminated water or insects; consume treated baits or granular formulations of insecticides; or are sprayed directly. Some insecticides can accumulate in the environment, becoming more hazardous;
- despite the presence of insecticides, wildlife may be unaffected, or may even benefit from insecticides when ectoparasites are controlled;
## Additional Information
Allander, K. 1998. The effects of an ectoparasite on reproductive success in the great tit a 3-year experimental study. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76 , 19 -25.
- Berny, P. 2007. Pesticides and the intoxication of wild animals. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapy 30 , 93 -100.
- Best, L.B., and GLYPHınordiGLYPH, GLYPH.P.G. 1991. Characterization of grit use by cornfield birds. Wilson Bulletin 103 , 61-83.
- Brewer, L.W., McQuillen Jr., H.L., Mayes, M.A., Stafford, J.M., and Tank, S.L. 2003. Chlorpyrifos residue levels in avian food items following applications of a commercial EC formulation to alfalfa and citrus. Pest Management Science 59 , 1179 -1190.
- Capinera, J.J. 2010. Insects and wildlife: arthropods and their relationships with wild vertebrate animals. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. 487 pp.
- Cox, C. 1991. Pesticides and birds: from DDT to today's poisons. Journal of Pesticide Reform 11 (4), 2 -6.
- Davidson, C., and Knapp, R.A. 2007. Multiple stressors and amphibian declines: dual impacts of pesticides and fish on yellowlegged frogs. Ecological Applications 17 , 587 -597.
- Dell'Omo, G., Turk, A., and Shore, R.F. 1999. Secondary poisoning in the common shrew ( Sorex araneus ) fed earthworms exposed to an organophosphate pesticide. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18 , 237 -240.
- Deweve, R.E., McLenn, E.W., Cintel, S., Setimiu, L.A., and Delbinger, R.D. 1983. Effects on birds of fenthion larval application for mosquito control. Journal of Economic Entomology 76 , 906911.
- Duart, E.-N., Hopkins, W.A., and Talent, L.G. 2007. Important terrestrial and accretorial locomotor performance in the western fence lizard ( Scelerostapennis accidentally) after exposure to an ACE-inhabiting pestigle. Environmental Pollution 149 , 18 -24.
- Elliot, J.E., Birmingham, A.L., Wilson, A.K., LeMusse, M., Andice, S., and Mineau, P. 2008. Fonois poors and raptors waferyl several months after granular application. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 27 , 452 -460.
- Elfitt, J.O., Lewis, F., Langler, K., Langelier, K., Meineau, P., Sinclair, P.H. 1997. Secondary poisoning of birds of prey by the orangutansophosphorus insecticide, pharete. Ecotoxicology 6 , 219 -231.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2005. Pesticide effects on notarget organisms. EDIS PI-85. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2007. Herbicides: how toxic are they? EDIS PI-133. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: organophosphate pesticides. EDIS PI-5. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: carbamate pesticides. EDIS PI-51. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. EDIS PI-53. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: synthetic herbicides. EDIS PI-54. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: arsenic herbicides. EDIS PI-69. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: ethylbenzene dichloromethacarbamide pesticides. EDIS PI-64. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: triazole pesticides. EDIS PI-68. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: thiophalimothidine pesticides. EDIS PI-60. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: thiocarbamic pesticides. EDIS PI-62. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: substituted benzoene pesticides. EDIS PI-61. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2008. Pesticide toxicity profile: bipyridium herbicides. EDIS PI-81. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2009. Pesticide toxicity profile: triazine pesticides. EDIS PI-121. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2010. Pesticide toxicity profile: neonicotinoid pesticides. EDIS PI-63. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2010. Pesticide toxicity profile: neonicotinoids pesticides. EDIS PI-80. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Fishlet, F.M. 2010. Pesticide toxicity profile: chlorephonoxy herbicides. EDIS PI-83. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
- Flieschli, M.A., Franson, J.C., Thomas, N.J., Finley, D.L., and Riley Jr., W. 2004. Avian mortality events in the United States caused by anticholinesterase pesticides: a retrospective summary of National Wildlife Health Center records from 1980 to 2000. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 46 , 542 -550.
- Heeb, P., Köllker, M., and Richner, I. 2000. Bird-ectoparasite interactions, nest humidity, and ectoparasite community structure. Ecology 81 , 958 -968.
- Henry, C.J., Grove, R.V., and Kaiser, J.I. 2008. Oprey distribution, abundance, reproductive success and contaminant burdens along kower Columbia River, 1997/1988 versus 2004. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 54 , 525 -534.
- Khink, E.J., Schmidt, C.J., Eohis, K.R., May, T.W., Orza, C.E., & Elliott, D.E. 2006. Environmental contaminants in risk and their associated risk to piscivorous wildlife in the Yukon River Basin, Alaska. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 51 , 661 -672.
- Hunt, K.A., Bird, D.M., Mineua, P., and Shutt, L. 1991. Secondary poisoning hazard of fenthion American kestrels. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 21 , 84 -
- LeClerc, J., Chee, J., P.K.Swaddle, J.P., and Cristol, D.A. 2005. Reproductive success and developmental stability of eastern bluebirds on golf courses: evidence that golf courses can be productive. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33, 483 -493.
- Lind, PM., Milnes, M.R., Lundberg, R., Bermudez, D., Oberberg, J., and Guillett Jr., L.J. 2004. Abnormal bone composition in female juvenile American alligators from a pesticidepolluted lake (Lake Apokpa, Florida). Environmental Health Perspectives 112 , 359 -362.
- McEwen, L.C., DeWeese, L.R., and Schadlewider, P. 1986. Bird predation on cutworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidaceae) in wheat fields and chlorophylls effect on brain cholinesterase activity. Environmental Entomology 15 , 147 -151.
- Mineau, P. (ed.). 1991. Cholinestearase-inhibiting insecticides: their impact on wildlife and the environment. Elsevier, NY. 348 pp.
- Maineux, P., Downess, C.M., Kirkday, D.A., Bainye, E., and Scizyz, M. 2005. Patterns of bird species abundance in relation to granular insecticide use in the Canadian prairies. Ecoscience 12 , 267 -278.
- Palmer, W.E., Pickett, K.M., Anderson, J.R., and Bromley, PT. 1998. Effects of foliar insecticides on survival of northern bobwhite quail chicks. Journal of Wildlife Management 62 , 1565 -1573.
