url stringlengths 19 199 | title stringlengths 0 173 | institution stringclasses 19 values | author listlengths 0 19 | publish_date stringlengths 0 138 ⌀ | category listlengths 0 42 | state stringclasses 6 values | markdown stringlengths 0 366k |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/iowa-roof-truss | Iowa Roof Truss | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | ## Iowa Roof Truss
BUILDING&CONSTRUCTIONPLANSARCHIVE
Publication Number: 5218
View as PDF: 5218.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/community-backyard-composting-programs-can-reduce-waste-and-save-money | Community Backyard Composting Programs Can Reduce Waste and Save Money | NC State Extension | [
"Rhonda Sherman"
] | null | [
"Composting",
"Community",
"Gardening"
] | NC | Many local governments encourage backyard composting-an array of activities that allow people to recycle organic materials at home-to reduce trash disposal, save money, and conserve natural resources. About 30 percent of the typical household's waste is yard trimmings and food scraps that can be composted. Community public works managers across the nation have learned that the relatively small investment needed to help citizens begin composting at home is repaid many times over as local governments no longer have to collect, transport, compost, or dispose of tons of organic material.
Composting is the controlled decomposition of organic materials into a soil-like substance called compost. Organic materials, such as grass clippings, leaves, yard trimmings, food scraps, and nonrecyclable paper products, can be composted at home in compost bins or piles. Backyard composting is an easy and economical way for individuals to convert their organic waste into a soil amendment that they can use to mulch landscaping, enhance plant growth, enrich topsoil, and provide other benefits to plants and soil.
## Backyard Composting Benefits Communities
In 1996, The Composting Council analyzed backyard composting programs and concluded that such programs are successful and cost-effective throughout the United States, regardless of community size or socioeconomic status. When setting up a backyard composting program, governments spent an average of $12 per ton of organic materials composted at home to educate the public and promote the program. They also received an average of $1 per ton of solid waste in volunteer labor. Savings averaged $23 per ton in reduced collection costs and $32 per ton in reduced disposal costs. Total net benefit was $43 to $44 per ton of solid waste. The backyard composting programs diverted approximately 14 percent of yard trimmings generated, an average of more than 1,145 tons per year. Each household composted an average of $646 pounds per year, which amounted to more than 12 pounds every week.
Communities saved money because they didn't have to collect or process the yard waste. Residents were able also to save garbage or yard waste collection fees in areas where local governments based collection fees on volume or weight of materials disposed. Backyard composting also reduces the need for municipal composting sites and delays the need for more landfill space or incinerator capacity.
| Summary of Cost-Benefit Analysis of Home Composting Programs,1995 Municipal Costs Per Ton Composted at Home | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Dollars Per Ton |
| Government expenditures on home composting (average) | 12 |
| Avoided collection costs (average) | 23 |
| Avoided disposal costs (average) | 32 |
| Value of volunteer labor | less than 1 |
| Total municipal benefits (measured benefits only) | 55-56 |
| Total net benefit (benefits minus costs) | 43-44 |
| Source: The Composting Council, National Backyard Composting Program Cost Benefit Analysis of Home Composting Programs in the United States. 1996. | Source: The Composting Council, National Backyard Composting Program Cost Benefit Analysis of Home Composting Programs in the United States. 1996. |
Backyard composting provides the following benefits:
- · Reduces collection, transfer, and centralized processing
- · Lowers residential trash bills (where unit costing exists)
- · Creates jobs (home composting program coordination and promotion)
- · Reduces air and water pollution
- · Reduces the need to purchase fertilizers and pesticides
Backyard composting has other benefits, such as improving soil health and fertility, providing a hands-on method of science education (especially worm composting), reducing traffic congestion (less hauling of materials), increasing exercise and relaxation, and increasing a sense of personal responsibility and personal and community pride.
When households use their compost to improve the soil, they do more than just add nutrients to the soil. Compost worked into the soil increases aeration, helps control soil erosion, increases the soil water-holding capacity, reduces water demands of plants and trees, neutralizes soil toxins, and reduces mineral leaching from the soil. Plants growing in soil with added compost have a sound root structure and deeper root growth, so they are better able to withstand drought and freeze.
## Other Methods for Diverting Organic Materials
Residents can also divert organic materials from disposal through appropriate landscape design, grasscycling, mulching, direct soil incorporation, and vermicomposting.
Appropriate landscape design refers to designing around naturally occurring plant habitats, resulting in a landscape that is healthier, more resilient, and easier to manage. There are three components to selecting plants with this method: (1) design communities instead of individual plantings, (2) choose plant species native to the area, and (3) cluster plants that are adapted to similar conditions of sunlight, moisture, temperature, and soils. An effective landscape design can be less expensive and take less time to maintain than one that requires constant mowing, fertilization, and pesticide application.
Grasscycling is simple-just leave grass clippings on the lawn after mowing. As the grass clippings decompose, they release nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium back into the soil, so less fertilizer is needed. The lawn will also need less water because grass clippings tend to reduce water evaporation and keep the soil temperature cool, which promotes better growth. Match buildup will not occur as a result of growth. Grascycling does not cause thatch buildup because grass stems and roots cause this problem, not clippings. Each household that grassyclines typically diverts more than 1 ton of grass clippings each year from disposal. Communities with significant grasscycling programs have lower diversion costs because they don't have to collect and manage grass clippings. Grasscycling may be more cost-effective than promoting home composting, and community disposal diversion rates may be increased by emphasizing grasscycling.
Mulch is any material like grass clippings, leaves, tree and shrub prunings, compost, or wood chips that is spread over the surface of soil to improve the health of plants, eliminate weeds, and save disposal costs. Mulch conserves water by keeping soil moist and keeps soil temperatures from becoming too hot or cold. mulch protects the ground from soil erosion and stops soil compaction caused by foot traffic or driving rain. As mulch decomposes, it becomes compost, which feeds the soil and provides ideal living conditions for earthworms and other soil organisms at healthy soil and plants need.
The easiest way to compost food scraps is direct soil incorporation. Place chopped food scraps in a hole or trench, and cover them with at least 8 inches of soil. Many people dig a trench in the garden in the fall, gradually fill it in over the winter, and have a planting bed prepared by spring. Food scraps improve soil fertility like finished compost.
Vermicomposting composts food scraps by feeding them to earthworms. Red wiggler worms in bins convert food scraps to castings, which are a valuable soil conditioner (Figure 1). People may choose vermcomposting because they live in an apartment, they are concerned about attracting pests to outdoor compost piles, or they consider it an easy way to recycle food wastes in the winter.
## Planning a Backyard Composting Program
The North Carolina Cooperative Extension center in your county brings research-based information from North Carolina State University in Raleigh. Its people can provide you with information and help you start a backyard composting program in your community.
Regardless of the size of the community, backyard composting programs tend to have at least one paid staff person who is responsible for the program, brochures on composting, workshops, a subsidized home composting bin distribution program, and an outreach program that educates school children or teachers about home or in-school composting. Some programs also have an Extension-run volunteer training program, a compost demonstration site, other written materials, advertising, and a telephone hotline.
In 1994, the University of Wisconsin conducted a survey of 249 backyard composting programs in 40 states and two Canadian provinces. The responding municipalities and counties were almost evenly divided between the following population ranges: greater than 100,000; between 25,000 and 99,999; and below 25,000. Based on an averaging of program rankings, the most effective backyard composting program components were:
- 1. Subsidized bin distribution
- 2. Variable collection fees for refuse
- 3. Volunteer training and outreach programs
- 4. School programs
- 5. Workshops
- 6. Books or booklets distribution
- 7. Utility bill inserts
- 8. Demonstration sites and displays
- 9. Bin distribution at cost
The most commonly recommended approaches for starting backyard composting programs were to: (1) recruit a volunteer community group (such as NC State Extension Master GardenerSM or Composters) to help with education, and (2) provide free or low-cost compost bins to increase residents' interest in composting. The survey respondents made other recommendations for developing programs:
- · Focus efforts on single-family households, targeting home gardeners first.
- · Develop a home composting brochure (possibly adapted from existing ones).
- · Harness volunteers and community support and offer workshops.
- · Distribute information through the internet, the media and local groups.
- · Include grasscycling tips in any promotional and educational information.
- · Consider a mobile or neighborhood chipching program for brush and branches.
- · Structure economic incentives for home composting by adopting refuse collection rates that reward waste reduction.
- · Consider having a subsidized compost bin purchase program and one-day sales.
- · Evaluate cost-sharing opportunities between jurisdictions, especially for educational efforts and bin distribution programs.
- · Provide a home composting hotline number.
- · Remember that success is measured over the course of at least a few years.
- · Monitor results, participation and diversion rates, and cost per ton diverted.
Survey respondents identified several barriers to home composting, including apathy and resistance to change; the desire to have a "perfect, manicured yard;" concerns about odors, flies, and rodents; and the time and labor needed for composting.
## Program Components
## Printed Information
One of the easiest and least expensive ways to start a backyard composting program is to use printed information. Printed materials can be displayed in racks at N.C. Cooperative Extension centers, nurseries and home centers, libraries, grocery stores, businesses, composting demonstration sites, and disposal facilities. They can also be distributed at community fairs and other activities, such as compost bin distribution events. In addition, printed materials can be mailed to residents; ask utility companies to include the information with their billings. If there are nonEnglish speaking audiences, make sure printed materials are available for them.
Printed information may include the following:
- · Brochures describing why and how to compost.
- · Books or booklets providing in-depth information on composting techniques and compost uses.
- · Promotional flyers describing programs and opportunities for participation.
- · Resource guides listing sources for bins, tools, and information, describing demonstration site locations, and giving other program information.
## Workshops
Workshops can teach residents about methods and benefits of backyard composting, educate business personnel and public works staff about on-site composting, train volunteers, teach people how to use the composting bins, or train teachers how to teach students about composting. A workshop can be a standalone event or part of a group meeting or community festival. Group meetings may include Extension 4H or Master Gardener groups, service organizations like Kiwans and Rotarians, church groups, neighborhood associations, employee lunch and learn events, afterschool groups and gardening clubs. Design presentations to satisfy audience interests; for example, recyclers like to compost to reduce materials for disposal and gardeners compost so they can use the finished product as a soil amendment. Avoid using technical language for non-technical audiences; for example, use terms like "greens and browns" instead of "carbon-to-nitrogen ratio." It's best to involve the audience by letting them handle compost, set up a worm bin, or turn compost piles.
## Compost Bin and Tool Distribution
A proven method of getting residents started in home composting is to provide the equipment they need (Figure 2). Equipment may include compost bins, kits for converting mowers for grasscycling, compost aeration tools, and other composting tools. They may be given away, sold at workshops or other events, delivered directly to residents, or distributed through retailers. Local government agencies can save money by staging co-promotions with bin manufacturers or retailers. Manufacturers can coordinate bin ordering, delivery, or sales at special events. Retailers can help
with advertising and provide discount vouchers or rebates on bins and tools. Communities can recoup bin distribution expenses through avoided yard waste collection and disposal or processing costs.
Compost bins distributed by communities do not have to be commercially-made; instead, they can be made locally or converted from used materials like wooden pallets, trash cans, or industrial drums. According to the University of Wisconsin survey results of 25 communities that subsidized the cost of bin distribution programs, the average subsidy was $18.50 per bin.
## Youth Programs
Youth involvement is essential in community education. Involving children in composting activities gets them started on lifelong composting habits, and kids often involve their parents and help spread the word. A program can start with a single classroom or youth group like 4-H or Scouts and then expand throughout a community.
Resources to teach children about composting include videos, curricula, songs, resource guides, comic books, and activities.
Teachers and youth group leaders can be trained to use curricula and worm bins. Youth can be reached through fun activities at community festivals and science fairs and through community service projects for students or youth groups. Children also enjoy field trips to compost demonstration sites.
## Volunteer Training Programs
Training volunteers to teach others is an economical and effective way to promote backyard composting. Volunteers make presentations to community groups and serve as role models for neighbors, friends, co-workers, and club members. Audiences that are difficult to access through promotions or professional outreach can be reached by volunteers at a fraction of the cost.
Master Composer or Community Compostor programs are effective for recruiting and using volunteers. These programs are offered either by a local Extension center or a community solid waste management office. Master Composers are volunteers who receive free training in exchange for donating time to educate the community. The Master Composter title rewards volunteers for their efforts and establishes them as a credible information source in the community. Master Composer programs generally provide 30 to 40 hours of training in composting and outreach techniques, in exchange for a commitment to volunteer an equal number of hours for the next year. Master Composers can participate in a variety of outreach projects, either individually or in groups, according to their interests or through your direction. Allowing volunteers to choose outreach activities that they find convenient and rewarding makes it more likely that they will be effective and complete their outreach commitment. Potential projects include staffing hotlines, giving presentations, helping to distribute bins, maintaining demonstration sites, building compost bins, distributing brochures in neighborhoods, staffing display booths at community fairs, writing articles for local newspapers or newsletters, and creating new outreach tools.
It's important to keep volunteers motivated. Link volunteers who are involved in similar projects or who live in the same neighborhood, or hold potluck s or other opportunities for volunteers to share outreach experiences and ideas. Most importantly, demonstrate that volunteers' efforts are valued. Recognize volunteers at award ceremonies, in newsletters, or by providing certificates or gifts like shirts with a composting message.
## Demonstration Sites
Compositing demonstration sites allow people to see and feel the composting process and work with a variety of composting systems and uses. Sites usually include composting systems, displays, interpretive signs, and plants growing in varying amounts of compost (Figure 3). While planning the
site, consider site development (such as grading, water lines, seating, fences, and paths), compost bins, information kiosks, self-guided tour brochures, and maintenance tools and storage. Construction costs can range from several hundred to several thousand dollars, depending on landscape improvements, the need for contracted labor, and the type of signs used. When choosing the location, consider accessibility and compatible activities that will attract visitors, such as parks, Extension centers, arboretums, community centers, city halls, and schools. The site should have at least 1,500 square feet to provide enough room for bins, planting areas to demonstrate compost uses, a secure place to store tools and educational materials, and space for conducting workshops. A sample demonstration site map shown can provide ideas, but develop a plan with the assistance of a local landscape architect who can determine if the site requires grading, drainage, or other modifications. Place bins 3 to 4 feet apart to provide access for maintenance and group instruction. Make paths at least 6 feet wide to allow enough room to move materials and hold group activities. Display a variety of home-built and commercial organic materials management systems to appeal to people with different physical abilities, aesthetics, and economic resources. These include appropriate landscape design, grasscycling, mulching, rodent-resistant food scrap composting systems, and worm bins. Hands-on, dynamic demonstrations draw visitors' interest, such as experiments, signs with moving parts, and different ways of demonstrating heat in compost piles. Signs should be simple and few.
## Hotlines
Many communities use hotlines to provide information about composting and program activities. Hotlines can also be used to register people for workshops, schedule bin deliveries, and arrange other program tasks. Hotlines may be staffed or use a message and call-back system. According to 16 communities surveyed, hotines answer an average of 900 calls per year. The cost of a hotline is usually no more than that of a standard local business telephone line and an answering machine or voicemail system.
Attribution : Seattle Engineering Department, Seattle Tilt Association
## Related Resources
Your county Extension center can provide publications and other assistance. Visit the NC State Extension Composting page to access videos and publications about composting and vermicomposting.
## Author
Rhonda Sherman
Extension Solid Waste Specialist (vermicoposting, composting, recycling) Horticultural Science
Publication date: June 9, 2020
AG-599
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/terry-city-retail-sales-profile | Terry City Retail Sales Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s Terry City Retail Sales Profile
## Terry City Retail Sales Profile
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P2944-273
View as PDF: P2944-273.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Hinds County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes
Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter
Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills
Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith
Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
FEBRUARY 1, 2024
Filed Under: Economic Development
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/estrus-synchronization-and-artificial-insemination-programs-for-beef-cattle/ | Estrus Synchronization and Artificial Insemination Programs for Beef Cattle | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Soren P. Rodning",
"Michelle F. Elmore",
"Misty A. Edmondson",
"Joshua B. Elmore",
"Julie A. Gard",
"Andrew S. Lovelady"
] | 2018-09-11 | [
"Beef",
"Agriculture",
"Animal Sciences"
] | AL | One factor in a successful artificial insemination program is estrus synchronization. Learn about the advantages of synchronization in beef cattle and offers helpful information on understanding the normal estrous cycle. General reproductive information as well as tips for why synchronization programs sometimes fail are also included. Another topic covered is the timing of AI for maximum conception.
Artificial insemination (AI) is a reproductive method that allows cattle producers to use sires that have superior genetics at an affordable price. Incorporating superior genetics into a herd more rapidly improves economically important attributes such as growth, maternal, and carcass traits and also decreases the incidence of dystocias (difficult calving deliveries).
Part of a successful AI program is estrus synchronization, which typically involves administering a series of hormones to induce a group of cows or heifers to be fertile at a chosen time period, which makes it easier to determine when the cows are in heat. Estrus synchronization with AI in beef cattle offers the following advantages over entirely natural mating or AI without estrus synchronization.
- · The number of days necessary to observe the herd for signs of heat (such as standing to be mounted) is reduced, which ultimately allows for closer observation. The hormones administered can also cause stronger heats that have more noticeable signs of estrus.
- The breeding season is shorter and more concentrated, which allows for more efficient labor management during the breeding season and ultimately during the resulting calving season.
- · Artificial insemination can result in less stressful calving seasons by allowing the use of calving ease sires resulting in fewer dystocias.
The end result of a successful estrus synchronization and AI program early in the breeding season is a more consistent, uniform calf crop that is older and heavier at weaning because of the increased growth time as is shown in Table 1. More pounds of calf at weaning, equals more potential for profit, especially on day 1.
## The Normal Estrous Cycle
Estrus refers to a cow or heifer in standing heat or standing to be mounted. Estrus is the 21-day cycle from one of estrus (heat) to the next. The average estrous cycle, from one standing heat (estrus) to the next, is 21 days in the cow (figure 1), with a range of 18 to 24 days. The cycle begins on day 1 when the egg is ovulated from a follicle on the ovary. The egg moves into the oviduct where, if viable sperm from the bull are present, it is fertilized and moves into the uterus. Regardless of whether the fertilized egg is, by approximately day 5, the site of ovulation on the ovary develops into a corpus luteum (CL), which secures the hormone progesterone into the cow's blood. While the CL is secreting progesterone, the cow does not come into estrus.
Around day 17, if the col is not pregnant, the utrus secretes the hormone prostaglandin F2alpha (PGf2α) that causes the CL to regress in about 3 to 5 days. While the CL is regressing, a new egg-containing follicle is developing that secrets the hormone estrogen, causing the cow to come into standing heat on about day 20 or 21 of the estrus cycle. Cows should be
Estrus synchronization and AI are reproductive tools that when used properly ultimately enhance the profitability of a wellmanaged beef cattle operation. The most common failure of
## estrus synchronization and AI programs is poor attention to
animal argement pradicis, such as nutrition, record keeping, AI technician proficiency, good heat detection, and proper timing of estrus synchronization protocols, generates poor results. Therefore, attention to detail it's the key to having a successful estrus synchronization and AI program.
Soren P. Rodning. Extension Veterinarian, Assistant Professor, Animal Sciences; Michelle F. Elmore, Extension Animal Scientist/Beef Cattle Improvement, Animal Sciences; Mistry A. Edmondson, Veterinarian and Associate Professor, Clinical Sciences; Joshua B. Elmore, PAS, Advisor, Natural Resource Programs, Animal Sciences; Julie A. Gard, Veterinarian, Associate Professor, Clinical Sciences, and Andrew S. Lovelady, Veterinarian, Clinical Sciences; all with Auburn University
Reviewed March 2022, Estrus Synchronization and Artificial Insemination Programs for Beef Cattle, ANR-1027 |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1984/84-43.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090305152233-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## EFFECTS OF PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION ON RUMINAL PERMENTATION OF LOW QUALITY NATIVE GRASS HAY IN STEERS
K. J. Barton' and C. A. Hibberd'
## Story in Brief
Three supplements supplying O (Control), .25 (Low) or .63 (High) lb of protein per day were fed to three ruminally cannulated steers consuming low quality native grass hay (4.9 percent crude protein). Feeding protein increased forage intake from 16.6 lb/day for the Control to 21.2 lb/day for the High group. Little change in intake was noted between the Control and the Low (.25 lb) protein levels. Ruminal pH decreased from 6.8 to 6.4 with supplement feeding. Ruminal ammonia concentrations were 2.3, 1.8 and 7.5 mg/dl for steers fed the Control, Low and High protein supplements, respectively. Disappearance of ground hay dry matter and fiber (ADF) from nylon bags was increased (P
## Introduction
Wintering beef cows grazing native range in Central Oklahoma typically require protein supplementation to maintain adequate body condition. Protein supplementation of protein deficient forage increases forage intake, apparently due to increased forage digestibility. Runinal bacteria require protein or the ammonia from protein to degrade fiber. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of protein supplementation on ruminal ammonia concentrations and disappearance of native grass hay from nylon bags suspended in the rumen of steers fed low quality native grass hay.
## Materials and Methods
Three steers (1560 lb) fitted with large ruminal cannulae were allowed free access to coarsely chopped (l-inch screen) low quality native grass hay (4.9 percent crude protein, 48.7 percent ADF, 8.7 percent lignin). Each steer received either .18, 7.1 or 1.5 pounds of supplement each morning at 8 AM (Table 1). Supplements were formulated to provide O (Control), .25 (Low) or .63 (High) pounds of crude protein per day. Treatments (supplements) were applied in a 3 X 3 Latin square, with each period being seven days in length. Steers were adapted to their diets on days 1 through 4 and hay intakes and samples collected on days 5 through 7.
Nylon bags (2 X 4 inches) containing one gram of ground (20 mesh screen, Wiley mill) low quality native grass hay were suspended in the rumen to evaluate forage digestion. Duplicate bags were inserted for 6, 12, 18, 24, and 48-hour incubations. Bags were removed, washed, dried
| | Supplement Level |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Control | Low High |
| Soybean meal (lb/d) a 0 .53 1.33 Mineral mix (lb/d) b .18 .18 Crude protein intake (lb/d) 0 .25 .18 | High |
| a 47.6 % crude protein. 3 Mineral mix; 43.0 % dicalcium phosphate, 17.6 % potassium chloride, 27.7 % trace mineralized salt, ll.l % sodium sulfate, 14,000 IU | a 47.6 % crude protein. b Mineral mix; 43.0 % dicalcium phosphate, 17.6 % potassium chloride, 27.7 % trace mineralized salt, ll.l % sodium sulfate, 14,000 IU |
and forage disappearance determined by difference. Bag contents were analyzed for acid detergent fiber (ADF) to evaluate fiber disappearance. Rumen samples were collected whenever nylon bags were inserted. Ruminal pH was measured after which samples were acidified, composited over time and frozen for later ammonia analysis.
## Results and Discussion
Forage intake increased for steers receiving .63 lb of protein per day (Table 2). Feeding the Low (.25 lb) protein supplement, however, did not change (P>.05.) forage intake. These observations on forage intake may be suspect because of the small number of experimental animals involved in this study. The trend for increased forage intake with supplemental protein is typical of low quality forage diets. Ruminal pH decreased with increased supplemental protein indicating enhanced fermentation (Table 2). Ruminal ammonia concentration was increased to 7.5 mg/dl when .63 lb of protein was fed. Feeding .25 lb of protein did not increase ruminal ammonia suggesting that inadequate ammonia may have limited microbial activity on the Control and Low supplements.
Supplemental protein increased (P,.0001) the disappearance of ground hay dry matter from nylon bags (Figure 1). By 48 hours, only 18.9 percent of the ground hay dry matter had disappeared in the steers receiving no supplemental protein compared to 35.7 percent and 44.2 percent for the Low (.25 lb) and High (.63 lb) protein levels. In
Table 2. Effect of supplemental protein on forage intake and ruminal parameters.
| | Supplement Level | Supplement Level | Supplement Level | Supplement Level |
|-------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|
| | Control | Low | High | SEM |
| Forage intake (lb DM/d) | 16.6 | 16.4 | 21.2 | 3.1 |
| Ruminal parameters: pH | 6.8 | 6.5 | 6.4 | -- |
| Ammonia-N (mg/d1) | 2.3a | 1.8a | 7.5b | -.6 |
| | | | | |
addition, dry matter disappearance was greater (P
This study suggests that even a small amount of supplemental protein (.25 lb/day) can substantially increase forage digestion. Additional protein (.63 lb/day) appears to be necessary to raise ruminal ammonia concentrations above 5 mg/dl, the amount usually considered necessary for maximum fermentation of feedstuffs in the rumen. Total crude protein intake for the High protein steers was about 1.7 pounds per day (supplement plus hay) which is above the maintenance protein requirement listed by the National Research Council (N.R.C.). Protein digestibility of the grass hay used in this study, however, was probably low. Whether additional protein above these amounts would further stimulate rumen fermentation is unknown. | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/nassauco/2021/10/09/invasion-of-the-landscape-snatchers-wild-taro-colocasia-esculenta/ | Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers: Wild Taro (Colocasia esculenta) | University of Florida | [
"Taylor Clem, PhD"
] | 2021-10-09 | [
"Clubs & Volunteers",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"Invasive Species",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Established",
"FFL",
"Florida Friendly",
"Florida-Friendly Landscapes",
"Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers",
"Invasive",
"invasive plants",
"Nassau County",
"Wild Taro"
] | FL | ## Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers: Wild Taro (Colocasia esculenta)
Wild Taro ( Colocasia esculenta )
Unlike other invasive plants introduced for their ornamental quality, Wild Taro appeared as a potential crop substitute.The U.S. Department of Agriculture introduced it in hopes to develop a substitute for potatoes, which is a major agricultural crop of Florida. Since its introduction, Wild Taro quickly spread throughout wet areas around the state. You can easily see clusters of it in ditches, along creeks, and along roadways. It can easily be identified by its large, heart-shaped leaf. Although different plants, Taro is often confused with Elephant Ear. Taro is much smaller than Elephant Ear and its petiole attaches to the leaf differently.
Wild Taro grows in large clumps and resembles Elephant Ear. Taro quickly displaces aquatic habitats. Therefore, it should be controlled as quickly as possible.
## Preventative
Preventative controls of Wild Taro are similar to other invasive plants. To limit the spread, avoid transplanting, selling, buying, or trading this plant.
## Cultural/Physical/Mechanical
Removal of Wild Taro's corn is essential to its control. Physically removing the corn from the soil is possible, but handlers need to be cautious. This invasive produces oxalic acid, which can cause skin irritation. Landscape alternatives include Pickerel Weed (Pontederia cordata), Arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.), or gingers (Zingiber spp.).
## Biological
There are no known biological controls.
## Chemical
Foliar chemical applications are effective but may require multiple applications. Nonetheless, it is important to note that Wild Taro grows in wet landscapes, therefore, herbicides listed for aquatic sites are required.
## Conclusions
The showy, yet highly invasive plant spreads aggressively across the landscape. Therefore, if you or someone you know is having issues managing this invasive or any other invasive plants within your landscapes, reach out to your county extension office for more information. The invasion of the landscape snatchers has begun, but we can stop it!
## More Information:
## Blog Series
Like what you are reading?Therefore, check out all the published blogs in this series. https://blogs.ifas.ufjf.edu/nassaucose/tag/invasionof-the-landscape-snatchers/.
Or quickly jump to the individual blogs in the series:
Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers
Lantana ( Lantana camara )
Tuberous Sword Fern ( Nephrolepis cordifolia)
Coral Ardisia ( Ardisia cremata )
Wild Taro ( Colocasia esculenta )
Mexican Petunia ( Ruellia simplex )
Mother of Millions ( Kalanachoe x houghtonii )
Mimosa Silk Tree ( Albizia julibrissin )
Nandina ( Nandina domestica )
## Social Media Pages:
- · Nassau County Extension Facebook:
- · Nassau County 4-H
## Other Media Pages
- · Blog Page
- · Nassau County Extension Page
- · IFAS Assessment
- · Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
- · Contact Information
O
by Taylor Clem, PhD
Posted: October 9, 2021
Category: Clubs & Volunteers, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Home
Landscapes, Horticulture, Invasive Species, Natural Resources, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
Tags: Established, FEL, Elorida-Friendly, Florida-Friendly
Landscapes, Invasion Of The Landscape Snatchers, Invasive,
Invasive Plants, Nassau County, Wild Taro
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · 4-H'er Of The Month: Kaitlyn Malott
- · A Demonstration Living Shoreline For Northeast Florida
- · 4-H Youth Emergency Team Graduates 5th Cadre
- · 4-H/ FPL Public Speaking Contest |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/cow-calf-corner-the-newsletter-archives/2022/july-18-2022.html | Cow-Calf Corner | July 18, 2022 - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-07-18 | [] | OK | ## COW-CALF CORNER | JULY 18, 2022
## Mid-Year Cattle Cycle Update
Derrell S. Peel, Oklahoma State University Extension Livestock Marketing Specialist
On July 22, USDA-NASS will release the July Cattle report with national estimates of cattle inventories by category along with the first estimate of the 2022 calf crop. With widespread drought conditions continuing in 2022, the focus will certainly be on the female side of the industry in terms of how much beef cow herd liquidation has occurred and how much more is ahead. What we know now is how much female slaughter has already occurred. Beef cow slaughter was up 14.6 percent year over year in the first half of the year. This follows a nine percent increase in beef cow slaughter last year. The beef cow herd inventory is likely to be down by 2.5-3.0 percent in the mid-year inventory. This would be a July 1 beef cow inventory that is the smallest since 2015 or earlier.
Fed cattle slaughter was up 0.6 percent year over year in the first half of the year. However, fed steer slaughter was down 1.4 percent while fed heifer slaughter was up 3.8 percent year over year. Heifer slaughter in the first half of the year was 52.1 percent of the January 1 inventory of other heifers. That is the highest rate of heifer slaughter in the first half of the year since 2004 and has averaged 48.3 percent in the past fifteen years. Reduced beef heifer retention may lead to a decrease in the beef replacement heifer inventory of 2.5 percent or more.
The 2022 calf crop is expected to be smaller by roughly two percent. Lower inventories of steers, other heifers and calves, combined with a cattle on feed inventory about equal to last year, is expected to lead to a roughly three percent decrease year over year in estimated feeder supplies outside of feedlots. The total July 1 inventory of all cattle and calves is expected to be down by 2.0-2.5 percent year over year.
The beef cattle industry is liquidating farther and faster this year. Augmented by continuing drought and high input prices, accelerated cow and heifer slaughter so far is boosting beef production in the short term but leading to a smaller than planned industry going forward. At some point, drought conditions will likely ease and producers will be interested in herd rebuilding. The timing will be important, and it may take some time. Cow culling can drop rather quickly if conditions improve but the availability of replacement heifers, especially bred heifers, may take a year or more. Heifer liquidation this year may mean that a limited supply of bred heifers is available next year. If drought conditions improve this summer/fall, it may be possible to save some additional replacement heifer calves, but most will not calve until 2024. Even if we can and want to, the ability to rebuild the beef cow herd may be limited in 2023. Hopefully, the upcoming report will provide some indication of what lies ahead.
## Benefits of Early Weaning Beef Calves
Mark Z. Johnson, Oklahoma State University Extension Beef Cattle Breeding Specialist
Long-term drought, May moisture, extreme heat and prevailing southern winds for the past several weeks have resulted in a flash drought. Many Oklahoma cow-calf operations are facing the reality of a depleted forage base right now. One potential solution is early weaning calves. Early weaning calves has the primary benefit of improving cow condition for rebreeding,
especially when forage is limited. When the nutritional demands of lactation are removed by early weaning there is significant reduction (15 - 20%) in the dietary energy needed by cows. Early weaning can initiate postpartum estrus, improve pregnancy rates, lower culling rates and result in higher weaning weights and cow productivity in following
years. Early weaning is most beneficial in years when pasture production is inadequate to support herd nutritional requirements. From the standpoint of range management, it reduces the risk of overgrazing and accordingly adds to the long-term health of the grazing system.
The average age of beef calves weaned in the United States is a little over 7 months of age. Calves can be weaned as early as 60 days of age. However this requires intensive calf management and is not practical under most ranch conditions. At two months of age calves are still functionally pre-ruminants relying primarily on milk and consuming a small amount of forage. By 3 - 4 months of age the rumen becomes functional and calves are capable of consuming significant amounts of forage.
## Best Management Practices for Early Weaning
The first two weeks post weaning are a critical time for calves to overcome weaning stress, maintain health and become nutritionally independent by learning to consume feed. Managing according the following:
- · Lower the risk of health problems and promote calf growth by giving proper vaccinations prior to weaning. Castrate and dehorn calves when giving pre-weaning vaccinations. This will permit calves to deal with the stress of these management practices while still nursing.
- · Manage to get calves accustomed to a feed bunk and water trough as quickly as possible. Creep feeding calves for a few weeks prior to weaning will ease the transition and get calves accustomed to concentrate feed. Maintain access to good quality, clean water at all times.
- · Fence line wean if possible. This eliminates stress by permitting calves to remain in the same pasture where they are familiar with feed, water, shade, etc.
Dr. Glenn Selk discusses (https://www.youtube.com/watch? the benefits of early v=EKO\_vxbM\_8A) weaning calves during a drought in a classic CowCalf Corner from April 28, 2018 on SunUp TV.
## Plan Now to Make It Through the Winter: Part
Paul Beck, Oklahoma State University Extension Beef Nutrition Specialist
It has been hot and dry this summer. The maps from Mesonet(http://www.mesonet.org/index.php/weather/local).
below show that in the last 30 days much of Oklahoma has had less than 10% of our normal rainfall and over 2 consecutive weeks of maximum temperatures in excess of 90°. Worries about drought and how we are going to make it through the winter with limited or no stored forage has monopolized most of our thoughts, energy, and time. There are some critical steps that need to be made in order for us to make it.
Our first priority is to reduce the stocking rate on the ranch to a level that can be sustained through the rest of the summer and into the fall.
- 1. If you are one of the operations that keeps or purchases stocker calves to utilize extra grass, this may be the time to sell calves early or send calves to a grow yard feedlot. Using stocker calves as part of the "normal" stocking rate of the ranch allows for producers to be flexible for drought and other adverse weather events. Many operations use 30 to 50% of their summer forage for stockers in normal years, when forage production is limited these calves can
be
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nutrient requirements. Cows that are expected to calve in the fall will require more nutrients to keep them in proper condition, and a higher level of nutrition equates to higher cost of winter feeding.
The number of cows remaining may be the actual sustainable longterm carrying capacity for your operation.
You will be surprised how much forage growth you will have if you allow pastures to rest. Once you have the farm subdivided you can utilize these pastures in a rotational grazing system in the future and may have the additional benefit of increased pasture health and improved harvest efficiency. Keep cows on a smaller area of your farm while you are feeding hay, this sacrifice paddock will allow much of the ranch a rest and concentrate the nutrients from hay feeding.
These steps may not be palatable, because we may have to change the way we do things, it may take more work than what we want to put in, or it may cost more than we want to spend. Our overarching goal should be to have an intact cattle operation when we get through this dry spell.
A Rancher's Thursday (https://www.youtube.com/watch? Lunchtime Webinar v=1cjLc8jpn2A) recently covered forage management and feeding alternatives for getting through a drought. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/articles/2022/fall_gardening.html | Extreme heat and drought impact fall garden plans - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-08-12 | [] | OK | Oklahoma State University Extension offers tips to help ensure successful fall gardening despite heat and drought. (Photo by Todd Johnson, OSU Agricultural Communications Services)
## Extreme heat and drought impact fall garden plans
Friday, August 12, 2022
Media Contact: Trisha Gedon | Sr. Communications Specialist | 405-744-3625 | trisha.gedon@okstate.edu(mailto:trisha.gedon@okstate.edu)
## Share
With extreme heat and little rain still on the horizon for Oklahoma gardeners may need to alter their fall garden(https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/fall-gardening.html) plans.
"There's nothing better than fresh produce throughout most of the year, but the lack of rainfall coupled with excessive heat may put a damper on successful fall gardening." said David Hillock(https://experts.okstate.edu/david.hillock),
Oklahoma State University Extension(https://extension.okstate.edu/) consumer horticulturist. "Typically, some of the best quality garden vegetables in Oklahoma are produced and harvested during the fall season when the warm days are followed by cool, humid nights."
In ideal conditions, Hillock said plant soil metabolism is low; therefore, more of the food manufactured by vegetable plants becomes high-quality produce. Unfortunately, the current climate across much of the state involves high soil temperature, high light intensity and rapid drying of soil.
"This can be a problem for gardeners because achieving a full stand of plants in these extreme weather conditions may require special treatment," he said. "Gardeners may have to employ strategies such as shade row covers when seeding, along with supplemental watering to reduce soil temperature to aid in seed germination."
Vegetable seeds are also vulnerable to the hot soil surface exposed to the summer sun.
"In order for viable seeds to germinate or sprout, they must have the proper temperature, adequate moisture and sufficient oxygen," Hillock said.
Shade row covers can be made from burlap and a few stakes, said
Laura Payne(https://extension.okstate.edu/county/payne/profiles/laura-payne.html), horticulture specialist in the OSU Extension
Payne County(https://experts.okstate.edu/david.hillock) office.
'The burlap still allows light through but diffuses the heat on the tender plants,' Payne said. 'Gardeners can also use screen wire strips or boards to cover the rows, which will moderate both soil temperature and soil moisture. Remove the covers after the seedlings emerge.'
Another option to help stave off the heat is creating deeper furrows in which to plant. This allows the seed to germinate in cooler soil. Even then, gardeners will need to supplement with extra irrigation to ensure the soil remains moist at seed depth.
Season extension methods, such as
high tunnels or hoop houses(https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/high-tunnels.html), will help, especially if planting is delayed a few weeks to avoid excessive heat.
While daylight hours are still very warm this time of the year, nighttime temperatures are slightly cooling off, allowing plants to recover in the evening. Payne said the cooler evening temperatures will help with the establishment of a fall garden, but once seeds are sown, irrigate adequately. A garden's soil dries out quickly during the day.
Gardeners who use transplants should condition them by reducing the amount of water supplied and exposure to full sunlight. Hillock said this process can take three to five days.
'When you're ready to plant the transplants, do so in the late afternoon or early evening when it's cooler to help reduce transplant shock,' he said. "Water the plants as they are set. A water-soluble fertilizer can be used if necessary.'
Typical fall vegetables to plant include broccoli, leeks, onions, peas, radish, kale, cabbage, collards, kohlrabi and cauliflower.
## Casey Hentges(https://experts.okstate.edu/casey.hentges), host of
Oklahoma (https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/oklahomaGardening gardening gardening/index.html)
, has more tips for planting a fall garden(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PLTOHuhPjbM).
Additional
gardening (https://extension.okstate.edu/topics/plants-and-animals/gardening-and- information lawn-care/index.html)
is available from OSU Extension.
## Share
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html? tags=Department%20of%20Horticulture%20and%20Landscape%20Architecture) Food Land and Natural Resources (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html? tags=Food%20Land%20and%20Natural%20Resources)
OSU Agriculture (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=OSU%20Agriculture)
OSU Extension (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=OSU%20Extension)
Oklahoma Gardening (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Oklahoma%20Gardening)
drought (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=drought)
environment (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=environment)
gardening (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=gardening)
horticulture (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=horticulture) |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/fire-ecology/fire-effects-research-and-demonstration-sites/fire-frequency-in-post-oak-oak-blackjack-oak-forest.html | Fire Frequency in Post Oak Oak-Blackjack Oak Forest - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-11-07 | [] | OK | ## FIRE FREQUENCY IN POST OAK OAK- BLACKJACK OAK FOREST
The research for this project is conducted at the Tallgrass (https://www.nature.org/en-us/get Prairie involved/how-to-help/places-wePreserve protect/tallgrass-prairie-preserve/) in Osage County.
Location: Osage County, 8 miles north of Pawhuska, OK Land Owner: The Nature Conservancy Date Initiated: 1993 Plots: 3-20 acres, 50 acres, 70 acres Treatments:
- · Control - no burn
- Spring burn every 3 years
- Summer burn every 3 years |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/irrec/2022/08/12/an-interview-with-ph-d-student-akshara-athelly/ | An interview with Ph.D. student Akshara Athelly | University of Florida | [
"Robin Koestoyo"
] | 2022-08-12 | [
"Agriculture",
"Farm Management",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research"
] | FL | Home » UF/IFAS Indian River Research And Education Center » An Interview With Ph.D. Student Akshara Athelly
## An interview with Ph.D. student Akshara Athelly
Following is an interview with Akshara Athelly, a Ph.D. student pursuing a doctorate in Agricultural Engineering. Akshara is a graduate assistant in Dr. Sandra Guzmán's SMART Irrigation and Hydrology Laboratory, working in irrigation management and stakeholder engagement in the laboratory and the field. In this interview, Akshara shares her experience as a graduate student at the University of Florida/IFAS-Indian River Research and Education Center (IRREC) in Fort Pierce and how the opportunity will serve her career interests.
realized there was a lack of personnel with expertise in plants, soils, and sensors. It would be helpful to have that knowledge and skills to work in the real-world rapidly fluctuating farmers' problems, especially with irrigation. While searching for the Ph.D. position, I came across Dr. Guzmán's advertisement, and the position fit my career and personal goals. My interest in plants, soil, sensors, and helping farmers led me to pursue my Ph.D. in Agricultural Engineering under Dr. Sandra Guzmán's stewardship.
Question : How was it that you first became interested in agricultural engineering?
Answer : Agricultural Engineering, especially involving irrigation, has been a crucial part of my life since childhood. Growing up, I was inspired by my father, who helped farmers in my village by pioneering in using different methods to use groundwater for irrigation. During my under graduation in Agricultural Sciences at Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad, India, I have learned several aspects of agriculture involving agronomy, entomology, pathology, extension, economics, etc. With a growing interest in acquiring knowledge and skills, I have joined Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, for my master's and graduated in December 2021. Currently, I have joined the Agricultural and Biological Engineering department, working with sweet corn irrigation scheduling using soil moisture sensors in farmer's fields. It feels like my life experiences with irrigation and farmers have come to a full circle.
Question : Please elaborate on the focus of your academic research studies for this summer in Dr. Guzman's SMART Irrigation and Hydrology Laboratory and where you want to take your work:
```
Answer: During my
summer at IRREC, Fort
Pierce, I was working on a
laboratory experiment
involving nitrogen and
salinity impact on the
performance of the soil
moisture sensors. The
sensors currently used for
irrigation scheduling
should be calibrated and
assessed to improve the
accuracy of irrigation
scheduling. This laboratory experiment helps us calibrate and
understand the sensor's data trends with rising salinity and nitrogen
application. Apart from the laboratory experiment, the two months
this summer at IRREC allowed me to conduct a pre-test for the
farmer's survey, which focused on assessing farmers' knowledge
and opinion on smart irrigation technologies. I have met with
farmers and listened to their views on the survey, which helped me
```
reframe my survey to achieve its full potential. Overall, this summer helped me organize my research ideas, conduct preliminary research, and focus clearly on future research.
Question : What are the most pressing issues in agricultural water management concerning crop production?
Answer : Globally, with the effects of climate change on agriculture, irrigation has quickly transformed from a choice to a necessity.
Irrigation determines food security not only in drought-prone or low rainfall regions but also in high rainfall regions such as Florida. I had first-hand experience in India with droughts and their drastic effect on the farming community. So, it is highly crucial for the optimal management of the existing limited freshwater resources to maintain food security worldwide. To solve that intricate problem, precision irrigation is key.
```
19
by Robin Koestoyo
Posted: August 12, 2022
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Category: Agriculture, Farm Management, UF/IFAS Extension,
UF/IFAS Research
```
Category: Agriculture, Farm Management, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Vero Beach Resident And University Of Florida Scientist Wins International And State Awards For Her ...
- The Millennium Block At UF/IFAS Indian River Research And Education Center
- Citrus Growers Join UF Researchers For A Field Day Of Emerging Answers
- UF Graduate Student Named Chateaubriand Fellow To Join Expert Team On Biotrophic Rust Fungal Pathoge... |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FY1322 | Improving Savings, Health, and Happiness by Modifying How the Family Operates the Home | University of Florida | [
"Randall A. Cantrell"
] | 2021-10-13 | [
"Families and Communities"
] | FL | Skip to main content
## Improving Savings, Health, and Happiness by Modifying How the Family Operates the Home
Randall A. Cantrell
## Quick Facts
- · US families spend, on average, just slightly more than an hour per day of their time interacting all together as a unit (Paul, 2018).
- · Statistics show that in the US, 50% of all first-time marriages end in divorce; 67% of second marriages, and 74% of third marriages (Smith, 2021).
## Terms to Help You Get Started
- · Home: The house, the land where it is sited, and the occupants residing therein.
- · Overall Home Performance: How well the house, its land, and its occupants function to maximize resources.
- · Minor Conservation Measures: Largely related to lower-costing mechanical upgrades or behavior and practice(s) modifications.
- · Maintenance: Actions that are executed on a routine basis to prevent repairs from occurring.
- · Family Operations: Routines and behaviors that are practiced at home by the occupants.
## Keywords
Home performance, home-occupant behavior, home maintenance, family operations, home finances
## Introduction: A Lesson in How Overall Home Performance Can Affect a Family
A family recently moved into a home and added a newborn child to it family. The tone was certainly upbeat, but the stress of moving and other little things started to impact the mood. Typically, the father maintains his home in a proactive fashion while also finding time to share life's events with his family. During this period, the home was still being modified, and they were working on repairing all the worn items not detected during the home inspection. In specific, the guest bathroom shower faucet had broken, and the father had postponed repairing it because no guests were expected. When he finally located the part and began repairing it, he became frustrated because the proper tools were not easily accessible due to the house not being completely unpacked yet. Further, he could hear the baby crying, so he knew his wife probably needed assistance.
Words were ultimately exchanged out of frustration -an act which prompted his four-year-old daughter to become upset. She said she heard a friend at pre-school talking about how her parents no longer lived together because they always hollered at each other. His daughter asked if her parents were going to live apart because they raised their voices at one another. All was calmed, and life went fine within the household. But they did not want their children introduced to these types of issues at such young ages, and without warning, it had just occurred.
This anecdote shows how quickly the performance of your home might affect your family's happiness and relationships. This series of EDIS publications will provide you with information about how improving your home's overall performance can help you improve savings, health, and happiness. This publication discusses ways to improve your home's family operations, which are routines and behaviors practiced at home by your family (Cantrell, 2021). Other publications in this series include the following:
- Improving Savings and Health through Minor Conservation Measures in the Home (https://edis.ifas.ufu.edu/fy1320)
- Improving Savings and Health by Maintaining Your Home at a Ready-to-Sell Level (https://edis.ifs.ufu.edu/fy1321)
- Improving Savings, Health, and Happiness by Making Small Modifications to Your Home
Home (https://edis.ifs.ufu.edu/fy1323), for an academic audience)
- Improving Health and Happiness in the Home by Being and Energy Giver Rather than an Energy Taker
(https://edis.ifs.ufu.edu/fy1339)
## How Can Your Family Benefit from Improving Your Overall Home Performance?
The concept of overall home performance has much to do with rethinking how we can be happier, but this is not necessarily synonymous with being comfortable. Finding ways to keep our family members together under the same roof and in a relatively peaceful state is no easy task. Many families may decide to spend extra money on the family rather than paying for unnecessarily excessive costs of maintaining a home. This is understandable because keeping the family together and happy
is a noble goal tom many, worthy of pursuit. If families focus on the various factors comprising their overall home performance, there exists the real possibility of creating financial savings for the family as well as having more discretionary time. However, improving the home performance sometimes takes place in small increments. It often requires extended periods of time before the benefits are truly noticeable.
## Which Family Operations Items Can Improve Your Overall Home Performance?
Respondents from a representative sample in the US were asked to rate multiple items-as identified in the literature-that could improve the overall performance of a home (Cantrell, 2012). The goal was to determine which of 81 items the respondents thought had the greatest likelihood of improving the remaining 50 -60% of their home's overall performance. Within the family operations category, they chose 19 of 27 daily routines.
## Family-Operation Items to Implement in the Short or Long Term
Lists 1 and 2 show the Family Operations (routines and behaviors practiced by the family) that sample participants felt could most likely improve the overall performance of their home (these practices were most reflective of improvements to the family's savings, health, and happiness). Please note all of the items contained in the lists are unranked and not necessarily in any order of priority. The implementation time frames are listed so readers can gauge how soon they can hope to realistically make these types of modifications within their home.
## List 1. Nine Family Operations To Consider Implementing in the Immediate to Short Term
- · Ensure tasks are accomplished around the home on a routine schedule. Staying on top of things can reduce frustration and the need to obligate time that could otherwise be spent with family.
- · Ensure there are well-organized storage areas. Organized storage can reduce frustration, offer time-savings, and be safer because of the reduced need for unpacking and repacking.
- · Ensure there is a designated work area where items can be assembled and repaired. Designated work areas can reduce frustration and the risk of injury and damage to items.
- · Ensure the correct tools are easily accessible in order to accomplish specific tasks. Accessing correct tools for the task can reduce frustration, rework, and injury 1
- · Do not attempt repairs and upgrades without first gaining proper knowledge. Proper training about home improvements can reduce frustration, rework, and injuries.
- · Do not use furniture for more than one purpose (e.g., table as a desk, etc.). Repurposing furniture can be frustrating, time-consuming, disorganizing, unsafe, and damaging to the furniture.
- · Ensure there is a designated office space where files can be accessed readily. Having a defined office space can reduce frustration and save time.
- · If a computer monitor is used in the home, ensure there is a computer area visible from the main rooms in the house (living room, kitchen, etc.). Overseeing the computing/web-browsing area protects the safety of minors and increases family interaction. 2
- · Ensure there is a designated payment book (for Home Owner Association dues/tax escrow accounts/maintenance, etc.) A payment notebook can reduce frustration and late charges while also saving time.
## List 2. Ten Family Operations To Consider Implementing in the Short to Long Term
- · Consider having premade, preordered, or prepurchased dinners. Prepared dinners can allow for more and healthier family meals while also saving time.
- · Consider eating foods that are grown at home (on your property). Eating foods grown on the property can foster a
- sense of well-being while also educating children about agricultural lessons that are no longer taught in many schools.
- · Consider ensuring all communication devices (cell phones, TVs, computers, etc.) are silenced and not allowed at the dinner table. Silencing communication devices and not allowing them at the dinner table can enable focused eating, communication, and digestion.
- · Consider not offering second portions and/or rich desserts at dinner. Not offering second portions or rich desserts at dinner enforces portion control and reduces caloric intake.
- · Consider ensuring everyone walks 15 minutes together or stretches after dinner. Family walking/stretching after
- dinner can foster improved digestion and health.
- · Consider ensuring adults watch at least 15 minutes of commercial-free international news after dinner. International news watching can foster a more informed, less-biased opinion.
- · Consider ensuring all communication devices are surrendered to a "safe" place for the night. Silencing communication devices and putting them out of reach for the night helps to enable full focus on preparing for and receiving uninterrupted rest. 3
## Summary
Mere modifications to the way in which the family operates the home will not necessarily result in instant improvements in overall savings, health, and happiness. However, when combined with other home-performance measures (e.g., minor conservation measures and maintenance practices), the results will become more noticeable over time. The point is not to seek instant results but rather to establish a lifestyle that naturally gravitates toward conserving and optimizing resources.
## References and Resources
Cantrell, R. (2013). Homeflow : An analysis of the home-living situation. Housing and Society , 40(1), 25-50.
Dennis, P. (2002). Lean production simplified : A plain language guide to the world's most powerful production system . New York: Productivity Press.
Mullens, M. (2011). Factory design for modular homebuilding: Equipping the modular producer for success. Winter Park, FL: Constructability Press.
Paul, S. (2018). American families barely spend quality time together. The New York Post . Retrieved October 4, 2021, from https://nypost.com/2018/03/20/american-families-barely-spend-quality-time-together/
Smith, N. (2021). 9 reasons why second (and third) marriages are more prone to divorce. Survive Divorce . Retrieved October 4, 2021, from https://www.survivedivorce.com/second-marriage-divorce
Publication #FCS3311
Release Date: October 14, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fy1322-2012
Critical Issue: Families and Communities
Contacts: Randy Cantrell
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is FC53311, one of a series of the Family, Youth and Community Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date March 2012. Revised June 2015, July 2018, and October 2021. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Randall A. Cantrell, associate professor, Department of Family, Youth, and Community Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
## Family Youth and Community Sciences
## Families
Specialist
## Family Youth and Community Sciences |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/broad-winged-hawk/ | Broad-Winged Hawk | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Deforrest R. Allgood",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Bird Watching"
] | AL | ## Broad-Winged Hawk
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## Cookie Notice
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(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) for-over-information *This is an excerpt from Common Birds of Prey of Alabama, ANR - 1386.
With similar habitat preferences to the red-shouldered hawk, the broad-winged hawk can sometimes be difficult to distinguish, but several characteristics set it apart. First, broad-winged hawks are only present in the United States during the summer, while red -shouldered hawks are present year round. Another distinguishing feature is the dark borders on the trailing side of the broad-winged hawks' wings. Their tails are also shorter than that of the red-shouldered hawk, and the tail typically has only one broad white band as opposed to the several thin white bands on red-shouldered hawks' tails.
Read here to learn more about common birds of prey of Alabama.(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/bird-watching/common-birds-ofprey-of-alabama/)
Download a PDF of Common Birds of Prey of Alabama.ANR - 1386 .(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1386\_BirdsOfPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf)
Common Birds of Prey of Alabama ( https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birdsof-prey-of-alabama/).
Sep 20, 2018
## Cookie Notice
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/azalea-leafminer | Azalea Leafminer | NC State Extension | [
"Steven Frank"
] | null | [
"Azalea Leafminer",
"Shrub Pest",
"Leafminer",
"Ornamental",
"Insect Pest",
"Ornamental Pest"
] | NC | ## Azalea Leafminer
Entomology Insect Notes
## Identification and Damage
Adult azalea leafminers, Caloptilia azaleella (Brants), are small, yellow moths with purplish markings on the wings. Their wingspan is about ½ inch.
The leaf-mining stage is a yellowish caterpillar about ½ inch long. It has three pairs of prolegs found on the abdominal segments three, four and five. The proleg hooks (crocets) are singly arranged in a U-shaped pattern with a series of crocets within the U.
Azalea leafminers only damage azaleas ( Rhododendron spp.) and cause two types of damage. New mines are pale and barely noticeable but as mines age they leave brown blisters on the leaf surfaces. As the larva matures, it emerges from within the leaf tissue and rolls and ties the edge of a leaf around itself for protection. It continues feeding within the leaf damaging the leaf tip. Seriously injured leaves usually turn yellow and drop, thereby causing an unsightly plant. The leafminer larva has less effect on plants grown outdoors in North Carolina, but it may do considerable damage to azalea cuttings or plants in greenhouses.
Figure 2. Larva of the azalea leafminer. This is the stage that burrows within the azalea leaf. Bar = 1 cm.
## Biology
The azalea leafminer is found in most states where azaleas are grown, and azaleas are the only known host for this insect.
Eggs are deposited singly on the undersides of leaves along the midribs, usually one to five per leaf. The young (larvae) hatch in about 4 days, mine into the leaves, and feed inside them. At this stage, the leaves appear to have blisters. If a leaf is held up to the light, the larvae can be seen inside.
When about one-third grown, the larva emerges, moves to the tip of a new leaf and rolls it up for the protection while feeding and growing. When nearly grown, the larva rolls up the margin of the leaf and spins a cocoon inside. The moth emerges from the cocoon, mates and deposits eggs for another generation. Under greenhouse conditions, the larvae may be found at any time during the year. The insect overwinters outdoors as a larva or pupa. Adults appear and females lay eggs about the time plants bloom in the spring.
Attribution: Matt Bertone
## Scouting and Monitoring
Evergreen azaleas will show damage all year. In winter inspect azaleas for leaf blisters and brown leaf tips from the previous year. These plants may be reinfested in the coming year. In late spring watch for the tiny moths on leaves and turn over leaves to look for pale active mines.
## Decision Making
Management is not often necessary for azaleas in landscapes. Some brown leaves are generally tolerable and the damage by leafminers is less frequent and less apparent than that of azalea lacebugs. In greenhouse potted azaleas and cuttings the damage can be more severe (greater proportion of leaves damaged) and less tolerable. In this case management may be necessary as soon as moths or mines are noticed. No standard abundance or damage thresholds exist.
## Intervention
Cultural control : The University of Georgia has identified some azalea varieties resistant to azalea leafminer.
Biological control : There are some natural enemies including parasitoids that help reduce azalea leafminer abundance but no commercial options exist.
Mechanical control : Hand picking or pruning infested leaves is very effective and practical as a homeowner tactic. Be sure to destroy these leaves. This is not practical for large landscapes, nurseries, or greenhouses.
Chemical control : Because the larva protects itself by mining into or rolling the leaf, this insect is not easy to contact with insecticides. Insecticides such as chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, abamectin, azadirachtin, or a pyrethroid can reduce infestations and damage when applied at the first sign (probably April-May) either of the adult moth or foliar injury by the larvae. One or two applications, 1 to 2 weeks apart, may be necessary. Consult the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual for recommendations.
## Other Resources
## North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension center.
## Author
Steven Frank
Professor and Extension Specialist Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: July 29, 2016
Reviewed/Revised: Aug. 29, 2019
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/pearl-river-county-economic-well-being-and-poverty | Pearl River County Economic Well-being and Poverty | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith",
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy"
] | MS | " Publications " Publications " Pearl River County Economic Well-being and Poverty
## Pearl River County Economic Well-being and Poverty
Filed Under: Economic Development, Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3267-56
View as PDF: P3267-56.pdf
Publication File:
- · pearl river poverty presentation profile.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Pearl River County
Print PDF
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Dr.Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
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## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER
P33842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
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P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
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P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
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Talking Retail Trade
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/herbicide-injury-accase-inhibitors | Herbicide Injury – ACCase Inhibitors | NC State Extension | [
"Doug Goodale Prof. Emeritus, Cobleskill College Horticultural Science",
"Joe Neal Professor of Weed Science, Extension Specialist & Department Extension Leader Horticultural Science"
] | null | [
"Herbicide Injury",
"Weed Science",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Herbicide Injury - ACCase Inhibitors
## Herbicide Injury Factsheets
## Problem
Herbicide injury from lipid biosynthesis (Acetyl CoA carboxylase or ACCase) inhibitors including fenoxaprop-P, fluazifon-P and other aryloxyphenoxypropionates (FQPs) or cyclohexanedinones (DIMs) such as clethodim, sehotydim and others.
## Symptoms
- · ACCase inhibitors injure grasses, and only rarely affect certain sensitive broadleaf plants.
- · New growth cessation within a few days of treatment
- · Meristematic cells discolor and disintegrate just above the node
- · Leaves turn yellow, often wilt and then die
- · Leaf sheaths turn mushy and then brown
- · Seedlings lodge and eventually break off at the soil line
- · A few sensitive varieties of dicot plants exhibit variable symptoms, for example:
- · Tip die-back in sensitive varieties of ground cover junipers
- · Leaf burn (potentially from solvents) on certain azalea varieties
- · Red pigment loss in flower petals of sensitive tulip varieties
## Plant Entry and Symptom Expression
Foliar applied and symplastically translocated throughout the plant. There is very little if any soil activity. Lipid biosynthesis inhibition starts with new growth within one week, spreads over entire plant including rhizomes, causing death in about 2 to 3 weeks. Low application rates may reduce flowering and seedhead production.
## Similar Problems
- · Organic arsenic including DSMA and MSMA causing desiccation and death of annual and selected perennial grasses.
- · Quinclorac may produce similar symptoms in grasses, but will also cause synthetic auxin symptoms in dicots, whereas most dicots are unaffected by ACCase inhibitor herbicides
- · S-triazine rapid membrane destruction starting with older tissues.
## Herbicide Mode of Action Category
WSSA - 1
HRAC - A
## Useful Resources
North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
Southern Region Small Fruit Consortium
Southeastern US Vegetable Crop Handbook
Wolfpack Weeds
Weed Management in Nurseries,Landscapes & Christmas Trees Information Portal
Herbicide Handbook, Weed Science Society of America
Applied Weed Science: Including the Ecology and Management of Invasive Plants (3rd Edition), Merrill Ross & Carol Lembi, pages 167, 176, 254-258
## Authors
Doug Goodale
Prof. Emeritus, Cobleskill College Horticultural Science
Joe Neal
Professor of Weed Science, Extension Specialist & Department Extension Leader Horticultural
Science
Publication date: April 29, 2016
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/2001/1-kircher.pdf | 2001 Animal Science Research Report - Management Strategies and Live Weight Gain of Steers on Old World Bluestem | Oklahoma State University | [
"Kari Hart"
] | Error: time data "D:20100108113114-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Management Strategies and Live Weight Gain of Steers on Old World Bluestem
P.D. Kircher, H.T. Purvis II, G.W. Horn, C.J. Ackerman, T.N. Bodine, and D.A. Cox
## Story in Brief
A 2-yr study utilizing at total of 755 crossbred steers (522 ± 55 kg) grazing Plains Old World bluestem were used to determine the effects of various grazing management systems of cattle on animal performance. Treatments were 1) intensive early stocking (IES; stocking density of 1200 lb BW/ac and a 67d grazing season); 2) half intensive early stocking (HIES; 600 lb BW/ac, 67d of grazing); 3) season long (SL; 600 lb BW/ac, 136d of grazing); and 4) season long supplemented (SLS; same stocking density as SL and fed approximately 1 lb/steer/df of a 40% CP supplement perforated for 3x/week feeding from July 20 to Sept. 26). Intensive early stocked steers weighed less than all other treatments at the mid point of the trial. Intensive early stocked steers had lower ADG and individual animal gain than all other treatments. Half intensive early stocking, SL, and SLS steers had similar ADG and individual animal gain. In yr 1, early gain/acre (GA) for IES tended to be lower than SL and SLS but was similar to HIES. Half intensive early stocking GA tended to be similar to SL and SLS. During yr 2 early GA for IES was greater than HIES, SL, and SLS. Steers stocked at the lighter stocking density were similar in their GA for the early grazing period. Season long supplemented steers were heavier and had greater ADG and GA at the end of the trial than the SL steers. Intensive early stocking was an effective management tool for maximizing gain/ha during the early grazing period if growing conditions were adequate to provide adequate forage growth.
Key Words: Intensive Early Stocking, Protein Supplementation, Steers, Old World Bluestem
## Introduction
Old World bluestem has been used quite extensively in reclaiming marginal farmland and controlling erosion in Oklahoma and Texas (Devald et al., 1985; Berg, 1993). Old World bluestem provides a great quantity high quality forage in the early summer, yet it declines in nutritive value and digestibility as the growing season progresses (Dabo et al., 1987; Coleman and Forbes, 1998). Evaluating management systems that utilize Old World bluestem throughout its growing season by matching grazing schemes with forage nutritive value would increase the usefulness of this grass. One method that offers potential for harvesting early season growth of Old World bluestem may be intensive early stocking (Coleman and Forbes, 1998). Intensive early stocking works well for grazing systems because animals harvest forages during their greatest nutritive value while still maintaining adequate gains (Owensby et al., 1995). Late season declines in crude protein of Old World bluestem could be addressed by implementing a late summer protein supplementation program. Late summer supplementation programs supply protein to warm season grasses that typically are deficient in protein (Lusby et al., 1982). Although, the protein content of Old World blues stem does not drop as rapidly as native prairie pastures, the decline does occur and protein supplementation on Old World bluesstem may be effective in producing additional cattle weight gains (Forwood et al., 1988). The objective of our study was to evaluate intensive early stocking and the effect of late season protein supplementation for steers grazing Old World bluestem.
## Materials and Methods
Study Site. The study site was located at the Bluestem Research Range 7 miles southwest of Stillwater, OK. Plains Old World bluestem ( Botrhiochloa ischaemum L . Keng:OWB) was established on the site in 1989. Total precipitation for the months of May, June, July, August, and September was 22.3 inches in 1999 and 16 inches in 2000 as compared with the historical average of 21.7 inches for this site. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at a rate of 92 lb N/ac each year and herbicide (Grazeon P+D$^{®}$, 2,4-D + Pickoram, Dow AgroSciences, Indianapolis, IN) was applied in the spring of 1999. The site consists of 260 acres of OWB that is divided into 12 paddocks that are approximately 21.7 ac in size. A winter grazing study and receiving cattle were used to remove all dormant vegetation and equalize standing crop across pastures.
Cattle and Stocking Rates. Initial weight of the cattle was 522 ± 55 lb pooled across both years. Treatments were 1) intensive early stocking (IES; stocking density of 1200 lb BW/ac and a 67d grazing season), 2) half intensive early stocking (HIES; 600 lb BW/ac, 67d of grazing), 3) season long (SL; 600 lb BW/ac, 136 d of grazing), and 4) season long supplemented (SLs; same stocking density as SL and fed 1 lb/steerd/of a 40% CP supplement prorated for 3x/week feeding from July 21 to Sept. 28 in yr 1 and 1.25 lb/steerd/of a 32% CP supplement prorated for 3x/week feeding from July 19 to Sept. 24 in yr 2). The supplement was made of 80.5% cottonseed meal, 11.5% soybean meal, and 8% wheat middlings. The trial was initiated on May 12 and final weights for IES and HIEs were taken on July 18. The SL and SLS treatments were weighed on July 19 to determine performance on the first half of the trial and on September 26 to determine off trial weights. At initial processing, steers received Dectomax$^{®}$ at 1.5-ml/100 lb of BW, a Synovex-S implant, and an individual treatment tag. All treatments had ad-libitum access to water and white salt throughout the trial. All cattle weights during the grazing phase were attained after a 12-to16 hr overnight shrink in an attempt to equalize fill across treatments.
Forage Analysis. Diet samples were collected on May 28, July 29, and September 28 and 30 in yr 1 and on June 13 and 14 and August 17 and 18 in yr 2. In yr 1, diet quality samples were taken by hand plucking and yr 2 samples were taken by ruminally cannulated animals. Forage mass was determined by clipping six .1 m 2 quadrats per pasture at the initiation, middle, and termination of the trial during both years. Forage samples were analyzed for DM, ash, IVOMD, CP, and degradable intake protein.
Statistical Analysis. Steers were weighed and allotted in a randomized complete block design to one of four treatments with three replicates per treatment and repeated over 2 yr. All data were analyzed in PROC MIXED of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC). Model included treatment, year, and treatment x y interactions. Pasture was the experimental unit on grass and data were pooled across year if no significant (P
## Results and Discussion
Grazing Performance. No significant treatment x year interactions (P=.07; Table 1)) were observed for early ADG and individual animal gain (GAIN) and thus data were pooled and
reported across year. Intensive early stocked steers had lower ADG (P
| | Treatments a | Treatments a | Treatments a | Treatments a | |
|-------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|---------|
| IES | HIES | SL | SLS | SE | |
| Weight, lb | Initial | 528 | 515 | 519 | 525 |
| Mid | 602 f | 642 g | 648 g | 660 g | 6.62 |
| Final | Early b | 73.8 f | 126.4 g | 129.4 g | 135.7 g |
| Late c | Total d | 211.5 f | 234.9 g | 5.59 | 234.9 g |
| ADG, lb/d | Early b | 1.12 | 1.92 g | 1.96 g | 2.06 g |
| Late c | Total d | 1.56 f | 1.74 g | .05 | 1.56 f |
| Gain/ac, lb | Early b | 1999 | 102.7 g | 118.3 g | 134.6 g |
| 2000 | 230.3 f | 179.7 g | 166.5 g | 168.9 g | 11.31 |
| Late c | Total d | 245.6 g | 116.0 g | 4.23 | 245.6 g |
Gain Per Acre (GA). A significant treatment x year interaction (P
The treatment x yr interaction resulted from drastic differences in weather encountered over the 2 yr of the trial. In yr 1, growing conditions in the late spring and early summer were cool and wet, which limited the growth of OWB and subsequently were limiting to cattle growth. In yr 2, growing conditions allowed adequate forage production and consequently more acceptable animal performance. Precipitation totals for May, June, and July of yr 1 were 1.1 in more than in yr 2 for the same months, yet timing of rainfall events varied drastically. May, for both years received 4.0 in of rainfall, yet June of 1999 had 4.9 in more than June of 2000. July precipitation patterns were reversed from June with 3.9 in less falling in 1999 than in 2000. Temperatures also varied between year and resulted in the last d of May 1999 having 8.5 and 2.9 °F cooler ambient and sod temperatures, respectively, than May of 2000. Thus cooler May temperatures and the timing of precipitation events in June lead to poorer growing conditions for OWB in 1999, ultimately limiting forage production and, when coupled with heavy stocking rates, restricted cattle performance.
Poor performance of the IES system in yr 1 resulted from inadequate grass growing conditions, which compromised cattle performance, but yr 2 resulted in IES generating 84% of the weight gain of the SL treatment in 67 d of grazing. Late GA was greater for SLS steers with 20.9 lb/ac more than for SL grazed steers (P
Steers grazing OWB during the late summer in yr 1 gained an additional 17.8 lb and converted at 3.5 lb supplement DM/L lb of additional gain and in yr 2 steers gained an additional 16.2 lb and converted at 4.9 lb supplement DM/L lb of additional gain. The differences in year and CP of the supplement could explain part of the supplement conversion differences between the 2 yr. However, steer performance was not dramatically different between yr and response to protein supplementation was still less than typically seen on native forages. Growth pattern and maturation of native prairie vs OWB may prove to be a large portion of the differences seen in cattle performance. In the current study forage CP never fell below 10% in the late season for both years. Therefore, Old World bluestem does not decline in CP and digestibility as early in the growing season as native species. Our trial followed the same feeding schedule as a native prairie supplementation program, yet cattle on OWB may not have been deficient in protein until later in the summer. Therefore starting protein supplementation in mid-July may prove to be too early to achieve economical and efficient weight gain from cattle grazing OWB. Delaying the start date of supplementation would reduce the amount of supplement fed to cattle and possibly improve supplement conversions making supplementation more economically feasible for
OWB. Additional weight can be generated on OWB from supplementation yet not to the same extent as a native prairie supplementation programs.
## Implications
Intensive early stocking was an effective management tool for maximizing gain/ha during the early grazing period if growing conditions were adequate to provide adequate growth. Late summer supplementation produces additional weight gain on OWB yet not to the same extent as a native prairie supplementation program. Stocker cattle are an effective tool for harvesting Old World bluestem and offer various management options for utilizing this warm season grass.
## Literature Cited
Berg, W.A. 1993. J. Range Manage. 46:421.
Coleman, S.W. and T.D.A. Forbes. 1998. J. Range Manage. 51:319.
Dabo, S.M. et al. 1987. J. Range Manage. 40:10.
Dewald, C.A. et al. 1985. J. Soil and Water Conserv. 40:277.
Forwood, J.R. et al. 1988. Agron. J. 80:135.
Lusby, K.S. et al. 1982. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. MP-112:36.
Owensby, C.E. et al. 1995. J. Range Manage. 48:246.
## Acknowledgements
The authors thank all persons that helped with cattle and forage data collection, especially David Cox for his excellent work and energy as herdsman.
Copyright 2001 Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/soil-acidity-and-liming-basic-information-for-farmers-and-gardeners | Soil Acidity and Liming: Basic Information for Farmers and Gardeners | North Carolina Cooperative Extension | [
"Luke Gatiboni",
"David Hardy"
] | null | [
"Liming",
"Soil Management",
"Soil Testing",
"Soil Nutrient",
"Soil Ph",
"Soil Acidity",
"Lime",
"Soil",
"Soil Health",
"Acidification",
"Acid"
] | NC | Soil Acidity and Liming: Basic Information for Farmers and Gardeners
## SoilFacts
## Situation in North Carolina
Nearly all North Carolina soils are naturally acidic and need lime, which neutralizes the acidity, for optimum growth of crops, forages, turf, trees, and many ornamentals. Even though most of these soils have been limed in the past, periodic additions of lime based on soil tests are still needed. Soiltest summaries and field records compiled by the North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (NCCDA&CS) emphasize that poor management of soil pH accounts for a high percentage of the "crop problems" in North Carolina.
## Nature and Cause of Soil Acidity
"Soil acidity is the term used to express the quantity of hydrogen (H) and aluminum (Al) cations (positively charged ions) in soils. When levels of hydrogen or aluminum become to high-and the soil becomes too acid-the soil's negatively charged cation exchange capacity (ECC) becomes "clogged" with the positively charged hydrogen and aluminum, and the nutrients needed for plant growth are pushed out. This is why root growth and plant development suffer when soils become too acid.
Over time, soils also become acidic because calcium and magnesium leach out, because hydrogen is added to soils by decomposition of plant residues and organic matter, or because nitrification of ammonium occurs when fertilizer (JAN solutions, urea, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, anhydrous ammonia), manure, or plant residues are added to the soil. Lime will neutralize this acidity by dissolving, whereupon it releases a base into the soil solution that reacts with the acidic components, hydrogen and aluminum.
Soil pH is an indicator of "soil acidity" (Figure 1). A pH of 7.0 is defined as neutral. Values below 7.0 are acidic, and values above 7.0 are basic or alkaline. Small changes in numbers indicate large changes in soil acidity. A soil with a pH of 5 is 10 times more acidic than a soil with a pH of 6 and 100 times more acidic than a soil with a pH of 7. Most plants can grow in slightly acidic soils, so the goal of liming is not to raise the pH to neutral (7.0), but to avoid crop problems related to excessive acidity.
## Benefits of Proper Lime Use
Proper liming provides a number of benefits :
- Plants develop healthier roots because they are exposed to less potentially toxic aluminum. Better root growth may enhance drought tolerance .
- Lime is a source of calcium (as well as magnesium, if dolomitic limestone is applied).
- Nutrient solubility is improved by a higher pH, so plants have a better nutrient supply. (The optimum pH for most crops is 5.8 to 6.2 when grown on mineral soils in North Carolina.)
- Increased soil CEC occurs, as well as reduced leaching of basic cations, particularly potassium.
- Nodulation of legumes is enhanced, which improves nitrogen fixation.
- Triazine herbicides, such as atrazine and simazine, work better.
- Optimal pH allows the breakdown of some herbicides, preventing damage to rotational crops.
- Some nematodes work better.
## Soil Testing and Target pH to Determine Lime Rates
It is important to remember that the optimum pH is not the same for all crops or soils. For example, on most Midwestern US soils most crops grow best at a pH of 6.5 to 7.0, but these values would cause micronutrient deficiencies in parts of North Carolina. Many micronutrients become less soluble as pH increases, reducing their availability to plants; for instance, manganese deficiencies frequently occur following overlimining in many North Carolina soils.
For most commonly grown field crops, mineral (MIN) soils in North Carolina have a target pH of 6.0. The state has substantial acreage of organic (ORG) soils, primarily in the east. Since organic matter ties up aluminum, plant growth is possible at lower pH levels than in mineral soils. For mineralorganic (M-O) soils, the target pH is 5.5; and for organic soils, 5.0. The amount of humic matter (HM) and the soil density (weight/volume ratio, WV) are the criteria used for these three soil class determinations by NCDA&CS.
Another issue to consider is that different soil laboratories may use different testing methods, which they have developed for their particular soil conditions. The NCDA&CS laboratory reports both the soil pH and the "Ac value". The "Ac value" is a measure of the exchangeable acidity, which is the combined total of exchangeable aluminum and hydrogen cations. Both the soil pH and the Ac value
are needed to calculate lime applications. Although portable soil test kits determine pH rapidly, it is not possible to make an accurate lime recommendation based solely on a pH measurement. Producers submitting soil samples to other soil test laboratories should ask questions about laboratory methods and target pH assumptions used in determining lime recommendations.
Plants differ in their ability to tolerate a low pH, with optimum values ranging from 4.5 to 6.5 (Table 1). For example, blueberries, azaleas, and native ornamentals are especially tolerant of, and grow better at, low pH (highly acidic soils). In contrast, alfalfa, cotton, and tomatoes grow better at a higher pH (lower acid solids).
| Plant group | Target pH | Species |
|-----------------|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Field crops | 6 | Corn, millet, small grains, sorghum, soybeans, tobacco |
| | 6.2 | Cotton |
| Vegetables | 6 | Beans, cucurbits, cole crops, potato, spinach, sweet potato |
| | 6.5 | Asparagus, tomato |
| Small fruits | 4.5 | Blueberry |
| | 6 | Blackberry, grape, strawberry |
| Forage grasses | 6 | Fescue, orchardgrass, timothy (maintenance); bahiagrass; bluegrass; sudangrass |
| | 6.5 | Fescue, orchardgrass, timothy (establishment); bermuda |
| Forage legumes | 6 | Crimson and white clover, lespedeza |
| | 6.5 | Alfalfa, ladino, red clover |
| Lawns/gardens | 5 | Aazalea, camelia, mountain laurel, rhododendron |
| | 5.5 | Centipedegrass |
| | 6 | Other lawn grasses, flower garden, shrubbery, shade trees |
| | 6.5 | Rose, vegetable garden |
| Nursery | 5 | Ginseng, native ornamentals, rhododendron |
| | 6 | Most other flowers |
| | 6.5 | Gypsophila |
| Trees/Orchards | 5.5 | Fit and Northern spruce Christmas trees, pine |
| | 6 | Apple (maintenance), pecan, hardwoods |
| | 6.2 | Peach (maintenance) |
| | 6.5 | Apple and peach (establishment), red cedar and blue spruce Christmas trees |
pH of 6.0-6.5 on MIN soils.
The NCDA&CS soil test uses the following equation to calculate the amount of lime that must be added to achieve the target pH for the particular soil class and crop combination.
$$\mathrm { L i m e } \left ( \frac { \tau _ { o n } } { a c r e } \right ) = A C \times [ \left ( \mathbf t a r g e t \, p H - c u r r e n t \, p H \right ) \div ( 6. 6 - c u r r e n t \, p H ) ] - R C$$
(To convert the results to pounds per 1,000 square feet, divide the recommended number of pounds of lime per acre by 43.5.)
The Ac value and target pH have already been discussed. The current pH is the pH of the sample analyzed. "RC" refers to "residual credit" given to applied lime, since some lime applied within the past 12 months may not have fully reacted. The RC value depends on the soil class and how recently lime was applied.
## Example for a Mineral Soil
If current soil pH = 5.0, target pH = 6.0, Ac = 1.2, and RC = 0, since no lime has been applied within the past year, then the recommended lime rate is:
indicate which lime should be used. A magnesium fertilizer could be used instead of dolomitic lime, but the cost of this treatment is almost always considerably higher. Dolomitic limes are slightly more efficient in neutralizing soil acidity and may have CCE values greater than 100, depending on purity.
Because lime dissolves very slowly, it must be finely ground to neutralize soil acidity effectively (Figure 2). Lime fineness is measured by using sieves with different mesh sizes.
Higher mesh size numbers have smaller holes, so they limit passage to finer particles. Note that 40to 50- mesh lime raised the pH to a higher level than 8- to 20-mesh lime did during an 18-month study. Thus the ability to neutralize soil acidity depends on both the purity (CCE) and the particle size of the liming material. The effective neutralizing value (ENV) is a way to quantitatively evaluate limes based on both purity and particle size. It is calculated by multiplying the CCE (expressed as a decimal) by the relative reactivity (based on fineness). (See the section on Adjusting Lime Rate Based on Effective Neutralizing Value for more information.)
## Liming Product Standards for North Carolina
Size standards and other criteria have been established by the state of North Carolina for the sale of agricultural liming materials to ensure a quality product. They are:
- · Agricultural liming materials must be crushed so that at least 90% passes through a US standard 20-mesh screen (with a tolerance of plus or minus 5%).
- · For dolomitic limestone, at least 35% must pass through a US standard 100-mesh screen; for calciclimate limestone, at least 25% must pass through a US standard 100-mesh screen (with a tolerance of plus or minus 5%).
- · A product must contain a minimum of 6% magnesium in the carbonate form to be classified as a dolomitic limestone.
- · There is no minimum calcium carbonate equivalent requirement for limestone sold in North Carolina. However, the product must be labeled to show the amount necessary to equal that provided by a liming material having a 90% calcium carbonate equivalent. For example, a
product having a calcium carbonate equivalent of 80% would be labeled "2,250 pounds of this material equals 1 ton of standard agricultural liming material."
- · Pelleted lime must slake down to the fineness criteria specified above when it comes in contact with moisture.
## Lime Form
The most commonly used liming material in North Carolina is finely ground dolomitic rock, but calcitic lime is also widely used. Additional liming materials include burnt lime or hydrated lime, pelleted lime, liquid lime, wood ash, and industrial slags. North Carolina has few good natural lime sources. Calcic malt liming materials (soft marine shell deposits) are available in the coastal plain, but there are no dolomitic lime deposits in the east. Dolomitic lime is commonly obtained from the mountains of Virginia or Tennessee.
Most agricultural lime is sold in bulk as a damp powder because dry lime is very dusty and difficult to handle and spread. However, lime is occasionally excessively wet. Because lime is sold by the ton, you should be aware you may be purchasing a substantial amount of water. You should adjust lime rates accordingly.
Lime pellets are not large grains of solid limestone; they are formed from lime that has been finely ground. Pellets are less dusty and easier to spread, but they are more expensive than powdered lime. Pelleted lime comes into contact with fewer soil particles than finely ground lime. As a result, soil pH changes are slower with the pellets. Soil reaction will be enhanced if the soil can be tilled several days after the pellets have been mixed into the soil and become soft. Pelleted lime is convenient for landscape use, but is not an economical source for most field crops.
Lime is sometimes sold as a suspension, often called "liquid lime." It consists of fine lime particles mixed with water and a suspending clay. All the lime particles must be 100-mesh or finer. Up to 1,000 pounds of lime can be suspended in a ton of liquid product. The main advantages are ease of handling and precise application. Although it is a fluid, this material does not react any faster than dry lime of the same particle size. All of the lime in a suspension is fast acting, and a ton of product (1,000 pounds of fine lime particles plus clay and water) will raise the pH as fast as a ton of dry lime. However, due to particle size and enhanced initial reactivity, the effectiveness is short lived, compared to regular agricultural limestone, and liming will probably have to be repeated every year. Suspensions may also raise soil pH slightly above the target pH, and they are a considerably more expensive way to correct soil acidity.
Occasionally, industrial byproduct liming materials become available. If the neutralizing value is known and the material is ground finely enough to react in the soil, these can be economical substitutes. Often such materials contain other plant nutrients. Wood ash and steel mill slag are two examples of such products. These products must meet the legal standards above to be sold as liming materials in North Carolina. Even if they do not meet all of the standards, they can be sold as fertilizer and may still be capable of reducing soil acidity and supplying a variety of nutrients. If a product does not meet all the specifications of the lime law, the supplier is barred from making claims about liming effectiveness, and the purchaser must have the material tested. Each lot of such materials should be analyzed, as considerable variation in CCE and fineness may occur. As with conventional lime, the ENV needs to be known in order to determine the appropriate application rate.
## Adjusting Lime Rate Based on Effective Neutralizing Value
All lime rates recommended by the NCDA&CS laboratory are based on a concept of standard agricultural lime with a CCE of 90% (0.9) and a fineness meeting the minimum North Carolina lime law requirements for a dolomitic lime (i.e., 90% passes a 20-mesh screen and 35% passes a 100mesh screen), so ENV=0.61. The actual materials available for application vary widely. Calculating the effective neutralizing value (ENV) of a liming material accounts for the two contributing effects (purity and fineness) that determine expected soil pH increase after application. (For all calculations, use decimals rather than percentage values.)
Have a laboratory screen the liming material with mesh sizes 8 and 60:
$$\mathrm E N V = \mathrm C C E \times ( A \times 0. 5 ) + ( B \times 1 )$$
A = proportion of particles between 8- and 60-mesh size (assume 50% effective)
B = proportion of particles finer than 60-mesh size (assume 100% effective)
Example : A liming material with a CCE of 60% (0.60) was found to have 95% of particles finer than 8-mesh, and 50% finer than 60-mesh.
Using the equation above:
A = 45% (0.45) since 95% (finer than 8-mesh) minus 50% (finer than 60-mesh) equals 45% (between the 8- and 60-mesh sizes).
superior to the spinner type. The main limitations to their use are the high initial cost and more complex operation. Most commercial farmers likely will continue using spinner spreaders, but every attempt should be made to spread lime evenly.
Lime can be applied to yards and gardens by hand or with small manual or garden tractor spreaders. The best way to achieve uniform application at the appropriate rate is to measure the amount needed to cover the entire area, apply half while traveling with swaths oriented in one direction, and apply the other half with swaths oriented perpendicularly.
The most commonly used lime incorporation tool for field crops is the disk. Its main limitation is that it incorporates lime only about half as deeply as the disk blades penetrate. Even with repeated passes, it will not incorporate lime well. Offset disks that throw the soil perform better. The best incorporation implement is a heavy-duty rotary tiller that mixes the soil throughout the root zone.
Bottom plowing immediately after spreading lime will likely bury the lime too deeply. If plowing, the best approach is to apply half the lime, then disk and bottom-plow, then apply the other half, and disk again. However, this process is costly and is not generally used. Certain other tillage practices, such as bedding or middle busting, will help with lime incorporation in the long run. Chisel plowing is very ineffective for lime incorporation. Although lime is applied on the surface to established pastures and lawns, it should be incorporated at establishment to reduce soil acidity.
Lime can be incorporated into lawns and gardens with rotillers, spades, or rakes to a depth of 4 to 8 inches. For established lawns, lime can either be left on the surface or applied prior to aeration.
## Liming and Long-Term No-Till
Long-term no-till cultivation is becoming increasingly popular in North Carolina and obviously limits the ability to incorporate lime into the soil profile. A survey of no-till fields in North Carolina detected slightly higher soil pH at the surface with noilt management, a reflection of surface lime application. Nevertheless, producer experience suggests no inherent problem maintaining optimum soil pH with surface liming in long-term continuous no-till. It is critical, however, to correct soil acidity and other fertility problems, particularly low phosphorus levels, by thorough incorporation of lime and fertilizer prior to the adoption of no-till management. Research in Pennsylvania has documented that low soil pH problems can persist for several years following application of lime to the surface of no-till fields.
## Conclusion
Maintenance of proper soil pH can increase your crop income and improve your lawn and garden performance. However, varying rates of lime are recommended, depending on the best pH for the particular soil class and crop combination. To test your soil's pH and lime requirement, send a soil sample to Agronomic Division, North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services.
## References
Crozier, C.R., and D.H. Hardy. 2003. SoilFacts: Soil Acidity and Liming for Agricultural Soils . AG439-50, North Carolina Cooperative Extension.
Osmond, D.L., C. R. Crozier, and D. H. Hardy. 2002. SoilFacts: Careful Soil Sampling -The Key to Reliable Soil Test Information . AG-439-30, North Carolina Cooperative Extension.
Tucker, M. R., J. K. Messick, and C. C. Carter. 1997. Crop fertilization Based on North Carolina Soil Tests. Raleigh, NC. North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Agronomic Division. Agronomic Division Circular No. 1. 81 p.
## Authors
Luke Gatiboni Extension Soil Fertility Specialist and Associate Professor Crop & Soil Sciences
David Hardy
Agronomic Division North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
Publication date: Dec. 12, 2018
Reviewed/Revised: Oct. 19, 2023
AG-439-51
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/fruits-vegetables-urban/bioengineered-crops-methods-used-to-change-plants/ | Bioengineered Crops: Methods Used to Change Plants | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Rudy Pacumbaba"
] | 2018-07-19 | [
"Fruits and Vegetables",
"Bioengineered Crops",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | ## Bioengineered Crops: Methods Used to Change Plants
Agriculture experts currently use five methods to change or modify plants. Some of these changes are considered bioengineering. Bioengineered crops (BE crops) are crafted by scientists to be resistant to pests, disease, and herbicides or to enhance nutritional value. Farmers grew the first BE crops in the 1990s: papaya, corn, soybean, and cotton.
## Methods Used to Change Plants
## Traditional Breeding
- · Scientists select plants with desired traits. Then, they will cross breed the plants to produce several generations of hybrid offspring. The hybrid offspring will display the desired traits.
- · The federal government does not require testing of hybrid offspring.
- · Traditional breeding is an approved organic method to produce new crop varieties.
- · Traditional breeding affects the largest number of genes; between 10,000 to 300,000 genes.
## Mutagenesis
- · Scientists will encourage random changes in the plant genome by using chemicals or radiation. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/potassium-deficiency-of-carinata | Potassium (K) Deficiency of Carinata | NC State University | [
"Paul Cockson",
"Dr. Carl Crozier",
"Dr. Ramon Leon",
"Dr. Michael Mulvaney",
"Dr. Angela Post",
"Dr. Brian E. Whipker"
] | null | [
"Agronomy",
"Plant Nutrition",
"Crop Management"
] | NC | ## Potassium (K) Deficiency of Carinata
From the Field - Agronomy Notes
## From the Field - Agronomy Notes
In this Brassica carinata (Ethiopian mustard) research update, we highlight the symptoms of potassium deficiency. These images are part of a project by the Southeast Partnership for Advanced Renewables from Carinata (SPARC) to develop a diagnostic series for the identification of nutrient disorders of Carinata. Carinata is an exciting new crop in the Southeast used for a wide variety of primary and secondary agricultural products including cover crops, feedstock, high protein meal, and jet fuel. It is similar in management to canola given both canola and carinata are winter annual Brassica oilseed crops. However, carinata oil is not edible.
## Symptoms
Potassium (K) is one of the three core macronutrients, and consequently, deficiency symptoms will manifest rapidly. Potassium is a mobile element, which means it will translocate from mature tissues to the younger tissue where it is needed. As such, deficiency symptoms will develop first on the lower foliage as the potassium moves from the older, lower foliage to the newer, upper foliage.
In Carinata, potassium deficiency will first manifest as an overall stunting of the plant when compared with a normal, healthy carinata. The next stage of potassium deficiency manifested as two distinct symptomology progressions based on cultivar. These two symptomology progressions both developed in unique ways and will be discussed individually as they progressed.
The least common symptomatic progression manifested on the lower foliage as epidermal cracking of the cuticle especially along the midrib (Figure 1A). This cracking was accompanied with the onset of sunken, tan to slightly discolored green potions that manifested on and around the midrib (Figure 1B).
The other early potassium deficiency progression was more common. This symptomatic progression started as forest green slightly sunken regions of the plant surface (Figure 1C). These regions had a very mild textural rufting.
For the sunken tan spotting symptom track, the next symptomological progression was the increasing of the tan margins along the leaf's surface (Figure 2A). For the forest green regions, the discolored regions also expanded but manifested as yellowing regions rather than tan regions (Figure 2B). As symptoms progressed, the tan regions eventually became necrotic forming regions which could be punched out, leaving a hole. The forest green symptomology continued to yellow and expand especially along the midrib and interveinal regions (Figure 3).
The advanced stages of potassium deficiency manifested as large regions of necrosis for both the tan symptomology track and the forest green track (Figure 4). In addition to these necrotic regions, the new growth of the potassium deficient plant showed severe signs of distortion often resulting in horribly twisted leaves (Figure 5A and Figure 5B). The final stage of deficiency manifests as complete necrosis and abscission of the lower leaves. To ensure proper diagnosis the above material should be used in conjunction with a leaf tissue sample and / or field test.
Figure 5B. In advanced stages of potassium deficiency, the new growth of the plants experienced severe distortions and contortions. These new leaves would distort and fold on themselves sometimes resulting in the leaf turning completely inside out.
Attribution: Forensic Floricultur e, 2018
## Project Support
We would like to thank the following for grant assistance on this project:
## Key Contacts
Key Contact Central East:
Dr. Angela Post, NC State Univ. Department of Crop and Soil Sciences - angela\_post@ncsu.edu
Dr. Carl Crozier, NC State Univ. Department of Crop and Soil Sciences - ccrozier@ncsu.edu
## Key Contact South East:
Dr. Michael Mulvaney, UF/IFAS West Florida Research and Education Center m.mulvaney@ufl.edu
Primary Authors: Paul Cockson, Dr. Carl Crozier, Dr. Ramon Leon, Dr. Michael Mulvaney, Dr. Angela Post, and Dr. Brian E. Whipper
Project Team: NC State Univ. personnel Paul Cockson (NC State B.S. student In Agroecology), Ingram McCall (Research Technician in Horticultural Science at NC State), Dr. Carl Crozier (Professor and Extension Specialist at NC State), Dr. Ramon Leon (Assistant Professor at NC State), Dr. Angela Post (Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist NC State), and Dr. Brian Whiper (Professor of Floriculture and Plant Nutrition in Horticultural Science at NC State). Univ. of Florida personnel Dr. Michael Mulvaney (Cropping Systems Specialist at UF/IFAS West Florida Research and Education Center.
## Authors
Paul Cöckson
Graduate Student Horticulture Science
Carl Crozier
Extension Soil Science Specialist Crop & Soil Sciences
Ramon Leon Gonzalez
Associate Professor, Weed Biology and Ecology Crop & Soil Sciences
Michael Mulvaney UF/IFAS
Angela Post
Extension Specialist, Small Grains Crop & Soil Sciences
Brian Whiper
Professor, Commercial Floriculture Production Horticultural Science
Publication date: Jan. 1, 2021
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/mrec/2020/06/08/water-wednesday-recap-rain-barrel-basics/ | Water Wednesday Recap – Rain Barrel Basics | University of Florida | [
"Yilin"
] | 2020-06-08 | [
"Conservation",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Water",
"rain barrel",
"rain water",
"stormwater",
"Tina McIntyre",
"water conservation",
"Water Wednesday",
"yilin zhuang"
] | FL | ## Water Wednesday Recap Rain Barrel Basics
Last Updated on June 18, 2020 by Yllin
What is rain water harvesting? Have you ever wondered how you can utilize our rain water ? Last Water Wednesday, the FloridaFriendly Landscaping Agent in Seminole County, Tina McIntyre , went through the basics of a rain barrel . To read more Tina McIntyre 's blogs, please visit: https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/seminoleco/author/kmcintyre /
## Florida-Friendly Landscaping
Before we dive into the rain barrel basics, let's review what FloridaFriendly Landscaping is.
The Florida-Friendly
Landscaping (FFL) program is a partnership between the University
of Florida IFAS Extension and the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection. The program is in the Florida law and
focuses on the nine FFL principles. The FFL program is really a water
quality and quantity program that looks to both conserve and protect the water of our state. Lawns can be large users of water and producers of pollutants so that is where education efforts are focused.
The nine principles include:
- · Right plant right place
- · Water efficiently
- · Mulch
- · Fertilize appropriately
- · Recycle yard waste
- · Attract wildlife
## Rain Barrels
We all live in a watershed.
When it rains, that water
runs off into our lakes,
rivers, and streams, or
percolates down into our
aquifer. All the water we
use that comes from the
aquifer, which is a finite amount. We need to take measures to
protect it. One way to do that is to install a rain barrel!
The benefits of a rain barrel include:
- · Reduces need for irrigation from well or municipal source
- · Saves YOU money
- · Rain can be better for the more sensitive plants like orchids
- · Prevents erosion
- · Provides water during droughts
- · Improves local water quality
- · Reduces rain runoff including pollution and flooding
## Rain Water Usage on Edible Plants
When irrigating with a rain barrel some caution should be used when irrigating edibles. Specifically avoid watering edible plants if you have an old tar and gravel roof, old asbestos shingle roofs, treated wood shingles, a copper roof or if you have a zinc anti-gross strip.
Also, pay attention to the type of gutters you have, since some may be coated with lead-based paints.
Many residents with an asphalt shingle roof avoid watering vegetables since complex hydrocarbons may be leached from the roof; however, there is no definitive research to prove the extent of the leaching. If you have an asphalt shingle roof and will be using a rain barrel, make sure to clean the barrel with a 3% bleach solution before collecting water to irrigate a vegetable/herb garden.
A rain barrel used to water plants at the Indigo Green Store in Gainesville, Florida. Gardening, watering plants, sustainable living, UF/IFAS Photo: Tyler Jones.
Household, unscented bleach with a 5-6% chlorine solution can be added at the rate of 1/8 teaspoon (8 drops) of bleach per gallon of water. A typical 55-gallon rain barrel would need approximately one ounce (2 tablespoons) of bleach added on a monthly basis. During periods of frequent rainfall, bimonthly treatment may be necessary. Wait approximately 24 hours after the addition of bleach to allow the chlorine to dissipate before using the water. Note that household bleach is not labeled for use in water treatment by the Food and Drug Administration although it is frequently recommended for emergency disinfection of drinking water (USEPA, 2006). In short, if your roof fits the above qualifications: · Bleach the water · Irrigate at sunrise · Water at the roots · Dump the first flush For more information on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency research, please visit: https://www.sightline.org/2015/O2/18/advance- on-rain-barrel-watering-now-as-a-pamphlet/. Here to watch the Water Wednesday recording:
o
by Yilin
Posted: June 8, 2020
Category: Conservation, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Natural Resources, UF/IFAS Extension, Water
Tags: Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Rain Barrel, Rain Water, Stormwater, Tina McIntyre, Water Conservation, Water Wednesday, Yilin Zhuang
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Sumter County Water School Recap: A Smashing Success
- · Water Wednesday Preview: Stormwater Ponds
- · Weed Of The Week : Artillery Weed
- · Lead In Drinking Water |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/morton-city-retail-sales-profile | Morton City Retail Sales Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
» Publication s » Morton City Retail Sales Profile
## Morton City Retail Sales Profile
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P2944-181
View as PDF: P2944-181.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Scott County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
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Extension Professor
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## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
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Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/08/19/got-mold/ | Got Mold? | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-08-19 | [
"Healthy Housing"
] | GA | ## Got Mold?
Written by
August 19, 2013
Pamela Turner
Rain rain go away, come again another day. Better yet, go west to where the wildfires are burning. We have enough rain here in the southeast! As of August 18, Atlanta had received 46 inches of rain. Compare that to 25 inches at the same time last year. With all that rain comes mold. The most important thing to know is that the key to mold control is moisture control. You can't eliminate all mold in your home, but you can control it. Generally there is no need to do any mold testing.
Below are some tips to help reduce mold problems in your home.
- 1. Keep the indoor humidity below 60% by using the kitchen fan when cooking; turning on the bathroom fan when showering; using the air conditioner; and venting the dryer to the outside.
- 2. Increase ventilation in closets by leaving the closet door open; installing slatted doors; and removing about half of the stuff in the closet.
- 3. Make sure that water does not pool around the foundation of your house. If it does, clean, repair or replace gutters and downspouts. Also, improve the grading of the soil around the foundation of your house to ensure that water flows away.
- 4. If you find mold, use water and a mild detergent to clean it off surfaces. Generally there is no need to disinfect surfaces with bleach.
- 5. Make sure damp or wet materials and furnishings are cleaned and dried within 24 - 48 hours.
Learn more about controlling and preventing mold from the UniversityofGeorgiaExtension and the Environmental Protection Agency.
Posted in: Healthy Housing
Tags: Athens, Atlanta, Cooperative Extension, EPA, IAQ, indoor environment, mildew smell, moisture control, moisture problems, mold, mold cleanup, mold control, mold prevention, mold smell, mold testing, rain, UGA, University of Georgia, ventilation
## 2 responses to "Got Mold?"
Keishon Thomas August 19,2013
Love it!
Reply.
House Mold May 21,2014
This is such a helpful post. I had a little bit of a mold problem in my basement and mud room, I thought I could remove mold myself I follow these guidelines but I still called a mold remediation company afterward. Removing some of the mold myself though did save me a lot of money on the bill.
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1992/92-7.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20081125132714-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## LOW FAT CURED LAMB AND MUTTON PRODUCTS.
L.W. Hand$^{1}$, K.A. Dunlavy$^{2}$, J.W. Lamkey$^{1}$ and G.Q. Fitch$^{1}$
## Story in Brief
The sheep industry has virtually no value added products in the marketplace. With the popularity of lower fat meat products with claims of 5-10% fat, the lamb industry has an untapped market with a potential for growth. The objective of this study is twofold; 1) develop the technology for the curing lamb products and 2) examine the possibility of producing low fat cured products from mutton. Cured meat products were manufactured from the legs of pork, lamb and mutton carcasses and analyzed for processing and sensory differences. Pork had a greater muscle yield, but processing parameters were not different between the three products. There were no differences for all sensory traits except flavor intensity between pork and the other two products. It is feasible to manufacture low fat cured lamb or mutton products using similar manufacturing procedures that are currently available in the pork industry. However, the increased labor cost per pound of product involved due to lower muscle yields of lamb and the initial raw material costs will force this product into a niche or specialty market.
(Key Words: Lamb, Mutton, Cured Meats.)
## Introduction
Low fat cured meat products, primarily pork and turkey, have been the marketing norm in the retail case in recent years. The pork industry has incorporated the attributes of convenience and low fat for consumers in developing the "95% fat free" hams and other products. The sheep industry has very few viable further processed products. The Sheep Industry Development Program (1988) has identified further processed lamb products as one of their top priorities. With the popularity of lower fat meat products with claims of 510% fat, the lamb industry has an untapped market with a potential for growth. Manufacturing cured lamb products that would fit this market is a possibility and one that must be considered. Additional lamb products that are convenient
and low fat should appeal to today's consumer. Previous research in the curing of lamb products has been concerned with curing whole legs (Ziauddin et al., 1974). As the off-flavors commonly associated with lamb or mutton are primarily from the fat components (Pearson et al., 1973), the curing technology of tumbling used in the manufacture of many pork products may be a feasible way in which to eliminate some of these negative attributes. Although the technologies to manufacture these products is not new, they could be applied to lamb and possibly mutton to produce a consumer acceptable product.