Primus, T.M., Eisenmann, J.D., Matschek, G.H., Ramey, C., and Johnston, J.J. 2001. Chlorophracine residues in rangeland rodents: an assessment of the potential risk of secondary toxicity to scavengers. In Johnston, J. (ed.). Pesticides and wildlife , ACS Symposium Series 771, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 164-180.
Richards, S.M., Anderson, T.A., Wall, S.B., and Kendall, R.J. 2001. Exposure assessment of Rana catalegiana collected from chlorophyrifices treated cornfield. In Johnston, J.J. (ed.), Pesticides and wildlife , ACS Symposium Series 771, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 119-129.
Reyna, L.R., Schaeppner, N., Hovemander, J.T. 2005. Pesticides and amines: the importance of community context. Ecology, Applications 115, 1125-1134.
Scharf, M.E. 2008. Neurological effects of insecticides and the insect nervous system. In Capinjaer, I.L. (ed.) Encyclopedia of entomology , second edition. Springer Science + Business Media B.V., Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 2596-2605.
Sanchez-Herrandez, J.C. 2001. Wildlife exposure to organophosphorus insecticides. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 172, 21-63.
Sepvalved, P., Melder, F., Pioreo, F., Wejse, K.J., Rauschenberg, H.R., and Gross, T.S. 2006. Necrophyg finding in American alligator state-stage embryos and hatchlings from northcentral Florida lakes contaminated with organochlorine pesticides. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42, 56-73.
Solcon, J.G., Eldstein, J.I., Parker, M.F., Heeper, O., Hooper, M.L., Tacerer, C., and Tobb, G.P. 2001. Chemical and biochemical evaluation of Swainson's hawk mortalities in Argentina. In Johnston, J.D. (ed.). Pesticides and wildlife . ACS Symposium Series 771, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 294-308.
Stafford, T.R., and Best, L.B. 1999. Bird response to grit and pesticide granular characteristics: implications for risk assessment and risk reduction. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18, 722-733.
Taylor, R.L., Maxwell, B.D., and Boik, R.J. 2006. Indirect effects of herbicides on bird food resources and beneficial arthropods. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 116, 157104.
van Emden, H., and Rothschild, M. (eds.), 2004. Insect and bird interactions. Intercept, Andover, Hampshire, UK.
Wobesser, G., Bollinger, T., Leighton, F.A., Blakley, B., and Mineau, P. 2004. Secondary poisoning of eagles following intentional poisoning of coyotes with anticholinesterase pesticides in western Canada. Journal of Wildlife Disease 40, 163-172.
Woodwell, G.M., Wurster Jr., C.F., and Isaonsean, P.A. 1967. DDT residues in an East Coast estuary: a case of biological concentration of a persistent insecticide. Science 156, 821-824.
Acute toxicity categories of pesticides in relation to hazards.
View Table
View Table
The toxicity of some common insecticides (products with low numerical values are more toxic).
Release Date:
April 2, 2021
Reviewed At:
July 26, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edisn-i881-2011
Contactes: Elena Rhodes
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is ENY-511, one of a series of the Department of Entomology and Nematology, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date October 2011. Revised October 2017 and February 2021. Visit the EDIS website at https://fedisa.ifas.edu/ for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
John L. Capinera , professor emeritus, Department of Entomology and Nematology; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Entomology and Nematology |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/termites-treatments-around-houses-with-wells-cisterns-or-foundation-drains | Termites - Treating Houses with Wells, Cisterns or Foundation Drains | NC State Extension | [
"Michael Waldvogel",
"Patricia Alder",
"Christopher Hayes"
] | null | [
"Termite",
"Termite Control",
"Well Contamination",
"Foundation Drain"
] | NC | ## Termites - Treating Houses with Wells, Cisterns or Foundation Drains
Wood-Damaging Pests
Problems with Treating Houses with Wells, Cisterns, or Foundation Drains
Termite treatments must always be done in a manner that avoids damaging or contaminating water sources. Wells, cisterns and foundation drains can pose a challenge to termite treatments. Although these situations are difficult, there are options for protecting your home with some type of termite treatment.
## Wells and Cisterns
Some older homes have wells within (underneath) or near the foundation wall. Liquid termiticide labels and local building codes may prohibit or limit soil treatments when a well or cistern is located under or within a certain distance of a house (e.g., within 50-100' of private or public well, respectively). These restrictions are intended to prevent accidental contamination of the water supply (and local groundwater). The restriction applies even if the well is not in use or is not use for drinking water (e.g., it is only used for watering plants). A liquid treatment may be possible if the well/cistern is located outside, although there may be restrictions or special instructions based on the distance of the well from the foundation (usually greater than 5 feet from the foundation). Ask the pest control company to provide you with a copy of the pesticide label or you can look online for the product label so you know how the treatment must be done. Many people are familiar with product Safety Data Sheet (SDS) which contain information about the chemical's safety but they do not explain how to use the product. That information is found on the product label (and/or technical brochures from the manufacturer). (Note: Pesticide labels found online are not necessarily identical to the one found on the specific product being used to treat your home. For that reason, you should request a copy of the actual label from the pest control company).
Most termicide labels permit "treated backfill method." This tedious and time-consuming procedure involves removing the soil along the foundation wall (both sides of the foundation wall if necessary) within a specified distance of the well. The excavated soil is placed into a wheelbarrow or on a plastic tarp, treated with termictide, and then filled back into the trench along the foundation. A well can be legally "abandoned" and you can drill another well elsewhere on the property (If the new well will meet state/county requirements). Abandoning a well does not mean that you simply stop using it or that you disconnect the pipe to the house. There is still concern that the well and groundwater could be contaminated accidentally during a termite treatment. For additional information, consult North Carolina Well Abandonment or contact your regional office of the Division of Water Resources of the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality.
EXTENSION
Treating houses with wells close to the foundation can present problems.
Attribution: Michael Waldvogel - NCSU - Entomology
## Foundation Drains
Subsurface or foundation drains (sometimes called "French drains") are used to prevent or correct moisture problems under and around homes. Many new homes have these drains installed during construction when the soil beneath the drain or backfilled on top of it can be treated in a way that avoids contaminating the drainage system. Problems can arise when drains are installed on an existing home. Digging or removing the soil along your foundation also removes any chemical termite barrier around your home. Most termite protection contracts stipulate that removing or disturbing the soil along the foundation will void your termite protection guarantee. If you are planning to waterproof your foundation and/or install a drain system, then call your pest control company before you start the project.