Mutton has always been difficult to merchandise because of its strong flavor. Consequently by the price differential between lamb and mutton is quite high. Since most of the strong flavor components are found in the fat portion, the development of a low fat meat product, with most of the fat removed, may be a feasible way to utilize mutton. Therefore, the objective of this study is twofold; 1) develop the technology for the curing lamb products from legs and 2) examine the possibility of producing low fat cured products from mutton.
## Material & Methods
Fresh legs were removed from pork, lamb and mutton carcasses 48-72 hr after slaughter. The legs were then boned, muscles separated and separable fat removed. The muscle yield was calculated as muscle weight divided by the leg weight. Three legs were used for each replication. Three replications of the products were manufactured.
## Manufacturing Procedure
The manufacturing procedure consisted of grinding the separated, defatted muscles using a 3-hole kidney shaped plate using a 2 blade knife (Biro, Marblehead, OH). A 22% by weight curing solution (Water 76.28%, Salt 10.7%, Dextrose 10.7%, Sodium Tripolyphosphate 2.0% Sodium erythorbate 0.25% and Sodium nitrite 0.07%) was added to the meat. This mixture was placed in a tumbler (VMR-35-526, Globus) and tumbled (20 rpm) for 2 hours. After tumbling, the mixture was held overnight (16-18 hours). The products were stuffed into cellulose casing (7R, Viskase, Chicago, IL), clipped and cooked in a smokehouse (Alkar, Lodi, WI) with computer control (DDC, Alkar, Lodi, WI). The products were thermally processed using the same thermal processing schedule presented in Table 1. The products were held in a refrigerated cooler (34-36ºF) for 12 hours and then weights were recorded. The products vacuum packaged (Multivac, KOCH Supplies, Kansas City, MO) in pouches and placed in refrigerated storage (34-36°F) until further analysis.
| Time | Dry Bulb | Wet Bulb | Smoke |
|------------------------------------|--------------------------|------------|---------|
| 30 min. | 540°C | 18°C | No |
| 30 min. | 600°C | 490°C | Yes |
| 60 min. | 71°C | 60°C | Yes |
| 60 min. | 77°C | 66°C | Yes |
| Until internal temperature reaches | | | |
| 67°C | 82°C | 71°C | Yes |
| 1 min. | hot water shower (38°C) | | |
| Until internal temperature reaches | | | |
| 38°C | cold water shower (10°C) | | |
## Product Analyses
The products were analyzed for proximate composition (AOAC, 1984) and pH (Acton et al, 1972). The products were analyzed by a trained taste panel. The taste panel (n=8) was trained using AMSA (1978) procedures and were selected on their repeatability. Training consisted of differentiating between different levels of lamb in a cooked beef pattie, differentiating texture and cured pork flavor in various cured pork products varying in texture from whole muscle to restructured products. The panelists analyzed 6 randomized products per session. The statistical analysis consisted of analysis of variance (Steel and Torrie, 1980) with specie as the main effect and least square means to separate significant differences (P
## Results and Discussion
The muscle yield is presented in Table 2. As expected, the pork legs had a greater yield of muscle from the wholesale cut. This is an obvious economical disadvantage for lamb and mutton in terms of the labor involved in the deboning process. There was no difference (P>0.05) due to raw material in terms of cooked or processing yield. The average yield over all three replications and raw material types was 88.43% (±1.28). The pH values of the products were also not different (P>0.05) with the mean being 6.09 (+0.18). These data indicate that even though their are initial raw material differences that the
| Raw Material | Yielda |
|----------------|---------------|
| Pork | 52.6 (3.71) b |
| Lamb | 46.9 (7.87)c |
| Mutton | 42.2 (6.08) c |
processing properties of the lamb or muton are similar to pork in this application.
The composition of the final cooked products are presented in Table 3. All of the products were less than 10% fat. This achieved the less than 10% fat objective in all products and would enable the products to be so labeled. The pork product was different (P
Table 4 presents the taste panel results for the ham products. There wrc no differences for all traits except flavor intensity between pork and the other two products. The values represented for the lamb and mutton products are considered slightly bland in the flavor intensity scale. Although these are different (P
Table 3. Cooked pork, lamb and mutton leg product composition means and standard deviations.
| Product | Moisture | Fat | Protein |
|-----------|-------------|------------|--------------|
| Pork | 67.4 (2.6)b | 7.3 (1.4)a | 20.5 (0.6)ab |
| Lamb | 70.8 (1.4)a | 3.5 (0.9)b | 21.0 (1.9)a |
| Mutton | 70.8 (2.5)a | 4.6 (0.4)b | 19.3 (1.2)b |
| | | | |
ab Means with the same superscript are not significantly different (P>0.05)
were not different (P
## Summary and Conclusions
It is feasible to manufacture low fat cured lamb or mutton products using similar manufacturing procedures that are currently available in the pork industry. This is supported by the data that showed no differences (P>0.05) in cooked yield and taste panel results. The low fat cured lamb or mutton product is a viable alternative to pork. However, the increased labor cost per pound of product involved due to lower muscle yields of lamb and the initial raw material costs will force this product into a niche or specialty market.
## Literature Cited
AOAC. 1984. "Official Methods of Analysis" 14th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, D.C. Acton, J.C. 1972. Effect of heat processing on extractability of salt soluble protein, tissue binding sugurchi and cooking loss in poultry leaves. J. Food Sci. 37: 244.
American Meat Science Association (AMSA). 1978. "Guidelines for cookery and sensory evaluation of meat. AMSA. Chicago, IL
Bartholomew,D.T.and C.I.Osuala, 1986. Acceptability of flavor, texture, and appearance in mutton processed meat products made by smoking, curing, spicing, adding starter cultures and modifying fat source. J. Food Sci. 51: 1560.
Pearson, A.M. et al. 1973. Observations on the contribution of fat and lean to the aroma of cooked beef and lamb. J. Anim. Sci. 36: 511.
Sheep Industry Development Program, Inc. (SID). 1988. American sheep industry research and education priorities. Sheep Industry Development Program Inc. Denver, CO.
Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, H.J. 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY
Ziauddin, K.S. et al. 1974. Curing of whole carcass of sheep. Mysore. J. Agric. Sci. 8: 429. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/plant-id/plant-profiles/shining-sumac/index.html | Shining Sumac - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2023-07-28 | [] | OK | ## SHINING SUMAC
Common Name: Shining Sumac
Species Name: Rhus copallinum L.
Family Name: Anacardiaceae
Plant Type: Shrubs
| Plant Facts | Plant Facts |
|--------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------|
| Origin | North America |
| Duration | Perennial |
| Distribution in Oklahoma | Throughout except panhandle |
| Sun Preference | Shade Intolerant |
| Susceptibility | May be susceptible to foliar diseases like Fusarium wilt |
## ID Characteristics
| Field Identification Characteristics | + |
|----------------------------------------|-----|
| Leaf and Stem Characteristics | + |
| Floral Characteristics | + |
| Habitat/ Ecology | |
|----------------------------------|----|
| Open sites, along forest-prairie | |
| Borders | |
| Varies | |
| USDA Cold Hardiness | |
| Zone | |
| Successional Stage | | |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/4-h-forestry-competition-handbook | 4-H Forestry Competition Handbook | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
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4-H Forestry Competition Handbook
## 4-H Forestry Competition Handbook
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P1991
View as PDF: P1991.pdf
## Content
General Information
Goals and Objectives
General Rules
Junior Competition
Tree Identification
Tree Measurement
Forest Knowledge
Senior Competition
Tree Identification
Tree Measurement
Forest Knowledge
Forest Insect and Disease Identification
Study References
Appendix
Official 4-H Forestry Tree Identification List
Junior Tree Identification Score Sheet
Senior Tree Identification Score Sheet
Measurement of Standing Trees Study Guide
Junior Tree Measurement Score Sheet
Senior Tree Measurement Score Sheet
Sample Volume Table
Official 4-H Forest Insect and Disease List
## General Information
The Mississippi 4-H Forestry Competition tests forestry knowledge and skills. This competition is held at the district and/or state levels. Some counties have local competitions to select a forestry team to represent the them at the district competition. County competitions are strongly encouraged, because they promote 4-H forestry activity in the county, but they are not required.
The 4-H Forestry Competition is modeled after the National 4-H Forestry Invitational held annually at Jackson's Mill State 4-H Camp in West Virginia. This helps Mississippi 4-H's to be prepared to advance from their county competitions all the way to the National 4-H Forestry Invitational.
The Forestry Competition is conducted at the junior and senior levels, but only seniors may compete at the state and national levels.
The junior competition is conducted only at the district level and includes three events:
- 1. Tree Identification
- 2. Tree Measurement
- 3. Forest Knowledge
The senior competition is held at the district and/or state level and includes four events:
- 1. Tree Identification
- 2. Tree Measurement
- 3. Forest Knowledge
- 4. Forest Insect and Disease Identification
## Goals and Objectives
The purpose of the 4-H Forestry Competition is to provide opportunity for 4-H forestry members to:
- Develop leadership talents, achieve character development, and make new friends.
- Appreciate the need and importance of conserving forests as a source of products, services, values, and benefits necessary for quality living.
- Acquire information and understanding of practical skills in forest management, use of forest products, and appreciation of forest ecology.
- Realize that privately owned forest products provide most of the raw material used by forest products manufacturers in Mississippi.
The competition, while competitive in nature, is intended and managed to provide a well-rounded forestry educational experience. Study references are available from Extension Forestry, unless otherwise noted.
## General Rules
- 1. The forestry competition will have at least three parts: Tree Identification, Tree Measurement, and Forest Knowledge (seniors will also compete in Forest Insect and Disease Identification).
- 2. This competition is a team event. A team will have three or preferably four members. Individuals may compete, but they will not be eligible to advance in district and state competition. Senior teams that place first, second, and third in the district competition, if one is held, will advance to compete in the state competition, with a chance to represent Mississippi at the National 4-H Forestry Invitational.
## Junior Competition
The junior competition is similar, but less demanding, than the senior competition. It is designed to make junior 4-H forestry contestants familiar with the competition, so they will develop into strong competitors at the senior level.
## Tree Identification
- 1. Junior participants are required to identify 20 trees from leaf mounts, photos, or specimens in the field. MSU Extension Publication 146 Know Your Trees contains tree species included in this portion of the contest.
- 2. The contest is conducted indoors like a "lab practical." Participants will be given no more than 1 minute per station to identify each leaf mount. The contest will have a time limit of 30 minutes.
- 3. The correct answer for each tree is the common name shown on the Official 4-H Forestry Tree Identification List (page 5). This list is derived from the common names given in MSU Extension Publication 146 Know Your Trees.
- 4. The answer given must be the complete, correctly spelled common name as given in the Official 4-H Forestry Tree List. One-half credit is given if the name is incomplete or misspelled. Example: If the species is river birch, then birch will receive half credit for an incomplete common name. If birch is also misspelled, no credit is given.
- 5. A total of 100 points is possible in this event; each answer is worth 5 points. In the case of a tie, the winner is the participant with the greatest number of correctly identified oaks, then pines, then elms.
## Tree Measurement
- 1. Participants will measure three trees using a tree scale stick. For each tree, participants will identify the common name, measure the diameter at breast height (DBH) in inches, measure merchantable height in logs, and figure the total timber volume in the measured trees. The time limit for this event is 45 minutes.
- 2. DBH is measured in 2-inch, even-numbered-diameter classes. The correct answers for the DBH on the contest score forms are even numbers, such as 10, 16, 22, and so on. A tree in the diameter range 9.1 to 11.0 inches is tallied as DBH 10 inches. In timber cruising for management purposes, it is common totally trees in 2-inch-diameter classes.
- 3. Merchantable height is measured in 16-foot logs and estimated to the nearest full ½ log. For example, if a tree measures 2¾ logs, it should be tallied as 2 logs, because the ¼ log is too short to make another full ½ log. When measuring logs, always round down, not up. Measure merchantable height up to an 8-inch top or a major fork in the trunk. Deciding where to "cut the tree off" can be a judgment call based on species and log quality. However "controversial" trees will be avoided, and 4-H's will be given trees that will challenge their abilities to measure diameter and height only.
- 4. DBH and merchantable height are used to determine volume of lumber in each tree by using a volume table. 4-H forestery contestants should know how to find a log volume from a volume table before coming to the contest. A volume table will be given at the contest.
If the contestant's estimate of plot volume is within:
- ± 5% of official volume = 40 points
- ± 10% of official volume = 30 points
- ± 15% of official volume = 20 points
- ± 20% of official volume = 10 points
- >+ 20% of official volume = 0 points
The common name given in the Tree Measurement section is the same as required in Tree Identification. The same scoring rules as Tree Identification apply.
## Forest Knowledge
There is a wealth of information about forestry available through MSU Extension and the Internet. 4-H youth are encouraged to explore these resources. There is a section on Study References at the end of the Senior Competition section.
Participants will answer 20 written, multiple choice, or true-false questions on forestry subject matter taken from the listed references. The time limit for the event is 30 minutes. A total of 100 points is possible in this event, with each question worth 5 points. Forest Knowledge is designed to test the 4-H contestant's general knowledge of important forestry concepts.
## Senior Competition
The senior competition is designed to challenge participants' skills and knowledge of forestry, while preparing them for national competition.
## Tree Identification
- 1. Senior participants are required to identify 50 trees from leaf mounts, photos, or specimens in the field. All species listed in MSU Extension Publication 146 Know Your Trees may be included in this portion of the contest.
- 2. The contest consists of two sections; indoor and outdoor. The indoor portion is a "lab practical." with the contestants required to identify 25 trees from leaf mounts or photos. The remaining 25 trees must be identified from live specimens in the field. Participants are given no more than 1 minute to identify each leaf mount or live specimen. The time limit for this event is 30 minutes per section.
- 3. The correct answer for each tree is the common name shown on the Official 4-H Forestry Tree Identification List (page 53). This list is derived from the common names given in MSU Extension Publication 146 Know Your Trees.
- 4. The answer given must be the complete, correctly spelled common name as given in the Official 4-H Forestry Tree List. One-half credit is given if the name is incomplete or misspelled. Example: If the species is river birch, then birch will receive half credit for an incomplete common name. If birch is also misspelled, no credit is given.
5. A total of 100 points is possible in this event; each answer is worth 2 points. In the case of a tie, the winner is the participant with the greatest number of correctly identified oaks, then pines, then elms.
## Tree Measurement
- 1. Senior contestants will measure 10 trees using a tree scale stick. For each tree, participants will identify the common name, measure the diameter at breast height (DBH) in inches, measure merchantable height in logs, and estimate total timber volume per acre. The time limit for this event is 45 minutes.
- 2. DBH is measured in 2-inch, even-numbered-diameter classes. For example, the correct answers for the DBH on the contest score form are even numbers, such as 10, 16, 22, etc. A tree in the diameter range 9.1 to 11.0 inches is tallied as DBH 10 inches. In timber cruising for management purposes, it is common totally trees in 2-inch-diameter classes.
- 3. Merchantable height is measured in 16-foot logs and estimated to the nearest full ½ log. For example, if a tree measures 2¼ logs, it should be tallied as 2 logs, because the ¼ log is too short to make another full ½ log. When measuring logs, always round down, not up. Measure merchantable height up to an 8-inch top or a major fork in the trunk. Deciding where to "cut the tree off" can be a judgment call based on species and log quality. However "controversial" trees will be avoided, and 4-H'ers will be given trees that will challenge their abilities to measure diameter and height only. 4. DBH and merchantable height are used to determine volume of lumber in each tree by using a volume table given at the contest. 4-H forestry contestants should know how to find a log volume from a volume table before coming to the contest.
- 5. All individual tree volumes are added together to arrive at a "plot volume." This "plot volume," multiplied by a plot size factor, yields the estimated volume per acre. The plot size is given to the contestants at the contest. Participants should come to the contest with the knowledge of how to use a plot factor. For example, if the sample plot size given is ¼ acre, then the sample plot volume must be multiplied by 4 to arrive at an estimated volume per acre. Calculators are permitted.
- 6. A total of 100 points is possible in this event. The common name, DBH, merchantable height, and volume for each tree will be valued at 2 points each. A possible maximum of 20 points will be given for the "plot volume" estimate. The "plot volume" will be scored as follows:
If the contestant's estimate of volume per acre is within:
- ± 5% of official volume = 20 points
- ± 10% of official volume = 15 points
- ± 15% of official volume = 10 points
- ± 20% of official volume = 5 points
- >+ 20% of official volume = 0 points
The common name given in the Tree Measurement section is the same as required in Tree Identification. The same scoring rules as Tree Identification apply.
## Forest Knowledge
Forest Knowledge is designed to test the 4-H contestant's general knowledge of important forestry concepts.
## Forest Insect and Disease Identification
- 1. The contestant will be asked to identify the common name of 10 forest insects and 10 forest diseases. All species listed on the Official 4-H Forest Insect and Disease List (page 13) may be used in this event.
- 2. The competition consists of two sections, with each section given in a "lab practical" format. Each contestant is required to identify 10 insects or insect-damaged specimens and 10 diseases or disease-damaged specimens. Pictures of the insect or disease specimen may also be used. The contestant is given no more than 1 minute per station to identify each specimen. The time limit for this event is 15 minutes maximum per section.
- 3. The correct answer for each specimen is the common name shown on the Official 4-H Forest Insect and Disease List.
- 4. The answer given must be the complete, correctly spelled common name as given in the Official 4-H Forest Insect and Disease List. One-half credit will be given if the name is misspelled or incomplete. Example: If the species is Nantucket pine tip moth , then tip moth will receive ½ credit. If it is also misspelled, no credit will be given.
- 5. A total of 100 points is possible in this event, with each answer worth 5 points. Ties are broken using the participant with the greatest number of correctly named insects, then correctly named diseases.
## Study References
All MSU Extension publications are available at extension.msstate.edu/publications :
- P0146 Know Your Trees
- P0160 Tree Planting Is Easy.
- P1205 Welcome to 4-H Forestry.
- P1250 Forestry Terms for Mississippi Landowners
- P1281 Timber Stand Improvement
- P1473 Measuring Standing Sawtimber, 4-H Forestry Project #7
- P1612 Forestry/Wildlife Myths and Misconceptions
- P1686 Making a Tree Scale Stick
- P1864 Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook
- P2179 Ecologyand Management.ofthe Northern Bobwhite
- P2233 Streamside Management Zones and Forest Landowners
- P2283 Prescribed Burning in Southern Pine Forests: Fire Ecology, Techniques, and Uses for Wildlife Management
- P2260 Are My Pine Trees Ready to Thin?
- P2402 Mississippi Recreational Gardens: Establishing a Backyard Wildlife Habitat
- P2467 Ecology and Management of Rabbits in Mississippi
- P2466 Ecology and Management of Squirrels in Mississippi
- P2470 Managing the Family Forest in Mississippi
- P2617 What Are Genetically Improved Seedlings?
- P2822 Forest Soils of Mississippi
- P2823 Site Preparation:The First Step to Regeneration
- P3406 Wild Turkey Ecology and Management
- P3508 Geocaching in Natural Resources: Fun with Forests around Us
- P3562 The Economic Contributions of Forestry and Forest Products,Mississippi
- P3597 Wildlife Find Food in Pine Trees, Too
USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 2010. A Field Guide to Diseases and Insects of the Rocky Mountain Region. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-241. Available online at https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/37290
Mississippi Forestry Commission. 2016. Mississippi trees (2nd ed). Online at https://www.mfc.ms.gov/programs/educational-workshops/publications/
National 4-H Forestry Invitational. Training materials and References. Available online at https://4hforestryinvitational.org/training
USDA Forest Service. 2004. The Impact and Control of Major Southern Forest Diseases. Southern Forest Science: Past, Present, and Future. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report 075. Available online at https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/9678
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. National plants database.
https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home
## Measurement of Standing Trees Study Guide
## Purpose
Standing trees are measured to obtain an estimate of the amount of various forest products that might be cut from them. This is done to have an idea of what volume is present. Most timber sales are based on volume. All forest properties must have some estimate of total volume, volume per acre, and volume by product, so you can decide the course of your forest's management.
## Products
Forest products that may be measured are poles and pilings, sawlogs, veneer logs, pulpwood, and fence posts.
## Method
Since all trees are basically a part of a cylinder, they have a diameter and height that may be measured. Diameter of standing trees is measured by time-honored custom, at 4½ feet aboveground on the uphill side of the tree. This is abbreviated as DBH (diameter at breast height). The method to measure diameter is explained in detail.
Height of a standing tree can be measured as total (the entire height from ground line to the top of the crown) or merchantable height. Merchantable height varies, depending on the product that is to be cut from the tree. The top stem diameter is fixed by certain specifications. In 4-H Tree Measurement, this is an 8-inch top diameter. If a tree is to be cut into logs, the lengths cut will vary, depending on the demand of the mill to which the logs will go. In the Tree Measurement event, measure the tree to the nearest ½ log, a log being specified as 16 feet long.
## Tools
The diameter can be measured using a caliper, diameter tape, or tree scale stick. Since the tree scale stick is to be used in the contest, the method of using it is explained.
## Diameter Measurement
Use the flat side of the stick labeled "Diameter of Tree (in inches)".
Hold the stick level against the tree at a height of 4½ feet above the ground, 25 inches from your eye. Practice to find both the 4½-foot point in relation to your height, and the 25-inch distance to your eye.
When the stick is placed against a tree, close one eye and sight at the left or zero end.
The zero end of the tree scale stick and the tree bark should be in the same line.
Do not move your head. Glance across the stick to the right-hand edge of the tree. Read the tree diameter from the stick to the nearest inch.
## Height Measurement
Practice on pacing is needed to find the 66-foot distance. The 25-inch distance from eye to stick is still the same as in measuring tree diameter.
## Appendix
Official 4-H Forestry Tree Identification List
| Common name | Scientific name |
|---------------------|------------------------|
| ash, green | Fraxinus pennsylvanica |
| ash, white | Fraxinus americana |
| baldcypress | T axodium distichum |
| basswood* | Tilia spp. |
| beech, American | Fagus grandifolia |
| birch, river | Betula nigra |
| blackgum | Nyssa sylvatica |
| boxelder | Acer negundo |
| catalpa, Southern | Catalpa bignonioides |
| cherry, black | Prunus serotina |
| cottonwood, Eastern | Populus deltoides |
| dogwood, flowering | Cornus florida |
| elm, American | Ulmus americana |
| elm, slippery | Ulmus rubra |
| ellm, winged | Ulmus alata |
| Common name | Scientific name |
|----------------------|-----------------------|
| hickory* | Carya spp. |
| holly, American | Ilex opaca |
| honeylocust | Gleditsia triacanthos |
| hophornbeam, Eastern | Ostrya virginiana |
| hornbeam, American | Carpinus caroliniana |
| locust, black | Robinia pseudoacacia |
| magnolia, Southern | Magnolia grandiflora |
| maple, red | Acer, rubrum |
| maple, silver | Acer saccharinum |
| mulberry, red | Morus rubra |
| oak, black | Quercus velutina |
| oak, blackjack | Quercus marilandica |
| oak, bluejack | Quercus incana |
| oak, cherrybark | Quercus pagoda |
| oak, laurel | Quercus laurifolia |
| Common name | Scientific name |
|---------------------|----------------------|
| oak, live | Quercus virginiana |
| oak, Northern red | Quercus rubra |
| oak, nuttal | Quercus texana |
| oak, overcup | Quercus lyrata |
| oak, post | Quercus stellata |
| oak, scarlet | Quercus coccinea |
| oak, shumard | Quercus shumardii |
| oak, Southern red | Quercus falcata |
| oak, swamp chestnut | Quercus michauxii |
| oak, water | Quercus nigra |
| oak, white | Quercus alba |
| oak, willow | Quercus phyllos |
| orange, Osage | Maclura pomifera |
| pecan | Carya illinoensis |
| persimmon, common | Diospyros virginiana |
| Common name | Scientific name |
|--------------------|--------------------------|
| pine, loblolly | Pinus taeda |
| pine, longleaf | Pinus palustris |
| pine, shortleaf | Pinus echinata |
| pine, slash | Pinus elliottii |
| pine, spruce | Pinus glabra |
| poplar, yellow | Lliroidendron tulipifera |
| redbud, Eastern | Cercis canadensis |
| redcedar, Eastern | Juniperus virginiana |
| sassafras | Sassafras albidum |
| sugarberry | Celtis laevigata |
| sweetbay | Magnolia virginiana |
| sweetgum | I liquidambar sygrafica |
| sycamore, American | Platanus occidentalis |
| tupelo, water | Nyssa aquatica |
| walnut, black | Juglans nigra |
| Common name | Scientific name |
|---------------|-------------------|
| willow, black | Salix nigra |
*Contestants are only responsible to identify the genus level for basswood and hickory.
## Junior Tree Identification Score Sheet
| | No. | Common name | Correct +2 | Incomplete/ Misspell +1 | Score |
|----|-------|---------------|--------------------|---------------------------|---------|
| 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 2 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 5 | 6 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 8 | 9 | 10 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 11 | 12 | 13 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 13 | 14 | 15 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 15 | 16 | 17 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 17 | 18 | 19 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 19 | 20 | TOTALS | Contestant's score | | |
## Senior Tree Identification Score Sheet
| No. | Common name | Correct +2 | Incomplete/ Misspell +1 | Score |
|-------|---------------|--------------|---------------------------|---------|
| 1 | | | | |
| 2 | | | | |
| 3 | | | | |
| 4 | | | | |
| 5 | | | | |
| 6 | | | | |
| 7 | | | | |
| 8 | | | | |
| 9 | | | | |
| 10 | | | | |
| 11 | | | | |
| 12 | | | | |
| 13 | | | | |
| 14 | | | | |
| 15 | | | | |
| 16 | | | | |
| 17 | | | | |
| 18 | | | | |
| 19 | | | | |
| 20 | | | | |
| 21 | | | | |
| 22 | | | | |
| 23 | | | | |
| 24 | | | | |
| 25 | | | | |
## Junior Tree Measurement Score Sheet
| Tree No. | common name (5 points) | DBH (5 points) | A(J) Subtotal (60 points possible) | Board foot volume (5 points) | Score |
|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|--------------------------------|---------|
| Total board foot volume in plot | [B]Score for volume in plot [40 points possible] | [C]Total Score (A + B) [100 points possible] | Do not write in this space. | | |
Senior Tree Measurement Score Sheet
| Tree No. | Common name (2 points) | DBH (2 points) | #16-ft (2 points) | Board foot volume (2 points) | Score |
|------------|--------------------------|------------------|----------------------|--------------------------------|---------|
| 1 | | | | | |
| 2 | | | | | |
| 3 | | | | | |
| 4 | | | | | |
| 5 | | | | | |
| 6 | | | | | |
| 7 | | | | | |
| 8 | | | | | |
| 9 | | | | | |
| 10 | | | | | |
| | | | (A/subtotal) | | |
| | | | (80 points possible) | | |
## Sample Volume Table
Doyle Log Rule, Form Class 78
Gross tree volume in board feet, by number of usable 16-foot logs
| Tree diameter (inches) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) |
|--------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|
| | 1 | 1½ | 2 | 2½ | 3 | 3½ | 4 | 4½ |
| 10 | 18 | 22 | 26 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 33 | |
| 12 | 33 | 42 | 51 | 57 | 63 | 65 | 68 | 71 |
| 14 | 54 | 70 | 85 | 96 | 107 | 113 | 119 | 125 |
| 16 | 79 | 98 | 128 | 146 | 165 | 178 | 189 | 198 |
| 18 | 109 | 144 | 179 | 207 | 235 | 254 | 272 | 283 |
| Tree diameter (inches) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) | Tree height (16-ft logs) |
|--------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|
| | 1 | ½ | 2 | 2½ | 3 | 3½ | 4 | 4½ | 5 |
| 20 | 144 | 193 | 242 | 281 | 320 | 348 | 375 | 396 | 417 |
| 22 | 184 | 249 | 313 | 366 | 418 | 455 | 484 | 525 | 557 |
| 24 | 228 | 310 | 392 | 459 | 527 | 574 | 645 | 667 | 713 |
| 26 | 279 | 380 | 482 | 566 | 651 | 713 | 775 | 835 | 894 |
| 28 | 331 | 454 | 577 | 682 | 787 | 861 | 935 | 1,011 | 1,087 |
| 30 | 392 | 539 | 687 | 814 | 940 | 1,032 | 1,122 | 1,216 | 1,310 |
| 32 | 457 | 631 | 805 | 958 | 1,110 | 1,222 | 1,334 | 1,441 | 1,548 |
| 34 | 525 | 727 | 929 | 1,106 | 1,284 | 1,416 | 1,548 | 1,675 | 1,803 |
| 36 | 599 | 834 | 1,068 | 1,276 | 1,484 | 1,638 | 1,793 | 1,945 | 2,097 |
| 38 | 676 | 943 | 1,210 | 1,450 | 1,690 | 1,868 | 2,046 | 2,223 | 2,400 |
| 40 | 740 | 1,035 | 1,330 | 1,594 | 1,858 | 2,059 | 2,260 | 2,248 | 2,636 |
## Official 4-H Forest Insect and Disease List
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
|-------------------------|---------------------------|
| Asian longhorned beetle | Anoplophoria glabripennis |
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
|---------------------------|-----------------------|
| balsam woolly adelgid | Adelges piciae |
| beech scale | Cryptococcus fagisuga |
| bronze birch borer | Agrilus anxius |
| caterpillar hunter beetle | Calosoma sycyphanta |
| checkered beetle | Thanasimus dubius |
| Douglas-fir tussock moth | Orgyia pseudotsugata |
| Eastern tent caterpillar | Malacosoma americanum |
| emerald ash borer | Agrilus planipennis |
| European pine sawfly | Neodiprion sertifer |
| fall webworm | Hyphantria cunea |
| forest tent caterpillar | Malacosoma dissstria |
| gypsy moth | Lymantria dispar |
| Hemlock woolly adelgid | Adelges tsugae |
| lps engraver beetles | lps spp. |
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
|----------------------------------|------------------------|
| Japanese beetle | Popillia japonica |
| locus borer | Megacyllene robinia |
| locus leafminer | Odontota dorsalis |
| mountain pine beetle | Dendroctonus ponderosa |
| Nantucket pine tip moth | Rhyacionia frustrana |
| pales weevil | Hylobius pales |
| periodical cicada | Magicicada septendecim |
| pine needle scale | Chionaspis pinifoliae |
| redheaded pine sawfly | Neodiprion lecontei |
| red oak borer | Enaphalodes rufulus |
| smaller European elm bark beetle | Scolytus multistriatus |
| Southern pine beetle | Dendroctonus frontalis |
| twolined chestnut borer | Agrilus bilineatus |
| whitemarked tussock moth | Orgyia leucostigma |
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
|-------------------|-------------------|
| white pine weevil | Pissodes strobi |
## Official Disease List
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
|--------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| annosus root disease | Heterobasidion annosum |
| artist's conk | Ganoderma applanatum |
| beech bark disease | Neonectria coccinea |
| black knot | Apiosporina morbosa |
| brown spot needle blight | Mycosphaerella dearnessii |
| cedar-apple rust | Gymnosporaniquium juniperi-virginianae |
| chestnut blight | Chryphonectria parasitica |
| clinker polypore | Inonotus obliquus |
| dogwood anthracnose | Discula destructiva |
| Dutch elm disease | Ophiostoma ulmi |
| dwarf mistletoe | Arcethobium pusillum |
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
|-------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| fusiform rust | Cronartium quercum f.sp.fusiforme |
| hypoxylon canker | Biscogniauxia atropunctata var. atropunctata |
| lichens | numerous species |
| nectria canker | Neonectria galligena |
| needle cast fungi | numerous species |
| oak wilt | Ceratocystis faqacearum |
| red heart of pine | Phellinus pini |
| white pine blister rust | Cronartium ribicola |
Senior Forest Insect and Disease Identification Score Sheet
| No. | Common name | Correct +5 Misspell +2.5 | Incomplete/ Score |
|-------|---------------|-----------------------------|---------------------|
| 1 | | | |
| 2 | | | |
| 3 | | | |
| 4 | | | |
| 5 | | | |
| 6 | | | |
| 7 | | | |
| 8 | | | |
| 9 | | | |
| 10 | | | |
| 11 | | | |
| 12 | | | |
| 13 | | | |
| 14 | | | |
| 15 | | | |
| 16 | | | |
| 17 | | | |
| 18 | | | |
| 19 | | | |
| 20 | | | |
Publication 1991 (POD-10-23)
Revised by Brady Self , PhD, Associate Extension Professor, Forestry, and James Shannon , Extension Agent II, Pontotoc County, from earlier versions by James Henderson , PhD, Extension Professor and Head, Coastal Research and Extension Center, Robert Daniels, PhD, Extension Professor (retired), and Winston Savelle, former Extension Associate.
Department: Ctr 4-H Youth Development
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Brady Self
Extension Professor
Hardwood Silviculture Forest Herbicides
Your Extension Experts
Dr. Donald Grebner
Professor and Head Dr Brady Self Extension Professor Dr Curtis L. VanderSchaaf Assistant Professor Related News FEBRUARY 25, 2025 4-H team goes undefeated, wins national horse bowl title FEBRUARY 24, 2025 North Miss. producers share feedback at PAC meeting FEBRUARY 24, 2025 MSU representatives hear client needs, concerns FEBRUARY 12, 2025 Take steps to protect property from wildfire FEBRUARY 7, 2025 Courson ends 30-year run as Dixie National sale passes $10M
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/e/a-resource-guide-for-beginning-farmers-in-oklahoma-e-982.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20210805151126-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## A Resource Guide for Beginning Farmers in Oklahoma
E-982 Oklahoma State University August 2021
## Table of Contents
| Part 1. What Do You Hope to Achieve with the Farm? | 1 |
|-------------------------------------------------------------|-----|
| Part 2. Selecting Appropriate Enterprises | 3 |
| Part 3. Financial Planning for the New Farm | 7 |
| Part 4. Acquiring the Capital for Your New Farm | 11 |
| Part 5. Finding Opportunities for Education and Training | 18 |
| Part 6. Locating Land for Farming | 24 |
| Part 7. Understanding Land Use Regulations and Restrictions | 26 |
| Part 8. Gaining Access to Markets | 29 |
| Part 9. Tax Considerations | 32 |
| Part 10. Government Programs | 36 |
| Appendix | 44 |
References within this publication to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, service mark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not constitute or imply endorsement by Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. Any omissions in lists of organizations is unintentional. If you have a suggestion for an addition for future editions, please email damona.doye@okstate.edu or contact the Agricultural Economics Department at 405-744-9836.
## A Resource Guide for Beginning Farmers in Oklahoma
## Courtney Bir Extension Specialist for Farm Management
Amy Hagerman
Roger Sahs
Excellent Specialist for Enterprise Budget and Land Values
Brent Ladd Assistant Extension Specialist
Based on a previous version by Suzette Barta, Damona Doye and Jody Campiche
Oklahoma State University Department of Agricultural Economics
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources
2021
## Part 1. What Do You Hope to Achieve with the Farm?
If you are considering becoming a farmer or rancher in Oklahoma, then you are about to embark on a journey. As with any long trip, your first step is to plan where you will go and how you will get there. The OSU Extension at Oklahoma State University has developed this resource guide to help beginning farmers understand the steps needed to achieve the dream of having their own farm.
The first and most important step you should take in beginning a farm is to carefully research the property and planned enterprises before investing. Attend educational meetings (such as OSU Extension programs) before properties are purchased. Become acquainted with professionals such as the local Extension Educator-Agriculture, who can help. The OSU Extension website, extension.okstate.edu , provides links to county offices, publications and many other resources.
Buyers often grossly underestimate the technical difficulties of farming and rachning. People mistakenly think, "Anybody can do it." This is far from true. Farmers and ranchers need to know about growing crops and forages (fertilization, management), managing livestock (nutrition, health, genetics), marketing, general business management (accounting, taxes), legal issues and more. Furthermore, farmers and ranchers need reliable sources of information. Prospective landowners often get advice from the wrong people. It is important to seek assistance from unbiased sources who are not selling something or taking advantage of the inexperienced person.
While conducting research about the physical property and possible enterprises, consider your family and business values along with the mission and goals for the farm. What is it that you are setting out to do? Is it to become a landowner, building a land base on which you can retire? Is it to generate more income? How much? Or, do you want to become a noted livestock producer regardless of the cost? Your goal for a new farm may be to enjoy a rural lifestyle that provides an opportunity to work outdoors plus have more space for hobbies and projects without expecting to generate additional income. Or your goal may be to establish a business operation that is intended to grow to support one or more families over time. Developing specific realistic goals can help the beginning farmer in several ways.
- 1. Goals provide the framework for developing more detailed plans, including identifying the resources needed to have a successful outcome.
- 2. Having a well thought out plan is important for communications with persons providing financing for the operation, whether a commercial lender or family member.
- 3. Goals can serve as reference points to help you monitor progress once a business plan is implemented.
- 4. When faced with uncertainty, goals can assist you in making decisions.
- 5. Goals can serve as tools for motivating your family or farm management team toward success.
Because the farm business often involves the whole family, it is best for the goal-setting process to involve each member of the family. The family and the business are generally intertwined; thus, family goals and business goals should be set jointly. Goals should be challenging, yet achievable and specific enough that you can write them down and measure your progress toward them.
The fact sheet Goal Setting for Farm and Ranch Families outlines some basic steps for setting goals and includes a goal-setting worksheet. This publication, as well as others relating to farm and ranch management, is located online at the following address: extension.okstate. education/fact-sheets/goal-setting-for-farm-and-ranch-families.html . All documents are available to download free of charge in PDF format. If you are interested in a more comprehensive guide,
## Part 2. Selecting Appropriate Enterprises
Before you go much further, it is crucial to identify the type of farming enterprise you want. While Oklahoma is known as a wheat and cattle state, Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service (OASS) data shows more than 16 commodities with sales of more than $2 million each in 2019. Table 1 identifies the rank and value of production for Oklahoma commodities for 2019. Table 2 shows livestock inventory numbers for Oklahoma for 2016 through 2019. Table 3 presents crop acreage, yield and production for Oklahoma for 2019. The 2020 bulletin from the OASS is available online at https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics\_by\_State/Oklahoma/Publications/Annual\_Statistical\_Bulletin/ok-bulletin-2020-web.pdf . In addition to commodity specific data, the bulletin contains information such as average rainfall, average temperature and pasture condition.
In terms of acreage harvested, winter wheat was the top crop, followed by all hay varieties. Figure 1 charts winter wheat production by county in Oklahoma in 2019. For 2019, winter wheat averaged 40 bushels per acre, and all hay averaged 1.98 tons per acre. Crop yields and stocking rate vary considerably from county to county due to differences in soils and climates and from year to year as weather and other conditions change. In livestock numbers, chickens totaled about 4.247 million head, all cattle and calves totaled 5.2 million head and all hogs and pigs totaled 2.28 million head. In value of production, cattle and calves ranked first in the state with a production value of $2.578 billion. Hogs and pigs ranked second in the state with a production value of $965 million.
These statistics may leave you asking yourself what to produce. What is appropriate within a certainly depend on the land resource base you are considering, including soil type, geographical location, climate and past use. It may also depend on the human resources (labor and management) available to you. The availability of a market for your product and the ability to finance operations are also critical.
Economists at Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service, Tim Woods and Steve Isaacs, emphasize that new or expanding enterprises should not focus on what to produce, but should instead concentrate on how to select the right enterprise. They advocate a more thorough approach because, in their experience, success or failure often depends on a lot more than just the choice of what to produce. They suggest these six factors to drive the decision: profitability, resources, information, marketing, enthusiasm and risk. A Primer for Selecting New Enterprises for Your Farm, by Woods and Isaacs, is available online at ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/42316/files/ext2000-13.pdf . The publication contains descriptions of the six decision factors, as well as detailed worksheets to help the new farmer/rancher raise some important questions regarding their potential new enterprise. The authors suggest printing multiple copies of the PRIMER so that you can work through the worksheets for more than one type of enterprise.
If profitability is a goal for the operation, consider developing a budget for individual enterprises (for example, stockers, goats or grapes) that maps out the resources needed, as well as projected income and expenses. Oklahoma State University offers spreadsheets to generate budgets for the following enterprises: alfalfa, annual forage, blackberries, blueberries, canola, corn, corn silage, cotton, cow-calf, grain sorghum, grapes, improved pecans, meat goats, native pecans, peaches, peanuts, perennial forages, rye, soy-beans, stockers, sunflowers, stocker goats, watermelon and wheat.
| | Rank | Item | Value ($ Millions) |
|----|-----------------------|--------|----------------------|
| 1 | Cattle and calves | 2,578 | 965 |
| 2 | Hogs and pigs | 729 | 729 |
| 3 | Broilers | 645 | Hay |
| 4 | Winter wheat | 473 | 5 |
| 6 | Cotton and cottonseed | 212 | 7 |
| 7 | Corn for grain | 185 | 8 |
| 8 | Milk | 148 | 9 |
| 9 | Soybeans | 107 | |
| 10 | Eggs | 82 | |
| 11 | Sorghum for grain | 46 | |
| 12 | Pecans | 27 | |
| 13 | Peanuts | 13 | |
| 14 | Rye | 12 | |
| 15 | Canola | 3 | |
| 16 | Oats | 3 | |
Source: Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service 2020.
| | All Cattle & Calves | Beef Cows | Mill cows | All Sheep & Lambs | All Hogs & Pigs' | Chickens 1,2 | Bees 3 |
|------|------------------------|--------------|--------------|----------------------|---------------------|----------------|----------|
| 2016 | 4,800 | 1,923 | 37 | 46 | 2,110 | 4,137 | 2017 |
| 2016 | 5,000 | 2,093 | 37 | 48 | 2,160 | 3,970 | 2018 |
| 2016 | 5,100 | 2,088 | 42 | 54 | 2,200 | 4,286 | 2019 |
| 2016 | 5,300 | 2,150 | 40 | 50 | 2,200 | 4,476 | 2020 |
| 2016 | 5,200 | 2,099 | 41 | 52 | 2,280 | 4,247 | 2020 |
- (1) December 1 previous year.
- (2) Excludes commercial broilers.
- ) (3 Colony inventory
Source: Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service 2020.
| | Planted Purpose Acres | Harvested Acres | Yield | Production | Price per Unit | Value of Production Dollars |
|-------------------|---------------------------|--------------------|----------------|-----------------|------------------|---------------------------------|
| Wheat Winter All | 4,200,000 | 2,750,000 | 40 bus | 110,000,000 bus | 4.31 $/bu | 473,000,000 |
| Hay All (Dry) | 3,005,000 | 1.98 tons | 5,935,000 tons | 106 $/ton | 644,945,000 | 537,320,000 |
| Hay Other (Dry) | 2,800,000 | 1.90 tons | 5,320,000 tons | 100 $/ton | 537,320,000 | 4.1 $/bu |
| Corn For Grain | 370,000 | 330,000 | 137 bus | 45,210,000 bus | 185,361,000 | 107,625,000 |
| Alf'la Hay (Dry) | 205,000 | 3.00 tons | 615,000 tons | 171 $/ton | 107,184,000 | A Primer for Selecting |
| Soybeans | 465,000 | 440,000 | 29 bus | 12,760,000 bus | 8.40 $/bu | 107,184,000 |
| Cotton Upland | 640,000 | 460,000 | 688 lbs | 659,000 hales 1 | 0.597 $/lb | 183,398,000 |
| Canola | 35,000 | 21,000 | 1,410 lbs | 29,610,000 lbs | 10.60 $/cwt | 3,139,000 |
| Peanuts For Nuts | 15,000 | 14,000 | 4,100 lbs | 57,400,000 lbs | 0.235 $/lb | 13,489,000 |
| Sorghum For Grain | 300,000 | 260,000 | 51 lbs | 13,260,000 lbs | 6.15 $/cwt | 45,667,000 |
| Cotton Seed | 260,000 | 55,000 | 27 bus | 191,000 tons | 152 $/ton | 29,032,000 |
| Rye | 100,000 | 25,000 | 50 bus | 1,485,000 bus | 8.25 $/bu | 12,177,000 |
| Oats | 100,000 | 20,000 | 13 tons | 1,250,000 bus | 2.10 $/bu | 2,875,000 |
| Corn for Silage | 16,000 | 10 tons | 160,000 tons | 260,000 tons | - | A Primer for Selecting |
1 Production in 480-pound bales
Source: Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service 2020.
## Part 3. Financial Planning for the New Farm
One of the most basic issues you must address if you are considering farming is how much you expect the farm to contribute to your family's living expenses.
- · Farm will not contribute to family's living expenses. (Off-farm income required.)
- · Farm will provide a portion of the family's living expenses. (Off-farm income required.)
- · Farm will provide all of the family's living expenses.
Land purchasers frequently overestimate the income potential from agricultural enterprises. If you do not yet have a handle on your farm's financial potential, then you need to assemble a financial plan for your operation. In most cases, a sound financial plan is a prerequisite to obtaining loans. A typical financial plan will include the following:
- 1. budgets for individual enterprises (for example, cow-calf, wheat and stocker);
- 2. cash flow plan;
- 3. income statement; and
- 4. balance sheet.
Fact sheets are available to assist producers in developing financial plans and interpreting financial statements. All of the following publications are free of charge at local Extension offices. They are also available online at extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/index.html.
- AGEC-751, Developing a Cash Flow Plan
- AGEC-752, Developing a Balance Sheet
- AGEC-753, Developing an Income Statement
- AGEC-790, Evaluating Financial Performance and Position
- AGEC-935, Capital Leases
Other OSU fact sheets that may be helpful in developing a business plan include:
- AGEC-243, Using Enterprise Budgets in Farm Financial Planning
- AGEC-302, Information Systems for Oklahoma Farmers
- CR-205, Oklahoma Farm and Ranch Custom Rates
- CR-216, Oklahoma Pasture Rental Rates
- CR-230, Oklahoma Cropland Rental Rates
The data in Tables 4 and 5 are presented to assist you in forming realistic financial expectations. In 2012, the number of farms in the state totaled 80,245 (Census of Agriculture). Sixty-five percent of the farmers reported they had at least some off-farm work for the year, and 58% reported farming was not their primary occupation. In terms of value of sales, 75% of the farms reported farm sales of less than $25,000. The average market value of sales per farm, for all agricultural products, was $88,848. The average expense for total production per farm was $60,340. Net cash farm income statistics show that in 2012, 62.05% of farms experienced a loss.
Other farm financial data are available from the Economic Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (ERS) (ers.usda.gov). For example, Table 5 presents costs and returns for wheat production and cow-calf production for the Prairie Gateway Region (western two-thirds of Oklahoma plus Kansas, southern Nebraska, eastern Colorado, eastern New Mexico and much of Texas) for 2014. For wheat production in 2014, the gross value of production was $175.89 per planted acre. Total operating costs were $111.59 per planted acre; total costs were $278.15 per
(ERS):
## Enterprise Budget Software
OSU Enterprise Budgets are Excel spreadsheets designed to help estimate production costs and returns while representing the management practices typical of an area. The software provides users access to important agricultural references during an "interactive" budget-building process. Spreadsheets incorporate historical data and specialist recommendations while allowing modification by the user. Examples of historical data include area yields and average prices. Examples of specialist recommendations include fertilizer requirements for specified forage or grain yields. Links to Internet databases and references point users to additional information.
Appendix Tables 1 through 3 show sample budgets for wheat, cow-calf and stocker enterprises. Note: actual income and expenses may vary greatly from operation to operation. Hence, it is important to customize budgets to match individual situations. The budget re-port summarizes key production items and prices, operating and fixed costs, and break-even prices and yields.
| Data from 2012 and 2017 Census of Agriculture for Oklahoma. | Data from 2012 and 2017 Census of Agriculture for Oklahoma. | Data from 2012 and 2017 Census of Agriculture for Oklahoma. | Data from 2012 and 2017 Census of Agriculture for Oklahoma. |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| | 2017 | 2017 | 2012 |
| | % of Total Farms | % of Total Farms | Number of Oklahoma farms |
| Ofil Farm Work | 78,531 | 4%$^{1}$ | 80,245 |
| Farmers with no off-farm work | 38,387 | 36% | 27,846 |
| Farmers with some off-farm work | 20% | 20% | 19% |
| Farmers with 200 or more days off-farm work | 47,178 | 44% | 36,970 |
| Operator by Primary Occupation Farming | 42,554 | 40% | 33,790 |
| Other | 63,722 | 60% | 46,455 |
| Number of Farms by Value of Sales | Less than $2,500 | 29,701 | 38% |
| $2,500 to $4,999 | 7,644 | 10% | 8,032 |
| $5,000 to $9,999 | 9,627 | 12% | 9,680 |
| $10,000 to $24,999 | 11,574 | 15% | 12,437 |
| $25,000 to $49,999 | 6,888 | 9% | 7,070 |
| $50,000 to $99,999 | 4,947 | 6% | 5,198 |
| $100,000 to $499,999 | 6,010 | 8% | 5,893 |
| $500,000 or more | 2,140 | 3% | 2,141 |
| Average Market Value of Sales per Farm | All agricultural products sold | $95,065 | $88,848 |
| Crops (including greenhouse) | $59,151 | $62,651 | $115,543 |
| Livestock/poultry & products | Total production expenses | $84,602 | $83,280 |
| Fertilizer, lime, soil conditioners | $62,630 | $68,807 | $14,634 |
| Feed | $26,218 | $32,717 | $10,295 |
| GASOLINE, fuel, oils | $4,320 | $4,531 | $17,100 |
| Hired farm labor | $20,044 | $17,100 | $9,445 |
| Interest Expense | $11,078 | $9,445 | $4,837 |
| Chemicals | $6,082 | $4,837 | Net Cash Farm Income of Operations |
| Average per farm/dollars | 16,454 | 11,899 | 16,057 |
| Arves with net gains'/number | 26,057 | 33% | 30,466 |
| Average per farm/dollars | 87,327 | 60,068 | 87,727 |
| Plays with net losses/number | 52,474 | 67% | 49,799 |
| Average per farm/dollars | 18,740 | 17,550 | Percentage of total U.S. farms. |
Source: USDA Census of Agriculture 2017: nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2017/Full\_Report/Volume\_1\_,Chaper\_ter\_1\_State\_Level/Oklahoma/okv1.pdf
| Gross value of production | 2020 | 2019 | Wheat Production | 2020 | 2019 |
|-------------------------------|-----------------|-----------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------|
| Calfs | 458.61 | 452.91 | Primary product: | Total gross value of production | 155.04 |
| Stockers and Yearlings | 120.27 | 120.27 | Wheat grain | 155.04 | 187.27 |
| Other Cattle | 108.06 | 104.36 | Secondary Product: silage/ | 104.36 | 5.04 |
| Total gross value | 686.94 | 677.54 | straw/grazing | 4.05 | 5.04 |
| | | | Total, gross value of | Production | 159.54 |
| Operating costs | Operating costs | Operating costs | Operating costs | Operating costs | Operating costs |
| Purchased Feed | 118.56 | 115.54 | Operating Costs | 10.13 | 10.29 |
| Homegrown Harvested Feed | 117.40 | 139.46 | Seed | 30.64 | 30.50 |
| Grazed feed | 120.98 | 118.71 | Fertilizer | 30.64 | 30.50 |
| Total Feed Costs | 356.94 | 373.71 | Chemicals | 9.88 | 10.49 |
| Other | | | Custom Operations | 16.16 | 16.42 |
| Catlet for Backgrounding | 86.46 | 85.38 | Repairs | 11.82 | 12.21 |
| Veterinary and Medicine | 29.41 | 29.11 | Purchased Irrigation Water | 24.37 | 24.12 |
| Bedding and Litter | 0.78 | 0.77 | and Straw Baling | 0.16 | 0.17 |
| Marketing | 13.16 | 13.03 | Interest on Operating Inputs | 0.22 | 1.08 |
| Custom Services | 12.22 | 12.10 | Total Operating Costs | 103.68 | 105.28 |
| Fuel, Lube, and Electricity | 32.71 | 33.53 | Allocated Overhead | 3.35 | 3.38 |
| Repairs | 40.78 | 40.39 | Hired Labor | 3.35 | 3.38 |
| Interest on Operating Capital | 1.20 | 6.05 | Opportunity cost of Unpaid | Labor | 19.08 |
| Total Operating Cost | 573.66 | 594.07 | Capital Recovery of | 19.08 | 18.86 |
| Allocated Overhead | | | | | |
| Hired Labor | 48.17 | 47.45 | Machinery and Equipment 87.56 87.98 | Opportunity cost of Land | - 41.23 |
| Unpaid Labor | 458.08 | 435.44 | (Rental Rate) | 4.50 | 4.55 |
| Capital Recovery of | 273.58 | 270.98 | Taxes and Insurance | General Farm Overhead | 6.18 |
| Occupancy Cost of Land | 0.25 | 0.25 | Total Allocated Overhead | 161.90 | 162.65 |
| (Rental Rate) | 21.57 | 21.35 | Total Costs Listed | 265.58 | 267.93 |
| Taxes and Insurance | 481.73 | 414.93 | Value of Production Less | -106.04 | -75.63 |
| General Farm Overhead | 40.08 | 39.46 | Total Costs Listed | -106.04 | -75.63 |
| Total Allocated Overhead | 841.73 | 814.93 | Value of Production Less | -106.04 | -75.63 |
| Total Costs Listed | 1415.39 | 1409.00 | Operating Costs | 55.86 | 87.02 |
| Value of Production less | | | | | |
| Total Costs Listed | -728.45 | -731.45 | Total Costs Listed | -728.45 | -728.45 |
| Value of Production less | 113.28 | 83.47 | | | |
## Table 5.
## Part 4. Acquiring the Capital for Your New Farm
Whether farming is your hobby or your business, there is no doubt that it can be expensive. Capital is required to purchase or lease assets and to pay for operating expenses. For example, you may need capital to buy or lease land, buildings, machinery or livestock. You will also need funds for operating expenses including labor, feed costs, fuel and equipment, repairs and maintenance, utilities, veterinary expenses, seed, fertilizer, etc. Obviously, this is not an exhaustive list. The important question is, How will you acquire the assets for your farm? Buyers often purchase either too much or the wrong type of equipment, and they think it's necessary to own a new pickup, trailer, tractor, ATV, etc. These vastly increase the cost of production and eliminate potential for profit. Also, owners tend to overlook the cost of hired labor. Carefully consider every purchase. Make sure it is really needed. If it is, can it be rented or borrowed instead of bought? Be frugal.
Trying to make land payments with income generated by a farm is rarely realistic. Table 6 shows annual loan payments for a range of land prices and interest rates. In 2020, Oklahoma farm real estate values averaged $1,520 per acre for cropland and $1,480 for dryland pasture usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/pn89d6567 or see extension.okstate.edu/programs/ farm-management-and-finance/oklahoma-land-values/ for local information). Cattle may require 5 to 10 acres per head for native or improved pasture, depending on the size of the cattle, type of forage, rainfall, etc.
| Interest rate | Loan amount ($/a) | 5% | 6% | 7% |
|-----------------|---------------------|--------|--------|------|
| 1,500 | 121.07 | 131.66 | 142.66 | |
| 2,000 | 161.43 | 175.55 | 190.21 | |
| 2,500 | 201.79 | 219.44 | 237.77 | |
Leasing farmland offers a way to begin farming or ranching without committing large sums of money to asset purchases up front. Cropland cash rental rates typically fall in the range of $30 per acre per year to $50 per acre per year, depending on the region and productivity of the tract. Native pasture often rents for $12 per acre to $20 per acre with Bermudagrass and other improved pasture renting for more.
## Related Publications and Other Resources:
To help educate landlords and tenants with equitable lease agreements and current best management practices, visit the Oklahoma State University (OSU) Ag Land Lease website at aglandlease.info.org allegease.info. A joint effort between OSU's Plant and Soil Sciences and Agricultural Economics Departments, the website contains a wide assortment of farm management spreadsheet tools, lease information and forms, rental rate and land value resources, legal and tax considerations, livestock and hunting lease publications plus the latest production practices in Oklahoma.
Specific addresses for the several referenced North Central Farm Management Extension Committee (NCFMEC) publications are:
Crop Share Rental Arrangements For Your Farm, NCFMEC-2 at agele101.org/wp-content/ uploads/2020/10/NCFMEC-02.pdf
Fixed and Flexible Cash Rental Arrangements For Your Farm, NCFMEC-1 at aglease101. org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/NCFMEC-01.pdf
Pasture Rental Arrangements, NCFMEC-3 at aglease101.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/ NCFMEC-03.pdf
Recent Oklahoma school land lease auction information is also available through the Real Estate Management Division of Commissioners of the Land Office at clo.ok.gov/services/ auction-information/real-estate/.
Recent Oklahoma school land lease auction information is also available through the Real Estate Management Division of Commissioners of the Land Office at clo.oks.gov/ services/auction-information/real-estate/.
Similarly, custom hiring can help make farm plans financially feasible until an operation has grown to the size needed to justify machine ownership. Oklahoma farm and ranch custom rates are reported in OSU Current Report CR-205 available at the same website as rental rate reports.
Sources for financial capital may include:
- · personal savings,
- · agricultural loans,
- · combination of savings and loans, and
- · a private lender (e.g., parent, grandparent, owner).
Chances are good that at some point you will need to seek out agricultural loans to finance a portion of your needs. The following is a list of financial sources and programs, some with lending programs aimed directly at agriculture and some specifically designed for beginning farmers.
1. Commercial Banks. You may be the most comfortable approaching your local commercial lending institution, especially if you already have a good credit history with the institution. However, not all commercial banks make agricultural loans. If you do not have an established relationship with a local lender, the Oklahoma Bankers Association (OBA) website lists financial institutions at oba.com/oklaomabank-directory/.You will need to pursue the services of each individual bank to determine if they provide agricultural lending.
## 2. Farm Service Agency (FSA), fsa.usda.gov. The mission of the USDA's Farm Service Agency
includes stabilizing farm income, helping farmers conserve land and water resources, providing credit to new or dis-advantaged farmers and ranchers, and helping farm operations recover from the effects of disaster. The FSA makes direct loans for both farm ownership (FO) and farm operations (OL), and also guarantees loans made by conventional lenders. FSA has targeted loan funds to beginning farmers and socially disadvantaged applicants who are unable to obtain financing from commercial credit sources. A beginner farmer or rancher as defined by the FSA has not operated a farm for more than 10 years, substantially participates in the operation. Specifically for farm ownership loans, the farm cannot be greater than 30% of the average farm size for the county at the time of application. If the applicant is an entity, all members must be related and everyone must be eligible as a beginning farmer. Below is a description of loan programs in FSA and other programs that may benefit beginning farmers. Look for an FSA office in your county on the FSA website or in the phone book under U.S. Government.
To qualify for FSA guaranteed loans, or microloans, the loan applicant must:
- · Be a citizen of the U.S. (or legal resident alien), which includes Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and certain former Pacific Island Trust Territories.
- · Have an acceptable credit history as determined by the lender.
- · Have the legal capacity to incur the obligations of the loan.
- · Be unable to obtain a loan without a guarantee.
- · Not have caused FSA a loss by receiving debt forgiveness on more than three occasions on prior to April 4, 1996 or on any occasion after April 4, 1996.
- · Be the owner or tenant operator of a family farm after the loan is closed. For an OL, the producer must be the operator of a family farm after the loan is closed. For an FO Loan, the producer also needs to own the farm.
- · Not be delinquent on any Federal debt (income taxes, student loans, etc)
## 3. Farm Credit Services (FCS), farmcredit.com/\_TheFarmCreditSystem(FarmCredit)isa
nationwide net-work of borrower-owned financial institutions and specialized service organizations. Farm Credit consists of four Farm Credit Bank Districts, which provides funding and affiliated services to more than 70 locally owned Farm Credit associations and numerous cooperatives nationwide. The fundamental purpose of this network of Government-sponsored enterprises created by Congress in 1916 is to provide American agriculture with a source of sound, dependable credit at competitive rates of interest. Farm Credit provides credit and related services to farmers, ranchers, producers and harvesters of aquatic products, rural homeowners, certain farm-related businesses, agricultural and aquatic cooperatives, rural utilities, and to certain foreign or domes-tic entities in connection with international agricultural credit transactions.
Below are the addresses of the four Farm Credit Associations in Oklahoma.
| American Ag Credit - Ponca City | Farm Credit Services of East/Central Oklahoma |
|-----------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| 1909 Lake Road | 601 E. Kenosha |
| Ponca City, OK 74604 | Broken Arrow, OK 74012 |
| 580-765-5690 | 918-251-8596 |
| https://www.agloan.com/ | https://www.okagcredit.com/ |
| Farm Credit of Western Oklahoma | Farm Credit of Enid |
| 3302 Williams Ave. | 1605 W. Garriot Rd. |
| Woodward, OK 73801 | Enid, OK 73703 |
| 800-299-3465 | 580-233-3489 |
| www.fcwestok.com | www.fcenid.com |
| Life Insurance Companies. Life insurance companies have a history of investing in farm |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| real estate mortgages. According to the Economic Research Service, these companies tend to |
| prefer larger loans that are well secured and are intermediate to long-term in maturity. Life |
| insurance companies made up 4% of the agricultural lenders without government support. |
| Private Individuals - Land Installment Contracts . A long-term installment land con- |
| contract is both an instrument of transfer and a method of finance. An owner-financed loan can |
| be beneficial for both buyer and seller. Sometimes it allows a person who does not qualify |
| may be willing to finance a portion of a farming venture. In an installment contract, the |
| buyer agrees to pay the seller a small down payment, and a series of principal and interest |
| payments. Considerations in preparing an installment land contract include identification |
| of the seller and buyer, an adequate description of the property, purchase price or other |
| consideration, escrow agreement, abstract of title and title insurance, type of deed, transfer |
| process, recording the deed, responsibility for expenses, method and time of payment (down |
| payment, continuing payments, time and place, prepayments, grace period, default, crop and |
| livestock liens), operation and use, items such as possession, reservation of use, inspection |
| with respect to operation and use, items such as possession, reservation of use, inspection |
| the premises, seller's right to participate in management, condition of improvements and |
| assignments should be agreed upon. Likewise, rents and other income, taxes and special |
| assignments, risk of loss and insurance, injuries to or by third parties, and condemnations |
| should be considered. The contract may include the seller maintaining the deed until the |
| purchase is complete. There may be tax advantages for the seller involved in an installment |
| contract. Both buyers and sellers of property are encouraged to seek legal counsel before |
| entering into an installment agreement. A bulletin, Long-Term Installment Land Con-tracts, |
## Part 5. Finding Opportunities for Education and Training
Even if you grew up on a farm or have spent years working on a farm, there are always new things to learn. If your farming experience is limited, you definitely will want to take advantage of educational opportunities and technical assistance available to farmers. Joining a trade association is another way to gain access to market-specific information, and to meet and talk with other producers.
## Education and Outreach Organizations
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service/Oklahoma State University , extension . oksstate.edu/ : Cooperative Extension Educators are housed in every county, where they work sideby-side with residents to address local issues and concerns. County personnel can call upon State, District, and Area Extension Specialists who develop programs based on research-proven, objective information to help Oklahomaans solve problems, promote leadership and manage resources wisely. County Extension offices often host educational workshops on topics that cover a wide variety of production and management practices for a variety of crop and livestock enterprises. Example programs include record keeping, marketing outlook, soybean production, pecan management, grape production, pest management and more. Contact your county office for more information about programming in your area. For a list of county offices, see extension.okstate.edu/county / index.html/. In addition, an entire library of Extension fact sheets is available online at https:// extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/index.html . Following is a very small sample of titles:
- · EPP-2072, Blister Beetles and Alfalfa
- · HLA-6201, Pecan Varieties for Oklahoma
- · AFS-8202, Backyard Flock Production
## Oklahoma Food and Agricultural Products Research and Technology Center/ Oklahoma State University , fapc.okstate.edu/. The primary goal of the center is to help producers, processors and entrepreneurs add value to Oklahoma's food and agricultural processing industries. The center hosts a basic training workshop for food business entrepreneurs. Other
workshops offered by the center include financial management, marketing, the food industry, food safety and master corner.
Contact information:
Oklahoma Food and Agricultural Products Research and Technology Center
148 FAPC
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74078-6055
Phone: 405-744-6071
Fax: 405-744-6313
fapc@okstate.edu
Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry, ag.ok.gov. Visit this website for a discussion of Oklahoma's top commodities, daily commodity prices and market news. As the Department of Agriculture is also responsible for overseeing some agricultural regulations, you will also find a schedule for public hearings that will be conducted as well as any other events. The Oklahoma Agriculture Enhancement and Diversification Program provides funds in the form of loans or grants for the purpose of expanding the state's value added processing sector and to encourage farm diversification. The department also publishes a hay directory online.
## Agriculture Business Management Program/Oklahoma Career Technology
Centers, okcareertech.org/educators/career-clusters/agriculture-food-and-natural-resources. The main objective of the Agriculture Business Management program is to help agricultural families achieve their business and family goals through improved management, organization and efficiency practices.
Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture , kercenter.com/. The Kerr Center publishes educational materials on a wide range of topics in sustainable farming and ranching. The Kerr Center also sponsors and organizes educational events such as workshops, short courses and conferences, including the Oklahoma Beginning Farmer and Rancher Program. The three-year project, which began in 2011, is supported by a grant from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture and is designed to assist beginning farmers and ranchers with training, resources, and mentoring. At the end of the course, participants will have the knowledge and skills necessary to move forward with a successful farming plan.
The Kerr Center is partnering with the Oklahoma Farmer and Rancher Association (OFRA), the Rural Smallholder Association (RSA), and the Mvskoke Food Sovereignty Initiative (MFSI). The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service is also a partner. For more information on this and other programs offered, visit their website.
Contact Information:
Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture 24456 Kerr Road
Poteau, OK 74953
Phone: 918-647-9123
E-mail: mailbox@kerrenteer.com
Natural Resource and Conservation Service (NRCS)/U.S. Department of Agriculture. NRCS and its partnering agencies administer a broad range of conservation programs to assist farmers, ranchers and others landowners in conserving natural resources. These programs provide incentives such as technical and cost-sharing assistance to install conservation practices. The NRCS website also contains some technical resources such as a soil report for every county in the state.
Contact information:
United States Department of Agriculture
Natural Resources Conservation Service
100 USDA, Suite 206
Stillwater, OK 74074-2655
Phone: 405-742-1204
TTD Access: 405-742-1007
Contact information: Oklahoma Department of Agriculture 2800 N. Lincoln Blvd. Oklahoma City, OK, 73105-4298 Telephone: (405) 522-3864
## Risk Management Agency/U.S. Department of Agriculture , [ma.usda.gov. The Risk
Contact information: Risk Management Agency/USDA Oklahoma City Regional Office 215 Dean A. McGee Avenue, Suite 342 Oklahoma City, OK 73102 Phone: 405-879-2700 E-mail: rsook@rma.usda.gov
## Noble Research Institute , noble.org/. The Noble Research Institute is a knowledge-based
resource providing guidance to people in the pursuit of conservation and responsible management of renewable natural resources, focusing on southern Oklahoma and northern Texas. To help agricultural producers and other stewards of natural resources achieve their financial, production and quality-of-life goals, they provide decision support through consultation and other educational activities. They have demonstration farms, conferences and workshops plus newsletters and other publications. They also collaborate frequently with other organizations and producers to encourage responsible and effective land management and agricultural pursuits. The Noble Research Institute website is home to the eChattleg -a free, online listing service for cattle producers. On the site you will find a long listing of agricultural titles available online. Information concerning public educational events is also listed. These include seminars such as beef quality assurance training and deer management field day.
Contact information:
Noble Research Institute 2510 Sam Noble Pky. Ardmore, OK 73401 Phone: 580-223-5810
Kerr Center for Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture 24456 Kerr Road Poteau, OK 74953 Phone:(918)647-9123 Email: mailbox@ kercenter.com
Socially disadvantaged and Veteran Farmers and Ranchers Program , Langston University, in cooperation with the USDA-NRCS, provides free assistance to small and underserved farmers, ranchers and other rural residents in the State of Oklahoma. This assistance is designed to help alleviate the financial problems confronting these producers. The 2501 program for so-
portunity, and social advancement and thereby, to promote the national well-being. There is a Farm Bureau office in every county of Oklahoma. Check their website or your phone book for a location. 405-523-2300.
- 15. American Farmers and Ranchers , americanfarmersand rancherships.com . American Farmers and Ranchers was organized in 1905 to help the family farmer while America was courting the Industrial Revolution. Today, with nearly 120,000 family memberships across the state of Oklahoma, they use a portion of the insurance premiums generated from American Farmers and Ranchers Mutual Insurance Company to support family agriculture and rural Oklahoma. Check their website or your phone book for your local Farmers Union agent. Phone: 405218-5400
## 16. Oklahoma Grain and Feed Association , oklahomaa.com . Enid, Okla. Phone: 580-2339516.
- 17. Oklahoma Greenhouse Growers' Association , the Oklahoma Greenhouse Growers Association comprises growers and marketers of floriculture crops such as bedding plants, potted flowering plants, cut flowers, garden perennials, herbs, foliage plants, patio plants, groundcovers and hanging baskets. The association also includes those involved in related areas as well as students of horticulture. Phone: 405-942-5276.
- 18. Oklahoma Haflinger Association , The Haflinger horse is the result of the mating of native Austrian mountain mares with a part-Arabian stallion. The Oklahoma association is centered in Ramona, Okla. Phone: 918-637-8458.
- 19. Oklahoma Meat Goat Association . oklahomeamategoatassociation.com/. Phone: 918-6370180
- 20. Oklahoma Nursery and Landscape Association , oknla.org . More than 300 member companies including garden center retailers, landscape firms, wholesale nursery growers, manufacturers and distributors of horticultural products are served by the ONLA. Telephone: (405) 945-6737; e-mail: info@oknurseymergen.org.
- 21. Oklahoma Pecan Growers' Association , okpecangrowers.com . The Oklahoma Pecan Growers' Association strives to provide educational opportunities and support for its members with the objective of cost effective production and marketing of high quality pecans. Phone: 580-279-0357
- 22. Oklahoma Peanut Commission . okpeanutcomm.org The mission of the Oklahoma Peanut Commission is to provide peanut growers with a receptive and growing market for their peanuts and the information and tools for improved efficiencies. Through research and marketing initiative, the Commission is finding new ways to enhance production and increase consumer demand by promoting the great taste, nutrition and culinary versatility of Oklahoma-grown peanuts.
- 23. Oklahoma Pork Council , okpkor.g. OPC provides consumers with current information regarding food safety, nutritional value and preparation tips for pork products. This includes recipes, cookbooks, and educational materials for classrooms and promotional materials. OPC also provides producers with the latest research regarding management practices, nutrition needs of swine, odor management, nutrient material and educational programs dealing with other producer concerns. Phone: 405-232-3781.
- 24. Oklahoma Quarter Horse Association , okqha.org . Bethany, Okla. Phone: 405-440-0694. 25. Oklahoma Sorghum Commission , oksorghum.com . This organization is an affiliate of the National Sorghum Producers and represents Oklahoma in leading legislative and regulatory change through effective policy and relationships for a more profitable, diverse and competitive sorghum industry. Producer checkoff dollars are working to increase profitability
for Oklahoma sorghum growers. Phone: 405-612-2843; e-mail: oklahoma@sorghumgrowers. com .
- 26. Oklahoma Soybean Board. oksoy.org. This organization is an affiliate of the American Soybean Association-a nonprofit, farmer-controlled organization working to strengthen soybeans as a viable crop. Phone: 918-343-2326.
- 27. Oklahoma Wheat Commission. okwheat.org\_In 1965, the Oklahoma Wheat Resources Act established the Oklahoma Wheat Commission, and with it a framework for Oklahoma wheat producers to invest in the promotion of their product, hard red winter wheat. The mission of the Oklahoma Wheat Commission is to promote and further develop the marketability and utilization of Oklahoma wheat through international and domestic market development, research and education. Phone: 405-608-4350.
- 28. Oklahoma Wheat Growers Association , oklohamaag.com/oklahoma-wheat-growersassociation.html. The Oklahoma Wheat Growers Association, a member of the National Association of Wheat Growers, is a nonprofit partnership of U.S. wheat growers who-by combining their strengths, voices and ideas-are working to ensure a better future for themselves, their industry and the general public. Phone: 580-233-9516.
- 29. Southwest Dairy Farmers , southwestdairyfarmers.com. The Southwest Dairy Farmers is an alliance of dairy farmers from Texas, New Mexico, Arkansas and Oklahoma. These producers have pooled their resources to provide consumer education in nutrition, promote dairy product use and provide dairy product information. Phone: 918-392-1717.
This is not an exhaustive list of associations, and appearance on this list should not be viewed as an endorsement by the OSU Extension or Oklahoma State University.
## Part 6. Locating Land for Farming
You may already own some farmland or maybe know of some nearby land for sale. If not, you are going to have to start from scratch. This is especially true if you are thinking of purchasing land in parts of the state that you are not already familiar with. Local real estate offices, local producers and ag lenders are likely to be good resources. Another way to get information about available farmland is to use a real estate locator on the Internet. These land locators are generally very easy to use. Most sites work in a similar fashion. On the home page, you indicate your are interested in farmland in Oklahoma. Most listings have photographs and will list contact information for a local real estate agent. Below is a list of online real estate locators that you may want to browse as a starting point.
```
dairyrealty.com
farmlandforsale.net
landandranchsales.com
unitedcountry.com
farmandranchreallestate.com
```
## Evaluating Land
Certainly, some tracts of land are more aesthetically pleasing than others. However, unless you are planning to market the land based on its beauty (camping, hiking, etc.), aesthetics is no necessarily the most important factor. Livestock operations, for example, must utilize land that has the potential for good forage production. For these operations, as more forage is utilized, relative to hay or purchased supplements, winter feeding costs are reduced and net return is increased (other costs being equal).
Careful consideration should be given to the key elements of forage production when choosing land for a livestock operation. These elements are precipitation, soil and the existing forage base. Obviously, precipitation and soil qualities are important in crop production as well as livestock.
Precipitation levels vary throughout Oklahoma. If you are considering two tracts of land in two parts of the state, the tract that receives the most precipitation may be more profitable. However, actual rainfall received is only part of the story. A tract that receives less precipitation but has better soil texture may produce more when compared to a site with more precipitation but poorer soil conditions.
Soil texture is a major factor in determining soil's water retention. Fine textured soils that contain high percentages of clay and silt hold more water than coarse-textured soils such as sands. Fine-textured soils are generally higher in fertility than coarse-textured soils. For forage production, the best choice is generally a medium-textured soil such as loams, sandy loams or silt loams.
Soil depth is also an important factor to consider. Shallow soils have less water-holding capacity than deeper soils. This will reduce the site's ability to produce forage. See Table 6 for soil productivity as affected by depth. Shallow soils may be either naturally occurring or a result of past mismanagement and erosion of the topsoil. Contact the local USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service office for information about soil characteristics of a specific site. Oklahoma has a Standard Soil Survey for all 77 counties with detailed information regarding the precipitation, soil texture, soil depth and the suitability of sites in the county for forage production, wildlife production and crop production.
To the untrained eye, many pastures appear similar. However, there can be great differences in the existing forage base and the ability to stock livestock. Identifying key forage species can help determine if the site has been overgrazed. Plus, some species are more important to the overall goals of the ranch than others. County Extension personnel can provide further advice on the forage production capabilities of land you may wish to purchase.
| Soil Depth Usable by Crop Roots (feet) | Relative Productivity (%) |
|------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| 1 | 35 |
| 2 | 60 |
| 3 | 75 |
| 4 | 85 |
| 5 | 95 |
| 6 | 100 |
Source: So You Want to be a Rancher? Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service.
## Other considerations-a checklist
- · Access to property-crossing another person's property, quality of roads.
- · Wetlands or archeological sites.
- · Zoning and other land use restrictions-pesticide use, burning, etc.
- · Existing easements.
- · Flood potential and drainage.
- · Old dump sites on or around property that may contain hazardous waste.
- · Groundwater contamination.
- · Population growth potential.
- · Uncontrolled hunting and fishing.
- · Low pH, high salt content or low organic matter in soils.
- · Parcel has the right number of acres required.
- · Parcel has the right combination of land--tillable versus pasture.
- · Property is convenient with regard to accessing markets.
- · Property is convenient with regard to accessing support services.
- · Land's location fulfills your family's needs-close to family, friends, and oft-farm employment.
- · Land is located in a farm-friendly community.
- · Site is zoned for agricultural use.
- · Property is accessible--good roads, easements, etc.
- · Easements on the property will not limit your farming goals.
## Part 7. Understanding Land Use Regulations and Restrictions
## Water Quality
Water quality issues are an important set of regulations impacting Oklahoma farmers. The Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry (ODAFF) is the primary regulatory agency of agriculture in the state. In particular, ODAFF's Division of Agricultural Environmental Management Services works with producers and concerned citizens to protect the Oklahoma environment. See their website for more information (ag.ok.gov/divisions/agricultural-environmental-management/). Below are some of the programs administered by the Division of Agricultural Environmental Services.
## Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Program
There are three cases under which a permit may be required for an animal feeding operation. The Agricultural Environmental Management Services Division of the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture issues licenses in these situations and inspects the operations to protect water quality: 1. Large CAFO: Animals are confined in an area without growing vegetation -including under roof-for more than 45 days in a 12-month period, and the operation houses more than the following number of animals:
| 1,000 | beef cattle or heifers |
|---------|------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1,000 | veal calves |
| 700 | mature dairy cattle |
| 2,500 | swine weighing more than 55 pounds |
| 10,000 | swine weighing less than 55 pounds |
| 5,000 | ducks with liquid manure handling system |
| 30,000 | laying hens or chickens with liquid-manure handling system |
| 30,000 | ducks with dry-manure handling system |
| 82,000 | laying hens with dry-manure handling system |
| 125,000 | meat chickens with dry-manure handling system |
| 55,000 | turkeys |
| 10,000 | lambs or sheep |
| 500 | horses |
- 2. Medium CAFO: Animals are confined in an area without growing vegetation-including under roof-for more than 45 days in a 12-month period, a stream or man-made conveyance drains the confinement area, and the operation houses more than the following number of animals:
300
beef cattle or heifers
300
veal calves
200
mature dairy cattle
750
swine weighing more than 55 pounds
3,000 10,000 37,500 1,500
## ODAFF Website:
ag.ok.gov/divisions/ agriculturalenvironmentalmanagement/
25,000 37,500 16,500
1,500
3,000
150
3. Designated CAFO: An agent of the federal or state regulatory agency has inspected the operation and determined that it is causing water quality degradation, regardless of animal numbers.
In addition, Swine Operations with more than 2,500 animals larger that 55 pounds or 10,000 animals less 55 pounds, fall under the State Licensed Managed Feeding Operation, or LMFO program. This program is also administered by the Agricultural Environmental Management Services Division of the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture.
## Registered Poultry Feeding Operators and Applicators Program
The Registered Poultry Feeding Operations Program is designed to help control nonpoint source runoff and discharges from poultry waste application of poultry feeding operations. This program monitors poultry waste application to land or removal from these operations and assists in ensuring beneficial use of poultry waste while preventing adverse effects to the waters of the state of Oklahoma. All poultry farmers whose farms create more than 10 tons of litter per year are required to become licensed in this program.
People who apply poultry litter must apply for a second poultry applicator license. There are two applicator classifications: 1) a private applicator, and 2) a commercial applicator. A private applicator is anyone who applies poultry litter on his or anyone else's property, but does not receive monetary compensation for the application. Note: a poultry operator who applies litter on his own property also must be licensed as a private applicator. Commercial applicators are people who receive monetary compensation for their services. The main difference in the two types of applicants is the amount of the license fee.
All poultry operators, private and commercial applicators, must receive 9 hours of initial poultry waste management training within one year of starting their business. Every year thereafter, they must receive 2 hours of continuing education training. The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service conducts this training program. Contact your county agricultural extension educator for more details.
## Pest Control
The ODAFF's Consumer Protection Services division ensures and enforces quality standards for agricultural products and regulates pesticide use. The laws regulated by this division impact the goods and services associated with Oklahoma's apiary, aglime, ornamental plant, vegetable plant, feed, seed, fertilizer and pesticide industries. See their website for more information ag.ok. gov/pesticides/. Here are some examples of the programs this division administers.
## Pesticide Applicators Law
The use of pesticides in Oklahoma is governed by the Pesticide Applicators Law, covering not only agricultural applications such as crop spraying and fumigating of grain bins, but also regulating the pest control industry, including the control of termites, weeds, roaches, etc.
## Oklahoma Insect Pest & Plant Disease Law
The Oklahoma Insect Pest & Plant Disease Law provides for ongoing routine inspection of nursery and floral stock, with the goal of minimizing the spread of insect pests and plant diseases in such products' commercial distribution. The law requires the licensing of anyone engaged in the business of selling such products called the Nursery & Dealers Certificate. You do not need a license if you sell only cut flowers or cut Christmas trees.
## Oklahoma Noxious Weed Law
The Oklahoma Noxious Weed Law designates three plants-musk thistle, Scotch thistle and Canada thistle-as noxious weeds. There are currently no funds available to assist landowners with the cost associated with the control of thistles. Individuals wishing to report thistle infestations that are not being controlled can file a complaint, and the landowner will be notified and informed.
## Food Safety
ODAFF's Food Safety division assures the citizens of Oklahoma the food supply de-rived from meat, poultry, eggs and milk is safe, wholesome and properly labeled. Food Safety is divided into programs for dairy, meat, organic food, and poultry and egg. See their website for more information ag.ok.gov/divisions/food-safety/.
For example, in the dairy section, inspectors collect samples of milk from the dairy farms and from each product packaged by the processing plants at least four out of each six-month period. The samples are analyzed to determine if the milk or packaged dairy products meet the required federal safety standards. The meat section supplies in-formation about inspection, compliance, applications, certifications, current operators and other resources. The poultry and egg section provides inspection and certification of poultry, eggs and egg products to ensure customer satisfaction and safety at all levels.
## Part 8. Gaining Access to Markets
In terms of getting your product into customer hands, most Oklahoma farmers will choose from three options:
- 1. Direct Marketing-sell products directly to customers, such as through a farmers market or a cattle sale.
- 2. Cooperative Membership-sell products to a cooperative that handles the marketing, often the primary method for grain and fluid milk sales.
3. Agreements with Processors/Distributors-sell products to companies who process and/or distribute the products. A dairy farm may sell to a processor who also retails products or a cattle producer might sell to a meat packing facility.
However it is accomplished, the producer needs a marketing plan. The marketing plan outlines what you will sell to whom, where and for how much. Some basic components of a marketing plan will answer the following questions:
- 1. How much time and effort do I personally want to put into the marketing of my product?
- 2. Do I have the skills to deal effectively with customers?
- 3. Who is my customer? Individuals? Companies? Cooperatives? Government?
- 4. Do I need to store my product past harvest? How will this be done?
- 5. Does my product need to be specially packaged? What about labeling?
- 6. How will I transport my product to market?
- 7. Will I need product liability insurance?
- 8. What are the regulations that apply to the sale of my product?
- 9. What is my pricing strategy?
## Direct Marketing
Some products may lend themselves to direct marketing more than others. For example, not many individuals purchase wheat grain for final use. Consumers might like to purchase raw milk from dairies, but government regulations are strict regarding processing of milk for consumption. Processing is probably too expensive for most family-owned dairies. Pumpkins, melons and gourds, on the other hand, are popular consumer commodities in the fall. In fact, families often like to pick their own pumpkins right out of the pumpkin patch. According to the USDA, the most popular farm products that are sold through direct marketing include fruits, vegetables, nuts, honey, meats, eggs, flowers, plants, herbs, spices, specialty crops, Christmas trees and value-added products such as maple sugar candies, cider, jellies, preserves, canned food and firewood.
If you like the idea of direct marketing and think your product is a good candidate for it, research your customers.
- · Who are your customers? How old are they? Are they male or female?
- How do customers use your product? When and where do they use your product?
- How much disposable income do your customers have to spend on your product?
- Are your customers willing and able to come to you or do you need to go to them?
- What will your customers expect in terms of quality product and quality service?
- Will you need to educate your customers about your product?
You will also need to determine where your product will be sold.
- · Farmers market
- Roadside stand
- Sales/Auctions
- Restaurants
- Your field (pick your own operation)
- Internet
Farmer Direct Marketing, a special division of the USDA, provides some resources for farmers engaged in direct marketing. One service they provide is a directory of farmers markets listed by state. Their website and this directory may be accessed at ams.usda.gov/local-food-directories/ farmersmarkets
## Cooperative Membership
Cooperatives are owned by their members. Like other businesses, cooperatives strive to achieve a profit for their owners. Unlike other businesses, profits are returned to owners/members based on how much they use the cooperative, and not on their share of ownership. Cooperative profits are distributed to members, most of who reside in the local community.
Even if you've decided to become a member of an agricultural cooperative, you still have a number of questions that your marketing plan must answer.
- Should product be sold at harvest for cash?
- Should product be held in on-farm storage for sale at a later date?
- Should product be stored in a commercial elevator for sale at a later date?
- Should product be sold in a cash forward contract?
- Should product be sold with delayed pricing?
- Should product be sold with a basis contract?
Marketing decisions may be improved by following a set procedure.
- The target price should be calculated based on production costs and cash flow needs.
- Marketing alternatives available in the area should be determined.
- The price each alternative is offering should be calculated.
- The risk involved with each alternative, relative to the producer's risk-bearing ability, should be considered.
## Agreements with Processors/Distributors
Most dairy farmers belong to dairy cooperatives, but others sell to dairy manufacturing firms including Braun's, Farm Fresh, Hiland, Gilt Edge and others. Some of these plants, like Braun's, are vertically integrated and have their own dairy operation. Even so, they will still buy from other producers, typically through exclusive contracts.
As for fed cattle, a growing number are marketed through marketing agreements and contracts, participation in an alliance or membership in a cooperative. A strategic alliance can increase revenues and/or reduce costs through vertical affiliations. Several producer groups have worked to secure marketing agreements with beef packers and make them available to beef cattle producers. Breed association-sponsored, commercial, and natural/implant-free alliances may be
available to producers. The Extension fact sheet AGEC-614, Update on Beef Industry Alliances provides information about beef industry alliances. Producers should contact the Alliance Program in advance to deter-mine the specific requirements of the alliance. Many alliances are available for producer participation but differ in the program's basic requirements. Advantages of participating in a strategic alliance are that the market is established by the demands of the alliance, delivery dates and location are negotiable, producers know ahead of time of what type of product they need to produce, and the cattle prices are based on the retail value of the final product. Some disadvantages include the need for larger lots and specific breeds or bred types with very specific nutrition and health programs. Producers will need to make initial plans several months ahead.
The poultry industry is highly vertically integrated. For instance, nearly all broilers grown in Oklahoma are produced under some contract between a poultry company and the grower. The poultry company furnishes chicks and feed, and supervises growth of the broilers through a service person. The grower provides the broiler house, equipment, labor and normal operating expenditures. The grower is paid per pound of usable broiler produced. The largest poultry processing and distribution companies may own, or mostly own, the enterprises involved in hatching and growing. The pork industry also is moving in this same direction.
Farmers
Market
Directory:
oklahomaagritourism.
oklahomaagritourism.
oklahomaagritourism.
oklahomaagritourism.
## Part 9. Tax Considerations
As with any for-profit business, there are a number of tax issues to consider when you start farming. A good resource for farm tax information is Internal Revenue Service (IRS) publication 225, The Farmer's Tax Guide . This guide explains the need for good records and other information needed to better begin a farm business and is available on the IRS website, irs.gov. For new farmers and ranchers, the most likely problems related to taxes include
- 1. Payroll Taxes
- 2. Self-Employment Tax
- 3. Hobby versus Business Losses
- 4. Property Tax and Tax-Exemption
## Payroll Taxes
Payroll taxes are something you will need to account for if you have employees.
- A taxpayer identification number (TIN) must be obtained by filing form SS-4 with the IRS. A printable copy of this form can be downloaded from the IRS's website and is located atirs.gov/ pub/irss-pdf/iss4.pdf . A publication with instructions for completing the form is located atirs. gov/pub/irss-pdf/iss4.pdf . (This form and all IRS publications shown here may change each tax year. If you are in doubt as to whether you have the latest version of a form or publication, start out on the IRS homepage, irs.gov , and then find the forms through their search engine.)
Federal and State Income Tax and Social Security and Medicare taxes must be withheld and deposited.
- Forms W-2 (wage and tax statement), W-3 (transmittal of wage and tax statements), and 943 (employers annual federal return form for agricultural employees) must be filed by January 31 for the previous calendar year. The IRS Publication 51, Agricultural Employer's Guide , will explain your responsibilities as an agricultural employer. The most recent version of this publication can be found on the IRS website atirs.gov/pub/irss-pdf/p51.pdf . Among other things, the publication discusses the following topics:
- Social Security and Medicare taxes,
- Income tax withholdings,
- Form 943 Employer's Annual Federal Tax Return for Agricultural Employees,
- Records you should keep, and
- Income tax withholding tables.
Four IRS Taxpayer Assistance Centers are located in the state. Contact the one nearest you for answers to your tax questions.
Enid IRS Taxpayer Assistance Center 601 S. Harding Enid, OK 73703 580-234-5417
IRS Website:irs.gov
Self-Employment Tax
Individuals who are in business for themselves must report income and expenses from that business on IRS Schedule C (Profit or Loss from Business - Sole Proprietorship) or Schedule F (Profit or Loss from Farming), if the net income is at least $400. This net in-come is subject to a 15.3% self-employment tax rate. For 2020, the maximum amount of net self-employment tax earnings, subject to the social security portion of the self-employment tax, is $137,700 and is subject only to a tax rate of 12.4%. Note the maximum amount changes annually and has been increasing over time. There is no maximum limit for the 2.9% rate for Medicare tax. For more information, refer to Publication 225, Farmer's Tax Guide, located on the IRS website atirs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p225.pdf. Other requirements:
Self-employment taxes are in addition to income tax due when net income for self-employment is combined with the individual's income from other sources on Form 1040.
- · Self-employed individuals must make quarterly deposits of estimated income tax to avoid tax penalties.
If more than two-thirds of total gross income for all sources is from farming or ranching, quarterly estimated tax payments are not required if the individual's tax return is filed by March 1. For more information, refer to Publication 505, Tax Withholding and Estimated Tax , located on the IRS website atirs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/pf505.pdf.
It is important to pay self-employment tax to ensure that an individual has social security coverage for old age, disability, survivor benefits and hospital insurance benefits (Medicare). The farm optional method for paying self-employment allows farmers and ranchers to voluntarily pay self-employment taxes and acquire social security coverage in low income years. For additional information covering self-employment taxes, please refer to the most recent version of Publication 225, Farmer's Tax Guide , located on the IRS website at irs.gov/pub/irss-pdf/p225.pdf.
Farmers and ranchers must be insured under the social security system before they can begin receiving social benefits. To be eligible for disability benefits, an individual must have the required quarters of coverage. For the latest explanation of the number of credits needed to be insured and the benefits available to a farmer and the family under the social security program, visit the local Social Security Administration (SSA) office or visit the SSA website at ssa.gov.
## Hobby versus Business Losses
If a business shows no intent to make a profit, the IRS assumes the activity is a hobby and will dessallow deductions for expenses in excess of income. The general test to measure profit motive is whether the activity has generated a profit in any three out of five consecutive tax years. This "hobby loss" test does not determine that a business must be considered a hobby, but only allows the IRS to look at the business in more detail. The actual decision of whether a business should be considered for profit is based on nine factors set forth in IRS regulations. Taxpayers can protect themselves by keeping good records that indicate a profit motive based on those nine factors.
1. Does the producer look like a business? For instance, good books and records are kept. Also, methods of operation are changed if they are not working, and techniques that hope to improve efficiency are attempted.
## Property tax and sales tax exemption
Agricultural land and property in Oklahoma are taxable. Individual counties determine the acreage needed to be deemed agricultural status. Forty acres or more will normally qualify. Some counties allow a smaller acreage. Individual counties also determine property tax rates and listings for agricultural machinery, equipment and/or livestock. Each school district, career technology district, county government and other units of government using a property tax will set its rate from year to year within the limits set by law. In addition, each county has the authority to vote to exempt all household personal property and livestock in support of a farm family from property tax. Many counties have passed this exemption. However, when such an exemption is passed by the voters, there is a one-time adjustment of property tax rates to offset the reduction in revenue to local government bodies. A homestead exemption can provide a reduction in property tax. Persons who own homes in the county are eligible for a homestead exemption provided the home is their actual permanent residence and they are citizens of Oklahoma. A homestead is exempt from ad valorem taxation up to $1,000 of the assessed value (the property's taxable valuation less $1,000). An additional homestead exemption is allowed to any homeowner who is eligible for a homestead exemption and whose gross household income is $20,000 or less for the preceding year. You must file for the homestead exemption at your county assessor's office. It is not automatic. The assessment date is January 1st, so it is a good idea to file by that date in the year in which you first acquire your home. Periodically thereafter, the assessor will contact you to confirm your homestead status.
Agricultural producers are able to file for agricultural sales tax exemption. Sales tax exemption applies to certain farm supplies and machinery and equipment purchases. The exemption form must be filed with the county assessor. You must remain in compliance with property taxes to maintain this status. Sales tax exemption forms and assistance in filing them are available at the county assessor's office.
505:
irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/ p505.pdf
Motor fuel for farm tractors or stationary engines is exempt from fuel taxes. The exempt sale of motor fuel for farm tractors or stationary engines owned or leased, and operated by any person and used exclusively for agricultural purposes is perfected by a refund claim filed by the consumer. The refund claim must be received by the Tax Commission within three (3) years following the last day of the calendar month in which the tax was paid. Refund claims for agricultural use of gasoline shall be less the $0.0208 levied under the Motor Fuel Tax Code for gasoline used or consumed for agricultural purposes.
Property Tax Rates: rd.okstate.edu/ (choose CountyTraining Program, Related Publications)
## Part 10. Government Programs
The United States Department of Agriculture has provided programs to assist new and beginning farmers and ranchers since the early 1990s. Many of those programs are reauthorized every five years in the farm bill. The Agricultural Improvement Act of 2018 was signed into law on December 28, 2019. The bill largely extended the programs from the Agricultural Act of 2014, but additional incentives were provided for new and beginning producers in certain programs. For additional details on these programs visit one of the sites listed at the bottom of this section. Major changes in the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act affecting producers include:
- · Expanded limits for certain types of farm ownership loans;
- · Updated payment calculations for commodity programs, Agriculture Risk Coverage county (ARC-CO), Agriculture Risk Coverage individual (ARC-IC), and Price Loss Coverage (PLC);
- · Offered the opportunity to change an election among ARC-CO, ARC-IC and PLC for each crop year in 2021, 2022, and 2023;
- · Offered landowners the opportunity to update payment yields;
- · Eliminated commodity program payments on base acres when an entire farm number had been consistently in grass for an extended period of time;
- · Authorized industrial hemp as a commodity eligible for crop insurance and other farm bill programs;
- · Reauthorized a permanent livestock disaster assistance program (including the Livestock Indemnity Program, the Livestock Forage Program, and the Emergency Assistance for Livestock, Honeybees and Farm-Raised Fish Program) that will cover losses from 2019 to 2023;
- · Increased payment limits for certain livestock disaster programs in this bill and in the 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act;
- · Extended crop insurance programs;
- · Clarified the role of cover crops as good farming practices for crop insurance;
- · Extended authorization of the Dairy Margin Coverage program from the 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act until 2023;
- · Increased the enrollment acreage cap for the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) through 2023;
- · Adjusted CRP contract rates were reduced initially in the 2018 bill, the program has subsequently increased rates to encourage enrollment;
- · Expanded funds for the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP);
- · Created the Grassland Conservation Initiative for farms with base acres in grass that were no longer eligible for commodity program payments
Beginning farmers and ranchers (and socially disadvantaged farmers) may also be eligible for:
- · NAP service fee waiver;
- · Reduced crop insurance premiums or higher premium subsidies;
- · A special allocation of FSA loan funding (including farm ownership loans and down payment loans).
To be eligible for these programs, certain requirements must be met. Additional requirements must be met.
- · Producers whose average AGI exceeds $900,000 are not eligible to receive payments or benefits from most programs administered by the Farm Service Agency (FSA) and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).
- · Producers who participate in ARC or PLC are required to provide significant contributions to the farming operation to be considered as actively engaged in farming.
## Base Reallocation and Yield Updates
Owners of farms that participate in ARC or PLC for the 2014-2018 crops have a one-time opportunity in 2014 (or possibly 2015) to: (1) retain current base acres or (2) reallocate base acres (excluding cotton bases). The new commodity programs are paid on base acres of covered commodities (instead of planted acres). Covered commodities include wheat, oats, barley, corn, grain sorghum, rice, soybeans, sunflower seed, rapeseed, canola, safflower, flaxseed, mustard seed, cambe and sesame seed, dry peas, lentils, small chickpeas, large chikpeas and peanuts. Landowners may choose to reallocate their historical base acres to covered commodities planted from 2009 through 2012. Base acre reallocation is proportionate to the four-year average (2009-2012) of planted covered commodities. Presented planted acres are also included in the base reallocation calculations. Upland cotton is no longer considered a covered commodity. All cotton base acres on each farm as of September 30, 2013 are converted to generic base acres. No commodity program payments will be received if cotton is planted on generic base acres. However, generic base may be planted to another covered commodity and that commodity would be eligible for ARC or PLC payments. Unless a covered commodity is planted on generic base acres in a given year, the generic base acres are not relevant (as far as the commodity payment calculation).
The updated yield for each covered commodity is equal to 90% of the farm's 2008-2012 average yield per planted acre, excluding any year when no acreage was planted to the covered commodity. Payment yields are used in the PLC payment calculation.
## Commodity Program Enrollment
All of the producers on a farm must make a unanimous election of: (1) PLC/ARC-county on a covered-commodity-by-covered-commodity basis; or (2) ARC-farm for all covered commodities per farm number. If ARC-individual coverage is chosen, every covered commodity on each farm number must be enrolled in ARC. The election between ARC and PLC will be made in 2019 for the 2019 and 2020 crop years, but can be changed for the 2021, 2022 and 2023 crop years. If the sum of the base acres on a farm is 10 acres or less, no PLC or ARC payments will be issued, unless the producer is a socially disadvantaged farmer or rancher or is a limited resource farmer or rancher. Payments for PLC and ARC are issued after the end of the respective crop year, but not before Oct. 1. So for example, the 2020 crop marketing year for wheat ends on May 31, 2021. If a payment is triggered for ARC and PLC in the 2020 crop year, it would be issued after October 1, 2021. Base acres are based on historical use of the farm. For example, a farm with historical wheat base would enroll in either PLC or ARC-CO under wheat. However, that producer could grow cotton instead without a penalty. Crop reporting is required for farms enrolled in Farm Service Agency programs. Additional information and tools are available affarmers.gov.
Producers also have the option to participate in the marketing loan program or loan deficiency program for loan commodities. Loan commodities include wheat, oats, barley, corn, grain sorghum, upland cotton, extra long staple cotton, long grain rice, medium grain rice, peanuts, soybeans, other oilseeds, graded wool, non-graded wool, mohair, honey, dry peas, lentils, small chickeps and large chicpeaks.
## Price Loss Coverage (PLC)
The PLC program is a price safety net program where a payment is triggered when the marketing year average price falls below the effective reference price. These references prices have a minimum level established in the 2014 farm bill (Table 1). However, the price that triggers a PLC payment can go up over time should marketing year prices for a commodity be sustained at higher level than the reference price for a prolonged period. This is called the effective reference price. If the marketing year price falls below the effective reference price, a PLC payment will be issued. The PLC payment rate equals the effective reference price minus the marketing year average price. A producer's PLC payment is equal to the payment rate times the payment yield times 85% times base acres for the crop. It is possible that if the price drops below the reference price and yields are at normal levels, PLC could result in a higher payment than ARC in a given year.
| Crop | 2014 PLC Reference Price |
|----------------|----------------------------|
| Barley | 4.95/bushel |
| Canola | 0.20/pound |
| Corn | 3.70/bushel |
| Cotton | NA |
| Grain Soghurum | 3.95/bushel |
| Peanuts | 0.26/pound |
| Oats | 2.40/bushel |
| Rice | 0.14/pound |
| Seed Cotton | 0.36/pound |
| Soybeans | 8.40/bushel |
| Wheat | 5.50/bushel |
## ARC
As an alternative to PLC, producers of covered commodities have the option to en-roll in a revenue protection program, called Agricultural Risk Coverage (ARC). There are options to enroll in either farm-level coverage (ARC-IC) or county-level coverage (ARC-CO). ARC triggers a payment when the actual revenue is below a guaranteed level established at the beginning of the crop year.
The ARC-CO program is paid on 85% of base acreage of the farm commodity while the ARC-IC program is paid on 65% of total base acreage for the FSAM farm including all commodities. It is important to note that with county-level coverage, producers could have a loss on their own farm, but would not receive a payment if the county does not suffer a loss as well. The ARC payment is limited to 10% of the benchmark revenue so payments would be issued when actual revenue (county or farm) is between 76% and 86% of the benchmark revenue. ARC-CO payments are issued when the actual county crop revenue of a covered commodity is less than the ARC-CO guarantee for the covered commodity and are based on county data, not farm data. Both the guarantee and actual revenue are computed using base acres, not planted acres. The ARC-CO payment is equal to 85% of the base acres of the covered commodity times the difference between the county guarantee and the actual county crop revenue for the covered commodity. Payments for ARC-CO may not exceed 10% of the benchmark county revenue (the ARC guaranteed price times the ARC county guarantee yield).
The ARC-IC calculation includes all covered commodities planted on the FSA farm number. The benchmark revenue for ARC-IC is calculated as the five-year Olympic average of the sum of the revenues (yield times price) for all covered commodities on the farm using actual planted acres of the covered commodities. Payments are issued when the actual individual crop revenues, summed across all covered commodities on the farm, are less than ARC-IC guarantees summed across those covered commodities on the farm. The farm, for ARC-IC purposes, is the sum of the producer's interest in all ARC farms in the state. The ARC-IC payment is equal to 65% of the sum of the base acres of all covered commodities on the farm, times the difference between the individual guarantee revenue and the actual individual crop revenue across all covered commodities planted on the farm. Like ARC-CO, the payments for ARC-IC may not exceed 10% of the individual benchmark revenue.
## MARKETING ASSISTANCE LOANS
Nonrecourse marketing assistance loans (MALS) and loan deficiency payment (LDPs) are extended for the 2019 - 2023 crops of wheat, corn, grain sorghum, barley, oats, up-land cotton, extra-long staple cotton, long grain rice, medium grain rice, soybeans, other oilseeds (including sunflower seed, rapeseed, canola, safflower, flaxseed, mustard seed, crambe and sesame seed), dry peas, lentils, small chickpeas, large chickpeas, graded and nongraded wool, mohair, honey, unshorn pelts and peanuts. Provisions are mostly unchanged from the 2014 farm bill, except marketing loan gains and loan deficiency payments are subject to payment limitations.
## CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM (CRP)
The CRP acreage cap was increased under the 2018 farm bill gradually until 2023. Each year a producer can decide if they would like to offer their land to USDA Farm Service Agency for set aside and conservation purposes, and in return receive a rental payment. Beginning farmers and ranchers who wish to transition land out of CRP and back into production can apply for the Transition Incentives Program (TIP) to return land to production. The owner or operator of the land with the expiring CRP contract must agree to sell, have a contract to sell, or least the land for 5 years to a beginning producer. In addition, the landowner agrees to let the beginning producer make improvements under an approved conservation plan for the final two years of the CRP contract.
## FARM OPERATING LOANS AND MICROLOANS
Farm Operating Direct and Guaranteed Loan Programs continue to provide low-interest financing for producers to purchase farm and ranch operating inputs. Changes include an expansion of the types of entities eligible, favorable interest rates for joint financing arrangements, increases in loan limits for microloans, availability of youth loans in urban areas, and elimination of term limits for guaranteed operating loans.
## FARM OWNERSHIP LOANS
Farm Ownership Direct and Guaranteed Loan Programs provide low-interest financing for producers to purchase farms and ranches and other real estate related needs. The 2018 farm bill revisions expanded the types of entities eligible, provide favorable interest rates for joint financing arrangements, provide a larger percent guarantee on guaranteed conservation loans, increase the loan limits for the down payment program, and authorize a relending program to assist Native American producers purchase fractionated interests of land.
## DISASTER PROGRAMS
Natural and weather disasters can be especially difficult for beginning producers. The 2018 farm bill reauthorizes disaster programs, in addition to crop insurance, livestock revenue protection insurance, and non-insured disaster protection (NAP). The following four disaster programs authorized by the 2008 Farm Bill were extended indefinitely in the 2014 farm bill. The programs are made retroactive to Oct. 1, 2011, which means that losses from years prior to the 2014 Farm Bill implementation were covered. As of the 2014 farm bill, producers were no longer required to purchase crop insurance or NAP coverage to be eligible for these programs (the risk management purchase requirement) as mandated by the 2008 Farm Bill.
## LIVESTOCK FORAGE DISASTER PROGRAM (LPF)
LFP provides compensation to eligible livestock producers that have suffered grazing losses due to drought or fire on land that is native or improved pastureland with permanent vegetative cover or that is planted specifically for grazing. LFP payments for drought are equal to 60% of the monthly feed cost for up to five months, depending upon the severity of the drought. LFP payments for fire on federally managed rangeland are equal to 50% of the monthly feed cost for the number of days the producer is prohibited from grazing the managed rangeland, not to exceed 180 calendar days. The LFP sign-up process began in April 2014 and has extended to 2023 under the 2018 farm bill. Producers who owned livestock from Oct. 1, 2011 to the current date should visit their local FSA office to find out more about the LFP program.
## LIVESTOCK INDEMNITY PROGRAM (LIP)
LIP provides benefits to livestock producers for livestock deaths in excess of normal mortality caused by adverse weather or by attacks by animals reintroduced into the wild by the federal government. LIP payments are equal to 75% of the average fair market value of the livestock. For example, livestock killed due to a wildfire, a severe freeze, or lightening strikes may be eligible. In addition, livestock that had to be sold due to severe injury may also be eligible for a LIP payment for the difference in the LIP indemnity rate and discounted value received at market. Notice of loss must occur within 30 days and the deaths must be documented.
## EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE FOR LIVESTOCK, HONEYBEES AND FARMRAISED FISH (ELAP)
ELAP provides emergency assistance to eligible producers of livestock, honeybees and farmers raised fish for losses due to disease (including cattle tick fever), adverse weather or other conditions, such as blizzards and wildfires, not covered by LFP and LIP. Total payments are capped at $20 million in a fiscal year.
## TREE ASSISTANCE PROGRAM (TAP)
TAP provides financial assistance to qualifying orchards and nursery tree growers to replant or rehabilitate eligible trees, bushes, and vines damaged by natural disasters. For example, severe freeze that requires grape vines in vineyards to be pulled out and replanted could be eligible for the TAP program. As with other disaster programs, notice of loss must be made when the damage becomes apparent, and the damage must be documented prior to any sort of disposal.
For more information:
extension.okstate.edu/programs/ag-policy-and-law/farmers.gov
newfarmers.usda.gov
## For more
information on OSU Enterprise Budget Software see: agecon. okstate.edu/budgets/
Seagecon.okstate.edu/budgets for information on OSU Enterprise Budget Software.
| PRODUCTION | Wt. | Unit | Price/Cwt | Quantity | Total | $/Head | |
|--------------------------------|--------------------------------------|----------|-------------|------------|----------|----------|--------|
| Steer Calves | 524.3 | Lbs. | $163.00 | 41.82 Hd. | $35,737 | $357.37 | |
| Heifer Calves | 514.7 | Lbs. | $143.00 | 16.82 Hd. | $12,377 | $123.77 | |
| Cull Cows | 1,150.0 | Lbs. | $57.00 | 20.00 Hd. | $13,110 | $131.10 | |
| Cull Replacement Heifers | 825.0 | Lbs. | $133.00 | 5.00 Hd. | $5,486 | $54.86 | |
| Cull Bulls | 1,750.0 | Lbs. | $80.00 | 1.00 Hd. | - | - | |
| Other Income | Head | - | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
| Total Receipts | | | | | 66,711$ | 66.711$ | |
| OPERATING INPUTS | | | Unit | Price | Quantity | Total | $/Head |
| Paste | Head | $260.00 | 1 | $26,000 | $260.00 | | |
| Hay | Head | $67.68 | 1 | $6,768 | $67.68 | | |
| Grain | Head | - | 1 | - | - | - | |
| Protein Supplement | Head | $73.82 | 1 | $7,382 | $73.82 | | |
| Salt | Head | - | 1 | - | - | - | |
| Minerals | Head | $13.36 | 1 | $1,336 | $13.36 | | |
| Other Feed Additives | Head | - | 1 | - | - | - | |
| Veet Services/Medicine | Head | $35.00 | 1 | -$3,500 | $35.00 | | |
| Vet Supplies | Head | $6.84 | 1 | $684 | $6.84 | | |
| Marketing | Head | $8.36 | 1 | $836 | $8.36 | | |
| Mach/Equip Fuel, Lube, Repairs | Head | $62.63 | 1 | $6,263 | $62.63 | | |
| Machinery/Equipment Labor | Hrs. | $15.00 | 3.35 | $5,025 | $50.25 | | |
| Other Labor | Hrs. | $15.00 | 5.90 | $8,850 | $88.50 | | |
| Other Expenses | Head | $47.00 | 1 | $4,700 | $47.00 | | |
| Annual Operating Capital | Dollars | 4.50% | $484.82 | $2,182 | $21.82 | | |
| Total Operating Costs | Return's Above Total Operating Costs | (6,(815) | $73,526 | $735.26 | $(68.15) | | |
| FIXED COSTS | Unit | Rate | Total | $/Head | | | |
| Machinery/Equipment | Interest at | Dollars | 4.75% | $632 | $6.32 | | |
| Taxes at | Dollars | 1.00% | $244 | $2.44 | | | |
| Insurance | Dollars | 0.85% | $113 | $1.13 | | | |
| Depreciation | Dollars | | | $2,179 | $21.79 | | |
| Livestock | Interest at | Dollars | 4.75% | $5,477 | $54.77 | | |
| Taxes at | Dollars | 1.00% | 1.336 | $13.36 | | | |
| Insurance | Dollars | 0.85% | $980 | $9.80 | | | |
| Depreciation | Dollars | $/Acre | $1,700 | $17.00 | | | |
| Land | Taxes at | Dollars | 0.00% | - | | | |
| Total Fixed Costs | Dollars | 0.00% | $12,661 | $126.61 | | | |
| FIXED COSTS | Unit | Rate | Total | $/Head | |
|---------------------|-----------------------------------|----------|---------|----------|--------|
| Machinery/Equipment | Interest at | Dollars | 4.75% | $632 | $6.32 |
| Taxes at | Dollars | 1.00% | $244 | $2.44 | |
| Insurance | Dollars | 0.85% | $113 | $1.13 | |
| Depreciation | Dollars | 0.00% | $2,179 | $21.79 | |
| Livestock | Interest at | Dollars | 4.75% | $5,477 | $54.77 |
| Taxes at | Dollars | 1.00% | $1,336 | $13.36 | |
| Insurance | Dollars | 0.85% | $980 | $9.80 | |
| Depreciation | Dollars | 0.00% | $1,700 | $17.00 | |
| Land | $/Acre | $/Acre | - | - | |
| Interest at | Dollars | 0.00% | - | - | |
| Taxes at | Dollars | 0.00% | $12,661 | $126.61 | |
| Total Fixed Costs | Returns Above All Specified Costs | (19,476) | $861,87 | $861.87 | |
Payne County - Central Oklahoma
Used machinery complement 25% heifer replacement rate with 0 purchased and 25 raised
Primary forages - Native
See www.agecon.oksstate.edu/budgets for information on OSU Enterprise Budget Software.
## Stocker Enterprise Budget - 150 Steers (sample only)
November purchase - 450 pounds, March sale - 669 pounds
$.38/pound gain pasture cost
Projected sale price determined by beefbasis.com.
| PRODUCTION | PRODUCTION | Wt. | Unit | Price/Cwt | Quantity | S/Head |
|-------------------------------------|--------------|---------|-----------|-------------|------------|----------|
| Stockers | 669 | Lbs. | $142.50 | 0.990 Hd. | $944.21 | |
| Other Income | Head | - | 0.990 Hd. | - | - | |
| Total Receipts | | | | | $944.21 | |
| OPERATING INPUTS: | | | | | | |
| STOCKERS | 450 | Unit | Price | Quantity | $/Head | |
| Pasture | Head | $11.43 | 1 | Hd. | $765.00 | |
| Hay | Head | $8.50 | 1 | $8.50 | $91.43 | |
| Grain | Head | - | 1 | - | - | |
| Protein Supplement | Head | - | 1 | - | - | |
| Salt | Head | $0.12 | 1 | $0.12 | $0.36 | |
| Minerals | Head | $0.36 | 1 | $0.36 | - | |
| Other Feed Additives | Head | - | 1 | - | - | |
| Vet Services/Medicine | Head | $7.14 | 1 | $7.14 | $7.14 | |
| Vet Supplies | Head | $0.98 | 1 | $0.98 | $8.00 | |
| Marketing | Head | $8.00 | 1 | $8.00 | $8.00 | |
| Mach/Equip Fuel, Lube, Repairs | Head | $14.44 | 1 | $14.44 | $14.44 | |
| Machinery/Equipment Labor | Hrs. | 15.00 | 1.60 | $24.00 | $24.00 | |
| Other Labor | Hrs. | 15.00 | 1.50 | $22.50 | $22.50 | |
| Other Expenses | Head | 2.50 | 1 | $2.50 | $2.50 | |
| Annual Operating Capital | Dollars | 4.50% | 295.77 | $13.22 | $13.22 | |
| Total Operating Costs | | | | | $958.19 | |
| Returns Above Total Operating Costs | | | | | (13.98) | |
| FIXED COSTS | | Unit | Rate | $/Head | | |
| Machinery/Equipment | $/value | | | | | |
| Interest at | Dollars | 4.75% | <fcel> | $2.58 | $2.58 | |
| Taxes at | Dollars | 1.00% | <fcel> | $0.98 | $0.98 | |
| Insurance | Dollars | 0.85% | <fcel> | $0.46 | $0.46 | |
| Depreciation | Dollars | $/Acres | <fcel> | $8.39 | -$ | |
| Land | Dollars | 0.00% | <fcel> | - | | |
| Interest at | Dollars | Dollars | 0.00% | - | | |
| Taxes at | Dollars | Dolls | - | - | | |
| Total Fixed Costs | | | | $12.41 | | |
| Total Costs (Operating +Fixed) | | | | | $970.60 | |
| Returns Above all Specified Costs | | | | | (26.39) | |
Caddo County - Southwest Oklahoma
Caddo County - Southwest Oklahoma
Average daily gain - 2 lbs., 1% death loss
Stocker phase - 120 days Used machinery complement
Primary forage - Small Grain
| Break-Even Purchase Price ($/cwt.) | Break-Even Selling Price ($/cwt.) | | |
|--------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|-----------------------|---------|
| Above Operating Costs | $166.89 | Above Operating Costs | $144.61 |
| Above Total Costs | 164.14 | Above Total Costs | $146.48 |
## Dryland Wheat Enterprise Budget - Grain only
1,000 acres farmed, 160 acres for this budget 2021 harvest price projection
Pasture value $.38 per pound gain
Low tillage
| PRODUCTION | Units | Price | Quantity | Total $/Acre |
|--------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|---------|------------|-----------------------------------|
| Wheat | Bu. | $4.50 | 35.00 | $157.50 |
| Small Grain Pasture | Acre | $41.80 | 1 | $41.80 |
| Other Income | Acre | -$ | 0 | - |
| Total Receipts | | | | 199.30$ |
| OPERATING INPUTS | Units | Price | Quantity | $/Acre |
| Wheat Seed | Bu./acre | $11.50 | 1.50 | $17.25 |
| Fertilizer | Acre | $46.32 | 1 | $46.32 |
| Custom Harvest | Acre | $35.06 | 1 | $35.06 |
| Pesticide | Acre | $18.79 | 1 | $18.79 |
| Crop Insurance | Acre | $13.00 | 1 | $13.00 |
| Annual Operating Capital | Dollars | 5.50% | 75.83 | $4.17 |
| Machinery Labor | Hrs. | $15.00 | 0.00 | -$ |
| Custom Hire | Acre | $57.95 | 1 | $57.95 |
| Machinery Fuel, Lube, Repairs | Acre | - | 0 | - |
| Other Expense | Acre | - | 0 | - |
| Total Operating Costs | Returns Above Total Operating Costs | | | $192.54 |
| Return s Above Total Operating Costs | Units | | | $6.76 |
| FIXED COSTS | Dollars | | | $/Acre |
| Machinery/Irrigation$/value | Dollars | | | - |
| Interest at Taxes at | Dollars | | 5.75% | - |
| Insurance Depreciation | Dollars | | 1.00% | - |
| Land | Dollars | | 0.85% | - |
| Interest at Taxes at | Dollars | | 0.00% | - |
| Total Fixed Costs | Dollars | | 0.00% | - |
| Total Costs (Operating + Fixed) | $192.54 | | | - |
| Returns Above All Specified Costs | 6.76 | | | Rewards Above All Specified Costs |
| B-E Yield at Bu. | Grain Break-even (B-E) Analysis | Grain Break-even (B-E) Analysis | Grain Break-even (B-E) Analysis |
|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| Above Operating Costs (bu.) | 33 | Below Operating Costs | $4.31 |
| Above Total Costs (bu.) | 33 | Above Total Costs | $4.31 |
## References
Doye, Damona. Goal Setting for Farm and Ranch Families. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service - College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Fact Sheet AGEC-244, March 2017 .
Kauppila, Dennis; Annette Higby; Don Maynard and Liz Veskosky. Resource Guide for Vermont's New and Aspiring Farmers. Vermont New Farmer Network and UVMCenter for Sustainable Agriculture, [Online:http://agriculture.vermont.gov/index.php], Fall 2008.
National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017 Census of Agriculture - State Data. National Agricultural Statistics Service, United States Department of Agriculture, [Online:http://www. agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/.
Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service. Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics 2020. United States Department of Agriculture, National Agriculture Statistics Service, Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food, and Forestry, September 2020. nass.usda.gov/Statistics by State/Oklahoma/ Publications/Annual\_Statistical\_Bulletin/ok-bulletin-2020-web.pdf
Woods, Tim and Steve Isaacs. PRIMER for Selecting New Enterprises for Your Farm. Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service - College of Agriculture, Extension No. 00-13, August 2000.
Oklahoma State University, as an equal opportunity employer, complies with all applicable federal and state laws regarding non-discrimination and affirmative action. Oklahoma State University is committed to a policy of equal opportunity, for all individuals and does not discriminate based on race, religion, age, sex, color, national origin, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity/expression, disability, or veteran status with regard to employment, educational programs and activities, and/or admissions. For more information, visit https://eeo.okstate.edu . | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/miamidadeco/2023/10/04/south-florida-soils/ | South Florida Soils | University of Florida | [
"Jeff Wasielewski"
] | 2023-10-04 | [
"Agriculture",
"Change Category",
"Crops",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Horticulture",
"SFYL Hot Topic",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension"
] | FL | ## South Florida Soils
Anyone that has ever put shovel to earth in South Florida knows that our "soil" is actually rock. The rock is a type of limestone known as Miami Limestone, or oolitic limestone, and is not coral as many people think. Limestone Gables didn't quite have the right ring to it, so we stuck with Coral Gables, even though we knew better.
South Florida soils are a mixture of some sand, some mar! (weathered limestone) and a lot of Miami Limestone which is alkaline with a pH of about 7.8 - 8.4. The limestone does not hold water or nutrients well. The high pH is the most troublesome characteristic of our soil because it makes it difficult or impossible for many of our plants to get some of the micro-elements they need. The high pH makes it necessary to apply micro-nutrients such as boron and zinc using a foliar spray or, in the case of iron, a chelated form that is mixed with water and poured over the plant's roots. These fertilizing tricks help to get our plants what they need despite the high pH.
The fact that our soils do not hold water well Marl, a gray clay-like soil, is formed when water slowly wears down actually turns out to be a good thing when we factor in the large amount of rain in that falls in the summer months. High water holding capacity soils would undoubtedly result in massive flooding. Unfortunately, when soils do not hold water well, they usually do not hold nutrients well either. This makes it necessary to use slow-release fertilizers and as much mulch as possible so nutrients are not lost with every passing rainstorm. If you live in Miami-Dade County, make sure to read up on that county's fertilizer ordinance.
## Amendments
Mulch and compost are your best bet to battle our rocky soils. Mulch will not only beautifully your landscape and help to discourage weeds, it will also slowly decompose to create an organic layer of soil in your garden. Compost helps as well, as it has already decomposed and can immediately begin to slowly feed your plants.
## Planting
Amending a new planting hole with "good soil" is not recommended as this can create a container effect and keep your new planting's roots from moving out into the native soil. When planting a new tree or shrub, dig the hole slightly bigger than the root ball and use the same soil you pull out of the hole. Planting the tree at the correct level is extremely important. Roots should be underground and the trunk should be above ground.
## Plant Choice
Many species of plants are able to do quite well in our poor soil including tropical fruit such as mangos, sapodillas, and avocados. Other tropical fruit like lychees, longans, carambolas, and mameyas have a harder time and benefit from a fertilizer program that includes foliar sprays of micro-elements and an iron drench at least twice a year during the rainy months.
## Containers
When growing things in containers, you can control they type of soil you use. A good soil will drain well, hold nutrients, allow aeration in the root-zone and provide support for your plant. There are many ingredients that can be mixed in order to create a good potting mix. In order to get all four of the desired characteristics mentioned above, a good mix would have some sand, some peat, and some perlite depending on how aerated you would like the soil.
The best way to combat our poor soils is through plant choice. The right plant in the right plant is always the first step in choosing what you will grow. You can also help plants that have a hard time growing in our high pH with heavy mulching, composting, and supplemental applications of micro-elements through foliar sprays and drenches
7
by Jeff Wasielewski
Posted: October 4, 2023
Category: Agriculture , Crops, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Fruits & Vegetables, Horticulture, SFYL Hot Topic, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Cold Weather On The Way! What Should We Do To Protect Our Plants In Miami Dade?
- Composting Basics
- Moving Water From The Roots To The Top, How Is This Possible?
- 2023 Water Ambassador Webinar Series |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/water-quality-and-professional-lawn-care | Water Quality and Professional Lawn Care | NC State University | [
"Grady Miller",
"Raymond McCauley"
] | null | [
"Water Quality",
"Lawn Care",
"Turf",
"Lawn"
] | NC | ## Water Quality and Professional Lawn Care
Lawns are ecosystems that affect surface and groundwater systems. Lawn grasses clean the environment by absorbing gaseous pollutants and intercepting pesticides, fertilizers, dust, and sediment. Irrigation water that is properly applied to lawns remains on site and recharges groundwater. In addition, grasses release oxygen and reduce glare, noise, and summer temperatures.
The need to protect groundwater and surface water quality is a serious environmental issue. Good landscape design can minimize erosion and runoff by incorporating buffers near streams, wetlands, and other fragile areas. Good landscape design also minimizes the development of gullies, the redirection of streams, and the unnecessary disruption of the natural landscape, especially around drainage ditches and stream banks.
Equally important, proper management practices need to be implemented to protect the environment. The purpose of this publication is to provide management strategies to preserve and protect water resources in lawn care settings.
## Best Management Practices (BMPs)
Every lawn maintenance decision has an effect on the ecosystem of the site. Best management practices, or BMPs, are practices designed to maximize resources, while minimizing environmental risk. The BMPs cover important aspects of turfgrass management from the design of the area to its daily maintenance. This publication provides BMPs applicable to the creation, protection, and maintenance of a turfgrass ecosystem.
## Turfgrass Selection
Turfgrass selection can have a large effect on water quality. Using planting material that is weed free can minimize future weed problems and herbicide applications. Well adapted, improved grasses require less fertilizer, pesticides, and water. Healthy lawns are better able to cope and recover from pest and environmental stresses.
Turfgrassdiferir performance and cultural requirements across locations and environments.
Turfgrass selection should be based on existing environmental conditions (soil pH, soil type, soil moisture content, degree of sunlight, and topography), the areas intended purpose, and expected management intensity. Refer to Extension publication, Carolina Lawns , AG-69 for an updated list of grasses that perform best in your area or check with the local county Extension center.
## Fertilizers
The primary objective of a fertilization program is to create an environment where nutrients are available to sustain healthy plant growth with minimal risk to water quality. Since nutrients are not always found in adequate supply in the soil, many turfgrasses require fertilization to meet the needs of the plant.
Improper fertilization can be detrimental to turfgrass health and can pose a risk to groundwater quality. The lawn care manager must have a working knowledge of how the plant uses nutrients and the fate of nutrients in the soil. With this information, a fertilization program that benefits the turf and minimizes risks to water quality can be implemented.
## Nitrogen and Phosphorous
Nitrogen and phosphorus are macronutrients that are essential for turfgrass growth and development. However, these nutrients are also the most likely to affect water quality. Therefore, a nutrient management plan is critical to maintain the lawn and the environment.
Phosphorus is important in the establishment and rooting of plants. However, phosphorus can enter surface waters (lakes and ponds) through erosion and can cause undesirable algal blooms and abnormal growth of aquatic plants.
Nitrogen is required for optimal plant growth and is often associated with the green color in plants. However, excessive nitrogen can be detrimental to turfgrasses and the environment. In lawns, excessive nitrogen may increase the occurrence of disease, t hatach accumulation, decreased tolerance to environmental stress, reduced wear tolerance, restricted root systems, and decreased recuperation potential. In surface water (lakes and ponds), excessive nitrogen can also cause the overstimulation of aquatic plants and algae, as well as depletion of oxygen (hypoxia). Nitrogen (specifically nitrate) can enter groundwater through leaching. Excessive nitrate levels in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, a blood disorder in which cells do not have enough oxygen (also known as blue baby syndrome) in babies or young animals.
## Nitrogen Carriers
Nitrogen carriers can affect the degree of runoff or leaching. Nitrate (NO$\_{3}$) has the highest potential to leach or run off. The likelihood of nitrogen runoff increases if the fertilizers are applied to frozen ground or steep slopes, at high rates, or before excessive rainfall or irrigation. Leading is likely if the soil is saturated, has low organic matter, or is sandy. Other forms of nitrogen are less likely to be changed to NO$\_{3}$ if the soil is finely textured or if organic matter is present.
Table 1 outlines the characteristics of commercially available nitrogen carriers. Generally, nitrogen sources are separated into quickly available and slowly available categories.
Quickly available, or soluble, nitrogen forms provoke a rapid response by the plant. Inorganic salts, such as ammonium sulfate, dissolve rapidly in soil water and quickly provide large amounts of plant available nitrogen. Urea is a quickly available, organic nitrogen source that is commonly applied in liquid or granular form. In the soil, several reactions occur that rapidly convert urea to plant available ammonium. However, there is potential for foliage burn, volatilization, or conversion of liquid chemicals to a vapor, and/or leaching under some environmental conditions.
Slow-release nitrogen sources such as urea-formaldehyde rely on chemical and/or microbial activity for release of plant available nitrogen. Some of the urea-formaldehyde products that are available as solutions or suspensions can be applied in liquid form. Sulfur coated and polymer coated urea rely
on coatings to control the release of plant available nitrogen into the soil solution.
Natural organic nitrogen sources are slowly available nitrogen sources derived from processed municipal sewage sludge, composted plant debris or animal products, and various other organic wastes. Plant available nitrogen is released from these products through chemical and microbial activity in the soil. As a result, temperature and moisture are important factors that govern microbial action and the release of plant available nitrogen. Warm moist conditions favor high levels of microbial activity and accelerate nitrogen release.
Overall, slowly available nitrogen sources provide a more controlled release of nitrogen, have longer residuals, and are less likely to lead than quickly available nitrogen fertilizers.
| Fertilizer Type | Fertilizer Source | Nitrogen % Content | Leaching Potential | Burn Potential | Low Temperature Response | Resid Effect |
|------------------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------|----------------------|------------------|----------------------------|----------------|
| Quickly Available, Inorganic | Ammonium Nitrate | 33-34 | High | High | Rapid | Short |
| Quickly Available, Inorganic | Calcium Nitrate | 16 | High | High | Moderate | Short |
| Quickly Available, Inorganic | Ammonium Sulfate | 21 | Moderate | High | Rapid | Short |
| Quickly Available, Organic | Urea | 45-46 | Moderate | Moderate | Rapid | Short |
| Slowly Available, Slowly | 1,1-dureiode isobutane (IBDU) | 31 | Moderately Low | Low | Moderate | Modeler |
| Slowly Available, Slowly | Ultable, Soluble | (IBDU) | Low | Low | Very Low | Mode to Loi |
| Slowly Available, Slowly | Urea- formaldehyde | 38 | Low | Low | Very Low | Modeler |
| Slowly Available, | Sulfur Coated Urea | 31-38 | Low | Low | Moderate | Modeler |
| Slowly Available, | Polymer Coated Urea | 39-44 | Low | Low | Low | Modeler |
| Natural Organics | Sewage sludge | 6 | Very Low | Very Low | Very Low | Long |
| Natural Organics | Other natural products | 3-10 | Very Low | Very Low | Very Low | Long |
## Fertilizer Management BMPs
Base fertilizer applications on soil test results . A soil test will show the levels of nutrients in the soil. Most newly planted areas should be tested during the construction phase and subsequently every one to two years, depending on the type of turfgrass being grown.
- · Wait a minimum of three to four weeks after fertilizing before sampling.
- · Make sure sampling equipment is clean and free of contaminants. Clean equipment between samples.
- · Submit a sample for analysis that is truly representative of the area.Sample to a uniform depth -preferably to 3 or 4 in.
- · Take 15 to 20 soil cores from each area being tested by using a one in. diameter soil probe. Thoroughly mix them in a plastic container or paper bag. Do not use a metal bucket, which may affect results.
- · It may take several weeks before receiving soil test results, so it is best to submit samples well in advance of fertilizing.
- · Submit samples to a reputable laboratory for testing and interpretation. The North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services provides soil testing. Submit samples to the Agronomic Division-NCDA&CS, 4300 Reedy Creek Road, Raleigh, NC 27607. In some
counties, the Cooperative Extension office may transfer samples to the NCDA&CS laboratory for you.
Supplement the soil test with a plant tissue analysis . A plant tissue analysis is a diagnostic tool that measures the concentrations of different nutrients in turfgrass leaf tissue. This analysis can be used to identify potential nutrient problems. For more information, visit NC Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services-Plant Tissue Analysis or contact your N.C. Cooperative Extension center.
Core or aerify compacted soil. Aerifying before fertilization can help fertilizer penetrate the soil. This is especially important for phosphorus. Coring, in which a machine aerator removes plugs or cores of soil from the lawn, on compacted, sloped areas will also reduce runoff.
Minimize fertilizer rates on slopes. High application rates of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer on slopes near surface water increases the risk of runoff. To minimize runoff risk, apply nitrogen rates between 0.25 and 0.50 lb per 1,000 sq ft per application to slopes.
Do not apply fertilizers directly into lakes, drainage areas, and other bodies of water. Maintain a buffer zone of low-maintenance grasses or natural vegetation between areas of highly maintained turf and water. Buffers create a filter for unwanted nutrients and sediments.
Consider using iron as a supplement to nitrogen for a greening response . Iron can be used alone or in combination with nitrogen to improve turf color. Decreasing nitrogen rates and the number of applications will decrease the possibility of nitrate leaching. Iron rates will vary with grass type and environmental conditions. Follow label directions.
Use slowly available nitrogen carriers on sandy soils. The risk of nitrate leaching and groundwater contamination increases in sandy soils. Slow-release nitrogen sources are less likely to leach below the root zone than soluble sources in highly leachable soils.
When applying soluble nitrogen to sandy soils with little organic matter and/or near shallow water tables, use nitrogen rates between 0.25 and 0.50 lb per 1,000 sq ft per application to limit leaching potential. Plant response to nitrogen is often better when lower levels are applied more frequently.
Time applications carefully . Quick release nitrogen sources should not be applied before a heavy rainfall or irrigation. Cold soil temperatures (lower than 55 degrees Fahrenheit) slow metabolic activity of soil microbes and decrease plant uptake of nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen has the greatest chance of leaching in cool and wet weather.
Irrigate after each application of soluble fertilizer . Irrigating with 0.25 to 0.50 in. of water moves fertilizer from foliage and into the soil where it can be used by the plants. Irrigation decreases fertilizer loss through runoff and volatilization (vaporization), and minimizes the risk of foliar, or leaf burn.
Recycle grass clippings (grasscycling). When possible, leave grass clippings on the lawn to decompose and recycle nutrients back into the turf. This is "grassycling." Every 100 lb of dried grass clippings contains approximately 4 lb of nitrogen, ½ lb of phosphorus, and 2 lb of potassium. Grasscycling may reduce fertilization requirements by 25%. Clippings that are removed should not be blown into bodies of water or placed in ditches or concrete areas where runoff is likely.
Use a drop (gravity) spreader near bodies of water or impermeable surfaces . Centrifugal (rotary) spreaders should not be used near bodies of water because of the potential of direct fertilizer contamination. Fertilizer granules should be removed (blown or swept) from
impermeable surfaces such as roads and sidewalks to decrease the runoff potential. Drop spreaders may be used around bodies of water and impermeable surfaces to decrease the risk of runoff potential and direct contamination.
## Irrigation
Determining the appropriate amount of irrigation is vital to the health of the turfgrass and the preservation of water quality. Temperature, wind, relative humidity, and soil moisture determine the use of water by the plant.
Irrigate to replace water lost through evapotranspiration, which is evaporation from land surfaces and plant leaves. Insufficient irrigation can cause turfgrass wilt and death. Over-irrigating increases nutrient leaching and runoff potential. Over-irrigating can also increase environmental stress and pest pressure of turfgrasses. For more information on irrigation and irrigation scheduling, refer to Extension publication Water Requirements of North Carolina Turfgrasses .
A properly designed and installed irrigation system will apply a uniform level of water at the desired rate and time. The amount and frequency of irrigation should be based on the needs of the grass, soil conditions, and the expected weather conditions. Water to just below the existing root zone to encourage deeper rooting. Deeper watering does not benefit the plant and may learn contaminants into the groundwater.
In those situations where homeowners are responsible for irrigation, the following BMPs will help protect water quality.
## Irrigation BMPs (for homeowners)
- · Water to a depth just below the root system. If you observe runoff, stop irrigating and wait for the existing water to enter the soil. Resume irrigating until the water reaches the appropriate depth.
- · Do not irrigate until you see visual signs of wilt: purple colored patches of turf and/or "footprinting." A soil probe can aid in the visual estimate of moisture content.
- · Sloped areas and compacted soils should be irrigated in short, frequent intervals to minimize runoff. Sandy soils will need to be irrigated in short intervals to minimize leaching potential.
- · Water in the early morning to increase irrigation efficiency and to decrease disease potential. Avoid midafternoon watering to reduce irrigation loss from evaporation and the amount of time when the turfgrass surface is moist.
- · Do not be alarmed at brown, withered leaves that result from drought. These are normal signs of dormancy in cool-season grasses. Lawns allowed to go dormant should be watered every three weeks in the absence of rainfall to prevent temperature and drought injury.
- · Do not irrigate before heavy traffic. Heavy traffic on a wet soil leads to soil compaction, which may then lead to runoff. Instead, irrigate two days before heavy traffic (in the absence of rainfall).
- · Periodically conduct an irrigation audit to check the irrigation system's distribution uniformity. The Extension publication, Landscape Irrigation Auditing Made Simple , provides good information about managing irrigation systems.
## Mowing
Maintaining the appropriate grass height encourages deeper roots, decreases weed pressure, and cools the surface of the lawn. Thatch is a layer of partially decomposed organic matter above the soil surface. This layer can be effective in capturing and breaking down pesticides. However, thatch ≥0.5 in. in thickness can be detrimental to a lawn's health by creating a favorable environment for turfgrass pests (insects and pathogens). Thatch can be reduced by vertical mowing, coring, and topdressing, which involves spreading a thin layer of material such as compost over the grass.
## Mowing BMPs
- Use the highest acceptable showing height for the grasses being grown. See Table 2.
- Never remove more than ¼ of the leaf surface at one time. When prolonged grains make it impossible to mow regularly, raise the height of cut for the initial mowing and gradually return to the proper height over multiple days to weeks.
- Do not mow when grass is excessively wet to limit the formation of unsightly clumps and soil compaction.
- Leave grass clippings on the lawn to recycle nutrients (grascycling) and decrease yard waste in landfills.
- Compost grass clippings if you cannot leave them on the turf. Composted grass clippings, as well as other yard waste, can be used as a soil conditioner. The "Composting" chapter in the North Carolina Extension Garden Handbook , provides more information about composting yard materials.
| Lawngrass | Height after mowing (inches) |
|--------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------|
| Bermudagrass | ¾ to 2 |
| Zoysiagra s | ¾ to 2 |
| Centipedegrass | 1 to 2 |
| Kentucky bluegrass, fine fescue, or perennial ryegrass | 1½ to 3 |
| Tall fescue | 2½ to 3½ |
## Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Program
An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program uses all available methods to keep pests at acceptable levels, while minimizing negative effects on people, the environment, and the turf. The diverse IPM options include genetic, regulatory, physical, biological, cultural, and chemical
(pesticide) solutions. However, a reduced reliance on pesticides is an important factor in IPM programs and the management of sites for water quality. A sound IPM program includes:
- · A Knowledgeable Manager . Knowledge is the cornerstone of any successful IPM program. Know the grasses being grown, the likely pests, and the conditions that affect both.
- · Define Pest Threshold Levels . Pest threshold levels - the degree of acceptable injury from pests - should be defined for each site. Examples include if weeds should be allowed in low maintenance settings or the number of insects that can tolerated per square foot.
- · A Written Plan . This plan should include objectives for each section of the lawn. Each site should have specific management practices including non-chemical and chemical control measures.
- · Implement Appropriate Cultural Practices. Use of agronomically sound cultural practices -such as rotating crops, sanitizing and solarizing the soil, adjusting sowing and harvesting times, reducing and disrupting pest habitats near crops, intercropping with aromatic herbs, and reducing weed seed sources--results in a healthy, dense turf that is better able to resist environmental and pest pressures.
- · Monitor Pest Activity . Most pests are easier to manage when they are immature and few in number. Frequent scouting can help determine when pest activity or injury is in its initial stages, and when control is necessary.
- · Maintain Accurate Records . Keeping accurate and up-to-date records of pest activity, actions taken, and the results of those actions will help in future planning and may limit legal liability.
## Pesticide Selection and Use
Although pesticides are sometimes necessary to keep pests at tolerable levels, sole reliance on chemical control can no longer be justified. Rising chemical costs, increased resistance to pesticides, and environmental concerns discourage the exclusive use of pesticides.
Some criteria for selecting pesticides include the pest to be controlled, the pest's growth stage, the affected turfgrass species, the desired level of control, the required application method, the duration of control, and the possibility of environmental contamination. For effective management, consider all these factors.
Lawn care managers should frequently rotate between different pesticide modes of action to decrease the risk of developing pesticide resistance.
After all the factors mentioned above are considered and the options are narrowed, the pesticide leaching potential rating (PLP) should be considered to minimize the likelihood of leaching. See Tables 3.4, and 5 for the PLPs of commonly applied pesticides. A pesticide with a low rating is very unlikely to move into groundwater or surface waters, while a pesticide with a high rating may be easily leached into groundwater.
The PLP values in the following tables are based on the soil retention, persistence, rate of application, and percentage of pesticide reaching the soil. Be aware that the PLP ratings may change from site to site depending on the microbial decomposition, soil pH, soil type, photodecomposition (degradation from sunlight), volatilization (changing of solids and liquids into gasses), and water volumes applied after pesticide application.
Finally, be sure to read and understand the pesticide label. Precautions (beyond leaching) are mentioned on the label. Pesticides currently available for use on agricultural, turfgrass, horticultural, and residential pests in North Carolina have been thoroughly tested by the pesticide manufacturer and approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) before their registration and release to the public. Pesticide applicators should be aware that the pesticide label is an official, binding contract between the chemical manufacturer, EPA, and the purchaser of the product. If the label directions are not followed, the applicator may be subject to prosecution that results in penalties that may include fines and imprisonment.
## Pesticide Selection and Use BMPs
- · Plant turfgrass species and varieties that are insect and disease resistant when available.
- · Use pesticides that have a low pesticide leaching potential (PLP) index, when possible.
- · See Tables 3-5 for pesticides labeled for use on North Carolina turfgrasses. Rates of pesticides applied are based on the maximum reported application rates in Extension publication, Pest Control for Professional Turfgrass Managers, AG-408. The pesticide leaching potential (PLP) index was computed with formulas defined in 1994 by R.L. Warren and J.B. Weber in Evaluating Pesticide Movement in North Carolina Soils (Warren, R. L. and Weber, J. B. 1994. Evaluating Pesticide Movement in North Carolina Soils. Proc. Soil Sci. North Carolina 37, 31-41). Trade names listed are examples. Pesticides may be sold under other trade names.
- · Develop and implement a quality IPM program.
- · Train employees in proper pesticide application techniques.
- · Determine the size of the area of application and mix only the quantity of pesticide needed in order to protect lawns, save money, and avoid disposal of unused material.
- · Spot treat whenever possible.
## Pesticide Leaching Potential Indices
Table 3. Herbicides.
| Common Name | Trade Name | Index* |
|-------------------|-------------------|----------|
| Topramezone | Pylex | 1 |
| Glufosinate | Finale | 8 |
| Metsulfuron | Blade, Manor, MSM | 16 |
| Pendimethalin | Pre-M | 20 |
| Glyphosate | Roundup | 20 |
| Trifloxysulfuron | Monument | 21 |
| Fenoxaprop | Acclaim | 24 |
| Carfentrazone | Aim, QuickSilver | 26 |
| Prodiamine | Barricade | 28 |
| Sethoxydim | Segment | 29 |
| Fluazifop | Fusilade II | 30 |
| Benefin | Balan | 31 |
| MSMA | MSMA | 35 |
| Mesotrione | Tenacity | 39 |
| Oxadiazon | Ronstar | 39 |
| Imazaquin | Image | 44 |
| 2,4-D | 2,4-D | 45 |
| Bispyribac-sodium | Velocity | 45 |
| Dithiopyr | Dimension | 45 |
| Clopyralid | Lontrel | 46 |
| Asulam | Asulox | 47 |
| DCPA | Dacthal | 47 |
| Quinclorac | Quinclorac, Drive | 47 |
| Bentazon | Basagran | 48 |
| Pronamide | Kerb | 48 |
| Dicamba | Banvel, Topeka | 49 |
| Common Name | Trade Name | Index* |
|-----------------|--------------------------|----------|
| Imazapic | Plateau | 49 |
| Diclofop-methyl | Illoxan | 50 |
| Ethofumasate | Prograss, PoaConstructor | 52 |
| Metribuzin | Sencor | 52 |
| Napropamide | Devrinol | 52 |
| Triclopyr | Turflon | 54 |
| Atrazine | AAtrex | 56 |
| Bensulide | Betasan | 57 |
| Mecoprop | MCPP | 58 |
| Simazine | Princep | 62 |
| Metolachlor | Pennant | 63 |
| Siduron | Tupersan | 63 |
| Imazapyr | Pursuit, others | 65 |
| Common Name | Trade Name | Index* |
|--------------------|-----------------------------|----------|
| Trifoxystrobin | Compass | 8 |
| Fosetyl-Al | Signature | 9 |
| Etridiazole | Koban, Terrazole | 17 |
| Propamocarb | Banol | 17 |
| Vinclozolin | Curlan | 18 |
| Iprodione | 26GT | 27 |
| Tebuconazole | Torque, Mirage Stressgard | 27 |
| Propiconazole | Banner | 30 |
| Myclobotanil | Eagle, Siskin, Myclobotanil | 32 |
| Chlorothalonil | Daconil | 33 |
| Mancozeb | Fore | 38 |
| Thiophanate-methyl | Clearys 3336 | 41 |
| Azoxystrobin | Heritage, Strobe | 42 |
| Mefenoxam | Subdue | 59 |
| Common Name | Trade Name | Index* |
|-------------------|---------------------------|----------|
| Bifenthrin | Menace, Telstar, others | 0 |
| Cyfluthrin | Tempo | 0 |
| Cypermethrin | Demon | 0 |
| Hydramethylnoin | Amdro, Maxforce | 0 |
| Lambda-Cyalothrin | Battle, Scimitar, Cyonara | 0 |
| Permethrin | Astro | 0 |
| Deltamethrin | Deltagard | 1 |
| Imidacloprid | Merit | 1 |
| Indoxacarb | Advion, Provaunt | 4 |
| Spinosad | Conserve | 11 |
| Thiamethoxam | Merian | 12 |
| Chlorpyrifos | Dursban | 27, 30 |
| Carbaryl | Sevin | 37 |
| Trichlorfon | Dylox, Proxol | 38 |
| Acephate | Orthene | 52 |
## Pesticide Storage and Disposal
The best way to manage pesticide storage and disposal is to reduce the amount of pesticides that remain after applications by proper planning and equipment calibration. Faulty or improperly managed storage facilities may result in direct runoff or leaching of pesticides into surface and groundwaters. You and others may be held liable for damages suffered from improperly stored or disposed of pesticides.
A good storage facility should possess the following features:
- · A secure area where unauthorized persons are restricted from entering
- · Proper signage such as No Smoking and Warning Pesticide Storage signs
- · Limited opportunity for water damage
- · Temperature control
## Pesticide Storage and Disposal BMPs
- · Maintain and follow labels on all pesticide containers.
- · Store pesticides only in original containers or make sure the new container is properly labeled.
- · Store similar pesticides together. For example, store herbicides with herbicides and fungicides with fungicides.
- · Keep containers closed tightly.
- · Watch for damaged containers.
- · Store pesticides which may be flammable separately.
- · Maintain an up-to-date inventory of pesticides.
- · Purchase only the amount you need.
- · Comply with Emergency Planning and Right-to-Know regulations.
- · Triple-rinse empty containers and puncture, crush, and recycle them. You can also take them to a landfill.
- · Apply the rinsate to a labeled site at no more than labeled rates, or save the rinsate and use it as water for similar applications. Do not release rinsate in any uncontained areas.
## Pesticide Spills
Unmanaged spills can quickly move into surface waters and cause injury to plants and animals. It is essential that lawn care managers be prepared for both major and minor spills.
## Pesticide Spill BMPs
- · Locate and control the source.
- · For small spills, use kitty litter, vermiculite, shredded newspaper, or adsorbent pillows or pads. Direct large spills away from ditches, storm drains, ponds, or wells via dikes.
- · Place contaminated material in plastic container(s) for disposal.
- · Encourage employees to report spills as soon as possible.
- · Call Chemtrec, a 24-hour emergency service for spill management and specific instructions for onsite neutralization (800-262-8200).
## Storage Tanks
Underground storage tanks are frequently used for petroleum storage. A leaking underground storage tank represents a fire and explosion hazard, as well as a fume hazard, and a serious threat to groundwater. Environmental contamination of groundwater with hydrocarbons increases the potential exposure to benzene and ethyl dibromide, which are suspected cancer causing agents.
Piping failure, spills and overfills, and tank corrosion are the main causes of leaks from underground storage tanks. The EPA estimated that 80% of all spills are the result of failure or fatigue of piping systems. Many of these failures were caused by improper installation and maintenance. The corrosion of tank walls and the failure of fiberglass reinforced tanks are other leading causes.
An aboveground storage tank with containment walls is the preferred method of storing chemicals. For more information, contact your local fire marshal.
Given the difficulty and the cost of cleanup, underground storage tanks at the site should be monitored closely. Specific preventative measures include installation of double-walled tanks, early detection of leaks, inventory control, monitoring, and tightness testing, an analytic method that determines if a tank leaks.
Water quality should be considered at all stages of lawn care. Factors to consider have been outlined in this publication to help protect water quality -one of our most precious resources.
## Additional Resource
Pesticide Leaching Potential
## Authors
Grady Miller Professor & Extension Specialist Crop & Soil Sciences
Raymond McCauley Extension Assistant Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication date: July 29, 2022 AG-935
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/vaiden-city-retail-sales-profile | Vaiden City Retail Sales Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
> Vaiden City Retail Sales Profile
## Vaiden City Retail Sales Profile
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2944-285 | |
| View as PDF: P2944-285.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Carroll County | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
| Your Extension Experts Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor | Your Extension Experts Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor |
| Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor | Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor |
| Associate Extension Professor Related News | Associate Extension Professor Related News |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/browardco/2024/03/19/pressure-canner-gauge-testing-in-broward-county/ | Pressure Canner Gauge Testing in Broward County | University of Florida | [
"Brenda Marty-Jimenez"
] | 2024-03-19 | [
"Food Safety",
"Health & Nutrition",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Botulism",
"Broward County",
"Canning",
"canning is fun",
"canning safety",
"destroying bacteria",
"economical to engage in canning",
"enjoy canning",
"gaskets",
"Get your pressure canner guage tested to see if it is reading correctly",
"It's time to get your pressure gauge tested",
"low-acid foods",
"Pressure Gauge",
"Presto canner",
"test gauge once per year",
"University of Georgia National Center for Home Food Preservation",
"Using pressure canners",
"Where can I get my pressure canner gauge tested?",
"where to get pressure canner gauge tested locally?"
] | FL | ## Pressure Canner Gauge Testing in Broward County
Canning can be a fun, safe and economical way to preserve food at home. Canning favorite products to be enjoyed by family and friends can be a pleasant experience and a source of pride and joy for many families and consumers.
## Call to Action
Testing your pressure canner gauge regularly is important to ensure proper results.
- Your pressure canner may have a dial gauge for indicating the pressure and regulating the pressure.
- Dial gauges should be checked for accuracy before use each year, since older gauges may weaken and become inaccurate.
Gauges that read high (it says it has more pressure than it really does) cause under-processing and may result in unsafe food. Low readings (it has more pressure than it really does) cause overprocessing, and soft, mushy food. Pressure adjustments can be made if the gauge reads incorrectly. Gauges may need to be replaced when readings differ by more than 2 pounds.
- 1. Handle canner lid gaskets carefully and clean them according to the manufacturer's directions.
- 2. Nicked or dried gaskets will allow steam leaks during the pressurization of canners. Keep gaskets clean between uses.
Pressure does not destroy microorganisms, but high temperatures applied for an adequate period of time do kill microorganisms. Adding pressure increases the temperature, which kills bacteria much faster. Clostridium botulinum bacterium are the main reason low-acid foods must be pressure canned to be considered safe. https://nchfpn.uga.edu/paners/guide/GUIDE01\_HomeCan revQ715.p df Home canned foods are responsible for over 90% of all cases of foodborne botulism. Botulism: take care when canning low-acid foods | UMN Extension Low readings cause over-processing. https://nchfp.uga.edu/blog/umm...what-exactly-is-botulism-partii#gsc.tab=O
## How can I get my gauge tested?
Broward County's UF/IFAS Extension Office in Davie has a pressure gauge tester and can test most pressure gauges for accuracy.
Call today for an appointment with UF/IFAS Extension, Broward County Family and Consumer Sciences. For more information, contact Broward County Extension Family and Consumer Sciences at 954-756-8550 or 954-756-8519.
## Learn more.
UGA National Center for Home Food Preservation: Using Pressure Canners - https://nchfp.uga.edu/papers/factsheets/Preserving\_Food\_UsingPressure\_Canners.pdf
UGA National Center for Home Food Preservation: Resources - https://nchfp.uga.edu/how/general/example\_processing\_charts.htm #gsc.tab=Q
National Presto Industries - Service Department, 3925 North Hastings Way, Eau Claire, WI 54703-3703. Attention: gauge testing. For more information, phone Presto Customer Service: 1-800-8770441 or contact@gporesto.com
UF/IFAS Extension, Family and Consumer Sciences, Broward County - Engaging in Food Safety Behaviors Does Matter - https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/browardo/2022/02/08/engaging-in-foodsafety-behaviors-does-matter/
An equal opportunity institution.
by Brenda Marty-Jimenez
Category: Food Safety, Health & Nutrition, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Teaching Tags: Botulism, Broward County, Canning, Canning Is Fun, Canning
Safety, Destroying Bacteria, Economical To Engage In Canning,
Enjoy Canning, Gaskets, Get Your Pressure Canner Guage Tested To
See If It Is Reading Correctly, It's Time To Get Your Pressure Gauge
Tested, Low-acid Foods, Pressure Gauge, Presto Canner, Test Gauge
Once Per Year, University Of Georgia National Center For Home Food
Preservation, Using Pressure Canners, Where Can I Get My Pressure
Canner Gauge Tested? Where To Get Pressure Canner Gauge Tested Locally?
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · All About Saturated Fat
- · Connecting Communities To Water: A Journey Of Discovery And Conservation
- · About World Food Safety Day
- · Heat, Hydration, And Dehydration: Sources Of Water |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/black-vine-weevil | Black Vine Weevil | NC State Extension | [
"Steven Frank",
"Stephen Bambara",
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Insect",
"Pest",
"Entomology"
] | NC | ## Black Vine Weevil
Entomology Insect Notes
## General Information
The black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus , is about ¾ inch long and has a short snout. The thorax and wing covers are bumpy. The body is blackish brown; the antennae are black. The egg is smooth and shiny. It is white when first deposited but becomes brown as it ages. The legless, white grub grows to ½ inch long. Its body is curved with a brown head. The pupa is white with tiny spines on the head, abdomen and legs.
## Biology
The black vine weevil has the name "vine" in its common name because it was first recognized as a pest of grape vines in Germany in 1934. In 1910, the beetle was found in Connecticut and has since become a serious ornamental pest in southern Canada and the northern United States. It is found in
the Mountains and upper Piedmont of North Carolina where black vine weevils feed on azalea, euonymus , hemlock, hosta, rhododendron, and yew as well as many other herbaceous and woody plants.
Black vine weevil larvae stunt or kill plants by feeding on the roots. Larger roots are stripped of their bark or girdled, or they have notches chewed out of them. The adult weevils chew the edges of the leaves, cut off the tips of needles or devour entire needles. Foliage is preferred to terminal growth.
Black vine weevils overwinter as mature larvae. However, a few adults also survive the winter to feed and deposit eggs during a second season. This weevil is parthenogenetic (no males). Although one female was recorded as laying 863 eggs, the average number of eggs deposited by each female is probably about 200. During the preprovision period, which lasts about four weeks, the adults feed extensively. Adults usually live 90 to 100 days. Eggs, deposited in the soil and leaf litter, hatch in two to three weeks. Initially, the young larvae feed on rootlets; but after the third molt, the larvae move to the larger roots. During their development, the larvae molt five or six times within earthen cells in the soil.
After a quiescent prepupal stage lasting three weeks to 8½ months, the larvae pupate. About three weeks later, adults emerge. Adults feed at night and drop from the plant, feigning death when disturbed. These weevils cannot fly so they must be carried or must crawl to uninfested areas.
## Control
Control of black vine weevil s can be directed at adults as they first emerge on favored host plants (rhododendron, hosta, euonymus). Pesticides should be applied thoroughly to kill weevils on the plants and on the media or soil surface where the weevils hide during the day. Examine host plants frequently in late May and early June for fresh feeding damage. Ohio State University Extension recommends timing sprays for mid-June when florabunda roses are in bloom. Timing sprays with bloom periods in North Carolina should be expected to hold. Use three sprays at three week intervals. For labeled pesticides, see the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Annual under the headings: Trees and Woody Ornamentals, Plant: Any, Black vine weevil.
Pesticides may be applied to the media or soil surface as a drench to control black vine weevil larvae. Imidacloprid (Merit, Marathon) can be used as a soil injection or drench against larvae. Scimitar & Demand (Oregon study) and Talstar are effective when adults are present. Aloft may also be an effective product. Apparently, carbaryi (Sevin), malathion and isofenhos (Otanol) are not effective for black vine weevil control. The standard Orithene is felt to be effective, but has shorter residual than the pyrethroids. When used as directed , pyrethroids are very toxic to insects but are not particularly hazardous to humans and pets (other than fish -avoid using pyrethroids around pools, ponds, and streams).
The parasitic nematode, Heterohorbditis bacteriophora , is fairly effective in controlling black vine weevil grubs. This nematode is available through biological control dealers on the web.
## Other Resources
- · Black Vine Weevil (and Other Root Weevils), Shettlar, D, and J. E. Andon, Ohioline, Ohio State University Extension.
- · Black Vine Weevil, Controlling a Major Nursery and Landscape Pest. Gill, S. and P. Shrewsbury. 2013. IPM for Commercial Horticulture, University of Maryland Extension Fact Sheet FS-805.
- · Black Vine Weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus . Hoover, G. A. Sn. 2010 (revised). College of Agr. Sci. Cooperative Extension, PennState.
- · Use of a nematode, Heterohrbditis heliothidis , to control black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus\_in\_potted\_plants . Beding, R. 2008. Annals of Applied Biology 99(3):211 - 216.
- · Insects and Related Pests of Shrubs
- · NC State Extension Plant Pathology Publications
- · NC State Horticultural Science Publications
- · North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension center.
## Authors
Steven Frank
Professor and Extension Specialist Entomology and Plant Pathology
Stephen Bambara
Specialist (Home Ornamentals/Turf) Entomology
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: Nov. 1, 2003
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 11, 2020
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/landscape-irrigation-auditing-made-simple | Landscape Irrigation Auditing Made Simple | NC State Extension | [
"Garry Grabow",
"Grady Miller",
"Drew Pinnix"
] | null | [
"Irrigation",
"Water Management",
"Landscape Maintenance",
"Turf Maintenance",
"Turfgrass",
"Irrigation System"
] | NC | ## Landscape Irrigation Auditing Made Simple Introduction
During periods of dry weather, turfgrasses require supplemental water through irrigation to maintain appearance and function. When irrigating turfgrass, it is important to deliver only the amount of water needed to replace what is used by the turf. This practice promotes efficient use of water resources as well as an ideal environment for turfgrass growth. To ensure efficient irrigation, one must know the amount of water an irrigation system is applying during each cycle. Completing an audit of an irrigation system provides the information needed to set irrigation controllers to deliver the proper amount of water.
## Site Inspection
Before any irrigation audit, inspect the irrigation system to ensure that everything is operating properly. Parts will begin to degrade and, if not regularly inspected, can lead to over-watering or under-watering, thus compromising application efficiency and uniformity. Oftentimes, faulty equipment associated with an irrigation system will be noticed very easily. Besides checking for broken or nonfunctioning components, it is very important to check the alignment of the irrigation heads. Heads that are out of alignment produce spray patterns that fall short of their design and misdirect water to nontargeted areas, again resulting in decreased water efficiency. The following are some common problems that affect sprinkler head performance:
- · failure of head to extend above the turfgrass canopy
- · worn or clogged nozzle
- · incorrectly sized nozzle
- · leaks within the system
- · incorrect spray or rotor arc
- · incorrect pressure
- · mismatched sprinkler heads or types
Once you identify problems, make the necessary repairs to regain correct operation. If you lack training in irrigation maintenance, make sure that you contact someone who is a licensed irrigation contractor, certified irrigation technician, or has the proper experience in maintaining irrigation systems. The North Carolina Irrigation Contractors licensing board maintains a list of licensed irrigation contractors. Taking the time to inspect your irrigation system will result in improved efficiency, which will produce both cost savings and environmental benefits.
## Catch-Can Field Method
The use of catch containers or cans has long been the standard method to determine the two primary irrigation system performance measures: precipitation rate and distribution uniformity. Catch cans are used to collect water in an area of interest (that is, individual irrigation zones) over a set time. In the absence of an automatic buried irrigation system, catch cans may also be used for movable sprinklers. When using movable sprinklers, be sure to place the sprinkler in the area that
you intend to water to ensure accuracy. Catch containers are placed in a grid-like pattern across the area of interest (Figure 1). Commercially available catch cans are designed to be used for irrigation audits. So long as catch containers are uniform in shape and size, any container will work. Larger catch cans are typically considered to be better than smaller ones when measuring collected volume as large containers provide more reliable results. Much of the following guidance and form content have been adapted from the "Irrigation Audit Guidelines" developed by the Irrigation Association (2010).
## Supplies Needed
- · Catch cans
- · Stopwatch
- · Ruler (if measuring depth versus volume)
- · Graduated cylinder (at least a 50 milliliter plastic cylinder is suggested)
- · Tape measure
- · Paper to record results (see attached worksheets)
Before performing an audit, consider wind speed. Do not perform an audit on a windy day. Wind speed should be 5 miles per hour or less during the irrigation audit.
## Step 1. Position Catch Containers
Catch containers should be set up at a height that will not interfere with the arc of the irrigation water. For turf along a boundary such as a sidewalk, street, driveway or shrub area, catch cans should be placed 12 to 24 inches in from the boundary edge. Catch cans should be placed no closer than within 2 to 3 feet of sprinkler heads, ensuring that the main spray from the sprinkler does not hit the side of the container. The placement of remaining containers depends on the type of sprinkler and spacing between sprinkler heads:
- · Fixed spray sprinklers: Place cans halfway between heads. (Figure 3)
- · Rotor sprinklers with less than 40-foot centers: Place cans every one-third of the distance between heads. (Figure 2)
- · Rotor sprinklers with greater than 40-foot centers: Place cans every one-fourth of the distance between heads.
- · For irregularly shaped areas, place cans in a uniform grid pattern:
- Fixed spray sprinklers: Space cans every 5 to 8 feet on center.
- Rotor sprinklers: Space cans every 10 to 20 feet on center. (Figure 4)
## Step 2. Run Irrigation for a Set Time
Each irrigation zone should be run for the minimum length of time suggested in Table 1. These run times will usually catch the amount of water generally recommended for auditing purposes. When auditing adjacent zones of similar sprinklers in which sprinklers from one zone contribute to another, be sure that the audit run times are equal and that water collected in catch containers is not measured until all contributing zones have been run. If needed, audit runs can be adjusted to accommodate sprinkler type, ability of the landscape to infiltrate the applied water, as well as catch container capacity. Be sure to monitor sprinklers during test times to verify that all adjustments made during pre-audit were successful and equipment is functioning properly.
| Type of Sprinkler | Half Circle or Full Circle (minutes) |
|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| Fixed spray | 5 |
| Rotor (less than 30-foot center) | 15 |
| Rotor (greater than 30-foot center) | 15 |
It is important to record the following information during irrigation run time:
- · Date and time of testing
- · Wind speed (verify that speed is less than 5 miles per hour)
- · Location of sprinklers and catch cans (sketch)
- · Irrigation run time
- · Calculate area of catch container opening:
- o Catchment Device Throat Area (Ac$\_{p}$) = π r 2 where r = radius (one-half of diameter)
## Step 3. Determine Distribution Uniformity and Precipitation Rate
If possible, it is best to measure the volume of irrigation water collected in milliliters (mL), which are equivalent to cubic centimeters. The best and easiest way to accomplish this is to transfer the water from the catch containers to a graduated cylinder. If the volume of water in the catch container exceeds the capacity of the graduated cylinder, simply add the volumes measured in the cylinder. If unable to measure volume in milliliters, measure depth of irrigation collected in inches. If measuring depth, you can either directly measure the depth in the catch container or a transfer container of the same size. In either case, the walls of the catch container or transfer measuring container must be vertical (that is, have the same diameter or dimensions at top and bottom). Distribution uniformity (DU) is commonly calculated by the 'lower half' method. This method uses the average of the lowest half of catchment volumes divided by the average of all catchment volumes. An irrigation system that has a high DU (100 percent is perfect, but generally unattainable) indicates a high performing system. Typically, a DU of 70 percent is considered excellent. Values lower than 50 percent will result in uneven distributions that may require system adjustments. Besides application uniformity, the other information gained in a catch container field test is precipitation rate (PR), See the following worksheets for instructions on how to calculate PR measured in both milliliters and inches, respectively. The catch container worksheets are designed to accommodate measurements for catch containers across multiple zones or single-zone audits. To avoid confusion, use only one sheet per zone. For use on single-zone audits, print as many worksheets as needed to audit all zones of interest.
Once a precipitation rate has been calculated, an irrigation schedule can be made. For more information on how to schedule irrigation, see Water Requirements of North Carolina Turfgrasses (AG-661).
Irrigation Association. 2010. Irrigation Audit Guidelines. Falls Church, VA: Irrigation Association.
## Irrigation Audit Worksheets
## Irrigation System Inspection
Catch Container Worksheet (mL) (manual calculation)
Catch Container Worksheet (mL) (automated calculation)
Catch Container Worksheet (in) (manual calculation)
Catch Container Worksheet (in) (automated calculation)
## Authors
Garry Grabow
Extension Specialist and Professor Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Grady Miller
Professor Crop and Soil Sciences
Drew Pinnix
Research Technician Crop and Soil Sciences
Publication date: Feb. 7, 2018 Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 23, 2022 AG-838
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-apple-celery-slaw/ | Live Well Recipe: Apple Celery Slaw | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-25 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Live Well Alabama"
] | AL | BY
INGREDIENTS
## Live Well Recipe: Apple Celery Slaw
Try our recipe for Apple Celery Slaw Budget-friendly and great as a side to any summer dish. Here's a list of what you'll need. Serve eight.
## Ingredients
- · % cup apple cider vinegar
- · ¼ cup sugar
- · 1 tablespoon mustard
- · 5 tablespoons olive oil
- · 3 apples, sliced thinly
Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/volusiaco/2020/06/08/water-wednesday-recap-rain-barrel-basics/ | Water Wednesday Recap – Rain Barrel Basics | University of Florida | [
"Yilin"
] | 2020-06-08 | [
"Conservation",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Water",
"rain barrel",
"rain water",
"stormwater",
"Tina McIntyre",
"water conservation",
"Water Wednesday",
"yilin zhuang"
] | FL | ## Water Wednesday Recap Rain Barrel Basics
What is rain water harvesting? Have you ever wondered how you can utilize our rain water? Last Water Wednesday, the FloridaFriendly Landscaping Agent in Seminole County, Tina McIntyre, went through the basics of a rain barrel. To read more Tina McIntyre's blogs, please visit:
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/seminoleco/author/kmcintyre/
## Florida-Friendly Landscaping
Before we dive into the rain barrel basics, let's review what FloridaFriendly Landscaping is . UF/IFAS Photo: Tyler Jones.
The Florida-Friendly Landscaping (FFL) program is a partnership between the University of Florida IFAS Extension and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. The program is in the Florida law and focuses on the nine FFL principles. The FFL program is really a water quality and quantity program that looks to both conserve and protect the water of our state. Lawns can be large users of water and producers of pollutants so that is where education efforts are focused.
## The nine principles include:
- · Right plant right place
- · Water efficiently
- · Mulch
- · Fertilize appropriately
- · Recycle yard waste
- · Attract wildlife
- · Control yard pests responsibly
- · Reduce stormwater runoff
## Rain Barrels
We all live in a watershed
When it rains, that water runs off into our lakes, rivers, and streams, or percolates down into our aquifer. All the water we use that comes from the aquifer, which is a finite amount. We need to take measures to protect it. One way to do that is to install a rain barrel!
The benefits of a rain barrel include:
- · Reduces need for irrigation from well or municipal source
- Saves YOU money
- Rain can be better for the more sensitive plants like orchids
- Prevents erosion
- Provides water during droughts
- Improves local water quality
- Reduces rain runoff including pollution and flooding
## Rain Water Usage on Edible Plants
When irrigating with a rain barrel some caution should be used when irrigating edibles. Specifically avoid watering edible plants if you have an old tar and gravel roof, old asbestos shingle roofs, treated wood shingle, a copper roof or if you have a zinc anti-moss strip. Also, pay attention to the type of gutters you have, since some may be coated with lead-based paints.
Many residents with an asphalt shingle roof avoid watering vegetables since complex hydrocarbons may be leached from the roof; however, there is no definitive research to prove the extent of the leaching. If you have an asphalt shingle roof and will be using a rain barrel, make sure to clean the barrel with a 3% bleach solution before collecting water to irrigate a vegetable/herb garden.
Household, unscented bleach with a 5 -6% chlorine solution can be added at the rate of 1/8 teaspoon (8 drops) of bleach per gallon of water. A typical 55 -gallon rain barrel would need approximately one ounce (2 tablespoons) of bleach added on a monthly basis. During
A rain barrel used to water plants at the Indigo Green Store in Gainesville, Florida. Gardening, watering plants, sustainable living, UF/IFAS Photo: Tyler Jones.
periods of frequent rainfall, bimonthly treatment may be necessary. Wait approximately 24 hours after the addition of bleach to allow the chlorine to dissipate before using the water. Note that household bleach is not labeled for use in water treatment by the Food and Drug Administration although it is frequently recommended for emergency disinfection of drinking water (USEPA, 2006).
In short, if your roof fits the above qualifications:
- · Bleach the water
- · Irrigate at sunrise
- · Water at the roots
- · Dump the first flush
For more information on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency research, please visit: https://www.sightline.org/2015/O2/18/advance-on-rain-barrel-watering-now-as-a-pamphlet/.
Here to watch the Water Wednesday recording:
```
by Yilin
Posted: June 8, 2020
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Category: Conservation, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Natural
Resources, UF/IFAS Extension, Water
Tags: Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Rain Barrel, Rain Water,
```
Category: Conservation, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Natural
Resources, UF/IFAS Extension, Water
Tags: Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Rain Barrel, Rain Water,
Stormwater, Tina McIntyre, Water Conservation, Water Wednesday, Yilin Zhuang
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Marigold Field Trial In FULL PRODUCTION
- Creatures From The Glowing Lagoon
- Eyes On Seagrass Blitz In The Indian River Lagoon
- Citrus For Homeowners |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/swsdept/2022/06/03/policy-is-a-missing-key-to-environmental-sustainability/ | Policy is a missing key to environmental sustainability | University of Florida | [
"BLOGS.IFAS"
] | 2022-06-03 | [
"UF/IFAS Research",
"policy",
"Sam Smidt",
"Soil and Water Sciences",
"Soil water and ecosystem sciences",
"sustainability"
] | FL | ## Policy is a missing key to environmental sustainability
UF/IFAS researchers, with colleagues in the U.S. government and another land grant university, are proposing a new way to approach environmental sustainability. The team's proposal comes from synthesizing 21 research articles that comprise a special issue of the Journal of Environmental Management . Their takeaway is that the role of policy is disconnected from major sustainability efforts in democratic societies with capitalistic economies, and they have developed an example sustainability model as a result.
SamSmidt , assistant professor of watershed science in the UF/IFAS department of soil, water, and ecosystem sciences, was a guest editor for the special journal issue. He discusses what they learned from the publication and explains their proposed framework.
The virtual special issue (VSI) is titled Building an Applied Sustainability Model Through Integrated Environmental, Economic, Social, and Political Case Studies. The submission solicitation to authors noted that "a notable gap exists between environmental sustainability discourse and on-theground applications." What was the response like from the submissions you received?
We received 61 article submissions, and 21 studies were accepted for publication in the VSI. We asked for contributions to emphasize the integration of society, the environment, the economy, and regulatory governmental policy; these are largely the components most involved in environmental sustainability. We received articles covering a very wide range of topics like watershed management, healthy lifestyles, waste & its use and re-use, and green engineering. We ultimately used the common threads between these studies to develop a harmonized sustainability model rooted in applied contexts.
You and your guest editor colleagues synthesized the VSI's 21 articles and found policy was lacking when it comes to developing sustainability frameworks. How so?
Yes. Sustainability is often viewed as the successful balancing of the 3 P's: People (society), Planet (environment), and Profit (business). But what is lacking is the role of government, which can both facilitate or inhibit this balancing act. I have always found it interesting that we are yet to include Policy as a 4 th p, even though it plays a vital sustainability role. Clearly, there is recognition that policy is important as there is an ongoing push for researchers to work with policymakers or have their work inform policymakers. In this paper, we point out that most researchers argue they can inform policy, or policy can inform them, but these are yet to be integrated into an environmental sustainability framework. We try to bring policy earlier into the conversation by arguing that sustainability cannot be achieved until these four pillars (people, planet, profit, policy) are balanced.
A conceptual summary of how many researchers communicate their role with policy and sustainability starting from an exclusionary or inclusionary perspective. © 2022 Elsevier Ltd.
This gap exists within environmental sustainability related to policy's place in the discussion, but you also think there is a disconnect between economic growth and political harmony.
We point out that adding policy to sustainability is not a simple task because the objective of political sustainability does not align with the objective of economic sustainability. This disconnect must be resolved before sustainability as a discipline can make any real progress. We
define economic sustainability as where supply meets demand (no shortage or excess; economically stable). But politically, this is problematic. Imagine if there was just enough food (supply) for every person (demand) in a community. This would be an extremely risky place to be politically since every day there would be a food shortage risk. As a result, political sustainability is where supply greatly exceeds demand (food is abundant, there is no political risk), but this remains economically illogical. The big question is then how can we design a model where both political and economic objectives align? In addition, capitalist economies require constant growth, which inherently includes greater access to resources. So, while policymakers are working to keep the economy stable with greater access to resources, they are also working to conserve those resources to a level where quantity/quality is significantly greater than demand. We describe this as a political paradox for environmental sustainability, as favorable economic conditions lead to political risk, but favorable political conditions lead to economic risk. The result is no real sustainability target for policymakers.
## What are some of the benefits of this framework you're proposing? What makes it different?
In this article, we propose a harmonized sustainability model constructed out of the VSI takeaways. We outline several benefits to this type of economically and politically aligned model, but to list a few:
- · This model is a proactive policy approach while other models require regulatory policies to be reactive. A reactive policy approach is inadequate for addressing a range of sustainability-related problems, especially those that can become irreversible in nature like endangered species loss, nuclear waste, or loss of indigenous communities and their knowledge.
- · This model allows environmental policy to generate economic activity. We believe policymakers can act in a way that accelerates creation because the socioenvironmental harmony objective is being upheld. If political and economic objectives are aligned and centered around political harmony, economic activity is free to perform in a way most optimal for economic growth.
- · Unlike other sustainability models, a harmonized model can also function in reverse -for the waste or disposal of resources. Most sustainability models capture the consumption of new resources but rarely consider the waste component, or vice versa. Having one model that considers both an upper and lower threshold in sustainability fully bounds the range in which economic activity is free to explore environmental resources without interruption, a characteristic lacking in other sustainability models.
## Why is this proposed framework important?
Environmental sustainability has become a ubiquitous societal goal, but this goal has largely stemmed from sustainability models that formed decades ago out of a field with little known origin. The reality is the driving sustainability discussions simply do not hold up in applied contexts like agriculture, urbanization, and water resources management. This model provides a new lens for viewing and discussing environmental sustainability in a way that can hopefully cause others to rethink their approaches, especially in applied contexts.
You can read the full article here: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/SQ3O14797Z22008872dgcgidauthor
```
2
by Mike Loizzo
Posted: June 3, 2022
```
Category: UF/IFAS Research
Tags: Policy, Sam Smidt, Soil And Water Sciences, Soil Water And Ecosystem Sciences.
Sustainability
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- UF/IFAS Extension To Launch 'Climate Smart Floridians' Program
- Researchers Study Sustainable Options For Tomato Farming
- Soil And Water Summer Experience - Annabel Schreiber
- Exploring Andorra: Soil And Water Sciences At High Elevation |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/publications/sleep-important-diet-and-exercise-for-all-ages-0 | Sleep: As Important as Diet and Exercise for All Ages | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Lori Dean Elmore-Staton",
"Ms. Qula Madkin"
] | null | [
"Health",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publications Sleep: As Important as Diet and Exercise for All Ages
## Sleep: As Important as Diet and Exercise for All Ages
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3008
View as PDF: P3008.pdf
## How much sleep do we need?
Learn general sleep tips, sleep hygiene, and nutrition information by downloading the PDF above.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Lori Dean Elmore-Staton
Associate Professor
Your Extension Experts
Ms.Qula Madkin
Extension Instructor
Related News
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NOVEMBER 11, 2024
Filed Under: Health
Three ways to help local food pantries thrive
JULY 29, 2024
As youth sports kick off, watch for signs of heat illness
| | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... next_ last |
|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| Related Publications | Related Publications |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3782 | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3782 |
| Prostate Cancer Health Message | Prostate Cancer Health Message |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3784 | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3784 |
| Breast Cancer Health Message | Breast Cancer Health Message |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1690 | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1690 |
| Ingredient Substitutions and Equivalents | Ingredient Substitutions and Equivalents |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4009 | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4009 |
| Tips for Parents: Managing Extracurricular Activities | Tips for Parents: Managing Extracurricular Activities |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: IS1781 | PUBLICATION NUMBER: IS1781 |
| Manage Your Diabetes | Manage Your Diabetes |
| 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... next_ last | | |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/pickerelweed-pontederia-cordata | Pickerelweed | Pontederia cordata | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Wes Neal, PhD",
"Dennis Riecke",
"Gray Turnage, PhD"
] | null | [
"Water Weeds"
] | MS | Home
» Publications » Publications » Pickerelewd e | Pontederia cordata
## Pickerelewd e | Pontederia cordata
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3735-31
View as PDF: P3735-31.pdf
## Emergent | Native
Heart-shaped pickerelewd leaves.
Pickerelewd is an emergent aquatic plant that grows in shallow, calm water. Plants can reach 3 feet in height, and have glossy green, heartor sword-shaped leaves with parallel veins on spongy stems.
The flowers are very attractive and resemble hyacinth . Blooming occurs all summer and produces a flower spike with blue, white, and violet flowers that rises above the leaves with a single leaf attached to the flower stalk.
## Management Value
Many species eat or use pickerelewd in natural systems. Deer enjoy the tender plant, waterfowl eat the seeds, butterflies and bees use the pollen, and dragonflies use plants as a hunting perch. Muskrats eat the rhizomes and base. It creates shallow water structure for fish and aquatic insects. In fact, it is named pickerelewd because pickerel are known to ambush prey from between the plants.
Humans use pickerelewd for more than aesthetics. The starchy seed can be eaten fresh or dried like nuts and added to granola or cereal, or can be boiled, roasted, or ground into flour. The young leaves can be eaten raw in salads or sauteed in butter, and the
Pickereelweed flower spike.
Spray to wet all exposed plants. Do not exceed annual herbicide rate limits as stated on the product label.
Option 2 : Imazamox (1.0-pound formulation). Imazamox (52 ounces per acre-foot of water) should be applied as a submersed injection (application using a wand or hose). Do not exceed annual herbicide rate limits as stated on the product label.
NOTE: Acre-foot = average depth of pond multiplied by pond acreage; average depth is calculated by taking the depth at 20 points across a water body and averaging the values.
For submersed injections, the best approach is to treat ponds with herbicides when water temperature is at least 60°F.
Submersed injection means that the herbicide solution should be applied below the water surface directly into the water.
Read and follow all chemical label instructions, especially the section on the use of personal protection equipment.
Funding provided by the Aquatic Nuisance Species Program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Grant Award F18AP00260 to the Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality. Additional funding and support provided by the MSU Extension Service.
The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.
By Wes Neal, PhD, Extension/Research Professor, Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture; Dennis Riecke , Fisheries Coordinator, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks; and Gray Turnage, PhD, Assistant Research/Extension Professor, GeoSystems Research Institute.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY | |
|------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Authors | Dr. Wes Neal Extension/Research Professor Fishery Extension |
| Your Extension Experts | Your Extension Experts |
| Your Extension/Research Professor | Your Extension/Research Professor |
| Dr. Lee Gray Turnage, Jr. | Dr. Lee Gray Turnage, Jr. |
| Asst Extension/Research Prof | Asst Extension/Research Prof |
| Related Publications | Related Publications |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-02 Macroalgae | Chara and Nitella spp. | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-02 Macroalgae | Chara and Nitella spp. |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-26 Juncus | Juncus spp. | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-26 Juncus | Juncus spp. |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-36 Water Pennywort | Hydroctoye spp. | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-36 Water Pennywort | Hydroctoye spp. |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-37 Water Primrose | Ludwigia spp. | PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-37 Water Primrose | Ludwigia spp. | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/duvalco/2022/07/07/5-integrated-pest-management/ | More Darn Pests – 5 rules of Integrated Pest Management | University of Florida | [
"Duval MGV"
] | 2022-07-07 | [
"Home Landscapes",
"Pests & Disease",
"5 rules",
"action threshold",
"Integrated Pest Management",
"more darn pests"
] | FL | ## More Darn Pests - 5 rules of Integrated Pest Management
Management strategies to help us deal with them
management thresholds, and
interventions.
Action Thresholds, and
Intervention.
Monitoring the plants and correctly identifying the issue is the first
the plants are bad. Some are beneficial and help keep the numbers of
unwanted insects down through predation. Some are acting as
pollinators. The overwhelming majority of insects you see in your
yard are neutral. They are just out there living their lifecycles.
Sometimes you will see damage that tells you an insect pest has
been at work. Chewed up leaves is a clear sign of. Small bumps on the
work. Chewed up leaves is a clear sign of. Small bumps on the
other parts of the plant.
Monitoring your plants and correctly identifying the issue is the first
step. It's important to know that not all insects you see on your
plants are bad. Some are beneficial and help keep the numbers of
plant owners do not depend on predators. Some are acting as
their populations. Some are dangerous and can be deadly for them. Some are dangerous and can be deadly for the
your land. Some are dangerous and can be deadly for them. Some are dangerous and can be deadly for the land.
plant that can be scraped off are usually a scale insect, but harder to notice if you aren't sure what you are looking for. Often, you see evidence of the feeding through sticky sap, which are droppings from insects with sucking mouthparts such as aphids.
## Key Plants : Key Pests
The next two IPM concepts, Key Plants and Key Pests, will help you narrow down the offending insect. Dr. Mike Raupp, a former entomologist at the University of Maryland, conducted groundbreaking research in this area. He monitored 30,000 landscape plants on the campus of the University of Maryland and as well as 150 private residences. He found that only 10 common plant species comprised 60% of the pest problems. Additionally, the study showed that 12 key pests accounted for more than 95% of the insect problems. This means you don't have to get a master's degree in entomology to get a handle on this. You can focus on the plants that are prone to damage and the handful of insects that are almost always at fault. Some key plants and key pests just go together like peas and carrots.
- · Gardenias and whiteflies.
- · Milkweed and aphids.
- · Crinum and lubber grasshoppers.
- · Eggplants and flea beetles.
- · Sago palm and scale.
I could go on and on, but the point is that if you know up front that a plant is prone to insect damage, you can simply choose a different plant that is less likely to cause you grief. If you must have a gardenia, then you must simply expect the whiteflies and monitor accordingly.
## Action Thresholds
The Action Threshold is the next piece of the framework for IPM. Now that you monitored your key plants and have discovered a pest, you then decide if the damage warrants intervention. Most people base this decision on how bad the plants look or how much produce is rendered inedible.
## Intervention
Intervention is the last step and can be confusing for most people. You're able to see the problem, identify the insect, decide to act, but then must choose a method. The gentlest interventions for the environment include physically removing the insects and relying on biological controls. You simply take out your pruners and cut the worst frond off the infested palm or pick the lubber off the agapanthus and drop it into a bucket of soapy water. Maybe you see an aphid colony on your plant, but also notice a ladybug or two. If you give them time, the ladybugs become your free, non-toxic biological control as they eat the aphids for you.
But what if you see no ladybugs in sight and the problem needs to be dealt with? Then it's time to responsibly apply a chemical. The main thing to know about any insecticide, whether it is organic or not, is that you will almost always kill an insect that you are not intending to target.
The spray or powder will kill beneficial insects as well as pests.
Even so, you should first try the least toxic pesticide that will get the job done. Insecticidal soaps are gentle on the environment and effective for many insects such as aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs, and spidersimites. If you are dealing with a more-difficult-to-kill insect such as a squash bug or something else with a hard exoskeleton, you will have to be more aggressive. There are several chemicals that you can use, but organic ones are not usually as effective. If possible, spot treat the areas in question instead of spraying all over. To keep the insects from becoming resistant to the chemical, use a different active ingredient if you must make multiple applications. As always, with any pesticide, remember to read and follow all the directions on the label .
If you need assistance with identifying a pest or figuring out what chemical is the least toxic but still effective, you can always call the Duval County Extension office. We have Master Gardeners here most days to help you with this and other gardening questions you might have.
```
O
by Duval MGLYPH(cmap:df00)V
Posted: July 7, 2022
```
Darn Pests
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Gardening Q&A: Does Joining The Houseplant Crazy Tempt You?
- · Bringing The Butterflies Home
- · Arbor Day, A Day For Trees
- · It's Crinum Season Here In Jacksonville - Abundance Abounds Despite Endless Rain... |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/slime-mold-in-turf | Slime Mold in Turf | NC State Extension | [
"Lee Butler",
"Jim Kerns"
] | null | [
"Turf Disease",
"Turfgrass",
"Slime Mold"
] | NC | ## Slime Mold in Turf
Turffiles
## Symptoms
Many small, round pustules are observed on the turfgrass leaves in small patches. The patches develop very quickly, usually overnight. The pustules may be purple, white, gray, yellow, or orange in color. The slime mold organisms do not infect the turf or cause direct harm, but they can cause mild yellowing of the leaves due to their shading effect. S lime molds are unsightly but are not considered harmful.
## Development Factors
Slime mold spores survive in the soil and thatch. During warm, wet weather the spores germinate and develop into a slimy mass that grows over the soil and nearby plant parts during wet weather. The pustules observed on turfgrass leaves are reproductive structures that contain numerous spores.
Flushes of slime mold growth are often observed after heavy rain storms that were preceded by long periods of dry weather.
## Cultural Control
Slime mold pustules typically disappear after 2 to 3 days; therefore, no control practices are needed. If the growth is particularly unsightly, the pustles may be removed by brushing, mowing, or washing the turf.
## Chemical Control
Fungicides are available for slime mold control but are only necessary in severe cases.
| Fungicide and Formulation$^{1}$ | Amount of Formulation$^{2}$ | Application Interval (Days)$^{3}$ | Efficacy Rating | Resistance Risk | FRAC Code$^{4}$ |
|------------------------------------|--------------------------------|---------------------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|-------------------|
| mancozeb (Fore)* | 4 to 8 | 10 | +++ | Low | M3 |
1 Other trade names with the same active ingredients are labeled for use on turfgrasses and can be used according to label directions.
- 2 Units are oz, fl oz, or lb depending on formulation. Apply fungicides in 2 to 5
gallons of water per 1,000 square feet according to label directions. Use lower rates for preventive and higher rates for curative applications.
- 3 Use shorter intervals when conditions are very favorable for disease.
- 4 Fungicide Resistance Action Committee code. Products with same code have the same mode of action and are in the same chemical class.
- * Products marked with an asterisk are not labeled for home lawn use.
## Efficacy Rating
- ++++ = excellent control when conditions are highly favorable for disease development
- ++++ = good control when disease pressure is high, excellent control when disease pressure is moderate
- ++ = good control when disease pressure is moderate, excellent control when disease pressure is low
- + = good control when disease pressure is low
- ? = not rated due to insufficient data
## Resistance Risk
Low = Rotate to different chemical class after 3-4 applications; tank mixing not necessary
Medium = Rotate to different chemical class after 1-2 applications; tank-mixing with low or medium risk product recommended
High = Rotate to different chemical class after EVERY application; tank-mix
with low or medium risk product for EVERY application
? = not rated due to insufficient data
## Species Data
Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8
- · FOLIAR SYMPTOMS LOCATION / SHAPE
- no distinct leaf symptoms
Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11
- · FOLIAR SYMPTOMS COLOR
- all
- · ROOT / CROWN SYMPTOMS
- none
- · FUNGAL SIGNS
- pustules
## Authors
Lee Butler
Extension Coordinator Entomology and Plant Pathology
Jim Kerns
Associate Professor Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: Nov. 10, 2017
Reviewed/Revised: Dec. 16, 2019
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/farm-management-and-finance/e-farm-management-training/livestock-insurance-livestock-indemnity-and-livestock-forage-programs/index.html | Livestock Insurance, Livestock Indemnity & Livestock Forage Program - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-11-16 | [] | OK | ## LIVESTOCK INSURANCE, LIVESTOCK INDEMNITY & LIVESTOCK FORAGE PROGRAM
Learn about the livestock and forage insurance programs offered by the Farm Service Agency and the Risk Management Agency along with eligibility requirements for these programs.
## Presentations
## Eligibility Requirements
Follow along with the
Eligibility (/programs/farm-management-and-
Requirementsfinance/e-farm-management-
training/livestock-insurance-livestock-
indemnity-and-livestock-forage-
programs/site-files/docs/eligibility-
requirements.pdf)
PowerPoint presentation.
## Livestock Forage Disaster Program
Follow along with the
Livestock (/programs/farm-management-and-finance/e-
Forage farm management training/livestock insurance-
Disaster livestock indemnity and livestock forage-
Program programs/site -files /docs/livestock for age-
(LFP) disaster program pdf)
PowerPoint presentation.
## Livestock Indemnity Program
Follow along with the
Livestock (/programs/farm management and finance/e-Indemnity farm -management training/livestock-
Program insurance -investor -indemnity and -livestock- (LIP) forage programs site - files /docs/livestock-
indemnity program pdf)
PowerPoint presentation.
## Livestock Gross Margin & Livestock Risk Protection
Follow along with the
Livestock (/programs/farm-management-and-finance/e-
Gross farm-management-training/livestock-
Margin& insurance-livestock-indemnity-and-livestock-
Livestock forage-programs/site-files/docs/livestock-
Risk gross-margin-and-livestock-risk-
Protectionprotection.pdf)
PowerPoint presentation.
## Other Resources
## USDA Programs
- · Emergency (https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and
Livestock
Assistance
Program
Livestock
Indemnity
Program
Livestock
Forage Disasterservices/disaster-assistance-
Program
(https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-
program/livesock-forage/index)
## Websites
- FSA Office (https://offices.sc.egov.usda.gov/locator/app?
Locater
state=ok&agency=fsa)
- US Drought Monitor(https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/)
- Risk Management Agency(https://www.rma.usda.gov/) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/what-do-we-teach-creative-arts/ | About 4-H | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Molly Gregg"
] | 2018-08-23 | [
"4-H",
"Creative Arts",
"Youth Development"
] | AL | The Alabama 4-H creative arts curriculum grid provides a snapshot of what we teach. Please note, not all programs are available in every county.
Growing Alabama's Future: Alabama 4-H seeks to empower youth with the skills to lead our communities, our state, our nation, and our world. Alabama 4-H will reflect the population
## What Do We Teach? Creative Arts
demographics, vulnerable populations, diverse needs, and social conditions of the state.
## Grid Key
Delivery Modes: CL=Clubs, IS=In School, E=Enrichment, I=Independent, CP=Camping
Print "4-H Curriculum-Creative Arts" table from our website.
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See National 4-H Curriculum Resources (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/national-4-hcurriculum-resources) for additional resources.
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/strawberry-clipper-weevils-in-strawberry | Strawberry Clipper Weevils in Strawberry | NC State Extension | [
"Hannah Burrack"
] | null | [
"Strawberry",
"Fruit",
"Entomology",
"Pest",
"Small Fruit",
"Fruit Insect"
] | NC | ## Strawberry Clipper Weevils in Strawberry
Strawberry Insects
## Biology
Strawberry clipper weevils (Anthranomus signatus) are small (0.25 inches long), brown beetles with the characteristic weevil "snout." Strawberry clippers have one generation per year and overwintered adult beetles typically become active in spring, mid to late April in North Carolina. Known hosts include strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, dewberry, and red bud. Female beetles lay a single egg in developing flower buds of host plants and larvae develop and feed internally. Following pupation within damaged buds, new adult beetles emerge and enter a summer estivation period and winter diapause in sheltered areas surrounding plantings.
Strawberry buds damaged by strawberry clipper weevils which have laid eggs (inset) in buds.
Attribution: Hannah Burrack
Adult strawberry clipper weevil, approximately 1/4 inch long.
Attribution: Hannah Burrack
## Damage in Strawberry
Following egg laying female beetles chew through the pedicel, which supports the flower bud. This causes the bud to dry while barely changing in the plant or drop completely from the plant. The larvae develop in the dropped flower bud over the course of 3 to 4 weeks. Adults emerge in mid summer, briefly feed on pollen and then overwinter. There is only one annual generation of strawberry clipper. Beetles overwinter in wooded areas, so fields located near the woods or rows closest to the woods often experience the greatest clipper injury.
While bud loss is often quite concerning to strawberry growers, research conducted in New York (perennial production) and observations in North Carolina (annual production) suggests that plants can compensate in fruit size and fruiting timing for clipper damage to a significant degree. Therefore, it is unclear how important it is to prevent strawberry clipper damage.
Clipped and dried strawberry bud. Photo by K. Lynch
## Sampling and Thresholds
Observing clipped buds is the only recommended form of sampling for strawberry clipper weevils. While there are thresholds currently recommended by entomologists in Virginia (0.6 clipped buds per ft) and New York (2 clipped buds per meter), observations have also suggested that strawberry plants can compensate for significant levels of bud loss.
Research on the impact of clipper in matted row strawberries in New York (English-Loeb.et al,1999, subscription needed to view full article) found that all strawberry varieties tested compensated well for early season clipper damage, specifically damage to primary and secondary buds. Only damage in later season (tertiary) buds resulted in a significant yield loss because the plant was not able to mature additional fruit. A closely related species has been studied in Europe in perennial strawberry plantings (Aasen and Trandem 2006 , subscription may be needed to view full article), where yield does appear to be improved when insecticides targeted to clippers are applied.
Essentially no work on the impact of strawberry clipper weevils in annual plasticure production has been conducted, and further work is needed on compensation in our key strawberry varieties as well as strawberry clipper biology in North Carolina.
Strawberry clipper weevil (circled) on yellow sticky trap.
Attribution: Hannah Burrack
## Management Options
## Conventional insecticides
Most insecticides recommended for strawberry clipper weevils are broad spectrum materials, and extreme caution should be used when making applications of these materials during bloom, when clippers are active. No pesticide should be applied when bees are foraging, during the day time.
Necessary applications should be made in the evening, after bee foraging has ceased. Refer to the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual for materials recommended for use against strawberry clipper weevils in North Carolina and pesticide toxicity information for honeybees. The Southern Region Small Fruit Consortium Strawberry IPM Guide includes regional recommendations.
## Organic insecticides
No organically acceptable insecticides have been demonstrated effective against strawberry clipper weevils.
## Cultural control
Plant compensation may offset strawberry clipper damage.
## More Information
Strawberry clipper posts - Entomology Portal
Strawberry clipper posts - NC Small Fruit & Specialty Crop Entomology
## Authors
Lorena Lopez
Assistant Extension Professor (Small Fruits and Tobacco IPM)
Hannah Burrack
Former Professor and Extension Specialist Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: June 25, 2014
Reviewed/Revised: Dec. 29, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/crop-production/el-nino-southern-oscillation-and-its-impact-on-alabamas-climate/ | El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Its Impact on Alabama’s Climate | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Prem Woli",
"Brenda Ortiz",
"Pam Knox",
"Melissa Griffin"
] | 2018-08-23 | [
"Climate",
"Agriculture",
"Weather"
] | AL | ## El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Its Impact on Alabama's Climate
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has a strong influence on seasonal climate variability in the Southeast. Learn about the changes in precipitation and temperature in Alabama as a result of the different ENSO phases.
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an ocean- atmospheric phenomenon that affects the temperature and precipitation in Alabama in all seasons. Although ENSO predictability in the state is highest in the winter, it is highly variable in the other seasons; therefore, its predictability in spring, summer, and fall is low.
## What Are El Niño and La Niña?
ENSO is the interannual fluctuation of the atmosphere-ocean system in the equatorial Pacific, and it has three phases: warm (El Niño), cold (La Niña), and Neutral. Although El Niño is considered the warm phase of ENSO and La Niña the cold phase, they are not considered opposites because they occur with differing magnitudes, spatial extent, and duration. The impacts on the United States are neither equal nor opposite. Impacts of ENSO stretch far beyond the region through interactions called teleconnections.
During an El Niño, usually warm water appears in the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. Because the warm current usually appears around Christmastime, the fishermen named El Niño, Spanish for "the Christ child." During La Niña, 'little girl' , usually cold water is present in these locations, causing contrasting shifts in local weather patterns as well as in the global climate. Anomalous weather patterns in La Niña seasons are generally opposite from those in El Niño. These changes in the surface water temperatures are linked to changes in the region Figure 1. Water temperature and ocean conditions in the Pacific during El Niño (left) end Le Niño (light). Credit: VICAv.
## How Are El Niño and La Niña Detected and Predicted?
A number of international science agencies work cooperatively to monitor the ENSO system. They use the data they collect to calculate indexes such as the Southern Oscillation Index, Nino3.4, and the Multivariate ENSO Index (Figure 3), which characterize the strength of each ENSO episode. Statistical and dynamical computer models are used to predict how ENSO will change over time. These predictions can tell us up to several months ahead what variations in climate to expect. They allow scientists to anticipate what impacts will occur over the months that follow the onset of one of these events.
## General Characteristics of ENSO Phases
## El Niño
- · Ocean temperatures of 4 to 6 °F above average are commonly observed between the International Date Line and the west coast of South America.
- · Warm ocean waters cause increases in tropical rain and thunderstorms.
- · Atmospheric pressure increases near Indonesia and in the western Pacific and decreases in the eastern Pacific. Pressure changes lead to the subtropical jet stream moving into Florida, southern Georgia, and Alabama, steering cloudy, rain-bearing systems into the region in winter.
- · El Niño lasts for no more than 1 year.
- · The likelihood of tomatoes and severe weather increases in the Florida peninsula.
## La Niña
- · Ocean temperatures of 4 to 6 °F below average are observed in the eastern Pacific.
- · Cold water in the eastern Pacific shifts the location of thunderstorms, rising air, and lower pressure to the western Pacific.
- · Pressure shifts cause the subtropical jet stream in the
- S. to shift north, moving the storm track to northern Georgia and Alabama and leaving Florida sunnier and drier than usual.
- La Niña can last for 1 to 3 years.
- The likelihood of tomatoes and severe weather increases in Alabama and Georgia.
## A) Precipitation Variability
## El Niño
- · Winters are wetter than normal in the central and southern parts of the state but drier in the northern part (Figure 4a). During winter, El Niño is the wettest of all phases in the central and southern parts, whereas La Niña is the wettest in the northern part.
- · Springs are slightly wetter than normal in the northern and central parts but drier in the southern part (Figure 4b). The Neutral phase is wetter than El Niño in all locations, with the wetness increasing toward south.
- · Summers are drier than normal except in the central part where they are slightly wetter (Figure 4c).
- · Falls are wetter than normal in all locations. El Niño is the wettest of all phases in all locations (Figure 4d).
La Niña
- · Winters are drier in the central and southern parts but wetter in the northern part.
- · Springs are slightly drier than normal in all locations. The dryness increases toward south.
- · Summers are generally wetter than normal except in the southern part where they are slightly drier. La Niña is wetter than Neutral in the northern and central parts. Neutral is wetter than La Niña in the southern part.
- · Falls are slightly drier than normal in the northern part but slightly wetter in the other parts of the state. Of all phases, La Niña is the driest in the northern part, whereas Neutral is
direct in the southern part. In neutral years, the dryness increases toward south.
## B) Temperature Variability
## El Niño
- · Winters are cooler than normal throughout Alabama, with the coolness increasing toward south (Figure 5a). As El Niño, Neutral phase is cooler than normal, but the latter is warmer than the former in all parts.
- · Springs are slightly cooler in southern and central parts but are normal in the northern part (Figure 5b). Of all phases, El Niño is the coolest in the southern and central parts, whereas Neutral is coolest in the north.
- · Summers are hotter than all parts of the state (Figure 5c), and El Niño is the hottest phase.
- · Fails are slightly cooler than normal in all locations, and El Niño is the coolest of all phases in all locations (Figure 5d).
Figure 5. Temperature (T) anomalies from the long-term averages for three ENSO phases and three regions in Alabama during; (a) winter (Dec-Feb), (b) spring (Mar-May), (c) summer (Jun-Aug), and (d) fall (Sep-Nov)
## La Niña
- · Winters are warmer in all locations of the state; however, temperatures are warmer in the south than in the north.
- · Springs are slightly warmer in northern and southern parts about the same as normal in the central part. Of all phases, La Niña is the hottest in the north and south, whereas Neutral is hotest in the central part.
- · Summers are cooler in all parts of the state, and La Niña is the coolest of all phases.
Fails are slightly warmer in the southern part but not different from normal in the northern and central parts. Of all phases, La Niña is the warmest in the southern part, and Neutral is warmest in the northern and central parts.
Prem Woli, Research Fellow, Crop, Soil, and Environmental Climatologist, Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia; Sciences, Auburn University; Brenda Ortaz, Assistant Professor and Melissa Griffin, Assistant State Climatologist, COAPS, Extension Specialist, Crop, Soil, and Environmental Florida State University
Sciences, Auburn University; Pam Knox, Agricultural
Reviewed October 2021,
EI Niño-Southern Oscillation and Its
Impact on Alabama's Climate, ANR-2091
## Download this article as a PDF
- □ (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANR-2091.REV\_.pdf) EI Niño-Southern Oscillation and Its Impact on Alabama's Climate.ANR-2091(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANR-2091.REV\_.pdf)
Cookie Notice |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/screw-press-separation-of-manure | Screw Press Separation of Manure | NC State University | [
"Rebecca Larson",
"Horacio Aguirre-Villegas",
"Mahmoud Sharara",
"Joseph Sanford",
"Zong Liu",
"Linda Schott"
] | null | [
"Manure Management",
"Sustainability",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Screw Press Separation of Manure
Manure Processing for Farm Sustainability
## Abstract
Screw press separators can divide a single by-product stream into a solid and liquid stream to improve handling and management. These processing systems are commonly used in manure handling systems but can be used for management of many organic streams. For example, a wet digestion system that accepts food waste may also integrate the technology following anaerobic digestion. Regardless of the application, screw press separators are more efficient in removing solids from manure slurry streams (greater than four percent total solids or dry matter content) than with more dilute liquid manure streams. The systems are known to improve manure handling as well as reduce environmental impacts of livestock systems.