Foundation drains may go unnoticed during a termite inspection. If a pest control company is going to treat your house for termites, make sure that they know about the drain before they start any work. This will help prevent accidental runoff of the termiticide into your yard, a creek, ditch, pond or wherever your drain line empties. Options for liquid treatments on houses with foundation drains Prior to treatment, the applicators must take precautions to limit the risk of applying the termiticide into subsurface drains that could empty into any bodies of water. They must evaluate whether the application to the top of the foundation footer might contaminate the subsurface drain. When appropriate (e.g., on the side of the structure near a body of water), the "treated backfill technique" described previously can be used to minimize off-site movement of termiticide.
Foundation drains are not usually obvious except during construction.
Attribution: Michael Waldvogel - NCSU - Entomology
## Summary
For houses with a well or foundation drain (or both), an important alternative to a liquid soil treatment would be a termite baiting system. There are several bait products on the market and many companies offer only one brand of termite bait. If you think you would prefer baiting system, you should call several companies and ask about the availability (and feasibility) of using baits for your particular situation. Controlling termites in houses with wells or drain systems can be more difficult and more labor-intensive whether a liquid or baiting technique is used. Although this added or alternative work may increase the cost of a termite treatment, the environmental concerns justify it. The pesticide label is the law; don't ask or allow a pest control company to do otherwise. If you have a well, cistern, drain or other unusual situation under or near your house, make sure that the pest control company is aware of it before any termite treatment is done.
For additional information:
- Termite Baiting Systems
- NC State University Urban & Medical Insect Pest Management
## Authors
Michael Waldvogel
Extension Specialist (Household & Structural Entomology) Entomology and Plant Pathology
Patricia Alder
Asst. Director - Structural Pest Management Training Facility Entomology and Plant Pathology
Christopher Hayes
Postdoctoral Research Scholar Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: June 21, 2017
Reviewed/Revised: April 8, 2022
Foundation drains may empty into dry creek bed, ditches, even ponds.
Attribution: Michael Waldvogel - NCSU - Entomology
The use of brand names in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University of the products or services named nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/lightning-injury | Lightning Injury | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Mark Hoffmann",
"Rocco Schiavone"
] | null | [
"Strawberry",
"Plant Pathology",
"Fruit",
"Small Fruit",
"Strawberry Disorder"
] | NC | ## Lightning Injury
Strawberry Abiotic Disorders
## Problem
Lighting injury.
## Symptoms
Circular area with a defined margin containing dead plants with a scorched appearance.
## Similar Problems
None.
## Additional Information
Damage may be associated with irrigation system or deer fencing.
## Diagnostic Tips
All plants including weeds will be affected with no signs of a pathogen.
## Corrective Measures
None available.
## Management
No management options are available.
## Useful Resources
North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
Southern Region Small Fruit Consortium
NCCE Strawberry Growers portal
## Funding Sources
Funding was provided in part by the National Sustainable Agriculture Program: Sustainable
Strawberry Initiative and the following sources.
NC STATE
EXTENSION
## Authors
Mark Hoffmann Department Extension Leader, Small Fruits Specialist & Associate Professor Horticultural Science
Rocco Schiavone
Research Specialist Horticultural Science
Publication date: July 1, 2014
Reviewed/Revised: March 21, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/alabama-soils-limestone-valleys/ | Healthy Soils | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [] | 2018-08-21 | [] | AL | Alabama is home to 6 different soil areas. The areas are divided based on soils with similar parent materials, or geological material. Although there are 6 major soil areas, each area includes hundreds of different soil series, or named soils. Generally, series names come from a geographical location near where a similar soil was first described.
The Limestone Valleys of North Alabama are some of the most productive farmlands in the state. Certainly, the deep, fine -textured, silty and clayey soils of this region were popular with early settlers looking for productive cotton land in the South.
## Characteristics:
- These soils formed from limestone (calcium and magnesium carbonates).
- Limestone Valley soils are less acid and higher in nutrients than the sandstone-derived soils of the uplands and the sandy soils of the Coastal Plain. Cotton is still a major crop on these deep, red, well-drained soils. |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/what-do-we-teach-leadership-and-citizenship/ | About 4-H | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Molly Gregg"
] | 2018-08-23 | [
"4-H",
"Leadership",
"Citizenship",
"Education"
] | AL | ## What Do We Teach? Leadership and Citizenship
The Alabama 4-H leadership and citizenship curriculum grid provides a snapshot of what we teach. Please note, not all programs are available in every county.
Growing Alabama's Future: Alabama 4-H seeks to empower youth with the skills to lead our communities, our state, our nation, and our world. Alabama 4-H will reflect the population
demographics, vulnerable populations, diverse needs, and social conditions of the state.
## Grid Key
Delivery Modes: CL=Clubs, IS=In School, E=Enrichment, I=Independent
Print "4-H Curriculum-Leadership and Citizenship" table from our website.
Leadership and Citizenship Events: CED Contests ($15 Challenge Contest, Informative Speaking and Persuasive Speaking), Senior Achievement: Leadership and Citizenship Communications, Midwinter Teen Retreat, National Day of Service, 4-H Football Day, National 4-H Conference, and State 4-H Ambassadors
Click here to view additional national 4-H curriculum resources. (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-hnational-4-h curriculum-resources/) |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/extension/2022/04/10/cultivating-connections-introducing-the-florida-horticulture-for-health-network/ | CULTIVATING CONNECTIONS: INTRODUCING THE FLORIDA HORTICULTURE FOR HEALTH NETWORK | University of Florida | [
"nladd"
] | 2022-04-10 | [
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Home Landscapes",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"2022",
"2022 Central District Symposium",
"2022 UF/IFAS central district symposium",
"Extension",
"FFL",
"Hort.",
"horticulture",
"ifas extension",
"J. Sullivan",
"Jessica Sullivan",
"Osceola Co.."
] | FL | ## CULTIVATING CONNECTIONS: INTRODUCING THE FLORIDA HORTICULTURE FOR HEALTH NETWORK
2022 - Central District All Faculty Symposium - Horticulture, FloridaFriendly Landscaping (FFL)
J.Sullivan. UF IFAS Extension, Osceola County, Florida
Situation: Interest in food production, security and equity, and outdoor activity is increasing among people of diverse ages and backgrounds. The pandemic boosted these interests and people started seeking more time outdoors, home-based projects, stressreduction, and employment. This translated into gardening pursuits, horticultural businesses, and programs like community and school gardens, therapeutic gardening programs and vocational horticulture programs. As demand for horticulture programming grows, Agents become increasingly involved. With the establishment of UF's Horticultural Therapy Certificate Program and widespread interest in the human benefits of horticulture, the Florida
Horticulture for Health Network (FHNH) emerged. The FHNH aims to facilitate connections and learning opportunities for those involved with people-focused horticulture programs. "Horticulture for Health" includes programs and services that utilize horticulture improve health, like horticultural therapy programs, Master Gardener programs, accessible gardens, nutrition education, or food equity initiatives. The objectives of the Agent were to assist with building the FHHN and cultivate a partnership with the organization.
Methods: The Agent collaborated with diverse professionals, contributing technical expertise to the FHHN, including content
development and review of their educational website and materials and facilitating and presenting webinars. Results : The FHHN launched in 2021, with the mission to support horticulture for health initiatives through networking, knowledge exchange, and capacity building. The FHHN now has a website, social media, and offers
educational webinars to people worldwide. The FHHN offers opportunities for Extension Agents to: 1) Showcase horticulture programming through webinars, articles, blogs, etc. 2) Network and collaborate with others involved in horticulture programming 3) Learn about using horticulture to enhance human health 4) Connect with interns and volunteers to assist with horticulture for health programming. Conclusion: Extension professionals can contribute to the educational efforts of the FHHN while connecting with people who have the common goal of improving people's lives through horticulture.
```
O
by nladd
Posted: April 10, 2022
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Category: Florida-Friendly/Landscaping, Fruits & Vegetables, HOME
LANDSCAPES, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
Tags: 2022, 2022 Central District Symposium, 2022 UF/IFAS Central
District Symposium, Extension, FFL, Florida-Friendly Landscaping,
Hort., Horticulture, IFAS-Extension, J.Sullivan, Jessica Sullivan,
Osceola Co.
```
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SOUP TO NUTS: HOME CARE AND MAINTENANCE EDUCATION GOES VIRTUAL
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Virtual 4-H Celebration To Showcase And Benefit Youth |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/horse/4h-events/site-files/documents/4h-and-open-show-judges-list/judging-academy-egistration-20.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20190726105712-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## ONE PERSON PER REGISTRATION
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Address
City
Phone
100 E 2nd Street Tulsa, OK - 918-234-1234 - Make reservations directly with the Hyatt Regency: 1-888-591-1234 or https://www.hyatt.com/en-US/group-booking/TULRT/G-CBCO Ask for International Equine Judges Seminar rate. 24 hour airport shuttle, free parking and a free group breakfast for IEJS attendees. Room cut-off date Jan. 6, 2020. Reserve early. Note: Reservations made after the cut-off date and/or through travel agents or 3rd party booking sites may not receive the IEJS rate of $74.00 per night.
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## INTERNATIONAL EQUINE JUDGING ACADEMY
January 24 - 26, 2020
"Through the Judges Eyes"
Hyatt Regency Hotel · Tulsa, OK
100 E 2nd Street Tulsa, OK - 918-234-1234 - Make reservations directly with the Hyatt Regency: 1-888-591-1234 or https://www.hyatt.com/en-US/group-booking/TULRT/G-CBC0 Ask for International Equine Judges Seminar rate. 24 hour airport shuttle, free parking and a free group breakfast for IEJS attendees. Room cut-off date Jan. 6, 2020. Reserve early. Note: Reservations made after the cut-off date and/or through travel agents or 3rd party booking sites may not receive the IEJS rate of $74.00 per night.
## KNOWLEDGE IS POWER
BECOME A MORE SUCCESSFUL EXHIBITOR!
Increase your knowledge base and your success in the show ring.
Learn what the judges are looking for, what makes one run stand out from another, and how to "think like a judge".
## APPRENTICE JUDGES/COLLEGIATE JUDGING TEAMS
Educational opportunity for those that are wishing to become a judge.
Will satisfy APAHA Apprentice Judge program requirements.
## LEARN HOW TO SCRIBE
Attend seminars presented by some of the world's best scribes and ring stewards.
| FRIDAY, JANUARY 24 | FRIDAY, JANUARY 24 |
|----------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| 8:00 am - 9:00 am | Introduction to Scribing - Cattle Classes |
| 9:00 am - Noon | Cattle / Ranch Classes |
| Noon - 1:00 pm | Lunch Provided by CBC |
| 1:00 pm - 5:30 pm | Cattle / Ranch Classes |
| 5:30 pm - 7:00 pm | Dinner Break (on your own) |
| 7:00 pm - 8:00 pm | Introduction to Judging |
| SATURDAY, JANUARY 25 | SATURDAY, JANUARY 25 |
| 8:00 am - 10:00 am | Introduction to Scribing |
| 10:00 am - 11:00 pm | Halter |
| 11:00 pm - Noon | Showmanship |
| Noon - 1:00 pm | Lunch Provided by CBC |
| 1:00 pm - 3:00 pm | Show Hack/Road Hack |
| 3:00 pm - 4:00 pm | Reining |
| 4:00 pm - 6:00 pm | Ranch Riding |
| SUNDAY, JANUARY 26 | SUNDAY, JANUARY 26 |
| 8:00 am - 10:00 am | Western Pleasure/Longe Line |
| 10:00 am - 11:00 am | Hurter Under Saddle /English Pleasure |
| 11:00 am - Noon | Working Hunter |
| Noon - 1:00 pm | Lunch Provided by CBC |
| 1:00 pm - 3:30 pm | Trail/Western Riding |
| 3:30 pm - 5:00 pm | Horsemanship/Equitation | | |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2015/11/10/blogging-tips-from-uga-bloggers/ | Blogging Tips from UGA Bloggers | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2015-11-10 | [
"Blogging"
] | GA | ## Blogging Tips from UGA Bloggers
Written by
November 10, 2015
Pamela Turner
This past week some fellow UGA Extension bloggers and I had the opportunity to share our blogging experiences and challenges with other professionals at the National Extension Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (NEAFS) conference at The Greenbrier in West Virginia. It was fun and insightful!
Extension has a long history of reaching out to the public to bring resources and evidence-based information to consumers, families and farmers. Blogging is a great way to do this! (You can learn more about Extension at the end of this blog.)
My colleagues and I all have different blogging styles and target audiences, but we have the same basic goals. We strive to make our blogs:
- · useful,
- · ultra-specific,
- · unique,
- · urgent (worth taking time to read),
- · personal, and
- · fun!