A pdf version of this publication is available from The Learning Store Division of Extension, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
## Authors
Rebecca Larson
Associate Professor, Biological Systems Engineering University of Wisconsin-Madison
Horacio Aguirre-Villegas
Associate Scientist, Biological Systems Engineering University of Wisconsin-Madison
Mahmoud Sharara
Extension Specialist, Biological and Agricultural Engineering North Carolina State University
Joseph Sanford
Assistant Professor, Soil and Crop Sciences University of Wisconsin-Platteville
Zong Liu
Assistant Professor, Biological and Agricultural Engineering Texas A&M University
Linda Schott
Assistant Professor, Soil and Water Systems University of Idaho
Publication date: Jan. 10, 2021
AG-919-02
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2023/11/17/el-nuevo-centro-para-el-control-de-plagas-abordara-los-problemas-causados-por-insectos-y-plagas-en-florida/ | El nuevo centro para el control de plagas abordará los problemas causados por insectos y plagas en Florida | University of Florida | [
"Luz Bahder"
] | 2023-11-17 | [
"Agriculture",
"Pests & Disease",
"Professional Development",
"SFYL Hot Topic",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Andrew Short",
"Ben Sasse",
"Centro de Innovacion para el Manejo de Plagas Urbanas",
"Centro de Investigacion y Educacion de UF/IFAS en Fort Lauderdale",
"control de plagas",
"cucarachas",
"entolomogia",
"Español",
"Especializacion en linea",
"especies invasoras",
"estrategias de control",
"garrapatas",
"industria del control de plagas",
"insectos plaga",
"Instituto de Investigacion Cientifica para Especies Invasoras",
"moscas",
"nan-yao su",
"Plagas",
"plagas urbanas",
"Robert Gilbert",
"salud publica",
"Spanish",
"termitas",
"UF",
"UF-IFAS",
"University of Florida"
] | FL | ## El nuevo centro para el control de plagas abordará los problemas causados por insectos y plagas en Florida
Creado por Meredith Bauser, sénior especialista en relaciones
públicas de UF/IFAS.
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) creará una nueva red focalizada en encontrar novedosas formas de controlar insectos y plagas en hogares y empresas, conocida como el Centro de Innovación para el Manejo de Plagas Urbanas.
Diseñado para posicionar aún más a UF/IFAS como el líder en la industria del control de plagas, la iniciativa recibirán un financiamiento estratégico de $985.000 durante tres años provenientes de la oficina del presidente de UF Ben Sasse.
El Centro tendrá dos objetivos: desarrollar la fuerza laboral en la industria del manejo de plagas urbanas y brindar nuevas soluciones a problemas urgentes de plagas y salud pública, mediante la investigación y nuevas tecnologías. Se espera que la iniciativa sea autosuficiente después de los primeros tres años de financiamiento.
"El Centro de Innovación para el Manejo de Plagas Urbanas no sólo ayudará a crear empleos tendo el estado, sino que también mejorará la salud pública", acláro Santse. "Esta es una oportunidad muy valiosa para elevar los programas de entomología de nuestra facultad en beneficio de los habitantes de Florida".
El Centro apoyará la capacitación de más profesionales en el manejo de plagas y desarrollar herramientas para que estos profesionales las utilicen contra los problemas de plagas actuales y emergentes, explícó Robert Gilbert, decano de investigación de UF/IFAS.
"El Centro ayudará a esta industria de Florida de $2,2 mil millones, mediante el desarrollo de la fuerza laboral y crearás asociaciones industriales más sólidas, así como un mejor control de las plagas invasoras nuevas y existentes", aclaró Gilbert.
La iniciativa también apoyará a los estudiantes de pregrado y posgrado a través de pantías y cursos de instrucción adicionales en una nueva especialización en línea, que iniciarán en el otto dóel 2024. La especialización en manejo de plagas urbanas completamente en línea se ofrecerá dentro de la especialización en entomología de UF, preparando a los estudiantes para la industria y proporcionando una base en biología de insectos, entomología aplicada y negocios.
"Nuestro departamento tiene vínculos sólidos con esta industria y esta iniciativa fue diseñada considerando las opiniones de los socios de la industria que contratan a nuestros graduados ", mencionó Andrew Short, director del departamento de entomología y nematología de UF. "Los estudiantes podrán establecer sus propias empresas de control de plagas u ocupar puestos de gestión o liderazgo en la industria, por lo que tener cursos de negocios es especialmente relevante".
Además, los programas de certificación permitirán a los estudiantes que no pertenecen a UF acceder a la experiencia de sus profesores, además de brindar oportunidades de asociación y establecimiento de contactos en toda la industria.
El Centro será administrado por el departamento de entomología y nematología de UF e incluirá profesores del Centro de Investigación y Educación de UF/IFAS en Fort
Lauderdale y del Instituto de
Esta iniciativa es particularmente relevante en Florida, ya que estudios recientes de la industria sobre el manejo de plagas urbanas
han encontrado que no hay suficiente mano de obra calificada en el campo (desde técnicos certificados hasta futuros ejecutivos) que logre satisfacer la demanda de manejo de plagas en todo el estado.
Según un informe de la revista Pest Control Technology del 2023, dos quintas partes de los proveedores de servicios de control de plagas no tenían suficientes trabajadores para satisfacer esta demanda. Como se detalla en otro informe reportado en la misma revista, el crecimiento de la industria del control de plagas simboliza una mayor demanda de trabajo de los entomólogos urbanos, pero el número de científicos no ha aumentado debido a la necesidad de recursos.
También existe una necesidad constante de que los profesionales de manejo de plagas de Florida estén equipados con las mejores herramientas, con el fin de luchar contra una multitud de especies invasoras en constante cambio en el entorno urbano notoriamente abundante de plagas que caracteriza a Florida. La prevalencia de termitas, enfermedades transmitidas por garrapatas y patogénos transmitidos por moscas, así como la resistencia a pesticidas de especies como las cucarachas alemanas, son preocupaciones que se trabajarán en el Centro con el fin de desarrollar estrategias de control más efectivas.
UF ya tiene un historial estelar de innovación y desarrollo de la fuerza laboral en la industria del manejo de plagas urbanas. Por ejemplo, UF es el hogar de la invención de Sentricon®, un cebo para termitas cuyo credor, Nan-Yao Su, fue incluido en el Salón de la Fama de los Profesionales del Manejo de Plagas.
La iniciativa del Centro continuará elevando la posición de UF como líder en investigación dentro de la industria del manejo de plagas en todo el estado.
## ###
Traducido al español por Luz Bahder luzdenia@ufl.edu
To access this communication in English.,please use this link.
## ACERCA DE UF/IFAS
La misión de University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) es desarrollar conocimientos relevantes para los recursos agrícolas, humanos y naturales, así como hacer que esse conocimiento esté disponible para mantener y mejorar la calidad de
vida humana. UF College of Agricultural and Life Sciences cuenta con mas de una docena de centros de investigación, 67 condados con oficinas de extensión, así como estudiantes y profesores galardonados. UF/IFAS ofrece soluciones basadas en la ciencia a las industrias agrícolas y de recursos naturales del estado, así como a todos los residentes de Florida.
## ifas.ufl.edu | @UF I FAS
O
by Luz Bahder
Posted: November 17, 2023
Category: Agriculture, Pests & Disease, Professional Development,
SFYL Hot Topic, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS
Teaching
Tags: Andrew Short, Ben Sasse, Centro De Innovacion Para El
Manejo De Plagas Urbanas, Centro De Investigacion Y Educacion De
UF/IFAS En Fort Lauderdale, Control De Plagas, Cucaraches,
Entomologia, Espanol, Specializacion En Linea, Especies Invasoras,
Estrategias De Control, Garrapatas, Industria Del Control De Plagas,
Insectos Plaga, Instituto De Investigacion Cientifica Para Especies
Invasoras, Moscas, Nan-yao Su, Plagas, Plagas Urbanas, Robert
Gilbert, Salud Publica, Spanish, Termitas, UF, UF/IFAS, University Of
Florida
## More From Blogs.IFAS
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/EP536 | Helpful Suggestions for Commercial Propagation of Woody Plant Stem Cuttings | University of Florida | [
"Thomas Yeager"
] | 2020-01-02 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | Skip to main content
## Helpful Suggestions for Commercial Propagation of Woody Plant Stem Cuttings
Thomas Yeager
## Introduction
Ask a producer how to root a woody landscape plant and most likely the answer will focus on the root-inducing substances or materials used to promote rooting. This is because numerous evaluations and tremendous efforts have been devoted to finding the right combination of substances that induce roots rapidly. However, after achieving the goal of finding the ideal substance(s), formulation(s), the right amount, and the best application methods for rapid rooting with large numbers of vigorous roots, there is the tendency to become complacent with many of the other details for propagating cuttings. These other details are just as important as finding the ideal root-inducing substance. So as a reminder, provided below are details that are very important for successful propagation. Some of the details might be altered based on experience with particular species or cultivars and the environment (structure, moisture, etc.) in which cuttings are rooted.
Figure 1. Uppermost recently mature stem cutting is removed by cut just above subtending leaves. The position of the cut results in a cutting that is approximately the desired length.
Sanitation-Start with pathogen-free plants, substrate, tools, and surfaces and do not become complacent during the process of gathering, preparing, and sticking cuttings. Personnel should wear disposable gloves that are changed several times a day. However, washing gloved-hands is also helpful if the same gloves are used for an extended time. In addition, tools and work-space surfaces should be sanitized frequently throughout each day. A publication on disease management is listed as a reference.
Quality of cuttings-Cuttings of woody plants are often categorized as hardwood, semi-hardwood, or softwood to denote the maturation of the shoot where stems are cut. The quality of cuttings used for propagation is paramount. Thus, it is important that stock plants, from which cuttings are removed, are grown with optimal conditions (e.g., light, water, and nutrients). Use blemish-free cuttings taken from non-stressed plants that exhibit uniform growth. Most softwood cuttings are taken from shoots near the top of plants, and the most recently formed leaves should be fully expanded.
An ample amount of stems must be available for cutting. If not, the tendency is to cut a specific number of stems even though some cuttings are not consistent quality. Having an ample amount of stems available for cutting, enables personnel to select or seek specific cuttings that will exhibit consistent root formation.
Time of year/day to take cuttings-The best time of year to cut stems, for optimal rooting, will depend on the plant's response to environmental factors such as temperature. The environmental factors result in various physiological responses by the plant and consequently varied rooting responses. Thus, it is important to understand the plant's physiological response to environmental factors so proper timing for propagation is achieved, particularly for plants that are difficult to root. For example, Magnolia grandiflora can be propagated in the spring from new shoots that are almost mature, while some junipers are propagated in the fall using semi-hardwood cuttings. Specific information about when to propagate plants can be obtained from books about plant propagation.
Shoots and leaves of well-watered plants should have their maximum water content in early morning. At this time, plant tissues are not stressed and thus are ideal for cutting. Once cut, the flow of water up the stem from the roots is disrupted, and cuttings need to be protected to minimize water loss. Cuttings should be placed in shade and kept moist during preparation. The goal is to get cuttings into the substrate and rooting environment as soon as possible after separation from original plants.
Stem size diameter and length of cutting-Consistent rooting between cuttings can be impacted by the characteristics of the cuttings, so uniformity is very important. Take cuttings from uppermost mature growth or shoot tips for most plants. Select stems to cut that are of similar diameters with leaf nodes of similar distances on the stems. Stems that are cut must be mature enough to remain upright once the basal end is placed in the substrate. Cutings for many plants are a single stem, approximately three inches long with the leaves removed for approximately one inch from where the stem is placed in the rooting substrate. Cuttings that are branched may be used, but the uniformity of cuttings can impact the uniformity, form, or growth of the mature plants. In some cases, cuttings with specific specifications or sizes are desired because of the markets for the salable plants.
Location of cuts/terminal bud removal-Cut directly above subtending leaf or leaves a few nodes down the stem so that the uppermost portion of the stem can be removed if it is not mature enough to remain turgid and upright when tip is vertical. If the uppermost portion of the stem is mature enough to remain vertical, it can be convenient to size the length of the cutting by making the basal or bottom cut just above subtending leaves a few nodes down the stem. Remember that approximately one inch of clear stem is placed in the substrate, so remove the basal leaves if necessary. When nodes are approximately three inches apart, the stem between each node along with the uppermost leaves may be used for the cutting (Figure 1). Remove flower bud(s) so that energy reserves in the cutting are used for root formation and not flowering. Thus, a leaf or leaves and stem node remain at the top of each cutting. Cuttings that are the same length with similar stem diameters and the same number of leaves help ensure uniform rooting and subsequent shoot growth. For some cuttings, it may be beneficial to wound the basal area.
Environmental conditionsPropagation of cuttings from most woody plants requires shade during summer and cold protection during winter. Cold protection is usually provided by structures or greenhouses covered with cold and wind barrier material during the winter. Often, these same structures are covered with shaded materials during summer. Shade is used to minimize stress to unrooted cuttings, particularly at the beginning of propagation. As cuttings develop roots, shade amount is reduced or eliminated depending on plant need. It is important to gradually reduce shade amount to prevent sun damage of leaves.
The frequency of mist and the duration of mist following a similar pattern to shade-more is used initially. The initial intervals of misting (time between stop and start of mist cycle) should be short enough to maintain a film of moisture on the surface of leaves and keep the substrate moist. The mist duration (length of time mist is operational) is during the time that cuttings receive direct sunlight. However, for the first couple of days after cuttings are placed in the substrate, mist duration is extended from early morning till dusk. The extra water in the evening is not likely to evaporate rapidly and might ensure the stem base establishes contact with substrate moisture. After rooting, mist frequency is gradually reduced so that the length of intervals is increased, while first duration is gradually reduced so that cuttings are accumulated to an irrigation cycle similar to the container plant production environmental conditions.
## Summary
Successful rooting of woody plant cuttings could be described as the application of science and practical horticultural principles. Many scientific evaluations have determined the optimal root-inducing substances, formulations, and amounts for treating cuttings, but relentless application of sound horticultural principles is where many become complacent. The details mentioned above are based on several years of observations and personal experiences. However, there is no recipe that guarantees success each year, but careful attention to these suggestions can enhance the chances of success.
## Reference
Harmon, P. F. and S. D. Bledsoe. 2004. Professional Disease Management Guide for Ornamental Plants . PP202. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ppl23 (December 2019)
## Publication #ENH1273
Release Date:
January 3, 2020
Reviewed At:
August 1, 2023
DOI: 10.3247/edis-ep536-2016
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Shawn Steed
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is ENH1273, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date December 2016. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Thomas Yeager, professor emeritus, Environmental Horticulture Department; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Environmental Horticulture
Plant Propagation
## Steed, Shawn T.
County agent
University of Florida
Environmental Horticulture |
https://extension.msstate.edu/4-h-lego-engineering-club | 4-H LEGO Engineering Club | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [
"STEM",
"4-H",
"Education"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s " 4-H LEGO Engineering Club
## 4-H LEGO Engineering Club
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: STEM - Science Technology Engineering and Math
Publication Number: P3031
View as PDF: P3031.pdf
A 4-H LEGO Engineering Club is a building block to promote science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) at an introductory level. The 4-H LEGO Engineering Club will offer Extension agents an opportunity to incorporate STEM programming and provide 4-H 'ers with the tools to be creative with engineering. Purposeful play with LEGOs allows children to engage using their HEAD to think mechanically, their HEART to be imaginative, and their HANDS to create. All of these together help improve young people's social and emotional HEALTH through active collaboration with others.
Download the LEGO Nametags (.docx)
Download the LEGO Certificate (.pdf)
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Related News
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JUNE 4, 2021
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| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | next > | last > |
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| PUBLICATION NUMBER: M1917 | Rural Medical & Science Scholars | | | | | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3413 | | | | | | |
| 4-H LEGO Engineering Club On the Farm • Volume 2 | | | | | | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3708 | | | | | | |
| 4-H STEM at the State Fair curriculum | | | | | | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3563 | | | | | | |
| 4-H LEGO Engineering Club Enchanted Builds • Volume 3 | | | | | | | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2024/09/17/breaking-barriers-mentoring-minds-new-uf-ifas-scientist-earns-spot-among-americas-inspiring-hispanic-latinx-researchers/ | Breaking barriers, mentoring minds: New UF/IFAS scientist earns spot among America’s Inspiring Hispanic/Latinx researchers | University of Florida | [
"Lourdes Mederos"
] | 2024-09-17 | [
"Agriculture",
"Change Category",
"Conservation",
"SFYL Hot Topic",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Uncategorized",
"Climate Change",
"ecosystems",
"first-generation",
"Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center",
"hispanic heritage month",
"Mexican",
"microbial ecology",
"Microbial metabolism",
"Microbiology and Cell Science",
"minorities",
"molecular biology",
"paleobiology",
"Valerie De Anda Torres"
] | FL | Home » News » Breaking Barriers, Mentoring Minds: New UF/IFAS Scientist Earns Spot Among America's Inspiring Hispanic/Latinx Researchers
## Breaking barriers, mentoring minds: New UF/IFAS scientist earns spot among America's Inspiring Hispanic/Latinx researchers
The newest scientist to join the UF/IFAS Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center has been honored with a place on the Atlas of Inspiring Hispanic/Latinx Scientists.
Valerie De Anda Torres, an assistant professor of microbiology and cell science, joins more than 300 fellow scientists on the prestigious 2024 list, a grass roots effort developed in 2020 by researchers and celebrated faculty members working at universities and organizations. The Atlas showcases the scientific excellence of
outstanding scientists working in a wide range of disciplines from mathematical biology and ecology to neurology. Each year, the list highlights the expertise, talents and diversity of Hispanic and Latinx scientific faculty in honor of National Hispanic Heritage Month, celebrated Sept. 15 through Oct. 14.
De Anda joins an influential group of scientists nationwide who are making significant contributions to their fields. This honor acknowledges her scholarly achievements, dedication to mentoring and commitment to diversity.
"Receiving this recognition not only validates my efforts and achievements but also reinforces the importance of visibility for women in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM)," she said. "When women and minorities are acknowledged for their contributions, it sends a powerful message to younger generations that they, too, can succeed."
As a Mexican, first-generation, female scientist from a low-income background, De Anda witnessed and overcame many personal and professional barriers to pursue a scientific career.
'As an underrepresented minority, I've experienced firsthand the challenge of entering a world where your path to success starts with significant disadvantages,' she said. 'I am extremely honored by this recognition, and it encourages me to continue serving as a role model, particularly for those from underrepresented backgrounds and reminds me of the responsibility I carry to show we can break through barriers and that our work matters.'
Two pivotal moments sparked De Anda Torres' journey into science, and the questions arising from them continue to guide her research. Her fascination with geological time and extinct organisms began in childhood, further fueled by the movie "Jurassic Park" and its portrayal of DNA as a blueprint for long-gone species. Later, while reading a biology textbook, she discovered stromatolites, ancient microbial formations that produced earth's
oxygen. This revelation about life's origins in the Archean Eon cemented her desire to explore early microbial life, driving her scientific inquiry to this day.
In her role, De Anda brings a unique skill set of expertise to UF/IFAS and the Fort Lauderdale Research Center (FLREC) in the following areas:
De Anda earned a Ph.D. in microbial ecology from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and has held research positions at the University of Texas at Austin. Her work has garnered international recognition, from being a finalist for the LANGEBIO Award in Mexico to presenting her findings across 10 countries.
"Throughout my academic journey, I've come to understand that success in science is not just measured by individual accomplishments, but by the impact we have on those around us," she said. "Without a doubt, the most rewarding aspect of my career
has been mentoring and guiding over 30 scientists and contributing to their academic and professional development. Seeing them succeed in various fields-whether in academia, industry or
" has been one of my greatest accomplishments."
Her contributions are expected to deepen the center's research and advance its mission to address pressing ecological issues. With her expertise in microbial ecology, FLREC is poised to expand its efforts in understanding nutrient cycling, ecosystem resilience and the role of microorganisms in combating climate change.
"The opportunity to join the Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, with its proximity to the ocean and access to unique research sites, is a dream come true," she said. "I'm excited to collaborate with such a talented and interdisciplinary team."
As a passionate mentor and advocate for diversity, she's also looking forward to inspiring and guiding the next generation of scientists at UF/IFAS.
'Representation is key, especially when young girls see women succeeding in science, because it opens doors for them to envision their own futures in these roles,' she said. "This honor
reinforces my dedication to mentor, support and create opportunities for the next generation of female scientists. I want to be a role model awakening and empowering children from underrepresented minorities who can see themselves reflected in minority scientists like me."
She plans to host annual events, including an International Day of Women and Girls in Science, to inspire young girls and showcase diverse female scientists as role models.
###
## rodriguezl@ufl.edu
Para accesar a este contenido en español,por favor utilice este enlace.
## ABOUT UF/IFAS
The mission of the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is to develop knowledge relevant to agricultural, human and natural resources and to make that knowledge available to sustain and enhance the quality of human life. With more than a dozen research facilities, 67 county Extension offices, and award-winning students and faculty in the UF College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, UF/IFAS brings science-based solutions to the state's agricultural and natural resources industries, and all Florida residents.
```
ifas.ufl.edu | @UF I F AS
WHY FOOD IS OUR MIDDLE NAME
Feeding a hungry world takes effort. Nearly everything we do comes
back to food: from growing it and getting it to consumers, to
conserving natural resources and supporting agricultural efforts.
Explore all the reasons why at ifas.ufl.edu/food or follow
#FoodIsOurMiddleName
```
4
by Lourdes Mederos
Posted: September 17, 2024
Category: Agriculture, Blog Community, Conservation, SFJL Hot
Topic, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research, UF/IFAS
Teaching,
Tags: Climate Change, Ecosystems, First-generation, Fort Lauderdale
Research And Education Center, Hispanic Heritage Month, Mexican, Microbial Ecology, Microbial Metabolism, Microbiology And Cell
Science, Minorities, Molecular Biology, Paleobiology, Valerie De
## Anda Torres
## More From Blogs.IFAS
UF/IFAS research awards ceremony honors 2020 accomplishments and adaptability
For Florida-Centric Gifts, Visit the UF/IFAS Extension Bookstore
MEDIA ALERT March 27: UF/IFAS Compost Consortium brings leaders, resources together to establish sta... |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/wild-neighbors-living-with-urban-suburban-wildlife/ | Wild Neighbors: Living with Urban & Suburban Wildlife | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Amber C. Marable",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Wildlife",
"Urban Wildlife",
"Suburban Wildlife",
"Forestry",
"Education"
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font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
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margin-top: 40px;
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width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
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width: 4em;
height: 2em;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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margin-top: 40px;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
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text-align: center;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
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padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
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color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
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margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style id='ninja_table_custom_css_13342' type='text/css'>
#footable_13342 {
font-family: ;
font-size: px;
}
</style>
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
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.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
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}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
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/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
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.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
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.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-4175 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-34441089"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
<div class="mission-statement" id="header-mission" style="display:none;"><p>The <strong>Alabama
Cooperative Extension System</strong> operates as the primary outreach organization
that ensures all people have access to information that improves their quality of life
and economic well-being.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div><!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
<div class="page-wrapper">
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top-mobile">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-70066345"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF Removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<!-- Header Bottom Container -->
<div class="header-bottom header-top mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row">
<!-- Navigation -->
<div class="navbar navbar-inverse bg-primary">
<nav class=" navbar-collapse js-navbar-collapse pull-left" role="navigation"
aria-label="main navigation">
<ul class="nav navbar-nav nav-mobile">
<li class="dropdown mega-dropdown">
<a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle nav-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown">Topics <i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i> </a>
<div id="topics-dropdown" class="container dropdown-menu mega-dropdown-menu">
<ul class="container mega-nav-wrapper">
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/4h/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/4h.jpg"
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<article id="post-4175" class="post-4175 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-forestry-wildlife category-wildlife tag-for2034 tag-living-with-urban-suburban-wildlife tag-wild-neighbors-living-with-urban-suburban-wildlife tag-wildlife first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Wild Neighbors: Living with Urban & Suburban Wildlife">
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Wild Neighbors: Living with Urban & Suburban Wildlife </div>
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<li>July 26, 2018</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Amber C. Marable and Mark D. Smith</li>
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<p>Living near intrusive neighbors can be a challenge. Especially when they howl in the middle of the night, slither through your yard, chew on your house, and steal your food. Wildlife neighbors certainly can present problems at times. Yet wildlife also can be beneficial and even enjoyable neighbors. We just need to get better acquainted.</p>
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<h1>Knowing Who Your Neighbors Are</h1>
<p>When you think of wildlife you might like to see in your backyard, you probably imagine rabbits, gray squirrels, hummingbirds, songbirds, and butterflies. But it is not uncommon to see bats, armadillos, skunks, raccoons, opossums, red foxes, coyotes, and deer in suburban areas. Some of these species— namely raccoons, opossums, foxes, and coyotes—can even live within big cities. Birds of prey, such as red-tailed hawks and American kestrels, and even the occasional wild turkey can be drawn to your yard. Other guests such as snakes may also think your backyard is a good living space.</p>
<h1>Recognizing the Stranger Dangers</h1>
<p>When you first encounter an animal with which you are unfamiliar, it is natural to be suspicious and even startled.</p>
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<p>The presence of a coyote or raccoon may make you nervous. But try not to let emotions guide your response to wildlife in your yard and around your neighborhood.</p>
<p>Most wildlife attracted to your community does not represent a threat to you, your children, or your pets. While it is true that you should never approach wildlife or encourage them to approach you, most wildlife will avoid you. The likelihood of being attacked is miniscule.</p>
<p>Homeowners tend to feel particularly concerned if a coyote or fox is spotted. While considered predators, they are omnivorous. Their prey consists largely of insects and small mammals such as rodents and rabbits. They may occasionally eat domestic cats and small dogs when they are easily available, but the frequency is low to nonexistent in most areas of Alabama. Keeping pets inside is the best defense. This action also benefits harmless wildlife such as songbirds, which are frequently killed by pets.</p>
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<div id="attachment_13325" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-13325" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class="size-medium wp-image-13325" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/photocollagefor2034-600x356.png" alt="Top Left: While some species are content to live near you, others may try to live with you. Top Middle: Some birds of prey, such as this red-tailed hawk, can live within city limits. Top Right: White-tailed deer are common in some suburban areas. Bottom Left: Red foxes may live next to or under your house. Bottom Middle: Opossums are frequent backyard visitors. Bottom Right: A gray squirrel is a common sight in suburban backyards." width="600" height="356" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/photocollagefor2034-600x356.png 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/photocollagefor2034-768x456.png 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/photocollagefor2034.png 1561w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" /><p id="caption-attachment-13325" class="wp-caption-text"><strong>Top Left:</strong> While some species are content to live near you, others may try to live with you. <strong>Top Middle:</strong> Some birds of prey, such as this red-tailed hawk, can live within city limits. <strong>Top Right:</strong> White-tailed deer are common in some suburban areas. <strong>Bottom Left:</strong> Red foxes may live next to or under your house. <strong>Bottom Middle:</strong> Opossums are frequent backyard visitors. <strong>Bottom Right:</strong> A gray squirrel is a common sight in suburban backyards.</p></div>
<p>Homeowners may feel concerned that wildlife carry diseases. While certain diseases such as rabies and canine distemper can be carried by wildlife and transferred to people and pets, it is unusual to encounter diseased wildlife. Wildlife exists on the very edge of life and death. Most diseased animals die shortly after becoming infected and rarely survive long enough to encounter people and pets.</p>
<p>Seeing a healthy wild animal during the day is not unusual, especially if it has grown used to the presence of people. If you are concerned about the health of a particular animal, watch from a distance to see what it does. If it approaches you, acts deliriously, or seems uncoordinated, it could be sick and should be avoided. Contact your local animal control officer if you suspect that a wild animal in your area is sick.</p>
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<p>A common fear among many homeowners is the presence of snakes in the yard. If you live in a wooded area or have a small pond on your property, you may frequently see snakes. Don’t be afraid. Be informed. That means being aware of your surroundings when you’re outdoors, watching where you step and put your hands. And it means being knowledgeable of snake species. The majority of snakes in Alabama are not only harmless to people but are extremely beneficial as pest control of mice and rats. Of the approximately forty species of snakes found in Alabama, only six are venomous. What’s best, the venomous species are easily distinguished from the harmless ones.</p>
<p>Learn how to identify snakes from the Alabama Cooperative Extension System at www.aces.edu. Two excellent references are Identification of Snakes in Alabama for Forest Workers (ANR-1038) and Identification and Control of Snakes in Alabama (ANR-0597).</p>
<h1>Understanding They Were There First</h1>
<p>So why won’t these neighbors stay out of your yard or at least mind their own business? The answer is simple: It’s their yard too.</p>
<p>Many housing developments are situated at the outskirts of cities, where farmland or woodlands once stood and where wildlands begin. By moving into those developments, we’ve moved into the habitats of many wildlife species.</p>
<p>Some of these animals, such as bobcats, are secretive and may not choose to live near you. These species may quickly decide to leave when you move in. Many others, however, may stay in the surrounding area or try to inhabit the altered environment of your backyard.</p>
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<p>In more urban settings, where the land was converted to city use long ago, some wildlife species have adapted to take advantage of a new type of habitat. Species such as gray squirrels and groundhogs live well within the patches of habitat seen along the sides of roads and in parks. Others are at home in attics and basements, nesting or roosting on the sides of buildings, or raiding garbage cans for easy food.</p>
<p>Whether you moved into wildlife habitat or the wildlife moved into yours, the problems can be the same.</p>
<h1>Changing Your Habitat</h1>
<p>With enough time, money, and effort, it may be possible to exterminate some pests from your property. Without changing the way you manage your yard, however, more animals will quickly fill the unoccupied space. You may even be encouraging pest species to inhabit your yard without meaning to. An always available, always full bowl of cat food on your porch is an open dinner invitation to coyotes, foxes, opossums, raccoons, skunks, and even crows. All of these species can and will eat your pet’s food.</p>
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<p>The easiest way to control wildlife is to change your habitat so that it is inhospitable to them. The table on page 3 shows a few things you can do to discourage wildlife from living in your yard.</p>
<h1>Learning to Work Together</h1>
<p>You may not be able to change some situations. It may be possible to mow your yard, but if you live next to a wildlands area there may be little you can do to keep out wildlife. In such cases there are a few steps that may make it easier to live a little on the wild side. When wildlife won’t leave your yard, put them to work.</p>
<p>Wildlife that may seem unwelcome at first glance can provide valuable benefits. Take bats, for example. They may help to control insects that damage crops and irritate people. Many snakes are excellent mouse and rat catchers. Some harmless snakes, such as king snakes, can even help to control any venomous snakes that might enter your area. Rabbits enjoy eating forbs, such as dandelions, that interfere with your lawn. Squirrels and birds help to disperse seeds that will sprout ornamental plants and trees.</p>
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<p>Besides the basic protective services that wildlife can provide to your home, they can also be a source of enjoyment and education. Feeding birds can be a rewarding hobby. If you enjoy photography or wildlife watching, you may be able to hone your skills right from home. Children can experience nature firsthand without having to watch it on television. Interesting school projects can center around your backyard with little expense. In short, there is no end to the possibilities.</p>
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<th scope="col" class="ninja_column_0 ninja_clmn_nm_homeownermanagementpreactices ">Homeowner Management preactices</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_1 ninja_clmn_nm_coyotes ">Coyotes</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_2 ninja_clmn_nm_foxes ">Foxes</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_3 ninja_clmn_nm_racoons ">Racoons</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_4 ninja_clmn_nm_opossoms ">Opossoms</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_5 ninja_clmn_nm_skunks ">Skunks</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_6 ninja_clmn_nm_bats ">Bats</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_7 ninja_clmn_nm_squirrels ">Squirrels</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_8 ninja_clmn_nm_armadillos ">Armadillos</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_9 ninja_clmn_nm_deer ">Deer</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_10 ninja_clmn_nm_rabbits ">Rabbits</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_11 ninja_clmn_nm_crows ">Crows</th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_12 ninja_clmn_nm_snakes ">Snakes</th></tr>
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<td>Keep Tight-Fitting Lids on Trash Cans</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> </tr>
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<td>Pick Up Pet Foods</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td></td> </tr>
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<td>Remove Sources of Water</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td></td> </tr>
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<td>Eliminate Underbrush</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td>X</td> </tr>
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<td>Mow Frequently</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td>X</td> </tr>
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<td>Remove Stacks of Construction Materials</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td></td><td>X</td><td></td><td>X</td> </tr>
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<td>Fence Your Yard or Garden</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td> </tr>
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<td>Close Off Possible Entrances to Buildings</td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td> </tr>
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<td>Keep Cats and Dogs Indoors</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> </tr>
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<td>Remove Fruit or Nut Producing Plants</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td> </tr>
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<td>Do Not Install Dog or Cat Doors</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> </tr>
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<h1>Living in Harmony</h1>
<div id="attachment_13348" style="width: 378px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-13348" decoding="async" class=" wp-image-13348" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/photocalloge2for-2034-455x600.png" alt="Top Left: Bats provide a valuable service by consuming pest insects. Top Right: Keep tight-fitting lids on trash cans to discourage wildlife from raiding and scattering your garbage. Bottom: Except for using bird feeders, you should not approach or feed wildlife." width="368" height="523" /><p id="caption-attachment-13348" class="wp-caption-text"><strong>Top Left:</strong> Bats provide a valuable service by consuming pest insects. <strong>Top Right:</strong> Keep tight-fitting lids on trash cans to discourage wildlife from raiding and scattering your garbage. <strong>Bottom:</strong> Except for using bird feeders, you should not approach or feed wildlife.</p></div>
<p>If you choose to move into an outlying area, keep in mind that the neighbors you are moving next to are still wild. Having wildlife live in close proximity to you can be exciting, but remember that these animals are not tame. Although many of these wild neighbors are extremely cute, they are not pets. They have adapted to live near people, but they have not lost their wild behaviors. For this reason, you should not approach or feed wildlife (except for using bird feeders).</p>
<p>Humans have a responsibility to wisely use the resources in the environment. Try to remember that your uninvited guests are not attempting to make life difficult. They are simply attracted to your area for the same reason you are. In your neighborhood or yard they can find peace, quiet, and the convenience of home and table.</p>
<p>Many people firmly believe that wildlife should exist only outside of the human environment. Much of the natural environment, however, has been converted to human habitat. There are few truly wild places left for animals to live without encountering people. Instead of the inconvenience, think about how thrilling it is to be able to experience some of the remaining wild America in your own yard.</p>
<h1>Conclusion</h1>
<p>Living with urban and suburban wildlife can offer both opportunities and challenges. Wildlife is not tame, but most species do not pose any threat to your family or pets. Certain pest animals can be removed, but it will be more effective to alter your behavior to be less inviting to unwanted visitors. Some wildlife may stay in your yard or neighborhood, even if you try to discourage them. Think of ways these species can benefit you, and realize that you are experiencing a vanishing American wilderness in your own backyard. The next time your wild neighbors get a little loud, relax and try to enjoy the wild life.</p>
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<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/FOR-2034.pdf">Download a PDF of Wild Neighbors Living with Urban & Suburban Wildlife, FOR-2034.</a></p>
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/digital-diagnostics/plant-diseases/sycamore-anthracnose.html | Sycamore Anthracnose - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-04-15 | [] | OK | ## SYCAMORE ANTHRACNOSE
## Causal Agent
Apiognomonia veneta
## Hosts
Sycamore anthracnose is a widely distributed disease of sycamore and plane trees. Susceptible sycamore plants include American, Arizona and California varieties. The disease progresses in three phases: Canker formation, twig blight, and leaf blight, respectively. The fungus enters through the petioles and begins colonization when the trees become dormant in the fall and winter. The establishment of Apiognomonia in the cambium tissues leads to canker formation, twig dieback, and may kill infected trees.
## Symptomst
Dieback of sycamore branch and necrotic lesions near the veins are typical symptoms.
## Control
Fallen branches and leaves should be removed to lessen the severity of disease. Please contact your local county extension office for current information. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/emergency-and-disaster-preparedness/tornado-preparedness/weather-emergency-plan-must-include-pets.html | Weather Emergency Plan Must Include Pets - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-11-05 | [] | OK | ## Weather
In planning for stormy weather, it is important to account for all family members - even if they're furry, finned or feathered.
Dr. Rosslyn Biggs, director of Continuing Education and Extension Veterinarian at the Oklahoma State University College of Veterinary Medicine, said pet owners should take extra precautions to prepare for weather-related and other emergencies.
"While you're stocking your storm shelter with bottled water and flashlights, make sure you have all of the essentials on hand to care for your pets should you need to evacuate to a safe place," Biggs said.
If you do not have a storm shelter at home, keep in mind that you may have to go somewhere else to take cover. Also remember that the return may take several days in the event your home is damaged. Animals left behind in disaster situations may be injured or lost, so contingencies are necessary.
Items to have on hand and assembled in an emergency preparedness kit include pet food, water, a photo of the animal and a strong leash and muzzle. The kit can be as simple as a backpack or plastic container that is easily transported. It also is a good idea to have a record of current vaccinations and medical history with the contact information of the pet's veterinarian in the kit.
Make sure the pet has proper identification on it, such as a collar with ID tags that include the owner's name and phone number. Microchip identification is highly recommended.
It is not just dogs and cats that need to have ID and documents on hand. Birds, small mammals and reptiles should have photos and medical records in an emergency preparedness kit, too.
As for birds, during evacuation they should be carried in a covered cage to minimize their stress. This also will help keep the birds warm - it is common for the temperature to drop quickly during a storm.
"In the event you have to evacuate your home, be sure you have identified a safe place to go, and remember Red Cross disaster shelters can't accept pets. Check around in your area at different shelters and inquire about pet acceptance," she said. "If a shelter isn't available and you need to stay in a hotel for a few days, keep a list of nearby hotels that will allow pets. Other emergency shelter options for pets include a boarding facility or the home of friends or family who were not affected by the storm."
Biggs said pets may react to changes in their environment and stressful situations by trying to run away or hide. In the process, they might bite or scratch their owners or anyone else trying to help them. Always keep pets under control with a leash or in a carrier while you are evacuating and at your safe place, especially if it is a public location.
"Pets are part of the family and rely on their owners to take care of them and keep them safe," Biggs said. |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FA220 | Ocean Acidification: Calcifying Marine Organisms | University of Florida | [
"Joseph Henry",
"Joshua Patterson",
"Lisa Krimsky"
] | 2020-03-19 | [
"3. Natural Resources and Environmental Quality"
] | FL | ## Ocean Acidification: Calcifying Marine Organisms
Joseph H lleny, Joshua Patterson, and Lisa Krimsky
This document is one in a series on ocean acidification (OA). The series introduces Ocean Acidification: An Introduction , contains a general overview and information on the causes and chemistry of OA. Because OA is very large-scale and complex, each document in the series addresses a specific aspect of this issue. Florida, with an extensive coastline and deep cultural and economic ties to marine resources, will be directly affected by changes in seawater chemistry. Thus, each topic in the series also highlights information of specific relevance for Florida.
## Introduction
Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO$\_{2}$) concentration leads to ocean acidification, which is a threat to coastal and marine ecosystems and organisms. As atmospheric CO$\_{2}$ rises, CO$\_{2 }$is driven into the ocean via diffusion. When CO$\_{2}$ combines with seawater (H$\_{2}$O), it makes carbonic acid (H$\_{2}$O). Carbonic acid then breaks down to form a hydrogen ion (H$^{+}$)-and a bicarbonate ion (H$^{+}$C)$\_{3}$. Excess hydrogen ions build up over time in decreased seawater pH. Furthermore, the excess hydrogen ions combine with carbonate ions in the water, resulting in fewer available carbonate ions for marine calcite carriers. Calcifiers are organic that can synthesize calcium carbonate from calcium and bicarbonate or carbonicates into shells and other skeletal structures. Carbonic atoms are an essential element for marine calcuters, and their decreased availability in marine ecosystems is causing declines in marine food webs and reduced availability of carbonate ions have been linked to unfavorable impacts on physiology, behavior, and calcification rates of marine organisms. Coastal Florida boasts an abundance and diversity of calcifying organisms that are vulnerable to altered seawater carbonate chemistry results from increased atmospheric CO$\_{2}$ levels. This publication will focus on the impacts of ocean acidification on calcification: the process by which calcifying organisms produce calcium carbonate (CaCO$\_{3}$) to build their skeletons, and the impacts of ocean acidification on calcification in corals, bivalves, echinoderms, and planktonic organisms (Figure 1). Furthermore, this publication will explore areas in need of future study as scientists seek to determine the real-world implications and impacts of ocean acidification on the calcification process performed by some of the most important species in the marine environment.
Credit: Joseph H., UFF/IAS Co-Press
## Impacts on Corals
Florida is home to one of the largest coral reef systems in the world and the only barrier coral reef in the continental United States. The Florida Reef Tract stretches 360 linear miles and protects Florida's coastline. According to a 2013 analysis, the reefs of southeast Florida generate $3.33 billion a year and created 70,000 jobs (Johns et al. 2013). It is reasonable to believe that the potential impacts of ocean acidification on corals will also have great economic and environmental consequences for the state.
Studies have shown that atmospheric CO$\_{2}$ levels of 560 ppm could decrease coral calibration by upwards of 40% as carbonate ion concentrations decrease and restrict skeletal formation (Högbüldergübel 2007). Current levels are roughly 410 pm (Lindsey 2019). Reduced pH has also been shown to escalate calcium carbonate dissolution rates (Kealah et al. 2019). Decreased calcification greatly impairs coral growth, which, in turn diminishes the coral's ability to compete for biennial space against other marine species like macroalgons (Gattuso 2011). By study by Muhlehneler et al. (2016) found that the northernmost regions of the Florida Reef Tract are already 'net erosional' with regards to calcification, meaning that reef stability structure itself may be dissolving. Although some coral species have shown decreased calculation responses in rate of ocean acidification, other coral species have not
(Okazaki et al. 2017). Therefore, it is believed that impacts on coral calcification and growth result from a combination of factors including ocean acidification, temperature, light
availability, salinity and Kelleypas 2005).
## Impacts on Bivalves
Bivalves are a critically important group of aquatic organisms, and the state of Florida is home to a diverse assemblage of both freshwater and marine bivalves. Bivalves are aquatic molluscs including clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops. Organisms provide a multitude of ecosystem services. For example, the Eastern oyster ( Crustastrea virginica ) plays an important role in water filtration and the creation of habitat for fish and invertebrates in Florida (Grabowski and Peterson 2007). Furthermore, bivalves are economically important. In 2012, the hard clam industry in Florida supported 540 job had an economic impact of $93m (Baker et al. 2015).
Some bivalve aquaculture and commercial fisheries have recently been impacted by the effects of ocean acidification. In 2013, several oyster farmers in the Pacific northwest (a region where deep seawater plying creates oil and water releases produced water) were impacted to move their hatchery operations to Hawaii because declining oceanic pH was killing oyster larvae and decreasing adult oyster yield (Welsh 2016). Bivalveste are vulnerable to increased CO$\_{2}$ concentrations and lower pH, especially low as larvae. Temporary fluctuations in CO$\_{2}$ may have little impact on these organisms, but long-term exposure to decreased carbonate values and decreased pH has been shown to impact several biological processes that can lead to slower growth and reduced metabolism in mussels (Michaelidis 2005). Furthermore, ocean acidification can lead to shell dissolution in bivalvives, impairing their overall growth and development. Shell isolation is the breakdown and decomposition of the shell structure and has been observed in bivalves and other marine organisms. Although the full implications of increased dissolution rates are not clear, it is expected that degraded calcium carbonate shells could lead to reduced lifespans, higher susceptibility to predators, and other significant ecological consequences (Niniumius 2010).
## Impacts on Echinoderms
Echinoderms are one of the largest groups of marine organisms, and the group is widely represented in Florida. This group includes sand dollars, sea stars, sea cucumbers, brittle stones, crinoids, and sea urchins. Studies have begun to show the impacts of ocean acidification on echinoderms, specifically such seawells. Due to their longer larval development times in the water column, sea urchins serve as an early indicator species for changing environmental conditions. A study that specifically observed the effects of increased CO$\_{2}$ concentrations found that increased CO$\_{2}$ concentrations can negatively affect the early life history of echinoderms by decreasing fertilization rates, early cell division, and size of planktonic
echinoderm larvae (Kurihara 2004). Although not all adult echinoderm species appear to be profoundly impacted by ocean acidification, there are studies showing that mature urchins will be harmed by slowed development and degradation in skeletal integrity when exposed to the higher levels of ocean CO$\_{2}$ that are predicted by the middle/end of this century (Albright 2012).
## Impacts on Planktonic Organisms
Marine plankton are small organisms that form the base of the marine food web. Planktonity typically drift passively in the water column and are transported primarily by oceanic currents. Not all plankton rely on calcification. However, many plankton species are significant calcifiers, and they are sensitive to OA. Globally, total calcification production in our oceans is dominated by the plankton community (Ribesell 2000), echinoderms and a single-celled type of phytoplankton, have been called the 'whole single-most important califi caling' ochranism' [Obelk et al., 2012]. How OA still affects the californium group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem remains major questions. During their development, coccolithores are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remain major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remain major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remain major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions. During their development, coccoliths are suspended in the water column until group and what downstream effects it may render on marine ecosystem responses remained major questions.
## Conclusion
Florida is home to many species that will be impacted by ocean acidification. Continued changes in carbonate chemistry and pH could lead to greater impacts on marine ecosystems and organisms (Kroeker 2010). Laboratory and Calcifying organisms can influence algal modifications or calciuming organisms including corals, echinoderms, bivalves, and plankton have all shown negative impacts from increased oceanic CO$\_{2 }$concentrations and decreased pH. These changes could lead to a multitude of problems that will harm other marine organisms, marine habitat structure, and the people who rely on these organisms and habitats for food, for livelihoods, and for protection against erosion and storm surge, among other threats. Changes in plankton populations could have negative impacts on food webs and ultimately reduce availability for people. Furthermore, the existence of coral reefs in coastal communities move vulnerable to the impacts of large storms as degreded corals reach low fecal volumes for more protective water flow via waves activity. Our current understanding of the impacts of ocean acidification on calificating organisms is largely based on limited experiments that are performed in the laboratory. For this reason, it is important to recognize the complex nature of marine ecosystems and the importance of further studies that seek to better understand how ocean acidification may impact interactions within these dynamic ecosystems. There is still much to be understood about the longterm effects of ocean acidification on calificating systems and the impacts these changes will have on complex marine ecosystems. This publication focused on the impacts of ocean acidification on calificating, but there are evermore other areas that could be affected by ocean acidification. To learn more about these, please refer to the other publications in the UF/IAS Extension Ocean Acidification series.
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Baker, S. K.; Grogan, S., Larkin, and L. Stumermer, 2015. "Creen's Claims: Estimating the Value of Environmental Benefits (Ecosystem Services) Generated by the Hard Clam Acquature Industry in Florida," Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences 1 - 10; PDE
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Johns, G. C., Kelleb, D. Lee, V. R. Leeworthy, and W. K. Nuttle. 2013. Ecosystem Services Provided by the South Florida Coastal Marine Ecosystem . Marine and Estuarine goal setting (MARES) White Paper 20.
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Khura, I., and Haryana, S. Y. "Effects of Increased Atmospheric CO$\_{2}$ on Sea Urchin Early Development." Marine Ecology Progress Series 274: 161 - 169. doi:10.3543/mpe274611
Lindsay, R. 2019. "Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon dioxide." Anthracite Daily News. Retrieved October 28, 2019, from https://www.oxwclimate.gov/news/features/understanding/ climate?climate=warming\_carbon+disponibility
Lobbeck, K. T., U. Reiebleseed, and T. B. Reusch. 2012. "Adaptive Evolution of a Key Phyloplankton Species to Ocean Acidification." Nature Geoscience 5(5): 346 - 351. doi:10.1038/ngsu.143
Michalis, B., C. Ounousis, A. Paleras, and H. O. Portner. 2005. "Effects of Long-Term Moderate Hypercaprina on Acid-Base Balance and Growth Rate in Marine Musells Myitfus volcanoprinquiries." Marine Ecology Progress Series 293: 109 - 118. doi:10.3354/mep292013
Muhelhneler, N., L. Congang, A. Van, and D. Kadko. 2016. "Dynamics of Carbonate Chemistry, Production, and Calci fication of the Florida Reeft (2009 - 2010): Evidence for Seasonal Dissolution." Global Biogeochemical Cycles 30(5): 661 - 688. doi:10.1002/2015GB0051237
Nienhus, S. A. R. Palmer, and C. D. Harley. 2010. "Levitated CO$\_{2}$ Affects Shell Dissolution Rate but not Calificatio n Rate in a Marine Snail." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 27(1693): 2553 - 2558. doi:10.1098/rsbp.2016.02
Okazki, R. R. E. K. Towle, R. van Hooidkos, C. Mor, K. N. Winter, A. M. Piggot, R. Cunningham, C. A. Baker, J. S. Klaus, P. C. Swart, and C. Langdon. 2017. "Species-Specific Responses to Climate Change and Community Comparison Determines Future Calculation Rates of Florida Keys Reefs." Global Change Biology 23(3): 1023 - 1035. doi:10.1111/gg.1483
Orr, J. C., V. J. Fabry, O. Aumont, L. Bopp, S. C. Donkey, R. A. Feely, A. Granadesikan, N. Gruber, A. Ishid, F. Joos, and R. M. Key. 2005. "Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification over the Twenty-First Century and Its Impact on Calicy ring organisms." Nature 437(7059): 681. doi:10.1038/nature04095
Ribebsell, U., I. Zondervan, B. Rost, P. D. Tortell, R. E. Zebeeb, and F. M. Morel. 2000. "Reduced Calificati on of Marine Planning in Response to Increased Atmospheric CO$\_{2}$." Nature 307: 364 - 367. doi:10.1038/3530078
Welch, C. 2016. "Ocean Acidification Drives Oyster Farmers to Hawaii." Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved August 4, 2019, from https://www.adn.com/
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-fa220-2020
Critical Issue: 3. Natural Resources and Environmental Quality
Contacts: Josh Patterson
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is FA220, one of a series of the School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date March 2020. Visit the EDIS website at https://eds.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Joseph Henry, graduate student, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences; Joshua Patterson, assistant professor, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, UF/IFAS Extension and Florida Sea Grant, The Florida Aquarium's Center for Conservation; and Lisa Krimsky, UF/IFAS Extension Florida Sea Grant Water Resources Regional Specialized Agent III, Southeast District; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/liability-defenses-for-injury-of-farm-visitors | Liability Defenses for Injury of Farm Visitors | NC State Extension | [
"Robert Andrew Branan"
] | null | [
"Liability",
"Agritourism",
"Farm Law",
"Negligence",
"Equine Liability",
"Livestock Injury",
"Law",
"Liability Law"
] | NC | ## Liability Defenses for Injury of Farm Visitors
Farm Law for Operators and Landowners
## Introduction
Having visitors on a farm increases risk of injury and liability. When a farm producer invites customers onto the land or leasehold for agritourism activities, guests are in proximity to a work environment rife with potential injury-causing variables, including animals, machinery, gates, and ditches.
North Carolina has three statutes (called "visitor liability defense" laws) concerning equine, livestock, and agritourism activities that release landowners and farmers from liability for inherent risks on the farm. (While each statute provides its own definition of "inherent risk" in context of equine, livestock, or agritourism activities, the term itself connotes an intrinsic danger of an object, inging, or activity that cannot be mitigated except with more-than-casual precaution.) Whether a farmer faces liability for an injury falls under the common law realm of tort law and various theories of defense against liability. The visitor liability defense statutes, however, have yet to be tested in North Carolina as an effective bar to an injured plaintiff's recovery. In addition, a farmer's negligence still may become a question for a jury under a variety of circumstances, particularly failure to follow the requirements of the liability defense statutes.
This factsheet provides an overview of a farmer or landowner's obligations to visitors - invited and otherwise - to the property, including a description of each of the visitor liability defense statutes.
## The Concept of Negligence
When an injury occurs, the injured party is often faced with economic loss in the form of medical bills, lost productivity at work, and diminished quality of life. The injured party likely requires someone else to pay the economic costs of the injury. To remedy the economic loss from the injury (to "make themselves whole"), the injured party must assign legal responsibility (liability) to someone for the injury.
To assign legal liability, the injured party must prove that the injuring party was negligent under the common law standards of the state in which the injury occurs. Common law is roughly defined as our body of "court-made" law, in which historical resolution of disputes through the years are handed down as precedent to courts addressing later disputes. Under North Carolina common law, an injured plaintiff must prove to a jury's satisfaction four elements to indicate that the injuring party is liable through their negligent actions: 1) duty, 2) breach of duty, 3) proximate causation, and 4) damages.
In most instances, when an injury occurs and the party identifies the person or persons responsible, the alleged injuring party will contact their liability insurance carrier and report the injury. (The insured's contract may require the insured to immediately contact the insurer when an injury occurs on the farm or land, instead of waiting until the injured party has made a demand). In addition to payment of covered claims, the insurance policy also obligates the insurer to manage and pay for the defense of the claim (that is, paying attorneys to settle or try the case). Any communications
EXTENSION
from the injured party to the farmer are directed to the insurance company; if the injured party is represented by an attorney, communication is between the attorney and insurance company or law firm hired by the insurance company to handle the case.
Negligence means one person's failure to follow a societal code of "reasonable conduct" required by common law, which as noted previously requires an injured party to prove the four elements of duty, breach of duty, proximate cause, and damages. In this legal context, "duty" means that the allegedly responsible party (known as the "torteasor") acts as would a reasonable person in similar circumstances in a manner unlikely to cause injury to another, whether by act or omission. Factors considered by a jury in determining whether a defendant's conduct is not reasonable - and thus a "breach of duty" - relate to foreseeability of the injury, for example, whether the defendant's conduct is likely to cause injury, how severe such injury might be, and the economic burden of riskreducing precautions (Restatement (Third) of Torts: Liability for Physical Harm § 3).
Jury decisions on reasonable conduct are a matter of balancing the previously described foreseability factors. A formula for breach of duty looks like this: Breach = Burden
On the farm or land, the Hand Rule means accidents that are foreseeable and grave, and reasonably preventable without extraordinary cost or reduction in productivity, are the ones the farmer or landowner must take care to avoid. To not avoid those situations would be unreasonable. Thus, if the plaintiff proves by a preponderance (slight majority) of the evidence that his or her injury was caused by the unreasonableness of the farmer or landowner (and not some unrelated or intervening cause) and that he or she has suffered actual and quantifiable damages (see end of section), a jury is instructed to find for the plaintiff (UNC School of Government 2020). As of the publishing date of this factsheet, no North Carolina court has issued an opinion in which such a foreseabilit y formula is superseded by a warning of "inherent risk" as provided in the three statutes.
Proof of "proximate cause" requires that the plaintiff show that the injury is the direct result of the defendant's breach of duty. In other words, the plaintiff would not have suffered the specific injury but for the defendant's failure to act reasonably in the circumstances. If the plaintiff is injured by a cause unconnected to the defendant's breach of duty, then the breach of duty element fails. Note that direct act resulting in injury may be the final one in a series of events set in motion by the defendant, the sequence of such being reasonably foreseeable, much like pushing the first domino in a line of dominoes that causes the last one to fall.
As to entry upon land, North Carolina law, based on the 1998 case Nelson v. Freeland , requires that a landowner "exercise reasonable care in the maintenance of their premises for the protection of lawful visitors." In Nelson, the N.C. Supreme Court limited "visitors" to two classes, people who are invited (called "inviteses") and people who are not invited ("trespassers"). In the case of invitees, the duty of reasonable care applies. For those not expressly invited or implied to be invited (for example, a situation where a legal invitation arises by surrounding circumstances, though no invitation is uttered), there is no duty of care on the part of the landowner except to refrain from willful or wanton behavior causing injury.
Regarding the "fourth element" proof of damages: this is the requirement that a plaintiff prove and quantify loss to recover anything from defendant. There are numerous measurements of damages, including direct medical costs and rehabilitation, damage to plaintiff's property, lost wages due to injury, and loss of quality of life. Some are straightforward; others require expert testimony to establish.
## A Defense Against Liability: Contributory Negligence
Though a defendant may have acted unreasonably, the defendant can defeat a claim of negligence by showing that the plaintiff's injury was partly caused by his or her own unreasonable behavior. North Carolina is one of several "100% contributory negligence" states; this means that if a jury believes a plaintiff was also negligent in the slightest degree as a proximate cause of his or her injury, the defendant has no legal obligation to provide compensation for the injury.
A proposed jury instruction offered by the University of North Carolina's School of Government (2020) for contributory negligence reads:
The law requires every lawful visitor to use ordinary care while on the premises of another. Ordinary care means that degree of care which a reasonable and prudent lawful visitor would use under the same or similar circumstances to protect himself and others from [jury] [damage] while [on] [using] the premises of another. A lawful visitor's failure to use ordinary care is negligence. That said, a plaintiff's unreasonable behavior may be foreseeable.
The plaintiff's negligence must - like the defendant's - be the proximate cause of the injury, which is a question for a jury (Bottom s v. Seaboard & R.R. Co., 1894).
## Assumption of the Risk
Assumption of the risk is also available as a defense to negligence, but only between parties with a contractual relationship, such as the farmer and the visitor. Assumption of risk means that the injured party "conspected to relieve the defendant of an obligation of conduct toward him, and to take his chance of injury from a known risk" (Morris 1954). The use of the common law defense of assumption of risk to defeat a negligence claim has two elements: (1) plaintiff has actual or constructive knowledge of the risk, and (2) plaintiff consents to assume that risk by proceeding with the activity (Daye and Morris 2012). Assumption of the risk theory is the basis for North Carolina's visitor liability defense laws applied to farming, discussed in the next section.
## Liability Defense to On-Farm Injury: N.C.G.S. Chapter 99E
Beyond prudent mitigation efforts and liability insurance, the primary legal defense in North Carolina against on-farm injury by animals and other causes are the three farm visitor liability defense statutes (N.C. General Statutes Chapter 99E), which apply to livestock operations in general, equine operations, and agritourism operations. These three statutes operate to limit the liability of a livestock owner or operator for injuries "inherent" in equine operations, other livestock operations, or agritourism operations on a theory of assumption of the risk. The three statutes have one central requirement: the farm owner or operator must post signage with a warning, using the language prescribed in each statute. The statutes do not excuse an owner or operator from negligent behavior in proximately causing an injury. These statutes merely provide a shield against liability for a class of causes considered "inherent" on a farm, and thus anticipate injuries that might occur as would to anyone visiting a farm and choosing to ride or otherwise be near farm animals and machinery.
Like a liability waiver, the statutes prescribe a method for the operation to warn visitors, clients, and customers that they are entering a farm or engaging with animals, and that such engagement has inherent risks. Such is the language to be included on the sign prominently displayed, warning
visitors to proceed at their own risk. The requirement that the sign be prominently displayed creates a presumption that the visitor has seen the sign, processed the warning, and proceeded with the visit. The visitor is agreeing and is presumed to appreciate the risk and assess the consequences of participating in activities or being in proximity to inherent risks. Following are particulars of the three liability statutes.
## Equine Liability: N.C.G.S. §99E-1
This section of Chapter 99E limits the liability of equine professionals, equine activity sponsors, and "any other person engaged in an equine activity" from liability for injury or death "resulting exclusively from any of the inherent risks of equine activities (N.C G.S. §99E-2(a))." Equine activity means "any activity involving equine (n.G.C.S.§99E-1)(3)." The statute defines "inherent risks" broadly as:
- a. The possibility of an equine behaving in ways that may result in injury, harm, or death to persons on or around them.
- b. The unpredictability of an equine reaction to such things as sounds, sudden movement, unfamiliar objects, persons, or other animals. Inherent risks of equine activities does not include a collision or accident involving a motor vehicle ( n.C.G.S.§99E-1(6)).
There are three categorical fact exceptions to the liability limitation. First, if a plaintiff proves that the equine operation provides the horse and fails to make a reasonable assessment of the rider's ability, or second, provides faulty tack, liability protection is lost. Third, the plaintiff must prove the equine operator's willful or wanton disregard for the safety of the participant, which proximately causes the injury. This third exception may represent a broad category of evidence to suggest a person's decision precipitated events that caused an injury. Landowners who allow equine riding on their land without charge are not covered by the equine statute, but they likely would receive liability limitations under North Carolina's Recreational Use Statute ( n.C.G.S.§$38A-1)
As noted, the key provision of the liability defense statute is the required posting of the signs in a "clearly visible location on or near stables, corrals, or arenas where the equine professional or the equine activity sponsor conducts equine activities." Though the number of signs is not specified, the prescribed warning must appear in any contracts or written agreements, including equipment rental agreements ( n.C.G.S.§$99E-3(a)). The required wording specified by n.C.G.S.§$99E-3(b), in minimum 1-inch letters, is:
## WARNING
Under North Carolina law, an equine activity sponsor or equine professional is not liable for an injury to or the death of a participant in equine activities resulting exclusively from the inherent risks of equine activities. Chapter 99E of the North Carolina General Statutes.
In all three 99E articles, the requirement of posting by businesses is specific: "Failure to comply with the requirements concerning warning signs and notices provided in this Part shall prevent an equine activity sponsor or equine professional from invoking the privileges of immunity provided by this Part" ( n.C.G.S.§$99E-3[c]). See also n.C.G.S.§$99E-$99E-3(c) (agritourism).
## Farm Animal Activity Liability: N.C.G.S. $99E-6
The visitor liability defense statute for farm animal activity operates like the equine statute, with a few differences. The 99E-6 law broadens farm animal definition to include "cattle, oxen, bison, sheep, swine, goats, horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, hinnies, llamas, alpacas, lagomorphs, ratites, and poultry" (N.C.G.S.§99E-6(4)).
The activities qualifying for immunity are very broad, including educational activities like farm demonstrations, rodeos, rides and fairs, veterinary services or farrier work, competitions, and parades involving farm animals. Also included are injuries sustained when evaluating an animal for purchase.
Inherent risks are expanded from the equine statute to add the "risk of contracting an illness due to coming into physical contact with animals, animal feed, animal waste, or surfaces that have been in contact with animal waste" (N.C.G.S.§99E-6[9][c]). The signage requirement lists sign display areas as same as the equine statute, with nearly identical warning sign language. The acts that disqualify the operator from the visitor liability defense laws - faulty tack, misjudging participant's ability, and willfully or wantonly disregarding the participant's safety - are the same as the equine statute.
## Agritourism Liability: N.C.G.S. §99E-30
The agritourism statute is the newest of the visitor liability defense statutes in Chapter 99E. This statute operates on the same principles as the previous two, including required signage posted with specific language warning of inherent risks. The range of activities is broadened further. The inherent risks are expanded to include natural features of the land where the agritourism activity is conducted, and include the "ordinary dangers of buildings and equipment ordinarily used in farming and ranching operations" (N.C.G.S.§99E-30[3]). Note that there are words in that phrase a jury would have to define - based on facts submitted by the parties - namely what features constitute "ordinary dangers" and "ordinarily used."
In addition to the wilful or wanton act, if the operator "has actual knowledge or reasonably should have known of an existing dangerous condition on the land, facilities, or equipment used in the activity or the dangerous propensity of a particular animal used in such activity and does not make the danger known to the participant, and the danger proximately causes injury, damage, or death to the participant, then protection by the statue is lost" (N.C.G.S.§99E-3[b][2]). Note that this exception is omitted in the equine and livestock statutes, and it is unclear whether an expansive reading of the descriptions in the agritourism statute could encompass the types of activities and resulting injury anticipated under the equine and livestock statues. For example, would the agritourism visitor liability defense state apply to a claim for an injury sustained on a trail ride due to an undisclosed land defect? The agritourism statute is more specific than the other two regarding signage, requiring that a sign be posted at the entrance to the farm and at the "site of the agritourism activity," so, at a minimum, two signs are required (N.C.G.S.§99E-32[c]). The statute is clear - like the others - that failure to post signage denies the defendant the use of the assumption of the risk defense provided by the agritourism statute; failure to post signage with the required language results in a loss of protection by the statute.
Though the number of filed cases and jury verdicts in lower trial courts is not known, the North Carolina Court of Appeals has yet to review a case with a fact pattern related to the injury that has failed protection of the statute, or has resulted in dismissal because the cause of injury fits the inherent risks covered by the statute. However, a 2019 case, Suarez by and through Nordan v.
American Ramp Co., reviewed a liability dismissal under a similar §99E liability statute related to hazardous recreation activity (N.C.G.S.§99E-21); the court held that the statutory limitation fails (at least on motion to dismiss the case) under a complaint of gross negligence, which is akin to the "willful and wanton" standard under the equine, livestock, and agritourism statutes. A cursory look at cases from other jurisdictions revealed that failure to produce evidence that the signs were posted, and posted in areas clearly viewable by the participants, may not be used as a statutory shield to dismiss the case, and the case may continue to the jury if not settled beforehand (Macfadyen v. Maki, 2007; McGraw v. R&R Investments Ltd., 2004; Beattie v. Mickalich, 2009).
Because the language of the North Carolina statutes is specific on the point of posting signage, it follows that when the statute is invoked to support a pre-trial dismissal of a case in which signage has been provided, failure to produce evidence that the signs were properly posted when the injury occurred could allow the trial to proceed.
Because there are no published court opinions in North Carolina addressing this issue, we do not know what "inherent risks" really means under the law of this state or what fact pattern it might describe. Likewise, "williful and wanton" have not been applied to a farm setting, and "ordinarily used in agriculture" also requires fact definition. A look at all cases in other jurisdictions reveals that courts may require in their jury instructions an instruction that the jury decides whether the facts qualify these phrases as an exception to the liability protection (Clyncke v. Waneka, 2007; Loftin v. Lee, 2011).
## Conclusion
As we have illustrated, an injured person bears the burden of proof to require a culpable farm (or its insurer) to compensate him or her for the costs of the injury. Most farm injury matters never reach that, as they are usually settled by the farm's insurer. If any cases do reach trial, the three North Carolina laws offering liability protection to farm operators may provide a route to early dismissal of such actions, so long as the statutory requirements have been followed. However, the laws do not necessarily exclude liability for actual negligence of the farmer, but rather place on the injured visitor an assumption of the risk that can be claimed as a defense by the farmer. Such defense can be overcome if an injured plaintiff demonstrates -to the satisfaction of the court -that the injury was the result of something that is not an "inherent risk" in farming. Without the benefit of appellate opinions in North Carolina or elsewhere to illustrate this term, the true effectiveness of these laws is unknown.
## References
Daye, Charles E. and Mark W. Morris. 2012 . North Carolina Law of Torts , 3 rd Ed. Lexis Nexis.
Morris, Naomi. 1954. "Torts --negligence --availability of defense of assumption of risk." UNC Law Review 32 , no. 3: 366-373.
UNC School of Government. 2020. North Carolina Conference of Superior Court Judges, North Carolina Pattern Jury Instructions for Civil Cases. Online. c805.55 Duty of Owner to Lawful Visitor.
## Resources
Black's Law Dictionary. 5 th ed. 1979. West Publishing Company.
## Cases Cited
Beattie v. Mickalich, 284 Mich. App. 564, 773 N.W.2d 748 (2009)
Bottoms v. Seaboard & R.R. Co., 114 N.C. 699, 19 S.E. 730 (1894)
Clyncke v. Waneka, 157 P.3d 1072 (Colo. 2007)
Loftin v. Lee, 54 Tex. Sup. Ct. J. 895, 341 S.W.3d 352 (2011)
Macfadyen v. Maki, 70 Mass. App. Ct. 618, 876 N.E.2d 437 (2007)
McGraw v. R&R Investments Ltd., 877 So.2d 886 (Fla. App. 2004)
Nelson v. Ereland, 349 N.C. 615, 507 S.E.2d 882 (1998)
Suarez by and through Nordan v. American Ramp Co., 266 N.C. App. 604, 831 S.E.2d 885 (2019)
United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947)
## Ackowledgment
This publication is funded under Grant #2019-001-16 from the Tobacco Trust Fund Commission.
## Author
Robert Andrew Branan
Extension Assistant Professor (Agricultural and Environmental Law) Agricultural & Resource Economics
Publication date: July 30, 2021
AG-895-01
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/preschooler-development | Preschooler Development | NC State Extension | [
"Karen DeBord"
] | null | [
"Parenting",
"Child Development",
"Child Care",
"Children",
"Early Childcare"
] | NC | ## Preschooler Development
## Growing Together
Being able to wait their turn, not throwing a hard puzzle across the room in frustration, and staying in bed at night are all behaviors that children must learn. There are many factors that may affect a child's development and behaviors:
- · Family - culture reinforcement of behaviors, habits, and levels of support.
- · Environment - the child's family, school, church, relatives, friends, media, and caregivers.
- · Thought patterns - the child's ability to make choices, cooperate, make decisions, and recognize outcomes.
- · Social interactions - the child's temperament, sense of self-control, self-esteem, and motivation.
- · Physical capabilities and traits of the child, including size and abilities.
- · Moral maturity, indicated by the child's developing sense of values, knowing right from wrong, and attitudes toward people with different values.
## The Child as a Whole
Children usually grow up in some form of family, surrounded by a variety of people who try to provide a warm and secure environment. Understanding how children develop will help parents and other caregivers know what to expect. Although different areas of development (intellectual, physical, social, and moral) should be considered, the goal is to treat a child as a whole person who needs to develop in all areas.
## The Body
Children generally grow bigger as they grow older. But even this simple statement may lead to some surprises. The biggest surprise for most is that at birth infants are nearly one-third of their adult height; by age 2 they are almost half as tall as they will be as adults. Another interesting aspect is that from birth to maturity, children grow in spurts rather than at a constant rate.
Physical development is complex. Development of skills in one area affects development in other areas. Adult expectations may be influenced by a child's size and shape, attractiveness, and physical skills. Physical skills, or absence of them, can have a major effect on a child's self-concept.
The term motor development describes the complex changes in the child's body activities and movement, such as walking, running, jumping, hopping, skipping, pushing, pulling, bending, grasping, throwing, catching, kicking, and other actions involved in receiving and moving objects. By the time most children reach 6 or 7 years of age nearly all of their basic motor skills have developed.
Plenty of regular exercise and nutritious foods promote healthy physical development, prevent heart problems, and improve intellectual performance. On the other hand, researchers are finding that the combination of low physical activity and high-calorie/non-nutritious eating habits of children can lead to high-risk physical problems and disease.
## The Mind
Learning, remembering, deciding, planning, and organizing are taken for granted by adults. In young children, these complicated skills occur at different rates and follow a pattern. They are strengthened through good relationships in the family and community.
Children under age 2 have an incomplete and sometimes incorrect understanding of what is "real." This causes confusion when they try to make sense out of what they see and experience. For example, when a pet dies a young child may expect the pet to return. Children also combine words into what makes sense to them, such as calling a briefcase a 'work purse' or a pancake a 'flat cake.'
During this period, a child's thinking is extremely self-centered. Children see the world only from their own perspective, focusing on themselves and having difficulty understanding other points of view. They do not sympathize with the feelings or needs of others.
As they learn to talk, preschool children learn to name objects and identify pictures, labels and symbols; they combine words, discuss, negotiate and make decisions with playmates.
As their thinking skills advance, preschoolers begin to use simple classification (putting similar items together by color, shape, etc.). More advanced classification and identification follow. An example might be: animals include cows, chickens, and dogs; or birds include roeins, eagles, and blue jays.
During infancy, early language consists of cooking, gurgling, babbling, and eventual repetitious letter combinations (ga-ga-ga). The first word marks a major milestone and is spoken sometime around 10 to 15 months. Children generally know 50 or more words by 16 to 20 months. By age 2, a child may know as many as 300 words. Parents who have awaited the first word now take pride in their child's ability to name things.
Imitation is important to the child's ongoing language development. Children will repeat what they hear and apply voice tones used by others.
Two-way conversation is important as language ability grows. Reading with children, patiently listening, and talking with them help children learn language. The use of open-ended "what if ..." or "how does ..." questions help to raise a child's thinking and language abilities to higher levels. This builds decision-making and critical-thinking skills.
## Social and Emotional Development
Developing a personality and becoming socially adapted are perhaps among the most baffling aspects of child development. A child's development of self- esteem, self-control, and personality depends greatly upon interactions from within the environment (the family, the neighborhood).
Personal development begins with a basic sense of trust during infancy. During toddlerhood, children usually complete the stage of trust. Trust allows toddlers to explore their world independently. Toddlers begin to see themselves as individuals who are separate from their parents and able to explore freely.
Independence is the primary emotional stage during the preschool years. During this stage, toilet training and language development usually occur. Being sensitive to the child's fragile sense of independence allows for healthy development as opposed to developing a sense of shame or doubt
(see "Preschool Stages of Personal Development" box). Responding to acts of normal development with severe punishments or by making the child feel guilty can be harmful, particularly during this stage.
Developing a 'sense of self' also follows a sequence. At about 18 months of age children realize that they are separate from their parents, but they are not aware that who they are will remain so throughout their lives. This recognition does not occur until between ages 5 and 7. This is why we hear young girls say, "When I'm a boy, I'll ..." or children say, "When I'm a baby again, I'll ..."
Developing a sense of self-control is also slow. Behaviors such as whining in check-out lines, physical outbursts against siblings, and inability to sit still when waiting are examples of loss of control. Although these actions try adult patience, they are normal and predictable behaviors in young children. When children are able to begin talking about the reasons for their behaviors, they are better able to practice self-control; this does not happen until about 7 or 8 years of age.
Mastering independence paves the way for the next stage - developing a healthy sense of ambition, drive, or motivation. Children who learn to initiate activities by exploring, questioning, and investigating develop skills that will be important for school activities. Children learn to make decisions when they are given chances to think and figure out simple problems. Giving children examples and chances to choose among options and possible solutions are ways to help children learn to make decisions. Skills in making decisions will prove valuable in the school years and adulthood.
## Moral Development
Moral development also follows a pattern. In the early stages, the child simply tries to avoid punishment. An older preschooler proceeds through a very self-centered stage with decisions based on self-satisfaction and 'what's in it for me' actions. In later stages, children develop a greater concern for being 'good' and doing what is socially acceptable.
## Preschool stages of personal development.
| Life Phase | Stage |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Infancy | Developing trust, getting trust, or giving trust VS. learning to mistrust |
| Toddlerhood | Exploring independence safely VS. developing feelings of shame or doubt for trying new things |
| Early | Taking initiative by starting activities or pretending during play VS. |
| childhood | developing guilt for trying |
| School age | Being industrious by making things and wanting to do things together VS. developing feelings of being put down and inferior |
| Individuals resolve one stage before comfortably moving on to the next stage. (From Erik Erikson's Psychological Stages of Development) | |
## The Importance of Play
Sometimes parents of preschoolers question why all their children seem to do is play. Play is a child's work, and learning how to play is essential. Through play, children learn many important social skills while reducing tension and pressure. Children play for play's sake and focus on discovery. Adults can guide play, but must allow children to become involved in their play.
Frequent interruptions and suggestions by adults are frustrating and discouraging to things that do not make sense to them. Play helps them to make adjustments, question, and curiously explore what they do not understand. This moves children to a higher level of thinking, helping them master many skills.
Learning is a process. Parents and teachers who understand the importance of the steps involved in learning are better able to encourage children to enjoy learning. Learning should meet the needs of an individual, as opposed to creating an environment where all children follow an adult's lead.
Research shows that through exploration and choice, children will be more independent, better decision makers, have higher self-esteem, and develop a desire for learning without being forced to learn.
Children need consistency with reasonable limits to create security in knowing what to expect. Children will learn to make decisions through practicing the exercise of choice (choosing clothing, activities, snack foods, storybooks, etc.) By learning to make good decisions, children can begin to depend on themselves rather than others for answers to problems.
## Key Points
There are many parts of a growing child :
Children grow in spurns.
Activity for the body helps the mind grow.
Young children are self-centered and cannot see your point of view.
Children first learn to name things, then learn to put like things together.
Talking to and reading to children helps them learn new words.
Ask children questions to help them think, not just yes or no questions.
Developing trust in adults is a basis for all learning to get along with others.
Play is how children learn.
## Suggested Teaching Activities
- · Discuss funny things 1 - to 3-year-olds say and interpret why they use these words. Is it developmental? Symbolic? Learned from environmental cues?
- · Practice using open-ended questions to interact in a play situation after reading a story: "What do you think would happen if …? or "What would you have done?"
- · Practice or role play using open-ended questions to encourage problem solving and as a discipline technique: "How can we solve this?" or "What could we do?"
- · Discuss how to provide opportunities for making choices at ages 2 to 5 (clothing, snack foods, activities).
## Author
Karen DeBord Professor Emeritus Agricultural and Human Sciences Publication date: April 1, 2004 FCS-454
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1978/rr78_16.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090120152428-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Introduction
Improved utilization of grain sorghum as an energy source for ruminants has been of concern to beef producers for some time. Due to the prevailing water shortage and fuel costs in western portions of the Midwest and in the Southwest, grain producers are likely to be increasing sorghum production as a viable alternative to corn. This means more sorghum will likely be available for feeding.
Past research has generally shown that grain sorghum has a lower feeding value than corn. Several processing methods have been shown to enhance the digestibility of grain sorghum. Moreover, some research has shown that there is a difference in feeding value between various varieties of grain sorghum. Such studies indicate that it would be feasible to initiate sorghum breeding programs to improve the nutritive value of grain sorghum. Improved process ing methods and genetic selection should permit more efficient utilization of sorghum. The purpose of this research was to investigate certain nutritive characteristics of several varieties of grain sorghum differing in endosperm type and corn.
## Materials and Methods
Several grain sorghum varieties differing in endosperm type were grown at the Perkins Agronomy Research Station, and several varieties of corn were
grown at the Panhandle Agronomy Research Station. All sorghum varieties were planted, grown and harvested under similar dryland conditions in two consecutive years. All corn varieties were planted, grown and harvested under similar irrigated conditions in the same two consecutive years. Varieties grown and the endosperm classification are illustrated in Tables I (Year I) and 2 (Year II). The grains were all finely ground through a 20 mesh screen prior to evaluation.
The chemical composition of the grains was determined using conventional procedures. In vitro dry matter disappearance (IVVDMD) of the grains was determined utilizing strained rumen fluid inoculum. Percent dry matter disappearance was determined after 24 hr of incubation.
In vitro gas production was also utilized to determine the starch availability of the various grains. This method involves yeast fermentation of sugars released by enzyme attack on the starch. The ground sample, an enzyme solution (amyloglucosidase) and commercial baker's yeast were placed in Ehrenmeyer flasks, connected to an inverted burret gas recovery system. The gas produced by the yeast during fermentation was measured as milliliters of gas per gram of dry sample. The more gas produced, the greater is the digestibility.
## Results and Discussion
The chemical composition of the grains is illustrated in Tables 3 (Year I) and 4 (Year II). All of the sorghums were much higher in protein content than corn. Significant differences were obtained in both years. In general, the differences were small among the various sorghum endosperm types, but differences of 1.0 percent CP or more did exist. Figure 1 illustrates the IVDMD trends for the Year I crop. Corn had a significantly higher IVDDM (P
IVDMD values for the second crop are illustrated in Figure 2. Similar trends as noted in Year I were observed. Corn was significantly more digestible (P
In general, in vitro gas production studies also showed the white bird resistant endosperm type to have the lower starch availability in both years. The high tannin content of the bird resistant varieties of grain sorghum may hinder starch digestibility.
78 Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station
| Variety | Seed coat color | Color | Endosperm Hardness | Waxy or normal | Classification |
|-------------------------|-------------------|---------------|----------------------|------------------|------------------|
| Pioneer corn 3149 | Colorless | Yellow-corn | Yellow dent corn | Normal | Corn |
| Pioneer corn 3306 | Colorless | Yellow-corn | Yellow dent corn | Normal | |
| Darset (bird resistant) | Brown | White | Intermediate | Normal | White-BR |
| Soft endo | Brown | White | Soft | Normal | White-normal |
| Redlan normal | Red | White | Intermediate | Normal | Hetero-yellow |
| OK 612 | Red | Hetero-yellow | Intermediate | Normal | Hetero-yellow |
| Dwarf redlan | Red | White | Intermediate | Waxy Waxy Waxy | |
## 1978 Animal Science Research Report
| | Seed coat color | Color | Endosperm | Endosperm | Endosperm |
|-------------------------|-------------------|---------------|------------------|----------------|----------------|
| Variety | Coloness | Yield corn | Hardness | Waxy or normal | Classification |
| Pioneer corn | Colorless | Yellow corn | Yellow dent corn | Normal | Corn |
| Northrup king corn | Colorless | Yellow corn | Yellow dent corn | Normal | |
| Darset (bird resistant) | Brown | White | Intermediate | Normal | White-BR |
| Soft endo | Brown | White | Soft | Normal | White-normal |
| Redian Normal | Red | White | Intermediate | Normal | Hetero-yellow |
| OK 612 | Red | Hetero-yellow | Intermediate | Normal | Hetero-yellow |
| Dwarf redlan | Red | White | Intermediate | Waxy Waxy | |
| 73BCT 1126 | White | Yellow | Intermediate | Waxy Waxy | |
| 73BCT 1133-2 | Brown | Yellow | Intermediate | Waxy Waxy | |
| 733CT 1122-2 | Red | Yellow | Intermediate | Waxy | |
| Endosperm type | Protein | Percentage | Ash |
|------------------|-----------|--------------|-------|
| Corn | 9.56a | 5.36 | 1.7 |
| White-BR | 12.80b | 3.28 | 1.36 |
| Waxy | 13.12b | 1.27 | 1.9 |
| Hetero-yellow | 12.90b | 2 | 1.19 |
| White-normal | 14.26b | 1.3 | 2.14 |
| Table 4. Whole grain composition' (Year II) | Percentage | Percentage | Percentage |
|-----------------------------------------------|--------------|----------------|--------------|
| Endosperm type | Protein | Either Extract | Ash |
| Corn | 9.40a | 6.72 | 1.73 |
| White-BR | 12.02bc | 4.24 | 2.18 |
| Waxy | 13.54b | 5.08 | 2.78 |
| Hetero-yellow | 11.61c | 4.04 | 1.98 |
| White-normal | 11.48ab,bc | 5.48 | 2.25 |
"Dry matter basis
The gas production and IVDMD values, in general, were higher for all sorghum during the second year, indicating possible environmental effects on digestibility. Average rainfall during the growing season in Year I was about l inch below normal, but also 1.26 inches above normal during the second year. Environmental effects are not well understood. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/symposiums/national-wheat-pasture-symposium.html | National Wheat Pasture Symposium - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-03-11 | [] | OK | ## PROCEEDINGS
## National Wheat Pasture Symposium October 24-25, 1983
Cultural Practices for Maximizing Forage Production in Wheat
K.J. Donnelly and W.E. McMurphy
Variety and Species Effects on Forage Quantity, Forage Quality and Animal Performance
L.I. Croy
Effects of Clipping and Grazing Termination Date on Grain Production
L.I. Croy
## Comments by Discussant
L.R. Nelson
Chemical Composition of Wheat Pasture F.P. Horn
Feeding value of Wheat Silage and Hay as Wheat Crop
Alternatives
K.K. Bolsen
Utilization of the Energy and Protein Components of Forages by Ruminants - A United Kingdom Perspective
D.E. Beever
## Mineral Composition of What Forage as Related to
## Metabolic Disorders of Ruminants
D.L. Grunes, D.P. Hutcheson, F.P. Horn, B.A. Stewart and
D.J. Undersander
## Role of Magnesium, Potassium and Calcium in Normal Neuromuscular Function in Ruminants
J.E. Breazile
## Mechanisms of Tetany in Cows Grazed on Wheat Pasture
V.R. Bohman, F.P. Horn, W.T. Littledike, J.G. Hurst and D.
Griffin
Wheat Pasture Bloat of Stocker Cattle: A Comparison with Legume Pasture Bloat
R.E. Howarth and G.W. Horn
## The Significance of Ruminal Motility in the Etiology of Bloat
H.W. Colvin, Jr. and G.W. Horn
## Observations of Wheat Pasture Sudden Death Syndrome
D. Griffin
## Observations on Deaths of Stocker Cattle on Wheat
Pasture
L.C. Hollis
## Effects of Sward Structure on Forage Intake:
Implications for Increasing Performance of Cattle on
Wheat Pasture
T.D.A. Forbes
## Forage and Grazing Effects on Intake and Utilization of
## Annual Ryegrass by Cattle
W.C. Ellis, J.P. Telford, H. Lippke and M.E. Riewe
## Response of the Wheat Plant to Non-Animal Stresses
B. Klepper
Grazing of Wheat in the Vegetative Stage: Shooks
## S. Christiansen
Rooting Dynamics and Water Stress in Wheat: Potential
## Impacts of Grazing
T. Svejcar
## Rotation Grazing of Small Grain Pasture
R.L. Dalryme
## Comments by Discussant
M.M. Kothmann
## Limit Grazing of Small Grain Pastures
W. Altom and T.F. Schmedt
## Limit Grazing Cows and Stocker Cattle on Small Grain
Forages: Rancher's Perspective and Data Needs
J.L. Merrill
## Supplemental Feeding of Grain and Protein for Stocker
Cattle on Small Grains Pastures
D. Wagner, R. Lowery and M. Grisby
## Effects of Ionoshpores on Grazed Forage Utilization and their Economic Value for Cattle on Wheat Pastures
W.C. Ellis, G.W. Horn, D. Delaney and K.R. Pond
## Use of Implants of Anabolic Compounds for Growing Cattle on Small Grain Pastures
S.B. Laudert, G.W. Horn and J.W. McNeill
## Feeding Low-Quality Roughages to Stocker Cattle on Wheat Pastures
G.W. Horn, T.L. Mader, W.A. Phillips and A.B. Johnson
## Estimating Costs and Returns for Wheat Crop
Alternatives in the Southern Plains: Problems and Data
## Needs
W.L. Harman, J.W. McNeill and G.B. Thompson
Linear Programming Analysis of Wheat Grain-Grazeout Alternatives Under the 1984 Government Program
O. Buller
## Microcomputer Analysis of Wheat Grain-Grazeout Alternatives Under the 1987 Government Program
K.B. Anderson and O.L. Walker
## International Markets and the Wheat-Feed Grain
Industries
J.P. Plaxico
## Impacts of Government Policy Decisions on Production and Use (Grain Harvest versus Grazing) of Wheat Pasture
K.B. Anderson and L. Tweeten
## Economics of the Meat Market and its Implications for the Future Use of Wheat Pasture in Beef Cattle
## Production Systems
J.N. Trapp
## Future Trends in the Beef Cattle Industry as Affected by Changes in Production Technology and Product Demand
R.L. Preston
## Histamine Content of the Blood from Cows Affected with
Tetany
R.L. Preston
## Grazing Winter Annuals
L.W. Lomas and J.L. Moyer
## Sheep and Cattle Grazing Effects on Tilling Dynamics and Grain Yield of Winter Wheat
S. Christiansen, T. Svejcar, W.A. Phillips, T.D.A Forbes and J.D. Trent |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/4H244 | 4-H FAQs | University of Florida | [
"Marilyn N. Norman",
"Joy C. Jordan"
] | 2020-01-01 | [
"7. 4-H Youth Development"
] | FL | Skip
4-H FAQs
Marilyn N. Norman and Joy C. Jordan
## Q: What is 4-H?
- A: 4-H is a nonformal, practical educational program for youth. It is the youth development program of UF/IFAS Extension. 4-H is where there's fun in learning and learning in fun!
## Q: What is the mission of 4-H?
- A: The UF/IFAS Extension 4-H Youth Development program uses a learn-by-doing approach to enable youth to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need to become competent, caring, and contributing citizens of the world. This mission is accomplished by using the knowledge and resources of the land-grant university system, along with the involvement of caring adults.
## O: Isn't 4-H just for kids who live on farms?
- A: No! 4-H is for all youth, whether they live on farms, in suburbs, or in cities. 4-H serves youth from all backgrounds and interests. It reaches both boys and girls through 4-H clubs, special-interest (SPIN) clubs and short-term projects, individual and family learning and mentoring, camping, and school-based programs. Most 4-H members are from towns and cities and participate in contemporary projects such as bicycle care and safety, consumer education, aerospace and model rocketry, public speaking, and animal sciences. 4-H offers membership without regard to race, creed, color, national origin, religion, gender, disability, or handicap.
## Q: What is a 4-H club?
- A: Clubs are the foundation of the 4-H program. A 4-H club is a group of five or more youth guided by one or more adult volunteer leaders. A club can be any size-, from a small group of kids from one neighborhood to a larger club consisting of youth from all over the county. Clubs can be community based with a focus on general projects or specific to one project area. Clubs may meet in a variety of ways, such as during an after-school assembly at a community center. Clubs also may meet for shorter period of times to focus on one project (six sessions in a SPIN club) or for the entire year
## Q: What happens in a 4-H club?
- A: 4-H clubs may focus on a variety of projects and activities of interest to the members. 4-H members have many opportunities: building leadership by electing officers; conducting their own business meetings; working together on community service activities; meeting new friends; and most importantly, having lots of fun.
## Q: What age must you be to join 4-H?
- A: Youth ages 5-18 or in grades K-12 can be 4-H club members and enroll in many different 4-H projects. Youth grades K2, ages 5-7, can be 4-H Cloverbud members. The 4-H Cloverbud program is a noncompetitive learning experience. Usually, Cloverbud members meet separate from older youth and sample a variety of 4-H projects. Older 4-H members also have special opportunities, such as serving on a countywide 4-H teen council.
## Q: How did 4-H originate?
- A: 4-H clubs were first known as corn clubs for boys and canning clubs for girls, organized early in this century by public school educators who wanted
to broaden the knowledge and experience of their students. 4-H in Florida began in 1909 in several counties in north Florida. 4-H became an official part of the Cooperative Extension Service, along with agriculture and home economics, at about the time Cooperative Extension was officially established by the US Congress in 1914. The term "4-H Club" first appeared in a federal document in 1918, and by the mid-1920s, 4-H was well on its way to becoming a significant national program for youth. 4-H is an American idea that has spread around the world. Throughout its long history, 4-H has constantly adapted to the ever-changing needs and interests of youth.
## Q: Does it cost money to join 4-H?
- A: Florida 4-H requires a membership fee for club members, excluding cloverbuds, which is managed through the 4-H Online enrollment system. The annual state membership fee is $20. Counties and clubs may choose to charge additional fees to cover curriculum or other activity costs. Uniforms are not required. Many 4-H project resources, activities, and events are available at cost, which is usually minimal.
## Q: Where does 4-H get its funding?
- A: UF/IFAS Extension, of which 4-H is a part, receives funds from a cooperative partnership of three levels of government: federal (via the US Department of Agriculture), state (via the University of Florida), and county (through the county Board
of Commissioners). 4-H also receives support from private sources.
## Q: Who "runs" the 4-H program?
- A: Professional staff includes at least one county 4-H agent who is a faculty member of the University of Florida and in some counties as program assistant. The county 4-H agent(s) is responsible for the countywide 4-H program and may also have state and national responsibilities. There are various county 4-H support and advisory groups made up of interested adult volunteers. State and national 4-H personnel also support local county 4-H professionals and volunteers.
## Q: What do the four 'H' s on the 4-H emblem stand for?
- A: The 4-H emblem is a green four-leaf clover with a white "H" on each leaflet, symbolizing Head, Heart, Hands, and Health. The 4-H emblem was protected by an Act of Congress in 1924.
## Q: What is the 4-H Pledge?
- A: At 4-H club meetings and other 4-H events, 4-H members recite the Pledge of Allegiance and the 4-H Pledge:
## I pledge
## my Head to clearer thinking,
## my Heart to greater loyalty,
## my Hands to larger service, and
## my Health to better living, for my club,
## my community, my country, and my world.
## Q: What is the 4-H motto?
## 'To Make the Best Better.'
## Q: What is the 4-H slogan?'
## "Learn by Doing."
## Q: Where are 4-H programs found?
## A: 4-H programs are conducted in 3,150 counties of the United States, and also in the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. In addition, more than 80 countries around the world have youth programs similar to 4-H, with an overall enrollment of about 10 million young people. 4-H is also conducted and available to youth at all the US Army and Air Force installations around the world.
## Q: Is 4-H in my county?
## A: Yes! 4-H is in every county in the state, including the Seminole Tribe. In Florida, thousands of members are in hundreds of local 4-H clubs. Thousands more are involved in 4-H through school enrichment, short-term programs, and camping. In addition, thousands of adults volunteer to invest their time to assist with the 4-H program. Families and individuals can become part of 4-H by contacting their local UF/IFAS Extension 4-H office.
## Q: How can I find out more about 4-H in my county?
## A: Contact the 4-H staff at your local UF/IFAS Extension office. Visit the UF 4-H website at http://www.florida4H.org, or call the State 4-H Office at UF/IFAS (352-846-4444) to obtain the phone number and address of the county 4-H office.
## Publication #4HS FS101.
## Release Date:
## January 2, 2020
## Reviewed At:
January 13, 2022
DOI: 10.32473/edis-4h244-2006
Critical Issue: 7. 4-H Youth Development
Contacts: Sarah Hensley
View PDF
Also Available in
Español
About this Publication
This document is 4HS FS101.11, one of a series of the 4-H Youth Development Program, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date January 2006. Revised September 2006 and November 2019. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.uf.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Marilyn N. Norman, associate professor, Department of Family, Youth and Community Sciences, and State 4-H Program Leader; and Joy C. Jordan, associate professor, Department of Family, Youth and Community Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
## 4-H 101 Fact Sheets
6 Publication(s)
Hensley, Sarah T.
Specialist
University of Florida
## HhhsJj, EwatahlEets
6Pedilication(s)
University of Florida |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/agribusinessand-cooperative-management/site-files/docs/newsletters/valuing-the-cooperative-firm.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [
"kenkel"
] | Error: time data "D:20210211134945-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Phil Kenkel
## Bill Fitzwater Cooperative Chair
In recent newsletters I discussed two important issues: the value that members place on allocated equity and whether excessive value of unallocated equity could entice members to sell the cooperative. That raises the question as to the value of the cooperative firm. All cooperatives need a cushion of unallocated equity so the value of allocated equity can never represent the total owners' value. The total equity value (allocated and unallocated) is the accounting measure of the ownership but it doesn't measure the potential value of the cooperative in generating cash flows or the value that the owners will receive as the profits are distributed.
There are commonly accepted accounting principles for valuing privately held firms. One technique is to value the firm based on present value of the projected future cash flow. We recently completed a research project applying the future cash flow evaluation method to 10 case study Oklahoma cooperatives. Six years of complete financial and volume data was used to project future financial statements. We developed two valuation estimates. The first was based on the total cash flows generated by the firm, less those required to service debt and maintain infrastructure. The second valuation represented the value of the future patronage and equity retirement payments that the members would receive.
On average, the value of the cooperatives, based on the present value of their future cash flows was over 7 times the value of their allocated equity. That value simply indicates what a firm like the cooperative would be worth on the open market. The second value was the present value of the member's payments. On average it was 2.1 times the value of the allocated equity. The difference is of course, that when the member leaves the cooperative and receives their final equity redemption they are leaving behind a thriving cooperative for the next generation. They did not receive, and hopefully did not want to receive the entire value of the cooperative.
The valuation results are impacted by how rapidly the cooperative is expected to grow (requiring more funds to be retained) and the interest rate used to discount future receipts. The member value is also impacted by a wide range of decisions such as profit distribution (cash, qualified and nonqualified stock) and by equity redemption management. The take home message is that the true value of the cooperative is in its ability to generate future profits and services. Research on quantifying that value can help us communicate our value package and it comparing cooperatives.
We will be presenting more on this research at our Advanced OCCD in January 2015. | |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/corn-earworm | Corn Earworm on Ornamentals | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Corn",
"Entomology",
"Pdic",
"Ornamental",
"Earworm",
"Ornamental Pest"
] | NC | ## Corn Earworm on Ornamental s
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
As the field crops dry out, corn earworm moths , Helicoverpa zea , lay their eggs on just about anything that is green. It is also known as the tomato fruitworm, the sorghum headworm, the vetchworm, and cotton bollworm. The corn earworm is the second most damaging pest in the United States and is sometimes highly damaging to ornamental crops, especially in middle to late summer when field crops and weeds are drying up, and the only succulent plants left are ornamentals. Corn earworm moths are medium sized and tan to yellowish-brown with darker spots. Forewings of males are usually light yellowish-olive; those of the female are yellowish-brown to pinkish-brown. Each forewing has a dark spot near the center. The moths are active at night, but sometimes fly during the day as well. Females do not lay eggs in masses, but seem to fly from plant to plant laying an egg or two on each. Females can lay 400 to 3,000 whitish-yellow eggs each. Eggs darken and hatch in a few days, and the tiny caterpillars feed on buds, flowers, leaves and fruit. Caterpillars eventually grow to 1 ¾ inches long. When fully grown, this moderately hairy larvae is pale-striped, black-spotted and predominantly yellowish-green, brown or reddish-brown with a tan to orange head. When disturbed, it curls up tightly, remaining motionless for a few seconds. Development takes two to three weeks at which time the caterpillars burrow into the soil to pupate. We have at least four generations per year, and corn ears become most abundant in late summer. The last generation overwriters as pupae more than two inches under ground.
Corn earworm feeding on okra pod. Corn earworms feed on a variety of host plants.
Corn earworm feeding in tomato. Photo by J.R. Baker The corn earworm feeding in tomato. Photo by J.R. Baker Corn earworms feed on a variety of host plants.
## Residential Recommendations
In hobby greenhouses, damage by corn earworms in a greenhouse can be reduced by adequate screening of window and open areas, as well as proper sealing of door edges. Releasing natural enemies (e.g., Trichogramma wasps and predatory insects) in a residential greenhouse may help control corn earworm if vents cannot be screened. Because the corn earworm feeds on hundreds of kinds of plants, it has not developed resistance to most of the insecticides labeled for home landscape use found in big box stores and garden centers. However, corn earworms have developed resistance to the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab toxin that has been genetically engineered into some field corn cultivars.
## References
- Common name: corn earworm, scientific name: Helicoverpa (=Heliotis ) zea (Boddie).(Insecta: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae.). Capinera, J. L. 2007 (revised). Featured Creatures, Entomology & Nematology, FDACS/DPI, EDIS Publication Number: EENY-145.
- Insect and Related Pests of Flowers and Foliage Plants. Baker, J. R. ed. 1994 (revised). NC Cooperative Extension Service pub. AG-136.
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension Center.
## This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology
Publication date: May 30, 2016
Reviewed/Revised: Sept. 12, 2019
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A.&TState University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AN347 | How to Measure Body Condition Score in Florida Beef Cattle | University of Florida | [
"Matt Hersom",
"Todd Thrift"
] | 2018-09-03 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | How to Measure Body Condition Score in Florida Beef Cattle
Matt Hersom and Todd Thrift
## Introduction
Body condition score (BCS) is a visual assessment of the amount of fat in a cow's body. The amount of fat stored by the animal is a direct reflection of the amount of energy and protein that the cow has consumed. Excess energy intake is stored as fat, and adequate protein intake results in maximal muscle deposition. The deposition of fat and muscle leads to the appearance that creates a cow's BCS. Therefore, BCS is both a good indicator of the past nutritional status of the cow and a way to determine future nutritional needs.
## Reasons to Measure Body Condition Score
Body condition score or change in body condition is a reliable way to evaluate a cow's nutritional status than live weight or change in live weight. Live weight alone is not a good measure of overall nutritional status. Most cow herds have a range in frame size and muscling that makes BCS a better measure of body fat than live weight. Live weight is also affected greatly by gut fill, pregnancy status, forage quality, and forage availability. On many ranches, managers evaluate cow BCS regularly when weighing cows may be impractical. The BCS technique is easy to learn and can help with management decisions.
## How to Measure Body Condition Score
The body condition score for beef cows is assessed on a scale of 1 (thin) to 9 (obese). Many cattlemen and researchers use the BCS system as a subjective tool to evaluate cattle nutritional status. Keep in mind that the results of any visual scoring system will vary depending on the people conducting the scoring because different people will not always agree. However, experienced evaluators' ratings of BCS should not differ by more than one score. The first step in determining BCS is to know which areas of the body to evaluate (Figure 1). Fat deposits are visible in the brisket, and over the ribs, back/spine, hooks, pins, and tailhead.
If you have never assessed the BCS of beef cattle, the best way to start is to determine whether the cow is a BCS 5 or less than a BCS 5. If the last rib is not visible, the animal has a BCS greater than 5. If the last rib (1") rib is the only rib visible, then the animal is a BCS 5. If multiple ribs are visible, then the animal is less than a BCS 5. An animal with a BCS of 5 should look neither thin nor fat. The ability to understand what a BCS 5 looks like is a key skill to develop. More specificity is needed when classifying cattle into three groups of BCS that correspond to the 9-point scale: thin (1 to 3), moderate (4 to 6), and fleshy (7 to 9). Most cattle should fall into the moderate category. Once you are comfortable with the three-group classification, you can assess BCS on the 9-point scale. Table 1 provides a description of each BCS.
Since BCS is a visual assessment, an orderly tracking of the eye over the body of the animal facilitates a standardized methodology. The initial survey is best conducted from the side of the animal; either side is fine. From the side, all six of the evaluation points are visible. One easy method is to initiate the assessment at the brisket and move back and up in a line that incorporates the ribs, spine, hooks, pins, and tailhead (Figure 2). This pattern connects all six locations and makes the evaluation of the transitions of fat deposition into those areas possible.
Figure 2 demonstrates a good example of a BCS 5 cow. Fast deposition has started in the brisket. The transition from the shoulder to the ribs is smooth, indicating full muscle status and fat deposition over the ribs. The last rib is just evident and the back is nearly flat with muscle and fat deposition. The hooks and pins are structurally evident, but smooth in appearance. Fat deposition around the tailbed creates a smooth transition from the hip structure to the tail bones.
Credit: Matt Hersom, UF/IFAS
Figure 3 shows an example of a BCS 3 cow. No fat deposition is evident in the brisket, a defined transition from the shoulder to the rib cage is visible, indicating decreased fat deposition over the shoulder into the ribs. Three to four ribs are evident. The spine creates a tent with the spinous processes forming the peak. The hooks and pins are evident, with sharpness over the hooks due to little fat deposition. Muscle is still evident in the hip, but muscle creases are also visible. Deflation of structures around the tailhead is readily apparent because of little to no fat deposition.
Figure 3. Example of a cow with a body condition score of 3. Little to no fat deposition in the brisket, four ribs visible, tenting appearance on the spine, hooks and pins clearly evident, and no fat deposition in the tailhead. Credit: Matt Herson, UIF/IFAS
Figure 4. Example of a cow with a body condition score of 6. Fat deposition in the brisket is plainly visible. No ribs can be seen. The back is flat across the length. Hooks are evident, but show fat cover. Pins are not visible because of full muscle and fat cover. The tailache is covered with some mooring is apparent.
Several things need be considered when evaluating BCS of cattle. The fill or shrink from digestive contents or pregnancy can change the appearance of moderately fleshed cattle, especially over the rib or in front of the hooks. Long hair is another factor that can make it more difficult to evaluate BCS of a cow. If a cow has long hair, it can be helpful to physically palpate the cow over the back and ribs, and feel the flesh over the horizontal process of the spine in front of the hooks. The amount of flesh over the transverse process or sharpness of this bone can be used to help evaluate BCS. The descriptions in Table 1 can be used to facilitate palpation for BCS. The breed type can affect the areas where fat deposition occurs as well as cattle appearance. Some cattle with Bos indicus (Brahn) breeding shows little fat deposition over the ribs, but deposit over the hooks and pins. Other cattle show uniform deposits of fat across the ribs and spine with no patching deposites around the tailhead. The amount of skin in the dewlap of Bos indicus-influenced cattle can make the evaluation of fat deposition in the brisket a challenge. Variations in the skeletal and muscular dynamics of Bois indicus-influenced cattle compared with Bos taurus cattle present challenges to the untrained evaluator. Bois taurus cattle generally show thicker muscling with less angular and prominent skeletal structures than Bos indicus cattle.
A BCS range of 3 to 7 will include most beef cows in Florida. A codur medium frame size will weigh approximately 1,200 lb at BCS 5 but only 1,030 lb at BCS 3. In this system, a medium-frame beef cow would exhibit a change in weight of approximately 85 lb for each condition score (National Academics of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2016).
## Seasonal Changes in Condition Score
The BCS of the beef herd will change during the year. Their herd's mean BCS is usually highest in mid-to late summer, and it declines in the fall or winter. It is lowest in late winter or early spring. Forage quality and quantity as well as the cow's stage of production influence the variation in BCS. The rate of loss of BCs should be gradual and not extreme. During periods of high nutritional demand, it is preferable for the cows to lose BCs gradually over 12 days than to experience a very rapid loss in 45 days followed by consumption of high levels of supplemental feedings in an attempt to prevent further condition losses. We observed that cattle at either average extreme condition faster negatively affect cattle. Especially after calving. Young cattle have growth requirements that must be met along with lactation requirements immediately after calving that negatively affect BCS. Old cows may have teeth issues that impair forage consumption and negatively affect energy intake and BCS. It is important to monitor cattle closely and adjust forage and supplemental feeds to avoid high rates of BCS loss.
## When to Measure Body Condition Score
Regular assessment of BCS in the cow herd is a good management practice. There are certain strategic times to measure BCS in cows that can affect the overall productivity of the herd. Below are some critical times to assess cow BCS in order to make management decisions and affect BCS changes.
It is ideal to have cows as 85 or lower if calving is done in a considerable range in BCS in a herd, but it may desireable to separate this cow. It is usually cost-prohibitive to supplement the entire herd if only half of the cows or fewer will respond to the higher level of nutrition. An alternative is to separate and manage thinner cows to improve their BCS prior to calving. Other possible alternatives may include grazing on a quality pasture, providing additional saliva, and/or treating for parasites. EDIS document AN319, Implications of Cow Body Condition Score on Productivity, details the effect of cow BCS on reproductive responses.
## Summary
A BCS of 5 or higher at calving and through breeding is needed for good reproductive performance. Proper stocking rates, a good mineral supplementation program, and timely use of supplements offer the most potential to improve BCS. Parasking cows by BCS testing or two to three months prior to calving and feeding groups to calve in BCS or 5 or above will maintain high reproductive performance while holding supplemental feed costs to a minimum. The routine assessment of BCS will provide needed information to manage the cow herd for a high calf crop and profitability.
## References
Hersom, M., T. Thrif, and J. Yelich. 2015. Implications of Cow Body Condition Score on Productivity . AN319. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://diseas.ufu.edu/canun19
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle: Eighth Revised Editor. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226\19014
Description of 9-point body condition scores (BCS).
Publication #AN347
Release Date:
September 4, 2018
Reviewed At:
November 6, 2024
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-an347-2018
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: John Arthington Todd Thrifl
About this Publication
This document is AN347, one of a series of the Department of Animal Sciences, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date August 2018. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.unl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Matt Hersom, associate professor, and Todd Thrif, associate professor, Department of Animal Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Animal Science
Beef Cattle Management |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/controlling-sedges-in-landscape-plantings | Controlling Sedges in Landscape Plantings | NC State Extension | [
"Joseph C. Neal"
] | null | [
"Gardening",
"Landscaping",
"Weed Management",
"Preemergence",
"Postemergence"
] | NC | ## Controlling Sedges in Landscape Plantings
Horticulture Information Leaflets
## About the Weeds
More than 40 sedge species may be found in North Carolina landscapes. Although grass-like in many ways, and the nutsedges are often referred to as "nutgrass", they are not grasses and require different control measures than grasses. Sedges are easily distinguished from grasses by their leafy shoots that produce leaves in "3s" (Figure 1) resulting in stems that are triangular in cross section (Figure 2). In contrast, shoots of grasses are flat or round in cross section.
While annual sedges are common, the most difficult to manage weedy species are the two perennial nutsedges: yellow nutedge (Cyperus esculentus ) and purple nutedge (Cyperus rotundus ). Yellow and Purple nutsedges can be distinguished from the common annual sedges by the underground parts. Annual sedges will produce a fibrous root system ( Figure 3 ) and a clumping or tillered growth habitat; whereas both yellow and purple nutsedge are perennials that produce rhizomes and tubers (Figure 4 and Figure 5) and spread to form colonies. It is the presence of rhizomes and tubers make these two weeds particularly difficult to manage. Nutsedges are found in nearly all crops and plantings, on nearly all soil types. Yellow nutsedge is more widely distributed and (thankfully) more easily controlled than purple nutsedge. Purple nutsedge is distributed throughout the coastal plain but is much less common in piedmont and mountain regions of North Carolina.
Because purple and yellow nutsedge differ in herbicide susceptibility, distinguishing between them can often be critical to management decisions. Vegetatively, they differ in overall size and vigor, leaf color, leaf tips, and position of the tubers. If growing in the same habitat, yellow nutsedge tends to grow taller than purple nutsedge. Additionally, yellow nutsedge tends to be light-green to yellowgreen; purple nutsedge generally is deep green in color. However, unless plants are growing sideby-side, the species will be difficult to differentiate based on color and size. Leaf tips are an excellent diagnostic characteristic. Yellow nutsedge tips have like a long, tapered point, whereas purple nutsedge leaf tips are bluntly pointed (Figure 6). Yellow nutsedge forms tubers at the tips of the rhizomes but purple nutsedge tubers are formed in chains on the rhizomes. But, the most reliable way to tell them apart is from the flower heads that differ in color and form. Yellow nutsedge flowers (Figure 7) are yellow-green to tan, while purple nutsedge flowers are deep purple to black, with more slender 'branches' (Figure 8).
Plants begin to emerge in the spring; emergence may continue through midsummer. Plants produce leafy clumps of grass-like foliage. During the season, plants spread by fleshy rhizomes (underground stems) which produce "daughter plants." Starting in early to midsummer, yellow nutsedge begins forming tubers at the tips of the rhizomes. Tubes mature in late July to midAugust. Under optimum conditions, a single yellow nutsedge plant can produce as many as 6000 tubers! Purple nutsedge begins forming tubers earlier than yellow nutsedge, within a few weeks of emergence, and continues to produce tubers in "chains" on the rhizomes until frost. Yellow and purple nutsedge plants flower in mid to late-summer and die with the first hard frost.
While both species can produce viable seeds (nutlets), the principle means of spread and reproduction is by creeping underground stems (rhizomes) and tubers. Most tubers sprout the following spring. Some, however, may remain dormant in the soil for up to 10 years, waiting for an opportunity to germinate. Consequently, nutsedge management strategies must include a long-term commitment to preventing new tuber formation.
## Management Guidelines
Tubers of both species are spread by cultivation, introduced in top soil and nursery stock, and persist in the soil for years. Therefore, any management plan should start with sanitation to prevent introduction of tubers by purchasing only "clean" nursery stock and soil amendments. After nutsedge has infested a site, management programs must focus on preventing establishment, spread and new tuber formation.
## Preemergence Control
Preemergence control of yellow nutsedge is possible in woody landscape beds with Pennant Magnum (s-metolachlor), Tower(dimethanid-p) or Freehand (dimethanid-p plus pendimethalin). Apply Pennant Magnum or Tower before ornamentals break bud, or some foliar injury to ornamentals is likely. Reapply about 8 to 10 weeks later, avoiding contact with tender new foliage. Freehand is a granular herbicide and should be applied when the foliage of ornamentals is dry (to allow granules to roll off the foliage and to the ground). Irrigation following treatment is critical to achieve acceptable yellow nutsedge suppression with any of these herbicides.
## Postemengerence Control
After nutsegade plants have emerged, postemerge nerhicides such as bentazon or halosulfuron are used to control yellow nutsedge and annual sedges. Halosulfuron is also effective on purple nutsedge. Each herbicide is best used as a directed application - avoiding contact with landscape plants. Regardless which product is used, treat early in the season to prevent nutsedge spread and tuber formation.
Basagran TO (a 4 lb per gallon formulation of bentazon) should be applied at 2 lb ai/A (2 qt per acre), with 1 qt per acre of non-phytotoxic crop oil concentrate. The first treatment should be applied in early summer when yellow nutsedge is 6 to 8 inches tall and vigorously growing. If regrowth is observed or new sprouts emerge, repeat the application 7 to 10 days later. A third application is sometimes necessary. Nutsedge control with Basagran TO has been variable -some seasons providing excellent control, other reasons providing fair control. Hot, dry weather tends to reduce weed control. Basagran TO also controls certain seedling broadleaf weeds if applied when annual broadleaves are about 4 to 6 inches tall. Larger weeds will be burned but not controlled. Susceptible weeds include wild buckwheat, dayflower, smartweed, ragweed, common cockleburr and others.
Only a few ornamental species tolerate over the top applications of Basagran TO; however, most
woody ornamentals are not injured by directed applications. However, do not use around sycamore, taxus or rhododendron as injury from root-uptake has been reported. Also, do not use on herbaceous perennials or bedding plants (except impatiens, marigold, petunia and snapdragon).
Sedgehammer (75% ai dry flowable formulation of halosulfon) is a relatively new postemergence herbicide, primarily used for yellow and purple nutsedge control in turf. However, it is also labeled for use as a directed application around established woody ornaments. It is used in very low doses - 0.67 to 1.3 oz. of product per acre. It is available in convenient, water soluble packets. Just add one water soluble bag to 1 gal of water in a backpack or hand-held sprayer; shake well; add 2 tsp of nonionic surfactant; shake it again; and you are ready to spray about 1000 f2. Apply the first treatment
in late May or early June to young nutsedge sprouts when plants have 3 to 8 leaves (delaying this first application tends to result in less control). Re-apply 6 weeks later for season-long control. Two applications at 0.67 oz. have provided more consistent control than a single, 1.3 oz applications. Always add 0.5% (by volume) non-ionic surfactant with Sedgehammer applications. Do not exceed two applications per year. Contact with the foliage of ornamental plants should be avoided, as Sedgehamceran can injure certain species including (but not limited to) arborivate and taxus. Do not use Sedgehammer around herbaceous perennials or annual flowers.
Directed and spot applications of non-selective, postemergence herbicides such as glufosinate or glyphosate may be used to kill existing yellow or purple nutsedge plants. Yes, contrary to popular opinion, glyphosate and glufosinate control nutsedge very well. Over the past 40 years I have tested this many times...with the same results. Both glyphosate and glufosinate control nutsedge. Whichever herbicide is selected, avoid all contact with desirable vegetation. A full discussion of postemergence, non-selective herbicides is available in Horticulture Information Leaflet No.648.
Nutsedges are persistent weeds that will return year after year; therefore, any nutsedge management plan will require several years of sustained effort to rid the landscape of these pesky weeds. Once clean, sanitation to prevent new introductions is critical. Any new installations should be controlled right away to prevent spread of these aggressive and difficult-to-control pests.
For more information, consult herbicide labels and your local Cooperative Extension office. For control guidelines in turfgrass, check out the online guidelines on the Turffiles web portal.
## Author
Joseph C. Neal Professor of Weed Science and Extension Specialist, Weed Management Horticultural Science
Publication date: Dec. 31, 1998
Reviewed/Revised: Jan. 1, 2013
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/lucedale-retail-analysis | Lucedale Retail Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Lucedale Retail Analysis
## Lucedale Retail Analysis
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
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| OCTOBER 3, 2024 | |
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Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
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Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade
NOVEMBER 10, 2023
MSU Extension specialist receives leadership award
OCTOBER 24, 2023
First tourism leadership class graduates recognized
OCTOBER 23, 2023
MSU Extension expertise helps boost Mississippi tourism |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/basics-of-organic-insecticides/ | Basics of Organic Insecticides | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Ayanava Majumdar"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Integrated Pest Management",
"Farming",
"Sustainable Agriculture"
] | AL | These resources are geared toward training producers and gardeners about the basics of alternative insecticides for sustainable vegetable production in small or large scale. Check
## Video Resources
- · Botanical Pesticides (https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=EfXQPnqabM)
- · Integrated Pest Management in Alabama (https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=PkhRaj4XY&feature=youtu.be)
- · Basics of Organic Insecticides (https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=Ad9rB8mFAuc&t=0s&list=PL7KYGcKpHtx-VwgaDohZbFzOWL8gxtp&index=4)
OK
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/mrec/2020/07/27/foodstudies20/ | Tweet All About It: Catherine Campbell Presents MREC Research at Virtual Conference | University of Florida | [
"Caroline Warwick"
] | 2020-07-27 | [
"Horticulture",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"campbell",
"catherine campbell",
"Food Systems",
"foodstudies20",
"MREC",
"multidisciplinary",
"research",
"Social Media",
"Twitter",
"virtual conference"
] | FL | Home » UF/IFAS Mid-Florida Research And Education Center » Tweet All About It: Catherine Campbell Presents MREC Research At Virtual Conference
## Tweet All About It: Catherine Campbell Presents MREC Research at Virtual Conference
Last Updated on July 27, 2020 by Caroline Warwick
This summer, many academic conferences have moved to an online format in the wake of COVID-19. The Association for the Study of Food and Society was no exception, hosting their #FoodStudies20 conference on Twitter.
Catherine Campbell , assistant professor of community food systems, joined the conference, presenting her multidisciplinary project, "Connecting Farmers to Consumers: A Food Systems Approach to Support Family Farmers".
Campbell's project includes Extension and research faculty from the Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, UF/IFAS Extension and the Department of Family, Youth and Community Sciences.
Follow along with Campbell's Twitter thread below:
```
" Hello @ASES.org/@afhys_org #foodstudies2O"
Conference! I will be presenting "Connecting Farmers to Consumers: A Food Systems"
Approach to Support Family Farmers" a
multidisciplinary project with with Extension and
Research faculty from @UEMREC @UE_IEAS
@UF IFASResearch @UFFYFS 1/
pic.twitter.com/nOKqhnDlQz - Catherine G Campbell
PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24, 2020
```
The Tri-County Agricultural Area (TCAA) in Northeast Florida is home to ~50 family farms with revenues >$500,000/yr. Primary crops are
table stock & chip potatoes, & cabbage, with ~16,000 acres in potato production and 10,000 acres in other vegetable production
#foodstudies20 2 / - Catherine G Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24,2020
In response to a negative 10-yr market outlook for family farms in the TCAA, a feasibility study was conducted in 2016 highlighted the viability of French fry manufacturing as a business solution for struggling TCAA farmers. #foodstudies20 3 / - Catherine G Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24,2020
With willing farmers & a good market analysis, we needed to identify high yielding, heat stress-tolerant potato varieties for processing into French fries for Florida. This need led to a 2 yr, stakeholder driven research project to support TCAA family farmers #foodstudies20 4 / - Catherine G Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24,2020
This collaborative project involved TCAA potato growers and collaborators from University of Florida's @UFMREC @UF IFAS @UF IFS Research @UFFYCS and Horticultural Sciences Department, and Food Sciences and
Human Nutrition Department. #foodstudies20 5/ Catherine G Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24, 2020
```
>script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widg
```
ets.js" charset="utf-8">
The 1st objective was to evaluate the yield & quality of russet potato varieties and advanced potato breeding lines from several states as well as @USDA ARS breeding programs for their
adaptation to Florida's unique growing
environment with short season. #foodstudies20 6 /
pic.twitter.com/EoQCBNkBs9 - Catherine G Campbell
PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24, 2020
We evaluated yield, internal & external characteristics, & production parameters for 23 potato clones in 2017 and 28 in 2018. The top 5 potato varieties were transported @UF IFAS, where they were washed, peeled by hand, rinsed in water, and sliced into fries.
## #foodstudies20 7 / pic.twitter.com/ApOW97vbQR -
Catherine G Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24 , 2020
- After tasting panelists rated the importance of locally grown, taste, brand, & low-fat on at 10-point scale (1= not important at all, 10=extremely important). Overall, taste was most important (9.23) & locally grown was second to last (5.82). #foodstudies20 9 / pic.twitter.com/8sJN1cYEY - Catherine G Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24 , 2020
```
Easton tended to be rated the highest for
most attributes highlighting a key opportunity
for TCAA potato farmers. #foodstudies20 10/
pic.twitter.com/hj3rnpeHNL - Catherine G Campbell
PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24 , 2020
```
This project provides a model for identifying new market opportunities for family farmers with an interdisciplinary food system team from farm to consumer-including farmers, Extension, plant breeders, processors, chefs & social scientists #foodstudies20 @UF IFAS @UMFREC
@UFFYCS pic.twitter.com/PYENOKUMoN - Catherine Campbell PhD, MPH (@GatorLiving) July 24,2020
o
by Caroline Warwick
Posted: July 27, 2020
Category: Horticulture, UE/IES.Extension, UE/IFAS Research
Tags: Campbell, Catherine Campbell, Food Systems, Foodstudies20,
MREC, Multidisciplinary, Research, Social Media, Twitter, Virtual
Conference
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Water Wednesday Recap - Landscaping Care Before And After A Storm
- · Join Our Private Well And Septic System Webinar Series
- · Now Online: Water Wednesday Landing Page
- · MREC Graduate Student Awarded By Garden Communicators Association |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-soybean-production-guide/soybean-weed-management | Weed Management | NC State Extension | [
"Wesley Everman"
] | null | [
"Weed Management",
"Soybean Production",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Weed Management
Weed management is one of the most important, and often most expensive, components of a soybean production program. Weed management in soybeans is essential, as weeds compete with the crop for light, moisture, and nutrients; impact soybean growth through allopathy; and decrease harvest efficiency and contribute to lower quality and expense of drying. According to a 2016 report published by the Weed Science Society of America's Weed Loss committee, it is estimated that uncontrolled weeds in North Carolina soybean would reduce yields by 47.4%. This potential yield loss corresponds to an approximately $240 million loss in value. In addition, weeds can severely reduce harvest efficiency and serve as vectors and alternate hosts to a plethora of disease-causing plant pathogens. Knowledge of potential weed problems, proper identification of the weeds present, and timely weed control are all critical to successfully managing weeds in soybeans.
## Weed Management Practices
An effective weed management program uses a combination of cultural, mechanical, and chemical control strategies. Cultural practices such as planting date, planting rate, and row spacing improve weed control by enhancing the competitive ability of the soybeans. Mechanical practices such as cultivation provide a non-chemical control strategy by disrupting between-row weeds. Chemical practices involve a multitude of herbicides that are labeled for use in soybeans.
Herbicides are a necessity for profitable soybean production in most cases. They are, however, only one component of a weed management program. Weed management is most successful when several weed management tactics, such as crop rotation, crop competition, cultivation, and judicious herbicide use are combined in a planned and coordinated program.
## Cultural Practices
Cultural practices can have a tremendous influence on the severity of weed problems in a soybean crop. Soybeans are very competitive with weeds once canopy closes over crop rows, but early emerging weeds can cause serious problems. Cultural practices that promote fast canopy closure will be most effective in controlling troublesome weed populations.
Crop Competition. Crop competition is an effective but often underused weed control tool. The basic strategy is to follow practices that result in rapid soybean growth and canopy closure so as to provide maximum shading of weeds. Soybeans should lap in the row middles as soon as possible and certainly before blooming begins. Planting in narrow rows (20 inches or less) is the most effective means of achieving rapid canopy closure. Other practices that enhance crop competition with weeds include good seeded preparation, use of high-quality seed, proper seeding rate, early season disease and nematode management, proper fertilization and liming, and early planting.
Crop Rotation. Crop rotation should be an integral component of a weed management program. This practice allows the use of different types of herbicides on the same field in different years, which can prevent the buildup of problem weeds and help to keep the overall weed population at lower levels. Also, soybeans are generally healthier when planted in rotation with other crops, leading to better competition of the crop with weeds. Crop rotation and proper selection and rotation
of herbicides are key components in a strategy to avoid evolution of weed resistance to herbicides. Some soybean herbicides may persist long enough to damage certain rotational crops. Before using any herbicide, check the rotational restrictions.
## Mechanical Practices
Mechanical practices can be a cost-effective method of controlling weeds before and after planting soybeans. While cultivation alone rarely provides complete weed control, it can be used in conjunction with herbicides to reduce herbicide costs.
Cultivation . Soybeans obviously can be grown without cultivation. Cultivation, however, is an effective and economical way to supplement control achieved with herbicides when soybeans are planted in wide rows. Applying herbicides in a band over the row and cultivating the row middles can substantially reduce weed-control costs. In fields with a light weed infestation, cultivation alone may be sufficient. Cultivation should be shallow (1 to 2 inches) to avoid damaging crop roots and to avoid breaking through any residual herbicide layer and bringing up untreated soil and weed seed. To be effective, shallow cultivation must be done while the weeds are small. Weed control is the only benefit received from cultivation except where special soil problems such as crusting or poor drainage exist. In situations where a good burndown is not achieved, preplant tillage is recommended for proper weed control.
## Harvest Weed Seed Control. Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) methods developed in
Australia for managing resistant weed species have recently garnered attention in the U.S. Practices are still in various stages of research, but it is known that managing weeds at harvest and destroying seeds reduce the seedbank and the number of troublesome weeds that must be controlled in future seasons. Chaff lining, chaff carts, and combine-mounted HWSC units are all options to remove or reduce seed at harvest. An additional benefit of HWSC is the reduction of selection pressure placed on chemical weed control.
## Chemical Practices
Herbicides, when used according to label instructions, provide a safe and effective method to control weeds in soybeans. It is important to remember that herbicides will not solve all weeds problems and should be considered one of many tools for effective weed management. A successful weed management program will include herbicide applications at different points in the growing season, including preplant, preemergence, and postemergence.
Early Preplant/Burndown (PPlant). Some herbicides can be applied several weeks before planting. These herbicides should be effective at controlling emerged weeds or for residual control of weeds that have yet to emerge. If weeds are emerged at treatment in no-till cropping systems, a "burndown" herbicide with foliar activity should be applied. A product with residual activity can be combined with a burndown herbicide to extend the weed control window.
Preplant Incorporated (PPI). In conventional tillage cropping systems, certain herbicides can be applied and incorporated into the soil before planting to control susceptible weeds. These herbicides need to be incorporated thoroughly for herbicide activation.
Preemergence (PRE). Some herbicides with residual activity can be applied to the soil surface after planting but before the soybeans have emerged. Rainfall is required after the application to move the herbicide into the soil where it can be absorbed by germinating weeds.
Postemergence (POST). With the widespread use of herbicide-tolerant soybean varieties, postemergence applications have become very popular with growers. As a general rule, postemergence herbicides should be applied when weeds are in the two- to four-leaf stage or 2 to 3
inches tall. This normally occurs 2 to 3 weeks after planting around the V2 growth stage. The most common cause of poor results with postemergence herbicides is application when the weeds have grown beyond the optimum size for treatment.
Weather conditions are also important to the success of postemergence herbicides. For best results, weeds should be actively growing and not under moisture stress. When weeds are under moisture stress, their physiological processes occur at a very slow rate. Such conditions can have a significant effect on the leaf shape and texture resulting in poor interception of herbicide droplets on to leaves, which essentially leads to poor weed control due to reduced herbicide absorption by plants.
In the current scenario of increased herbicide-resistant weeds, the most important concept in relation to herbicide application timings is that each herbicide application before canopy closure should include an overlapping residual herbicide. This overlapping residual herbicide application strategy will prevent weeds from having any escaping window before they can be shaded-out by canopy and can negatively influence crop growth and development to achieve maximum yields.
## Herbicide Selection and Application
Several herbicides are registered for use on soybeans to control various weeds. Before using any herbicide, you need to learn the important capabilities and limitations of the various products labeled for use in soybeans. You need to know which weeds are controlled by a given product, what rate to apply and how best to apply it, the crop injury potential, rotational restrictions, and any special precautions. Product labels, manufacturers' literature, and Extension publications are good sources for this information.
When selecting an herbicide, important factors to consider include: (1) weeds present, (2) stage of crop and weed growth, (3) crop rotation restrictions, (4) environmental considerations, and (5) herbicide costs.
Broadleaf Weeds : Annual broadleaf weeds are more competitive with soybeans than are annual grasses. Annual broadleaf weeds also vary greatly in their potential to reduce soybean yield. A tolerance policy should be considered regarding the more competitive species such as cocklebur, lambsquarters, jimsonweed, and Palmer amaranth to reduce or maintain a static seed
bank. Annual broadleaf weeds can be controlled with combinations of preplant incorporated, preemergence, and postemergence herbicides. The best application method to use depends upon the weed species present and compatibility with your overall production system. This section discusses the various herbicide options.
Grasses : Annual grasses can be controlled with preplant incorporated, premegence, and postemergence herbicides. The soil-applied broadleaf herbicides such as Canopy, Scepter, Valor, and Tricor give suppression of some annual grasses. With light infestations of susceptible species,
one of these broadleaf herbicides plus cultivation may be adequate for annual grasses. Where moderate to heavy grass infestations or non-susceptible species are expected, or where you do not plan to cultivate, a grass control herbicide is recommended.
Common herbicides that can be used to control grasses and broadleaf weeds are listed below by application method (i.e., preplant incorporated, soil applied, and postemergence). Tables 7-1 and 72 provide an easy to use reference for targeting a specific weed species.
## Preplant Incorporated Herbicides
## Group 3
Prowl H2O and Treflan are very similar: both provide good to excellent control of all the common annual grasses. They also provide good control of certain small-seeded broadleaf weeds such as pigweed, lambsquarters, carpetweed, common purslane, and Florida pusey. Control is basically season-long, but carryover is not likely to be a problem unless high rates are used. Several generic brands of trifulinar (the active ingredient in Treflan) are available.
The labels for Prowl H2O and Treflan specify the maximum waiting period between application and incorporation (24 hours for Treflan, 7 days for Prowl H2O). It is best to incorporate these herbicides as soon as possible after application. A delay in incorporation can result in a significant herbicide loss. Incorporate about 2 to 3 inches deep.
## Group 2 -Acetolactate Synthase (ALS) Inhibitors
Scepter contains imazaquin and can be applied in various preplant incorporated or preemergence tank mixes. The most consistent and broadest spectrum control is obtained when Scepter is tankmixed with Prowl (pendimethalin) or Treflan (trifularin) and incorporated. For improved sicklepod control, a follow-up POST application is required.
More rainfall is required to activate a preemergence application of Scepter than is required for most preemergence herbicides. For good control, 3/4 to 1 inch of rainfall is needed within 7 to 10 days after application. For this reason, incorporated applications perform more consistently.
## Soil Applied Herbicides
Broadleaf Control
## Group 5 -Photosystem II Inhibitors
This class of chemistry is typically reserved for the metribuzin-based products . They normally control many annual broadleaf weeds. Notable exceptions include crocklebur and morningglory. Tricor can be applied preplant incorporated or applied preemergence.
Soybeans have a narrow margin of tolerance for metribuzin, see the section on metribuzin sensitivity below.
## Group 7 -Photosystem II Inhibitors
Lorox (linuron) is a preemergence herbicide that controls common ragweed, pigweed, and lambsquarters but is inadequate for control of most other broadleaf weeds. Lorox should not be used on sand, loamy sand, or gravelly soils or on any soil with less than 1/2% organic matter. Lorox
is somewhat safer than metribuzin on light-textured. However, injury may occur if excessive rates are applied or if heavy rainfall is received shortly after planting. Do not use on soils with more than 3% organic matter.
## Group 13 -DOXP Synthase Inhibitor/Diterpene Biosynthesis Inhibitor
Command (clomazone) controls prickly sida, tropic croton, jimsonweed, lambsquarters, smartweed, spurred anoda, and velvetleaf. Note that Command does not control pigweed, morningglory, ladysthumb, or sicklepod.
## Group 14 -PPO Inhibitors
Valor (flumioxazin) is widely used in soybeans in North Carolina for preemergence control of small and large seeded broadleaf weeds. Several premixes are commonly used for broad spectrum activity. Avoid applying with Group 15 herbicides to prevent potential soybean injury. Spartan (sulfentrazone) is more commonly used in tobacco; however, it provides effective control of many common broadleaf weeds found in soybean. Reflex (fomesafen) is commonly used postemergence for broadleaf weed control, particularly for Palmer amaranth or common ragweed. It is also an effective PRE herbicide and is commonly applied as a premix with Dual Magnum (Prefix).
## Group 15 -Long-chain Fatty Acid Inhibitors
Brawl, Cinch, Dual Magnum, Dual II Magnum, Medal, and Medal II (S'-metolachlor) can control pigweed and can be tank-mixed with most broadleaf products. Do not mix with Valor (flumioxazin).
Zidua (pyroxasulfone) controls pigweed and nightshade when applied PRE. It can be combined with many broadleaf herbicides or purchased in a packaged mixture called Anthem that contains fluhtiacet-methyl.
Outlook (dimethenamid) can be applied preplant and incorporated at least 2 inches deep or PRE to control small seeded annual broadleaf weeds.
IntRRo (alachlor) can be applied preplant and PRE to control small seeded annual broadleaf weeds.
Warrant (acetochlor) is an encapsulated formulation which can be applied PRE or early POST to provide residual control of small seeded broadleaf weeds such as pigweed.
## Premixes
In most instances, a premix including multiple modes of action tends to render greater control over troublesome broadleaves. Gangster and Surveil both include Valor plus Firstrate (cloransulamgroup 2). Envive contains Valor, Classic (chlormorunon-group 2), and Harmony (tiffensulfurongroup 2) in a premix. Valor XLT contains Classic and Valor for a very effective residual. Fierce contains Valor plus Zidua (pyroxasulfone-group 15) and provides broad spectrum control of many annual weeds.
Boundary, Canopy, Authority MTZ, and Trivence are metribuzin-based mixtures that include Dual (S-metolachlor-group 15), Classic (clorimonur-group 2), Spartan (sulfentrazonesgroup 14), and Valor (flumioxazin-group 14) plus Classic (chlormorun-group 2), respectively. Because Canopy contains a high percentage of metribuzin, the use restrictions discussed previously for Tricor also apply to Canopy. Canopy can be applied in various preplant incorporated or preemergeance tank mixes. In contrast to metibrizun alone, Canopy provides better control of largeseeded broadleaf weeds such as crocklebur and morginzglogy. Canopy normally controls most annual broadleaf weeds. In fields heavily infested with cocklebur or morginggy, cultivation or a
postemergence herbicide may also be needed. Some rotational restrictions apply when using Canopy. However, there have been no documented cases of Canopy carryover to agronomic crops in North Carolina. Carefully follow label directions for sprayer cleanout after using Canopy.
Optill is a premix that is made up of Pursuit (imazethapyr-group 2) and Sharpen (sulfenacil-- group 14). Ziduda Pro is composed of Pursuit (imazethapyr-group 2), Sharpen (sulfenacil-- group 14), and Zidua (pyroxasulfone-group 15). Zidua Pro is labeled for burndown through preemergence applications but can cause injury on course soils with less than 2.0% organic matter.
Sonic and Authority First are composed of Spartan (sulfentrazone-group 14) and Firstrate (cloransulam-group 2) and can be applied PPI, PPIplant, or PRE for control of broadleaves and sedges.
Prefix contains Dual (S-metolachlor) and Reflex (fomesafen-group 14) and will effectively control most annual grasses and broadleaves except for sicklepod.
Warrant Ultra is a combination of Reflex (fomesafen-group 14) and Warrant (acetochlor-group 15) that provides effective control of most annual grass and broadleaf weeds, excluding sicklepod.
Authority XL and Authority Assist contain Spartan (sulfentrazone) plus Classic (chloriromun-group 2) at different concentrations. Both are effective for broadleaf weed control in burndown, preplant, and PRE applications.
Broadaxe is a combination of Dual Magnum (S-metolachlor-group 15) plus Spartan (sulfentrazone-group 14) that provides control of annual broadleaf weeds plus yellow nutsedge.
Grass Control
## Group 13
Command gives season-long control of annual grasses except shattercane and Texas panicum, and it controls several broadleaf weeds. Note, however, that Command does not control pigweed. Command may be preplant incorporated or applied preemergemen.
## Group 15 Long-chain Fatty Acid Inhibitors
Brawl, Cinch, Dual Magnum, Dual II Magnum, Medal, and Medal II (S-metolachlor) applied PRE controls annual grass species, with exception of Texas panicum, shattercane, and seedling johnsongrass. Do not mix with Valor (flumioxazin.)
Zidua (pyroxasulfone) controls annual grass species when applied PRE. It may be combined with broadleaf herbicides or purchased in a packaged mixture called Anthem that contains fluthiacetmethyl. Texas panicum, shattercane, and seedling johnsongrass will not be controlled.
Outlook (dimenethamid) can be applied preplant and incorporated at least 2 inches deep or PRE to control annual grasses and sedges. Texas panicum, shattercane, and seeding johnsongrass will not be controlled.
IntRRo (alachlor) can be applied preplant and PRE to control grass species. Texas panicum, shattercane, and seedling johnsongrass will not be controlled.
Warrant (acetochlor) is an encapsulated formulation which can be applied PRE or early POST to provide residual control of most annual grass species except Texas panicum, shattercane, and seedling johnsongrass.
## Mixtures
Boundary contains Dual Magnum (S-metolachlor-group 15) and Tricor (metribuzin-group 5).
Annual grass and broadleaf weeds will be controlled; however, control of shattercane, seedling johnsongrass, and Texas panicum will not be acceptable.
Fierce is a combination of pyroxasulfone (group 15) and Valor (flumioxazin-group 14) that controls a broad spectrum of annual grass and broadleaf weeds. Texas panicum, shattercane, and seeding johnsongrass will not be controlled.
Warrant Ultra contains Warrant (acetochlor-group 15) and Reflex (fomesafen-group 15) and provides control of annual grasses and many broadleaf species. Exceptions include shattercane, seedling johnsongrass, and Texas panicum.
Prefix is a combination of Dual Magnum (S-metolachlor-group 15) and Reflex (fomesafen-group 15). Annual grasses and many broadleaf weed species will be controlled with the exception of seedling johnsongrass, shattercane, and Texas panicum.
Broadaxe is a combination of Duial Magnum (S-metolachlor-group 15) and Spartan (sulfentrazone-group 15). Annual grasses, sedges, and many broadleaf weed species will be controlled. Seedling johnsongrass, shattercane, and Texas panicum will not be controlled.
Zidua PRO contains Zidua (pyroxasulfone-group 15) plus Pursuit (imazethapyr-group 2) plus Sharpen (safluentacil-group 14). Grass and broadleaf weeds will be controlled with the exception of Texas panicum, seedling johnsongrass, and shattercane.
Python + Trefil are packaged mixtures of grass and broadleaf herbicides. Python+ Trefil contains flumestules plus triflural (the active ingredient in Trefilan). Salute contains trifluralin plus metribuzin (the active ingredient in Sencor). Turbo contains metrolachlor (the active ingredient in Dual) plus metribuzin. Squadron contains pendimetralin plus imazunain (the active ingredients in Prowl and Scopter, respectively). Tri-Scpt contains trifluralin and imazaquin.
## Postemergence Herbicides
Broadleaf Control-Herbicide Resistant Varieties
Herbicide-tolerant varieties have made POST applications much more effective and economical since their first release in 1996. Today, soybean cultivars have enhanced tolerance to ALS herbicides, glyphosate, glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D. Understanding which cultivars are tolerant to which specific chemistries is crucial to developing an effective weed management program that staves off selection for resistance and maximizes crop safety.
Glyphosate-based products such as Roundup, Touchdown, and Glystar can be applied POST on varieties that possess the Roundup Ready trait. They can be regularly mixed with Flexstar GT, Extreme, and Warrant.
Similarly, Liberty (glufosinate) can be applied POST to Liberty Link varieties. These options, when used in rotation and in combination with tank mixes, have shown to be highly effective in controlling troublesome weeds in North Carolina.
Enlist soybeans allow farmers to make POST applications of Enlist One (2,4-D Choline) and Enlist Duo (2,4-D Choline plus glyphosate). Enlist E3 beans can be treated with glufosine, glyphosate, and 2,4-D.
Xtend soybeans can be treated with POST applications of Xtendimax (dicamba), Engenia (dicamba), and glyphosate.
Xtendflex soybeans have tolerance to glyphosate, dicamba (Xtendimax and Engenia), and glufosinate (Liberty). Current labels do not allow the application of dicamba + glufosinate in a tank
mixture, so plan weed management practices accordingly.
Off-target movement is a high concern for Group 4 herbicides and therefore extra precautions should be taken, including the use of buffer zones, drift-reducing spray tips, sprayboom height, sprayer speed, and environmental considerations. Carefully read the label prior to use to be sure all applications are conducted ethically and legally.
## Broadleaf Control-Any Variety
## Group 6
Basagran (bentazon) gives excellent control of yellow nutsedge, cocklebur, jimsonweed, and smartweed, and good control of prickly sida, spurred anoda, velvetleaf, and giant ragweed. Although control may be inconsistent, Basagran plus crop oil concentrate usually controls small common ragweed and lambsquarters. Crop tolerance is excellent.
Storm is a packaged mixture of Basagran (bentazon) and Blazer (acifluorfen-group 14) that can be added to many ALS-based herbicides (group 2) such as FirstRate (cloransulam), Pursuit (imazethapyr), and Raptor (imazanox).
## Group 14
Ultra Blazer (acifluorfen) controls most broadleaf weeds. Exceptions include prickly sida, sicklepod, spurred anoda, velvetleaf, and volunteer cowpea. Blazer normally causes some soybean leaf crinkling and leaf bronzing or leaf burn. Addition of crop oil concentrate or higher rates of surfactant increase the amount of leaf burn. This injury is temporary and the soybeans recover quickly and grow normally.
Resource (flumiclorac) provides excellent control of velvetleaf when applied POST with 1 quart of crop oil concentrate.
Cobra (lactofen) controls most annual broadleaf weeds. Major exceptions are lambsquarters, sicklepod, smartweed, and spurred anoda. Morningglory control often is inconsistent. Cobra applied at the full labeled rate (12.5 ounces per acre) usually causes moderate to severe soybean leaf burn. Although the soybeans usually recover and grow normally, the injury often is unacceptable to growers. For this reason, Cobra at the full labeled rate is generally not recommended. Several tank mixes containing Cobra at low rates (6 ounces per acre) are registered.
Reflex (fomesafen) controls most common broadleaf weeds. Major exceptions are prickly sida, sicklepod, spurred anoda, and velvetleaf. Unless treated when smaller than ½ inch, lambsquarters will not be controlled. Soybean tolerance of Reflex is normally good. The Reflex label mentions rotational restrictions and injury on sorghum and corn has been observed in North Carolina. Additional fomesafen products include: Flexstar, Dawn, and Rythmen .
## Group 2
Classic (chlorimuron) will control many broadleaf weeds. Major exceptions are lambsquarters, prickly sida, and tropic croton. Control of spurred anoda and velvetleaf also may not be adequate. Classic may be tank-mixed with several other herbicides to expand the spectrum of control. Soybean tolerance of Classic is normally good, but some leaf distortion and yellowing and minor crop stunting may be noted, especially when applied to soybeans under stress conditions. The
soybeans usually recover and grow normally. There are some rotational restrictions following Classic application; however, no documented cases of Classic carryover to agronomic crops have been observed in North Carolina. See the label for specific directions on sprayer cleanup.
FirstRate (cloransulam) can be applied twice per season for effective control of cocklebur, morningglory, and common ragweed. Sickpleod can be controlled only at the cotyledon stage.
Harmony (thifensulfuron)controls lambsquarters, pigweed, smartweed, and velvetleaf. Because the spectrum of control is limited, Harmony is normally tank-mixed with another broadleaf herbicide to expand the range of species controlled. Carefully follow label directions for herbicide and adjuvant rates when applying tank mixes containing Pinnacle.
Synchrony XP is a packaged mixture of Classic (cloriumron) and Harmony (thifensulfuron). It is important to use the recommended lower rate when applying to non-STS soybeans.
Scepter applied postemergence controls coclkebur and pigweed excellently. Control of other broadleaf weeds will be inadequate. See the section on sicklepod control.
Soybean tolerance of Scepter applied postemergence is excellent. See the most recent label for rotational restrictions.
Pursuit (imazethapyr) applied postemergence, controls coclkebur, pigweed, jimmonseed, and smartweed. Morningglory control is usually acceptable but can be inconsistent. Pursuit kills weeds very slowly, and it may take as long as three weeks to kill morningglory. In some cases, the weeds do not die completely but rather stop growing and the soybean canopy fills in above them. In addition to controlling certain broadleaf weeds, a postemergence application of Pursuit usually gives adequate control of broadleaf signalsgras, foxtails, seedling johnsongrass, and scatterane, and it sometimes gives adequate control of rhizome johnsongrass. Pursuit does not control common ragweed, lambsquarters, prickly saida, sicklepod, and certain other weeds. Soybean tolerance of Pursuit is good but there are rotational restrictions. Do not plant cotton or most vegetable crops the year following a Pursuit application.
Grass Control-Any Variety
## Group 1
Select Max, Select, Arrow, Tapout, Volunteer (clethodim) controls grass species, including volunteer corn, when applied POST. Can be mixed with broadleaf products. See label for adjuvant instructions.
Poast, Poast Plus (setxohydim) controls grass species, including volunteer corn, when applied POST. Can be mixed with broadleaf products. See label for adjuvant instructions.
Asseure II (quizalofop) controls grass species, including volunteer corn, when applied POST. Can be mixed with broadleaf products. See label for adjuvant instructions.
Fusilade DX (fluzizopf-p-butyl) controls grass species, including volunteer corn, when applied POST. Can be mixed with broadleaf products. See label for adjuvant instructions.
| | | | | | |
|----------------------------------------------|------------------|-----------------|------------------------------|------------------------|----------|
| Species | Prowl or Treflan | Sonalan Group 3 | Authority MTZ PRE - Group 14 | Command PRE - Group 13 | Group 15 |
| Bermudgrass Broadleaf signalgrass | N G | N G | NF | PF | G |
| Crabgrass Fall panicum | E G | E G | F | E | E |
| Foxtails Goosegrass | E | E | F | E | E |
| Johnsongrass, Seedling Johnsongrass, Rhizome | G | G | - | GF | PF |
| Shattercane Texas panicum | G | G | - PF | F | PF |
| Nutsedge, Yellow | N N | N | E | N | FG3 |
| Nutsedge, Purple | N | N | - | GL | N |
| Balloonvine Eastern black nightshade | N | N | - | G | N |
| Burucumber$^{1}$ Cocklebur | N | N | - | NP | N |
| N | N | N | G | F | N |
| Cowpea Crotalaria | N N | N N | - - | N N |
|-----------------------------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| Florida beggarweed | N E | G | FG | F |
| Florida pusley | N | E | P | G |
| Hemp sesbania | N | N | GE | N |
| Jimsonweed | N | N | E | G |
| Lambsquarters | G | G | E | G |
| Morningglory | P | P | E | P 2 |
| Palmer amaranth | G | G | G | N FG |
| Pigweed, Redroot and Smooth | G | G | E | N |
| Ricky sida | N | N | GE | E P |
| Ragweed, Common Ragweed, Giant | N | N | GE | G PF |
| Sicklepod | N | N | G | P NP |
| Smartweed | N | N | E | E N |
| Spurred anoda | N | N | G | E N |
| Tropic croton | N | N | - | E N |
| Velvetleaf | N | N | GE | E N |
Multiple flushes of germination; one application of any herbicide will seldom be adequate
- 2 Fair on pitted morningglory.
- 3 Good on yellow nutsedge when incorporated.
- 4 Palmer amaranth resistant to ALS inhibitors is common in NC. This ALS-inhibiting herbic
Key:
E = excellent control, 90% or better
G = good control, 80% to 90%
F = fair control, 50% to 80%
P = poor control, 25% to 50%
N = no control, less than 25%
NOTE: Ratings are based upon average to good soil and weather conditions for herbicide
| | | | | | | | | |
|------------------------|------------|------------|----------|----------|-------------|-------------|--------------------------|----------|
| | Assure | Assure | Assure | Select, | Select, | Select, | Cl | Cl |
| | II - Group | II - Group | Fusilade | Fusilade | Max - Group | Max - Group | Basagran | Basagran |
| Species | 1 | - Group | Group | Group | Group | - Group | Gr | 2 |
| | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | | | |
| Bermudagrass | G | G | FG | G | N | N | N | N |
| Broadleaf signalgrass | GE | GE | E | E | N | N | N | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| Crabgrass | G | G | GE | GE | N | N | N | N |
| Fall panicum | E | E | E | E | N | N | N | |
| Foxtails | E | E | E | E | N | N | N | N |
| Goosegrass | GE | GE | GE | GE | N | N | N | |
| Johnsongrass, Seedling | E | E | E | E | N | NF | N | |
| Johnsonsgrass, Rhizome | E | GE | G | GE | N | N | N | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| Shattercane | E | E | E | E | N | N | N | |
| Texas panicum | G | G | E | E | N | N | N | |
| Nutsedge, Purple | N | N | N | N | NP | PF | G | |
| Nutsedge, Yellow | N | | | | G3 | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| Balloonvine | N | N | N | N | P | FC | Eastern black nightshade | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| Burucumberé | N | N | N | N | P | G | | |
| Cocklebur | N | N | N | N | E | E | | |
| Cowpea | N | N | N | N | N | GE | Crotalaria | |
| Florida | N | N | N | N | N | N | G | |
| beggarweed | N | N | N | N | P | |
|----------------------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|----|
| Hemp sesbania | | | | | | |
| Jimsonweed | N | N | N | E | E | |
| Lambsquarters | N | N | N | FG | N | |
| Morningglory | N | N | N | P | G | |
| Palmer amaranth | N | N | N | N | F 1 | |
| Pigweed, Redroot or Smooth | N | N | N | N | G | |
| Ricky sida | | | | O | N | |
| Ragweed, Common | N | N | N | G 9 | G | |
| Ragweed, Giant | | | N | N | GE | FC |
| Sicklepod | N | N | N | N | N | G |
| Smartweed | N | N | N | N | E | E |
| Spurred anoda | N | N | N | N | G | NF |
| Tropic croton | N | N | N | N | GF | NF |
| Velvetleaf | N | N | N | N | G | F |
Key: E = excellent control, 90% or better
G = good control, 80% to 90%
F = fair control, 50% to 80%
P = poor control, 25% to 50%
N = no control, less than 25%
NOTE: Ratings based upon average to good soil and weather conditions for herbicide per
## Motibuzin Sensitivity
Soybeans have a narrow margin of tolerance for metribuzin. Therefore, be extremely careful when selecting the application rate of a product that contains metribuzin. This can be a problem in fields with varying soil types. Miles Inc., makers of Salute, Sencor, and Turbo, offer a free soil testing program called SURE . The SURE program recommends a specific rate of Salute, Sencor, or Turbo based on soil texture, organic matter content, and application method (preplant incorporated or preemergence). SURE has proven to be very helpful in selecting the proper metribuzin rate to avoid crop injury.
There are several restrictions on the use of metribuzin. Specific restrictions vary depending on application methods and tank mixes, but in general this herbicide should not be used on sands or loamy sands with less than 1% organic matter or any soil with less than 1/2% organic matter. Certain varieties of soybeans, such as Asgrow 6520 and Coker 156, are very susceptible to metribuzin injury. Before applying a product containing metribuzin to a new variety, check with your seed dealer to determine the variety's sensitivity to metribuzin. Increased soybean injury will also be observed when metribuzin is used in conjunction with soil-applied organophosphate insecticide/nematicides; see the product labels for details.
## Herbicide Resistance
Herbicide resistance refers to the inherited ability of a biotype of a weed to survive an herbicide application to which the original population was susceptible. A biotype is a group of plants within a species that has biological traits (such as resistance to a particular herbicide) not common to the population as a whole.
Herbicide resistance is a very serious problem facing North Carolina growers. The widespread use of herbicide-resistant soybean varieties as well as the use of several herbicides with the same mode of action has created major concerns. Mode or site of action refers to the specific process through which an herbicide kills a susceptible plant. Today, herbicides having the same mode of action can be used on several crops that may be grown in rotation.
Resistance to both ALS-inhibiting herbicides and glyphosate is widespread across the state (Table 7-3). Based on a 2010 survey, 95% of the Palmer amaranth populations in the state contained individuals resistant to glyphosate and ALS inhibitors. Horseweed resistant to glyphosate is very common across eastern North Carolina and is becoming a problem in the piedmont. Common ragged resistant to glyphosate and ALS-inhibitors exists in several northeastern counties. Italian ryegrass resistant to glyphosate occurs sporadically across the southern piedmont. Of particular concern is a population of common ragged that was found to be resistant to ALS-inhibitors, glyphosate, and PPOs in the northeastern part of the state.
Growers can no longer rely only glyphosate to control weeds in their Roundup Ready soybean systems. Although the technological advancement in genetic engineering gave rise to several other herbicide-tolerant soybean varieties that are either currently on market or will likely be introduced in
the near future, the life of these technologies depends on their proper stewardship. If these newer technologies are not used judiciously and as only one component of a diverse integrated weed management approach, their fate will be no different than that of roundup-ready technology.
## Resistance Management Strategies
Herbicides are used in crop production simply because they are more effective or more economical than other means of weed control. If resistance to a particular herbicide or family of herbicides evolves, suitable alternative herbicides may not exist. We must use herbicides in a manner that deters the development of resistance.
It is essential to understand how resistance evolves in order to understand how to avoid resistance. There are two prerequisites for herbicide resistance evolution. First, individual weeds possessing genes conferring resistance must be present in the native population. Second, selection pressure resulting from extensive use of an herbicide to which these rare individuals are resistant must be exerted on the population. Resistant individuals, if present, make up a very low percentage of the overall population. Typically, resistant individuals are present at frequencies ranging from 1 in 100,000 to 1 in 100 million. If the same herbicide or herbicides with the same mode of action are used continuously, the susceptible individuals are killed but the resistant individuals are unharmed and produce seed. If the selection pressure continues for several generations, the resistant biotype will ultimately make up a high percentage of the population. At that point, acceptable weed control can no longer be obtained with the particular herbicide or herbicides.
Rotation of herbicides having different modes of action is the single most important component of a management strategy to avoid evolution of herbicide resistance. Tank mixes or sequential applications of herbicides having different modes of action are often touted as components of a resistance management strategy. If the components of the tank mix or sequential applications are chosen wisely, this strategy can help delay resistance evolution. Unfortunately, many of the requirements of tank mix or sequential applications to avoid resistance are not met with commonly used mixtures. To be most effective at preventing resistance evolution, both herbicides used sequentially or in tank mixtures should have the same spectrum of control and should have similar persistence.
To the extent possible, integrate nonchemical control practices such as cultivation into your weed management program. Maintain good records of herbicide usage in each field for future reference.
| Year | Common name | Scientific name | Cropping system | Herbicide of action | Active ingredient |
|--------|----------------------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1973 | goosegrass | Eleusine in dica (L.) Gaertn. | Cotton | Microtubule inhibitors (3) | trifluralin |
| 1980 | common lambsquarters | Chenopodium album L. | Corn | Photosystem II inhibitors (5) | atrazine |
| 1980 | smooth pigweed | Amaranthus hybridus L. | Corn | Photosystem II inhibitors (5) | atrazine |
| 1990 | Italian ryegrass | Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot | Wheat | ACCase inhibitor (1) | dicolofop- methyl, seboxydim |
| 1994 | common cocklebur | Xanthium strumarium L. | Cotton | Nucleic acid inhibitors (17) | DSM, MSN |
| 1995 | Palmer amaranth | Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. | Soybean | ALS inhibitors (2) | chlorimuron- ethyl |
| 1995 | annual bluegrass | Poa annual L. | Golf courses, turf | Photosystem II inhibitors (5) | simazine |
| 1997 | annual bluegrass | Poa annual L. | Golf courses, turf | Microtubule inhibitors (3) | pendimethal prodiamine |
| 1999 | common cocklebur | Xanthium strumarium L. | Soybean | ALS inhibitors (2) | chlorimuron- ethyl, cloransulam- methyl, imazapyr, primisulfuror methyl, pyrithiobacillusodium |
| 2003 | horseweed | Conyza (L.) Cronq. | Cotton | EPSP synthase inhibitor (9) | glyphosate |
|--------|-------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 2005 | Palmer amaranth | Amaranthus palmer L. | Corn, cotton, soybean | EPSP synthase inhibitor (9) | glyphosate |
| 2006 | common ragweed | Ambrosia artemisifolia L. | Peanut | ALS inhibitor (2) | diclosulam |
| 2006 | common ragweed | Ambrosia artemisifolia L. | Cotton | EPSP synthase inhibitor (9) | glyphosate |
| 2007 | Italian ryegrass | Lolium perenne L. sp. multiflorum (Lam.) Hussnot | Wheat | ALS inhibitor (2) | mesosulfuro methyl |
| 2007 | Italian ryegrass | Lolium perenne L. sp. multiflorum (Lam.) Hussnot | Wheat | ACCASE inhibitor (1), ALS inhibitor (2) | diclofop- methyl, imazamox, mesosulfuro methyl, pinoxaden, pyroxsulam |
| 2009 | Italian ryegrass | Lolium perenne L. sp. multiflorum (Lam.) Hussnot | Corn, cotton | EPSP synthase inhibitor (9) | glyphosate |
| 2015 | common ragweed | Ambrosia artemisifolia L. | Corn, soybean | ALS inhibitors (2), PPO inhibitors (14), EPSP synthase inhibitors (9) | Aciflurofen- sodium, cloransulam- methyl, fomesafen, glyphosate, lactofen, nicosulfuron |
| 2015 | goosegrass | Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. | Golf courses | PPO inhibitor (14) | oxadiazon |
Detecting herbicide-resistant weeds
Most weed control failures are not due to herbicide resistance. Before assuming that weeds surviving an herbicide application are resistant, eliminate all other possible causes of poor control. Potential causes of a weed control failure may include misapplication (such as inadequate rate, poor coverage, poor incorporation, or lack of an adjuvant); unfavorable weather conditions for good
herbicide activity; improper timing of herbicide application (in particular, applying postemergence herbicides after weeds are too large for good control); and weeds emerging after application of a short-residual herbicide.
After eliminating all other possible causes of poor control, the following may indicate presence of an herbicide-resistant biotype: (1) all species normally controlled by the herbicide except one are controlled well; (2) healthy plants of the species in question are interspersed among plants of the same species that were killed; (3) the species not controlled is normally very susceptible to the herbicide in question; and (4) the field has a history of extensive use of the herbicide in question or herbicides with the same mode of action.
If resistance is suspected, immediately stop using the herbicide in question and other herbicides having the same mode of action. Contact your local Extension agent and a representative of the chemical company for advice on alternative control strategies. Follow an intensive program that relies upon herbicides with a different mode of action and nonchemical control practices to reduce weed seed production as much as possible. Avoid spreading weed seed to other fields by cleaning equipment and plan your weed management program for subsequent crops carefully.
## Spray Adjuvants
Most postemergence herbicide labels recommend use of a spray adjuvant. Spray adjuvants are any non-pesticidal material added to an herbicide to improve the effectiveness of the herbicide.
A surfactant reduces the surface tension between the leaf surface and the spray droplet and allows the spray droplet to spread out and cover a greater area of the leaf surface. This effect results in greater absorption of the herbicide into the leaf and a greater probability of killing the weed. Use of surfactants may also increase crop injury with some herbicides. Brands of surfactants may differ in their concentration of active ingredients (referred to as surface-active agents). The concentration of surface-active agents should be listed on the label. A good agricultural surfactant should contain at least 75% surface-active agents.
Recently, several silicone-based surfactants have entered the market. These surfactants have excellent wetting properties but generally are more expensive than regular nonionic surfactants. Only a limited amount of research has been conducted comparing herbicide efficacy with silicone surfactants to that with nonionic surfactants. Research to date generally shows that silicone surfactants work well but are not sufficiently better than nonionic surfactants to justify the extra cost.
Crop oil concentrates are a mixture of 80 to 85% nonthiopotoxic petroleum-based oil plus 15 to 20% emulsifier (surfactant). The function of crop oil concentrates is to reduce surface tension between leaf surfaces and spray droplets, to promote herbicide penetration into leaves, and to prolong droplet drying time which allows more herbicide to be absorbed. Use of crop oil concentrates may increase crop injury with some herbicides.
Vegetable oil concentrates are similar to crop oil concentrates. A vegetable oil concentrate normally contains 80 to 85% once-refined soybean or cottonseed oil plus 15 to 20% emulsifier. The function of a vegetable oil concentrate is basically the same as that of a crop oil concentrate. Research has
shown that the effectiveness of vegetable oil concentrates may equal that of crop oil concentrates but is rarely greater. Some herbicide labels allow substitution of a vegetable oil in place of a crop oil concentrate, while other labels prohibit use of vegetable oils.
Some postemergence herbicide labels specify the use of only nonionic surfactants, some specify the use of only crop oil concentrates, and some specify the use of either. The best herbicide performance will be achieved by following the label directions for adjuvant usage.
There are several types and numerous brand names of adjuvants on the market. In most cases, the buyer cannot determine the exact composition of the particular adjuvant. In addition, because there are so many brands available, neither university scientists nor herbicide manufacturers can evaluate all adjuvant-herbicide combinations. Without this unbiased evaluation, adjuvant manufacturers are free to make whatever claims they wish for their particular brands.
Be skeptical of incredible claims or flashy demonstrations. If the sales representative shows you data on a particular adjuvant, make sure legitimate comparisons are being made. As a general rule, if the claim sounds too good to be true, it probably is not true. Be suspicious of anyone claiming that an adjuvant allows use of greatly reduced herbicide rates, improves activity of soil-applied herbicides, improves water infiltration into soil, controls insects or diseases, or breaks soil hardpans.
Here are some guidelines from the American Soybean Association for the use of spray adjuvants with postemergence herbicides:
- 1. Follow label directions for adjuvant usage. If the label specifically states to not use an adjuvant, then do not use one. If the label does not mention the use of an adjuvant, think twice before using one. It may or may not improve performance and it might result in unacceptable crop injury.
- 2. Whenever possible, use the exact adjuvant(s) specified on the label. When the specific brand is not available, ensure that the substituted product has the same general characteristics. In the case of surfactants, select one that is of the same type specified on the label (usually nonionic) and has the same percentage of surface-active agents as specified on the label. For oils, select one that contains the type oil specified on the label (petroleum-based or vegetable oil) and has the same amount of emulsifier.
- 3. If the label specifies only the type adjuvant but not the brand, buy a reputable brand from a reputable dealer.
- 4. Be careful when mixing adjuvants. When more than one adjuvant is added to the spray tank, there could be an unexpected interaction.
- 5. Be careful with adjuvant rates. Adding more than is recommended on the label is not always better, and adding less may give poor results.
## Problem Weeds
The key to weed management is to correctly identify and treat weeds while they are small. A good weed management plan involves field scouting to determine the size and kind of species present. By understanding what is present in a field, treatment decisions can be made to protect crops from weed competition and prevent selection of herbicide-resistant weeds. If weeds can be effectively
managed until the middles are lapped, soybeans can typically compete well with weeds that emerge later in the season. Scouting should also occur after an herbicide application to effectively identify escapes or potentially species developing new types of resistance.
## Broadleaves
## Common cocklebur
Asteracea (Sunflower) family.
## Description. Summer annual.
Height: Up to 7 feet tall.
Leaves: Thick, waxy, ovate cotyledons. The first true leaves are opposite while later leaves are alternate. Leaves feel like sandpaper, are triangular in shape, have serrated edges, and have three prominent veins arising from the same point.
Stems: Erect and branched, with dark spots and short, stiff hairs.
Flowers: Inconspicuous, green flowers occur in clusters in leaf axils and at the ends of stems. Fruit is encased in an egg-shaped, brown bristly burr with two chambers.
Management Considerations. Common cocklebur is very competitive and germinates from deep in the soil. Control with an ALS, PPO, or PSII inhibiting herbicide preemergence is ideal. Glyphosate and glufosinate are effective postemergence options in soybean.
## Horseweed (marestail)
Asteraceae (sunflower) family
Description. Emerges from March through November so considered both a winter and summer annual.
Height: 1 to 9 feet tall.
Leaves: Alternate and crowded along the stem with simple blades.
Stems: Erect, simple, with stiff hairs. Branched above the inflorescence.
Flowers: Small white pink or yellow disc flowers.
Management Considerations. Horseweed can germinate 10 months out of the year and can be a challenge to control. Once it begins flowering, it becomes very difficult to control with postemergent herbicides. Treat when the weed is small, typically with an effective bournown program. Deep tillage can help combat horseweed.
## Morningglory species
Convolvulaceae (morningglory) family.
## Description. Annual.
Height: Vine up to 6 feet long.
Leaves: Butterfly shaped cotyledons. Alternate, ivy- or heart-shaped leaves up to 4 inches long/wide. Depending on the species, leaves may have few hairs or be densely pubescent.
Stems: Climbing, hairy vines.
Flowers: Multicolored funnel shaped flowers with colors including red, blue, purple, white, and
variegated.
Management Considerations . The vinin/climbing nature makes this a difficult weed to control. Control when plants are four-leaf or smaller prior to developing runners can be achieved with glyphosate, Liberty, ALS inhibitors, and PPO inhibitors. Once runners develop, control is greatest with FirstRate or Resource.
## Palmer amaranth
Amaranthaceae (pigweed) family.
Description. Annual.
Height: Up to 8 feet tall.
Leaves: Alternate, ovate shaped, hairless leaves with long petioles, prominent veins, and a white, Vshaped watermark.
Stems: Erect, branched, and hairless. May be tinged red.
Flowers: Arranged in thick spikes. Male and female flowers are produced on separate plants. Male flowers have soft, thin, triangularracts that shed pollen. Female flowers have brightly, stiff, sharp bracts.
Management Considerations . This is the biggest weed problem in North Carolina because it has developed resistance to glyphosate as well as both ALS and PPO inhibiting herbicides. Combat with multiple modes of action and supplement herbicide control with hand weeding if needed. A single plant can produce a million seeds, so take all measures to prevent these weeds from going to seed.
## Common ragweed
Asteraceae (Sunflower) family.
Description. Annual.
Height: Up to 3 feet tall.
Leaves: Thick oblong cotylodes. Lacey, finely divided, and slightly hairy leaves up to 4 inches long. Lower leaves are alternate while upper leaves are opposite.
Stems: Erect, branched, and hairy.
Flowers: Greenish-yellow flowers about 1/8-inch long. Male flowers are produced in racemes at the end of stems, and female flowers are produced in the upper leaf axils.
Management Considerations . Raggedweid is very competitive. Resistance to glyphosate as well as the ALS and PPO inhibitors has been documented in North Carolina. Residual herbicides are critical for early season control of common ragweed. PPO inhibitors, ALS inhibitors, and PSII inhibitors such as metribuzin and linuron should be considered where infestations occur. Combat with effective preemergence herbicides followed with effective postemergence herbicides.
## Sicklepod
Fabaceae (bean/pea) family.
## Description. Annual.
Height: 1 to 6 feet tall.
Leaves: Rounded cotyledsons with 3 to 5 distinct veins. Alternate leaves with four to six egg-shaped
leaflets.
Stems: Erect, branched, and hairless.
Flowers: Distinctive yellow petals that arise from the leaf axils. Seeds are housed in long, sickleshaped hairless pods.
## Management Considerations. The critical time to control sicklepod is the first four weeks after planting. Seeds can be an issue when harvesting, so manage escapes before plants go to seed.
Grasses
## Broadleaf signalgrass
Poaceae (grass) family.
Description. Semi-prostrate summer annual.
Height: Up to 3 feet tall.
Leaves: Seedlings have hairless blades that may be maroon-tinged and hairy, maroon-tinged sheaths. True leaves are short, wide, hairless blades that are rolled in the bud. Margins, collar, ligule, and sheaths are hairy.
Flowers: Slender 12-inch long seed head with two to six smaller branches. Spikelets are somewhat flattened.
Management Considerations. Emerges from April through July, making it difficult to manage. Control with both a preemergence and postemergence application.
## Italian ryegrass
Poaceae (grass) family.
Description. Annual.
Height: 1 to 3 feet tall.
Leaves: Seedlings have shiny leaves. True leaves are flat, glossy, hairless blades that range from 2 to 10 inches long. Leaves are rolled in the bud and ligules are membranous. Auricles are usually well developed, but sometimes lacking.
Flowers: Small, stalkless spikelets alternate one another along the 3 to 12-inch-long main flowering stem. Needlelike awns are on the individual flowers.
Management Considerations. The best time to control ryegrass is in the fall with tillage or herbicides. If plants emerge in the spring, treat when plants are small as larger plants become difficult to control because of profuse vegetative growth and a dense root system.
## Texas millet (Texas panicum)
Poaceae (grass) family.
Description. Spreading summer annual.
Height: May be erect and reach up to 2 feet tall or grow close to the ground.
Leaves: Seedlings have soft hairs that cover sheaths and blades, and the first leaves are relatively broad for a grass. True leaves are pale or yellowish-green, velvety hairy leaves that extend to leaf sheaths and nodes. Auricles are absent and ligue is membranous with a fringe of hairs.
Flowers: Simple, narrow spike seed head up to 10 inches long. Each spike has two rows of
spikelets.
## Management Considerations . Texas millet germinates late in the season. Residual herbicides applied with postemergence applications will provide the greatest control.
Sedges
## Yellow nutsedge
Cyperaceae (Sedge) family.
Description. Perennial.
Height: Up to 2 feet tall.
Leaves: Shiny, green, and hairless with a noticeable ridge along the midvein. Leaves occur in groups of three from the base of the plant.
Stems: Three-sided, erect, and unbranched.
Flowers: Yellow or brown spikelets that occur at the ends of the stem in a cluster.
Management Considerations . Nutsedge is hard to control because it emerges from tubers throughout the growing season. Tillage will only temporarily disrupt the tubers. Glyphosate provides only marginal control. Basagran is an effective option for control.
## Sprayer Calibration
Adapted from 2017 Cotton Information
The performance of any pesticide depends upon many things, not the least of which is proper application at the correct rate. Failure to apply the correct rate uniformly can lead to poor pest control, crop injury, or unnecessary expense.
Every sprayer should be thoroughly calibrated before the first use of the season, and the calibration should be checked periodically during the season. Additionally, the sprayer should be recalibrated every time nozzles, pressure, or travel speed are changed.
## Before Calibration
Remove nozzles and strainers, including in-line strainers. Using a soft brush, wash nozzles and strainers in soapy water. Be sure to remove all deposits. Do not clean nozzles with any hard object (such as a knife or wire) because this will destroy the nozzle.
Thoroughly wash out sprayer and flush lines using a strong detergent or commercial tank cleaner.
Check hoses and connections for leaks or signs of aging or damage. Replace defective hoses.
Check components such as the pressure gauge, pressure relief/regulating valve, control valves, and agitator. Replace defective parts.
Select proper size and type of nozzle for the particular pesticide application planned. Consult nozzle manufacturers' catalogs or pesticide labels for guidance. Replace nozzles at least once a year. If the sprayer is used on a large acreage, nozzles may need replacing more frequently. Remember that brass nozzles wear more quickly than stainless steel or ceramic nozzles.
Make sure every nozzle on the sprayer is the same type and size (an exception may be hooded sprayers; see discussion below). Then check for proper spray pattern. Replace nozzles that do not produce the proper pattern. Next, check for uniformity of nozzle output. This needs to be done even
if new nozzles are installed.
To check for uniformity of output, partially fill sprayer with clean water. Adjust pressure to the level desired during the spraying operation. Catch and measure output from each nozzle separately for a given length of time. Replace any nozzle having an output of 10%more or less than the average of all nozzles.
## Calibration Procedure
The procedure uses the equation below:
GPA = gallons per treated acre
GPM = gallons per minute
MPH = travel speed, miles per hour
W = effective coverage per nozzle, inches
Step 1 . Determine effective coverage per nozzle, or W.
W = nozzle spacing for broadcast application
W = band width when banding with one nozzle per band
W = band width divided by number of nozzles per band if banding with more than one nozzle per band
## Step 2 . Determine travel speed.
Measure off a distance of at least 200 feet in a field with surface conditions similar to fields to be sprayed. Engage any equipment to be used during the actual spraying operation (such as a disk or planter), choose the gear and throttle setting you plan to use during actual spraying, and determine the time required to drive the designated distance. You can improve your accuracy by doing this several times and taking the average.
MPH = [(feet traveled)(60)] + [(seconds to travel)(88)]
## Step 3 . Determine nozzle output.
Partially fill the tank with the desired liquid carrier, but do not add pesticide. Adjust the pressure to the level that will be used during the actual spraying operation. Catch the output from several nozzles separately for one minute. Average the output over nozzles. It is best to catch the output as ounces per minute (OPM) and then convert to gallons per minute (GPM).
GPM = OPM + 128
Step 4 . Determine sprayer output, as gallons per treated acre (GPA).
GPA = [(GPM)(5940)] + [(MPH)(W)]
## Step 5 . Determine amount of pesticide to add to tank.
Amount to add = [(pesticide rate per acre)(gallons spray solution)] + GPA
## Examples
Broadcast Application: Preplant, Preemergence, or Postemergence Overtop
Assume you plan to broadcast 1.5 pint per acre of Dual Magnum as a preemergence application. Your sprayer has nozzles mounted 19 inches apart along the boom, hence W = 19. The tank holds 240 gallons. It takes 20 seconds to drive 200 feet. You catch an average nozzle flow of 42 oz per
minute (OPM).
```
MPH = [(ft)(60)] + [(sec)(88) = [(200 ft(60)) + [(20 sec)(88)] = 6.82
GPM = OPM + 128 + 42 + 128 = 0.3281
GPA = [(GPM)(5940)] + [(MPH)(W)] = [(0.3281)(5940)] + [6.82](19) = 6.82
Amount to add = [(pesticide rate per treated acre)(gallons spray solution)] + GPA
Amount to add = [(1.5 pt per treated acre)(240 gal solution)] + 15.04 gal per acre = 23.94 pt or 3 US
gal
Banded Application Using One Nozzle Per Row: Preemergence or Postemergence Overtop
Assume you plan to apply Boundary behind the planter at the broadcast rate of 2.4 pints per acre.
You want to make a 14-inch band of Boundary over the row using a single nozzle per band. In this
case, W = 14. Your soybeans are planted on 30-inch rows. The tank holds 240 gallons. It takes 28
seconds to drive 200 feet. You catch an average of 26.5 oz per minute (OPM).
MPH = [(ft)(60)] + [(sec)(88) = [(200 ft(60))] + [(28 sec)(88)] = 4.87
GPM = OPM + 128 = 26.5 + 128 = 0.2070
GPA = [(GPM)(5940)] + [(MPH)(W)] = [(0.2070)(5940)] + [(4.87)(14)] = 18.03 gallons per treated
acre
Amount to add = [(pesticide rate per treated acre)(gallons spray solution)] + GPA
Amount to add = [(2.4 pt per treated acre)(240 gal solution)] + 18.03 gal per acre = 31.95 pints or 4
gallons
Banned Application Using Two Nozzles Per Row: Postemergence-directed
Assume you plan to direct Aim in a 16-inch band under soybeans. Your soybeans are planted on 36
inch rows, you have two nozzles per row on your directed sprayer, and your sprayer tank holds 250
gallons. In this case, W = 8. The Aim label suggests 1 oz per treated acre. It takes 25 seconds to
drive 200 feet. You catch an average nozzle output of 19 oz per minute (OPM).
MPH = [(ft)(60)] + [(sec)(88) = [(200 ft(60)] + [(25 sec)(88)] = 5.45
GPM = OPM + 128 = 19 + 128 = 0.1484
GPA = [(GPM)(5940)] + [(MPH)(W)] = [(0.1484)(5940)] + [(5.45)(14)] = 20.22 gallons per treated
acre
Amount to add = [(pesticide rate per treated acre)(gallons spray solution)] + GPA
Amount to add = [(1 oz per treated acre)(250 gal solution)] + 20.22 gal per acre = 12.36 oz or 0.39
quarts
NOTE: When banding, always think of application rates in terms of "rate per
treated acre," which is the rate given on labels. Obviously, you are not treating the whole
acre, so the pesticide rate per planted acre will be less. But you have calibrated your spray output
on the basis of "gallons per treated acre," and you want to calculate the amount of pesticide to add
to the tank on that same basis.
```
## Herbicide Injury
Herbicides are an integral part of any weed management system. In most cases, target weeds are controlled without compromising the soybean plants, but sometimes injury does occur. Many different factors can affect soybean herbicide tolerance including environment conditions, variety, herbicide active ingredient, soil properties, tank mixtures, or additives.
The first step to diagnosing potential herbicide injury is to document what has occurred in the field. Things you should take note of include:
- · Date injury first appeared
- · Plant parts affected and to what extent
- · Speed and degree of plant recovery
- · Drift patterns across the field
- · Recent prevailing winds
- · Overlapped areas at the ends of rows or across the field
- · Injury symptoms corresponding to spray tank loads
- · Uniform injury strips caused by application equipment
- · Injury differences across soil types
- · Symptoms on weeds present
- · Crop damage pattern versus field equipment/spray patterns
- *From Iowa State University Soybean Field Guide.
Each herbicide mode of action (MOA) group has different injury symptoms that may mimic other biotic or abiotic stresses. Refer to Table 7-4 for common herbicide injury symptoms as well as other stresses the symptoms often mimic.
| Group | Mode of Action | Injury Symptoms | Mimics |
|---------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 2 | ALS Inhibitors | overall yellowing (chlorosis) and stunting, purple veins may occur | iron or potassium deficiency |
| 3 | Microtubule Inhibitors | stunted plants, roots short and thick | cold wet soil, compacted soil, nematode damage |
| 4 | Synthetic Auxins | Rolled leaves, leaf strapping, root stunting, bending and twisting of stems | viruses, aphid feeding |
| 5,6 | Photosystem II Inhibitors | Yellow and brown leaves, older leaves most affected | from, sandblasting, sun scald, iron or potassium deficiency, various diseases |
| 9 | EPSP Synthase Inhibitor (Glyphosate) | Yellow then brown foliage, growing point dies | iron or potassium deficiency |
| 14 | PPO Inhibitors | Stem lesions and/or cotyledon browning, yellowing or reddening of new leaves, speckling of older leaves, stunting of plant, growing point dies | fast, sun scald, pestoria leaf spot, bacterial leaf blight |
| 15 | Long-chain Fatty Acid Inhibitors | poor emergence, stunted plants, poor root development, heart- shaped leaves on emerged plants | deep planting, crusted soil, seedling diseases |
| 27 | HPPD Inhibitors | white tissue, poor emergence, stunted plants, growing point dies | cold wet soil |
## Author
Wesley Everman
Extension Weed Specialist and Associate Professor Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication date: Jan. 6, 2022
AG-835
## Other Publications in North Carolina Soybean Production Guide
The Soybean Plant
Soybean Production and Marketing in North Carolina
Rotational Considerations
Variety Selection
Planting Decisions
Fertilization and Nutrient Management
Weed Management
Disease and Nematode Management
Insect Management
Key Management Strategies to Increase North Carolina Soybean Yield: What We Have
Learned From 877 Soybean Yield Contest Entries
Harvesting, Drying, and Storage
Soybean Facts
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/in-schools/meet-fiberlicious/ | Meet Fiberlicious | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-17 | [
"Nutrition",
"Health",
"Education"
] | AL | ## Meet Fiberlicious
Fiber is found in foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. This Body Quest Warrior loves the fiber in apples, spinach, and whole wheat cereals. Eat lots of fiber-rich foods for a healthy heart, great energy, and to help keep your system clean. Eating foods with fiber can also help to prevent diseases such as diabetes and heart disease.
Body Quest: Food of the Warrior (? post type=aces content piece&p=3126&preview=true) is an Alabama Cooperative Extension System childhood obesity prevention initiative.
## Fiberlicious
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement,( https://www.acs.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda nondiscrimination-statement/) |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/07/09/5-steps-to-safe-and-sustainable-summer-getaways-take-care-of-your-environment-and-yourself/ | 5 Steps to Safe and Sustainable Summer Getaways – Take care of your environment and yourself | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-07-09 | [
"Environment",
"Family",
"Green Living",
"Sustainability"
] | GA | ## 5 Steps to Safe and Sustainable Summer Getaways - Take care of your environment and yourself
Written by
July 9, 2013
Pamela Turner
Planning your summer getaway? Five things to consider:
- 1) Leave the place you visit better than you found it - whatever you take to the picnic bring home trash receptacles often become filled to overflowing. Debris will take wing - so remember to take a trash bag and bring home recyclable, compostable, and cut down on the non-recyclables you use on picnics or beach cookouts. So if you bring it take it home.
- 2) Bike, hike or paddle -a good way to address our need for physical activity and limit your carbon footprint. With the increase in the number of bike trails families are looking at biking and camping trips. Check out the Rails to Trails website.
3) Sun is our friend in so many ways but our eyes and skin including our scalp need to be protected. Wear hats, sunglasses, and sunscreen are a must for a day at the beach or a day on the water or hiking in mountains.
## 4) Keep hydrated but leave pre-filled plastic bottle of water at home - take your favorite refillable water bottle with you.
## 5) Traveling with the family dog is great fun, but remember to take their water bowl and plastic baggies for cleaning up after your dog. No one wants to step in the little presents that your pup leaves behind. Also, animal waste is becoming a real problem on beaches and in parks. Also, take your dogs vets number and a sheet with info on your dog's vaccinations just in case there are issues.
HAVE FUN -BE SAFE -AND TAKE CARE OF OUR ENVIRONMENT AND YOURSELF.
Posted in: Environment, Family, Green Living, Sustainability
Tags: beach, bikes, boating, children, dogs, environment, family, familyfun, fun, hiking, hydrating kayaking, litter, parks, pets, picnics, rails to trails, recycle, staycations, summer, sunglasses, sunscreen, sustainable, trails, University of Georgia, vacation, walking, water, water bottles
Pamela Turner
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"kitchen",
"local",
"market",
"Money",
"organic"
] | FL | ## Making Money from the Kitchen: Cottage Foods
Do you have a recipe for a spectacular pie or cake? Want to make some money? The cottage food law in Florida can help make that happen. Cottage foods are essentially foods you can make in your kitchen without a food permit that can be sold direct to customers with minimal regulations. The kinds of foods that can be produced under the cottage food law must be foods that have a low risk of causing foodborne illness.
The purpose of Florida's cottage food law is to lower the regulatory burden for people who want to start a small business with minimal resources. No permitting is required from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS) nor any other state government entity. While no permitting is required, there are notable restrictions within this law regarding what you can sell, how you sell, and how much you sell. The limitation on gross sales for a cottage food operation cannot exceed $50,000 annually. Cottage food operators may advertise and sell their goods online, though all products must be delivered by mail order. If the cottage food operator is selling their goods in person, they must be sold directly to the consumer or a consumer's private event rather than wholesale.
Another key consideration is the labeling requirements for all cottage food products sold. They must contain the following: the name of the product, name and address of the cottage food operation, ingredients, weight or volume, and allergen information.
The label must also contain the following statement: "Made in a cottage food operation that is not subject to Florida's food safety regulations."
It's important to understand the kinds of foods that cannot be sold as a cottage food in order to understand what can be sold. The key restriction is any food that is either time or temperature controlled for safety. Essentially this means no meat, no dairy, no eggs, and almost nothing canned or bottled. The limitations still allow for a lot of options for the would-be kitchen monetizer. All grain-based
foods and baked goods, such as breads, cakes, cookies, and pastries, are allowed so long as they do not contain any of the aforementioned restricted ingredients. Other allowed foods include: confections, candies, honey, high acid jams, jellies, and preserves, dried fruit and herbs, vinegars, and nut butters.
## O
by Mark Bailey
Posted: May 8, 2020
Category: Agribusiness, AGRICULTURE, Crops
Tags: Food, Food System, Foods, Income, Kitchen, Local, Market,
Money, Organic
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Crops You Can Count On
- · How Many Acres Do You Have?
- · Helping Buyers And Sellers Connect During COVID-19 Disruptions To Florida Food Markets
- · Edible Succulents In Florida |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/mrec/2020/10/21/scottanglemrec/ | UF/IFAS Vice President Dr. Scott Angle Visits MREC | University of Florida | [
"Caroline Warwick"
] | 2020-10-21 | [
"Horticulture",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"chris vivian",
"consumer behavior",
"Extension",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"horticulture",
"industrial hemp",
"Jeanna Mastrodicasa",
"kratom",
"lifestyle horticulture",
"MREC",
"Scott Angle"
] | FL | Home » UF/IFAS Mid-Florida Research And Education Center » UF/IFAS Vice President Dr. Scott Angle Visits MREC
## UF/IFAS Vice President Dr. Scott Angle Visits MREC
The Mid-Florida Research and Education Center hosted UF/IFAS vice president Scott Angle last week, showcasing center research projects focused on lifestyle horticulture.
Angle visited along with UF/IFAS Communications associate vice president Chris Vivian, representatives from IFAS Government Affairs and UF/IFAS associate vice president for operations Jeanna Mastrodicasa. During their visit, administrators met with MREC faculty and team members, learning about hemp, tea, kratom, butterfly pea, and other specialty crops, as well as social science research at the center.
Throughout their tour, Angle (@IFAS\_VP), Vivian (@cvivan86) and Mastrodicasa (@DrJtotheMastro) posted updates on Twitter. Check out their tweets about their visit to MREC below:
Checking out @UF\_IFAS research being conducted at @UFMREC on #hemp in various greenhouses with @repsamkillebrew . Learning about the progress made including what we have discovered on growing stages, flowering periods, Florida's photo-period, feminizing seed, and oil production.
## Chris Vivian
@cvivian86 - Follow
Read more on X
https://twitter.com/IFASGovAffairs/status/1315678397088006146? s=20
4:33 PM - Oct 12, 2020
15
Reply
Copy link
Read 1 reply
@
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## Chris Vivian
@cvivian86 - Follow
#ButterflyPea is not only beautiful, but maybe a natural coloring for food. #research #science @UFMREC #plants
o
by Caroline Warwick
Posted: October 21, 2020
Category: Horticulture, UF/IFAS Research
Tags: Chris Vivian, Consumer Behavior, Extension, Florida-Friendly
Landscaping, Horticulture, Industrial Hemp, Jeanna Mastrodica sa,
Kratom, Lifestyle Horticultur e, MREC, Scott Angle
More From Blogs.IFAS |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/crop-marketing-and-risk-management/site-files/docs/market-efficiency-and-efficient-markets.pdf | Price risk management: Why isn’t there a payoff | Oklahoma State University | [
"Dr. Kim Anderson"
] | Error: time data "D:20030828102112-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Price risk management: What to expect # 1 out of 5 articles
## Marketing Efficiency and Efficient Marketing
Kim B. Anderson & B. Wade Brosen
In the early years of our careers, we tried to convince crop producers that they should use hedges, options and forward contracts to enhance the price received. We explained that if producers didn't use hedges, options and forward contracts to enhance prices, the minimum that should be done was to use marketing alternatives to manage price risk.
We noticed that many producers wanted to learn how to use marketing alternatives; however, few actually used the marketing alternatives more than once and most did not use the alternatives at all. Many of these successful producers farmed more than 2,000 acres of wheat and double cropped the wheat by grazing winter stockers.
If producers could be successful without using futures contracts, futures option contracts and forward contracts, was there any benefit to using the contracts? The answer is that these alternatives may be used to enhance price only if price can be predicted and that the contracts may be used to manage price risk.
The objective of this paper and the accompanying PowerPoint slides is to share what we have learned over the last 20 years about managing price risk. One criticism is that the interpretation of research (both of research conducted by us and by others) is tainted by our biases. We confess that there may be some validity to this criticism. However, we have been as unbiased as possible and our goal is to help producers understand price risk management and to make money.
All we ask it that you read this paper, review the PowerPoint slides, and review the referenced research papers. Whether you agree with us or draw different conclusions, you will
be better off. You will have a better understanding of price risk management, of what to expect from yourself relative to making marketing decisions and of what to expect from price prognosticators (analysts).
## Marketing Efficiency and Efficient Marketing
What determines price? Supply and Demand? That is what is taught in economic classes and is expounded by economists. Do you believe that supply and demand determines price?
We do not. What determines price is expectations. No one knows what the supply is or what supply will be available. No one knows how much of a commodity is being demanded or what demand will be in the future. However, to determine what price will be paid for a commodity, supply and demand is estimated based on available information.
Information is used to develop expectations. Big companies spend millions of dollars to obtain information to estimate current supply and demand and future supply and demand. What we believe determines price is not supply and demand, it is expected supply and expected demand or "expectations" that are used to determine price.
"The efficient market theory conceptualizes markets as information." Merchandisers use information to determine supply and demand expectations. Thus, information via supply and demand expectations is used to determine price offers and bids.
"An efficient market is a market that incorporates all available information when determining price." Bunge, Dreyfus, Cargill, IBP and other large companies spend large amounts of money to obtain information and use this information to determine their sell offers or buy offers and take positions in the futures markets.
One thing that is known with certainty is that price will change. "It is not enough to know that prices will change. The direction of change must be known." If available information
indicates that prices will increase, merchandisers/traders will buy either the cash commodity or take long positions in the futures markets. If available information indicates that prices will decline, merchandisers/traders will sell either the cash commodity or take short positions in the futures markets. As more and more traders obtain the information and take positions, the expectations of lower or higher prices become "self-fulfilling." The simple act of selling by enough people causes prices to decline as expected.
"Profit is earned by people or companies that acquire information relevant to the market before anyone else in the market." If accurate information is obtained that China is going to buy a million metric ton of U.S. wheat (36.74 million bushels) before anyone else, wheat futures contracts may be bought before China's purchase and then sold after the purchase at a profit.
This is why companies pay large amounts of money to hire people to talk to people worldwide about supply and demand conditions. They want to be the first to anticipate changes in supply and demand conditions. However, "information by itself is not useful without analysis that places it in the context of existing information. Therefore, another method to earn a profit is to analyze existing information better than the collective market."
New information is of little value unless current market expectations are known. For example, new information may indicate that placements of cattle on feed are 5 percent higher than last month. If the market were expecting cattle on feed placements to be 8 percent higher than last month, cattle prices would be expected to increase. However, if the market were expecting cattle on feed to be the same as last month, prices would be expected to decline.
The same example could be made for any commodity. New information that indicates that hard red winter wheat production will be 1.0 billion bushels is of little value unless current
production expectations are known. Whether this information will cause prices to go up or down depends on the change in expectations.
What the "efficient market theory" implies is that prices cannot be predicted. What is known for certain about today's price compared to yesterday's price? Today's price will be different from yesterday's price! What makes the price different? New information changes expectations that result in bid and offer adjustments and different prices.
If you agree with the fact that new information causes today's price to be different from yesterday's price or that what makes tomorrow's price different from today's price will be new information, then by definition, prices cannot be predicted. Prices cannot be predicted because no one knows what the new information will be.
Supporting the "efficient market theory" is the fact that "few people and/or companies consistently earn large profits from pricing decisions and these people earn their profits from their information and/or analysis."
Where do most producers fit into the market situation? How many producers obtain relevant market information before anyone else and have the ability to analyze the information better than the market as a whole? If a producer is able to get the information first and analyze it better, then that producer may be better off being a trader than a farmer/rancher.
Facts are that producers rarely if ever get relevant market information in a timely manner, that most producers do not have the ability nor the time to analyze data better than the market, and that producers cannot nor do they know someone that can predict prices.
## Conclusions:
To make a profit in the market, you must be the first to obtain relevant information; you must analyze the information better than the collective market, and you must have benchmarks in which to determine the direction of future prices. All this is nearly impossible for producers to do. If the efficient market theory is correct, then prices are nearly impossible or maybe impossible to predict.
Also, if this is true, marketing decisions should be based on probabilities and on what is "normally" right and not based on what is "normally" wrong. Thus, producers should take "a general course of action that is normally right and avoid acts and policies that are normally wrong." |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/cyclamen-mites-in-strawberries | Cyclamen Mites in Strawberries | NC State Extension | [
"Hannah Burrack",
"Aurora Teonnisson"
] | null | [
"Strawberry",
"Fruit",
"Entomology",
"Mite",
"Small Fruit",
"Fruit Insect"
] | NC | ## Cyclamen Mites in Strawberries Biology
While much rarer than the twospotted spider mite in North Carolina, cyclamen mites ( Phytenemus pallidus , Acari : Tarsonemidae) can cause significant problems in strawberries when they do occur. Since 2021, severe infestations with cyclamen mites have been reported in some strawberry farms in North Carolina and Virginia. However, these infestations are sporadic and often originate with infested nursery seedlings.
Adult cyclamen mites are about 0.25 mm long and require a 20X hand lens or dissecting microscope to detect them. As these mites thrive in humid conditions, they can be a problematic greenhouse pest. However, they can also be found in the field, usually originating from contaminated nursery stock. Adult female mites lay oblong eggs on strawberry leaves that hatch into tiny, white, six-legged larvae. They have eight legs once they reach adulthood. Adult mites are pear-shaped and a translucent, creamy orange color. The adults show sexual dimorphism (different sexes of the same organism look different). In males, the final pair of legs ends in a claw like structure. In females, the final pair of legs are skinny with a long hair protruding from the tip. The entire life cycle of the cyclamen mite is less than three weeks so, once established, populations can build rapidly.
When originating from nursery stock, cyclamen mites usually overwinter in few numbers on the developing plants and resumen reproduction in spring when temperatures are above 50 °F. Infestations are usually detected in March or April when large populations are present.
## Damage
Cyclamen mites use their piercing sucking mouthparts to feed on plant material. These mites usually established in folded, tiny, developing leaves close to the crown of the plant. When large populations are established, cyclamen mites can be found feeding on young unfolded leaves. However, symptoms of infestation can be found throughout the plant. Infested leaves will appear stunted and crumpled, flowers will wither, and fruit will be shrunken with protruding seeds. By the time these symptoms appear in spring, it is too late to limit damage, so cyclamen mites must be managed with the mindset of prevention. Treatments should be applied when 1 leaf in 10 shows cyclamen mite infestation.
NC STATE
.
Stunted strawberry plant due to severe cyclamen mite infestation in open field strawberries. Surrounding plants look healthy but were confirmed to have smaller populations of cyclamen mites.
Attribution: Photo by L. Lopez
Attribution: Photo by L. Lopez
Attribution: Jody Fetzer, Maryland National Capital Park and Planning Commission, Bugwood.org
## Management Options
Cyclamen mite infestations in North Carolina are usually due to contamination of transplants at the nursery. Transplants should be checked for cyclamen mites with a 20X hand lens or dissecting microscope before adding to them to the field or greenhouse. Cultivar susceptibility may vary, with 'Ruby June' showing more susceptibility to cyclamen mite infestations in field studies in 2022 and 2023 in VA (Lopez unpublished data), while 'Chandler' and 'Albion' are usually observed with larger populations of TSSM. Scheduling monitoring efforts every two weeks during planting and dormancy, and weekly during warmer conditions, ensures timely intervention.
## Conventional Miticides
Conventional miticides are available to control this pest. Because cyclamen mites are established deep in the crown of plants in folded leaves, reaching these areas with contact insecticides may be challenging. Thus, high volume applications at standard pressure may improve control. Cyclamen mite control is more limited since only three miticides are registered for this pest. Spring applications are advised for cyclamen mite management only if the presence of these mites is confirmed. Applications against cyclamen mites are not advised if their presence is not confirmed or during the fall or winter, as mite numbers usually do not reach action thresholds until spring.
For commercial recommendations in North Carolina see the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual , and see the Southern Region Small Fruit Consortium Strawberry IPM Guide for regional recommendations. For control recommendations for areas outside of the southeast, please check with your local extension agent.
## Biological Control
Releases of the predatory mite Neoseilus californicus (Acari: Phytoseidea) have shown to be effective in controlling cyclamen mites in CA, FL, and VA. These predatory mites have been observed feeding on cyclamen mite infested strawberries in Virginia in 2022 and 2023 open field
trials. Predatory mites can reach the depts of the strawberry crowns where cyclamen mites established. When severe infestations are encountered, a combination of miticides and predatory mites is preferred to manage cyclamen mites.
## More Information
Cyclamen Mite in Virginia Strawberries -Virginia Tech
Guidelines for purchasing and using Commercial Natural Enemies - University of Florida
Cyclamen Mite -University of Florida Entomology and Nematology
Strawberry Cyclamen Mite - UC IPM
North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
Strawberry IPM Guide -Southern Region Small Fruit Consortium
## Authors
Lorena Lopez
Assistant Extension Professor (Small Fruits and Tobacco IPM) Entomology & Plant Pathology
Hannah Burrack
Former Professor and Extension Specialist Entomology & Plant Pathology
Aurora Teonnisson
Research Associate Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: May 15, 2014
Reviewed/Revised: Dec. 29, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/animals-4-h/golden-egg-contest/ | Golden Egg Contest | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Brigid McCrea"
] | 2023-03-10 | [
"4-H",
"Animals",
"Golden Egg Contest",
"Programs"
] | AL | ## Golden Egg Contest
Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php)
## How to Enter
Participants may enter eggs in more than one category of eggshell color and size (for example, 1 dozen small whiteshelled eggs and 1 dozen extra-large brown-shelled eggs). A separate registration form must be submitted for each dozen eggs entered. Form(s) must be mailed in prior to delivery. This lets us know who is participating and in what categories.
## Submission Deadline
Eggs may be hand delivered or shipped via UPS. Each entry should include a 3 inch × 5 inch card labeled with your name, address, telephone number, email, the size of the eggs, and the eggshell color.
## Packing and Shipping
Eggs should be kept cool during transit. Pack the eggs in an egg carton surrounded with padding and an ice pack, and placing them in a foam cooler. If shipping the eggs, it is important to use UPS, as they deliver directly to our offices. As soon as eggs are received, they will be refrigerated until judging begins.
## Entry Fee
$5 per dozen
## Entry Categories
- · Age: Junior and Senior. 4-H is for youth ages 9 to 18. Junior age is 9-13 and Senior is 14-18.
- · Eggshell color: White, Brown, and Blue/Green
- · Egg size: Pee Wee, Small, Medium, Large, Extra Large, and Jumbo. Size is determined by the weight of one dozen eggs
(any kitchen scale that shows weight in ounces can be used).
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/l/wheat-kernel-damage-l-213.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20070719095127-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## PRINCIPAL WHEAT KERNEL DAMAGE
## GERM DAMAGE (SICK)
Kernels which are damaged as a result of heat but are not materially discolored shall be considered damaged.
## GERM DAMAGE (MOLD)
Kernels which have mold in the germ shall be considered damaged. Note : The bran coat covering the germ should be removed carefully; scraping the bran coat too deep could remove the mold.
## HEAT DAMAGE
Kernels which are materially discolored and damaged by heat shall be considered damaged. It is necessary in most cases to cut the kernels to determine if the color of the cross-section is reddish-brown, mahogany, or creamy.
## BLACK TIP FUNGUS
Kernels which are affected by Black Tip Fungus to the extent that the fungus growth is on the germ and extends into the crease of the kernel shall be considered damaged.
BLIGHT OR SCAB Kernels which have a dull, lifeless, and chalky appearance as a result of disease shall be considered damaged. The germ and crease may also have a moldy ap pearance. Kernels which are not damaged enough to function as scab damage should be examined further for moldy germs and creases.
## GREEN DAMAGE (IMMATURE)
Kernels which are green (immature) in color shall be considered damaged. The green color must be intense and without any yel low appearance.
## SPROUT DAMAGE Kernels which have the germ end broken
open from germination and show sprout, or from which the sprouts have been broken off, shall be considered damaged.
## INSECT DAMAGE Kernels which have been bored or tunneled
by insects shall be considered damaged. Kernels which have been bored or tunneled
## INSECT CHEWED (NOT DAMAGED)
Kernels which have been chewed by insects or rodents but are entirely free from refuse, webbing, insects, or other types of damage shall be considered sound kernels.
## FROST DAMAGE (BLISTERED)
Kernels which have distinct frost blisters extending around the back of the kernel and into the crease shall be considered damaged.
## FROST DAMaged (CANDIED)
Kernels which have a distinctly wax-like or candied appearance shall be considered damaged. Frost-damaged(candied) kernels can be greenish, greenish-yellow, brownish, or blackish in color. They frequently have dark stripes showing through the sides of the kernels.
FROST DAMAGE (FLAKED) Kernels which have a slightly flaked-off bran coat due to frost shall be considered damaged. Evidence of frost must be present. Do not confuse flaked by frost with kernels which have had the bran coat rubbed off because of handling.
## FROST DAMAGE (DISCOLORED BLACK OR BROWN)
Kernels which are discolored black or brown and have a bleached or blistered appearance with dark lines showing through both sides shall be considered damaged. Also kernels which are completely discolored black or brown shall be considered damaged.
## MOLD-LIKE SUBSTANCE
Whole kernels of wheat which are 50 percent or more covered and pieces of kernels which are discolored and covered with a mold-like substance shall be considered damaged.
## OTHER DAMAGE
Kernels which have cracks, breaks, or chews that contain mold or fungus shall be considered damaged.
## SPECIAL GRADES
## INFESTED
Wheat that is infested with live weevils or other live insects injurious to stored grain. Wheat is considered infested when the representative sample, or lot as a whole (stationary) or component sample (continuous loading/unloading of shiplots and bargeolts), contains two morelive insects injurious to stored grain.
## ERGOTY
Wheat that contains more than 0.05% of ergot in a 1,000-gram portion. Ergot is a hard, reddish-brown or black grain-like mass of certain parasitic fungi that develops on an infected wheat plant in place of the wheat kernel.
## GarLICKY
Wheat that contains in a 1,000-gram por tion more than 2 green garlic bullets or an equivalent quantity of dry or partly dry bullets.
LIGHT SMUTTY
Wheat that has an unmistakable odor of smut, or which contains in a 250-gram portion, smut balls, portions of smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to 5 smut balls, but not in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls of average size.
## SMUTTY
Wheat which contains in a 250-gram portion smut balls, portions of smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls of average size.
## TREATED
Wheat which has been scoured, limed, washed, sulfered, or treated in such a manner that the true quality is not reflected by either the numerical grades or the U.S. Sample Grade designation alone.
## OTHER GRADING FACTORS
## DOCKAGE
All matter other than wheat that can be removed from the original sample by use of an approved device according to procedures prescribed in FGIS instructions. Also, underdeveloped, shriveled, and small pieces of wheat kernels removed in properly separating the material other than wheat and that cannot be recovered by rescreening or recleaning.
## SHRUNKEN AND BROKEN KERNELS
All matter that passes through a 0.065 X 3/8 oblong-hole sieve after sieving acording to procedures prescribed in FGIS instructions.