We have all learned a lot since we started blogging. Our blogs are an extension of the work we do in Georgia to increase awareness and knowledge about issues that impact the health and well-being of individuals and families. Our greatest challenge is time. While we enjoy blogging there never seems to be enough time to write. We have found it helpful to have some of the blogs written by university students, guest bloggers, or work as a team (like Bilingual Opinions).
You, our readers, are our most important asset. Thank you to my followers. I encourage you to visit my colleagues' blogs.
## BILINGUAL OPINIONS
Bilingual Opinions has two authors and provides information on nutrition and health in English and Spanish. A recent blog was on laughter and health.
Watch Me Learn and Grow was created for childcare providers, parents, and anyone interested in children. A recent blog was on Fall activities a childcare provider or parent can do with young children.
RECENT POSTS
CATEGORIES
## Helping Young Children Eat Healthy and Be Active provides information and ideas that help you encourage young children to eat healthy and be active. A recent blog was on family-style dining.
And of course my blog - UGA GreenWay News, where I provide information on living healthier and greener at home and abroad. Watch for my upcoming European adventure.
What is Extension? Land-grant universities like The University of Georgia have three important missions - teaching, research and outreach/extension. Extension is a way to bring practical information to consumers, families, young people, agricultural producers and small business owners. UGA Extension was founded in 1914. County Extension agents and state specialists share information on a broad array of issues, including childcare, parenting, nutrition, home safety, water quality, radon, gardening, safe pesticide use, and much more.
More information about UGA Extension
Find an Extension contact in your state
Posted in: Blogging
Tags: blogging, childcare providers, Cooperative Extension, families, Georgia, NEAFCS, Spanish blogs, The Greenbrier, UGA, UGA Extension, young children
## Pamela Turner
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/symposiums/site-files/documents/implant-symposium/147-carcass-grade-traits-and-maturity-morgan-page-147.pdf | Impact of Implants on Performance and Carcass Value-May 1997.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [
"alavick"
] | Error: time data "D:20150824162730-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | J. Brad Morgan, Department of Animal Science Oklahoma State University
## INTRODUCTION
Anabolic implants are used to improve growth rate and feed efficiency of cattle during finishing. At the present time, nineteen different implants are commercially available. Economic benefits associated with implant use have been well documented and widely recognized However, implants can have deleterious effects on beef quality. The National Beef Quality Audit (NBQA) identified this "reduced quality of beef due to implants" (i.e., specifically lowered marbling scores, reduced beef tenderness, increased dark cutting percentages and/or detrimental effects associated with advanced carcass skeletal maturity). Results of the NBQA estimated that the beef industry loses $7.63 for every steer and heifer slaughterd annual loss of approximately $202 million) due to detrimental effects of implants on carcass quality. This review summarizes the effects of estrogenic and(or androgenic implants, or beef carcass quality traits and meat tenderness.
## MATERIALS AND METHODS
| Implant | Strength | Type | Abbreviation |
|--------------------------|------------|-------------|----------------|
| Compudose,Ralgro | Mild | Estrogen | ME |
| Synovex, Implus, Magnum, | Strong | Estrogen SE | |
| Steer-oid,Heifer-oid | -- | Androgen | A |
| Finapix | -- | Combination | MC |
| Revalor | Mild | Combination | SC |
| Synovex Plus | Strong | | |
Most research investigations have compared implant programs in which cattle were administered either a single implant or two successive implants during finishing periods of approximately 110 to 160 days. However, in an attempt to eliminate the traditional "shot gun" approach associated with implanting, U.S. beef producer's have begun to implement "implant strategies" in their production systems. In other words, each implant is utilized to maximize it's inherent strength's and minimize it's limitations.
## Figure 1. Implant Strategies In Feedlot Steers/Heifers
A. Conservative Implant Programs:
| Example 1 | S | SE |
|-------------|------------|-----------|
| ME | SC | SLaughter |
| Example2 | MC | SE |
| SE | Mc | EXample2 |
| SE | MC | SE |
| Example 3 | SC | SC |
| VC | ~ 100 days | * |
Examples of intermediate implant programs are shown in Figure 2. Typically, these programs are implemented when greater ADG is desirable and a slight depressof USDA quality grade is acceptable. Unlike the conservative implant programs, intermediate implanting schemes have a time window between terminal implant and slaughter date of at least 70 days.
## Figure 2. Implant Strategies In Feedlot Steers/Heifers
B. Intermediate Implant Programs:
| V | ~ 70 days | VT > 70 days * |
|-----------|-------------|------------------|
| ME | SE | Slaughter |
| Example2 | MC | MS |
| SV | ~ 70 days | VA > 70 days * |
| SE | SE | Slaughter |
| MC | MC | MCS |
| Example 3 | SP | VS >100 days * |
The most aggressive implant strategy is designed for maximum performance in ADG and feed efficiency with little concern for depression in marbling (See Figure 3). In this implant strategy the most potent implants are used in association with a short time window between the terminal implant and slaughter date.
| C. Aggressive Implant Programs: | C. Aggressive Implant Programs: | C. Aggressive Implant Programs: |
|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| Example 1 | SW | SW 70 days |
| VE | SH | SH 70 days |
| SE | SI | Slaughter |
| MC | MC | MI 70 to 100 days |
| E | SM | Slaughtte |
| MC | SC | SS |
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | | |
Many previous attempts that have summarized the influence of implants on beef carcass quality traits (i.e., marbling score, percentage U.S. Choice, skeletal maturity and dark cutters) and meat tenderness have concluded that, "Due to the lack of statistical evidence, implanting displayed no detrimental effects on bee quality grade traits or tenderness." Nevertheless, many such research reviews admitted that implanting reduced the average percentage of carcasses grading U.S. Choice or above from 0% to 28% as compared to cattle not implanted. Such differences were not statistically significant (p . ~ 05) due to large variation across as well as within various cattle populations included in these studies. Despite lack of statistical verification, trends in quality traits and tenderness that exist due to implant type, strength and status certainly have practical importance.