## FOREIGN MATERIAL
All matter other than wheat which remains in the sample after the removal of dockage and shrunken and broken kernels.
## TEST WEIGHT PER BUSHEL
The weight per Winchester bushel (2,150.42 cubic inches) as determined using an approved device according to procedures prescribed in FGIS instructions.
## GRADE REQUIREMENTS FOR WHEAT
| Minimum limits of | Minimum limits of | Minimum limits of | Minimum limits of | Minimum limits of | Maximum limits of | Maximum limits of | Maximum limits of | Maximum limits of |
|------------------------|----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|----------------------|-----------------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
| test weight per bushel | test weight per bushel | Damaged kernels | Damaged kernels | Damaged kernels | Wheat of other | Wheat of other | Wheat of other | Wheat of other |
| classcents | Hard Red Spring Wheat or White Club (pounds) | All other classes & classes | Heat damaged kernels | Shrunken and broken kernels | Defects c | Contrasting classes | Total c | Grade of other |
| U.S. No. 1 | 58.0 | 60.0 | 0.2 | 2.0 | 0.4 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 1.0 |
| U.S. No. 2 | 57.0 | 58.0 | 0.2 | 4.0 | 0.7 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 2.0 |
| U.S. No. 3 | 53.0 | 54.0 | 0.5 | 7.0 | 1.3 | 8.0 | 8.0 | 3.0 |
| U.S. No. 4 | 53.0 | 54.0 | 1.0 | 10.0 | 3.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 10.0 |
| U.S. No. 5 | 50.0 | 51.0 | 3.0 | 15.0 | 5.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 10.0 |
U.S. Sample grade-
- U.S. Sample grade is wheat that:
- (a) Does not meet the requirements for the grades U.S. Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; or
- (b) Contains 32 or more insect damaged kernels per 100 grams of wheat; or
- (c) Contains 4 or more stones or any number of stones which have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.1 percent of the same weight, 1 piece of glass, 3 or more strataanana seeds (Crostrata spp.) 2 or more castor beans (Ricinus communis L.), 4 or more particles of an unknown foreign substance (s) or a commonly recognized harmful toxic substances (s), 2 or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or equivalent quantity of other animal fifth per 1,000 grams of wheat; accumulation of 4 or more of any of these; or
- (d) Is heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
These requirements also apply when Hard Red Spring wheat or White Club wheat predominate in a sample of Mixed wheat.
- Includes heated-damaged kernels.
- Deffects include damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels. The sum of these three factors may not exceed the limit for defects for each numerical grade.
- Unclassified wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10.0 percent of wheat of other classes.
- Includes contrasting classes.
## WHEAT
Grain that, before the removal of dockage, consists of 50% or more common wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.), club wheat ( T.compactumHost.), and Durum wheat (T. durum Desf.) and not more than 10% of other grains for which standards have been established under the United States Grain Standards Act and that, after the removal of dockage, contains 50% or more whole kernels of one or more of these wheats. There are eight classes for wheat.
## CLASSES
There are eight classes for wheat: Durum wheat, Hard Red Spring wheat, Hard Red Winter wheat, Soft Red Winter wheat, Hard White wheat, Soft White wheat, Unclassed wheat, and Mixed wheat.
- 1) Durum wheat. All varieties of white (amber) durum wheat. This class is divided into the following three subclasses:
- a) Hard Amber Durum wheat. Durum wheat with 75% or more of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color.
- b) Amber Durum wheat. Durum wheat with 60% or more but less than 75% of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color.
- c) Durum wheat. Durum wheat with less than 60% of hard vitreous kernels of amber color.
- 2) Hard Red Spring wheat. All varieties of Hard Red Spring wheat. This class shall be divided into the following three subclasses:
- a) Dark Northern Spring wheat. Hard Red Spring wheat with 75% or more of dark, hard, and virteous kernels.
- b) Northern Spring wheat. Hard Red Spring wheat with 25% or more but less than 75% of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels.
- c) Red Spring wheat. Hard Red Spring wheat with less than 25% of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels.
- 3) Hard Red Winter wheat. All varieties of Hard Red Winter wheat. There are no subclasses in this class.
- 4) Soft Red Winter wheat. All varieties of Soft Red Winter wheat. There are no subclasses in this class.
- 5) Hard White wheat. All hard endosperm white wheat varieties. There are no subclasses in this class.
- 6) Soft White wheat. All soft endosperm white wheat varieties. This class is divided into the following three subclasses:
- a) Soft White wheat. Soft endosperm white wheat varieties which contain not more than 10% of white club wheat.
- b) White Cub wheat. Soft endosperm white club wheat varieties containing not more than 10% of white club wheat and more than 10% of other soft white wheats.
- c) Western White wheat. Soft White wheat containing more than 10% of other soft white wheats.
## CONTRASTING CLASSES
Contrasting Classes are:
- 1) Durum wheat, Hard White wheat, Soft White wheat, and Unclassed wheat in the classes Hard Red spring wheat and Hard Red Winter wheat.
- 2) Hard Red Spring wheat, Hard Red Winter wheat, Hard White wheat, Soft Red Winter wheat, Soft White wheat, and Unclassed wheat in the class Durum wheat.
- 3) Durum wheat and Unclassed wheat in the class Soft Red Winter wheat.
- 4) Durum wheat, Hard Red Spring wheat, Hard Red Winter wheat, Soft Red Winter wheat, and Unclassed wheat in the classes Hard White wheat and Soft White wheat.
## WHEAT OF OTHER CLASSES
Wheat of other classes is the total of all classes of wheat other than the predominating class and which, combined with the predominating class, meets the requirements for any one of the classes except Mixed Wheat. Wheat of other classes includes contrasting classes. Wheat of other classes is not applicable to Durum wheat.
## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to express sincere appreciation to representatives of the Wichita Field Office of the Federal Grain Inspection Service for their assistance in revising this publication. Appreciation is also extended to the Oklahoma Grain & Feed Association, 2309 N. 10th, Suite B, P.O. Box 1747, Enid, Oklahoma 73702.
The photographs are not slides used by the Federal Grain Inspection Service and are intended for illustration only. Since the intensity of the reproductions may not duplicate the FGIS line slides, we do not recommend that they be used for grading purposes.
Authors:
Dr. KimAnderson and Dr. PhilKenkel, Department of Agricultural Economics, Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University
Gale Calkins, Quality Assurance Specialist, FGIS, Wichita Tim Herrman, Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State Univeristy
For additional copies contact: Kim Anderson 513 Ag Hall Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK 74078-0505 (405) 744-6082 | |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-basics/ | Beef Conformation Basics | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"David L. Daniel Jr.",
"Lisa A. Kriese-Anderson"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Beef",
"Livestock",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
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<h1 class="subcat-title"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/farming/livestock/beef/">Beef</a></h1>
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<article id="post-6788" class="post-6788 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-beef category-beef-management tag-alabama-beef-cattle tag-anr1452 tag-beef tag-beef-conformation-basics tag-management first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Beef Conformation Basics">
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<h1>Beef</h1>
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Beef Conformation Basics </div>
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<li>September 20, 2018</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: David L. Daniel Jr., Lisa A. Kriese-Anderson</li>
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<p>Beef cattle producers now have more tools than ever to help them evaluate the genetic merit of animals to be used as parents of the next generation. A balance between visual appraisal and genetic potential is key to successfully selecting for the next calf crop. One element that cannot be left out of the selection equation is structural soundness. A farmer may produce cattle that excel in muscle, maternal ability, and feed efficiency, but if the cattle cannot walk easily from feed source to water source, then all else has been in vain.</p>
<p>Though each cattle herd may need different selection criteria to produce cattle that meet herd goals, one of the few characteristics important to all cattle is structural correctness. With input costs steadily increasing, today’s cattle farmers must minimize expenses wherever possible. Selecting cattle that are performance oriented and structurally sound will decrease the number of cattle leaving the herd for various lameness issues. This will increase the longevity of the cowherd, justifying money spent on developing or purchasing replacements.</p>
<h1>Hooves</h1>
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<p>The hoof is one of the more complex aspects to consider when evaluating structural soundness. Problems with the hoof, such as excessive or uneven toe growth, may be caused by genetic, nutritional, or environmental factors or may be indicative of other concerns the animal may face structurally. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-hooves/">Read more about beef conformation of hooves.</a></p>
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<h1>Pasterns</h1>
<p>Pasterns are also important to consider when evaluating structural correctness in beef cattle. The pastern is generally understood to be the joint between the cannon bone and the hoof. They play a role in both providing cushion and support as cattle walk and stand. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-pasterns/">Read more about beef conformation of pasterns.</a></p>
<h1>Hind Legs</h1>
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<p>Hind leg structure is one of the primary indicators of an animal’s ability to move efficiently. Evaluating cattle while they are walking is one of the most efficient ways to gauge structural soundness. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-hind-legs/">Read more about beef conformation of hind legs.</a></p>
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<h1>Front Legs</h1>
<p>The alignment of joints in the front leg also plays a considerable role in the structural correctness and mobility of a beef animal. More than 50 percent of the animal’s weight must be supported and carried by its front two legs. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-front-legs/">Read more about beef conformation of front legs.</a></p>
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<h1>Evaluating Structure from the Rear</h1>
<p>When evaluating beef cattle from the rear, hooves of the animal should point forward. However, that is not the case in a large number of beef cattle. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-evaluating-structure-from-the-rear/">Read more about evaluating structure from the rear. </a></p>
<h1>Evaluating Structure from the Front</h1>
<p>From the front, cattle whose hooves are faced forward are ideal. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-evaluating-structure-from-the-front/">Read more about evaluating Structure from the front.</a></p>
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<h1>Hip Structure</h1>
<p>The two points of reference to be aware of in evaluating the hip are the hooks and pins. Although some breeds, such as those influenced by Brahman genetics, are less likely to be level, the ideal beef animal would be nearly level from hooks to pins. <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-hip-structure/">Read more about hip structure.</a></p>
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<h1>Conclusion</h1>
<p>Although structural correctness is just one aspect to consider when selecting for genetically superior cattle, it is a primary factor in the ability of cattle to perform their desired function. Just as is the case in other aspects of the beef cattle industry, there is an area of acceptability when it comes to structural correctness. This area becomes smaller or larger in regard to what end of the spectrum you are evaluating cattle. Animals retained or purchased for the purpose of breeding stock have a considerably smaller margin of error when it comes to structure, especially when compared to those cattle being sent to market. There is a line that, regardless of position in the cattle industry, should not be crossed when it comes to perpetuating cattle that are unfit.</p>
<p>Cattle used in breeding programs need to be correct in terms of structure to survive in a pasture-type setting as well as perform the functions required of breeding stock. The ideal time to evaluate structure is when identifying replacements for the breeding herd. At this time, detrimental characteristics can be avoided, thus reducing the risk of potential problems down the road. Avoiding structural issues initially is considerably easier than trying to remove them from the breeding herd later.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-1452.REV_.3.pdf">Download a PDF of Beef Conformation Basics, ANR-1452.</a></p>
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/yellowmargined-leaf-beetle-in-crops/ | Integrated Pest Management (IPM) | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Ayanava Majumdar"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Integrated Pest Management",
"Farming",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | ## Yellowmargined Leaf Beetle in Crops
Whether you grow crucifer crops in the open field or a high tunnel, one insect pest that has become universally damaging on small organic farms is the yellowmargined leaf beetle (YMLB). This presentation provides you with information about the basic life cycle and scouting techniques for the yellowmargined leaf beetle. It also gives an introduction to trap crop as a management tool. (Project funded by OREI Grant 2011)
## Additional Videos on YMLB
Managing Yellowmargined Leaf Beetle in Crucifer Crops (https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=YCZtglzxjgA&feature=youtu\_be)
- IPM in Crucifer Crops: Focus on the Yellow-margined Leaf Beetle (https://www.youtube.com/watch? y=94pZysU7k8&feature=youtu\_be)
## Additional Resources for Controlling YMLB
- Identifying and controlling the yellowmargined leaf beetle (VSC News. August 30, 2017)
- (http://vscnews.com/identifying-controlling-yellowmarginedleaf-befeetl)
- Insect Pest Scouting for Crucifer Crops - ANR-2241
- (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/crucifer-crop-pests/insect
- post-scouting-for-crucifer-crops-yellow-margined-leaf-befeetl)
- Biology, ecology, and management of yellowmargined leaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in organic crucifer production (Journal of IPM, January 2017, Vol. 8, Issue 1), (https://academic.oup.com/ijpm/article/8/1/14/3836009)
- Yellowmargined leaf beetle control with organic insecticides in turnips (Arthropod Management Tests , 2017) (https://doi.org/10.1093/amtuxs038)
Follow the Alabama Vegetable IPM Facebook page (https://www.facebook.com/Alabama-Vegetable-IPM110601312341489/) for more information.
Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/11/18/holiday-gifts-that-save-energy-money/ | Holiday Gifts that Save Energy & Money | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-11-18 | [
"Energy",
"Environment",
"Giving",
"Sustainability"
] | GA | ## Holiday Gifts that Save Energy & Money
Written by
November 18, 2013
Pamela Turner
When buying gifts this holiday season, think "smart strip," "twist," and LED. All of these gifts will conserve energy and save you money.
- 1) Consider giving a smart strip . Smart strips help reduce standby power consumption - often called vampire or phantom power. Vampire power accounts for 5-10% of your total household electric consumption, but using a smart strip can help you save between $100 and $150 a year. Smart strips vary, but most have three main parts: a control outlet, auto-off outlets, and constant outlets. There are three types of smart power strips. One type is controlled by a programmable timer that can be set to automatically turn devices off or on at designated times of day or night. The second type is controlled by a motion detector. The third type senses when a device enters sleep mode or is turned off and then it turns off the other devices.
2) Give "twisty" lights, better known as CELs or Compact Fluorescent Lamps. They use about 75% less energy than traditional incandescent light bulbs. Keep your CFLs burning longer by doing the twist. This means screw the CFL in by holding the ballast. That's the white plastic part at the base of the CFL.
- 3) Give LEDs (light-emitting diodes). The price of LEDs is falling. An LED bulb is a good option for lights in inconvenient places, like the ceiling of your great room. The light lasts significantly longer and costs less. There are several other LED gift options, such as a motion sensing night light. It costs pennies to operate and lights your way in the dark. Maybe some LED candles to reduce fire risks in your home while still providing the ambiance you desire.
## 4) For the person who wants to know the cost of everything, give them a watt or energy meter . These meters measure the energy used when electronic devices are plugged in, but not being used. There is even an App to help track your energy use over time and then develop ways to reduce energy use. The Kill-Ur-Watts App can be downloaded for free on iTunes. It provides graphs and lets you see your carbon footprint. It was developed for the U.S. Department of Energy Apps for Energy challenge.
- 5) Give solar powered outdoor lighting. It doesn't cost anything to use and it can be used to light a pathway, helping prevent trips and falls.
- 6) For the techie person, give them a next generation programmable thermostat. The Nest Learning Thermostat is one of these. It connects to your Wi-Fi then sets about learning your behavior patterns and desired temperatures. Your heating and cooling habits will be learned in about one week. You can even download an App to monitor and adjust temperatures remotely.
[]
- 7) Give water savers, like a low-flow showerhead, faucet aerator, or a shower timer. Not the sexiest gifts, but you can reduce water consumption along with the energy used to heat the water. Ultimately you save money. Look for a WaterSense labeled showerhead.
Have fun shopping for unusual and useful gifts for your family and friends. Wishing you and your family joyful energy saving holidays!
Posted in: Energy, Environment, Giving, Sustainability
Tags: CFL, conserving energy, energy-conservation, energy meter, energy-saving, gift giving, gifts, green gifts, holiday gifts, LED, low-flow showerhead, power strip, programmable thermostat, solar lights, water conservation
## Pamela Turner
One response to "Holiday Gifts that Save Energy & Money"
Giving Green & Healthy Gifts | UGA GreenWayNews December14, 2015
[…]You will find several other gift ideas in these previous blogs - Gifts to keep people safe and Holiday gifts that save energy and money […]
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https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-5-crop-production-management-organic-soybeans?x=67318 | Chapter 5: Crop Production Management - Organic Soybeans | NC State University | [
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"Agriculture",
"Soybeans"
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<span itemprop="name">Chapter 5: Crop Production Management - Organic Soybeans</span>
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<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18689">
<h2>Production Management</h2>
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<p>Key management practices for organic soybean production are as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li>Choose varieties that have resistance to diseases and nematodes encountered in your fields.</li>
<li>Choose moderate maturity groups that may encounter less pest and disease pressure (MG 5-7).</li>
<li>For maximum yield plant from late April through late May.</li>
<li>Use high plant populations, a seeding rate of 200,000 seed/acre, to compete with weeds.</li>
<li>Use narrow row-spacing that still allows for cultivation to ensure quick canopy closure, especially in double-cropped beans.</li>
<li>Rotate crops to reduce troublesome pests.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18690">
<h2>Variety Selection</h2>
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<p>Variety selection is an excellent way to reduce problematic pests in organic soybeans, including seedling diseases, root rots, foliar diseases, and nematodes. Variety selection is also an excellent way to deal with nematode problems. Selecting varieties that are resistant to the species of nematode present in the field can limit the yield loss caused by these pests.</p>
<p>Farmers in North Carolina can successfully grow a wide range of maturity groups (MG2-8) despite most breeding efforts focusing on the MG5-7 range in the U.S. Southeast. There are many factors that influence soybean maturity group selection, including crop rotation, equipment availability, price premiums for early delivery, pest resistance needed in certain maturity groups, cultural benefits, and yield potential. In general, it is easier to find pest resistance for diseases and nematodes relevant to the Southeast environment in later-maturing varieties (>MG4), which is an important consideration for organic production. Recent results from conventionally managed plots in North Carolina indicate that under most production scenarios, a MG5 or MG6 variety will yield comparable to an earlier-maturing variety, especially at planting dates past mid-May. The yield advantage of using an earlier maturing variety (<MG5) is generally most pronounced in a high-yield situation where limited stress is encountered, which might not often be the case in organic soybean production in North Carolina. Early-maturing soybean varieties, such as Groups III and IV, avoid pests such as corn earworm, but can intensify weed management challenges and other disease and insect pressure. These maturity groups begin to lose leaves when summer weeds can still grow. Most producers who are growing these MGs are doing so to capitalize on greater yield gain in earlier-maturing varieties and premiums associated with early fall delivery. There are considerable risks with producing earlier-maturing varieties in North Carolina when they are planted before mid-May, most notably seed quality issues on the backend of the season, which can require aggressive mid-season pest management to help mitigate which is a challenge in organic production. If weed control has been an issue, Group V or later soybeans can be left unharvested until a killing frost defoliates weeds. In the coastal plain, a Group V or VI (or an earlier planting) will help avoid corn earworm (CEW) infestation during flowering. CEW is seldom a problem in the piedmont. It is also a good idea to choose at least two different varieties in order to spread out the seasonal workload and risk. The <a href="http://www.ovt.ncsu.edu">Official Variety Test Report</a>,<em> </em>available online or through your local Extension office, is a good source of information on varieties. Unfortunately, there are fewer conventional or non-transgenic varieties available on the market compared to genetically modified varieties. Organic farmers must be aware that transgenic beans are not allowed in certified organic production, and therefore must choose alternate varieties.</p>
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<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18691">
<h2>Planting Date</h2>
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<p>Planting date is one of the most important management decisions for soybean production in North Carolina. Recent research indicates that generally planting from the third week of April to the third week of May will maximize soybean yield in North Carolina, although this varies slightly based on location in the state and the production situation. Planting date and variety (or maturity group) interact to impact soybean yield. The key is to match planting date and variety maturity to the soil so that the row middles are lapped with soybean plants about 3 feet tall by flowering time; planting earlier or planting a later-maturing variety can improve the likelihood of achieving this. In an organic farming system, avoiding pest problems is an important management technique. Planting early (before the end of May) with an early-to-mid-season variety can help the crop avoid insect and disease problems. Double-cropped soybeans, generally planted in mid-June, require the use of Group VI or VII or a Group V indeterminate variety to obtain sufficiently large plants by flowering.</p>
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<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18692">
<h2>Row Spacing</h2>
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<p>The average row width for organic soybeans in North Carolina is 30 inches but can be up to 38 inches and as low as 20 inches. Narrow-row soybeans lap row middles sooner, which can facilitate more crop canopy competitiveness with weeds. The benefits of using a narrow row to achieve great canopy are generally more pronounced as planting date is delayed in double-crop planting situations, where the chances of hitting canopy closure are drastically reduced when using wider row spacing. While narrow-row soybeans will compete more effectively with weeds, row spacing should not be so narrow as to prevent between-row cultivation.</p>
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<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18693">
<h2>Plant Population</h2>
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<p>Maximum soybean yield potential is achieved once a soybean canopy has lapped the row middles and reached a height of at least 3 feet before flowering. In conventional production this can be consistently achieved with plant densities of 75,000 to 100,000 plants per acre. However, this population recommendation is for production where herbicides are used and there is minimal-to-no weed competition. In contrast to conventional soybean production, weed control is the largest challenge for organic soybean production, and higher soybean seeding rates is one tactic that can improve weed control. A higher soybean plant population produces a thicker soybean canopy early in the season when weed control is critical. A seeding rate as high as 225,000 seeds per acre for organic soybean results in better weed control, higher yield, and the highest economic return compared to seeding rates of 175,000, 125,000, and 75,000 seeds per acre. With some varieties, lodging can become a concern with rates higher than 200,000 seeds per acre. While a thick plant stand will trap moisture in the canopy, which can create a more favorable environment for many diseases, the weed management benefits of using a higher seeding rate consistently outweigh disease risk in our environment. Higher populations in organic soybean production are also recommended when blind or broadcast cultivation from implements like the rotary hoe or flex-tine harrow are used. These secondary tillage implements pass over the crop rows, often reducing the plant stand by 10% to 20%.</p>
<p>Seeding rate will depend on the planter capability, seed germination, and soil condition. Proper calibration of the planter is important, as well as planting in ideal soil conditions (the soil should be warm and moist but not wet).</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18694">
<h2>Soil Fertility</h2>
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<p>Soybeans yielding 50 bushels per acre will remove about 188 pounds of nitrogen per acre, 41 pounds of phosphate per acre, and 74 pounds of potash per acre from the soil. However, manure and compost applications are usually unnecessary because soybeans are nitrogen-fixing legumes and the crop can make use of any nutrients applied to, but not removed by, previous crops. If soybeans were not grown in previous years, soybeans should be inoculated with species of <em>Bradyrhizobium </em>bacteria specific for soybeans. See <a href="https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-9-soil-management">Chapter 9</a> of this guide for more information about organic soil management.</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18695">
<h2>Weed Management</h2>
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<p>Organic weed management is more challenging in soybeans than in corn since soybean foliage does not generally overlap and shade the row middles until later in the season. Generally, narrow rows (down to 20 inches) and increased plant population can help the crop compete more effectively against weeds. When managing weeds in soybeans, consider also that planting soybeans at different times will result in the plants competing against different sets of weed species. Weeds that emerge during the first four to five weeks after planting will cause the most damage in terms of yield reductions. Weeds that emerge after this time will have little effect on yield, although they may make harvest more difficult and will set seed. The goal should be to keep the field clean through the first four to five weeks after planting. Clean cultivation is used on most organic soybean acreage in the state. A blind cultivator, such as a flex-tine harrow or rotary hoe, is used before soybean emergence and approximately every five days afterwards. Anywhere from two to five blind cultivations occur before between-row cultivation begins. A frequent problem is missing blind cultivation passes due to wet weather. Unfortunately, near-row weeds missed during wet weather often remain until the end of the season. Taller crops, such as corn, can endure lots of soil throwing and between-row cultivators can be set to bury young weeds. However, soybeans can only tolerate small amounts of burial due to how low pods are set on the stem. One tactic is to plant into moisture when the weather forecast is clear so that at least one or two blind cultivations can occur on schedule. See <a href="https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-7-crop-production-management-peanuts">Chapter 7</a> of this guide for more information on managing weeds in organic production.</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18696">
<h2>Insect Pest Management</h2>
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<p>Differences caused by variety selection, planting date, cultural techniques, site, and season cause great variations in soybean plant attractiveness to insect pests. If organic soybean farmers recognize these differences, they can manage the crop for reduced insect pest numbers, or, when this is not possible, predict which fields are attractive and may need more attention to prevent yield loss. Organic growers can normally rely on three factors to limit insect damage: reducing soybean attractiveness to pests, increasing beneficial insects that reduce pest numbers, and supporting the plant’s ability to compensate for insect damage (tolerance). Important tactics used to reduce insect damage include the following five strategies:</p>
<h3><strong><em>Crop Rotation </em></strong></h3>
<p>Rotation helps reduce levels of pests like grape colaspis and often improves crop health. Using a rotation of a non-legume for at least two years allows soybeans to avoid pests that may have previously been present in the field.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Tillage</em></strong></h3>
<p>For pests associated with the seed or soil, or for those that harbor in stubble or residue, tillage can be an effective management method. For example, the <em>Dectes</em> stem borer harbors in soybean crowns after harvest over the winter. Research has demonstrated that burying stubbles to a depth of 2 inches can reduce larval survival and adult emergence. Mortality is higher on poorly drained land or when conditions are relatively moist. Seedcorn maggots, which can consume germinating seeds, can be reduced using tillage.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Soil Fertility and pH Maintenance </em></strong></h3>
<p>Thin plant stands often have more corn earworms, but good growth can compensate for injury from this pest as well as others. Reducing plant stress from low pH, poor fertility, or inadequate moisture will enable plants to better tolerate insect feeding.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Variety Selection and Early Planting </em></strong></h3>
<p>High caterpillar populations can often be avoided by early planting of an early-maturing variety (such as varieties from maturity group IV). These plantings will bloom and harden-off before the corn earworm moth flight from corn fields, and the plants will be unattractive to the moths. Also, early maturity can greatly reduce soybean looper, velvetbean caterpillar, and late stink bug infestations. Percentage loss from insects is generally between 5% and 25% but can be as high as 50%. In rare situations, stink bugs can be trap-cropped by early-maturity fields, leading to greater damage. This occurs when soybeans are the only attractive feeding host in the environment. Occasionally, this will be an early-planted soybean field in the middle of the growing season. More often, later-planted and later-maturing soybean fields are the attractive crop hosts for stink bugs in the late season. Early-planted fields are generally more susceptible to colonization by <em>Dectes</em> stem borer and bean leaf beetles. However, planting soybean at the recommended rate and avoiding thin stands can reduce stalk girth and reduce the incidence of <em>Dectes</em> and another stem pest, the lesser cornstalk borer. Finally, beneficial insects often will colonize and establish in early-planted soybeans, helping to reduce the abundance of pests that arrive later in the season.</p>
<p>Variety selection can be important to manage certain insect pests. For example, the lesser cornstalk borer can be a pest on drought-prone and sandy soil. Research has demonstrated differences in injury due to this pest that ranged from 9% to 31% among varieties.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Narrow Rows </em></strong></h3>
<p>A complete canopy allows a higher level of biological control of insect predators, parasites, and diseases. In addition, the plants tend to have thinner stems in narrow rows, leading to reduced issues from <em>Dectes</em> and lesser cornstalk borers.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Remedial Management</em></strong></h3>
<p>Group V or later-maturing varieties that are planted after late May can become infested by corn earworm moths moving from corn. These moths produce pod-feeding corn earworm larvae, and a high infestation may reduce yield by as much as 50%. Also, populations of leaf-feeding caterpillars (green cloverworm, soybean looper, and velvetbean caterpillar) may occasionally damage soybeans. These worms usually appear very late in the season. In cases where caterpillar pests cannot be avoided, insecticides approved for organic production, such as spinosads or Baculoviruses (NPV), may be successfully used. <em>Bacillus thuringiensis </em>(<em>Bt</em>) insecticides are not effective for corn earworm, armyworms, or soybean looper, but are effective for green cloverworm and velvetbean caterpillar. Scouting and the use of thresholds will indicate which fields are at risk. For <a href="http://soybeans.ces.ncsu.edu/scouting-for-insects/">scouting procedures for corn earworm</a>, see the NC State Extension Soybeans website.</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18697">
<h2>Major Soybean Insect Pests and Management</h2>
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<h3><strong><em>Corn Earworm and Tobacco Budworm</em></strong></h3>
<p>Corn earworm and tobacco budworm are the most important insect pests of soybean in North Carolina, through pod-feeding and sometimes foliar and flower feeding. Their biologies are very similar. In conventionally managed soybeans, tobacco budworm is more tolerant of certain conventional insecticides than corn earworm. However, from the point of view of the organic soybean producer, the management of these pests will be similar. These insects will often infest soybeans in late July or early August. Cultural management tactics are of the highest importance. Soybeans will be less attractive to these pests if blooms are not present and if there is little young or newly grown vegetation. Remedial management using a spinosyn or Baculoviruses (NPV) can be highly effective, especially if applied when the larvae are small.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Stink Bugs</em></strong></h3>
<p>The stink bug complex is an extremely important pest group in soybeans. These insects injure soybeans by feeding on developing seeds inside the pods. Although early-maturing fields can occasionally attract high densities of these pests, in general, earlier-maturing and earlier-planted soybeans are less susceptible to stink bug infestation than later-maturing and later-planted soybeans.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Soybean Looper</em></strong></h3>
<p>The defoliating soybean looper is a year-round resident in most areas of the South, but it migrates into North Carolina each year. Peak larval population densities occur in September and are most prevalent on late-planted or later-maturing soybeans in counties closer to the coast. Soybean can tolerate a relatively high amount of foliar feeding compared to other crops. Recent research has shown that both full-season and double-cropped soybeans can handle up to 17% defoliation across the entire canopy during their reproductive stages without experiencing a decrease in yield. Remedial management using a spinosyn or Baculoviruses (NPV) can be highly effective.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Bean Leaf Beetle</em></strong></h3>
<p>Bean leaf beetles overwinter as adults and emerge over a three-month window during the spring in North Carolina. Adult beetles can injure soybeans by feeding on the foliage. The first full-season soybeans to sprout in an area will attract many of the strong-flying beetles. Soybean can tolerate a relatively high amount of foliar feeding compared to other crops and defoliation levels rarely exceed the threshold of 33% defoliation during the vegetative stages. There are two generations of bean leaf beetle per year in North Carolina. The second generation can sometimes severely defoliate soybeans during the late season, especially if soybeans are late-maturing.</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="section-heading" id="section_heading_18698">
<h2>Disease Management</h2>
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<p>Soybean producers are annually challenged with diseases that can lead to significant yield losses. Many different diseases have been reported on soybeans and can affect different parts of the plant at different growth stages throughout the season. Soybean diseases can infect the roots, stems, leaves, and pods.</p>
<p>The pathogens that cause root and stem rots are often soilborne or residue-borne pathogens. These same pathogens also cause seedling diseases that may result in stand loss. Common root and stem diseases of soybean that occur in North Carolina include Phytophthora root and stem rot, and stem canker. Common foliar diseases include Cercospora leaf blight, frogeye leaf spot, Septoria brown spot, soybean vein necrosis virus, and soybean rust. Nematodes are also a cause of major soybean diseases in North Carolina, the two most problematic being the soybean cyst nematode and root-knot nematodes.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Root and Stem Rots</em></strong></h3>
<p>Phytophthora root and stem rot (PRR) is caused primarily by the pathogen <em>Phytophthora sojae. </em>The pathogen causing PRR is a fungal-like organism that survives in the soil and requires adequate amounts of water to infect soybean roots and reproduce. Once the pathogen has established and colonized the root and stem tissue, the plant can no longer uptake water or nutrients, causing symptoms of wilting or, in severe cases, death of the plant. Therefore, one of the most effective management strategies is to maintain and improve soil drainage if needed. The pathogen can also survive in the soil for multiple years. While a crop rotation out of soybean for multiple years may reduce the pathogen population in fields, this strategy alone is not sufficient for controlling these diseases. Using resistant varieties is also an effective management tool. There are a number of different soybean varieties that are partially resistant to PRR that contain <em>Rps </em>(<em>P. sojae</em>) resistance genes.</p>
<p>Stem canker, another common stem blight of soybean, is caused by a complex of <em>Diaporthe </em>species. These fungal pathogens can survive in host residue for several years and tend to favor warm and wet weather for extended periods of time. Infection occurs when the pathogen is dispersed through wind or rain onto soybean stem tissue. As the disease progresses, the plant will begin to wilt as the pathogen continues to colonize the stem, inhibiting the uptake of water and translocation of nutrients. In severe cases, this can cause the plants to die. Stem canker is best managed using resistant varieties though crop rotation away from soybeans of two or more years is another very effective strategy.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Foliar Diseases</em></strong></h3>
<p>Cercospora leaf blight, caused by the fungal pathogen <em>Cercospora kikuchii,</em> is a foliar disease of soybean. <em>C. kikuchii</em> overwinters within soybean residue; warm and humid conditions promote sporulation of the pathogen within the infested residue. Rain splash and wind disseminate the spores on soybean leaves. The pathogen life cycle continues to reproduce throughout the season, producing spores to infect un-infected soybean foliage. As the disease progresses, the leaves will appear bronze or almost purple in color, limiting the plant’s photosynthetic activity and potentially causing yield loss (though significant yield losses caused by this disease are rare). <em>C. kikuchii</em> can also cause purple seed stain when the infection occurs on the pods, which can lead to reduced seed quality. Crop rotation away from soybeans for at least one year and planting resistant varieties are the most effective management strategies for Cercospora leaf blight and purple seed stain.</p>
<p>Frogeye leaf spot, caused by the pathogen <em>Cercospora</em> <em>sojina</em>, is one of the most yield-limiting diseases of soybeans, though the occurrence and severity may be sporadic from year to year depending on several environmental factors. Similar to the pathogen that causes Cercospora leaf blight, <em>C. sojina</em> also overwinters in soybean residue and reproduces in warm and humid environmental conditions. Frogeye leaf spot is named after the appearance of the symptoms on infected soybean leaves. The leaf spot lesions will often be small and round or irregularly shaped lesions with a gray discolored center surrounded by a thin reddish-brown outer margin. Similar to Cercospora leaf blight, frogeye leaf spot can also continue to reproduce from these lesions throughout the season. Signs of the sporulation of the pathogen can be seen, using a magnifying glass, in the center of the lesions that will have a gray and fuzzy appearance. Crop rotation and variety resistance, like management for the diseases listed above, are the best management strategies for protecting against frogeye leaf spot.</p>
<p>Soybean rust is a possible problem, and if present, will require much more intensive management to make organic soybean production viable. Soybean rust is caused by the pathogen <em>Phakopsora pachyrhizi</em>. Depending on the timing of its onset, the disease can cause significant yield loss; however, due to the environmental conditions and the unique life cycle of this pathogen, we infrequently experience severe yield loss in North Carolina. The pathogen primarily overwinters in the south and is blown north throughout the growing season through weather events. Symptoms appear as reddish-brown pustules on soybean leaves, and similar to the foliar diseases mentioned above, can reproduce prolifically under the conducive conditions of long periods of humid, warm weather and frequent rain events. Soybean rust is a disease that has the potential for causing severe economic damage in North Carolina soybean crops as it can cause premature defoliation and must be considered when managing soybean disease. To manage soybean rust potential in organic soybeans in North Carolina, select early-maturity groups and plant early to get the plants out of the fields in time to avoid the rust inoculum. Do not, however, create such an early-maturing soybean crop that yields are substantially reduced. If you are at risk of Asian Soybean Rust, consult <a href="http://www.omri.org">OMRI’s listing of sprays labeled for use in soybeans</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://soybean.ipmpipe.org/soybeanrust/">Soybean ipmPIPE</a> and the <a href="https://legacy.rma.usda.gov/news/currentissues/soybeanrust/">USDA’s page on soybean rust</a> are excellent sources for further information on soybean rust.</p>
<h3><strong><em>Plant-Parasitic Nematodes </em></strong></h3>
<p>The best way to avoid nematode damage is to plant varieties that are resistant to the nematode present in the field. These varieties can be found on <a href="https://soybeans.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-soybean-variety-information">NC State’s NC Soybean Variety Information page</a> or from N.C. Cooperative Extension agents. Conventional nematicides are prohibited in organic agriculture.</p>
<p>Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN), caused by the nematode <em>Heterodera glycines</em>, is a plant-parasitic nematode found in all soybean growing regions and is the most yield-limiting disease of soybean in the U.S. The nematode penetrates soybean roots and continues to feed and reproduce within the roots. This causes extensive damage to the root tissue, reducing the uptake of water and nutrients. SCN gets its name due to the reproductive stage of its life cycle where small yellowish colored cysts erupt throughout the root tissue. These cysts can survive for many years in the soil and contain as many as 200 eggs per cyst. The most effective management strategy is to use an integrated approach of different crop rotations and variety resistance. Resistant varieties are available and can vary in effectiveness due to the different populations of SCN, but do not provide complete immunity. Historically, these different populations were characterized as races but are now referred to as HG types, in reference to the nematode’s scientific name. HG types, while similar to race classification, is a more robust way to classify the different SCN types based on the tests used for classification.</p>
<p>Several root-knot nematode species have been reported to infect soybeans in North Carolina, including <em>Meloidogyne incognita </em>(southern root-knot), <em>Meloidogyne enterlobii </em>(guava root-knot), <em>Meloidogyne javanica</em> (Javanese root-knot), <em>Meloidogyne hapla </em>(northern root-knot), and <em>Meloidogyne arenaria </em>(peanut root-knot). The most abundant species of root-knot nematode in North Carolina is <em>M. incognita </em>(southern root-knot). Symptoms of root-knot nematode infection may vary though are often associated with non-uniform stands, stunting, wilting, and chlorotic (yellow) patches. The most common symptom of root-knot is the galling found on the roots. These galls are enlarged female nematodes within the root tissue that contain egg masses inside the galls. Crop rotation of at least two years may help reduce soybean cyst nematode populations but may not be as useful when dealing with root-knot nematode because they have multiple host plants. The most effective management strategy is planting resistant varieties if there is a history of root-knot nematode in the field. If nematode damage is suspected, collect samples from the field (during fall is best) and send them to the NCDA&CS laboratory (1040 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, NC 27699-1040, 919-733-2655) for nematode assays. NCDA&CS will identify a nematode population and species, if it is present. The Agronomic Division of NCDA&CS also has nematode management and <a href="https://www.ncagr.gov/divisions/agronomic-services/nematode-assay">assay information online</a>.</p>
<h3><strong>Acknowledgment of Previous Contributing Authors</strong></h3>
<p><span><span><span><span>Jim Dunphy, Crop Science Extension Specialist, NC State University </span></span></span></span></p>
<p><span><span><span><span>George Place, Crop Science, Research Associate, NC State University</span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div class="container authors">
<h1>Authors</h1>
<div class="col-md-12">
<div class="author_display">
<dl>
<dt><span itemprop="author">Rachel Vann</span></dt>
<dd>
Assistant Professor and Extension Soybean Specialist<br />
Crop & Soil Sciences
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="col-md-12">
<div class="author_display">
<dl>
<dt><span itemprop="author">DJ Stokes</span></dt>
<dd>
Soybean Extension Associate<br />
Crop & Soil Sciences
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="col-md-12">
<div class="author_display">
<dl>
<dt><span itemprop="author">Dominic Reisig</span></dt>
<dd>
Associate Professor and Extension Specialist<br />
Entomology & Plant Pathology
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="col-md-12">
<div class="author_display">
<dl>
<dt><span itemprop="author">LeAnn Lux</span></dt>
<dd>
Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor<br />
Entomology & Plant Pathology
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="col-md-12">
<div class="author_display">
<dl>
<dt><span itemprop="author">Chris Reberg-Horton</span></dt>
<dd>
Associate Professor and Extension Organic Cropping Specialist<br />
Crop & Soil Sciences
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
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<li><a href="/catalog?keywords=soybean-production">Soybean Production</a></li>
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<p class="publication_date">
Publication date: March 19, 2024<br>
AG-660
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<h2>Other Publications in <a href="/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide">North Carolina Organic Commodities Production Guide</a></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-1-introduction">Chapter 1: Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-2-organic-crop-production-systems">Chapter 2: Organic Crop Production Systems</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-3-crop-production-management-corn">Chapter 3: Crop Production Management - Corn</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-4-crop-production-management-organic-wheat-and-small-grains">Chapter 4: Crop Production Management - Wheat and Small Grains</a></li>
<li>Chapter 5: Crop Production Management - Organic Soybeans</li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-6-crop-production-management-flue-cured-tobacco">Chapter 6: Crop Production Management - Flue-Cured Tobacco</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-7-crop-production-management-peanuts">Chapter 7: Crop Production Management - Peanuts</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-8-crop-production-management-sweetpotatoes">Chapter 8: Crop Production Management - Sweetpotatoes</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-9-soil-management">Chapter 9: Soil Management</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-10-weed-management">Chapter 10: Weed Management</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-8-rolled-cover-crop-mulches-for-organic-corn-and-soybean-production">Chapter 11: Rolled Cover Crop Mulches for Organic Corn and Soybean Production</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-12-organic-certification">Chapter 12: Organic Certification</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-13-marketing-organic-grain-crops-and-budgets">Chapter 13: Marketing Organic Grain Crops and Budgets</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-14-organic-market-outlook-and-budgets">Chapter 14: Organic Market Outlook and Budgets</a></li>
<li><a href="http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/resources">Chapter 15: Resources for More Information on Organic Commodity Production</a></li>
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/movable-frame-farrowing-house | Movable "A" Frame Farrowing House | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | " Publications " Building & Construction Plans Archive " Movable "A" Frame Farrowing House
## Movable A" Frame Farrowing House
BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION PLANS ARCHIVE
Publication Number: 5826-A
View as PDF: 5826-A.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/installing-trees-and-shrubs | Installing Trees and Shrubs | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Gary Bachman, PhD",
"Jeff Wilson, PhD"
] | null | [
"Landscape Architecture",
"Trees"
] | MS | ## Installing Trees and Shrubs
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Landscape Architecture, Trees
Publication Number: P3662
View as PDF: P3662.pdf
Buying trees and shrubs for landscaping can be expensive. For a newly built home, the estimated cost for a landscape design is 5 to 15 percent of the home's cost. This type of investment must be well planned and designed for years of pleasure. In many situations, people do not follow instructions for installing individual plants in the landscape.
Establishing landscape trees and shrubs successfully depends on proper soil preparation, planting methods, and follow-up care. Plants require oxygen, nutrients, and water for proper growth. Improper planting and inadequate follow-up care are the main causes of plant death. This is a chance to get new plants off to a good start and to examine planting techniques for greater success in establishing a home landscape.
Preparing planting sites for shrubs in a landscape design involves two methods. When installing several plants, prepare a planting bed by tilling or double-digging the site 10 inches deep, working in organic matter while preparing the planting site. Add fertilizer and amendments by mixing thoroughly into the soil. This soil preparation is ideal when installing several plants in an area.
The second site preparation method involves digging a hole for each plant. The hole planting method is used for replacing or adding plant material. Site preparation involves more than just digging a hole for each plant.
Most nurseries grow ball and burlap and bare-root plants in sandy to loamy soil. When you move these plants to the landscape site, the difference in soil texture can make transplanting more difficult. Getting new plants established in tough, clay soil is a challenge. Clay soils are rich in nutrients but are difficult to manage. A loam soil has fairly balanced amounts of clay, silt, and sand, making it ideal for transplanting shrubs and trees.
## Preparing the Planting Site
Dig the planting hole at least twice as wide as the diameter of the root ball. Dig the edges of the hole at a 45-degree angle. If a landscaper uses a mechanical tree spade, they should cut grooves in the sides and bottom of the hole to encourage root growth into the surrounding soil.
## Amending the Planting Site
If you are adding amendments to the soil, choose carefully. Remember, young plants eventually send roots beyond the planting hole. Peat moss or other soil-structure improvers often are added to the growing medium. This results in the newly planted tree growing an intensive root system that will soon become mated with the good soil but will not easily penetrate beyond it into the heavier soil.
The recommendation for amending clay soils is to add organic matter such as pine bark or leaf mold. Add the bark at the rate of 2 to 3 inches per 6-inch depth of clay-like soil. Add 1 inch of peat moss to a 6-inch depth of sandy soil. Ideal soil consists of 15 percent air, 50 percent solids, and 35 to 40 percent water.
## Ball and Burlap Plants
For ball and burlap plants, dig the planting hole no deeper than the height of the soil ball. Digging the hole deeper lets a plant settle and can suffocate the roots. Planting depth needs to be the same as in the field where the plant was grown. Leave the bottom of the hole undisturbed, with firm soil so the plant will not settle. The discoloration on the bark near ground level indicates the soil level. Lift the plant by the root ball, not the trunk. When filling the hole, be careful not to disturb the root ball. Add backfill up to two-thirds of the root ball's depth, firm the soil, then settle it with water. Remove the remaining burlap from the top of the root ball. Burlap left on top of the soil line will have a "wick effect," drying the root ball. Cut all strings or metal wire. Finish backfilling the hole with soil.
Make a 3-to 4-inch berm or raised area surrounding the root ball. (A berm is a ring of soil around the base of the plant outside the planting hole. This helps hold water and protects the shrub or tree from possible damage by a lawn mower.) Be sure the berm is well beyond the edge of the root ball so water will be directed to the right place (Figure 1). If drainage is poor, remove the berm after the plant is established to avoid excess water in the hole.
## Container-Grown Plants
Handle container-grown plants the same way as ball and burlap plants. Make the planting hole at least twice the diameter of the soil ball but no deeper than its height. Spread the roots by gently
teasing to break the circular root pattern. If the plant is pot bound, make three or more vertical cuts through the root system. Also, cut the bottom of the root ball to remove matted roots.
## Bare-Root Plants
Some bare-root plants are packed with materials to keep roots moist in the bag. Carefully remove any packing material from the roots. Inspect the roots for any diseased, broken, or dead roots, and clip these roots with pruning shears before planting. Clip exceptionally long roots. Immerse the roots in a bucket of water to soak for at least 1 hour.
Make individual planting holes for bare-root plants wide enough to spread the roots but no deeper than the original soil depth. To prevent settling, build a crown for fibrous-rooted plants, such as roses. Leave the center of the bottom portion of the planting hole higher than the edges to let the plant rest firmly. This mound at the bottom of the hole keeps the plant from settling and helps spread roots in a natural position (Figure 2).
## Watering
Thoroughly water newly transplanted trees and shrubs. Water is crucial during the first growing season, as it is the leading cause of transplant failure. Properly watered plants have a greater chance of survival.
## Mulching
Mulching is essential for young shrubs and trees. It helps save and extend available water, reduces competition by controlling weeds, moderates temperature extremes, and acts as a barrier or visible marker for landscape maintenance equipment.
Too much mulch can be harmful. Mulching with only 2 to 3 inches of bark or 6 inches of pine straw is enough to control weeds and hold moisture in transplanted plants. See Extension Publication 2301 Mulches for the Landscape.
## Staking and Guying
It is sometimes necessary to stake or guy a tree that cannot stand up by itself or that is in a windy or heavy-traffic area. Guying anchors young trees to the ground with wires and stakes (Figure 3). Young trees have a small trunk diameter relative to their height; guy wires support slender trees and protect them from wind damage.
When staking trees, remember that the main tree stem grows stronger more quickly if the treetop is free to move with the wind. Set staking posts in line with the tree trunk, far enough away so the trunk cannot rub against the post and damage its bark. Use a broad bandage or run the wire through a piece of rubber hose to secure it to the tree. Tie the tree at a point just high enough to hold it upright in calm weather (Figure 4). After windy conditions, the tree should return to its vertical position.
## Figure 4. Staking uses posts parallel to the trunk to support trees. Easy Test to Determine Soil Drainage
To help determine soil drainage, choose a day when the soil is not excessively wet from rain or other factors. Use a large coffee can (approximately 46 ounces) with the top and bottom removed. Dig a 4inch-deep hole and set the can on the bottom of the hole. Firm the soil around the can so water cannot slip under the bottom edge.
Fill the can with water; wait an hour, and then measure the water level. If the water level drops at least 2 inches in 1 hour, the drainage is considered normal. If the level drops more than 5 inches in 1 hour, it is considered too much. If the level doesn't seem to drop at all, the soil drainage is poor.
Another option is to dig a hole 1 foot by 1 foot wide and fill with water. Follow the same drainage rate as above.
## Planting in Poorly Drained Soils
There are alternatives if a planting site does not allow for surface drainage to remove excess water:
- ● Install a French drain, which removes water through a network of drains. There must be a point lower than the landscape site for the water to drain.
- ● Plant in a raised bed, which needs to be at least 12 inches deep.
- ● Prepare a large berm (from 1 to several feet deep). Such structures can complement your landscape.
- ● If you are planting directly on heavy soil, incorporate a 3-inch layer of new soil to form a transition layer. A sudden change in soil texture disrupts the flow of water through the soil profile, possibly causing a stagnant area beneath the new soil profile.
## Transplanting Existing Landscape Plants
The ideal time to transplant is during the dormant season. Temperatures are lower, the soil has more moisture, and plants will be less stressed. Dig/remove the plant with a large enough root ball to sustain the plant. Move to a new location and install by following the previous instructions.
If a plant has to be moved during warmer months, prepare the new location beforehand so the plant can be installed immediately after removing it from the soil. These plants may need frequent irrigation through the remaining summer season.
Publication 3662 (POD-08-24)
Reviewed by Jeff Wilson , PhD, Assistant Professor, North Mississippi Research and Extension Center. Written by Gary Bachman, PhD, Extension/Research Professor Emeritus, Horticulture.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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| JULY 23, 2024 | One Good Idea wins conservation award |
| JUNE 27, 2024 | Kids studied soil science at a field day in Verona |
| MAY 10, 2024 | MSU, Noxubee Refuge hosted special needs adults |
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``` |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/oklahoma-proven/plant-profiles/golden-jubilee-anise-hyssop.html | Golden Jubilee Anise Hyssop - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-10-18 | [] | OK | ## GOLDEN JUBILEE ANISE HYSSOP
## Agastache foeniculum 'Golden Jubilee'
'Golden Jubilee' is a cultivar of the North American native commonly known as anise hyssop. It was selected for its chartreuse foliage, was named to commemorate HM Queen Elizabeth II's golden jubilee, and was the 2003 AllAmerica Selections flower award winner. Reaching 2' tall and 1' wide, 'Golden Jubilee' produces light purple flower spikes from early summer to fall. Although a perennial, it will reseed in your garden and the new plants will also be golden. As an added bonus, brushing against the foliage releases the plant's licorice scent.
Exposure: Full sun Soil: Moist, well-drained Hardiness: USDA Zone 6 |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN857 | A Tiphiid Wasp Myzinum maculata Fabricius (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae: Myzininae) | University of Florida | [
"Donald Spence",
"Amanda Hodges"
] | 2017-09-17 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | Skip to main content
## A Tiphiid Wasp Myzinum maculata Fabricius (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae: Myzininae)
Donald Spence and Amanda Hodges
## Introduction
Biological and distribution information for a tiphid wasp species commonly found in Florida, Myzinum maculata , has not been extensively studied or reported in the available literature. Generalized Myzinum or tiphid wasp (Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae) details will be provided when species-specific information cannot be provided.
## Distribution
Myzinum contains 26 species in four genera that are found throughout Florida, with approximately 140 species occurring in a wide range of habitats across North America (Borror and Triplehorn 1989; Stange 1994). Specific distribution information for M. maculata is not available.
## Description
Male and female tiphid wasps differ in appearance, or are sexually dimorphic. The female is larger and more robust than the male. The female also spends more time on and in the ground.
Myzinum caroliniana (Panzer). Credit: Donald Spence, University of Florida
Myzinum maculata are mostly black and can be somewhat hairy. Females range from 11-18 mm (0.43-0.7 inch) in length, while males are 8-16 mm (0.31-0.63 inch). The abdomen has overlapping leaf-like plates, or lamellae, with alternating, conspicuous black and yellow bands.
The abdomen is covered with hairs, except for the metasoma (last segment), which is shiny. Both males and females may have alternating black and yellow bands. However, the male is much more slender and its abdomen is more cylindrical than the female. Males have an upward pointing spine at the end of the last abdominal segment. This spine looks like a stinger but is not (Broror and Triplehorn 1989).
The thorax of both males and females is longer than broad. Males have two plate-like lobes that extend from a hardened plate (the mesosternum) on the underside of the thorax and over the bases of the middle coxae (UM 2009).
Myzinum maculata males have a unique cleft front claw at the end of the terminal tarsomere.
Figure 7. Adult males of Myzinum maculata Fabricius, a tiphid wasp, have a unique cleft front claw at the end of the terminal tarsomere. Photograph shows a front tarsus.
Credit: Donald Spence, University of Florida
The wings of both males and females are tawny yellow. However, the wings of females are more yellowish than males'. Male wings are darker towards the tips and transparent or clear towards their base. The veins on the leading edges or both wings, or costal veins, are pronounced with a darker stigma (prominent wing cell) two-thirds out from the thorax. The wings of the males have six enclosed cells on the front wings (Goulet and Huber 1993). The tegula (a hardened plate at the base of the front wing) does not completely cover the base of the wing.
On the head, the compound eye sockets are notched or emarginated (Stange 1994). The labrum is folded in front and below the cypeus. There are three ocelli (simple eyes) between and above the eyes. Females have eleven antennal segments, while males have twelve. Antennae are smooth and filiform, or shaped like a thread or filament.
Figure 10. A 12-segmented antenna of an adult male Myzinum maculata Fabricius, a tiphid wasp. Credit: Donald Spence, University of Florida
## Life Cycle
Tiphidis are reported to be both pollinators (adults) and ectoparasites (larvae) (Toker and Hanks 2000). Their polyphagous nature has not been thoroughly studied but Toker and Hanks (2000) found that adults of species in the genus Myzinum feed on 22 species of plants, mostly in the Asteraceae and Apiaceae plant families (Toker and Hanks 2000).
Tiphids are generally parasitoids on the larvae of two Coleoptera insect families, Scarbaidae and, to a lesser extent, Cicindelidae (Selmen 2008), Borror and Triplehorn 1989. Female tithiids search out species of these subterranean beetle larvae and access them through tunnels they form or through tunnels formed by the adult beetles (Hanson 1995, Stange 1994, Krombin 1938). When a larva is found, the wasp will lay her eggs on the abdomen of the beetle larva, as an ecotarsatile (Quice 1997, Stange 1994, Schönitzer and Lawitzky 1987, Krombin 1938). The beetle larva becomes partially paralyzed during their development through the injection of neurotoxicus (such as proline and polyamine) by the female wasp (Quice 1997, Hanson 1995). The beetle larva is only partially paralyzed so that the wasp larva may initially feed on a living host (Quice 1997). Once the wasp larva completely consumes the beetle larva, it constructs a cocoon for overwintering. Waps emerge from cocoons in the spring (Krombin 1938).
Activity of the females from this point is not known (Krombein 1938). The males are known to congregate on vegetation early in the morning when temperatures are low, presumably waiting for females to emerge from the soil or to forage (Hanson 1995, Krombein 1938).
## Hosts and Economic Importance
Tiphid wasps are used as biological controls of white grubs in farm settings (Davis 1919) and as a turfgrass pest management strategy (Rogers and Potter 2004). Female wasps seek out beetle larvae in the ground. The female deposits an egg on the body of the grub. As the wasp larvae develop, they eat the beetle larvae. Biological controls such as this occur in nature, but as the populations of both species fluctuate, the level of parasitism changes from season to season.
## Selected References
Borror D, Triplehorn C, Johnson N. 1989. An Introduction to the Study of Insects, Sixth Edition. Saunders College Publishing, New York. 875 pp.
Davis J. 1919. Contributions to a knowledge of the natural enemies of Phyllophaga . Bulletin of the Illinois Natural History Survey 13: 53-138.
Goulet H, Hiber J. 1993. Hymenoptera of the World: An Identification Guide to Families. Agriculture Canada Publication. 668 pp.
Hanson PE, Gauld ID. 1995. The Hymenoptera of Costa Rica. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England. 893 pp.
Krombein K. 1938. Studies in the Tiphidiidae II, A revision of the Nearctic Myzinianae (Hymenoptera: Aculeata). Transactions of the American Entomological Society 44: 227-292.
Quicke DLJ. 1997. Parasitic wasps. Kluwer Academic Publishers. New York, NY. 460 pp.
Rogers ME, Potter DA. 2004. Biology and conservation of Tiphiwa wasps, parasitoids of turf-infesting white grubs. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 661: 505-510.
Schönitzer K, Lawitzky G. 1987. A phylogenetic study of the antenna cleaner in Formicidae, Mutillidae, and Tiphiidae (Insecta, Hymenoptera). Zoomorphology 107: 273-285.
Selmen L. (2008). White grubs, Phyllohga spp. Featured Creatures.
http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/field\_white\_grub.htm (7 January 2010).
Stange L. 1994. The Tiphid wasps of Florida (Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. Entomology Circular No. 364 http://www.fl-dpi.com/en/ppp/ento/entric/ent364.pdf. 2 pp.
Tooker J, Hanks L. 2000. Flowering plant hosts of adult Hymenopteran parasitoids of Central Illinois. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 93: 580-588.
University of Minnesota (UM), Department of Entomology. (2009). Hymenoptera Family Characters. Insect Collection. https://inspectcollection.umn.edu/hymenoptera (7 January 2010).
## Publication #EENY 470
Release Date:
September 18, 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-in857-2010
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Amanda Hodges
About this Publication
About the Authors
## Related Pages
## Featured Creatures collection
Tiphiidae
772 Publication(s) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/breech-delivery/ | Breech Delivery | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Taylor Gwynn",
"Soren Rodning",
"Michelle Elmore",
"Paul Dyce",
"Julie Gard Schnuelle",
"Misty Edmondson",
"Andrew Lovelady",
"B. J. Newcomer",
"Kim Mullenix"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Beef",
"Farming",
"Livestock"
] | AL | ## Breech Delivery
The first step in providing assistance during calving is assessing the problem. There are several common situations encountered when delivering a calf. A breech delivery is when the hindquarters of the calf protrude first with both hind legs retained. Both hind legs and the tail must be straightened out and placed correctly within the birth canal for delivery to proceed.
When in doubt, call your veterinarian. The outcome is always more favorable if assistance is provided sooner rather than later. Waiting too long unnecessarily risks the life of the cow or heifer and her calf.
Read here to learn more about how to manage a successful calving season. (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/managing-a- successful-calving-season/)
Download a PDF of Managing a Successful Calving Season.ANR-1403.(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1403\_ManagingaSuccessfulCalvingSeason\_031618.pdf)
■ Read More
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Read More
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/managing-a-successful-calyving-season/)
Managing a Successful Calving Season (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/managing-a successful-calving-season/)
Sep 19, 2018
## Cookie Notice
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/brevardco/2020/04/13/celebrating-a-tortoise-and-a-turtle-here-in-florida/ | Celebrating a Tortoise and a Turtle Here in Florida | University of Florida | [
"Holly Abeels"
] | 2020-04-13 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Wildlife",
"Florida Sea Grant",
"gopher tortoise",
"leatherback sea turtle"
] | FL | ## Celebrating a Tortoise and a Turtle Here in Florida
There are two species of reptiles that you might have heard about recently here in Florida: the gopher tortoise and the leatherback sea turtle. One species can be found on land while the other spends its entire life in the ocean. Let's learn more about these two native, but very different reptiles!
## Gopher Tortoise
## Behavior and Habitat
Gopher tortoises, Gopherus polyphemus , are found in habitats with well-drained, sandy soils such as longleaf pine sandhills, xeric (meaning very dry) oak hammocks, scrub, pine flatwoods, dry prairies, and coastal dunes. They are also common in pastures and urban areas. You might even have one or two living in your neighborhood.
In addition to the shells on their backs, gopher tortoises dig burrows for protection. These burrows average 15 feet in length and can go 6 ½ feet deep into the ground. Gopher tortoises do not stray far from their burrows. In fact, they spend up to 80% of their time inside of their burrows and forage for low-growing plants within 160 feet of their burrow.
Did you know that gopher tortoises burrows serve as shelter and refuge for more than 350 other species, called commensals? Burrowing owls, Florida mice, indigo snakes, rabbits, gopher frogs, and all kinds of invertebrates are just some examples of commensals. The gopher tortoise is considered a keystone species because so many species rely on their burrows.
Keystone species are a vital part of an ecosystem. Removing a keystone species can be detrimental to other species who rely on them. They help hold the ecosystem together so that it functions properly. Without them the ecosystem is off balance.
## Conservation Status
Unfortunately, the population of gopher tortoises is decreasing. In Florida, it is a statedesignated threatened species. It is unique in that it is federally listed
```
Gopher tortoise on the move. Photo
```
designated threatened species. It is unique in that it is federally listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, but only in the portion of its range occurring west of the Mobile and Tombigbee Rivers in Alabama. In the eastern portion of its range, the gopher tortoise is a candidate species for federal protection.
April 10 th every year is designated as Gopher Tortoise Day! This is one day a year where this species is celebrated! The goal of Gopher Tortoise Day is to increase awareness and appreciation for this gentle reptile. Did you celebrate gopher tortoises this year?
## Leatherback Sea Turtle
## Behavior and Habitat
Leatherback sea turtles, Dermochelys coriacea , are the largest turtle in the world. They can grow to be 6 feet long and can weigh up to 2,000 pounds. Unlike other sea turtles, leatherbacks have black, tough, and rubbery skin. Their shell, called a carapace, is softer than other sea turtles' and does not have scales or "scutes". The carapace has seven ridges along the length that function together like an accordion. This enables leatherback sea turtles to dive deep to find food. They use their larger flippers to travel long distances. They migrate the farthest of any sea turtle, averaging 3,700 miles between their breeding and feeding grounds!
Leatherback sea turtles Female leatherback sea turtle nesting on dive very deep, up to the beach. Photo credit: FWC 4,200 feet, deeper than any other turtle, and can stay down for up to 85 minutes. And unlike other sea turtles they can regulate their body temperature to survive the cold waters that they encounter. Even though they are the largest turtle in the world, they feed primarily on jellyfish. They eat and swallow jellyfish by using their scissor like jaws and the stiff, backward-pointing spines lining their throat cavity.
Like all sea turtles, they spend most of their lives in the ocean, except when females come a shore to lay their eggs. Females nest on the beach primarily on the east coast of Florida usually from March until July, with peak nesting occurring around May. Females lay on
average 73 fertilized eggs and 25 yolkless eggs called spacers in each nest. They will come ashore multiple times per season to lay a clutch of eggs. Females return to nest every 2 to 3 years. About 50% of the leatherback nesting in Florida occurs in Palm Beach County. However, Canaveral National Seashore in Brevard and Volusia counties and Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge in Brevard and Indian River counties also see a couple of leatherback nests each year.
## Conservation Status
As with the gopher tortoise, the number of leatherback sea turtles has declined. The Endangered Species Act protects them as a federally designated endangered species. Florida's Marine Turtle Protection Act protects them as well. The primary threat to the leatherback is entanglement in fishing gear. Some countries harvest the meat and eggs illegally.
```
It is illegal to approach or
disturb a nesting sea turtle.
For updates on sea turtle
nesting in our area, be sure to
follow the Canaveral NationalSeashore and the UCF MarineTurtle
Research Group. Canaveral National Seashore had their first
leatherback nest on April 8, 2020. As of April 10, 2020, the UCF
Marine Turtle Research Group has documented 10 leatherback nests
in the Brevard County portion of the Archie Carr National Wildlife
Refuge.
```
Flyer for Bite-Sized Science sea turtle talk
plus many more at http://bit.ly/bite-sizedscience
Other References:
https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabits/profiles/reptiles/sea -turtles/leatherback-turtle/
Reviewed and edited by Maia McGuire, Brittany Hall-Scharf, and Gayle Whitworth
o
by Holly Abeels
Posted: April 13, 2020
Category: Coasts & Marine, NATURAL RESOURCES, UF/IFAS
Extension, Wildlife
Tags: Florida Sea Grant, Gopher Tortoise, Leatherback Sea Turtle, Wildlife
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Smart Rain Garden Series - Why A Rain Garden In The City?
- · Smart Rain Garden Series - How Does Filtration Work?
- · January 2025 Class List
- · Celebrating 50 Years Of Earth Day - Reducing Food Waste |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AN393 | Understanding Parent Verification and Its Uses in Beef Cattle | University of Florida | [
"Felipe A. C. C. Silva",
"Mark Mauldin",
"Angela M. Gonella-Diaza"
] | 2024-04-18 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | Understanding Parent Verification and Its Uses in Beef Cattle
Felipe A. C. C. Silva, Mark Mauldin, and Angela M. Goneella-Díaza
## Introduction
Beef cattle production in Florida is primarily based on cow-calf grazing systems. In recent years, we have seen advances in all facets of the cow-calf production system, from the increased adoption of defined breeding seasons to nutritional strategies tailored to wearer heavier calves. However, even as the use of these technologies becomes more commonplace, the demands of calf buyers continue to increase. Buyers are becoming increasingly interested in purchasing calves that come with documented genetic parent verification.
Parent verification is used to verify the parents (dam and sire) of a calf. The main goal of the practice is to increase the accuracy of pedigree information, therefore providing customers with reliable information. Parent verification can be beneficial for seedstock and commercial operations. The genetic verification is particularly useful in situations including multi-site breeding pastures, artificial insemination or embryo transfer followed by clean-up bulls, calves switched at birth, and ambiguous data records. This publication is intended for beef producers, farmers, and Extension agents. It aims to provide guidance on how to perform successful samples collection and shipping for parent verification.
## How does parent verification work?
For the producer, the physical process associated with parent verification is quite simple. Samples from the calf and its potential sires must be collected and submitted for genetic comparison. Genetic material only has to be submitted from an individual animal once. Virtually all artificial insemination (AIIS) sires will already have genetic material on file, and the same will be true for cows and herd bulls after their initial submission. Therefore, it is entirely possible that genetic material from the calf in question will be the only sample to submit. A blood sample is perhaps the simplest and most widely used type of genetic sample. However, other types of tissues such as tail hair, semen, and tissue samples from carothes not canes also be used, with the majority of samples being shipped at room temperature. The actual analysis and comparison of the samples are generally handled through the breed association connected with the animals in question (Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison of prices for parent verification among bred associations.
Most breed associations are migrating and retesting their animals to SNPs. Costs of SNP-based parent testing can vary from S15 to S25 per sample. Additional genetic testing using the same blood sample can be added on to parent verification. Add-ons can include complete genotyping, single traits, or genetic defects testing. Companies and associations have special pricing depending on the number of animals to be tested.
The main idea behind parent variation is that each calf will receive one copy ('allele') of the potential gene marker from each parent. For example (Figure 1), if a bull carrying the alleles "AA" is crossed with a dam carrying the alleles "BB", the calf must have the alleles "AB" because the calf must receive a gene copy from each parent. If the calf tested were either AA or BB, then the calf would not be compatible, and parenage would be excluded. This is done by selecting and testing compatibility based on several unique SNPs (i.e., DNA markers).
## How do I collect and ship blood or hair samples for parent verification?
## To collect blood samples:
- · Record the animal ID on the DNA card.
- Wipe the ear clean.
- · Prick the vein in the animal's ear with a sterile needle (1).
- Touch the circle on the DNA card to the blood site in the ear for 24 hours before mailing.
- Fill the circle and allow the card to dry away from sunlight for 24 hours
## Summary
Parent verification is feasible and useful in both commercial and seedstock operations. The advances in the test procedure allow an easy and affordable collection with the benefits of adding several genetic tests to the results. Tests can be done through your breed association or private laboratories. If you have any questions or want to learn more about this technology, contact your local UF/IFAS Extension agent.
Release Date:
April 19, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-AN393-2024
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise*
Contacts: Angela Gionella D.
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is AN393, a publication of the Department of Animal Sciences, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date April 2024. Visit the EDIS website at https://dis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. ¤ 2024 UF/IFAS. This publication is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
About the Authors
Felipe A. C. C. Silva, assistant professor, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC; Mark Mauldin, Extension agent II, livestock and forages, UF/IFAS Extension Washington County; and Angela M. Gionella-Diaza, Ph.D., assistant professor, UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center, Marianna, FL; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Animal Science
North Florida REC |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/what-attacking-my-pine-the-case-the-deodar-weevil | What Is Attacking My Pine? The Case of the Deodar Weevil | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"A. Brady Self",
"John Willis",
"Stephen Dicke",
"John Riggins"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Pest Management",
"Agriculture"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s What Is Attacking My Pine? The Case of the Deodar Weevil
## What Is Attacking My Pine? The Case of the Deodar Weevil
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Forestry |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3057 | |
| View as PDF: P3057.pdf | |
| Many pine owners are able to identify the damage caused by southern pine beetles (Dendroctonus | frontalis) (SPB) or lps engraver beetles (lps spp.). Many, however, have never heard of the deodar weevil (Pissodes nemores ) unless they have experienced an outbreak on their property. |
| use to survey their pines for this pest. | Fortunately, this native insect leaves very distinctive signs and tree symptoms that landowners can |
| Deodar weevils are native insects that attack a variety of confiers including all lobolly (Pinus taeda), | longleaf (P. palustris), shortleaf (P. echinata), and slash (P. elliottii). In response to deodar and other |
| insets, pines have developed natural defenses that effectively prevent attacks when trees are healthy and growing rapidly. During most years, these weevils only attack a few suppressed, | unhealthy trees that are scattered in well-managed plantations. As such, the deodar weevil is not an |
| pine plants. | pinesto |
Pinne owners should be mindful of the risk deodar weevils can pose under certain sets of environmental conditions. Being able to differentiate deodar damage from that of other insect pests is important for proper stand management. Rapid identification of a deodar outbreak can help guide post-attack management treatments and reduce future damage. The goal of this publication is to help forest landowners identify deodar weevils and develop a plan to prevent or moderate damage to pine plantations.
## Conditions Favoring Outbreaks
Tree stress is an important factor in deodar weevil outbreaks. Deodar outbreaks during late summer droughts can be as devastating as those caused by lps engraver beetles; however, droughts rarely lead to outbreaks because the weevils also require favorable breeding conditions (warm fall temperatures) the previous year. Nevertheless, when this combination of factors occurs, deodars, along with lps engraver beetles, are capable of killing large numbers of stressed pines (Figure 1). Factors besides drought that increase the risk of outbreak by inducing tree stress include overly stocked pine stands and wind, hail, or logging damage the preceding fall. Stands heavily fertilized with nitrogen or located near chicken houses also seem to attract deodars.
Landsat image via Google Maps, Copiah County, 2016.
## Associations with Pitch Canker
Deodar weevils are vectors of pitch canker (Fusarium moniliforme). Although deodars are capable of disseminating pitch canker in all seasons, the majority of spread occurs in the fall, when funguscarrying weevils bore into trees to reproduce. It is important to note that not all weevils carry the fungus. Deodars must first pick up the fungus from an infected tree before it can spread to a healthy pine. Pitch canker kills a small area of stem or branch, causing it to exude large amounts of sap or pitch. As such, pitch running down stems and branches is a key symptom of pitch canker (Figure 2). The combination of pitch canker and deodar weevils can be lethal in pine plantations, with reports of 40 percent top dieback and 30 percent mortality occurring in a single year.
## Life Cycle
The life cycle of deodor weevils begins in the spring (April to May) with adults inside wood chip cocoons under pine stem bark (Figure 3). Adults (Figure 4) bore out of the tree and begin feeding on succulent tops and lateral branches of pine trees (Figure 5). Adult activity is diminished during summer heat. Adults become active again in cooler fall temperatures. Fall is the peak time for adult feeding and breeding. Deodars prefer stressed, dying, or dead trees for breeding. Often, they seek trees that have been previously attacked by SPB or lps. Slash can also be used for reproduction. Female adults puncture the bark with their snouts and typically lay between one and four eggs inside each feeding puncture. Legless, white, grub-like larvae with brown heads hatch and mine random paths under bark over the course of fall and winter. It is this larval feeding that ultimately can girdle
and kill the tree (Figure 6). Trees dying in the winter may indicate a heavy deodar infestation. By February to March, larvae have grown to one-fourth of an inch long. Larvae then surround themselves with half-inch, football-shaped wood chip cocoons. By April, larvae pupating inside chip cocons slowly change into adults (Figure 7). This month-long pu pation period is when deodar weevils are most vulnerable to predation. The pupation period also gives landowners an opportunity to identify and control this pest.
Photo by Stephen Dicke, Wallthall County, 2016.
Figure 5. Adult deodor weevil feeding activities on pine tops and branches can initially cause foliage decline and yellowing. This can lead to tip dieback and, ultimately, tree death. Photo by Stephen Dicke, Adams County, 2015.
Figure 6. Galleries created by deodar weevil larvae in the winter. Tunnels are much larger than those of Ips engraver and southern pine beetles. Photo by Stephen Dicke, Leake County, 2016.
Figure 7. Deodor weevil larvae form a wood chip cocoon in late winter. The middle cocoa was opened to reveal a pupa. Termites left the wood chip cocoons alone. Photo by Stephen Dicke, Copiah County, 2016.
## Deodor Weevil Identification
Like all weevils, adult deodor weevils are easy to distinguish from other wood-boring insects. Look for their long snouts with antennae (Figure 4). Body color ranges from gray to reddish-brown, with white spots for camouflage. Deodor weevil adults average a quarter-inch in length resulting in an insect much larger than lps engraver beetles or SPB, and similar in size to the black turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus terebrans).
## Signs and Symptoms of Deodor Weevils
Fading Tree Crowns and Dying Tops
Fading crowns in the fall or winter are a common symptom of deodor weevil activity (Figure 5); however, this symptom alone does not confirm presence of a deodor infestation-or any other insect, for that matter. Instead, crown fade simply indicates stress, which can be caused by a variety of factors. Following fading, pine tops can die, and, ultimately, the stem can die if damage is great enough (Figure 1). Crowns fading in late spring and summer are most likely caused by something other than deodor weevils.
## Chip Cocoon
The most definitive sign of a decodar infestation is the chip cocoon (Figure 3). Created by larvae in preparation of their pupation, cocoons are visible as early as February. Deodor weevils tend to
occupy the bottom 10 feet of the main stem, so cocoons are relatively easy to spot. Bark can also slip off heavily infested stems, exposing the chip cocoons. Intact cocoons mean larvae and pupae are still inside. There is still time to control this population of weevils.
Once cocoons are found, pay close attention to the existence of an exit hole and its shape. Cocoons with perfectly round exit holes indicate a successful adult deodor emergence (Figure 3). Imperfect exit holes are a good sign for landowners. Cocoons that appear to be ripped open are indicative of woodpeckers (Picidae spp.) preying on larvae and pupae (Figure 8). Birds are an important natural control agent of deodor populations.
Photo by Stephen Dice, Rankin County, 2016.
## Deodor Weevil Risk
Lobolly pine is the most common host for deodor weevils, but all pine species in Mississippi can be attacked. Pure stands of pine are at greater risk of deodor weevil outbreaks than mixed stands of pine-hardwood. The risk of attack by deodor weevils begins about age 5, when stems are large enough to support larval galleries. Pines at that age are also very sensitive to mortality from crown damage. Risk of attack peaks for pine plantations before the first thin, when resource competition begins to reduce tree vigor. After the first thinning, risk of deodor attack drops. Carefully scout your pine plantation following summer to fall droughts, wind and hail storms, and fall logging damage. Also scout pine plantations adjacent to chicken houses and in plantations heavily fertilized with nitrogen.
Finding some signs of deodar weevils is not of great concern. This is because deodars do not kill healthy pine trees. Thus, immediate action is rarely required.
## Preemptive Management
The best way to prevent a deodor outbreak is to maintain a vigorously growing plantation. Rapidly growing pines are typically healthy and will have ample resin flow to cover and kill newly hatched larvae. For this reason, adult beetles do not usually lay their eggs on healthy pines.
It is perfectly normal to have suppressed, unhealthy trees scattered throughout a plantation before a thinning. Landowners should not be concerned if deodar signs are found on these suppressed trees. In fact, suppressed tree mortality may actually be beneficial, as it releases better trees from competition. In addition, unlike SPB or lps engraver beetles, deodar infestations will not actively spread throughout the growing season.
Landowners should focus on thinning to maintain tree vigor. As a general rule of thumb, landowners should schedule thinning once tree diameter growth falls below an annual threshold of 5 percent. Egg-laying females usually avoid pines growing at 5 percent or greater. Thus, thinning will help keep your stand safe in the event of a deodor outbreak.
One factor landowners should be aware of is residual damage after thinning. Trees damaged in thinning operations typically become stressed, increasing risk of deodar attack. Fortunately, much of this risk can be overcome by thinning either before or after the peak breeding season (September to November). For more thinning guidance, see MSU Extension Publication 2260 Are My Pines Ready to Thin? or Information Sheet 2010 Simplifying Southern Pine Thinning with Stand Density Index, and download the Guide to Thinning Southern Pines smartphone app. These items are available at extension.msstate.edu.
A sound strategy for preventing deodar damage is to plant pines on sites where they are best suited to grow. Compared to most hardwood species, pines have a relatively wide range of sites on which they can be planted. However, even pines have their limits. Planting a pine on the wrong site increases stress and decreases vigor. For more information on pine site considerations, see Extension Publication 1776 Planting Southern Pines: A Guide to Species Selection and Planting Techniques.
## Summary
Although deodor weevil outbreaks are rare, it is important to remember the destructive potential of this insect. This is particularly true for young pine plantations, where risks are elevated. In most years, deodor weevils pose only a minor threat to pine plantations. This is because healthy pines are able to resist attack. Also, deodor weevils have only one generation per year, reducing potential for an expanding attack. Therefore, signs of deodar attack on suppressed pines is not a major concern.
Stresses that can lead to deodor outbreaks include climatic events such as droughts, wind and hail storms, logging damage, and ammonia gas from chicken houses. Scouting young pine plantations following these stressors can help identify deodor attacks. Outbreaks are still hard to predict. As such, the best way to defend against an outbreak is to maintain stand vigor. This includes planting trees on appropriate growing sites and thinning before the onset of intense competition. These basic steps will help keep pines safe.
## Publication 3057 (POD-04-23)
Revised by A. Brady Self , PhD, Associate Extension Professor, Department of Forestry; from an earlier version by John Willis , PhD, former Assistant Professor ; Stephen Dicke , PhD, Professor Emeritus, Department of Forestry; and John Riggins , PhD, Associate Professor, Entomology.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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| Authors Dr.BradySelf Extension Professor Hardwood Silviculture Forest Herbicides Your Extension Experts Donald Grebner Professor and Head Dr. Brady Self Extension Professor Dr. Curtis L. VanderSchaaf Assistant Professor | |
| EXTENSION Related News FEBRUARY 24, 2025 North Miss. producers share feedback at PAC meeting | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3264 Herbicide Options for Mixed Pine-Hardwood Management |
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/management-options-for-chinese-tallowtree/ | Management Options for Chinese Tallowtree | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Nancy Loewenstein",
"David Russell",
"Stephen Enloe"
] | 2022-08-02 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Invasive Species",
"Management Options"
] | AL | ## Management Options for Chinese Tallowtree
Chinese tallowtree has slender yellow flouers that bloom during the early summer. The distinctive diamond-shaped leaves turn red in the fall.
The Chinese tallowtree, Triadica seibefera (L.) Small, is one of the most invasive trees in the southeastern United States. It is a classic example of a plant introduced into the United States with good intentions but with bad outcomes.
Benjamin Franklin is often cited as having introduced the tallowtree into the United States in 1772. Still, the species has been repeatedly promoted over the past 100 years for numerous purposes, including in the soap industry, as an ornamental shade tree, for honey production, and most recently, for bioenergy. Chinese tallowtree is an ecosystem transformer with tremendous negative impacts on wetlands, pastures, prairies, and forests. In almost all these areas, tallowtree invasion frequently results in a closed canopy tallowtree forest with few other species present.
## Multiple Factors Can Make Tallowtree Management Difficult
## Cookie Notice
Multiple factors can make tallowtree management difficult. It produces large numbers of fruits, which are spread by water and consumed and spread by many species of birds. Romantians subject https://www.foodvine.com/buy repeatread/adminstration/oaep/privacy.php upstream seed sources. Tailowtree is also an aggressive
Also known as popcorn tree, Chinese tallowtree produces large numbers of waxy coated seeds that resemble popcorn. Seeds remain on the tree through early winter.
Seedlings may be pulled when very small. But hand pulling is not generally an practical option for controlling established tallowtree. Taliwtree rapidly establishes a deep taproot, making saplings challenging to remove, especially in heavier textured soils. The use of a weed wrench may help remove small saplings. However, stems originating from lateral roots will break off just below the soil surface, and new sprouts will form near the breakpoint. The use of bulldozers and excavators may be effective in removing entire trees and stumps. However, many lateral roots will be missed during removal, and sprouting can rapidly occur from these pieces. Many land managers have reported rapid increases in the density of tallowtree stands following removal with heavy equipment.
## Mowing, Cutting, and Brush Mulching
In pastures, annual mowing has been used to suppress Chinese tallowtree, but it can worsen the problem. Because tallowtree rapidly sprouts from the stump and lateral roots, stemglassitic may increase over time with repeated mowing. E rush mulcher or shredders are effective in opening dense tallow stands and can be an excellent first step in tallowtree management.
However, follow-up herbicide treatments are necessary for adequate control. If cutting tallowtree with a chainsaw, immediately apply a reamcon meder 'heblicide' to the freshly cut stump to prevent sprouting (see the following section on
Dense stands of tallowtree are especially common near rivers. Note that many of the stems are from stump sprouts.
Prescribed fire typically is not effective for Chinese tallowtree control but might be useful as part of an integrated pest management approach. Sufficient fuel to carry fire is often lacking in pure stands or wet sites. In situations with enough fuel to carry a fire, prescribed fire may knock plants back but is not likely to provide complete control. Seedlings and small-diameter saplings are susceptible to fire, but larger diameter plants, even if top-killed, will generally sprout back following fire, and followup herbicide treatment will be needed.
Under some conditions, fire can promote the growth of tallowtree seedlings by clearing away competing vegetation and enhancing seed germination. As seedlings can be knocked back with prescribed fire, frequent prescribed fires (short return interval) may limit successful seedling establishment and help deplete the seed bank. Infrequent fires, though, could favor Chinese tallowtree establishment. The relationship between fire and Chinese tallowtree is complicated, depending on the fire intensity, fire return interval, and on-site and stand characteristics.
## Biological Control
Grazing is usually not an option for Chinese tallowtree control. Although cattle will readily graze some other invasive plants such as kudzu and Chinese privet, they do not graze Chinese tallowtree at all. Goats will graze Chinese tallowtree, but they do not prefer it. Effective management would require numerous repeated grazing events by goats.
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) research has identified two insects, a moth ( Gadirtha fuscata ) and a flea beetle ( Bikasha collaris ), that show tremendous promise for classical biocontrol of Chinese tallowtree. They have not yet been approved for release.
## Chemical Control
Several herbicides may be used for effective Chinese tallowtree control (see table 1). As with any treatment method, there are no silver follicle nocotone fruiture multiple applications for complete kill. It is also important to remember that Chinese tallowtree frequently grows near water or where there is a snailw/water tabie. This may preclude or include limit the use of cerain herbicides. Additionally, several disease-affected sites may ( https://www.aburnd.edu.administration@oap/privatives.phr/gpring for all application methods. read and follow the herbicide label for specific information
concerning applications near water and nontarget injury. The herbicides in table 1 have been effective for various application methods, including broadcast, foliar individual plant treatment (IPT), basal bark, cut stump, and hack and squirt.
Print "Table 1. Herbicide Treatments Recommended for Chinese Tallowtree Control (a)" table from our website.
- a The addition of a nonionic surfactant at 0.25% v/v for almost all foliar herbicide treatments or methylated seed oil at 1% v/v for imazamox is highly recommended.
b IPT = individual plant treatment. This term is used to distinguish herbicide rate recommendations on a percentage basis rather than on a per-acre basis.
## Additional Notes on Chemical Control
Foliar broadcast and individual plant treatments are most effective when applied from late summer to early fall. Do not apply foliar treatments after leaves begin changing color in the fall. Cut-stump treatments are easiest and most effective when applied in the late fall and can be used on any diameter stump. Always apply the herbicide immediately after cutting for waterbased cut-stump treatments, such as aminopyralid, imazamox, or triclopyran amine. Basal bark and hack and squirt treatments are also most effective when used in the fall. Although, hack and squirt treatments with imazapyr or aminoycrocylarachroy have provided successful control when applied in any of the four seasons. Basal bark treatments are effective on trees less than 6 inches in diameter at the base. Hack and squirt treatments are effective on any size trees. A common practice is to make one incision for every 3 inches of stem diameter at breast height (DBH). Avoid treatment in the spring when sap flow is upward
Nancy Loewenstein, Extension Specialist, Forestry, Wildlife and Environment; David Russell, Assistant Extension Professor, Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences; and
## Download this article as a PDF
- [ ] (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/ANR-2232\_ManagementOptionsforChineseTallowtree\_080222L-G.pdf) Management Options for Chinese Tallowtree . ANR-2232 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/ANR2232\_ManagementOptionsforChineseTallowtree\_080222L-G.pdf)
Stephen Enloje , former Extension Specialist , all with Auburn University
Revised July 2022, Management Options for Chinese Tallowtree , ANR-2232 |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/accounting-method-for-tracking-relative-changes-in-agricultural-phosphorus-loading-to-the-tar-pamlico-river | Accounting Method for Tracking Relative Changes in Agricultural Phosphorus Loading to the Tar-Pamlico River | NC State Extension | [
"Amy Johnson",
"Deanna Osmond"
] | null | [
"Agriculture",
"Environmental Science",
"Phosphorus Management"
] | NC | ## Accounting Method for Tracking Relative Changes in Agricultural
Agricultural Phosphorus Loading to the Tar-Pamlico River
Department
Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication Date
Oct. 31, 2005
Authors
Amy Johnson
Deanna Osmond
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/martinco/2020/07/23/employer-tax-credit-can-cover-100-of-employee-covid-19-paid-leave/ | Employer Tax Credit Can Cover 100% of Employee COVID-19 Paid Leave | University of Florida | [
"Yvette Goodiel"
] | 2020-07-23 | [
"Agribusiness",
"Agriculture",
"Disaster Preparation",
"Farm Management",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"agribusiness",
"commercial horticulture digest",
"coronavirus",
"Covid-19",
"green industry",
"Martin County",
"safety",
"tax credit",
"worker"
] | FL | ## Employer Tax Credit Can Cover 100% of Employee COVID-19 Paid Leave
Did you know eligible employers can receive a 100% refundable tax credit for every dollar of paid leave (plus the employer's health insurance premiums during leave) provided to employees under the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA)? Helping employees afford to stay home and recover can help not only the employee, but also the company, by reducing the chances of COVID19 workplace infections.
Through the FECRA tax credits, businesses with fewer than 500 employees are offered funds to provide employees with paid sick and family and medical leave for reasons related to COVID-19. Leave can be either for the employee's own health needs or to care for family members. Tax credits apply to those wages paid for leave during periods beginning on April 1, 2020 and ending on December 31, 2020 . Certain self-employed individuals in similar circumstances are entitled to similar credits. For more information, the IRS offers answers to Frequently Asked Questions about the tax credits.
## Can the Tax Credits Really Help?
Erin Jenkins Banas, Vice-President of Jenkins Landscape and VicePresident of the Treasure Coast Chapter of the Florida Nursery, Growers, and Landscapers Association (FNGLA), shared how her company has made use of the tax credits to help affected employees stay home and prevent workplace spread of COVID-19 infections:
"Jenkins Landscape does qualify as a covered employer. Employees who were out due to COVID-19 or related reasons were able to qualify for up to 80 hours of paid leave. This was very helpful for our business because some of our employees were out of PTO or have not yet accrued any PTO. They were then able to stay home and still collect their wages.
We generated a new QuickBooks payroll item to track this time, so that when we filed our quarterly 941 we were able to receive a credit back on those wages paid.
We have been continuously communicating to our employees to NOT come to work sick because they do qualify for this pay. If the FFCRA paid leave was not available and those employees did not have any PTO, then they most likely would have come into work sick.
Employers do need to make sure they keep documentation of the leave. Our insurance agent was able to provide us with an Emergency leave request template. This form lists the qualifying reasons for leave and has the employee check off the reason and include dates out of work. There is also a return to work format states the employee is healthy and clear to return to work. "
## - Erin Jenkins Banas
Agribusiness employers seeking to learn more can find additional resources to weather the coronavirus pandemic by visiting the CDC website, Florida Department of Health, or reading some of our other UF/IFAS Extension coronavirus blogs for agribusinesses.
Category: Agribusiness, Agriculture, Disaster Preparation, Farm Management, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
Tags: Agribusiness, Agriculture, Commercial Horticulture Digest, Coronavirus, COVID-19, Green Industry, Martin County, Safety, Tax Credit, UF/IFAS Extension, Worker
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Helping Buyers And Sellers Connect During COVID-19 Disruptions To Florida Food Markets
- · Peters's Rock Agama On The Treasure Coast
- · COVID-19 Testing For Agribusinesses In And Around Martin County
- · COVID-19 And UF/IFAS Extension |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/05/07/green-her-mothers-day/ | Green Her Mother’s Day | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-05-07 | [
"Children",
"Family",
"Green Living"
] | GA | ## Green Her Mother's Day
Written by
May 7, 2013
Pamela Turner
Mother's Day is just around the corner. What plans have you made? How about going GREEN this Mother's Day. Here are a few of my favorite ideas.
Spring is here and all thoughts go to gardening, how about making a special garden just for mom.
Here are some suggestions: Butterfly and Hummingbird Garden, Cutting Garden, Kitchen Herb Garden, or Salad Garden. You don't need a large plot, and even if you don't have a yard you can have a container garden. Make sure you let the kids help pick out the plants. Check with your county's Extension Agent about what works in your part of the country. Cooperative Extension is great resources for everything green and growing.
These are two of my favorite gifts, clean out the rain-gutters and give her a new rain barrel. If you have time let the kids paint the rain barrel. I am sure they will have plenty of ideas for pretty designs. Click here for a guide to building a rain barrel.
Get up early on Saturday and take a trip to your local Farmers Market. Make sure you take the kids, let them shop the stalls for fresh produce, eggs and cheese. Don't forget to take your own bags or a basket. On Sunday you and the kids let mom sleep in, while you make her a special brunch from all the goodies you found at the market -
don't forget to get flowers or even better a potted plant or herb filled window-box while at the Farmers Market.
## Come home and cook a special breakfast, like French toast with honey apple syrup.
Take the kids to visit the local reuse store . Pick up a small table and interesting side-chair. Use your artistic talents to redesign your finds. Decoupage family photos on the table top and paint the chair in bright colors. Remember to use VOC-free paints and clear finish. Have fun with design. If you are up for more of a creative challenge here is a website with ideas on how to use pallets for all sorts of building projects.
Pack a picnic and plan a family outing to her favorite garden. If possible have the family hike or bike to the chosen location. Walk Georgia: https://www.walkgeorgia.org/
Plant a tree or perennials in her honor.
Shade Trees: https://www.caes.uga.edu/Publications/pubDetail.cfm?pk\_id=7989
Donate time or a gift in her honor to her favorite charity. Importance of Volunteering for Youth: https://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/cd/2003/fs0323.pdf
Mom's Spa Day at Home: Load her favorite tunes on her device and light a candle (soy-based) and hang a note on the bathroom door that says, "Do not disturb." Remember to clean the bathroom for her before you set up her spa. Here are a couple of homemade recipes for her Spa Day.
- -Facial: Mix 1 TBSP of mashed Avacado, 1 tsp of lemon juice, 1 tbsp local honey, ½ tsp of sunflower or sesame oil - blend with a fork - apply to face with upward strokes and leave on for 10 minutes rinse with warm to touch water - pat dry and then mist with rose water.
- -Bath Salts: 1 cup of sea salt, ½ cup of sunflower oil, and a few drops of mom's favorite essential oil - allow to dissolve in a full warm bath.
Don't forget to end the day with the greenest gift of all a hug, a kiss and a thank you for all you do.
Posted in: Children, Family, Green Living
Tags: celebration, children, environment, family, fun, gardening, Georgia, green living, how to be green, Mom, Mother's Day, national parks, walking
## Pamela Turner
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/viticulture-and-enology/advanced-viticulture-and-enology-workshops.html | Advanced Viticulture & Enology Workshops - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-08-30 | [] | OK | ## ADVANCED VITICULTURE & ENOLOGY WORKSHOPS
## About the Workshops
Since 2001, Oklahoma State has offered a Grape Management Course to those individuals who have an established vineyard or to those who are just getting into the industry.
Due to the popularity of the course, grape growers in the area now have a chance to expand their knowledge by attending a series of educational opportunities called the Advanced Viticulture and Enology Training Workshops.
"There are various issues and concerns in the grape industry, including the economy and even the weather," said Becky Carroll. "Although we aren't seeing the rapid growth in wineries and acreage of grapes planted compared to a number of years ago, we're seeking steady improvements in grape growing and wine making expertise. Oklahoma currently has about 500 acres dedicated to the grape industry and 65 wineries."
Because of these improvements, Carroll said she is excited to see these advanced workshops available to grape growers. She said this new workshop will pick up where the Grape Management Course ended. The workshops are made available by a grant from the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry through the Oklahoma Viticulture and Enology Fund.
There is no cost to attend, but registration is required. Contact Stephanie
Larimer by
email(mailto:stephanie.larimer@okstate.edu?
subject=Advanced%20Viticulture%20%26%20Enology%20Workshops)
or call (405) 744-5404(tel:4057445404) to register or for more information.
## Upcoming Workshops
There are no workshops planned at this time.
## Past Workshops
- > Wine Faults January (/programs/viticulture-and-enology/wine19th,2024 faults-jan-2024.html) |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/e/e-1039-soils-manual-1.pdf | E-1039 Soil Fertility.indd | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20161010110905-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## EXTENSION
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma State University
| Chapter 1. Soil and Soil Productivity .................................................1 | Jason Warren |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------|
| Chapter 2. Essential Plant Nutrients, Functions, Soil Reactions and Availability ..........................................................11 Bill Raun | |
| Chapter 3. Problem Soils ...........................................................................35 Halilin Zhang | |
| Chapter 4. Determining Fertilizer Needs ...............................................57 Josh Lofton and Hailin Zhang | |
| Chapter 5. Fertilizer Use and Sources in Oklahoma ...............................95 Brian Arnal | |
| Chapter 6. Use of Animal Manure as Fertilizer .........................................111 Hailin Zhang | |
| Chapter 7. Environmental Concerns Associated with Fertilizer Use ..............................................................................121 Chad Penn | |
| Chapter 8. Land Application of Drilling Mud ..............................................127 Chad Penn | |
| Chapter 9. Long-term Soil Fertility Research ............................................133 Jacob Bushong | |
| Chapter 10. Precision Nutrient Management ..............................................147 Sulochana Dhtal and Brian Arnall | |
| Chapter 11. N-Rich Strips, GreenSeeker™ Sensor and Sensor-based Nitrogen Rate Calculator ......................................159 Joy Abit | |
| Chapter 12. Laws and Acts Governing the Marketing of Fertilizer, Line and Soil Amendments in Oklahoma ....................165 Bill Raun | |
Editors: Brian Arnal and Gayle Hiner
Project supported by Oklahoma Fertilizer Check-off Program.
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (Higher Education Act), the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal and state laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, genetic information, sex, age, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, disability, or status as a veteran, in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This provision includes, but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services. The Director of Equal Opportunity, 408 Whisthout, OSU, Stilwater, OK 74078-1035; Phone 405-744-5371; email eo@sltate.edu has been designated to handle inquiries regarding non-discrimination policies: Director of Equal Opportunity. Any person (student, faculty, or staff) who believes that discriminatory practices have been engaged in based on gender may discuss his or her concerns and file informal or formal complaints of possible violations of Title IX with OSU's Title IX Coordinator 405-744-9154.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Sillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President for Agricultural Programs and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of $9,290.00 for 2,500 copies. GH 1016
## Chapter 1.
## Soil and Soil Productivity
Soil is perhaps the most important natural resource in Oklahoma. It is important to all, for without soil there would be no life on Earth. Our food and much of our clothing and shelter come from soil. Soil supports the gigantic agricultural system, which is the major contributor to the state's development and continued prosperity.
Oklahoma has a land area of more than 44 million acres, part of which is covered by water. The majority, about 41 million acres, is used for production of food and fiber. This land has an average value of more than $400 per acre or a total value in excess of $16.4 billion. It is an asset well worth protecting.
Many different kinds of soil occupy this land area. Some soils are extremely productive, while others are not as productive. Each soil has a set of unique characteristics that distinguishes it from other soils. These characteristics determine the potential productivity of the soil.
Soil productivity is a result of how well the soil is able to receive and store moisture and nutrients, as well as providing a desirable environment for all plant root functions.
## What is Soil?
Soil is the unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the immediate surface of the Earth which provides nutrients, moisture and anchorage for land plants.
The principal components of soil are mineral material, organic matter, water and air. These are combined in widely varying amounts in different soils. In a typical loam soil, solid material and pore space are equally divided on a volume basis, with the pore space containing nearly equal amounts of water and air. The approximate proportions are illustrated in Figure 1.1.
## How Soils are Formed
The development of soils from parent rock is a long-term process involving physical and chemical weathering along with biological activity. The wide variety of soils and their properties are a function of the soil forming factors including parent material, climate, living organisms, topography and time.
The initial action on the parent rock is largely mechanical-cracking and chipping due to temperature changes. As the rock is broken, the total surface area exposed to the atmosphere increases. Chemical action of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and various acids further reduce the size of rock fragments and change the chemical composition of many resulting particles. Finally, the microorganism activity and higher plant and animal life contribute organic matter to the weathered rock material, and a true soil begins to form.
Figure 1.1.Volume composition of a desirable surface soil.
Since all of these soil-forming agents are in operation constantly, the process of soil formation is continual. Evidence indicates the soils we depend on today to produce our crops required hundreds or even thousands of years to develop. In this regard, consider soil as a nonrenewable resource measured in terms of man's life span. Thus, it is very important to protect soils from destructive erosive forces and nutrient depletion, which can rapidly destroy the product of hundreds of years of nature's work, as well as greatly reduce soil productivity.
## Soil Profile
A vertical cross-section through a soil typically represents a layered pattern. This section is called a "profile" and the individual layers are called "horizons." A typical soil profile is illustrated in Figure 1.2.
The uppermost layer includes the surface soil or topsoil and is designated the 'A' horizon. This is the layer which is most subject to climatic and biological influence. It usually IS the layer of maximum organic accumulation, has a darker color, and has less clay than subsoil. The majority of plant roots and most of the soil's fertility are contained in this horizon.
The next successive horizon is called the subsoil or 'B' horizon. It is a layer that commonly accumulates materials that have migrated downward from the surface. Much of the deposition is clay particles, iron and aluminum oxides, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate and possibly other salts. The accumulation of these materials creates a layer that is normally more compact and has more clay than the surface. This often leads to restricted movement of moisture and reduced crop yields.
The parent material, or 'C' horizon is the least affected by physical, chemical and biological weathering agents. It is very similar in chemical composition to the original has formed in its original position by weathering of bedrock is termed "residual;" or transported if it has been moved to a new location by natural forces. This latter type is further characterized on the basis of the kind of natural force responsible for its transportation and deposition. When water is the transporting agent, the parent materials are referred to as alluvial (stream deposited). This type is especially important in Oklahoma. These are often the most productive soils for agricultural crops. Wind-deposited materials are called aeolian.
Climate has a strong influence on soil profile development. Certain characteristics of soils formed in areas of different climates can be described. For example, soils in western Oklahoma are drier and tend to be coarser textured, less well developed and contain more calcium, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients than do soils in the humid eastern part of the state.
The soil profile is an important consideration in terms of plant growth. The depth of the soil, its texture and structure, its chemical nature as well as the soil position on the landscape and slope of the land largely determine crop production potential. The potential productivity is vitally important in determining the level of fertilization.
## Soil Texture
Soils are composed of particles with an infinite variety of sizes. The individual particles are divided by size into the categories of sand, silt and clay. Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil. Textural class is the name given to soil, based on the relative amounts of sand, silt and clay present, as indicated by the textural triangle shown in Figure 1.3. Such divisions are very meaningful in terms of relative plant growth. Many of the important chemical and physical reactions are associated with the surface of the particles, and hence are more active in fine than coarse-texture soils.
A textual class description of soils can tell a lot about soil-plant interactions, since the physical and chemical properties of soils are determined largely by texture. In mineral soils, exchange capacity (ability to hold plant nutrient elements) is related closely to the amount and kind of clay in soils. Texture is a
major determining factor for water-holding capacity. Fine-textured soils (high percentage of silt and clay) hold more water than coarse-textured soils (sandy). Water and air movement through the finer-textured soils is reduced, making it more difficult to work.
From the standpoint of plant growth, medium-textured soils, such as loams, sandy loams and silt loams, are the most ideal. Nevertheless, the relationships between soil textural class and soil productivity cannot be generally applied to all soils, since texture is one of the many factors that influence crop production.
Check the texture of the surface and subsoil. Normally, the surface includes the top foot of soil, but it may be shallower or deeper in certain situations. Soil below the tillage zone is called subsoil. It is also necessary to consider the subsoil texture when determining productivity potentials.
## Soil Structure
Soil structure refers to the presence of aggregates of soil particles that have been bound together to form distinct shapes. Sometimes the binding or cementing is weak, however the aggregates are much larger than individual soil particles. Soil organic matter contributes significantly as a cementing agent. Air and water movement and root penetration in the soil is related to the soil structure. The better the structure, the higher the productivity of the soil.
Size and shape of the structure units is important. When height of the struc -ture unit is approximately equal to its width (blocky structure) we expect good air and water movement. Structure units that have greater height than width (prismatic structure) often are associated with subsols that swell when wet and shrink when dry, resulting in poor air and water movement. When particles have greater width than height (platy structure), water and air movement and root
development in the soil is restricted, compared to a soil with desirable structure. Granular structure, particularly in fine-textured soils, is ideal for water penetration and air movement. Water and air move more freely through subsoils that have blocky structure than those with platy structure. Good air and water movement is conducive to plant root development. Types of soil structure are illustrated in Figure 1.4.
The productivity of the soil is influenced by both surface and subsoil texture and structure. An approximate rating for soils considering texture and structure is shown in Table 1.1.
Raise or lower the rating 10 to 20 percent, according to whether the soil structure is more, or less, favorable than the average. If gravel occurs in the soil, lower the rating according to its effect on the productive capacity.
| | Surface Soil Texture | Surface Soil Texture | Surface Soil Texture | Surface Soil Texture |
|------------------|---------------------------------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|
| Subsoil | Sandy | Clay | Clay; | |
| Texture | Sand | Loam | Loam | Silty Clay |
| | -------- Percent of Maximum Productivity -------- | ------ | ------ | ------ |
| Sandy | 50 | 55 | 65 | 60 |
| Sandy Loam | 60 | 70 | 80 | 75 |
| Loam | 70 | 80 | 95 | 90 |
| Clay Loam | 70 | 80 | 90 | 90 |
| Clay; Silty Clay | 65 | 70 | 80 | 80 |
"Numbers represent average soil conditions.
Topography of the land largely determines potential for runoff and erosion, method of irrigation and management practices needed to conserve soil and water. Higher-sloping land requires more management, labor and equipment expenditures. Table 1.3 can be used to rate land productivity based on slope. If slope varies, use steeper slopes for the rating.
## Erosion
Principal reasons for soil erosion in Oklahoma are 1) insufficient vegetative cover, which usually is a result of inadequate fertility to support a good plant cover, 2) growing cultivated crops on soils not suited to cultivation and 3) improper tillage of the soil. Soil erosion can be held to a minimum by 1) using the soil to produce crops for which it is suitable, 2) using adequate fertilizer and lime to promote vigorous plant growth and 3) using proven soil preparation and tillage methods.
| | Relative Productivity |
|-------|------------------------------------------|
| Slope | Stable Soil Unstable, Easily Eroded soil |
| ---% | ------% |
| 0-1 | 100 |
| 1-3 | 90 |
| 3-5 | 80 |
| 5-8 | 60 |
| 8-12 | 40 |
Soils that have lost part or all their surfaces are usually harder to till and have lower productivity than non-eroded soils. To compensate for surface soil loss, more fertilization, limiting and other management practices should be used.
## Soil and Available Water
Plants are totally dependent on water for growth and production. Even with well-fertilized soils, limited water can greatly reduce yields. Rainfall is not always dependable in Oklahoma. Therefore, crops are dependent on the moisture stored in the soil profile for growth and production.
Soils differ in their ability to supply water to plants. Limited root zones caused by shallow soils, high water table or claypans or extremely porous subsols cause drought stress in plants faster than more desirable soils. Table 1.4 il lustrates the differences in available water in selected soil profiles. Soils with silt loam or fine sandy loam surface textures have high available water-holding capacities. Differences in available water-holding capacity between the soils caused by widely varying textures of the subsoil and soil depth point out the need for knowing what is below the surface. (This kind of information is available in county soil survey manuals). During a drought, differences of 2 inches of available water can keep plants growing for an extra 10 days during peak plant use and could be the difference between success and crop failure.
## Soil Fertility
Soil fertility is the soil's ability to provide essential plant nutrients in adequate amounts and proper proportions to sustain plant growth. These nutrients and their functions are covered in details in the next chapter. Soil fertility is a component of soil productivity that is quite variable and strongly influenced by management. Other components of soil productivity, especially soil slope and soil depth, will be the same year after year. Together with climate, these compo nents set the soil productivity limits, above which yields cannot be obtained even with ideal use of fertilizer. It is important to understand added fertilizer cannot compensate for an unproductive soil due to it being excessively stony or
has a subsoil layer that restricts normal root growth and development. This point is illustrated in Figure 1.5.
## Soil Management
There are numerous other soil characteristics that can be important to soil productivity in specific areas. These include: soil drainage, soli salinity, presence of stone and/or rocks and organic matter content. They are not major limiting factors over wide areas and will not be discussed here.
One additional factor on which soil productivity is highly dependent is soil management. This implies using the best available knowledge, techniques, materials and equipment in crop production. The use of minimum tillage is an important management practice used to reduce the potential damage to soil structure from overworking, and for economic and fuel conservation purposes, as well as to allow farming of more acres per unit of labor.
Soil conservation is a concept integrating important management practices that deserves close attention. In the U.S., it is estimated that four billion tons of sediment are lost annually from the land in runoff waters, and with it much of the natural and applied fertility. That is equivalent to the total loss of topsoil (6 inches deep) from four million acres. Wind erosion is also a problem in certain areas. Management practices such as contouring, strip planting, covercropping, reduced tillage, terracing and crop residue management help eliminate or minimize the loss of soil from water and wind erosion.
Proper utilization of crop residues can be a key management practice. Crop residues returned to the soil improve soil productivity through the addition of organic matter and plant nutrients. The organic matter also contributes to an improved physical condition of the soil, which increases water infiltration and storage and aids aeration. This is vital to crop growth.
## Summary
Limitations of soil, water or climate reduce the soil's ability to produce. These limitations increase the need for better management practices. Poor management, or the presence of weeds, compact soils, soil erosion, etc., will result in low yields even on the most productive soils. On the other hand, good management on moderately productive soils can give high yields. By considering the factors discussed in this chapter, one can make a better determination of the soil's overall crop productivity and make better decisions about nutrient management including use of fertilizers.
## Chapter 2. Essential Plant Nutrients, Functions, Soil Reactions and Availability
More than 100 chemical elements are known to man today. However, only 16 have been proven to be essential for plant growth. For a nutrient to be classified as essential, certain rigid criteria must be met. The criteria are as follows:
- The element is essential if a deficiency prevents the plant from completing its vegetative or reproductive cycle.
- The element is essential if the deficiency in question can be prevented or corrected only by supplying the element.
- The element is essential if it is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant and is not a result of correcting some microbiological or chemical condition in the soil or culture media.
The essential elements and their chemical symbols are listed in Table 2.1. Three of the 16 essential elements - carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - are supplied mostly by air and water. These elements are used in relatively large amounts by plants and are considered to be non-mineral, since they are supplied to plants by carbon dioxide and water. The non-mineral elements are not considered fertilizer elements. The other 13 essential elements are mineral elements and must be supplied by the soil and/or fertilizers.
| Mostly from air and water (non-mineral)----- | | From soil and/or fertilizers (mineral)----- | | |
|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------|------------------------------------------------|-----------------|---------------|
| Element Symbol | Element | Symbol | Element Symbol | |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | C | Nitrogen | N | Iron Fe |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | H | Phosphorus | P | Manganese Mn |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | O | Potassium | K | Zinc Zn |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | Calcium | Ca | Copper | Cu |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | Magnesium Sulfur | Mg | Born | B |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | Magnesium Sulfur | S | Molybdenum | Mo |
| Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen | Magnesium Sulfur | | Chlorine | Cl |
The essential plant nutrients may be grouped into three categories. They are as follows:
- 1. Primary nutrients - nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
- 2. Secondary nutrients - calcium, magnesium and sulfur
- 3. Micronutrients - iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine
This grouping separates the elements based on relative amounts required for plant growth, and is not meant to imply any element is more essential than another.
## Primary Non-Mineral Nutrients
## Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Carbon is the backbone of all organic molecules in the plant and is the basic building block for growth. After absorption of carbon dioxide (CO$\_{2}$) by the leaves of the plant, carbon is transformed into carbohydrates by combining with hydrogen and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
Metabolic processes within the plant transform carbohydrates into amino acids and proteins and other essential components.
## Primary Mineral Nutrients
## Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an integral component of amino acids, which are the building blocks for proteins. Proteins are present in the plant as enzymes that are responsible for metabolic reactions in the plant. Because nitrogen is so important, plants often respond dramatically to available nitrogen.
## Soil Nitrogen Reactions and Availability
Most of the nitrogen in Oklahoma soil is present as organic nitrogen in the soil organic matter. There are about 1,000 pounds per acre of nitrogen in this form for every 1 percent organic matter in the soil. However, since the soil organic matter is resistant to further decay, most of this nitrogen is unavailable during any given growing season. Normally, about 2 percent of the nitrogen from soil organic matter will be released each year to mineral forms when soils are cultivated. This 20 to 40 pounds per acre of nitrogen is typical of the amount present in unfertilized soils after cultivation and seed bed preparation.
## Nitrogen Mineralization and Immobilization
Because nitrogen release from organic matter is dependent upon decay by microorganisms, which themselves require nitrogen, the amount of nitrogen available for a crop is in constant flux. Unlike crops, which get their carbon as carbon dioxide from the air, many microorganisms get their carbon by decaying organic matter. Nitrogen availability depends upon the relative amount of car-
bon and nitrogen in the organic matter, its resistance to decay, and environmen- tal conditions to support microbial activity. Figure 2.1 illustrates how nitrogen becomes more concentrated as soil organic matter decays.
Note that nitrogen is not released during the first stages of decay. This is because nitrogen that is released is immediately consumed by active microorganisms. With time, remaining organic material becomes more resistant to decay, microorganisms die off, and there is more mineral nitrogen present than can be consumed by the few active microorganisms. This results in a final release of measurable mineral nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH$\_{3}$). The ammonia readily reacts with soil moisture to form ammonium (NH$\_{4+}$). These two reactions can be stated simply as:
(Release)
## Plus Tillage
Soil Microorganisms
Ammonium (NH$\_{4}$)
Nitrate (NO$\_{3}$)
## Figure 2.2. Interacting pools of soil nitrogen.
rapid changes in available nitrogen and plant stress. The small reservoir of mineral nitrogen can often be slowly replenished by mineralization (Figure 2.2) when crops need additional nitrogen,
Supplemental nitrogen as fertilizer usually must be added to support high, economic production levels. Immediately following fertilization with 120 pounds nitrogen, the system may be illustrated by Figure 2.3a. Addition of fertilizer nitrogen will stimulate microorganism activity, resulting in consumption of nitrogen and breakdown of some crop residues (immobilization) as illustrated in (Figure 2.3b). The immobilized nitrogen will be present as microbial tissue and
| (b) |
|------------------|
| Organic Nitrogen |
| Pool |
| (2080 lb/acre) |
Figure 2.3. Relative amounts of organic and mineral nitrogen in soil immediately after fertilizing (a) and several days after active immobilization (b).
other new material in the organic pool. As indicated by the two arrows pointing in opposite pathways, mineralization and immobilization are both taking place simultaneously. Immobilized fertilizer nitrogen will again become available in a few weeks if conditions favor crop uptake.
## Nitrification
In addition to the general mineralization and immobilization reactions, other reactions also are responsible for nitrogen changes (transformations) in the soil. Nitrification is one of the first reactions to occur after organic nitrogen has been converted to ammonium-N. This change is also a result of aerobic microorganism activity as depicted in the following reaction.
$$\begin{array} { c } { { 2 N H _ { 4 } ^ { + } \quad + & 3 O _ { 2 } ^ { - } \quad \to 2 N O _ { 2 } ^ { + } \quad 2 H _ { 2 } O \, + \quad 4 H ^ { + } \quad [ 3 ] \\ { { \mathrm a m n o m i u } } & { { \mathrm o x y g e n } } & { { \mathrm n i t r i t e } } & { { \mathrm w a t e r } } & { { h y d e n o i o n } } \end{array}$$
This reaction produces nitrite-N and hydrogen ions. Since hydrogen ions are generated, it is easy to see this step will at least temporarily contribute to soil acidity. However, this production of acidity is partially compensated for by the hydroxide (OH) produced from reaction [2]. The hydrogen and hydroxide will combine to form water, so the net effect on acidity when organic nitrogen is mineralized will be 1 pound of hydrogen produced for every 14 pounds of nitrogen mineralized.The same reactions and acidity will occur when fertilizer nitrogen is added in the ammonia form (anhydrous ammonia or urea). Ammonium sulfate will be twice as acidifying because equation [2] will be avoided by adding the ammonium (NH$\_{4}$)$^{+}$form of nitrogen.
Almost immediately after nitrite (NO$\_{2}$-) nitrogen is produced (reaction [3]), a companion reaction occurs that is also carried out by soil microorganisms resulting in nitrate-N (NO$\_{3}$-N) being produced from nitrite.
$$2 N O _ { 2 } ^ { - } \, + \, O _ { 2 } \rightarrow 2 N O _ { 3 } ^ { - } \quad \quad \quad$$
Because this change is quite rapid compared to the change from ammoni um to nitrite [3] there is seldom any nitrite (NO$\_{2}$)-present in soils. Ammonium and nitrate are common and will increase or decrease depending on microbial activity that will both generate and consume ammonium and nitrate. This cyclic interaction of nitrogen transformations is shown in Figure 2.4.
Whenever nitrate and/or ammonium nitrogen are measured in the soil, these measurements provide a view of two components of the nitrogen cycle at a single point in time. If the measurement is made when the system is likely to be in balance, or equilibrium, such as when wheatland soils are tested for nitrate in July or August, the value can be a useful guide for determining nitrogen fertilizer needs. Figure 2.5 illustrates the changes that took place for ammonium and nitrate nitrogen in soil during wheat production under different rates of fertilizer use. Because ammonium and nitrate nitrogen are the two forms of nitrogen that higher plants utilize, these two forms have received the greatest attention.
Figure 2.4. Primary forms of nitrogen in soils and the transformations among them. (1) Decay of soil organic matter releasing ammonia; (2) reaction of ammonia with water to form ammonium; (3) transformation of ammonium to nitrate by microorganisms; (4) uptake of ammonium and/ or nitrate by plants and microorganisms; (5) plants eaten by animals; (6) animal manures, nitrogen fixation and plant residue return to soil; (7) residues decay to resistant organic matter, ammonia produced from nitrogen rich materials; (8) soil organic matter produced as decay continues.
Soil fertility research at OSU has documented the change of ammonium and nitrate nitrogen following fertilization (Figure 2.5). Only about 60 percent of the fertilizer nitrogen could be accounted for at the first sampling after fertilization. This was mostly present as nitrate although the fertilizer (ammonium nitrate) was an equal mixture of the two nitrogen forms measured. In the short period after application, some transformations had taken place. These continued, resulting in a gradual increase in ammonium nitrogen (probably from some mineralization) and a rapid decline in nitrate, likely from immobilization caused by microbial activity and uptake by the wheat crop.
When crop production is added to the cycle in Figure 2.4, it becomes obvious that the cycle is not self sustaining. Harvesting removes significant amounts of nitrogen each year and eventually the system becomes depleted in organ-
Figure 2.5. Surface soil (0-6") ammonium and nitrate nitrogen following fertilization at different rates from OSU Soil Fertility Research.
ic matter and available nitrogen to support normal crop yields. A common response is to add nitrogen back using legumes and commercial fertilizers. When additions are balanced with removals, soil organic matter and productivity can potentially be sustained. However, excessive tillage, residue removal (straw and chaff in wheat production) and residue burning often result in continued soil organic matter decline. This loss in soil organic matter can lead to more pro nounced surface crusting following rain.
## Nitrogen Fixation
Additions to soil nitrogen are made as a result of either atmospheric, biological or industrial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (N$\_{2}$). These processes are responsible for transforming nitrogen from the atmosphere to either ammonium or nitrate nitrogen that can be used by plants. The atmosphere contains an inexhaustible amount (78 percent) of nitrogen. Approximately 35,000 tons of nitrogen are present in the atmosphere above each acre of the earth's surface. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation occurs when there is electrical discharge or lightning during thunderstorms. This causes elemental nitrogen (N$\_{2}$) to combine with elemental oxygen (O$\_{3}$) to form nitrate (NO$\_{3}$). The nitrate is added to the soil with rainwater and accounts for about 3 to 5 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year.
Biological nitrogen fixation can be either symbiotic or non-symbiotic. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation occurs within legumes. Bacteria (rhizobium sp.) infect the root of the legume and cause a nodule to form. The rhizobium obtain their energy from the legume and convert free nitrogen to ammonia (NH$\_{3}$), which the host plant utilizes to make amino acids and proteins. Legumes may fix as much as 500 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year (alfalfa) by this process. However, only a small fraction of the nitrogen fixed by legumes will be available for subsequent crops unless the legume is "plowed down" when a significant amount of top growth is present. Normally, most of the fixed nitrogen is removed in the harvest. Typical amounts of nitrogen added from legumes are shown in Table 2.2.
Biological nitrogen fixation is an extremely important source of adding nitrogen to soils when fertilizer nitrogen is unavailable. In Oklahoma, the addition of nitrogen to soils as a result of growing legumes is significant and should always be accounted for when determining nitrogen needs for non-legume crops in the subsequent season. However, the cost of establishing and growing legumes for this purpose alone, precludes their use as a sole substitute for nitrogen fertilizers.
Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation is accomplished by certain "free-living" microorganisms (cyanobacteria or blue-green algae), which live independently of other living tissue. The total contribution of nitrogen from these microorganisms can actually be significant. Recent studies from the Magruder Plots started in 1892
| Legume | N-credit | N-credit | Legume | N-credit | N-credit |
|---------------|-------------|--------------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
| | (lb N/acre) | (lb N/acre) | (lb N/acre) | (lb N/acre) | (lb N/acre) |
| Alfalfa | 80 | Cowpeas | 30 | | |
| Ladino clover | 60 | Lespedeza (annual) | 20 | | |
| Sweet clover | 60 | Vetch | 40 | | |
| Red clover | 40 | Peas | 40 | | |
| Kudzu | 40 | Winter peas | 40 | | |
| White clover | 20 | Peanuts | 20 | | |
| Soybeans | 20 | Beans | 20 | | |
found cyanobacteria in the check plot where no nitrogen has ever been applied. This helps to explain why wheat yields in these plots continue to be around 20 bushels per acre, more than 120 years later with no nitrogen additions.
Industrial fixation of nitrogen involves reacting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) with hydrogen (H), usually in the form of natural gas, under high temperature and pressure to form ammonia (NH$\_{3}$). The ammonia may be used directly as anhydrous ammonia gas or converted to other nitrogen fertilizers such as urea, ammonium nitrate, urea-ammonium nitrate solution, ammonium sulfate or amonium phosphates. Industrial fixation in Oklahoma is responsible for additions of about 300,000 tons of nitrogen per year. This amount of nitrogen is roughly equal to nitrogen removed in harvested crops.
Nitrogen fixation results in addition of nitrogen to the soil through utilization by plants and their residues subsequently added back to the soil (Figure 2.6). In order for soil organic matter to be maintained it is necessary for these additions to be at least equal to the amount of nitrogen removed from the field by harvest. Figure 2.6 illustrates how nitrogen fixation interacts with other forms of nitrogen and their transformations.
## Nitrogen Losses
The major nitrogen loss from soils is the removal of nitrogen by harvest of non-legume crops. Other significant nitrogen losses include:
- 1. Volatilization of ammonia.
- 2. Volatilization of nitrous oxide (N$\_{2}$O) and nitric oxide (NO) from nitrate in poorly aerated soils (denitrification).
- 3. Leaching of nitrate out of the root zone in permeable soils receiving heavy rainfall or irrigation.
- 4. Plant nitrogen loss as ammonia from plants containing nitrogen in excess of what the plant can use in seed production, just after flowering.
Each of these processes is responsible only for very small amounts of nitrogen loss over the course of a crop growing season. However, when considered over a generation of farming, or even just a few years, the amount of nitrogen lost can be significant. Nitrogen losses by these processes are responsible for the fact only 30 to 40 percent of fertilizer nitrogen applied can be found in the crop at harvest. Research at OSU and other institutions continues to examine practices that will improve fertilizer-nitrogen-use efficiency. Figure 2.7 illustrates the interaction of these nitrogen losses with other forms of nitrogen and their transformations.
## Phosphorus
Most of the total phosphorus in soils is tied up chemically in compounds with low solubility. In neutral-to alkaline-pH soils, calcium phosphates are formed, while in acid soils, iron and aluminum phosphates are produced.
## Soil Phosphorus Reactions and Availability
Available soil phosphorus, or that fraction which the plant can use, makes up about one percent or less of the total phosphorus in soils. The availability of inorganic phosphorus in soils is related to the solubility of specific phosphorus compounds present. Phosphorus solubility in particular is controlled by a number of factors - most importantly soil pH.
The amount of precipitated phosphorus is one factor. The greater the total amount present in soil, the greater the chance to have more phosphorus in solution. Another important factor is the extent of contact between precipitated phosphorus forms and the soil solution. Greater exposure of phosphate to soil solution and plant roots increases its ability to maintain replacement supplies. During periods of rapid growth, phosphorus in the soil solution may be replaced 10 times or more per day from the precipitated or solid phase. The rate of dissolution and diffusion of soluble phosphorus determines soil phosphate availability. As phosphate ions (mainly H$\_{2}$PO$\_{x}$- and HPO$\_{4}$$^{2-}$) are taken up by the plant, more must come from the solid phase.
Soil pH can be a controlling factor that determines phosphorus solubility. Maximum phosphorus availability occurs in a pH range of 5.5 to 7.2. At soil pH levels below 5.5, iron (Fe), aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) react with phosphorus to form insoluble compounds. When soil pH exceeds 7.2, phosphorus will complex with calcium (Ca) to form plant-unavailable phosphorus
Figure 2.7. Losses of nitrogen from the nitrogen cycle as a result of: (12) ammonia volatilization; (13) transformation of nitrate to gaseous oxides (denitrification); (14) leaching below the root zone; (15) volatilization from crops; and (16) harvest removal.
forms. However, it should be noted the solubility of calcium phosphates is much greater than aluminum and iron phosphates.
The proportion of total soil phosphorus relatively available is dependent upon time of reaction, type of clay present in the soil, organic matter content and temperature. The solubility of phosphate compounds formed from added phosphorus due to time of reaction can be broken down in three major groups (Figure 2.8). Fertilizer phosphates are generally in the readily available phosphate group but are quickly converted to slowly available forms. These can be utilized by plants at first, but upon aging are rendered less available and are then classified as being very slowly available. At any one time, 80 to 90 percent of the soil phosphorus is in very slowly available forms. Most of the remainder is in the slowly available form since less than 1 percent would be expected to be readily available.
The formation of insoluble phosphorus containing compounds in soils that renders phosphorus unavailable for plant use is called phosphorus fixation. Each soil has an inherent fixation capacity that must be satisfied in order to build available phosphorus levels. In Oklahoma, a large portion of the clays have a lower fixation capacity than the highly weathered soils found in high rainfall areas. It is important to understand the actual amount of phosphorus in the soil and the amount available to crops will not necessarily be reflected in a soil test. These soil tests simply provide an index of sufficiency and not an index of build-up or accumulation. Because different soils will have differing fixation capacities, the importance of annual soil testing becomes clear, since this practice is the only method used to estimate future crop fertilizer needs. In addition, these tests should reflect past management (farmers applying more than enough or not enough on an annual basis), and farmers thus can compensate accordingly.
```
```
| | Readily available phosphates |
|----|----------------------------------------------------------|
| | water-soluble ammonium phosphates |
| | NH4H2PO4 (MAP 11-52-0) |
| | (NHA)$_{2}$HPO$_{4}$ (DAP 18-46-0) monocalcium phosphate |
| | Ca(HOP$_{4}$)$_{2}$ (O-46-0) |
| | dicalcium phosphate |
| | CaHP$_{4}$ |
Figure 2.8. Relative availability of different phosphate forms and their transformations.
Organic matter and microbial activity affect available soil phosphorus levels. As was the case with nitrogen, the rapid decomposition of organic matter and consequent high microbial population results in temporary tying up of inorganic phosphorus (immobilization) in microbial tissue, which later is rendered available through release (mineralization) processes. This is one of the reasons why
broadcasting phosphorus in zero/minimum tillage systems can be beneficial, especially where soil phosphorus fixation capacities are high.
Less than 30 percent of phosphorus fertilizers applied is recovered in plants. Therefore, due to fixation reactions, more phosphorus must be added than is actually removed by crops. Legumes, in general, require much larger amounts of phosphorus than many of the common grain crops grown in Oklahoma.
Because phosphorus is immobile in the soil, roots must come in direct contact with this element before the plant can take it up. However, phosphorus is mobile within the plant and if deficient, lower leaves generally will demonstrate purple coloration on the outer edge of the leaf and/or the leaf margins.
Over a wide range of soils and cropping conditions, phosphorus has proven to be one of the more deficient elements in Oklahoma production agriculture. Soil testing on an annual basis should assist in determining crop needs.
## Potassium
Plants take up potassium as the potassium ion (K+). Potassium within plants is not synthesized into compounds and tends to remain in ionic form in cells and plant tissue. Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, starch formation and translocation of sugars within plants. It is necessary for the development of chlorophyll, although it is not part of its molecular structure.
The main functions of potassium in plants are in the translocation of sugars and its involvement in photosynthesis.
## Soil Potassium Reactions and Availability
In most soils (except extremely sandy soils in high rainfall regions), total potassium contents are high. Similar to nitrogen and phosphorus, not all of the total potassium is available for plant growth. The relationship of unavailable, slowly available and readily available forms of potassium is illustrated in Figure 2.9. Only 1 to 2 percent of the total potassium in soils is readily available. Of this, approximately 90 percent is exchangeable or attached to the outside edge of clays, and the remaining 10 percent is in the soil solution. Equilibrium exists between the nonexchangeable, exchangeable and water soluble forms. When the plant removes potassium from the water soluble form, the concentration is re- adjusted by the exchangeable and nonexchangeable forms. In the case of added potassium, some of the available forms will move toward nonexchangeable forms. The nonexchangeable form also may be referred to as fixed. Certain 2:1 type clay minerals have pore space large enough for the potassium ions (K+) to become trapped, rendering the ions unavailable for immediate plant use. Potassium is positively charged and clays are negatively charged and this makes the potassium ion relatively immobile in the soil. Except in extremely sandy soils, leaching losses under normal Oklahoma conditions are minimal. The largest loss comes from crop removal, particularly where hay crops are produced. Most of western Oklahoma soils have adequate plant available potassium, however, this can best be determined for individual fields by soil testing.
Slowly Available Potassium (Nonexchangeable (fixed)) 1 to 10% of total potassium
Readily Available Potassium (Exchangeable and solution) 1 to 2% of total potassium
## Calcium
Calcium is taken up by plants as the cation, Ca$^{+}$. Calcium functions in the plant in cell wall development and formation. Calcium is not translocated in plants and consequently, the deficiency of calcium will be observed first in the new, developing plant tissue. Calcium deficient tissue fails to develop normal morphological features and will appear to be an undifferentiated gelatinous mass in the region of new leaf development.
The calcium ion is referred to as a basic ion because the element reacts with water to form the strong base calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)$\_{2}$. Calcium is held tightly on the negatively charged clay and organic particles in soils and is abundant in soils that have developed in arid and semi-arid climates. Because of this, it is primarily responsible for maintaining these soils at or near a neutral pH. In addition to unweathered primary and secondary minerals, soils often contain calcium in the form of impure lime (calcium carbonate, CaCO$\_{3}$) and gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO$\_{4}$). Except in the production of peanuts on sandy, acid soils, calcium deficiency in Oklahoma crops has not been substantiated by research. However, because calcium absorption by the developing peanut pod is not very effective from soils with a marginal supply of calcium, peanut producers often apply gypsum over the pegging zone just before the plant begins to peg to assure the crop will be adequately supplied with calcium. For most soils, before the available calcium level reaches a critically low point, the soil pH will become so low that soil acidity will be a major limitation to crop production. Since the common correction of acid soils is to add lime in amounts of tons per acre, this practice will incidentally maintain a high level of available calcium for crops.
Magnesium Magnesium is absorbed as the divalent cation, Mg$^{2+}$, and functions in many enzymatic reactions as a co-factor or in a co-enzyme. The most noteworthy function of magnesium in plants is as the central cation in the chlorophyll mol -ecule. Without magnesium, plants cannot produce adequate chlorophyll and will lose their green color and ability to carry out photosynthesis, the process responsible for capturing energy from sunlight and converting it into chemical energy within the plant. Magnesium deficiency will result in yellow, stunted plants.
Magnesium reactions in soils are similar to calcium in many respects. Magnesium, like calcium, is a basic ion that generally is abundant in arid and semi-arid soils with near neutral pH. Deficiencies most often occur in deep sandy soils with a history of high forage production (8 to 10 tons per acre annually), where forage has been removed as hay. In Oklahoma, deficiencies have occasionally been noted under these conditions in the eastern half of the state. Like calcium, deficiencies are likely to occur on acid soils, and since most lime will contain a small amount (2 to 5 percent) of magnesium carbonate, liming acid soils on a regular basis usually will assure an abundant supply of plant available magne -siium. If magnesium deficiency is a reoccurring problem, dolomitic lime (primar -ily magnesium carbonate) should be sought as a liming source.
## Sulfur
Sulfur is absorbed by plants as the sulfate anion, SO$\_{4}$$^{2-}$. Sulfur is a component of three of the 21 essential amino acids and thus, is critical to the formation and function of proteins. Sulfur utility deficiency causes plants to become light green and stunted. Most crops require about 1/20 the amount of sulfur that they do of nitrogen. Bumper yields of most crops can be supported by 5 to 15 pounds per acre of sulfur.
Sulfur is found in soil in the form of soil organic matter (like nitrogen), dis solved in the soil solution as the sulfate ion and as a part of the solid mineral matter of soils. Sulfur compounds, such as gypsum, are slightly soluble in water. Like nitrate nitrogen, the negatively charged sulfate ion is not readily adsorbed to clay and humus particles and may be leached into the subsoil with a porous surface soil layer. Sulfur deficiencies most often occur in deep sandy soils, low in organic matter, with a history of high crop production and removal. Soils that have a well developed B horizon seldom will be deficient in sulfur because sul fur will not leach out of the root zone and the accumulated sulfur in the subsoil will adequately satisfy crop needs. This is one of the reasons why early sulphur deficiencies often disappear at late stages of growth, at which time roots have penetrated subsoil horizons rich in sulfur. Plant deficiencies in general show up on the younger leaves, with light yellow discoloration. Soils that contain normal amounts of organic matter will release sulfur by mineralization, much like nitrogen, and this will contribute significantly to meeting crop needs. Sulfur deficiencies in Oklahoma are very rare because on the average there is about 6 pounds per acre of sulfur added to soils annually in the form of rainfall. Sulfur is still added incidentally as a component of phosphate fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals which contribute significantly to the requirement of crops.
Also, Oklahoma irrigation waters are usually high in sulfate, and add significant amounts each year (for every ppm of sulfate-S, 2.7 pounds per acre of sulfur is added for each acre-foot of irrigation).
## Micronutrients
The micronutrients are grouped together because they are all required by plants in very small amounts. Some, like molybdenum (Mo), are required in such small amounts that deficiencies can be corrected by applying the element at only a fraction of a pound per acre. Similarly, chlorine is needed in such small quantities that when researchers at the University of California were attempting to document its necessity, they found that touching plant leaves with their fingers transferred enough chlorine from the perspiration on their skin to meet the plant's requirements. These elements do not function in plants as a component of structural tissues like primary and secondary nutrients. Instead, micronutrients are mainly involved in metabolic reactions as a part of enzymes where they are used over and over without being consumed. Nevertheless, their functions are very specific and cannot be substituted for by some other element. Deficiencies of any of the elements can be corrected by foliar application of solutions containing the element.
## Manganese, Chlorine, Copper and Molybdenum
Deficiencies of these nutrients have yet to be documented in Oklahoma, except for chlorine in wheat on a deep sandy soil near Perkins. Each of the elements is adsorbed by plants in the ionic form, manganese and copper as the divalent cations Mn$\_{2}$+ and Cu$^{2+}$, molybdenum as the oxyanion MoO$\_{4}$$^{-}$, and chlorine as the simple Cl anion. Of these four nutrients, molybdenum and chlorine are probably the most likely to receive attention. Molybdenum functions in plants in the enzyme nitrate reductase, which is very important in nitrogen metabolism in legumes. Availability is reduced in acid soils and often if molybde num availability is marginal it can be increased to adequate levels by simply lim ing the soil. Where large seeded legumes are grown, like soybeans or peanuts, obtaining seed that was grown with a good supply of molybdenum will avoid the deficiency because normal levels of molybdenum in the seed will be enough to meet the plant needs.
Soil fertility research in the Great Plains has occasionally shown small grain response to fertilizers containing chlorine. Often the response has been the result of disease suppression (take-all disease) rather than correction of an actual nutrient deficiency in the plant, and usually it has been in areas that do not commonly apply potassium fertilizers containing chloride (such as muriate of potash or potassium chloride, 0-0-62).
## Boron
Boron is absorbed by plants as uncharged boric acid, B(OH)$\_{3}$, the chemical form also present in soil solution. Boron is believed to function in plants in the translocation of sugars. Because B is uncharged in soil solution and it forms slightly soluble compounds, it also is relatively mobile in soils and can be
leached out of the surface soil. This is sometimes critical in peanut production because of the very sandy, porous soils peanuts are produced in. As a result, boron deficiency has been reported in peanuts. The deficiency manifests itself as a condition known as "hollow heart" whereby the center of the nut is not completely filled and an inferior crop is harvested. Although alfalfa has an annual requirement twice that of peanuts, the deficiency of boron has never been documented in alfalfa. The reason for this is likely because alfalfa is usually grown in deep, medium textured soils and because alfalfa has an extensive root system even at lower depths in the soil profile. Whenever boron deficiencies are suspected, and if boron fertilizer is applied, care should be exercised as toxicities can be created by simply doubling the recommended rate.
## Iron and Zinc
Iron and zinc deficiencies both occur in Oklahoma and are associated with unique soil and crop situations. Zinc is absorbed as the divalent cation Zn$^{2+}$, while iron is absorbed as a "plant provided" chelated Fe$\_{3}$ + complex by grass type plants and as the "plant-reduced" divalent cation Fe$\_{2}$ + by broad-leaved plants.
Corn is sensitive to moderately low soil zinc levels and deficiencies may occur at DTPA soil test values below 0.8 parts per million. Winter wheat, on the other hand, has been grown in research experiments near Woodward, Oklahoma where the soil test zinc value was less than 0.15 parts per million without showing any deficiency or responding to zinc fertilizer. Obviously winter wheat is very effective in utilizing small amounts of soil zinc. Zinc deficiencies in corn are most common where fields have been leveled or for some other reason the topsoil has been removed and the surface soil has very little organic matter and where the subsoil pH is high. Deficiencies are easily corrected by broadcast application of about 4 to 6 pounds per acre of zinc preplant. An application of this rate should remove the deficiency for 3 to 4 years. The most sensitive plant to zinc deficiency in Oklahoma is pecans. Deficiencies may occur whenever DTPA soil test values are less than 2.0 parts per million. Foliar sprays are very effective in preventing and/or correcting the deficiency. A single application usually lasting the entire growing season.
Iron deficiency is most common in sorghum and sorghum-sudan crops in Oklahoma. The occurrence is limited to the western half of the state in soils that are slightly alkaline (high above 7.5). All soils in Oklahoma contain large amounts of iron, usually in excess of 50,000 pounds per acre. However, almost all of this iron is in a form that is not available to crops, like rust. Iron availability is increased greatly in acid soils, consequently the deficiency is seldom observed in any crops in eastern and central Oklahoma, where soil pH is usually less than 7.0. Iron deficiency cannot be corrected by soil application of iron-containing fertilizers because the iron from the fertilizer is quickly converted to unavailable iron just like that already present in the soil. The exception to this general rule is the use of chelated iron. However, these fertilizer materials can be cost prohibitive for field scale use. Foliar application of iron sulfate solutions is effective for supplying iron to deficient plants. Unfortunately, iron is not translocated in the plant and subsequent new leaves will again exhibit the interveinal chlorosis (yellow between the veins) characteristic of iron deficiency. Repeated spraying will provide iron for normal growth but often will be cost prohibitive. The most
effective long-term corrective measure for dealing with iron chlorosis is to increase soil organic matter since iron deficiency usually is limited to small areas of a field. Organic matter can be effectively increased by annual additions of animal manure or rotted hay. This results in additional chelating of iron and also has a tendency to acidify the soil. Broadleaf plants have what is called an "adaptive response mechanism" that allows them to make iron more available if they experience iron stress. The strength of this mechanism is a genetic trait and some varieties, such as 'forest' soybeans, do not possess this ability and will often become chlorotic if grown in neutral or alkaline soils.
## The Mobility Concept
The nutrient mobility concept as it relates to soil fertility was first proposed in 1954 by Roger H. Bray at the University of Illinois. Much research since then has supported his mobility concept and it is now considered basic to the understanding of soil fertility. Bray simplified all the soil chemistry surrounding the essential nutrients to the fact that some are quite mobile in soils and others are relatively immobile.
## Mobile Nutrients
Plants are able to extract mobile nutrients from a large volume of soil, even soil beyond the furthest extension of their roots because as the plants extract water from around their roots, water from further away moves toward the root and carries the mobile nutrient with it. Figure 2.10 illustrates this point. Plants obtain mobile nutrients from a 'root system sorption zone' and are capable of using nearly all of the mobile nutrient (or mobile form of the nutrient) if the supply is limited. According to Bray, the mobile nutrients are: nitrogen, sulfur, boron and chlorine.
In a field situation, where there is more than one plant, root system sorption zones overlap if plants are close enough together as illustrated in Figure 2.11. As a result there is a volume of soil between plants where the nutrient is in demand by both plants. As plants are placed closer and closer together (e.g. increasing plant population to increase potential yield) the competition for nu -trients increases. Unless the competition among plants in a field for a mobile nutrient is satisfied by supplying more of the nutrient, the growth and yield of plants will be restricted. From this simple illustration we learn the supply of mobile nutrients like nitrogen must be provided in direct proportion to the number of plants, or potential yield of the crop. This 'supply' can be easily determined by calculating the amount of nutrient that will be taken up by the crop. To do this, we only need to know the average concentration of the nutrient in the crop and what the crop yield will be. Average nutrient concentrations are commonly known, however yields vary from field to field and year to year. For this reason it is critical to have in mind a "yield goal" or expected yield in order to determine fertilizer needs for mobile nutrients like nitrogen. For example, in Oklahoma the rule "2 pounds nitrogen per acre for every bushel of wheat" is commonly used to estimate the nitrogen requirements of winter wheat. This rule takes into account that soil test and fertilizer nitrogen will only be about 70 percent utilized by the
Figure 2.10. The large volume of soil from which plants extract mobile nutrients (root system sorption zone).
Figure 2.11. Competition among plants brought about by increasing yield goal.
plant. Because mobile nutrients are almost completely extracted from the root system zone, soil test values like nitrate nitrogen will change drastically from one year to the next in relation to how much nitrogen was available and the crop yield.
## Immobile Nutrients
Nutrients that are immobile in the soil are: phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper and molybdenum. These nutrients are not transported to plant roots as soil water moves to and is absorbed by the root. These nutrients are absorbed from the soil and soil water that is right next to the root surface. Because of this there is only a small volume of soil next to the root surface that is involved in supplying immobile nutrients to plants. Figure 2.12 identifies this soil volume as the root surface sorption zone. This figure illustrates that only a small fraction of the soil in the total rooting zone is actually involved in supplying immobile nutrients. The total amount of immobile nutrient in the whole soil volume is not as important as the concentration right next to the root surface. Because only the thin layer of soil surrounding the roots is involved in supplying immobile nutrients, when more plants are considered as in Figure 2.13, there is still little or no competition among the plants for immobile nutrients. Competition would occur only at points where roots from adjacent plants actually came in contact with one another. This illustration indicates that the supply of immobile nutrients like phosphorus does not have to be adjusted (increased) in relation to an increase in yield goal or yield potential. If soil availability is adequate for a 25-buelshe wheat yield, then in the event that conditions are favorable (better moisture supply) for 50+plus-buelyield, the more extensive root system that develops for the higher yield will explore new soil and extract the required phosphorus.
The mobility concept and these simple illustrations can help one understand the basis for some common practices and observations. For example, immobile nutrient fertilizers usually are more effective if they can be incorporated, but especially should be placed where roots have a high probability of coming in contact with the fertilizer. This is why band applying phosphate fertilizers is generally more effective than the same rate broadcast and incorporated. Mobile nutrients like nitrogen can be broadcast during the growing season (topdressing wheat) because they are moved easily to the roots with rain or irrigation. The phosphorus soil test does not change much from year to year regardless of the previous year's yield or fertilizer rate because much of the soil was not in contact with the roots or fertilizer and its available phosphorus status was therefore unchanged. Continued broadcast application of high rates of phosphorus will cause a build up and an increase in the soil test phosphorus because only a fraction (15 to 20 percent) of the fertilizer comes in contact with the roots (fertilizes the crop) and the rest reacts only with the soil (fertilizes the soil).
It sometimes is useful to compare mobile and immobile nutrients and their management to fuel and oil for a tractor or pickup. Fuel is required in relation to the amount of work expected from the tractor in much the same way nitrogen is required in relation to the amount of yield expected from the crop. Oil is required more in relation to the level in the crankcase identified by the dipstick than by what or how much work is expected from the tractor (oil burners excepted).
Similarly, phosphorus and potassium requirements are determined from the soil test and the amount of fertilizer recommended does not depend on the yield goal. Like the dipstick that is calibrated with a mark showing full and 1-quart low, the soil test for phosphorus (and any immobile nutrient) must be calibrated by field research. Just as the dipstick is uniquely calibrated for each kind of tractor, soil test calibrations vary slightly for different crops and soils and may be somewhat unique for states and regions.
## Advanced Considerations
The students and faculty at OSU developed a nitrogen cycle (Figure 2.14) that includes various components interlinked with what has been presented here. In addition, this cycle includes the relationships of temperature, pH and oxygen with nitrogen dynamics in plant-soil systems. Note that this cycle is more complex than that illustrated in Figures 2.4, 2.6 or 2.7.
## Chapter 3. Problem Soils
Most soils in Oklahoma have developed under conditions that have resulted in them being naturally productive. Because of how they have been managed for agricultural production and otherwise changed by man's activities, some of these soils are now less productive. Two of the most common causes of pro ductivity losses are the development of acidic and saline (including saline-alkali and alkali) conditions. They are often considered as problem soils because they do not respond to normal management. Therefore, their treatment and manage ment should be different.
## Acid Soils
Soil acidity is a crop production problem of increasing concern in central and western Oklahoma. Although acid soil conditions are more widespread in eastern Oklahoma, their more natural occurrence has resulted in farm operators being better able to manage soil acidity in that part of the state. However, in central and western Oklahoma this problem is increasing with time.
The median soil pH of all agricultural samples tested by the Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory from 2009 to 2013 was 6.1. This means 50 percent of the sample had a pH less than 6.1 and 50 percent higher than 6.1 statewide. Some counties had more than 35 percent of fields with pH lower than 5.5, which is critically low for most field crops. The median soil pH for all counties is shown in Figure 3.1. More acidic soils frequently are found in the central part of the state, which likely is due to intensive crop production.
## Why Soils are Acidic
The four major causes for soils to become acidic are listed below:
- 1. Rainfall and leaching
- 2. Acidic parent material
- 3. Organic matter decay
- 4. Harvest of high yielding crops
- 5. Nitrification of ammonium
The above causes of soil acidity are most easily understood when we consider a soil is acidic when there is an abundance of acidic cations, like hydrogen (H+) and aluminum (Al$^{+}$) present compared to the alkaline cations like calcium (Ca$^{2+}$), magnesium (Mg$^{2+}$), potassium (K$^{+}$), and sodium (Na$^{+}$).
## Rainfall and Leaching
Excessive rainfall is an effective agent for removing basic cations. In Okla- homa, for example, we generally can conclude soils are naturally acidic if the rainfall is above about 30 inches per year. Therefore, soils east of I-35 tend to be acidic and those west of I-35, alkaline. There are many exceptions to this rule though, mostly as a result of item 4, intensive crop production and application of nitrogen fertilizers. Rainfall is most effective in causing soils to become acidic if a lot of water moves through the soil rapidly. Sandy soils are often the first to become acidic because water percolates rapidly, and sandy soils contain only a small reservoir (buffer capacity) of bases due to low clay and organic matter contents. Since the effect of rainfall on acid soil development is very slow, it may take hundreds of years for new parent material to become acidic even under high rainfall.
## Parent Material
Due to differences in chemical composition of parent materials, soils will become acidic after different lengths of time. Thus, soils that developed from granite material are likely to be more acidic than soils developed from calcareous shale or limestone.
## Organic Matter Decay
Decaying organic matter produces H + which is responsible for acidity. The carbon dioxide (CO$\_{2}$) produced by decaying organic matter reacts with water in the soil to form the weak acid called carbonic acid. This is the same acid that develops when CO$\_{2}$ in the atmosphere reacts with rain to form acid rain. Several organic acids are also produced by decaying organic matter, but they are also weak acids. Like rainfall, the contribution to acid soil development by decaying organic matter is generally very small, and it would only be the accumulated effects of many years that might ever be measured in a field.
## Crop Production
Harvesting of crops has its effect on soil acidity development because crops absorb lime-like elements, as cations, for their nutrition. When these crops are harvested and the yield is removed from the field, some of the basic material responsible for counteracting the acidity developed by other processes is lost, and
the net effect is increased soil acidity. Increasing crop yields will cause greater amounts of basic material to be removed. Grain contains less basic materials than leaves or stems. For this reason, soil acidity will develop faster under con -tinuous wheat pasture than when only grain is harvested. High yielding forages, such as Bermudagrass or alfalfa, can cause soil acidity to develop faster than with other crops.
Table 3.1 identifies the approximate amount of lime-like elements removed from the soil by a 30-bushel wheat crop. Note there is almost four times as much lime material removed in the forage as the grain. This explains why wheat pasture that is grazed will become acidic much faster than when grain alone is produced. Using 50 percent Effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime, it would take about one ton every 10 years to maintain soil pH when straw (or forage) and grain are harvested annually at the 30-bushes-per-acre level.
## Nitrification
The use of fertilizers, especially those supplying nitrogen, often is a cause of soil acidity. Acidity is produced when ammonium containing materials are transformed to nitrate in the soil. The more ammoniacal nitrogen fertilizer is applied, the more acidic the soil gets.
| Calcium | Potassium | Magnesium | Sodium | Total |
|-----------|-------------------------------|-------------|----------|---------|
| | CALCIUM CARBONATE EQUIVALENTS | | | |
| Grain | 2 | 10 | 10 | 2 |
| Straw* | 11 | 45 | 14 | 79 |
| Total | 13 | 55 | 24 | 11 |
- *Straw/forage
## What Happens in Acid Soils
Knowing the soil pH helps identify the kinds of chemical reactions likely to occur in soils. Generally, the most important reactions, from the standpoint of crop production are those dealing with solubilities of compounds or materials in soils. In this regard, we are most concerned with the effects of pH on the availability of toxic elements and nutrient elements.
Toxic elements like aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) are the major causes for crop failure in acid soils. These elements are a problem in acid soils because they are more soluble (available for plant uptake) at low pH. In other words, more of the solid form of these elements will dissolve in water when the pH is very low. There is always a lot of solid aluminum present in soils because it is a part of most clay particles.
Element Toxicities
When soil pH is above 5.5, aluminum in soils remains in a solid combination with other elements and is not harmful to plants. As pH drops below 5.5, aluminum containing materials begin to dissolve. Because of its nature as a trivalent cation (Al$^{3+}$), the amount of dissolved aluminum is 1,000 times greater at pH 4.5 than at 5.5 and 1,000 times greater at 3.5 than at 4.5. For this reason, some crops may seem to do very well, but then fail completely with just a small change in soil pH. Wheat, for example, may do well even at pH 5.0, but usually will fail completely at a pH of 4.0.
The relationship between pH and dissolved manganese in the soil is similar to that described for aluminum, except that manganese (Mn$^{2+}$) only increases 100 fold when the pH drops from 5.0 to 4.0.
Toxic levels of aluminum harm the crop by root pruning. That is, a small amount of aluminum in the soil solution in excess of what is normal causes the roots of most plants to either deteriorate or stop growing. As a result, the plants are unable to normally absorb water and nutrients, appear stunted and exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms, especially those for phosphorus. The final effect is either complete crop failure or significant yield loss. Often, the field will appear to be under greater stress from pests, such as weeds, because of the poor crop conditions.
Toxic levels of manganese interfere with normal growth processes in above ground plant parts. This usually results in stunted, discolored growth and poor yields.
## Desirable pH
The adverse effect of these toxic elements is most easily (and economically) eliminated by liming the soil. Liming raises soil pH and causes aluminum and manganese to go from the soil solution back into solid (non-toxic) chemical forms. For grasses, raising soil pH to 5.5 will generally restore normal yields. Legumes, on the other hand, do best in a calcium-rich environment and often need a soil pH between 6.5 and 7.0 for maximum yields.
Soil pH in the range of 6.0 to 7.0 also is desirable from the stand point of optimum nutrient availability. However, the most common nutrient deficiencies in Oklahoma are for nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, and availability of these elements will not be greatly changed by liming. Nutrients most affected by soil pH are iron and molybdenum. Iron deficiency is more likely to occur in non-acid (high pH) soils. Molybdenum deficiency is not common in Oklahoma, but would be most apt to occur in acid soils and could be corrected by liming.
## Soil Buffer Capacity and Buffer Index
Although crops remove large quantities of lime-like materials that are harvested each year, the soil pH usually does not change noticeably from one season to the next. Because soil pH does not change quickly, it is said to be buffered. Buffer means the resistance to the change of pH.
There are several reasons why soils have this buffer ability or capacity. For example, in the Oklahoma Panhandle, soils commonly contain free calcium carbonate (lime). The term calcite is used to describe layers of soil material cemented by accumulated calcium carbonate. These accumulations provide a huge reserve
of lime that will maintain soil pH in the alkaline range (above pH 7.0 for genera-
tions, perhaps centuries, even with the most productive agricultural systems. A second contribution to the buffering capacity of soils is the release of basic chemical elements from normal chemical weathering of soil minerals. This is a very slow process that occurs whenever water is added to soil. The effect is influenced by the type of minerals in the soil, the amount and frequency of water addition, and soil temperature.
The most important source of buffer capacity in acid soils (no free lime pres- ent) is exchangeable cations. These are the lime-like chemical elements (mostly calcium) that are adsorbed on the surface of soil particles. These adsorbed basic materials act like a large reservoir that continually replenishes basic ma- terials in the soil solution when they are removed by a crop or neutralized by acid. Figure 3.2 illustrates this and the relationship between soil pH and buffer capacity.
As crops remove bases from soil water in the reservoir on the right (Figure 3.2), bases from the large reservoir of soil solids (clay and humus) on the left move to the soil solution and replenish the supply. Because of this relationship and the large reserve of bases from soil solids, the pH does not change much from month to month or even year to year. Also since the large reservoir on the left is shaped like a pyramid, pH can often be changed more easily by liming at pH near 6 than in the very acid pH 4.5 to 5.5 range.
Figure 3.3 shows the influence of soil organic matter and texture on buffer capacity. Both soils have a pH of 4.3, and are too acidic for efficient crop pro- duction. In order to provide a more favorable pH, the soils must each be limed. The amount of lime required will depend on the size of the large reservoirs and how base depleted they may be.
From these diagrams it is easy to understand why it takes much more lime to raise the pH of a clay soil with its large reservoir than it does for a sandy soil and its small reservoir. Also, because the reservoir of sandy soil is small, if acidifying conditions are equal, sandy soil will tend to become acidic more rapidly and need to be limed more frequently than a clayey soil.
## The Soil Test
Buffer Index, measured in the laboratory as a part of the OSU routine soil test, is an indirect estimate of the soil reservoir size for storing basic material. Because the test involves adding basic (lime-like) material to soils of pH less than 6.3 and then measuring pH again, the BI pH is larger when the reservoir is small. The two soils illustrated in Figure 3.3 need to be limed. The Pond Creek Silt Loam soil would have a Buffer Index value of about 6.2. About 4.2 tons of effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime would be required to raise the soil pH to 6.5. The sandy soil, having the same soil pH, would have a BI value of about 6.5 and require only 2.5 tons of effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime to reach the same pH. The field calibration for BI and lime requirement is provided in Table 3.2.
## How to Interpret pH and Buffer Index
Considering a soil test result of pH 5.8 and Buffer Index 6.8, where establishment of alfalfa is intended, the following steps are taken to determine the lime requirement.
First, the soil test pH of 5.8 is compared to the preferred pH for alfalfa in Table 3.3. Since the soil pH 5.8 is below the lowest pH in the preferred range, lime must be added to raise the pH to the desired level.
The amount of lime required is determined from Table 3.2 by locating the Buffer Index value of 6.8 in the left hand column and matching it to the number directly across from it (bold) under the middle column of numbers. In this case, 1.2 tons of effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime would be required.
If the intended crop is wheat instead of alfalfa, no lime is required because Table 3.3 shows that pH 5.8 is satisfactory for wheat production. Since the pH is satisfactory for wheat, the lime requirement would not be reported, even though the Buffer Index was measured. It would be important to regularly test this soil, especially if it were sandy, so lime could be applied before the soil became seriously acid (below pH 5.0) for wheat production.
Remember, the Buffer Index is used only as a guide for how much lime should be added to an acid soil when it is necessary to raise soil pH.
| | LIME REQUIRED | LIME REQUIRED |
|--------------|-----------------|------------------|
| Buffer Index | All other crops | Continuous wheat |
| 7.2+ | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 7.1 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| 7.0 | 0.7 | 0.5 |
| 6.9 | 1.0 | 0.5 |
| 6.8 | 1.2 | 0.6 |
| 6.7 | 1.4 | 0.7 |
| 6.6 | 1.9 | 1.0 |
| 6.5 | 2.5 | 1.3 |
| 6.4 | 3.1 | 1.6 |
| 6.3 | 3.7 | 1.9 |
| 6.2 | 4.2 | 2.1 |
"Effective calcium carbonate equivalent guaranteed by lime vendor.
| Crops | pH Range |
|------------------------------|--------------------------------|
| | Legumes |
| Cowpeas, Crimson Clover, | 5.5-7.0 |
| Mungbeans and Vetch | Alsike, Red and White, |
| (Ladino) Clovers,and | Arrowleaf Clover |
| Alfalfa and Sweet Clover | 6.0-7.0 |
| | Non-Legumes |
| Fescue and Weeping Lovegrass | 4.5-7.0 |
| Buckwheat | Sorghum, Sudan, Corn and Wheat |
| Bermuda, Canola | 5.5-7.0 |
| Barley | 6.3-7.0 |
## Lime Reactions
Soil acidity can be corrected only by neutralizing the acid present, which is done by adding a basic material. While there are many basic materials that can neutralize acids, most are too costly or difficult to manage. The most commonly used material is agricultural limestone (aglime). It is used because it is relatively inexpensive and easy to manage.
The reason limestone is easy to manage is because it is not very soluble, meaning it does not dissolve easily in water. For this reason, it is not very corrosive to equipment, and more importantly, its pH at equilibrium (after it has dissolved as much as it can and there is still some lime left in the water) is only about 8.3. This latter aspect is very important because even if an excessive amount of lime is applied, a harmful effect on crop yields would generally not take place.
The reaction of lime, or calcium carbonate (CaCO$\_{3}$), with an acid soil is illustrated by Figure 3.4.
This diagram shows that the acidity is on the surface of soil particles. As lime dissolves in the soil, calcium from the lime moves to the surface of soil particles and replaces the acidity (H+ and Al + ). The acidity reacts with carbonate (CO$\_{3}$) to form carbon dioxide (CO$\_{2}$), water (H$\_{2}$O) and insoluble Al. The end result is a soil that is less acid.
## Lime Research
Several field research experiments have been conducted on wheat in the past to examine suitable liming materials and application rates. A common feature of all effective commercially available liming materials is that they contain a basic lime-like material such as calcium or magnesium carbonate. Since it is ultimately the material from which other basic materials are derived, aglime is usually the lowest cost per ton of active ingredient (effective calcium carbonate equivalent, finely ground pure CaCO$\_{3}$ is defined to have an effective calcium carbonate equivalent of 100).
A long-term liming study on wheat was conducted during a nine-year period on a Pond Creek silt loam soil near Carrier, Oklahoma. Results of the study are
illustrated in Figure 3.5 and show through nine harvests, the yield of wheat was greatly improved by a single application of lime. It is important to note although 4.8 tons of effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime were recommended from the soil test in order to raise the pH to 6.8, one-fourth that rate (only 1.2 ton effective calcium carbonate equivalent) was sufficient for eight years to restore yields to almost 100 percent of the yield obtained when 4.8 tons effective calci um carbonate equivalent were applied. The 2.4 tons effective calcium carbonate equivalent rate, one-half the normally recommended rate, was still effective at the end of the experiment.
Using information from field studies, such as the Carrier site, a relationship between OSU soil test pH values and expected wheat yield has been devel -
oped (Figure 3.6). The yield at a given pH is expressed as relative yield. This term means the expected yield as a percentage of that possible if soil acidity was not a limiting factor. For example, if a 40-bushel yield is expected with no acidity problems then at a soil pH of 5.0 a relative yield of 85 percent or 34 bushels, would be expected.
## Lime Rates
## Minimum Amounts
The amount of lime to apply for wheat production depends on whether you are growing continuous wheat or will rotate wheat with a legume. If wheat alone is grown year after year, it is necessary to only apply a rate of lime to raise the pH to above 5.5 because higher pH may favor some root rot diseases. If legumes are sometimes grown, then soil pH should be raised to 6.5 or above. Thus, for continuous wheat the following recommendation is made: The mini mum amount of lime to apply is 0.5 ton effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime or 50 percent of the soil test deficiency amount required to raise the pH to 6.5, whichever is greater. An OSU soil test will identify these lime rates for wheat whenever the soil pH is below 5.5.
## Calculating Rates
Lime requirements are expressed in terms of Effective calcium carbonate equivalent. The Effective calcium carbonate equivalent is provided as a guaran tee from lime vendors who are registered to sell aglime in Oklahoma. The guar antee is obtained by an analysis of the lime by the Oklahoma State Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry. There are two components to the determination by their lab. First, the purity of the lime is determined chemically (purity factor). In this test they analyze for the fraction of CaCO$\_{3}$, or its equivalent, in the lime material. The second measurement is a determination of how finely the lime particles are ground (fineness factor). The fineness factor is determined by weighing sieved portions of a lime sample. The factor is then calculated by taking one-half times the fraction (e.g. 0.90) of sample passing an 8 mesh sieve plus one-half times the fraction (e.g. 0.70) of sample passing a 60 mesh sieve. The fineness factor for these example values would be:
$$. 5 \cdot x 0.9 0 + . 5 \cdot x 0.7 0 = 0. 8 0$$
The purity factor (a fraction) and the fineness factor (a fraction) are multi plied by 100 to obtain the effective calcium carbonate equivalent value. If the purity factor was 0.90 (90 percent pure or equivalent calcium carbonate) then the effective calcium carbonate equivalent would be (0.90 x 0.80) x 100, or 72 percent. The more CaCO$\_{3 }$in the material and the finer the particle size, the greater the effective calcium carbonate equivalent. Good quality lime will have an effective calcium carbonate equivalent value above 60 percent. Because aglime does not always have an effective calcium carbonate equivalent of 100 percent, the amount required to provide a given amount of 100 percent effective calcium carbonate equivalent must be calculated. The calculations to use are shown below:
Effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime required x 100 = aglime required % Effective calcium carbonate equivalent
For example, let us assume the available aglime was 72 percent effective calcium carbonate equivalent and the soil test indicated a need for 1.5 tons effective calcium carbonate equivalent to raise the soil pH to the desired level. The calculations would be:
$$1. 5 \times 1 0 0 _ { 7 } = 2. 1 \, t o n s \, o f \, a g l i m e$$
So, 2.1 tons per acre of the 72 percent effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime would have to be applied in order to get the 1.5 tons of 100 percent effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime required to do the job.
## Lime Applications
Because lime does not dissolve easily in water, it must be treated similarly to fertilizers that supply the soil with immobile nutrients like phosphorus. Thus, for lime to be most effective in neutralizing soil acidity it must be thoroughly mixed with the soil. Since neutralization involves a reaction between soil particles and lime particles, the better lime is mixed with the soil, the more efficiently the acidity is neutralized. For this reason, wet materials (like that from water treatment plants) which cannot be thoroughly mixed with the soil are often less effective. Similarly, pelleted lime particles are too large to mix well with small soil particles. Attempts to mix these materials with soil often result in soil acidity being neutralized only near the lime aggregates (or pellets), whereas acidity between aggregates remains unaffected. Once the proper rate has been determined and the lime has been spread to give a uniform application over the field, it is best to incorporate it with a light tillage operation such as disking. Disking can be followed by plowing, but care should be taken not to plow too deeply or the lime will be diluted by subsoil and be less effective. Lime rates are calculated on the basis of neutralizing the top six inches of soil.
Since the lime reaction involves water, the effect of lime will be very slow in dry soil. Even when everything is done correctly and the soil moist, it often takes a year or more for a measurable change in soil pH to occur. For this reason, liming for wheat production should be done as soon after harvest as possible. However, when the soil pH is extremely low, sufficient change may occur in just a few weeks and make the difference between being able to establish a wheat crop and having a failure.
A similar approach should be used for annual planting of other grasses. When continuous production of perennial grasses is planned, the full rate identified by the soil test buffer index should be applied pre-plant. This practice allows incorporation of the lime to maximize its reaction with soil and will maintain a desirable pH for several years after establishment. Careful monitoring of high producing forage grasses, such as Bermudagrasses, by periodic soil testing will identify lime needs early enough to maintain desirable soil pH by unincorporated broadcast application.
The most common and most effective liming material continues to be ground aglime. It is marketed by the ton, should generally be powdery with only a small percentage of coarse (sand size) particles, and have an effective calcium carbonate equivalent of 50 percent or greater. Variations and different formulations of ground aglime have been developed and marketed. These materials often are promoted on the basis of being more effective or less expensive. The merits
"Liquid Lime" is a formulation of high-quality aglime (effective calcium carbonate equivalent above 90 percent) with water and enough clay to keep the lime in suspension. The amount of water added may range from 35 to 50 percent Care should be taken to make sure that the added water is not being charged for, as if it were high quality lime. When 90 percent effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime is mixed 50 percent (weight to weight) with water, the resulting product is only 45 percent effective calcium carbonate equivalent lime (90 percent x .50 = 45 percent). The fact that it is suspended in water does not increase its effectiveness. On the contrary, wet lime will not mix as easily with soil and therefore, its neutralizing effectiveness may be less than an equal amount of dry effective calcium carbonate equivalent aglime.
Similarly, "water treatment lime" may not be as effective as an equal rate of aglime. This material is a waste product from water treatment plants. Although it has a high Effective calcium carbonate equivalent, it often is wet when applied and a good mixture with soil is difficult to obtain. Too often, large chunks or globs remain mixed with the soil and only the acid soil next to the chunk of lime is neutralized, leaving large areas of soil between chunks that remain acid.
Pelleted lime is finely ground lime pressed into pellets. Until the pellets physi -cally break up and the fragments of powder size lime become thoroughly mixed with soil, these too are limited in neutralizing soil acidity. Pellets, liquid lime, and water treatment lime can be spread or applied without dust common to good aglime. Although easily visible, airborne dust associated with aglime application represents only a small fraction of the total applied, and loss from the field should not be significant.
Finally, sometimes coarse road grade lime is in abundance and can be pur chased at a very low cost. This cheap lime is too coarse to have a reasonable effective calcium carbonate equivalent and will not be sold as aglime. Because of the existing aglime law in Oklahoma, whenever a material is marketed and sold in Oklahoma as aglime it must be accompanied by a guaranteed effective calcium carbonate equivalent. The guaranteed effective calcium carbonate equivalent must be of the formulated product and not its ingredients.
## Reducing Metal Toxicity
## Fertilizer Reactions
Phosphate in the soil has long been known to be less available to crops in some extremely acid soils because it reacts with aluminum and/or manganese, which are more available in acid soils. When phosphate reacts with these metals, the compound formed is a very insoluble solid (such as aluminum phos -
phosphate). As a result, not only is the phosphate unavailable, but also the aluminum and manganese are unavailable. For these reasons, when phosphate fertilizers are banded with the seed at planting time, the harmful effects of toxic aluminum and manganese are greatly reduced, and near-normal yields may be obtained. Figure 3.7 illustrates the benefit of this practice for both grain and forage production.
## Phosphate Materials and Rates
Figure 3.7 also shows a higher rate of phosphate may be needed in order to get maximum benefits for fall forage production. It is especially important to use the higher rate for forage production on soil that has a pH below 4.5. The use of phosphate fertilizer in this way does not change soil pH. Also, within a few months after all the phosphate has been used up, more aluminum and manganese may become available. While this may not affect the developed crop, it will affect the next crop in the seedling stage. As a result, phosphate fertilizer must be applied each year whereas lime only needs to be applied every five to eight years. On the other hand, buildup of soil test phosphorus above crop needs may lead to increased phosphorus in the runoff.
## When to Use Phosphate
As stated earlier, acid soil is best neutralized by adding aglime. However, seed-applied phosphate (either ammonium polyphosphate or diammonium phosphate) should be considered for acid wheatland soils when:
- 1. the land is owned by someone who will not provide a long-term lease or pay some of the cost for liming,
- 2. the soil acidity problem is discovered too late for lime application in a given season or
- 3. the soil has a low soil test value for phosphorus.
It is important to remember this use of phosphate fertilizer is very different from normal. Banding phosphate on acid soils can increase yields even when
the phosphate soil test value is high (more than 65), not because more phos- phate is provided to the plant, but because metal toxicity is reduced. Also, it is important to remember the soil continues to become more acidic with time. Eventually, lime must be added to the soil to neutralize acidity.
## Saline and Alkali Soil
Two other problem soils are salty (saline) soils and slick-spot (alkali or sodic) soils. A third problem soil often develops from slick spots when they are poorly managed. This is the saline-alkali soil which results when slick-spot soils be come salty.
Although all problem soils may be identified by poor crop production, these soils have other similarities and differences that are important to know before attempting to improve or reclaim them.
Saline soils are soils that contain at least 2600 parts per million dissolved salts in the solution from a soil saturated with water. The salt content is estimated by laboratory measurement of how well the soil water conducts electricity, and saline soils are those with an electrical conductivity (EC) of 4,000 micromohs/cm (about 2,600 parts per million total dissolved salt). This level of salts is great enough to reduce production of salt-sensitive crops. Normal, productive agricultural soils commonly have electrical conductivity values below 1,000.
Alkali soils are soils which contain enough sodium to cause 15 percent of the cation exchange sites to be occupied by sodium. Sodium in the soil prevents clay particles (and other very small, colloidal sized particles such as humus) from coming together and forming large soil aggregates. When soils contain 15 percent or more of exchangeable sodium most of the clay and humus particles are unattached or dispersed. These soils commonly have a pH of 8.5 or above (alkali). Some Oklahoma soils become dispersed when the exchangeable so-
| Normal | Saltline Soil |
|-------------------------------|----------------------|
| Soll | Increase salt hazard |
| % | Modic Soil |
| General limit for most plants | |
dium is as low as 7 percent. Productive agricultural soils often have less than 1 percent exchangeable sodium. Soils can be classified into 4 groups based on the EC and ESP of saturated paste extract. They are illustrated in Figure 3.8.
## Characteristics of Saline Soils
## Small, Growing Areas Affected
Naturally developed saline soils usually represent only small areas of a field. Often these are low-lying parts of the field that may have poor internal soil drainage. Other small areas occur on slopes where erosion has exposed saline or alkali subsoil. Because low areas frequently are wet when the rest of the field is dry enough for cultivation, these small areas frequently are cultivated when the soil is too wet. This results in the soil becoming compacted in and around the area. Water does not move easily through the compacted soil so more water evaporates, leaving salts from the water to accumulate. As a result, the affected area increases with time.
## Poor Yield
Crop production usually is less than normal in salt affected areas. Yield reduction is greatest in years of less than normal rainfall or when water stress has been a yield limiting factor. Salts tie up much of the water in the soil and prevent plants from absorbing it. Seedlings are the most sensitive to water stress and crop stand is reduced because of seedling death and poor yield results.
## White Surface Crusit
As water evaporates from saline soils, salts in the water are left behind to accumulate on the soil surface. Salts are light colored and when accumulation has continued for several days they form a very thin white film on the soil surface. During hot, dry weather, the light film will show up first along edges of the salt problem areas. The center of these areas usually has the most salt and will dry out last.
## Good Soil Tilth
Saline soils generally have excellent physical conditions throughout the tillage depth. This is caused by salts effectively neutralizing the negative charge of clay particles, allowing them to attach to one another. When these soils are not too wet, the soil is friable, mellow and easily tilled.
## High Soil Fertility
Soil that has been saline for several years usually will be very fertile, and high nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium soil test values are often a clue of a problem salty soil. These nutrients build up in salty areas when there is little crop nutrient removal and the area is fertilized each year. Soil pH does not change in relation to salt content and it cannot be used as an indicator.
## Characteristics of Alkali Soils
Except as noted, alkali soils have characteristics similar to saline soils. For this reason, one problem soil may be confused with another. Their differences, however, are important to note as they relate to correcting the problem soils.
Poor Soil Tilth
The excess sodium in alkali soils does not allow soil particles to easily attach to one another. As a result, alkali soil dispersed and not friable or mellow like sa -line soil. Instead, alkali soil is slick-spot soil that is greasy when wet, especially if it is fine textured, and often very hard when dry. This poor physical condition makes these soils difficult to manage. They often are either too wet or too dry for tillage. Poor seed germination and stand establishment are common because good seeded preparation is seldom accomplished. As a result, yields usually are lower than the rest of the field and fertility may build up.
## Dark- or Light-Colored Surface
Soil colloids floating in the soil water are left as a thin film on the surface after water evaporates. The surface color will be darker than the rest of the field (black-alkali) when the particles are mainly humus since humic acid dissolves in alkali solution and lighter (white-alkali) when the particles are mainly clay and salts. The salts show up as a film when the surface dries.
## Droughty Water
Large pores or channels in the soil which allow water entry and penetration become plugged with dispersed clay and humus. As a result, the subsoil may be very dry even though water is ponded on the surface. Plants that become established often suffer water stress and may eventually die from lack of water and/or oxygen.
## Reclamation
In many instances, saline soils and alkali soils can be reclaimed by following a definite series of management steps designed to leach or wash out the salts or sodium. The order and description of these steps follows.
## Verify Problem
The first step to solving the problem is clearly identifying it. This is best done by having the soil tested. Suspected areas should be sampled separate from the rest of the field. It is best to sample during a dry period of the growing sea -son when affected areas of the field can easily be identified by poor crop growth. Samples should be taken at least one week from the last rain or irrigation and only the top three inches of soil should be sampled. Several small samples of the affected area should be combined in a plastic bucket and mixed to get a good sample.
About one pint of soil is required for the test which is done by the OSU Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory. Samples should be submitted through your County Extension Office requesting a salinity management test. Testing takes about a week and a small fee is charged to cover costs. This test will identify the type and severity of the problem.
## Identify Cause
Whenever possible, it is important to find out what has caused the problem soil to develop. Knowing the cause can help in modifying the remaining recla -mation practices and sometimes provide a clue as to how long it may take to
complete the reclamation. The four most common causes of saline and alkali soils in Oklahoma are
- a) naturally poor drainage,
- b) poor irrigation water,
- c) brine spills and
- d) exposure of saline or alkali subsoil due to erosion.
Poorly drained soils are simply soils which water does not easily penetrate. This condition may be a result of the soil having a high clay content, having a water table near the surface (within 10 feet) or existing in a low-lying area of the field. In the last situation, normally adequate internal drainage may not be able to handle runoff from the surrounding area. In some instances, internal soil drainage is reduced greatly as a result of compacting the surface soil.
Use of poor-quality irrigation water may cause problem soils to develop if special precautions are not taken. The problem develops most rapidly during extremely dry years when evaporation and the amount of irrigation are high. Internal soil drainage also may be a contributing factor.
Problem soils sometimes develop seemingly overnight when brine solutions associated with oil- and gas-well activities spill onto the soil. Depending on the amount of brine solution spilled and the size of the area, the problem may be slight or very severe. Whenever the source of salt or sodium causing the problem is the result of addition from runoff, seepings, irrigation water or spilled brine, it is important to eliminate that source as soon as possible.
## Improve Internal Soil Drainage
There are no chemicals or soil amendments that can be added to the soil to tie up or somehow inactivate soluble salts or sodium. Hence, the only way of lowering their concentration in the soil is to remove them. This can only be done by leaching (washing out) the salt or sodium downward out of the root zone. In order for this to happen, internal drainage must be good so water can easily pass through the soil.
There are a number of ways internal drainage can be improved. Most are expensive, but when the problem is severe many will pay for themselves with time. Tile drains and open ditches are effective for removing subsoil water that accumulates due to a restrictive layer such as compacted clay or bed rock. Compacted soil layers near the surface can be broken up by subsoliling. This is effective only if done when the soil is dry enough to have a shattering effect and at best provides only temporary benefit.
Problem soils which have developed from use of poor irrigation water or brine spills may already have good internal soil drainage.
## Add Organic Matter
Once internal drainage has been assured, the next important step is to improve movement into the soil. Incorporating 20-30 tons per acre of organic matter into the top six inches of soil creates large pores or channels for water to enter. Even rainfall from intense storms is more effective because there is less runoff. In addition to improving water movement into the soil, the large pores lessen the capillary or wick-like upward water movement during dry peri-
ods. Any coarse organic material such as barnyard manure, straw, rotted hay or crop residue is suitable.
## Add Gypsum to Slick Spots
Up to this point the reclamation practices are the same for both saline and alkali soils. In either situation, leaching is critical to remove salt or sodium. However, since high amounts of sodium absorbed to the soil are the cause of alkali problems, sodium must be loosened from the soil before it can be leached out. Gypsum is the most effective soil amendment for removing sodium from the soil particles. Gypsum is a slightly soluble salt of calcium sulfate. This means gypsum will slowly react in the soil, but for a long time. The reaction is illustrated in Figure 3.9.
Gypsum applications are needed when the exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP, approaches 15 percent. Calcium ions (Ca+ ) in gypsum replace sodium ions (Na+) on the colloids which results in improved soil physical conditions. The amount of gypsum required will vary widely depending upon the percentage of exchangeable sodium and the soil texture, as determined by the soil test. This relationship is shown in Table 3.4.
When the required amount of gypsum exceeds 5 tons per acre, the rate should be split into two or more applications of no more than 5 tons at one time. Successive applications should not be made until time has allowed for some
| | Exchangeable Sodium Percentage | Exchangeable Sodium Percentage |
|---------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Texture | 15 | 20 30 40 50 |
| | gypsum (tons per acre) | |
| Coarse | 2 3 5 8 11 14 18 | |
| Medium | 3 5 6 10 | |
leaching to occur, and the need has been verified by a second soil test. The gypsum should be incorporated only to a depth of about 1 to 2 inches, which is enough to mix it well with the surface soil and keep it from blowing away. However, if the soil was contaminated by brine spill, the gypsum needs to be mixed to 6 to 7 inches deep to create a favorable rooting zone.
## Leach Soil
Leaching (or washing out) the soil is essential to reduce the amount of salts or sodium in the soil. In order for this leaching process to occur, water must enter the soil in excess of what is used by growing crops and lost by evaporation. How fast and to what extent the reclamation is successful will depend on how much good quality water passes through the soil in a given period of time. The shorter the time interval over which excess water is applied, the more effective that amount of water is in reclamation. For this reason, rainfall is most effective when it falls on soil that is already wet.
## Avoid Deep Tillage and Establish Cover
Once the leaching process has been started, deep tillage such as moldboard plowing should be avoided for several years to promote uninterrupted downward movement of the salts. Such tillage will bring salt back up to the soil sur face, and leaching will be required again. As soon as the salt level in the soil is low enough, a salt-tolerant crop such as barley or Bermudagrass should be established on the problem area to provide a cover for as much of each growing season as possible. It is especially important to have the cover crop during summer when evaporation is high. Adequately fertilized Bermudagrass does a good job of drying the soil. To minimize soil compaction it should be cut for hay instead of pastured. Make sure to keep heavy equipment off the area when it is wet.
Some problem areas may be too salty to establish a cover crop until some salts have been leached. A cover crop can be established when there is no longer a white salty film on the soil surface, following a week or two of dry weather, or when weeds begin to grow.
## Wait
The final step in reclamation is simply to wait for the previous practices to work. Except for brine spills, these problem soils developed over a period of
several years. Reclamation may not take as long, but depending on how well reclamation practices can be carried out, may take one or more years.
## Reclamation
## Learn to Live With It
The key to successful reclamation is good internal soil drainage. If salts or sodium cannot be leached out, the soil cannot be reclaimed by conventional methods. However, most soils have some internal soil drainage, and although drainage may not be good, over several years time it may be sufficient to lower the salt concentration to near normal. During this time it will be important to practice some of the same steps outlined above. Especially important are the following:
- 1. Avoid excessive fertilization.
- 2. Avoid traffic on field when wet.
- 3. Apply gypsum to sick spots.
- 4. Establish a cover crop.
- 5. Maintain a high level of crop residue.
- 6. Be patient!
Depending on the severity of the problem it may be necessary to select a different crop than has been grown in the past. A list of crops and their relative tolerance to salt is provided in Table 3.5.
| Tolerant | Moderately Tolerant In increasing order of tolerance | Sensitive |
|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|
| FIELD CROPS | | |
| 7,800-10,400 ppm | 3,900-7,800 ppm | 2,600 ppm |
| Cotton | Sunflower | Field beans |
| Sugar beet | Corn | Barley (grain) |
| Sugar beet | Soybeans | Grain sorghum |
| Sugar beet | Oats (grain) | Wheat (grain) |
| Sugar beet | Rye (grain) | |
| FORAGES | | |
| 7,800-11,700 ppm | 2,600-7,800 ppm | 1,300-2,000 ppm |
| Wheatgrass | Smooth bromegrass | Ladino clover |
| Birdsfoot trefoil | Fescue | Red clover |
| Barley (hay) | Blue grama | White Dutch clover |
| Rescue grass | Oats (hay) | Peanuts |
| Rhodesgrass | Wheat (hay) | Bermudagrass |
| Saltgrass | Alfalfa | Alkali sacaton |
| Saltgrass | Sudangrass | Dallisgrass |
| Saltgrass | Perennial ryegrass | Yellow sweetclover |
| Saltgrass | White sweetclover | |
| VEGETABLE CROPS | 2,600-6,500 ppm | 1,950-2,600 ppm | |
|-------------------|-------------------|--------------------|-------------------------------|
| 6,500-7,800 ppm | Cucumber | Green beans | |
| Spinach | Squash | Celery | |
| Asparagus | Peas | Radish | |
| Kale | Onion | Carrot | |
| Garden beets | Bell pepper | Sweet potato & yam | |
| Garden beets | Potato | Sweet corn | |
| Garden beets | Lettuce | Cauliflower | |
| Garden beets | Cabbage | Broccoli | |
| Garden beets | Tomato | Strawberry | |
| FRUIT CROPS | Cantaloupe | Grape | Peach Apricot Plum Apple Pear |
## Chapter 4. Determining Fertilizer Needs
Determining fertilizer and lime needs for selected fields and crops are critical management decisions that often mean the difference between profit and loss for farmers. Applying too little fertilizer or lime when deficiencies exist hurts yield and profit potential. Too much fertilizer reduces nutrient use efficiency, cutting into profits and in some cases, negatively impacting the environment. In today's economic and political atmosphere, farmers must be concerned about both effects.
At one time, determining fertilizer and lime requirements of Oklahoma crops was simple. If a fertilizer contained phosphate, it was good because almost all Oklahoma soils were low in phosphorus. Because of this, in the early days of fertilizer use, 10-20-10 or 19-19-19 was an effective fertilizer that gained popular use. This thinking no longer applies. Many soils have been fertilized with this practice for many years, increasing soil fertility much above native levels. In other soils, continuous cropping has decreased soil pH values to yield-robbing levels or depleted once abundant supplies of nutrients. Farmers can no longer afford to guess about their fertilizer and lime needs. The fertility levels of each field must be known in order to best manage the entire farm.
There are three approaches to determining fertilizer needs: (1) soil testing, (2) scouting for nutrient deficiency symptoms, and (3) plant analysis. Soil testing is by far the most successful method. To obtain maximum benefit, it must be done on a regular basis and should therefore be viewed as a routine component of an overall soil fertility program. A soil fertility program can be enhanced by scouting for nutrient deficiency symptoms and by using plant analysis when applicable, but soil testing remains as the foundation.
## Use of Soil Testing
Soil testing evolved from an understanding by soil scientists that plants require chemical elements as nutrients. Thirteen of the essential nutrient elements for plants come from the soil. The soil's nutrient-supplying capacity is a chemical characteristic of the soil, and therefore, is most reliably measured or estimated by chemical tests (i.e., soil testing). The concept of soil testing is not new. Even in ancient times, farmers had a limited understanding of basic soil fertility concepts as can be gathered from the ancient agricultural practices documented in Table 4.1. Modernization of soil fertility principles and the refinement of soil testing began in the mid 1800s with advances continuing to this day (Table 4.2).
| Time | Location | Agricultural Practice |
|-----------|-------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 2500 B.C. | Mesopotamia | First recorded writings mentioning soil fertility. Barley yields observed to range from 86 to 300 times that planted depending on the area in which the crop was grown. Manuring was an agricultural practice known to improve soil productivity. Various sources of manure were classified according to their value as a soil amendment. Green manure crops, especially legumes, were also known to enrich the soil. The value of using marl and other liming materials as soil amendments was recognized. Considered to be when the first soil fertility test was developed. Columna recommended using a taste test to measure the degree of acidity and salinity of soils. |
| 900 B.C. | Greece | Various sources of manure were classified according to their value as a soil amendment. Green manure crops, especially legumes, were also known to enrich the soil. The value of using marl and other liming materials as soil amendments was recognized. Considering to be when the first soil fertility test was developed. Columna recommended using a taste test to measure the degree of acidity and salinity of soils. |
Soil testing in Oklahoma first became popular in the 1950s. Soil testing for farmers primarily was performed by county extension agents (now called edu- ucators) who operated small laboratories out of their county offices. Samples periodically were analyzed by researchers at the OSU campus to verify their accuracy. In the 1960s, Dr. Billy Tucker, an extension soil fertility specialist, and Dr. Lester Reed, a soil chemist, helped analyze approximately 200 to 300 sams ples per year for the county agents.
After several years, Dr. Tucker realized advances in research and technology were causing the county soil testing laboratories to become outdated. In order to maintain a quality soil testing/soil fertility program at OSU, a centralized state soil testing laboratory was needed that used standardized methods and interp retations based on statewide research.
The task was easier said than done. Much resistance was met from the coun ty agents, who took pride in their soil testing skills and also saw their laborato ries as a means of making contacts with farmers and generating extra income for other Extension programs. After much public and private debate, Dr. Tucker finally convinced the director of Extension and most county agents to support the establishment of a centralized soil testing laboratory on the OSU campus. Since that time (1969), sample activity at the OSU laboratory has grown to ap proximately 28,000 soil samples per year.
| Time | Location | Event |
|-------------------|------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1842 | Germany | Justus von Liebig stated his "law of the minimum." |
| 1843 | England | J.B. Lawes and J.H. Gilbert established the Rothamsted Experimental Station. |
| 1892 | U.S.A. | Magruder Plots established by Alexander C. Magruder in Stillwater, Oklahoma. |
| Late 1800s | U.S.A. | E.W. Hilgard promoted the use of hydrochloric acid as an extractant for determining fertility status of soils. |
| 1909 | Germany | E.A. Mitscherlich developed his equation relating growth to the supply of plant nutrients. |
| Early 1900s | U.S.A. | C.G. Hopkins promoted the importance of monitoring changes in soil fertility status to prevent decreases in productivity as a result of nutrient depletion. |
| 1940s and 50s | U.S.A. | Introduction of new crop varieties and hybrids and increases in the availability and use of fertilizers spurred interest in soil testing as a management tool. |
| 1960's to present | U.S.A. | Evolution of soil testing continues on all fronts as technological advances allow improvements in the areas of analysis, correlation, calibration and interpretation. |
## Value of Soil Testing
Soil tests are designed to estimate plant-available fractions of selected nutri ents, that is, the portion of a nutrient present in the soil that a plant can take up. Soil fertility tests do not measure total amounts of nutrients in the soil because not all chemical forms of the nutrient can be used by the plant. As a soil test lev el increases for a particular nutrient, the ability of the soil to supply that nutrient also increases and less fertilizer needs to be added to adequately supply food for the plant.
Much field and laboratory research must be conducted to accurately interpret soil tests so proper amounts of fertilizer are recommended for application. This process is called calibration. During the calibration process, a relationship is established between the soil test value and the amount of fertilizer needed by the plant. Soil tests are calibrated by establishing fertilizer rate experiments on soils with different soil test levels to determine the best fertilizer rate for each level. Once a number of fertilizer experiments have been conducted, the data can be summarized and fertilizer recommendation guides can be developed. Agricultural Experiment Stations provide this information.
## Soil Sampling
Producers and fertilizer dealers must remember a good soil sample is obtained by sampling a uniform field area. Avoid sampling "odd-ball" areas. Sample each field separately, as well as dissimilar soil types within the same field. A core or slice from the surface to a depth of 6 inch or plow layer should be taken from 15 to 20 locations in the field and composited into one representative sample to be tested.
Noncultivated fields should be sampled to a depth of six inches, again because this is the effective depth of most treatments and the depth of most root activity. Nutrients from fertilizer, animal manure and lime can be accumulated on the surface if they are surface applied without incorporation. A set of samples from the top two inches will help identify stratification of nutrients and is especially important for pH determination for no-till fields. If nutrient loss in runoff is the main concern, the two-inch sample is better than a six-inch sample because only the surface inch or two is in direct contact with surface runoff.
Special attentions should be paid when sampling fields where fertilizers are banded. See Fact Sheet PSS-2207 How to Get a Good Soil Sample for details.
Subsoil samples for nitrates are valuable for estimating fertilizer nitrogen carryover. The nitrogen fertilizer rate easily is adjusted to take advantage of "leftover" nitrate. The subsoil test should be taken from 6 to 18 inches. Sample depth should be indicated when submitting subsoil samples for the nitrate test. Subsoil sample analysis can help provide a more reliable estimate of other nu -trients that are mobile in the soil, such as boron, sulfur, and chionide.
Soil samples may be submitted to your county OSU Extension office. They will send the samples to the Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory for testing and then send the results back to you with fertilizer recommendations. Soil samples are analyzed routinely for pH, nitrate nitrogen, plant available phosphorus and potassium, while calcium, magnesium, sulfur (secondary nu trients), zinc, iron and boron (micronutrients) are tested on request. The subsoil is analyzed only for nitrate unless otherwise requested. A number of other tests also are available through the lab.
## Preparing for No-till Production Systems
While the decision to switch from conventional tillage systems to no-till production can be challenging in many aspects, several soil components need to be addressed prior to this switch. One of the biggest issues to be addressed is deep profile soil pH. Soil pH issues at depth can drastically limit overall root development into deeper soils, limiting access to potential nutrients and moisture lower in the soil profile. While lime can be applied to a no-till system, the ability for neutralization is limited without incorporation. Therefore, these deeper soil pH issues should be remedied prior to moving into no-till production.
## Soil Sampling in No-till Production Systems
Soil sampling between no-till production systems and conventionally tilled production systems can vary drastically or be quite similar, all depending on management of the system and issues to be addressed. One of the most noted soil fertility characteristic of no-till production is nutrient stratification (or the formation of layers of that are non-uniform with depth in the soil). While this historically has been seen as a negative characteristic of no-till production, research has suggested very little impact for most nutrients managed within typical production systems.
The major issue with nutrient stratification in no-till production is soil pH. If soil pH was rectified prior to implementation of no-till production, little short-term issues should arise at depth with pH. The major issue comes at the surface. This especially is true in systems that have had continual surface applications of urea-and/or ammonium-based fertilizers. This fertilizer will undergo a transformation process in the soil that can decrease the overall soil pH.
Since these are issues at the surface of the soil, these should be able to be corrected rather easily. However, the identification of these issues from a traditional 0-to-6-inch soil sample can result in no application when one would be justified. Therefore, a sample of 0 to 6 inches and a 0 to 2 inches sample would be encouraged. These varied depths allow for identification of issues within the traditional soil zone (0 to 6 inches) as well as potential issues due to nutrient stratification (0 to 2 inches). One issue with collection of samples from only a 2-inch section of soil is collecting enough soil to get an adequate sample. Twenty cores typically are suggested for a traditional sample to get a representative sample across the field. However, it always is better to collect too much than not enough. The second thing to be considered is the current recommendations for lime application for correction of soil pH is based on a 0- to 6-inch sample. Since neutralization of soil acidity will not occur at these lower depths, recommendations can overestimate the amount of lime needed. Therefore, it often is recommended to lower the lime application rate by half to a third in no-till for a 0- to 2-inch sample.
The other major difference between soil sampling in no-till systems are production systems that have had banded fertilizer. The primary issue from no-till banded fertilizers is not the no-till nor the banding, but the combination of the two. When producers band fertilizer s in a conventionally tilled system, the band does not behave any differently in season. However, without tillage to mix the banded and non-banded fertilizer together, a soil sample collected within these bands can grossly overestimate the concentrations of nutrients in the soil system. This can lead to an under-application of nutrient, which could result in a critical yield loss. Additionally, this issue typically is associated with phosphorus within the soil system but other nutrients, especially non-mobile nutrients, can be a concern as well. For sampling in fields that have had banded fertilizer in the past, the collector needs to ask a couple of questions to achieve a proper soil sample.
First, what crop with what row spacing has been previously planted? If the row spacing is narrower than 12 inches, a normal sampling pattern can be used to collect a proper sample. If the row-spacing is wider, is it known where the previous bands have been placed? Will the successive crops be planted over
the previous rows? When planting over the previous row, collection of samples should be focused around these rows. This sampling will provide an indication of the residual fertilizer left from the banding and what nutrients were not taken up by the previous crop. If the previous rows are known (along with the bands) but it is not known what successive crop will not be planted over the previous rows, sampling must be done to estimate residual fertilizer in band and outside of the previous bands. This will involve the collection of soil from both these locations. However, as high potential residual levels of fertilizers still within the band to drastically skew the results, a proper ratio of soil from inside and outside the bands must be collected. For example, if the previous crop was on 30-inch row-spacing, for every one sample collected within the banded zone, 20 samples need to be collected outside. The final scenario is if the previous rows are not known. This can be the most challenging as the collection of soil is essentially blind to where the previous banded rows. The best method to collection is to collect a sample and conducted a paired collect half the distance of the previous row-spacing. For example, if 30-inch row spacing was previously used collect a sample from a location and collect a paired sample 15 inches from the previous sample in the direction thought to be across rows. These paired samples would still be considered a single sample. Therefore, a 20-core sample would consist of 40 individual cores or 20 paired cores.
## Laboratory Soil Tests
A brief description of laboratory tests currently used at the OSU lab follows.
## pH
This test measures the active soil acidity or alkalinity. Soils with a pH of 7.0 are neutral soil; pH less than 7 is acid and soil pH values higher than 7.0 are alkaline. Under normal conditions, most plants grow well when soil pH is in the range of 6.0 to 7.5. An application of lime should be considered for most non-legeum crops when soil pH is 5.5 or less. Legumes usually grow best when the pH is 6.0 or higher.
## Buffer Index
When soil pH is less than 6.3, a buffer index reading is obtained. This value estimates the amount of lime required to correct soil acidity. The buffer index value is not a standard pH reading and means nothing without a calibration table that relates it to the amount of lime to apply. The lower the buffer index, the higher the lime requirement (See Chapter 3 for more details about pH and liming).
## Nitrate
The nitrate soil test measures the actual amount of nitrate-nitrogen in the soil available to plants. The nitrogen fertilizer requirement can be determined by subtracting the pounds of nitrate-nitrogen in the soil from the total nitrogen requirement for a selected yield goal.
Phosphorus
The phosphorus soil test estimates the amount of available soil phosphorus. The actual amount cannot be measured because of chemical reactions occurring in the soil. The estimated availability is reported as soil test index and a percent sufficiency in the soil. A soil test with 40 percent sufficiency means 40 percent of plant phosphorus needs will be supplied by the soil. The remainder must be provided by adding fertilizer to reach the 100 percent potential yields. If no phosphorus is added, the yield will only be 40 percent of its potential. Much field calibration work must be done to correctly interpret this type of test. The Mehlich-3 procedure is used for extraction of soil phosphorus and potassium in Oklahoma. Other labs may use different procedures. Oklahoma calibration may not be appropriate if soils are tested with a different method.
## Potassium
Like phosphorus soil tests, potassium tests estimate availability and indicate a certain percent sufficiency.
## Calcium and Magnesium
These two elements and potassium are referred to as exchangeable cations and are found on the cation exchange sites of the soil. The soil tests measure the exchangeable portion of the cations. Oklahoma research has found that calcium and magnesium additions can increase yields when individual tests are low. Percent of base saturation or ratios of calcium/magnesium, potassium/magnesium, calcium/potassium or calcium/magnesium/potassium have not been useful in depicting deficiencies on most Oklahoma soils.
## Sulfur
The sulfur soil test measures the amount of available sulfate-sulfur. The amount found in the soil test can be subtracted from crop requirements based upon a yield goal similar to the approach used for nitrogen. Unlike nitrogen, most soils contain adequate available sulfur for most crops. Additionally, anual sulfur contributions from rainfall are high enough to meet the needs of a 60-bushel wheat crop.
## Zinc, Iron and Boron
Availability of these trace or micronutrient elements can be estimated from soil tests. Trace element deficiencies occur only on certain soils and with certain crops. Knowledge of crop needs and soil deficiencies will help determine when trace element tests need to be run.
## Soil Test Interpretations
After soil samples have been tested, the results need to be examined to see if they identify nutrient deficiencies in any of the fields. This step is called interpreting the test results. Interpretation can only be done reliably if the soil test has been calibrated by field research. Usually calibration research is on-going
at land-grant universities, such as OSU, and has its best application for soils in that state. The calibration should identify the deficiency and estimate its severity. OSU interpretations are based on research calibration tables published in Extension Fact Sheet PSS-2225. The same calibration tables are included here as a reference (Tables 4.3 to 4.10). The tables in PSS-2225 are updated periodically as determined by current research results.
## Primary Nutrient Interpretations
Soil test interpretations for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are presented in Tables 4.3-4.6. Fertilizer requirements for common Oklahoma crops and forages can be determined from these tables. Nitrogen requirements are based on yield goal, while phosphorus and potassium requirements are based on soil test values and their corresponding sufficiency levels.
Interpretations of soil test reports obtained from OSU are automatically generated by computer using data from these calibration tables. An example report is shown in Figure 4.1. The report lists the name and address of the sender at
the top and presents the sample identification numbers and soil test results in designated boxes below. The soil test interpretation is printed in an area underneath the test results. If no cropping information is provided with a soil sample, then no computer interpretation is generated and fertilizer requirements must be determined by use of the calibration tables in Fact Sheet PSS-2225 or an interactive program on the lab's website (http://www.soiltesting.okstate.edu). A yield goal also is needed to make nitrogen recommendation except for lawn and gardens.
In the example report, wheat was selected as the crop and 50 bushels per acre was selected as the yield goal. Both selections are listed at the beginning of the interpretation. The pH of the sample was 6.5 which is satisfactory for wheat, therefore no lime was required.
The nitrate test for this sample showed 20 pounds nitrogen per acre in the soil. According to the calibration tables (Table 4.3), 50 bu/acre of wheat requires 100 pounds per acre of nitrogen, Subtracting from 20 from 100 results in a deficiency of 80 pounds nitrogen per acre which must be supplied using nitrogen fertilizer.
The phosphorus test index for this sample was 10. The calibration table for wheat (Table 4.3) shows that a phosphorus index of 10 corresponds to a sufficiency level of 45 percent. The corresponding P$\_{O}$$\_{2}$ $\_{S}$ fertilizer requirement to offset this insufficiency is shown on the report or can be read directly from the calibration table as 60 pounds per acre. This rate of P$\_{O}$$\_{2}$ must be applied annually to prevent phosphorus deficiency until another soil test is performed.
The potassium test index for this sample was 100. This value is not listed in the potassium calibration table for wheat, so the fertilizer requirement must be estimated using the requirements recommended for the index values, 75 and 125 (Table 4.3). Since 100 is halfway between 75 and 125, the potassium index of 100 corresponds to a sufficiency level of approximately 75 percent (halfway between 70 and 80) and a K$\_{2}$ O requirement of approximately 45 pounds per acre (halfway between 50 and 40). The computer calculated this value and listed the potassium fertilizer requirement as a "75 percent sufficiency, 45 pounds per acre K$\_{2}$ O." This rate of K$\_{2}$ O, like P$\_{2}$ O$\_{5}$ , must be applied annually to prevent potassium deficiency until another soil test is performed.
## Secondary and Micro-nutrient Interpretations
## Calcium
Calcium deficiency has not been observed in any crop in Oklahoma. Gypsum is sometimes applied over the pegging zone of pears during early bloom stage to improve quality. Appropriate rates are listed in Table 4.7.
NITROGEN REQUIREMENTS
PEANUTS
10-20 lb/ha for establishment. None needed for maintenance.
ALF-FA
Alf-FA
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alf-fa
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alf-fa
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| | Ca Soil | Ca Soil |
|------------------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Test Index (pounds per acre) | Gypsum Needed pounds per acre | Gypsum Needed pounds per acre |
| 0 | 750 | 750 |
| 150 | 500 | 500 |
| 300 | 400 | 400 |
| 450 | 300 | 300 |
| 600 | 200 | 200 |
| >750 | 0 | 0 |
## Magnesium
Magnesium deficiencies are indicated by soil test index values less than 100 pounds per acre. Deficiencies can be corrected by applying 30-40 lbs of magnesium per acre from fertilizer source or by using dolomite limestone if lime is needed.
## Sulfur
Sulfur is a mobile nutrient in the soil, therefore, plant requirements are based on yield goal similar to that for nitrogen, Sulfur requirements for non-legumes are calculated by dividing the nitrogen requirement by 10. The available sulfur measured by the sulfur soil test for both the surface and subsoil is subtracted from the sulfur requirement to determine the fertilizer rate. The rate may also be reduced by an additional 6 lb/acre due to sulfur supplied through rainfall and other incidental additions such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizer impurities. Following is an example of sulfur interpretation for Bermudagrass:
| Crop: Bermudagrass | Yield goal: 6 tons/acre |
|---------------------------------------|--------------------------------|
| N requirement (Table 4.4) | = 320 pounds per acre |
| Sulfur requirement = nitrogen req./20 | = 320/10 = 32 pounds per acre |
| Sulfur soil test values: | surface = 5 pounds per acre |
| Sulfur soil test values: | subsoil = 12 pounds per acre |
| Sulfur soil test values: | total = 17 pounds per acre |
Incidental sulfur additions: 6 pounds per acre
Sulfur fertilizer rate = 32 - 17 - 6 = 9 pounds sulfur per acre
A similar calculation is used to determine the sulfur fertilizer rate for legumes, with the exception that the sulfur requirement is obtained from Table 4.8 rather than dividing the nitrogen requirement by 10.
## Zinc
The soil test interpretation for zinc is presented in Table 4.9. Zinc soil test values less than 0.30 parts per million are considered deficient for all crops except small grains, cool season grasses (fescue, orchardgrass and ryegrass)
| ALFALFA | PEANUTS | PEANUTS | PEANUTS | SOYBEANS | SOYBEANS |
|--------------------|-----------|--------------------|-----------|--------------------|------------|
| Yield Goal tons/a | S lb/a | Yield Goal tons/a | S lb/a | Yield Goal tons/a | S lb/a |
| 2 | 12 | 6 | 4 | 10 | 6 |
| 4 | 22 | 12 | 6 | 20 | 12 |
| 6 | 34 | 18 | 10 | 30 | 18 |
| 8 | 44 | 24 | 14 | 40 | 24 |
| 10 | 56 | 30 | 18 | 50 | 30 |
| | | 36 | 22 | 60 | 36 |
| MUNGBEANS | COWPEAS | GUAR | GUAR | GUAR | GUAR |
|--------------------|-----------|--------------------|---------|--------------------|---------|
| Yield Goal tons/a | S lb/a | Yield Goal tons/A | S lb/a | Yield Goal tons/a | S lb/a |
| 5 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 6 | 4 |
| 10 | 6 | 10 | 5 | 12 | 6 |
| 15 | 9 | 15 | 8 | 18 | 10 |
| 20 | 12 | 20 | 11 | 24 | 14 |
and new seedlings of introduced grasses. The recommended rates are enough to correct a deficiency for several years. Fertilizer applications should not be repeated until a new soil test is taken. Some producers may wish to apply 2 pounds of zinc per year until the total recommended amount is reached.