Marbling Score and Percentage Choice: Mean marbling scores and percentage U.S. Choice responses for carcasses from nonimplanted cattle, and the change due to implant strength and type are presented in Table 2.
| First implant | Second implant | Third implant | Marbling score | Choice, % |
|-----------------|------------------|-----------------|------------------|-------------|
| | | | 436 b | 78.5 |
| MEc | --- | -12 d | -4.9 d | -5.7 |
| ME | ME | -- ME | -16 | -5.7 |
| ME | ME | -- | -12 | -3.5 |
| A | -- | -9 | -4.2 | -3.5 |
| A | A | -- | NA a | -2.1 |
| ME/A | ME/A | -- | -12 | -9.3 |
| SE | -- | -24 | -14.3 | -14.3 |
| SE | SE | -- | -47 | -24.0 |
| SE/A | -- | --19 | -6.2 | -24.0 |
| SE/A | SE/A | -- | -24 | -24.0 |
| MC | ---- | --12 | -23.0 | -24.0 |
| MC | MC | -- | -26 | -24.0 |
| SE | MC | -- | -21 | -23.0 |
| SC | -- | --29 | -20.0 | -26.0 |
| SC | SC | -- | -20 | |
"Source: OSU Implant Data Base.
Based on research information included in this review, implants did numerically reduce marbling scores and the percentage of carcasses grading U.S. Choice or higher. Cattle which were administered multiple (
This reduction in marbling score and quality grade is most detectable when a SE implant was administered during this crucial period prior to slaughter.
Implant type and strategy may interact with genotype to influence carcass quality grade. Many research investigations have noted that detrimental effect implant type on quality grade tends to be greater with Continental-European (i.e., "Exotics) breeds than British breeds of cattle. In attempt to address this theory, research studies were subdivided by the biological type of research cattle (British, British/Exotic cross, Dairy), gender (steer or heifer) and implant strategy used (nonimplanted conservative, intermediate or aggressive). Results are in Figure 5. As implant strategy moved from conservative to aggressive, the British/Exotic crossed population responded by producing fewer and fewer carcasses grading U.S. Choice or higher This depression was less dramatic among the other biological types.
| Carcass Maturity Groupa | Carcass Maturity Groupa | Approximate Chronological Age |
|---------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------------|
| | A | 9 to 30 months |
| | B | 30 to 42 months |
| | C | 42 to 72 months |
| | D | 72 to 96 months |
| | E | > 96 months |
"The physiological maturity of a carcass is an estimate of the animal's real chronological age.
With this change in the beef quality grading system, carcass maturity has become more of a "top of mind" issue. Early maturing breed types, puberty and pregnancy, endogenous hormone levels, mineral balance of water and rations as well as excessive exogenous hormone supplementation (ie. implanting) all are being investigated for their impact on beef carcass maturity. Information is limited concerning the effect of implants on beef carcass maturation. Using the information from the OSU Data Base, the means in Table 4 were generated for the impact of implant strength and type on beef carcass maturity.
Carcasses from cattle which were implanted with anabolic implants tended to have more advanced skeletal maturity than carcasses from nonimplanted cattle. Additionally, skeletal maturity was more advanced for carcasses from aggressively implanted cattle than conservative or intermediate implanting strategies. In the future, research scientists should collect and report information on
Skeletal Maturity: The 1996 USDA beef quality grading standards are based upon the amount of marbling present in the ribeye at the 12th-13th rib interface and the maturity of the carcass. Marbling has long been the major focus commonly associated with the eating quality of beef. Maturity often has been overlooked and, until recently, often not considered in the beef quality equation. However, the beef quality grading system was changed January 31, 1997. Under the new grading standards, carcasses with a combined lean and skeletal maturity score of "B," (See Table 3) having only Small or Slight degrees of marbling will be excluded from the Choice and Select grades. Instead, these carcasses will be graded standard. According to a USDA audit, this new grading standard should affect only 1.58% of all fed cattle in the U.S. Although proposed grade change potentially can impact all groups of fed-beef cattle, heiferettes and aged cattle, e.g of Mexican origin, likely will be affected most.
exacerbate the problem. That is, cattle treated with growth implants are more likely to become "stressed."
| First implant | Second implant | Skeletal maturity A 44b |
|-------------------|------------------|---------------------------|
| Non-implanted ME* | --- | A 45 |
| ME/A | ME/A | A 60 |
| SE | ---- | A 53 |
| SE | SE | A 62 |
| SE/A | ------ | A 54 |
| SE | SE/A | A 62 |
| MC | ----- | A 33 |
| MC | MC | A 60 |
| SC | -- | A 60 |
| SC | SC | A 65 |
| Implant Strategy | | |
| Conservative | | A 51 |
| Intermediate | | A 54 |
| Aggressive | | A 65 |
"Source: OSU Implant Data Base.
'Change in skeletal maturity commanded to nonimplanted controls 'Implant classification: MEE, SE, A, MC and SC are mild estrogen, strong estrogen, androgen, mild combination and strong combination, respectively. See Table 1.
There is a perception in the U.S. beef industry that use of trenbolone acetate (TBA) containing implants causes a higher incidence of DCB carcasses. Information generated through the Data Base on the influence of implant strength and type on occurrence of DCB suggests that this perception could be true (Figure 6).
Compared to the nonimplanted control animals (DCB percentage of 0.17), carcasses from animals receiving an androgen-based implant produced a higher percentage of DCB carcasses. However, research information does not support a direct relationship between administration of TBA and incidence of DCB. Although it is unlikely that TBA implants have a direct effect on the incidence of DCB, cattle treated with TBA maybe more predisposed to developing the DCB condition when subjected to other stressful conditions. Concern regarding the effect of anabolic implants on DCB likely will continue until definitive research studies on DCB are more definitive.
Meat Tenderness: The 1994 Food Marketing Institute TRENDS Report concluded that "Taste" ranked first among "Factors Important In Food Selection" by U.S. supermarket shoppers. Consumers consider three characteristics - flavor, tenderness and juiciness - as they evaluate "palatability" and(or) "eating quality," (i.e., the satisfaction received by eating beef). Many research projects have identified tenderness as the most important factor of these three characteristics in determining consumers' perception of taste. In 1993, Texas A&M University meat scientists determined that one tough beef carcass could negatively impact 542 consumers. Although (a) only one-tenth of 1 percent of tough, dry or bland steaks are returned for replacement or refund, (b) for every one complaint that is vocalized, ten complaints are never heard, and (c) most consumers who have had a bad eating experience don't complain -they just don't come back.
Only a limited amount of information is available concerning the effects of implants on beef tenderness. Results regarding the impact of anabolic implants on meat tenderness are summarized in Table 6. Summarization of WBS data from various universities and research institutions can be misleading because postmortem aging times utilized at the various locations are not consistent. Hence. these values should be interpreted cautiously. Overall, Warner-Bratzler shear force value (WBS) of loin steaks was approximately 1.10 lb.greater for implanted than nonimplanted cattle (Table 5).
Postmortem aging. as a method for tenderization of meat by storage at or above freezing temperatures, is very important in assuring a tender and acceptable meat product. Generally, as postmortem aging time increases, meat tenderness increases. In an attempt to draw inferences on the impact of various implant management styles on the response of beef steaks to the postmortem aging process and ultimate tenderness. WBS information from the OSU Implant Data Base was segregated by aging times and implant strategies (See Figure 7).
Regardless of postmortem aging time, steaks were from tougher from aggressively implanted than from nonimplanted or conservatively implanted cattle. It appears that even after 21 days of postmortem aging. WBS of steaks originating from cattle which were intermediately or aggressively implanted had a WBS similar to that of
The entire beef production system must become more customer oriented if it is to maintain its current market share. To accomplish this goal, implant strategies must balance the advantages in growth against reductions in meat palatability. Cooperation, initiative and investment from all involved parties is essential for solving problems associated with consumer acceptability of beef.
## RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS INCLUDED
Apple, J. K., M. E. Dikeman, D. D. Simms, and G. Kuhl. 1991. Effects of synthetic hormone implants, singularly or in combinations, on performance, carcass traits, and longissimus muscle palatability of Holstein steers. J. Anim. Sci. 69:4437.
Anderson, P. T., L. J. Johnston, and R. V. Vattauher. 1991. Effects of combined use of trenbolone acetate and estradiol on crossbred steers slaughtered at three weight endpoints. J. Anim. Sci. 69(Suppl. 1):84.
Bartle, S. J. and R. L. Preston. 1992. Effects of implant type, average marbling scores and pen uniformity on the percentage of Choice carcasses. Texas Tech Univ. Agric. Sci. Tech. Rep. 317:146, Botts, R. L. 1992. Evaluation of various programs of Synove-S, finaplix-S and estradiol 17b/trenbolone acetate in feedlot steers of three distinct breed types. J. Anim. Sci. 70(Suppl. 1):280. Brandt, R. T., Jr., R. J. Grant, and R. V. Pope. 1991. Evaluation of Revalor implants for stocker-finishing steers. Cattlemen's Day. Kansas State University. p. 85. Eck, T. P., and L. R. Corah. 1993. Implant comparisons in feedlot steers and heifers. Scott County Beef Cattle Conference. Kansas State University. p. 31.
Faulkner, D. B., F. K. McKeith, L. L. Berger, D. J. Kester and D. F. Parrett. 1989. Effect of testosterone propionate on performance and carcass characteristics of heifers and cows. J. Anim. Sci. 67:1907.
Foultz, C. P., Gill, D. R., Dolezar, H. G., Bottis, R. L., Garber, T. L. and F. N. Owens. 1990. Synovex-S.inapxlx S , or Reval or impolants for feedlot steers. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Pep. 100.
Foutz, C. P., Dolezel, H. G., Gill, D. R., Strasia, C. A., Gardner, T. L., Tinker, E. D., and Ray, F. K. 1989. Effects of trenbolone acetate in yearing feedlot steers on carcass grade traits and shear force. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. p. 272.
Garber, M. J., R. A. Roeder, J. J. Combs, L. Eldridge, J. C. Miller, D. D. Hinman, and J. J. Ney. 1990. Efficacy of vaginal spaying and anabolic implants on growth and carcass characteristics in beef heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 68:1469.
Gardner, B. A., T. L. Gardner, H. G. Dolezai, K. K. Novotny, M. Moldenhayer. and D. M. Allen. 1995. Effects of age-class and implant protocol on Holstein steer carcass desiraability. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. p. 11.
Gerken, C. L., J. D. Tatum, J. B. Morgan, and G. C. Smith. 1995. Use of genetically identical (cloned) steers to determine the effects of estrogenic and androgenic implants on beef quality and palatability characteristics. J. Anim. Sci. 73:3317.
Goodrich, R. D., P. T. Anderson, and L. J. Johnston. 1993. Influence of Synovex-S and finaplix-S on daily gain and carcass characteristics of steers marketed at varying weights. Minnesota Beef Cattle Res. Rep. 399:32.
Hale, R. L. 1995. Comparison of feedlot performance and carcass traits of steers administered anabolic implants and anthelmintic drenches. Continental Beef Research, Lamar, CO.
Hoechst-Roussel Agri-Vet Company. 1993. A comparative trial of Synovex-S and Reval-S in Holstein steers fed in commercial feedyard in Colorado. Tech. Bulletin 13. Hoechst-Roussel Vet Company, Somerville, NJ.
Huck, G. L, R. T. Brandt, M. E. Dikeman, D. D. Simms, and G. L. Kuhl. 1991. Frequency and timing of trenbolone acetate implantation on steer performance, carcass characteristics and beef quality. J. Anim. Sci. 69(Suppl. 1):560.
Huffman, R. D., R. L. West, D. L. Pritchard, R. S. Sand, and D. D. Johnson. 1991. Effect of finaplix and Synovex implantation on feedlot performance and carcass traits. Florida Beef Cattle Rep. Univ. of Florida. p. 97. Hutcheson, D. P., J. P. Rains and J. W. Paul. 1993. The effects of different implant and feed additive strategies on performanc e and carcass characteristics in finishing heifers. A review. Prof. Anim. Sci. 9:132.
Jim, G. K., P. T. Guichon, C. W. Booker, and B. E. Thorlakson. 1995. A comparison of various combinations of estrogenic and androgenic implant programs in feedlot steer calves in western Canada. Feedlot Health Management Services, Airdrie, Alberta.
Johnson, B. J., P. T. Anderson, J. C. Meische, and W. R. Dayton, W. R. 1996. Effect of a combined trenbolone acetate and estradiol implant on feedlot performance, carcass characteristics. and carcass composition of feedlot steers. J. Anim. Sci. 74:363.
Johnson, E. S., H. G. Dolezai, M. T. Al-Maamari, B. A. Gardner, D. R. Gill, R. L. Bottis, and P. T. Anderson. 1995. Effects of combination androgenic and estrogenic anabolic implants on carcass traits of serially slaughtered steers. Okla. Agr. Exp. Res. Rep. p. 35.
Kenison, D. C., P. G. Lemieux, and D. A. Disch. 1990. Growth performance of finishing steers implanted with various levels of zerolan. Pitman-Moore, Inc., Terre Haute, IN.
Koers, W. and A. Turgeon. 1995. Feedlot performance and carcass merit of steers administered various combinations of estrogenic and androgenic implants. Bos Technica Research Services, Inc., Salina, KS. Kuhl, G. L., D. D. Simms, D. A. Blasi, and C. L. Kastner. 1993. Comparison of Synovex-S and two levels of Reval-S in heavy-weight Holstein steers. Cattlemen's Day. Kansas State University. 678:134.
Lehman, F., D. Bechtol, A. Waite, T. H. Montgomery, and D. P. Hutcheson. 1996. The effects of anabolic agents alone and in combination on feedyard performance and carcass characteristics of finishing heifers fed for 109, 129, or 157 days. Tech Bulletin 2. Hoechst-Roussel Vet Company, Somerville. NJ. Mader, T., J. Dahlquist, and R. Bottas. 1996. Growth implants for steers. Nebraska Beef Rep. p. 71. Mader, T., J. Dahlquist, K. Lechtenberg, and M. Thornsberry. 1995. Implant programs and melengestrol acetate (MGA) for weaned heifers placed in the feedlot. Nebraska Beef Rep. p. 44. Mader, T., K. Lechtenberg, and W. Lawrence. 1993. Growth promoters for heifers. Nebraska Beef Rep. p. 41. Nichols, W. T., G. Bagley, and B. Dye. 1993. A comparison of two implant strategies on Mexican crossbred steers fed in the Panhandle of Texas. Tech Bulletin 15. Hoechst-Roussel Vet Company, Somerville, NJ Nichols, W. T., E. Petznick, and G. Kearney. 1995. A comparison of two terminal implant strategies in Mexican cross steers fed in Arizona. Tech Bulletin 16. Hoechst-Roussel Vet Company, Somerville, NJ.
Nichols, W. T., M. T. Wray, I. H. Montgomery, B. Shuttlet, J. B. Morgan, H. G. Dolezan, and D. P. Hutchinson. 1996. The effects of anabolic agents along and in combination on feedyard performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of finishing heifers fed for 108, 131, or 143 days. Tech Bulletin 3. Hoechst-Roussel Vet Company, Somerville, NJ.
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https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2014/06/16/providing-a-healthy-home-environment-for-children/ | Providing a Healthy Home Environment for Children | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2014-06-16 | [
"Children",
"Environment",
"Family",
"Healthy Children",
"Healthy Housing",
"Safety"
] | GA | ## Providing a Healthy Home Environment for Children
Written by
June 16, 2014
Pamela Turner
Children are more likely than adults to fall victim to hazards in your home. Relative to their body size, children breathe in more air and consume more food than adults. They also spend more time close to the ground where contaminants lurk and there are lots of things to chew on. This means they are more likely to ingest harmful substances. Children are still developing so hazardous substances can alter, stunt, or even revert growth. Childhood experiences and exposure to the world teach important motor skills and attitudes, both of which could be gravely affected by hazards in your home. A healthy home must be safe and clean in order to foster necessary development throughout a child's lifetime.
It is important for parents to provide a healthy home for their children. What can you do to make your home safer?
## Take Action!
Come back to UGA GreenWay News every Monday morning for the next 8 weeks for more information on how you can make your home healthier for the children in your life. For additional information on making your home healthier visit:
- Healthy Homes Partnership
- Healthy Homes (HUD)
- Children's Environmental Health(EPA)
Please tell us in the comments or by email what one thing you did to make your home safer for your family.
Tags: asthma, childproofing, children, Cooperative Extension, environment, Extension, family, Georgia, green cleaning, hazards, health, Healthy Homes, mold, UGA
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/agribusinessand-cooperative-management/site-files/docs/the-outside-offer.pdf | Case III - The Outside Offer | Oklahoma State University | [
"Harvey Meier"
] | Error: time data 'D:20151221181543Z' does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Case III - The Outside Offer
John was a long tenured board member at Johnson Farmers Cooperative. Last night he received a phone call from the board chair announcing an emergency board meeting for the next day. The meeting was in response to an offer made by an outside private firm expressing interest in purchasing all of the assets of the cooperative. The members would presumably receive substantially more than the face value of their equity but the cooperative would be dissolved. John encouraged the board chair to remind board members of their duty to represent the best interests of the cooperative membership.
As John put down the phone he began to think about the emergency board meeting. He was sure there would be heated discussion. He began to consider his responsibility as a board member. He has always viewed his primary responsibility as protecting the viability of the cooperative so that it could serve the current membership and be positioned for future generations of producers. He also realized he was responsible for protecting the members' financial interest. He had always assumed that keeping the cooperative strong and profitable was the key to protecting the members financial interest but now he realized there could be another dimension.
John also knew that the board has responsibilities in communicating with the members and educating them on the affairs and status of the cooperative. He knew that he also has a responsibility to maintain confidentiality. Now he pondered under what conditions, if ever, does the board have a responsibility to communicate a purchase offer to the membership? He knew that the board was elected to make decisions for the membership. Still ultimately, it was the members that owned the cooperative and they had the right to vote on major decisions. John realized that there were many conflicting issues involving the board's role and the member's role in governance, protecting the cooperative versus protecting the members' financial opportunities and confidentiality versus transparency. It looked like tomorrow was going to be a challenging day!
## TEAM GROUND RULES
- 1. Appoint a Chairperson to Lead Analysis and Discussion - Invites all Team Members to Participate and Share Perspectives during Analysis and Discussion; Keeps Discussion on Point in Line with Case Analysis Steps.
- 2. Appoint a Recorder of Your Team's Case Analysis and Discussion Key Points and Conclusions (The Recorder will Report the Key Points and Conclusions during the Team Report Outs for Each Case)
## GENERAL CASE ANALYSIS STEPS
- 1. Review the "Guiding" case questions to obtain clues on what the key issues are to be resolved.
- 2. Identify the key issue(s) of concern, problems, challenges, or opportunities] and their significance. Focus on the most important key points and facts surrounding the case.
- 3. Specify alternative courses of action
- 4. Evaluate each course of action.
- 5. Recommend the best course of action.
- 6. Summarize and Record key points, conclusions, answers to questions, and recommended courses of action.
- 7. Report summary during team report outs.
## Guiding Questions for Discussion :
- 1. Does the board have any responsibility to evaluate an offer to purchase and dissolve the cooperative? If so, on what basis should they evaluate the offer (e.g. what considerations justify considering selling the cooperative)?
- 2. Does the board have any responsibility to communicate an outside offer to the membership?
- 3. Does the board have the authority to reject an outside purchase offer if they conclude it is not in the member's financial interest?
- 4. What strategically, structural or policy decisions, if any, make a hostile takeover more or less likely? |
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