## Iron
Iron soil test values less than 2.0 parts per million are considered low and may cause iron chlorosis in crops which are moderately sensitive such as wheat, soybeans and peanuts. Soil test values in the medium range, 2.0 to 4.5 parts per million, may cause chlorosis in sensitive crops such as sorghum and
| Soil TEST | INTERPRETATION | ZINC RATE |
|-------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|
| Zn (ppm) | Deficient for all crops except small grains, cool season grasses (fescue, orchard, and rye) and new seedings of introduced grasses | 6-10 |
| 0.30-0.80 | Deficient for corn and pecans only | 2-5 |
| 0.80-2.00 | Deficient for pecans only | Foliar only |
| 2.00+ | Adequate for all crops | 0 |
sudan. Levels above 4.5 parts per million are usually adequate for all crops. Crop sensitivity is increased when soil pH increases above 8.2 and soil test manganese levels are high (above 50 parts per million). Foliar application of a 3 percent ferrous sulfate (or ammonium ferrous sulfate) solution is effective for correction. Severe chlorosis may require several applications. Effective control can be obtained by applying 2 pounds of iron per acre in chelated form or 8 pounds of ferrous sulfate per acre with ammonium phosphate solution in a band near the seed. It is important to apply the polophyphosphate and ferrous sulfate solutions in the same band.
## Boron
Boron deficiency in Oklahoma is of concern only in legumes, particularly alfalfa and peanuts. The soil test interpretation for boron is presented in Table 4.10.
| Soil test | B (ppm) | Boron rate (lb/a) | Alfalfa |
|-------------|-----------|---------------------|-----------|
| 0.0-0.25 | 0.5 | 1 | 2 |
| 0.25-0.50 | 0.5 | 1 | 1 |
| 0.50 | | 0 | 0 |
## Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
Identifying nutrient deficiency symptoms is sometimes helpful in assessing fertility problems that need correction. Plant analysis may be used to confirm deficiency symptoms or monitor fertilizer effectiveness.
Recognizing nutrient deficiency symptoms and obtaining plant analysis are good approaches for identifying fertility problems but are not suitable parameters for making fertilizer recommendations. These two approaches are useful for identifying problem areas that need to be soil tested to measure the severity of the deficiency and the fertilizer requirements.
Plants deficient in one or more essential nutrients become "sick" and exhibit different leaf colors and growth disorders that are indicative of the deficiency. With practice one can identify symptoms and make suggestions for remedies. The problem for most is identifying the deficiency symptom correctly. The key presented in Table 4.11 should be helpful. A more complete description of deficiency symptoms that may be observed in Oklahoma follows.
## Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the most universally deficient nutrient in nonlegumes. A deficient field will possess a light green appearance. When nitrogen deficiency occurs later in plant growth, yielding begins at the leaf tip and follows up the leaf
midrib in a V-shaped pattern of the oldest leaves. Eventually, the entire lower leaf of plants, e.g., corn, will turn yellow and then brown (necrosis or death of tissue). As this happens, the second and third leaf will show chlorosis of the tip and midrib tissue as nitrogen is translocated to new leaves. A few days after the leaf tissue turns yellow, it dies and dries up.
| Symptom | Deficient Nutrient |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------|
| A. Color change in lower (older) leaves. | Nitrogen |
| Plants light green - lower leaves yellow from tip along midrib towards base. | Nitrogen |
| Plants dark green, some purple coloring on base of stem - leaves and plants small. | Phosphorus |
| Brown discoloration and scorching along outer margins of lower leaves. | Potassium |
| Lower leaves have yellow discoloration between veins - reddish-purple cast from edge inward in some plants. | Magnesium |
## B. Color changes in upper (newer) leaves.
- Terminal bud dies.
- Emergence of primary leaves delayed - terminal buds deteriorate.
- Leaves near growing point yellowed - growth buds appear as white or light brown dead tissue.
- Terminal bud remains alive.
- Leaves including veins turn pale green to yellow - young leaves first.
- Leaves yellow to almost white - intervein chlorosis to tip of leaf.
- Shortened internodes - pale yellow or bronze coloration between leaf margin and midrib.
- Leaves yellowish-gray or reddish-gray with green veins.
- Young leaves uniformly pale yellow - may wilt and wither without chlorosis.
- Writing of upper leaves - followed by chlorosis.
- Young leaves wilt and die along the margins.
## Phosphorus
Mild phosphorus deficiencies are characterized by stunted growth and an abnormally green appearance. In the advanced stages, phosphorus deficiencies cause purpling of the leaves. As in the case of nitrogen, the symptoms start with the older leaves and progress upward toward the younger leaves. Eventually leaf tips die and turn brown. Phosphorus deficiencies are more pronounced in
young plants. Absorption of phosphorus by plants is slowed by cool soil. Often phosphorus deficiencies dissipate as the soil warms if sufficient phosphorus is present in available forms.
Whenever sorghum, corn and cereals are damaged by certain insecticides, a purple pigmentation develops in the leaves. This leaf discoloration should not be confused with phosphate deficiency.
## Potassium
Potassium deficiency causes shorter plants, weaker stems or stalks and a general loss of green color. Severe deficiencies produce a discoloration of the leaf tip and edges. In sorghum, corn, cotton and other large-leafed plants, the discoloration on the leaf edges is continuous. Potassium deficiency of grains and legumes is a general yellow mottling as well as numerous brown specks which occur at leaf tips, around margins and between the veins. As symptoms progress, the yellow mottled spots on leaf edges die and finally the dead tissue sloughs off giving leaves an extremely ragged appearance. The dying of the lower leaf is referred to as firing. The condition known as firing is usually caused by potassium deficiency but other conditions such as dry and hot weather can also bring about dead tissue in the leaves and can be confused with potassium and nitrogen deficiency.
Potassium deficiency symptoms are rarely seen on peanuts. Fruit crops and many ornamental plants are highly susceptible to potassium deficiencies, and broad-leafed trees and ornamental plants readily show potassium deficiencies. Potassium deficiency in Bermudagrass increases its susceptibility to winter kill.
## Sulfur
Sulfur deficiencies usually result in stunted growth, delayed maturity and a general yellowing of the foliage. Since it is easy to mistake sulfur deficiency for nitrogen deficiency, one must know the nitrogen status before diagnosing a sulfur deficiency. Sulfur deficiency is more pronounced on young leaves.
In many sulfur-deficient plants, the veins remain green even though the tissee between the veins becomes chlorotic giving the leaf mottled appearance These mottled leaves resemble iron and zinc deficiencies.
## Magnesium
Magnesium deficiency occurs first on the lower leaves as a general yellowing. Eventually the areas between the veins of the leaves become light yellow giving rise to a striping on grass-type plants and mottling on broadleaf plants. In some plants, like soybeans, rusty specks and necrotic blotches may appear between the veins and around the edges of the newest leaflets. In cotton, magnesium deficient plants are purplish-red with green veins. Late in the season it is difficult to distinguish between magnesium deficiency and normal maturity in cotton, which produces a purplish-red leaf.
## Zinc
Zinc deficiency symptoms usually are seen during the plant seedling stage. It is characterized by a broad band of bleached tissue on each side of the midrib beginning at the base of the leaf. The midribs and leaf edges remain
green. On broadleaf plants, a general bronzing may occur with a pronounced interveinal chlorosis. The leaves become thick and brittle, and their margins are cupped upward. In grain sorghum, heads from severely zinc-deficient plants are blasted. Most crops fail to develop normal internode length resulting in severe stunting and an appearance of all leaves coming from the same node.
## Iron
Iron deficiency can be detected by yellowing between the veins with the veins remaining green. This gives a striping appearance. In contrast to zinc deficiency, the stripes are much narrower and extend the full length of the leaf.
Iron is not mobile within the plant, therefore, a deficiency first is observed on the younger (top) leaves with the older part of the plant remaining green. In severe cases the terminal portion of the plant turns white and eventually dies.
## Boron
Boron deficiencies develop first on the youngest growth. The upper internodes are shortened and plants develop a rosette appearance. Upper leaves near the growing point turn yellow and in some legumes are reddened. The lower leaves remain green and healthy. In severe cases the terminal leaves become white.
In cotton, boron deficiency is described as having thick and leathery older leaves. Leaf petioles often are twisted with small ruptures appearing over their surfaces. A constriction near the base of the petiole may occur giving a ringed condition. Severe boron deficiency in cotton results in half opened bolls and plants that are hard to defoliate.
Boron deficient peanut plants possess the typical yielding and rosetting, but even before the symptoms are noted on the vines, the nuts may have internal damage. The center of the nut will be somewhat hollow and discolored. Nuts with hollow heart are severely downgraded upon marketing.
## Other Deficiency Symptoms
Other nutrients exhibit characteristic deficiency symptoms, but the expected occurrences of these deficiencies in Oklahoma are rather remote.
Assistance should be obtained from a qualified person and/or plant analysis and soil tests to confirm the symptom, since chlorosis or yellowing and brown spots can result from factors other than nutrient deficiency. Herbicide damage and excess amounts of elements can cause similar visual symptoms. The deficiency must be confirmed before attempting to correct it. There are a number of "apps" available to show nutrient deficiency symptoms, such as "Yara Checklist™" and others to be downloaded to your smart phone.
Sometimes the knowledge of environmental conditions is useful in diagnosing the nutrient problem. These conditions should be checked:
Root zone - The soil should be granular and permeable so roots may expand and feed extensively. Crops normally develop a root system to a depth of 3 to 5 feet from which they extract water and nutrients. A shallow or compacted soil does not offer this root a favorable feeding zone.
Temperature - Cool soil temperatures reduce organic matter decomposition and the amount of nitrogen and other nutrients being released. Solubility of elements is lower in cool temperatures, thus creating more deficiencies.
Soil pH The availability of some plant nutrients is greatly affected by soil pH. Molybdenum availability is reduced by acid soil conditions, while iron, manganese, boron, copper, and zinc availabilities are increased by soil acidity. Nitrogen and phosphorus availabilities are highest between a pH of 5.5 and 7.2. Aluminum toxicity may occur in very acidic soils, which also result in a purple leaves.
Insects Insect damage may look like deficiency symptoms. Roots should be examined for insect damage that may project itself as a nutrient deficiency. Diseases Close study will reveal differences between plant diseases and nutrient deficiency symptoms. The organisms can usually be found upon close examination.
Moisture conditions Dry soil conditions may create deficiencies. However, nutrient deficiencies during drought must be correctly identified and not attributed to the drought. Crop "firing" attributed to the drought may actually be nitrogen or potassium deficiency.
Soil salinity problems In some areas of Oklahoma soluble salts and alkali are problems. These areas usually cover only a portion of the field. The salty areas usually occur where a high water table exists, salt-water well contamination has occurred or poor quality water has been used for irrigation.
Nutrient deficiency Symptoms indicate severe starvation problems but have the shortcoming of not indicating slight to moderate starvation Many crops exhibit yield reductions from a lack of nutrition before actually showing visual signs of a deficiency. Hidden hunger is the term used to describe this phenomenon. Hidden hunger may reduce yields and quality of crops without the plants showing deficiency symptoms.
## Plant Analysis
The term plant analysis means the chemical analysis of plant tissue to determine the concentration of essential plant nutrients, excluding carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The level of nutrients in the plant tissue is compared to established sufficiency levels to determine possible deficiencies and hidden hunger. In some cases poor-growth plant tissue may be compared to adjacent goodgrowthplantstissuetodrawconclusionsabouttheproblemarea.
Plant analysis can be used to measure the level of plant nutrients that are difficult to test by soil testing procedures, such as molybdenum. It is a good tool for researchers to use when evaluating fertilizer sources or fertilizer placement and when confirming nutrient deficiency symptoms. Plant analysis cannot be used to make fertilizer recommendations because the soil pH and soil nutrient level must be known. It can be used to adjust the fertilizer recommendation once the soil level is known. The same factors that interfere with identifying nutrient deficiency symptoms must be considered when interpreting plant analysis.
A proper plant sample must be taken for plant analysis to be reliably interpret-
ed. Sufficiency levels have been established for certain plant parts as shown in Table 4.12. Sufficiency ranges for more plants can be found in Reference Sufficiency Ranges for Plant Analysis in the Southern Region of the United States (http://www.clemson.edu/sera6/scsb394.pdf).
| Element | Sufficiency Levels | Sufficiency Levels | Sufficiency Levels | Sufficiency Levels | Sufficiency Levels | Sufficiency Levels | Sufficiency Levels | | | | |
|-----------|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------|--------|-----------|---------|---------|
| | Grain | Small | Barneda- | Bermuda- | Corn | sorghum | Yo beans | grains | P peanuts | Alfalfa | grass |
| N, % | 2.7-3.5 | 3.3-4.0 | 4.2-5.5 | 1.7-3.0 | 3.5-4.5 | 4.5-5.0 | 2.5-3.0 | P | 2.5-3.0 | K, % | 2.7-3.5 |
| C, % | .25-.40 | .20-.35 | 26-.50 | .20-.50 | .20-3.5 | .26-.70 | .26-.32 | C | 2.8-1.2 | Ca, % | .21-1.0 |
| Mg, % | .21-.60 | .30-.60 | .36-2.0 | .20-.50 | .20-5.1.75 | 2.0-3.5 | 1.8-2.1 | C | .50-3.0 | S, % | .20-.30 |
| B, ppm | 4-25 | 1-10 | 21-55 | .5-10 | .30-.80 | .30-1.0 | .30 | C | 2.0-1.0 | S, % | .20-.30 |
| Cu, ppm | 2-6 | 2-7 | 10-30 | 5-25 | 10-50 | 30-80 | 2.5 | C | 2.0-1.0 | Fe, ppm | 21-25 |
| Mn, ppm | 20-150 | 8-190 | 21-100 | 25-100 | 100-350 | 31-100 | 20 | C | 21-70 | Zn, ppm | 20-70 |
Select plant tissue so it represents the field as much as possible. Take the composite sample by sampling the number of plants shown in Table 4.13. The same procedure should be used when sampling abnormal growth areas in a field (i.e. take the required number of plants throughout the trouble spot and select an equal-size area of normal plants to sample for comparative purposes). Keep in mind that disease- or insect-infected plants, drought-stricken plants and frost-damaged plants should not be sampled.
Allow samples to partially dry before mailing. Send samples in paper bags or envelopes, not in plastic bags. Damp or wet plant tissue will deteriorate if mailed in plastic or air-tight containers. Do not send soil or roots in the same container. Soil contaminates the plant tissue and makes it difficult to clean at the laboratory.
It is a good idea to take a soil sample in the same vicinity as the plant sample. Soil tests may help interpret the plant analysis results. Plant tissue sufficiency levels for several crops are presented in Table 4.12. Whenever nutrient levels in the plants fall below the sufficiency range, a deficiency is expected. The lower the concentration is below the sufficiency range, the greater the nutrient deficiency.
Some laboratories and researchers have tried to use ratios between 2 or more elements for interpretation. At the present time, the N/S ratio appears to be a good method for diagnosing sulfur deficiency. Sulfur is sufficient when the ratio is 15:1 or less and deficient when the ratio is greater than 20:1. Other combinations or ratios have not shown any benefit over the sufficiency levels shown in Table 4.12.
Remember to use plant analysis along with other data, including soil tests and plant samples from a normal area in the same field. Interpretation must be logical. Be suspicious of far-fetched diagnosis. Growers have frequently been disappointed by applying some otherwise illogical nutrient to their soil and obtaining no benefit. The OSU Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory conducts plant analysis and list sufficiency ranges similar to those in Table 4.12.
| Crop | Plant part to sample | Stage of growth | Number of plants |
|-------------------------|---------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|---------------------|
| Corn or Grain sorghum | All above-ground | Seedling stage (less then 12') | 20-30 |
| Corn or Grain sorghum | Top fully developed leaf | Prior to tasseling | 15-25 |
| Corn | Leaf at ear node | Tasseling to early silk* | 15-25 |
| Grain sorghum Soybeans | Second leaf from top All aboveground | At heading | 15-25 |
| Grain sorghum Soybeans | | Seedling stage (less than 12') | 20-30 |
| Soybeans | Top fully developed trifoliate leaves | Prior to or during initial flowering' | 20-30 |
| Small grain | All aboveground | Seedling stage (prior to tillering) | 50-100 |
| Small grain | All aboveground | As head emerges from boot' | 15-25 |
| Peanuts | All aboveground | Seedling stage Early pegging' | 20-30 |
| Peanuts | Upper stems and leaves | Early pegging' | 15-25 |
| Alfalfa | All aboveground | Prior to bloom | 30-40 |
| Alfalfa | Top third of plant | At bloom* | 15-25 |
| Bermudagrass | Whole plant top | 4 to 5 weeks | 15-25 |
| Cotton | Whole plants | after clipping* | 20-30 |
| Cotton | Petioles of youngest fully expanded leaves | During bloom* | 20-30 |
Oklahoma Soil Fertility Handbook
| Older or lower leaves affected? YES YES Effects mostly localized, chlorosis with or without | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| YES YES | Growing tip dying |
| Plants dark green, distinct pink-purpling of the tips and margins YES YES | Interveinal chlorosis, purple petioles, developing necrotic spots to veins |
| PHOSPHORUS (P) MAGNESIUM (Mg) BORON (B) | NO NO Distortion & reduced size of youngest leaf; yellow patches in the middle YES YES |
| NITROGEN (N) POTASSIUM (K) CALCIUM (Ca) | Chorosis begins with margins & develops white dead spots & blotches that gradually join |
## Calcium deficiency
## Chloride deficiency
## Copper deficiency
## Iron deficiency
## Magnesium deficiency
## Manganese deficiency
## Molybdenum deficiency
## Phosphorus deficiency
## Potassium deficiency
## Sulfur deficiency
## Zinc deficiency
## Chapter 5.
## Fertilizer Use and Sources in Oklahoma
## Fertilizer Use
It was not until 1945 that fertilization became a common practice for grain production in Oklahoma. This is illustrated in Figure 5.1 along with the average wheat yields from 1890 to 2004. Fertilizer use did not increase dramatically until the early 1960s. From 1960 to 1980, the total tonnage of fertilizer sold in Oklahoma increased from 100,000 to 700,000 tons. Presently, almost 1,000,000 tons of fertilizers are sold annually in Oklahoma (Figure 5.1). It is important to note this represents the total amount of fertilizer sold in Oklahoma and does not represent the amount used per acre.
The total volume of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers sold has not increased to any great extent since 1970. Nitrogen fertilizer use continued to increase until the 1990s (Figure 5.2). This demonstrates the importance of nitrogen fertilizers in the state and the relative use of nitrogen compared to phosphorus and potassium. When looking at sales since 1980, all three nutrients have been in decline (Figure 5.2) this decline is at a rate 1,700; 2,250; and 1,200 tons of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus fertilizer per year. This decline in fertilizer sales however is closely related to the total acres of wheat planted in the state (Figures 5.3).
Figure 5.2. Fertilizer nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium sold in Okla- homa, 1951-2014.
From 1977 to the mid 1990s, anhydrous ammonia (82-0-0) was the major source of nitrogen used in the state of Oklahoma. Since that time period, there has been a marked increase in the use of urea ammonium-nitrate and urea sources of nitrogen, with urea being the top seller in recent years, very closely followed by UAN (Figure 5.4). The use of ammonium-nitrate has decreased during this same time period, while the contribution of nitrogen from diammonium phosphate has remained constant. Diammonium phosphate (DAP), which is similar to anhydrous ammonia as a nitrogen source, has remained the prin -ciple source of potassium (Figure 5.5). All other potassium sources combined contribute less than one third of the total phosphorus used in Oklahoma (Figure 5.5). However, there has been a tendency for ammonium polyphosphate (APP) to increase since mid 2000s.
## Native Fertility
The lack of commercial fertilizer use before 1950 was largely due to the na tive fertility of the Oklahoma prairie soils, which were not cultivated until the late 1800's. Many of these soils were very fertile and required no added fertilizers in the first years of wheat production.
However, with time, nutrients were continually depleted from the organic matter pool, thus requiring fertilizers additions in later years. The demand for
Figure 5.5. Amount of phosphorus fertilizer, separated by source sold in Oklahoma, 197-2014. Mono-ammonium Phosphate (MAP) 11-52-0, Di-ammonium Phosphate (DAP) 18-46-0, Ammonium Poliphosphate (APP) 10-34-0.
fertilizers was essentially a function of need. Continuous cultivation of these soils lowered soil organic matter levels from 4 percent (grass first turned over) to their present level of about 1 percent. With continuous wheat production, this represented an annual depletion of the soil organic matter by 0.04 percent. However, this lowering of the soil organic matter was much greater in magnitude in early years and much less in later years. It is important to note that soils with 1 percent organic matter have about 2,000 pounds of actual nitrogen in the top foot of soil. Therefore, almost 8,000 pounds of nitrogen were present in these soils when they were first plowed. At that level, one would think that there would never be a need for nitrogen, however, it must be remembered that this was nitrogen in an organic fraction. The amount of nitrogen that would be mineralized (biologically and chemically transformed to an available form for the plant) in the first 10 years was much greater than it is today. In addition, the crop needs for nitrogen were much less in the early 1900s, since varieties had much lower yield potentials and removed less nitrogen from the soil (Figure 5.1). Soils with 1 percent organic matter will mineralize less than 20 pounds of nitrogen per year and, as such, will not make a major contribution to the nitrogen needs for wheat grain production. However, in earlier years, demands for fertilizer nitrogen were less since the organic matter decay provided for most of the crop nitrogen needs.
Although this discussion has focused on nitrogen, it should also be noted that with time, the organic matter nutrient pool was also depleted of the other essential elements required for plant growth. With time, micronutrient deficiencies are expected to appear in isolated regions where continuous cropping has taken place for long periods of time.
## Importance of Fertilizer Use
It is important to realize that many farmers in the developing world still do not apply fertilizers. In many of these impoverished areas, farmers burn down the forested areas, plant and produce crops for 10 to 20 years, then move on to another area of land. These are migrant farmers who have an average farm size of 2 acres and are extremely poor. The importance of this type of 'slash and burn' agriculture is that it only lasts until the nutrient-supplying power of the ash from burned trees and brush, and the organic matter pool is depleted to the point where crops can no longer be produced. Not having availability to fertilizers, or more importantly the funds to apply any inputs to their farming techniques, they moved on to another forested area where they would cut down the trees, burn them, and produce crops for another 20 years or so until production was again stifled by depleted nutrient levels. Our agricultural systems are obviously much different from that of third world countries, however, organic matter depletion in this country is the same as that found elsewhere. Our farmers cannot move from one area to the next simply because the lands became increasingly unproductive with time, but rather must search for the methods and techniques to sustain production on the same lands.
## Conventional Materials and Sources
Before World War II, nearly all commercial fertilizer materials sold in the U.S. were dry materials. Dry fertilizer materials are either straight materials (those containing only one nutrient) or mixtures (those containing two or more nutrients). Mixed dry materials are available in two forms: 1) chemical compounds in which two of the major fertilizer elements are combined together in the granule and 2) bulk blends in which straight materials and/or chemical compounds are physically blended to make various grades.
Bulk blending increased rapidly in Oklahoma during the early 1960s and was readily accepted by growers because the proper ratio of fertilizer elements can be blended to fit soil test requirements. In Oklahoma, most dry blends are made from combinations of the following: ammonium nitrate, urea, diammonium or monoammonium phosphate and/or concentrated superphosphate and muriate of potash. A blender with four to five bins of bulk, straight materials can blend most any ratio of material needed. A computer program is available to assist in the calculation of the needed ingredients for a particular blend at: http://www. soiltesting.okstate.edu/Interpretation.htm.
The major dry and liquid fertilizer materials available in Oklahoma are listed in Table 5.1.
in handling to avoid exposing human, animal or plant life to direct contact with liquid or gaseous forms. In nitrogen-producing plants, anhydrous ammonia is the basic material used to produce other kinds of nitrogen fertilizers.
Urea ammonium nitrate, 28 to 32 percent nitrogen. A common liquid nitrogen fertilizer is made from soluble urea and ammonium nitrate mixed in equal parts with water to form non-pressure nitrogen solution containing 28 to 32 percent nitrogen. Ammonium nitrate or urea solution alone, can only be handled satisfactorily in the field, in approximately 20 percent nitrogen concentrations.
Nitrogen solutions that do not contain free ammonia can be applied to the soil surface without loss of nitrogen, although incorporation is recommended where ammonia volatilization loss from urea may be a problem. Ammonia-free nitrogen solutions can also be applied in sprinkler irrigation systems with good success. Non-pressure nitrogen solutions are probably the most versatile of all nitrogen materials for application to a broad range of crops with a wide variety of application equipment.
Like any salt solution, nitrogen solutions will salt out. Salting out is simply the precipitation of the dissolved salts when the temperature drops to a certain degree. The salting out is determined by the amount and kind of salts in solution. As a general guide, 28 percent non-pressure solution salts out at about 0 F, and 32 percent salts out at about 32 F, although this can vary between the materials produced by different manufacturers.
Corrosion inhibitors and a pH near 7.0 in nitrogen solutions reduce corrosion of carbon (mild) steel. The following materials are satisfactory for storing and handling nitrogen solutions: aluminum, stainless steel, rubber, neoprene, polyethylene, vinyl resin, glass and carbon steel. Materials that will be destroyed rapidly include copper, brass, bronze, zinc, galvanized metal and concrete.
Ammonium Nitrate, NH$\_{4}$O$\_{3 }$$^{33.5 }$to 34 percent nitrogen. Ammonium nitrate is made by reacting anhydrous ammonia and nitric acid. Half of the total nitrogen in the material is in the nitrate form and half is in the ammoniacal form. Most ammonium nitrate is prilled and coated.
Urea ,(NH$\_{2}$)$\_{2}$CO, 45 to 46 percent nitrogen. Urea is formed by reacting ammonia and carbon dioxide. All of the nitrogen in urea is in the ammoniacal form. Urea is produced in both prilled and granular forms. It is classed as an organic compound since it contains carbon.
Ammonium Sulfate, (NH$\_{4}$)$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$, 20.5 to 21 percent nitrogen. Ammonium sulfate is formed by reacting ammonia with sulfuric acid. All of the material's nitrogen is in the ammoniacal form. Ammonium sulfated is an effective source of sulfur since it contains 24 percent sulfur. It is produced in both crystalline and granular forms.
## Phosphorus Fertilizers
Diamondonium Phosphate, DAP, (NH$\_{4}$)$\_{2}$HPO$\_{4}$, 18 percent nitrogen, 46 percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$. This popular N-P material is produced by reacting ammonia and phosphoric acid. All of the nitrogen is in the ammoniacal form and the phosphorus is highly water-soluble. It is produced in the granular form.
Monoammonium Phosphate, MAP, NH$\_{4}$H$\_{2}$PO$\_{4}$, 11 to 12percent nitrogen, 48 to 60 percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$. This material is produced by reacting ammonia and phosphoric acid. All of the nitrogen is in the ammoniacal form and the phosphorus is highly water-soluble. Most MAP is produced in the granular form.
Phosphoric Acid and Superphosheric Acid , 54 to 85percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ . Phosphate rock deposits are the basic source of all phosphate materials. The principal world reserves are located in North Africa, North America and the former Soviet Union. The primary intermediate step in the production of phos -phorus fertilizers is phosphoric acid. In some areas, phosphoric acid is applied to the soil as a form of fertilizer; however, the handling problems associated with this acid has limited its use.
Two types of acid are commonly used in fluid fertilizer production; ortho phos -phoric (phosphoric acid) containing about 54 percent phosphorus (P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$) and superphosphate (polyphospheric acid) containing up to 85 percent phosphorus (P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$). Being more concentrated, it is possible to produce a higher analysis phosphorus fertilizer from superphosporic acid.
When ortho phosphoric acid is reacted with ammonia, the acid can be neu -tralized to a pH of about 6.5 to produce a nitrogen phosphorous solution of 8-24-0. This was the basic phosphorous material used in mixed liquid fertilizers for several years. The development of superphosheric production procedures make it possible to produce the higher analysis nitrogen phosphorous solutions (10-34-0), currently used as the basic phosphorous source in liquid and suspension grades of liquid fertilizer.
Ammonium Polysphosphate Solutions, APP, 10 percent nitrogen, 34 per -cent P O$\_{2}$. The ability to produce 10-34-0 ammonium polyphosphate solution played an important role in the rapid growth of liquid N-P-K fertilizers during the 1960's. Improved storage and application equipment and other technical advances have enabled this growth to continue.
Ammonium polyphosphate solutions can contain up to 70 percent of the total P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ as a poly-P form. The remaining P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ is as an orthophosphate. All phosphate fertilizers contain some orthophosphate with many being 100 percent in the ortho form. In fluids, it is generally accepted that high poly con -tent, above 55 percent, improves storage quality and the opportunity to carry low cost sources of micronutrient metals in liquid grades.
Ordinary Superphosphate, 20 percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ . Ordinary superphosphate is made by treating finely ground phosphate rock with sulfuric acid. The P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ conten t of this source ranges between 18 and 22 percent. This source has between 11 and 12 percent sulfur as calcium sulfate and is sold as granular form. This low analysis material is no longer readily available in Oklahoma.
Concentrated Superphosphate, 46 percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$. This source is produced by treating ground phosphate with phosphoric acid. The product will vary from 42-46 percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ with the most common analysis 46 percent P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$.
## Potassium Fertilizers
Potassium (K) is found throughout the world in both soluble and insoluble forms. The soluble forms are the principal form used in fertilizers. Potassium chloride is by far the most important source of fertilizer potassium.
Potassium Chloride (Muriate of Potash), KCl, 60 percent K$\_{2}$O. This is the potassium salt of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. Most potash deposits are in this form. It is the most popular potash material used in fertilizers. Muriate of potash is a crystalline material. It is available in various particle sizes which are chosen to coincide with other materials for bulk blending. Some muriate of potash contains iron coatings, giving it a reddish color. Most muriate of potash is white or translucent. Color or particle size does not affect potassium availability for plant growth, since it is a water soluble compound. In addition, potassium chloride is the major source of potash for liquid fertilizers. The fine soluble 0-0-62 grade is used for both liquid and suspension. About 10 percent K$\_{2}$O is the maximum that can be dissolved in a liquid but up to 30 percent K$\_{2}$O can be carried in a suspension.
Potassium Sulfate, K$\_{SO}$$\_{4 }$, 50 percent K$\_{2}$O. Like muriate of potash, potasium sulfate occurs naturally in limited deposits. It is extensively used in tobacco fertilizers where there is concern regarding chlorine build-up. It contains 17 percent sulfur and is widely used in areas where both potassium and sulfur are needed. Potassium sulfate has a lower solubility than KCl and is primarily used in suspensions to produce chloride free potassium and sulfur.
## Secondary Elements
Calcium (Ca). Calcium fertilizers are not usually needed in Oklahoma. Common sources of supplemental Ca are lime and gypsum.
Calcium Carbonate (Lime) 20-40% Ca
Calcium Sulfate (Gypsum) 23% Ca, (18.6% Sulfur)
Normal Superphosphate
Magnesium (Mg). The most common sources of magnesium are magnesium sulfate and dolomitic lime.
Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium Sulfate
Potassium - Magnesium Sulfate
(Sul-Po-Mag, K-Mag)
Dolomitic Limestone (varies)
16% Mg
12% Mg
12% Mg
Sulfur (S). Sulfur is most available when supplied in the highly water soluble sulfate form. Agricultural sulfur (elemental sulfur) can be used, but requires biological oxidation over time to convert the elemental form to available sulfate.
Calcium Sulfate (Gypsum)
Potassium Sulfate
Sulfate of Potash, Magnesia
Ammonium Sulfate
Normal Superphosphate
Ammonium Thiosulfate
Boron (B). A sodium borate (solubor) containing about 20 percent boron is the source of B most commonly used in liquids. Boric acid and other soluble forms containing between 14 to 20 percent boron are also suitable for liquid mixes. Borax
## Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu) and Manganese (Mn)
The micronutrient elements can be discussed as a group since their sources are somewhat similar. Industry separates the compounds into two general categories; inorganic and organic. Inorganic include sulfates, oxides, carbonates and chlorides. The term organic applies primarily to chelated products and some sequestered materials. Most chelates, and particularly liquid products, can be mixed with liquid without difficulty.
## Zinc
Zinc Sulfate
25-36% Zn
Zinc Oxide
50-80% Zn
Zinc Chloride
48% Zn
Zinc Chelate
9-14.5% Zn
## Iron
| Ferrous Sulfate | 20.1% Fe |
|--------------------------|------------|
| Ferric Sulfate | 19.9% Fe |
| Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate | 14.2% Fe |
| Ferric Chloride | 34.4% Fe |
| Iron Chelate | 10% Fe |
## Copper
Copper Sulfate
25% Cu
## Manganese
Manganese Sulfate
23-28% Mn
Molybdenum (Mo). Ammonium molybdate is satisfactory for liquids. Sodium molybdate can also be used although it is less soluble than ammonium molybdate. Since molybdenum is applied in ounces per acre, liquids are ideal for getting even distribution.
Sodium Molybdate
39.7% Mo
Ammonium Molybdate
54.3% Mo
Chlorine. Chlorine has only recently been found deficient in Oklahoma soils. The deficiency in wheat on deep sandy soils near Perkins, OK can be corrected using muriate of potash (0-0-60). This is the common source of potassium, which is usually also deficient in these sandy soils.
## Mixed Fertilizers
Fertilizer mixtures account for a significant portion of the total amount of fertilizer consumed in Oklahoma. These mixtures are either manufactured at large granulation plants and shipped to the dealer as the grade or they are blended by
local blend plants. Field research has shown little or no differences between the chemical granulated materials and physical blends unless segregation occurs in the blends.
## Methods of Application
Comprehensive evaluation of fertilizer placement research reveals that no single question has been asked so many times for so many different crops and production systems as the question of whether to band or broadcast. Interestingly, it remains an important question today and may well be in the future. The most common method of applying fertilizers in modern times has been to broadcast, either with or without incorporation. However, the method used depends on various factors including the fertilizer to be applied, tillage, equipment available and crop grown.
## Banding
Banding immobile nutrients such as phosphorus has become a common method for soils with high fixation capacities. In general, banding is the placement of fertilizer nutrients in a concentrated zone near the seed. Initial reasons for banding were:
- 1. to reduce the surface area of the fertilizer in direct contact with the soil, and thus minimize fertilizer-soil reactions that reduce chemical availability;
- 2. to apply the nutrient where there is the greatest chance for root contact.
Banding will likely have little beneficial effect for mobile nutrients such as nitrogen and sulfur. Banding phosphorus and potassium has been beneficial where starter effects were desired in cool, wet climates. Recent work has shown banding phosphorus with the seed at planting on highly acid soils can reduce aluminum toxicity.
Soluble fertilizers placed in a band may cause germination and/or seedling injury if rates are too high. In general, the salt index (applied N+K$\_{2}$O +½ S) should not exceed 30 pounds per acre for wheat and 7 pounds per acre for corn. These two rates are based on 6-inch row spacing and wheat and 30-inch row spacing in corn. The row spacing at which any crop is planted impacts the safe salt index rate (Table 5.2) I extremely arid regions and/or where rapid drying takes place, salt rates less than these can adversely affect crop seed germination. Although banding phosphorus with the seed has become popular for Oklahoma wheat farmers with acid soil, it remains as a temporary alternative to liming. Unlike broadcasting, there are several variations of band applications including with the seed, below the seed, beside the seed, dribble surface bands, spoke tooth bands, spot placement, point injection and dual band applications. Accurate characterization of band applications must also consider spacing, form (liquid or solid), and depth of placement. An illustration of plant response to banding is found in Figure 5.7. Roots respond to increased phosphorus availabilty, increasing in growth within the band where the phosphorus is placed. If a soil were deficient in phosphorus, all roots would not explore the entire soil profile in search of this limiting element. Instead, some roots penetrate the band
| | 6" | 7.5" | 10" | 12" | 15" | 20" | 30" |
|---------|------|--------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| Wheat | 30 | 24 | 18 | 15 | | | |
| Canola | 10 | 8 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| Sorghum | 25 | 20 | 15 | 12.5 | 10 | 7.5 | 5 |
| Corn | | | | 14 | | 10.5 | 7 |
or localized area where phosphorus has been applied and proliferate in that zone (Figure 5.6).
## Broadcast
Broadcast applications of granular fertilizers are most often applied prior to planting. For many grain producers, this method of application can be more economical and requires less time, which can be important when one operator must cover a large acreage. However, poor distribution patterns from bulk dry spreaders can result in uneven stands and lower grain yields. Ultimately, it is up to the farmer to check commercial fertilizer applicators. Using sample pans (8 to 10 pans, 2 feet wide) spread across the application width, one can quickly assess the distribution pattern of the fertilizer applicator. If the weighed amounts in the pans differ by more than 10 to 15 percent, the application equipment should be adjusted accordingly. Applicators that can cover a broad width (30 to 60 feet with each pass), need close monitoring to avoid uneven distribution of the applied fertilizer.
Broadcast applications of phosphorus have proven to be satisfactory in mini-
mum tillage crop production, since this method of placement effectively reduces the surface area of the soil in contact with the fertilizer (Figure 5.7). The advan tages of this method in reduced tillage crop production, at least under humid region cropping conditions is also a function of placing the fertilizer near the zone (surface horizon 0 to 2 inches) where increased moisture and root mass are present. In this regard, broadcast applications of phosphorus in minimum tillage systems have been viewed as surface horizontal bands (Figure 5.7). Alternatively, localized band applications of phosphorus in conventional tillage have commonly increased uptake efficiencies and grain yields when compared to broadcast methods as a result of effectively reducing soil-fertilizer phosphorus fixation.
## Volatilization Losses from Surface-Applied Urea and UAN Solutions
Urea is now the most widely used solid form of nitrogen in the world. Methods of applying urea forms of nitrogen in minimum tillage systems have been given considerable attention since gaseous losses of nitrogen as ammonia gas (NH$\_{3}$), are known to occur when urea is applied to soils with pH > 7.0 and where surface soil temperatures are high. Because of this problem, various researchers have stressed the importance of banding urea below the surface of the soil.
When urea is broadcast applied to soils where minimum or zero tillage is used, nitrogen losses as ammonia gas can increase due to accumulated surface residues. This is due in part to the enzyme urease (found in crop residues) which is responsible for the chemical transformation of urea ((NH$\_{2}$)$\_{2}$CO) to ammonium (NH$\_{4}$$^{+}$) that can be used by the plant. Ammonium can be chemically
transformed to ammonia gas (NH$\_{3}$) and lost from the soil. This loss is favored by application of urea to wet soil or residue surfaces that remain moist for several hours, followed by good drying conditions (windy, high temperature). Any loss decreases the amount of nitrogen available to the crop and increases the fertilizer requirement. Some of the surface applied nitrogen will stimulate microbial decay of residue and be "tied-up" in microbial tissue. Because of this, when urea is surface applied in reduced tillage systems, a higher rate of nitrogen is generally needed for optimum wheat grain yields when compared to conventional tillage. Sprayed applications of solutions 28 or 32 (UAN) on bermudagrass may also be less effective than other sources of nitrogen because of the high chance for ammonia from the urea to volatilize.
Reduced tillage systems have shown distinct advantages over that of conventional tillage in terms of soil erosion control, increased soil moisture and higher residual soil mineral nitrogen levels. However reduced tillage systems can also increase volatilization losses from surface applied urea, when compared to conventional tillage. Other disadvantages associated with reduced tillage systems include increased surface soil acidity, denitrification, immobili zation, NO$\_{3}$N leaching and higher nitrogen requirements for crop production.
In general, urea sources of nitrogen should not be broadcast when soil pH exceeds 7.0, and where minimum tillage/reduced tillage practices are employed.
## Management Strategies to Increase Nitrogen Use Efficiency
Fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency in crop production has been primarily influenced by volatilization losses, surface immobilization and NO$\_{3}$N leaching beyond the rooting zone. Volatilization losses from applied urea have been effectively reduced by surface incorporation of urea-N sources. Other work has focused on the use of urease inhibitors that selectively inhibit the urease enzyme involved in ammonium hydrolysis. Surface immobilization of applied nitrogen can be reduced by using various forms of banding (localized placement).
## Sidedress or Split Applications
The most practical method of reducing NO$\_{3}$N leaching losses is to apply the nitrogen when it is needed most by the crop. Split applications can effectively reduce mobile nutrient leaching losses by applying the required amounts during high crop uptake stages. Fertilization practices mirror the initial ideas behind split applications by applying the same actual nitrogen rate in smaller quantities over time and in relation to crop need. Nitrate-N leaching has also been reduced in certain areas by the use of nitrification inhibitors which slow down the transformation of NH+ to NO+, This is accomplished by the selective inhibition of the bacteria nitrosomonas sp. involved in the biological oxidation of NH$\_{4}$$^{+}$.
## Knife Injection of Anhydrous Ammonia
Depending on the soil, anhydrous ammonia should generally be applied 4 to 8 inches below the soil surface. Slower tractor speeds can favor better ammonia
retention by the soil (and less loss of ammonia gas) due to improved soil clo- sure behind the knife applicator. If soils are too dry and large chunks of soil form behind the applicator, or too wet and a trench forms, then the resulting poor seal allows much of the ammonia gas to escape to the air. Spacing of the applicator kni fes should be based on the row spacing to be used, rate of application and whether the application is made before planting. The minimum practical spacing is 14 inches and the maximum is 40 inches.
When anhydrous ammonia is applied sidedress within row crops, the knives should be placed to travel 6 to 10 inches to the side of the row. For other crops with extensive root systems, the knives should be spaced to travel between the rows. On soils with extremely high clay contents, and/or very sandy soils, anhy -drous ammonia may not be a suitable nitrogen source due to gaseous losses which can occur. In general, ammonia losses are minimized when soil moisture content is between 12 and 18 percent (Figure 5.8). It is also important to note that at the 9 and 12 inch depths of placement, ammonia losses are further reduced. However, it is not advisable to knife anhydrous ammonia at depths greater than 9 inches due to equipment wear and increased fuel costs.
The long-term benefits of knifing anhydrous ammonia preplant, compared to other more costly granular and liquid nitrogen forms has been noted in wheat, corn and sorghum production. Similar results from using anhydrous ammonia on other crops is largely due to the lower cost per pound of nitrogen and econ o mies of scale when considering the cost of anhydrous ammonia versus alter native nitrogen sources. Additionally, application costs may be nil when done in conjunction with a planned tillage operation.
## Chapter 6. Use of Animal Manure as Fertilizer
## Introduction
Animal production is a large segment of the economy of Oklahoma. Confined animal feeding operations produce large quantities of manure requiring proper management. Animal waste has been used by ancient and modern farmers to enhance crop production and improve soil health. Besides providing valuable macro- and micro-nutrients to the soil, manure supplies organic matter to im prove soil tilth, improves infiltration of water and retention of nutrients, reduces wind and water erosion, and promotes growth of beneficial organisms. Therefore, manure land application recycles nutrients and sustains crop production (Figure 6.1).
Manure applications, however, may cause surface and groundwater pollution if mismanaged. Surface runoff from manured land may contain plant nutrients and organic materials. Excess nutrients and organic material in surface water often causes algal bloom, which increase the turbidity and biological oxygen demand of water. The polluted water may cause odors and result in a fish kill if the dissolved oxygen is significantly lowered. Excessive applications of manure may also cause nitrate-nitrogen (NO$\_{3}$N) to accumulate in the soil. The excess NO$\_{3}$N can reach the surface water through drainage ditches or groundwater through leaching.
This chapter is to provide agronomic information for the efficient use of manure nutrients for crop production and to help protect surface and groundwater quality. A work sheet is also provided for calculating the agronomic rate of manure application depending on your crop yield goal and soil conditions.
## Manure Management Functions
An agricultural waste management system designed for a confined animal feeding operation consists of six basic functions of manure management: production, collection, storage, treatment, transfer, and utilization (Figure 6.2). It is important to understand each of these functions since they affect the nutrient contents of the manure.
## Production
Production is the function of the amount and nature of manure generated by a livestock or poultry operation. Oklahoma farms produce about 9 million tons of manure from CAFOs each year. The generation of unnecessary waste should be kept to a minimum. Leaking watering facilities and spilled feed contribute to the production of waste. These problems can be reduced by careful management and maintenance of feeders, watering facilities and associated equipment.
## Collection
This refers to the initial capture and gathering of the waste from the point of origin or deposition to a collection point.
## Storage
Storage is the temporary containment of the waste. The storage facility of a waste management system is the tool that gives farmers control over scheduling of transfer operation or land application.
## Treatment
Treatment is any process designed to reduce pollution potential of the waste, including physical, biological, and chemical treatment. It includes activities that sometimes are called pretreatment, such as the separation of solids.
Transfer
Transfer refers to the movement and transportation of the waste throughout the system. It includes the transfer of the waste from the collection point to the storage facility, to the treatment facility, or to the utilization site. Waste may require transfer as a solid, liquid or slurry, depending on the total solid concen- tration.
## Utilization
Utilization refers to the recycle of waste products into the environment. Agricultural waste may be used as a source of energy, bedding, animal feed, mulch, organic matter or plant nutrients. Properly treated, they can be marketable. Most often they are land applied as soil amendments, therefore, utilization of manure as plant nutrients will be discussed here in detail.
## Value of Animal Manure
Animal manure contains valuable nutrients that can support crop production and enhance soil chemical, physical and biological properties. Thus, manure can be an asset to a livestock production operation if its nutrient value is maximized. Nutrient composition of farm manure varies widely even for the same species of animal. In the past, manure was primarily solids, thus application was a problem because it required handling a large tonnage of low-analysis material. Today, an increasing amount of the waste is fluid, and analysis is lower because of the higher water content. The approximate fertilizer values for various manures are shown in Table 6.1. However, the actual value is based on the need for nutrients. For example, crops will not benefit from additional phosphorus if the field is already high in soil test phosphorus. These nutrients are average values and a chemical analysis on each sample should be obtained before manure is applied to your field. Manure sampling procedures and analysis available through OSU Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory (soiltesting.okstate.edu) will be discussed later in this guide.
| Manure Type | Dry Matter | Total N | P$_{2}$O$_{5}$ | K$_{2}$O | Value* |
|-----------------|--------------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------|------------|----------|
| Feedlot Manure | 62 | .............................. pounds per ton | .............................. | 25 | $ |
| Poultry Litter | 77 | 63 | 61 | 50 | 78.6 |
| | | ........................pounds per 1,000 gallons | | | |
| Lagoon Effluent | 0.5 | 4.2 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 4.24 |
| Lagoon Sludge | 7 | 15 | 16 | 11 | 18 |
| Dairy Slurry | 3 | 13 | 11 | 11 | 14.9 |
## Methods of Land Application
Manure can be applied to a land by surface broadcasting using a manure spreader, by spreading with an irrigation system, or by tank wagon followed by plowing or disking, by broadcasting without incorporation or by knifin g under the soil surface. Research has shown maximum nutrient benefit is realized when manure is incorporated into the soil immediately after application.
Immediate incorporation of solid manure minimizes nitrogen loss to the air and allows soil microorganisms to start decomposing the organic fraction of the manure. This increases the amount of available nitrogen to the crop. With liquid manure systems, the practice of injecting, chiseling, or kri nging the manure beneath the soil surface reduces nitrogen losses by volatilization and potential runoff. Incorporation of either solid or liquid manure also reduces odor problems. Large nitrogen losses usually result from application by irrigation equipment. Actual losses depend on NH$\_{4}$N content, and increase as the irrigation water pH increases. Nitrogen loss by ammonia volatilization from surface applications is greater on dry, warm, windy days than on days that are humid and/or cold. That means loss generally is higher during the late spring and summer seasons than it is in the late fall and winter. It is especially important poultry and veal calf manu re be incorporated into the soil as soon as possible after application because of its high pH (alkalinity). To prevent local high concentrations of ammonium or inorganic salts, which can reduce germination and affect yields, manure should be applied uniformly.
Phosphorus and potassium, unlike nitrogen, are not subject to either volatilization. Incorporation of manure, however, will minimize phosphorus and potasium losses due to runoff, and increase their agronomic value.
## Procedures for Sampling and Analyzing Manure
The actual nutrient value of manure from a particular operation will differ considerably due to the method of collection and storage. For accurate rate calculations, it is strongly recommended that the nutrient content of manure be determined by laboratory analysis annually or when manure handling procedure changes. The analysis report should at least include information on dry matter, electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Nitrate-N, ammonium-N and water soluble phosphorus needs to be determined sometimes.
## How to Collect a Representative Sample?
The key to an accurate manure analysis is to obtain a representative sample by mixing the manure and using proper sampling techniques. A considerable amount of nitrogen can be lost if a sample is not correctly taken and handled.
For liquid manure storage facilities, samples may be collected by attaching a container, such as a jar or milk jug, to a long rod (such as a paint roller connect ed to a paint pole). If possible, agitate the contents of a manure pit to ensure a well-mixed sample. Liquid storage facilities have a tendency for the waste
to stratify, with the solids settling to the bottom and the liquids remaining on top. Normally the nitrogen and potassium will be more concentrated in the top liquid, while the phosphorus will be concentrated in the bottom solids. Several sub-samples should be collected from the storage facility, placed in a bucket to make a composite sample, and mixed well by stirring. From this mixture, a quart-size plastic container is filled half full. Filling the bottle half full will allow for gas expansion of the sample and prevent the bottle from exploding. The sample should be kept frozen or as cold as possible until you can take it to your county extension office or ship it directly to a laboratory. Liquid samples also can be collected during land application. These samples best represent the amount of nutrients applied to the land. Randomly place catch pans in the field to collect the liquid as it is being applied by an irrigation system or honey wagon. Immediate after the waste has been applied, collect the waste from catch pans and combine in a bucket to make one composite sample. Take the final sample from this mixture, and fill the container as described previously. Sampling waste this way accounts for nutrient losses due to both storage and handling, as well as losses due to application.
For solid manure, obtain samples from several parts of the manure source and place in a bucket to make a composite sample. Do not allow the material to dry, and take about 1 pound of final sample in a plastic bag, twist and tie tightly. For added safety, place in a second plastic bag. Preserve immediately by freezing ing.
Deliver the liquid or solid manure sample to the laboratory personally, or package thoroughly, in a strong, insulated container and ship the fastest way possible. Check with your county Extension educator for more details on how to collect samples and where to obtain an analysis.
## Nutrient Availability of Manure to Crops
Not all nutrients present in manure are readily available to a crop in the year of application. To be used by plants, nutrients must be released from the organic matter in manure by microbial decomposition and into a chemical form that is soluble in water.
Most manure nitrogen is in ammonium (NH$\_{4}$ $^{+}$) and organic forms. Potentially, all of the ammonium-NN (NH$\_{4}$ $^{+}$) can be utilized by plants in the year of application. However, if manure is broadcast on the soil surface and not quickly incorporated, considerable NH$\_{4}$ $^{+}$N will be lost to the air as ammonia (NH$\_{3}$ ) gas increasing odor and lose valuable nitrogen. The ammonium added will be subject to nitrification resulting in rapid formation of nitrate-N (NO$\_{3}$ $^{+}$). Nitrogen in the organic form must be converted (mineralized) into inorganic forms which are plant available (ammonium and nitrate) before it can be absorbed by roots. The amounts of organic nitrogen converted to plant-available forms during the first cropping year after application vary depending on both livestock species and manure handling systems. In general, about 30 to 70 percent of the organic ni trogen may become available the year of application. Organic nitrogen released during the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cropping years after application is usually about 50, 25 and 12.5 percent, respectively, of that mineralized in the initial season. Soil
test data should be used to determine the potential accumulation of nitrogen after repeated manure applications.
If soil organic matter levels are low, some nitrogen can be tied up (immobilized) in the soil and released in the subsequent years resulting in much less available the first year. In addition, manure contributes considerable organic matter to the soil and increases bacterial activity which can tie up inorganic nitrogen making it not immediately available to the growing plant. The average nitrogen available in the first year of application and in the consequent years is listed in Table 6.2.
| Manure Type | 1st Year Availability | Future Availability |
|-----------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------|
| Feedlot manure | 50% - 70% | 10% - 20% |
| Poultry litter | 50% - 70% | 10% - 15% |
| Dairy manure | 50% - 70% | 10% - 20% |
| Swine lagoon effluent | 30% - 50% | 5% - 10% |
The availability of phosphorus and potassium in manure is considered similar to that in commercial fertilizer since the majority of phosphorus and potassium in manure is in the inorganic form. For all manure types, 90% of phosphorus and potassium in the manure are considered available during the first year of application and 10% for future years. Another management approach is to rotate the fields that receive manure if excess phosphorus is applied so it can be efficiently utilized in subsequent cropping seasons and phosphorus buildup in the soil is minimized.
## Developing a Manure Application Plan
Some producers apply enough manure on the land to meet crop nutrient needs and then unnecessarily add commercial fertilizer. This practice not only wastes money and much of the manure's potential value as a plant nutrient source, but also can cause nutrient imbalance in the soil and increase nutrient leaching or runoff into water sources. Repeated applications of excess manure result in a wasteful buildup of phosphorus and potassium in soils. Salt buildup also is possible if manure salt concentration is higher than normal, application rate is excessive, and rainfall is low.
Livestock and poultry producers should develop a manure nutrient management plan that first maximizes the use of manure nutrients and then supplements with commercial fertilizers only if additional nutrients are needed for the crop. The major elements of such a plan should include:
- · periodic analysis of the manure produced in the animal operation
- a routine soil testing program
- · keeping accurate records of fields manured and the application rates used
- sufficient storage capacity for timely application
## Suggestions for Proper Land Applications
The following are some suggestions to help ensure safe and effective application of animal manure to cropland:
- · When applying manure and waste water to a land, appropriate buffer areas should be used;
- · Unless immediately incorporated into the soil, surface apply manure at reasonable distances from streams, ponds, open ditches, residences and public buildings to reduce runoff, odor problems and to avoid neighbor complaints;
- · To minimize farmstead odor problems, spread raw manure frequently, especially during the summer. Spread early in the day when the air is warming and rising rather than blowing toward populated areas or when the air is still;
- · Agitate liquid manure thoroughly in pits to ensure removal of settled solids. This is important for uniform application of the nutrients and for obtaining accurate, representative analysis samples;
- · Consider irrigating with diluted manures (lagoon or runoff liquids) during dry weather to supply needed water as well as nutrient to growing crop;
- Do not spread liquid manure on water-saturated soils where runoff is likely to occur;
- Make safety your first priority when removing manure from tanks or pits. Because of oxygen deficiency or toxic gas accumulation, remove animals or increase ventilation in slatted floor areas over manure pits during agitation.
## Determining How Much Manure can be Applied
Land application rates should be based on the nutrient requirements of the crop being grown to ensure efficient use of manure nutrients and minimize the chances of leaching. Soil testing, manure analysis, irrigation water analysis, and proper estimation of yield goal are necessary to calculate proper agronomy application rates of manure and fertilizers. However, if manure analysis information is not available, the data in Table 6.1 and 6.2 or other sources may be used to calculate approximate application rates. Table 6.3 illustrates the steps to come up with an agronomic rate of manure application. This is what one should do to maximize the benefits of manure and minimize the impact on the environment. However, more manure may be allowed to apply. More information on manure rules and regulations is available from Oklahoma Department of Ag-
Table 6.3. Manure Application Rate Calculation Worksheet.
| Step 1 | Nutrient needs of crop (lbs/acre) | P-O= | |
|----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|----|
| Step 2 | Total nutrient value of manure (lb/ton or lbs/1000 gal) Based on manure analysis of a representative sample collected close to the time of application. | NP-O= | |
| Step 3 | Determine available nutrients (pounds per ton or pounds per 1,000 gallons) Multiply the value from Step 2 by the nutrient availability, normally 60% for nitrogen if incorporated and 90% for P & K. | NP-O= K-O= | |
| Step 4 | Calculate the rates of application needed for N, P and K (tons/acre or 1000 gal/acre) Divide values from Step 1 by values from Step 3. Select the rate of manure to be applied (tons/acre or 1000 gal/acre) Choose the nutrient for which the manure rate is to be based. Select the highest of three if manure is used as a complete fertilizer; select the lowest for maximum nutrient use efficiency. | NP-O= K-O= | |
| Step 5 | Select the rate of manure to be applied (tons/acre or 1000 gal/acre) Determine amount of supplemental nutrients Subtract the nutrients needed (Step 1) from nutrients being applied (Step 6). If the difference is negative, it is the amount of supplemental fertilizer needed. | Rate= | |
| Step 6 | Determine amount of available nutrients being Applied (lb/acre) Multiply the rate (Step 5) by available nutrients (Step 3). | NP-O= K-O= | |
| Step 7 | Determine amount of supplemental nutrients Needed | NP-O= K-O= | |
| Step 8 | Determine total depth of application for liquid Divide the rate (Step 5) by 27,000 to get irrigation depth needed to provide nutrients if the unit is in 1,000 gallons | acre-inch | |
| Step 9 | Determine number of applications and amount of each application Based on growth stages and crop nutrient needs at each state. | 1st = ________acre-inch 2nd = _______acre-inch 3rd = _______acre-inch | |
culture, Food and Forestry and the Oklahoma Natural Resource Conservation Services.
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Services' Manure and Animal Waste Management website also is a good source of information: animalwaste.okstate. edu.
## Chapter 7.
## Environmental Concerns Associated with Fertilizer Use
Use of fertilizer has generated numerous environmental concerns in recent years. Concerns can be categorized by their effect on water quality, air quality, and human and animal health. In each case, the primary interest is nitrogen and phosphorus content, although others need to be considered, depending on the fertilizer source. As previously covered, there are many available fertilizer sources including commercial fertilizers, biosolids and animal waste. Environmental concerns become a potential hazard with the misuse of these materials. Misuse generally arises when fertilizer application rates exceed agronomic requirements. It is emphasized here application of fertilizer materials is not environmentally unsound, but excessive application of any of them can lead to potential hazards. In many states fertilizer use is now being regulated. In Oklahoma, phosphorus applications are regulated based on the NRCS "Phosphorus Index," which limits phosphorus applications as a function of soil test phosphorus level, watershed and conditions. Therefore, producers should be aware of potential problems. By knowing the potential problems, producers can properly manage fertilizer inputs to maximize production yet minimize negative environmental impacts.
## Nitrogen
Environmental concerns with nitrogen focus on water quality but also include air quality and human and animal health. Water-quality issues include nitrogen concentrations in surface water and groundwater. Concerns for surface water are related to nitrogen entering streams, ponds and lakes where elevated levels will stimulate algae growth resulting in algae blooms. Upon the death of the algae, microbial activity increases resulting in a decrease in available oxygen for biological functions, a condition referred to as eutrophication. Eutrophication has a detrimental effect on most aquatic species. It occurs when there are adequate sources of nutrients, but the system is limited by the available oxygen, resulting in the death of many aquatic species including fish and invertebrates.
The most common pathway for land-applied nitrogen to reach surface waters is by runoff waters. These waters often will contain soluble materials and soil sediments. Therefore, even nitrogen applied at agronomic rates and incorporated into the soil is susceptible to moving into surface waters by runoff when carried by soil particles. Nitrate-N is a soluble nitrogen form and ammonium-N can be attached to the soil particles as they are carried into the stream or impoundment. Several steps can be taken to minimize nitrogen problems associated with runoff from fields into surface waters. One of the most effective ways
to minimize runoff-related nitrogen problems is to maintain plant residue on the soil surface, which will enhance water infiltration and reduce the volume of water and amount of soil sediments moved from the field into surface water. Another effective practice is to leave a buffer strip of vegetation between the field and the surface water, which can act as a trap for many of the soil sediments. By catching sediments in the buffer strip the amount of nitrogen reaching the surface water is reduced.
Although eutrophication of surface waters is important, much of the regulation in other states focuses on the use of nitrogen in areas where a subsurface aquifer is within 10 feet of the soil surface. Nitrogen in the nitrate (NO$\_{3}$) form is very susceptible to leaching through the soil profile as previously discussed, therefore, these sites possess a real possibility for elevated levels of NO$\_{3}$ to enter the aquifer when nitrogen application rates are in excess of agronomic rates. Concerns with nitrate reaching an aquifer generally are related to animal and human health rather than an imbalance in environmental nutrient requirements.
Methomoglobinemia (blue-baby syndrome) can result from the ingestion of nitrate in water or nitrate-rich food products. Ingested nitrate then can be reduced to nitrite in the upper gastro-intestinal tract, and once incorporated in the blood system can form methemoglobin. Methemoglobin, unlike hemoglobin, cannot function as an oxygen carrier, ultimately resulting in anoxia or suffocation if high amounts are present. Infants younger than three months are highly susceptible to gastric bacterial nitrate reduction because they have very little gastric acid production and low activity of the enzyme that reduces metho-
globin back to hemoglobin. Nitrogen-nitrosamines are potent carcinogens in animals. These compounds can be synthesized from amines and nitrous acid under certain conditions. When nitrate is reduced to nitrite, it can give rise to the formation of nitrogen-nitrosamine compounds that are an important class of chemical carcinogens for humans. However, nitrosamines occur in very few foods and at very low levels because of their chemical instability. It is important to note the presence of nitrosamines in food products generally is not associated with nitrates from nitrogen fertilizers, but rather the use of nitrite as a curing agent in meats, poultry and fish. Potassium nitrate also has been used as a food preservative. Other studies have shown an association between nitrate in drinking water and the incidence of gastric carcinoma in adults continuously exposed to high nitrate.
Agronomic solutions have been available for years to deal with fertilizer NO$\_{3}$ -N pollution of surface and subsurface water supplies. Nitrogen fertilizer recommendations based on removal and use efficiency have been shown to be both environmentally sound and economical. Recent research by the OSU soil fertility project has demonstrated limited potential for NO$\_{3}$ -N leaching when the recommended nitrogen fertilization rates are employed in continuous winter wheat. This work has also shown that nitrogen rates needed for maximum wheat grain yield can be exceeded by small amounts without increasing soil profile NO$\_{3}$ -N accumulation.
The use of nitrogen in agriculture has been identified as a contributor to water pollution. However, it also has been found that this contribution to ground water contamination occurs when nitrogen is managed improperly. Under continuous production of wheat, applied nitrogen at the recommended rate (using soil test-
ing and realistic yield goals) will not result in increased NO$\_{3}$-N contamination of groundwater. Also, the sensor-based system developed at OSU (discussed in Chapter 10) likely will decrease the risk of NO$\_{3}$-N contamination of groundwater, since this technology simulates soil testing, but on a much finer scale. By working at a sub-field scale, excessive nitrogen application can be reduced, thus reducing the risk of NO$\_{3}$ -N leaching to groundwater.
A final concern related to the use of nitrogen fertilizers in some regions is air quality. This is primarily related to the application of animal manures and biosolids and resulting ammonia (NH$\_{3}$) that can be lost to the atmosphere from them. High concentrations of atmospheric NH$\_{3}$ is a potential human health hazard, and this volatized NH$\_{3}$ could cause water quality issues when it is later deposited on the surface of the Earth through precipitation. This could be extended to the application of ammonium and ammonia containing commercial fertilizers as well. To minimize concerns associated with air quality, it is recommended ammonia-containing fertilizers be incorporated upon application. There are agronomic and financial reasons for doing this as well as those associated with air quality. By incorporating these fertilizer sources, the amount of nitrogen lost from the soil system is reduced, thus, saving on the quantity of fertilizer purchases or allowing more land area to be fertilized with animal manure or biosolids. In addition to NH$\_{3}$, use of excessive nitrogen fertilizer may also result in the volatilization of nitrogen as di-nitrogen (N$\_{2}$) and nitrous oxide (N$\_{2}$O), depending on the soil and climate conditions. This usually only occurs when "micro" anaerobic conditions develop in wet soils or soils that received recent rainfall. While the loss of N$\_{2}$ is harmless to the environment, N$\_{2}$O is a considered to be a potent greenhouse gas.
## Phosphorus
Environmental concerns with phosphorus focus on water quality, particularly surface water quality. Under normal conditions, phosphorus in the soil is an immobile plant nutrient and is tightly adsorbed to soil particles significantly reducing leaching movement through the soil profile. Therefore, under normal conditions if phosphorus is to reach surface water, it must be transported by the sediment load in runoff waters. If phosphorus does reach a stream or other body of surface water, it can lead to the accelerated eutrophication of the recipient water body. As previously discussed, eutrophication is the condition where a body of water has an enriched nutrient load but is limited by the available biological oxygen in the water. Algal species that proliferate in high phosphorus water include Anabaena, Ankstrodemus and Euglena. As these organisms die and are decomposed by other organisms, the available biological oxygen is significantly reduced causing adverse effects on other species of aquatic life. In general, phosphorus is considered the most limiting nutrient in surface waters.
The two main forms of phosphorus that can be transported from soils to surface waters are particulate phosphorus and dissolved phosphorus. Particulate phosphorus is the phosphorus that is bound to the soil particle and is transported only with eroded sediment. Dissolved phosphorus on the other hand, is the phosphorus that is found in the dissolved form in water. Only soils that Oklahoma Soil Fertility Handbook
have been built up with excessive phosphorus levels are able to contribute dissolved phosphorus in runoff or leachate water Thus, under normal circumstances, there is little risk of loss of dissolved phosphorus to runoff, and particulate phosphorus loss is prevented by conservation practices that reduce erosion and sediment transport. However, in soils containing excessive phosphorus concentrations, normal conservation practices that prevent transport of particulate phosphorus will do little to reduce transport of dissolved phosphorus. This is especially a problem because dissolved phosphorus is 100 percent bioavailable to aquatic life for causing eutrophication immediately upon deposition.
Soils that have excessive phosphorus concentrations that are able to supply high dissolved phosphorus concentrations to runoff are termed, "Legacy phosphorus soils". The term "Legacy" is used because soils that are built up with high phosphorus levels will remain elevated in soil phosphorus concentrations for decades, unlike nitrogen, These soils will continue to contribute appreciable dissolved phosphorus to runoff during that time until the soil phosphorus concentrations decrease. The clear solution to this problem of reducing legacy phosphorus in soils is to "mine" phosphorus out of high phosphorus soils with crops that uptake high amounts of phosphorus (such as forages), while simultaneously ceasing all phosphorus applications. The plant matter must be harvested and removed from the site in order to reduce soil phosphorus. Studies have shown that depending on the initial soil phosphorus concentrations, "drawdown" of phosphorus can take 20 years or more before reducing soil phosphorus lev-els to below agronomic optimum. While this long-term solution is being implemented, phosphorus removal structures are an effective short-term solution to preventing the transport of dissolved phosphorus from legacy phosphorus soils to surface waters.
At its most basic level, a phosphorus removal structure is simply a landscape-scale filter containing a reactive substrate with a high affinity for dissolved phosphorus. The structure is placed in a suitable location with a known problem and designed so that high phosphorus water is able to flow through the substrate, known as phosphorus sorption materials, and the clean water is passively discharged through drainage pipes while the phosphorus is retained on the phosphorus sorption materials (Figure 7.1). The phosphorus removal structure is ideally designed to remove a desired amount of phosphorus, usually expressed as a percentage of the load of dissolved phosphorus leaving the site in drainage water, for a desired lifetime. After the contained phosphorus sorption materials are no longer able to remove dissolved phosphorus, i.e. they become "spent," or after the phosphorus sorption materials are no longer removing dissolved phosphorus at an acceptable rate, the phosphorus sorption materials are removed from the structure and replaced with new phosphorus sorption materials.
A phosphorus removal structure can appear in a variety of forms and settings, including urban, horticultural, and agricultural. Regardless of the appearance, form, and shape of the structure or the setting, all phosphorus removal structures have the same four basic components:
- 1. Contains a sufficient mass of a porous phosphorus sorption material. A phosphorus sorption material is not simply a typical gravel material, although some phosphorus sorption materials are the same particle size as
Figure 7.1 Photographs of example phosphorus removal structures: (a) blind inlet with inset showing drainage pipes prior to completion; (b) pond filter with inset showing phosphorus sorption material bed located inside building; (c) confined bed runoff structure; (d) ditch filter with inset show ing drainage pipe installed prior to addition of phosphorus sorption ma terial; (e) storm water basin filter, with inset showing the perforated metal box containing phosphorus sorption material.
gravel. The material must have a strong capacity to adsorb phosphorus. Phosphorus sorption materials are usually industrial by-products or manufactured (see Chapter 4). However, there are some phosphorus sorption materials that occur naturally.
- 2. Phosphorus sorption material is contained and placed in a hydrologically active area with high dissolved phosphorus concentrations.
- 3. High dissolved phosphorus water is able to flow through the contained phosphorus sorption material at a suitable flow rate.
- 4. The phosphorus sorption material is able to be removed and replaced after it is no longer effective at removing phosphorus or able to remove phosphor -rus at the minimum desired rate.
With regard to application of phosphorus sources, nearly all commercial phosphorus fertilizers are incorporated after broadcast application or banded below the seed. Again, reducing runoff and erosion will reduce environmental concerns related to phosphorus. As with nitrogen, the most effective way to do this is to follow good soil conservation practices. These include increasing water
infiltration, reducing runoff by maintaining surface residues and using buffer strips at the edge of the field. These good conservation practices allow producers to maintain fertilizers, reduce soil loss and increase water stored in the soil profile.
Land application of animal manures, particularly poultry litter (high in phosphorus), and some biosolids are done by broadcasting the material on the soil surface. In many cases, these fertilizer materials are applied to forage crops, which eliminates their incorporation. When left on the surface in this manner, they may be subject to loss from the field in the runoff. To decrease the potential of phosphorus loss from these sources to surface waters, it may be necessary to apply using injection or knifing the material into the soil. Various technologies now exist that allow incorporation/injection of dairy, swine and poultry manure into forage systems with little disturbance of the surface. Basing manure application rates on crop phosphorus needs instead of nitrogen needs will slow down phosphorus build up in the soil and prevent them from becoming legacy phosphorus sources. Again, another method to reduce particulate phosphorus loss is to use a buffer strip at the edge of the field to reduce the amount of sediment and manure leaving the field.
## Other Contaminants
With the decrease in suitable landfill sites for human waste and the increase in confined animal feeding operations, there has been a tremendous increase in the interest of land application of these materials. Land managers should view these materials as a valuable nutrient source and not a waste material. They contain many plant nutrients in addition to nitrogen and phosphorus, so operators who have them should use them to their maximum benefit. To date, no other constituents in these fertilizer sources have proven to be of major environmental concern when proper guidelines are followed. Each source has a different make-up due to ration formulation of materials in the municipal waste stream. Constituents which may need to be considered are copper in animal waste and heavy metals in biosolids. Heavy metal concentrations of biosolids must be monitored with materials above threshold levels needing to be landfilled. More information about biosolids land application is available from Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality.
Environmental concerns due to the application of fertilizers can be drasticly reduced by proper management of these resources. Regardless of fertilizer form, if the quantity applied is greater than what is required for the crop then the potential exists for negative environmental impacts. To minimize negative environmental impacts, there are a few simple practices land managers can use: add only the amount of fertilizer needed to meet plant requirements, use buffer strips and do not apply fertilizers too close to bodies of water, and use good soil conservation practices which minimize soil erosion and maximize water infiltration. A combination of these good management practices will greatly reduce the potential for adverse environmental impacts.
## Chapter 8. Land Application of Drilling Mud
Drilling "mud" is a byproduct from drilling deep boreholes for oil and gas wells and also for relatively shallow boreholes in urban/suburban areas for installation of utilities such as sewer, electric and water. Drilling fluids are used during the drilling process for several purposes including bit lubrication and cooling, suspension and removal of cuttings, sealing of the borehole/formation and viscosity and pH control. As a result, the main ingredients added to the base drilling liquid often includes bentonite (a naturally occurring 2:1 soil mineral), polymers, soda ash, surfactants and "loss circulation materials" such as lignite (i.e. tiny particles of coal), rice hulls, cotton hulls, Styrofoam, etc.). Some oil and gas drilling fluids utilize barium sulfate. After the fluid has been used for drilling, a portion of it may be reclaimed/recycled for continued use on-site (Figure 8.1). At the point when the material is no longer able to be used in drilling, it often is then referred to as "drilling mud." However, the drilling industry also will sometimes refer to the unused drilling fluid as "mud." The drilling mud that is no longer able to be used for drilling must be disposed.
One of the most economical and sustainable methods of drilling mud disposal is land application to agricultural and range land soils. However, due to potential contaminants that may be found in certain types of drilling mud, it is extremely important that land application of mud be carefully executed in order to prevent permanent soil damage and negative environmental impacts. For organization purposes, this discussion will separate mud into two main categories: oil and gas drilling mud and horizontal directional drilling mud. The land application of drilling mud often is referred to as "soil farming," or "land farming," but technically that is a misuse of those terms. Land application involves a one-time application of drilling mud from a single well, while soil farming/land farming has multiple applications to the same site.
## Oil and Gas Drilling Mud
Land application companies will pay a landowner to receive oil and gas drilling mud on a volume basis; the total volume received will vary as a function of the size of the well being drilled. There are two main types of oil and gas drilling mud: water-base mud and oil-base mud. The main distinction between the two materials is the base solvent (i.e., liquid): WMB utilizes water while OBM utilizes diesel. In Oklahoma, WBM is used and produced more frequently compared to OBM. Water-base mud is mostly utilized while drilling the vertical portion of the borehole and the non-shale-like formations. The deeper portions and also the horizontal "curve" is where OBM typically is used. Landowners should expect a temporary yield decrease on fields that received drilling mud, assuming excessive volumes were not applied. Essentially, the landowner is compensated due to anticipated yield decrease. However, many landowners often experience no decrease in yield.
The land application of drilling mud is regulated by the Oklahoma Corporation Commission (OCC), which has certain site requirements for land application and also limits application rates based on total application of salts (total dissolved solids: TDS), chlorides, total petroleum-based hydrocarbons (TPH), and total solids. The rules for land application of WBM and OBM are specifically stated in the Oklahoma administrative code and register (www.oar.state.ok.us), Title 165 (165:10-7-19 and 165:10-7-26 for WBM and OBM, respectively).
## Oil-base mud (OBM)
Oil-base mud is rich in TPH, and solids content ranges from 50 to 85 percent. Although not required by law, many land application companies will mix a "bulking agent" with OBM prior to land application. OBM is applied as a solid. The most common bulking agents are ag lime and gypsum. Depending on the bulking ratio and application rate, it is possible for ag lime to be applied at very high rates (more than 10 tons lime per acre). While this may be desirable in excessively acid soils, it is better to utilize gypsum as a bulking agent among neutral-and high-pH soils. It is especially advantageous to use gypsum as a bulking agent if the mud or soils contain appreciable sodium. However, some operators are utilizing new technology to further extract diesel from used OBM; the resulting dry solid material has no need for being mixed with a bulking agent.
Figure 8.2. Oklahoma land application sites for oil and gas drilling mud from 1987 to 2014. Top: oil-base mud. Bottom: water-base mud. Different colored points indicate different years. Data from the Oklahoma corpora-tion Commission. Prepared by C. Penn and C. Hamilton; OSU, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences.
The purpose of land application of OBM is to allow for native soil microorganisms to degrade and consume TPH, converting it to water and carbon dioxide. This process of microbial degradation is faster and more effective in soils where conditions are near neutral in pH, possess sufficient temperature and contain adequate nutrients and oxygen. While the OCC allows for application of 40,000 pounds TPH per acre, much of the research at OSU suggests TPH degradation rates suffer if TPH is applied greater than 10,000 to 15,000 lbs/acre. However, if an over-application of OBM does occur, tillage of the soil and addition of organic matter to dilute the OBM and introduce other soil microorganisms will typically improve degradation of TPH. While a portion of the TPH contains benzene, toliuene, ethyl benzene and xylene (BTEX), leaching and incubation experiments at OSU have shown BTEX applied with OBM rapidly degrades and does not readily leach, even in sandy soils. Unlike WBM, OBM usually does not contain appreciable dissolved solids or sodium.
Water-base mud (WBM)
Depending on the geologic formation being drilled, WBM may contain extremely high levels of sodium and total dissolved solids, which are salts. Thus, certain regions of the state produce WBM that is more salty than other regions. Regarding soil quality and agronomic production, salt is even more important than TPH because salts do not degrade. For this reason, there is greater poten tial for soil damage with WBM than OBM. Water-base mud is applied mostly as a liquid; the goal of application is to dilute the salts over many acres to prevent negative impacts.
The main risk associated with receiving WBM is plant and soil damage at the surface due to salinity (excessive salts) and sodicity (excessive sodium). See Chapter 3 for a discussion of soil salinity and sodicity. Even in scenarios where WBM is over applied causing damage to surface soils and plants, com puter modelling scenarios have suggested that leaching of salts to groundwater is not likely to occur due to advection-dispersion processes.
Application of WBM is mostly limited by TDS. The OCC allows a maximum of 6,000 pounds TDS per acre, however, note that caution should be exercised since the OCC regulations do not consider the amount of sodium in the WBM, nor does it delineate between different soils, climate, or region. Recent research at OSU suggests that a TDS loading rate of 4,000 pounds TDS per acre is safer
compared to 6,000 pounds TDS per acre. Regardless, rainfall is critical for the soil to recover from salt application. Rainfall allows the salts to leach out of the root zone. However, under excessively dry conditions, salt can potentially wick back up to the surface depending on soil texture and moisture.
Three main points of risk associated with receiving drilling mud applications are variation in climate, since rainfall is necessary for recovery, the type of plant, and the quality of the application company. Specifically, an application company that does not adequately characterize the mud or have the ability to closely control application rates is much more prone to causing serious soil damage compared to companies that follow OCC guidelines, characterize every load, and maintain suitable equipment that allows for more precise applications. If soils are not completely recovered from salt and sodium impacts, establishment of a new crop by sowing seed could suffer due to decreased germination rates.
For this reason, there is less risk associated with application of WBM to perennial pasture and hay fields. For further details on oil and gas drilling mud, see the following:
- Rules, regulations and general risks with oil and gas drilling mud: OSU WREC-102
- OBM: Penn, C.J., A.H. Whitaker, and J.G. Warren. 2014. Surface application of oil-base drilling mud mixed with gypsum, limestone, and caliche. Agron. J. 106:1859-1866.
- WBM: OSU CR-2272
Figure 8.5. Example of a HDD drilling operation in an urban area.
## Urban & Suburban Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) Mud
Drilling mud produced from installation of utilities is very different from oil and gas drilling mud.
HDD mud is produced from drilling through shallow soils and rock and posesses very little risk for causing soil damage upon land application.
A recent survey conducted by OSU of HDD mud from around the US showed that there was no limiting chemical constituent for land application. Instead, the most limiting factor for land application of HDD mud is usually the totals solids content. Essentially, the material is a soil slurry that takes on the chemical characteristics of the subsoil being drilled at the drilling site. Caution would only need to be exercised when the source of the HDD mud comes from a location that may have been previously contaminated in the subsoil; for example, sites that historically had industrial or mining activities that may have increased soil metals concentrations or salts. Application of HDD mud to Bermuda grass hay at OSU research plots showed no significant loss in biomass production, even when application rates were 100 tons solids per acre. In addition, HDD mud can be used to help establish grass on bare soils affected by recent construction; application of HDD mud at 20 tons solids per acre to bare soils with Bermuda grass seed improved germination compared to a control treatment that received no drilling mud. Application of 40, 60 and 80 tons solids per acre was not differ ent from the control, while 100 tons per acre decreased germination compared to the control. For more information on HDD mud, please see OSU PSS-2916.
## Chapter 9. Long-term Soil Fertility Research
## Introduction
Few agronomic disciplines can compete with soil nutrient management and plant breeding concerning their impact on increased crop production in the world. However, both continue to be challenged considering our current global population of 7 billion, which is expected to exceed 9 billion by 2050. Future agronomic research efforts must result in technologies that increase yields per unit area and also must accomplish this feat with methods that are resource efficient and environmentally safe.
OSU has a rich history of conducting long-term soil fertility trials. The almost two-dozen continuous wheat, sorghum, and cotton soil fertility experiments have been instrumental in identifying efficient fertilizer sources as well as optimum application timings and rates of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Most of these experiments are still ongoing today; however, a few have been discontinued due to their lack of relevancy and/or cost. A complete list and brief description of all the long-term experiments conducted at OSU is maintained at nue.okstate.edu/Long\_Term\_Experiments.htm.
In previous editions of this handbook, this book chapter focused on summarizing the majority of the research that has been conducted by the OSU Soil Fertility Research Team. Some of these findings focused on the long-term experiments while others were from research projects that addressed current soil fertility and plant nutrient management issues important to the region. With now more than three decades of research having been conducted, summarizing all the projects could be a textbook in itself. A complete indexed list of all peer-reviewed, published research from experiments within this project is located at nue.okstate.edu/Index\_Publications.htm. The purpose of this chapter in this edition of the Oklahoma Soil Fertility Handbook will be to highlight some of the recent findings from OSU's historic, long-term soil fertility trials.
## The Magruder Plots - Stillwater, OK
The Magruder Plots are the most prestigious research trial at OSU. They were established in 1892 and are the oldest continuous wheat soil fertility trials west of the Mississippi River. The data and discoveries garnered from these plots have been vast and only continue to grow. These plots, coupled with other long-term experiments, have demonstrated a marked decrease in soil organic matter over time in continuous cultivated wheat production systems (Figure 9.1). This discovery has led to researching and evaluating management practices capable of stabilizing soil organic matter levels. Despite the decrease in soil organic matter over the last 122 years, grain yields continue to increase with time, likely due to improved genetics (Girma et al. 2007a).
Recent research conducted by soil microbiologists evaluated the effects of long-term soil fertility practices on nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. Collectively, these microbes fix approximately 100 to 180 million metric tons of nitrogen per year, which accounts for about 65 percent of nitrogen used in agricultural production. Many soil microbes possess the ability to fix atmospheric N$\_{2}$ . One such group is called cyanobacteria. These nitrogen-fixing microbes are especially competitive and often thrive in soils receiving limited nitrogen fertilization. Following more than a century-long cultivation of winter wheat without fertilization, cyanobacteria in the check soil comprised about 2.6 percent of the bacterial community, whereas this value was 0.19 and 0.05 percent in soils supplemented with manure and NPK, respectively (Figure 9.2). This finding has significant implications for managing ecosystems, such as forestry, pasture, and rangeland, where chemical fertilization is limited. With the increasing demand and cost on energy, understanding means to promote proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microbes are also important for developing management strategies for sustainable agricultural production (Data courtesy of Dr. Shipping Deng and Ms. Sophia Li).
## Experiment 502 -Lahoma, Oklahoma
Established in 1970 and located in the heart of Oklahoma's wheat belt, this experiment has provided data for some of the most compelling breakthroughs in wheat nitrogen fertility. It was at this site, along with other long-term trials, in which results from soil cores, taken to a depth of ten feet clearly showed that no subsurface contamination of ammonium-nitrogen and nitrate-nitrogen was found when nitrogen was applied over the same area at the recommended rates for more than 20 years (Figure 9.3). This gave rise to the 'Buffering Con-
Figure 9.2. Relative abundance of Cyanobacteria from different treatments in the Magruder Plots (Data courtesy of Dr. Shipping Deng and Ms. Sophia Li).
cept' which explained why nitrate leaching from applied fertilizer in winter wheat was not expected under conventional practices and that excess nitrogen was actually lost via biological pathways.
It was at this experimental site that the concept of a response index, which compares the grain yield of a sufficiently fertilized plot to that of an unfertilized or insufficiently fertilized plot, was thoroughly documented. Johnson and Raun (2003) evaluated the grain yield response index values of this site over thirty years. They observed a wide range of levels of nitrogen fertilizer response over time that varied year-by-year (Figure 9.4). The overall conclusions of Johnson and Raun (2003) were that since response to nitrogen fertilizer is strongly dependent on supply of non-fertilizer nitrogen, any nitrogen fertilizer recommendations that include a reliable predictor of harvest response index should improve NUE in grain production. This work led to researchers at Oklahoma State and throughout the grain belt to develop ways to predict the harvest response index in-season for nitrogen fertilizer application recommendations. The most successful of these methods has been achieved with the use of NDVI readings of a sufficiently fertilized area (nitrogen-rich) and of an unfertilized or insufficiently fertilized area (Figure 9.5).
As previously stated, the nitrogen fertilizer response index has been found to be highly variable year to year. Using the data from this experimental site and other similar long-term nitrogen fertilizer trials, researchers from Oklahoma state also observed the grain yield or yield potential for each year varied greatly. Knowing that the level of nitrogen responsiveness and grain yield potential could affect the amount of nitrogen fertilizer required to achieve optimum yield and nitrogen use efficiency, Raun et al. (2011) began to evaluate the relationship between the two factors. The results they observed have become the cornerstone for nitrogen fertilizer recommendations in Oklahoma in that the nitrogen fertilizer response and grain yield potential were completely independent of one another (Figure 9.6). Because of their independence and that they each affect the demand for nitrogen fertilizer it is now proposed that estimates for both be combined when determining in-season nitrogen fertilizer rates.
| | ** |
|---------------------|------|
| Grain Yield (bulac) | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
| * | Ri |
Figure 9.6. Relationship between the response index and maximum yield of winter wheat at Lohoma, OK (502) and Stillwater, OK (222) (adapted from Raun et al., 2011).
## Experiment 505 -Lahoma, Oklahoma
Various sources of nitrogen fertilizer are available to farmers in wheat production systems; however, few have been evaluated over a long period of time. In 1971, Experiment 505 at Lahoma, OK was initiated to compare different nitrogen sources and rates of nitrogen application on winter wheat grain yield. Few differences between nitrogen sources were observed in this experiment over time. Wheat grain yields increased significantly when nitrogen was applied at low annual nitrogen rates (30 to 60 pounds per acre), becoming greater with time. In recent years, split applied nitrogen had resulted in increased yields when compared using the same nitrogen source and total nitrogen rate (30-30 split versus 60 pounds nitrogen per acre applied preplant). Grain nitrogen continued to increase beyond the nitrogen rate required for maximum yield for most nitrogen sources. Much of what is described above has been documented in similar long-term trials or other trials in other parts of the country. One trend that was observed and thoroughly documented by Schroder et al. (2011) was grain yield began to decrease over time for the plots receiving the highest rates of nitrogen (120-240 pounds nitrogen per acre). Schroder et al. evaluated the soil pH
of the plots in the trial and observed that for some nitrogen sources the soil pH was below 5.0 (Figure 9.7) and was dictating the crop yield response more than the applied nitrogen fertilizer. This phenomenon has become very common in much of the Oklahoma wheat belt where for years ammoniacal based fertilizers have been applied.
## Experiment 222 - Stillwater, Oklahoma
Established in 1969, this experiment was initiated to evaluate the effects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization on the loamy prairie soils of Central Oklahoma. Most of the results of the major fertility breakthroughs described above in Experiment 502 at Lahoma, OK were mirrored in these experimental plots. Just like Experiment 502, no relationship between nitrogen responsiveness and grain yield potential was observed in these plots over time (Figure 9.6).
Because of the different combinations of fertilizer treatments, long-term fertility plots typically display vast differences in crop greenness and biomass throughout the growing season. This trait makes these trials ideal for developing and evaluating optical crop sensors. One such example from experiment 222 was from the work of Kanke et al. (2012). At the time, researchers from the Midwest were promoting sensors that utilized wavebands from the 'red-edge' spectrum. Kanke et al. (2012) evaluated these wavebands along with NDVI readings from the Greenseeker sensor and determined there was no difference between the two and reported no reason for upgrading current sensor to obtain this information.
Carbon sequestration has become an important issue in recent years, due to trends in global warming. One such sink for carbon has been the soil organic carbon fraction. Some studies have shown that increased nitrogen rates over time have increased the soil organic carbon fraction likely due to the increase in plant biomass that is returned to the soil after the growing season. To evaluate this theory, soil samples from this experimental site as well as experiment 502 at Lohama, Oklahoma were collected recently and analyzed for soil organic carbon concentration. These results were then compared to archived soil samples from two decades ago. The results reported by Aula et al. (2016) were similar to those that have been reported by other researchers. Over time soil organic carbon had increased, especially in the highest nitrogen rate plots (Figure 9.8)
## Experiment 406 & 407 - Altus, Oklahoma
Established in 1966, these two experiments have been utilized to evaluate the effects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization on irrigated and rain-fed winter wheat as well as the timing of nitrogen fertilizer application effects. A recent summarized analysis by Bushong et al. (2014) found if adequate soil moisture from irrigation or naturally occurring rainfall is available at planting, the application of sufficient levels of nitrogen fertilizer preplant is most beneficial to grain yield and overall water use efficiency. If plant available water is at average or below average levels, the timing of nitrogen fertilizer application is
not as critical. The results for the response from phosphorusfertilization helped support the current recommendations in that grain yield responses were typically only observed with soil test phosphorus levels were below sufficient levels. A beneficial response to potassium fertilization was not observed, and should not have been expected with the high levels of soil test potassium for these sites coupled with the clays being of smectitic mineralogy.
When the original findings of Raun et al. (2011), which concluded that nitrogen responsiveness and grain yield potential were independent of one another, were contested by other soil nutrient management researchers, winter wheat data from these experimental sites along with the Magruder Plots were evaluated in a similar manner by Arnalt et al. (2013). Much like the previous results observed, both sites displayed no relationship between the grain yield response index and grain yield potential (Figure 9.9). These results, along with the same results from long-term corn trials located in the midwestern United States, further supported the theory described above and that nitrogen fertilizer recommendations should be based on both crop nitrogen responsiveness and crop grain potential, separately.
## Experiment 439 - Altus, Oklahoma
Established in 1972, this is the only long-term, irrigated cotton fertility trial associated with OSU. This trial evaluates the effects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization on cotton yield and lint quality. A summary of the results compiled by Gimma et al. (2007b) showed that all three nutrients had some effect on lint yield, although most of the response was attributed to nitrogen and to some extent phosphorus. When the effects of fertilization on fiber length were evaluated, it was observed that excess nitrogen reduced nitrogen quality variables and the key to longer fibers was potassium fertilization, even with soil test potassium values well above sufficient levels.
Recently, research was reported that the amount of cotton seed required to produce one bale of cotton had decreased, leading researchers to hypothesize the nitrogen demand to produce the same yield of cotton should be less. Arnaln and Boman (2012) used the data from Experiment 439 to evaluate the effect of nitrogen rate on lint yield and determined that the recommendation of 60 pounds nitrogen per bale should be reduced to 50 pounds nitrogen per bale.
## Nitrogen and Phosphorus Response - Perkins, Oklahoma
This experiment was established in 1998 and evaluates the interactive effects of differing nitrogen and phosphorus rates on winter wheat grain yield and quality. The coarse texture that this trial is located on is ideal for potential responses
to not only nitrogen, but also phosphorus. Girma et al. (2007c) analyzed seven years of data from this trial and observed differing levels of grain yield response to nitrogen. Their results showed temporal variability due to yield-limiting factors other than nitrogen can be a major factor controlling grain yield followed by nitrogen fertilizer. The results of this study also supported the current notion that average-based nitrogen recommendation should be avoided and producers need to shift to alternate strategies such as the use of nitrogen-rich strips. The application of phosphorus fertilizer was observed to only be beneficial in the first few years of this experiment. The experimental results support the approach of soil test phosphorus based recommendation of the amount that would equal the amount removed in harvested crops due to a lack of significance to phosphorus that was independent of years. Consequently, this demonstrates that variability in years, which is a function of weather related factors, did not have much effect on phosphorus use of the crop. In such cases an in-season crop demand for phosphorus might be satisfied with foliar phosphorous supplement.
Greenseeker sensor data has been collected from this site from its initial growing season. Because of the site's coarse texture, this data set is unique from all the other long-term sites. It has been observed that grain yield potential prediction curves and response index prediction equations for this site are different than those of the loamier textured sites. This dataset currently is being evaluated with the hopes of developing yield and response index prediction algorithms specific for coarser textured surface soils.
## Experiment 601 - Lake Carl Blackwell, Oklahoma
This experiment focuses on evaluating the long-term effects of different nitrogen rates applied preplant and mid-season on winter wheat. This experiment was established in 2001 and continues today. A recent analysis of the first 10 years of this experiment by Mohammed et al. (2013) reported that grain yield, grain protein, and nitrogen use efficiency were typically improved when nitrogen was split between two applications compared to being applied only once prior to planting. The data from this site also supports the theory of changes in nitrogen fertilizer response and grain yield potential from year-to-year by displaying large differences in grain yield were observed for the same nitrogen rates for different crop years. Like most of the other nitrogen fertilizer response trials associated with the OSU, the plots for the experiment are extensively sensed throughout the growing season. This NDVI data is then used for developing new algorithms for nitrogen fertilizer recommendations or validating proposed or current nitrogen fertilizer recommendation algorithms.
## Regional Wheat and Corn Nitrogen Response Trials - Various Locations
In the last decade, nitrogen fertilizer response trials for both winter wheat and corn have been established at several sites across Oklahoma. Though the
design of these trials is simplistic with the only treatments being differing rates of nitrogen fertilizer applied preplant and/or mid-season, the data collected from these has been invaluable. These trials have allowed researchers to observe how differing factors, such as climate or soil type, can affect a crop's nitrogen fertilizer response over time. Along with grain yield and quality data being col lected, NDVI sensor data for these trials has been collected and systematically archived. This data has allowed researchers to develop and validate new algorithms and for predicting grain yield, grain protein, nitrogen fertilizer recommendations, and so many other items important to agronomic management decision making for cereal grain producers in Oklahoma.
Solie et al. (2012) utilized sensor and grain yield data from these regional trials along with other nitrogen response trials to develop a generalized algorithm for determining nitrogen rate recommendations for wheat and corn. With these datasets, Solie et al. (2012) developed a sigmoidal model for predicting grain yield (Figure 9.10) that allowed NDVI measurements collected in-season to apply nitrogen fertilizer with changing growth stages for both wheat and corn.
Using data from these regional wheat trials, Busho ng et al. (2016) evaluated proposed and current nitrogen algorithms for determining nitrogen fertilizer recommendations. They observed all the sensor based nitrogen fertilizer recommendations provided more accurate predictions of the agronomic optimum nitrogen rates than current soil NO$\_{3}$ test methods, thus were more nitrogen use efficient. Similar results were observed when mid-season sensor-based
| | N Rate lbs N/acre | Yield bushels/acre $/acre | |
|-------------------|---------------------|-----------------------------|-------------------------|
| Split Application | 100 | 35 ± 16 | |
| SBNRC | 45 ± 21 | 34 ± 16 | $172 ± $94 |
| | | | Average Difference: $12 |
Fertilizer price (28-0-0) = $0.56 per pound nitrogen Grain Price = $6.00 per bushel
nitrogen rates were compared to flat 50/50 split nitrogen rates. Throughout 20 site-years, on average the two methods yielded the same amount, however, the sensor based nitrogen rates were about half as much and returned on average $12 per acre for the producer (Table 9.1).
## Summary
What has been summarized above is just a small glimpse of the soil nutrient management work that has been conducted over the past few years at OSU. The tradition of the long-term trials will endure at Oklahoma State and will only continue to build robust datasets that future researchers will be able to use in order to make sound nutrient management decisions.
## Acknowledgements
Drs. W.R. Rau, R.L. Westerman and B.B. Tucker, former faculty of the Plant and Soil Sciences Department of OSU for their foresight to establish, maintain and continue the long-term fertility studies that have made the above work and future work possible.
## References
Arnall, B., and R. Boman. 2012. Cotton Yield Goal - Nitrogen Rate Recommendation. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. PSS-2158-2.
Arnall, D.B., A.P. Mallarino, M.D. Ruark, G.E. Varvel, J.B. Solie, M.L. Stone, J.L. Mullock, R.K. Taylor, and W.R. Rau. 2013. Relationship between Grain Crop Yield Potential and Nitrogen Response. Agronomy Journal. 105:13351344.
Aula, L., N. Macnack, P. Omara, J. Mullock, and W. Rau. 2016. Effect of Fertilizer Nitrogen (N) on Soil Organic Carbon, Total nitrogen and Soil pH in Long-Term Continuous Winter Wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.). Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/001036 24.2016.1147047.
Bushong, J.T., D.B. Arnall, and W.R. Raun. 2014. Effect of Preplant Irrigation, Nitrogen Fertilizer Application Timing, and Phosphorus and Potassium Fertilization on Winter Wheat Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency. International Journal of Agronomy . http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/312416.
Bushong, J.T., J.L. Mullock, E.C. Miller, W.R. Raun, and D.B. Arnall. 2016. Evaluation of Mid-Season Sensor Based Nitrogen Fertilizer Recommendations for Winter Wheat Using Different Estimates of Yield Potential. Precision Agriculture. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11119-016-9431-3.
Girma, K., S.L. Holtz, D.B. Arnall, B.S. Tubana, and W.R. Raun. 2007a. The Magruder Plots: Untangling the Puzzle. Agronomy Journal. 99:1191-1198. Girma, K., R.K. Teal, K.W. Freeman, R.K. Boman, and W.R. Raun. 2007b. Cotton Lint Yield and Quality as Affected by Applications of N, P, and K Fertilizers. The Journal of Cotton Science . 11:12-19.
Girma, K., K.W. Freeman, R. Teal, D.B. Arnall, B. Tubana, S. Holtz, and W.R. Raun. 2007c. Analysis of yield variability in winter wheat due to temporal variability, and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science.
Johnson, G.V., and W.R. Raun. 2003. Nitrogen Response Index as a Guide to Fertilizer Management. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 26:249-262.
Kanke, Y., W. Raun, J. Solie, M. Stone, and R. Taylor. 2012. Red Edge as a Potential Index for Detecting Differences in Plant Nitrogen Status in Winter Wheat. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 35:1526-1541.
Mohammed, Y.A., J. Kelly, B.K. Chim, E. Rutto, K. Waldshmidt, J. Mullock, G. Torres, K. Girma Desta, and W.R. Raun. 2013. Nitrogen Fertilizer Management for Improved Grain Quality and Yield in Winter Wheat in Oklahoma. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 36:749-761.
Mullen, R.W., K.W. Freeman, W.R. Raun, G.V. Johnson, M.L. Stone, and J.B. Solie. 2003. Identifying an In-season Response Index and the Potential to Increase Wheat Yield with Nitrogen. Agronomy Journal. 95:347-351.
Raun, W.R., J.B. Solie, and M.L. Stone. 2011. Independence of Yield Potential and Crop Nitrogen Response. Precision Agriculture. 12:508-518.
Schroder, J.L., H. Zhang, K. Desta, W.R. Raun, C.J. Penn, and M.E. Payton. 2011. Soil Acidification from Long-term Use of Nitrogen Fertilizers on Winter Wheat. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 75:957-964.
Solie, J.B., A.D. Monroe, W.R. Raun, and M.L. Stone. 2012. Generalized Algorithm for Variable-Rate Nitrogen Application in Cereal Grains. Agronomy Journal. 104:378-387.
## Chapter 10. Precision Nutrient Management
## Introduction
Soil supply with variable nutrient required for growth and development of crops. Nutrients in soil may be immobile such as phosphorus, not available for plant uptake phosphorus and mobile, like nitrate (NO$\_{3}$)$\_{2 }$and sulfate (SO$\_{4}$), which are easily available for plant uptake. However, the water soluble nature and negative charge makes it unstable and susceptible to leaching. Unless soil has excessively higher amount of nutrients, there is continuous need to replenish the amount of nutrients removed by crop after harvest each year. Nonetheless, the amount of nutrient removal, soil fertility level and the recommended fertilizer is not uniform across the field (Mallarino and Wittry, 2004). There is frequent and higher fluctuation in amount and pattern of nutrient variability within the fields due to soil type, parent materials, vegetation, climate, topography, crop history and interaction of these factors (Mallarino, 2001). Research suggests these factors influence soil variability at different scales, which is regional scale (land use patterns, vegetation cover, climatic factors and land surface characteristics), field scale (soil type, topography, previous crop and soil management practices) and even smaller scale (tillage, compaction, method of nutrient application and crop row orientation) (Cahn et al., 1994; Cambardella et al., 1994). Cambardella et al., 1994 showed a field scale the spatial distribution of organic carbon, total nitrogen and pH are strongly dependent.
Soil sampling is the initial process to know about the nutrients in the soil that leads to recommendation of kind and amount of nutrients through a series of chemical analysis (Brady, 2008). Historically, the objectives of soil sampling have been to determine the average nutrient status of the field by separating sampling areas mostly on the basis of soil map units. Traditional soil fertility management approach treated field as homogeneous areas where fertilizer and lime recommendations were calculated on whole field basis (Flowers, et al., 2005). Single fertilizer rate was applied throughout the field (Sawyer, 1994) and this totally ignored the high variability in nutrients level in most of the agricultural field. The result of uniform application was excessive fertilizer application in some areas and inadequate application in other areas of the same field. Over fertilization leads to leaching losses of nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen. Underferitization does not give the expected yield returns. Either way, farmers are at loss when optimum amount of nutrient is not applied. In addition, there is negative impact on environment as a result of excessive accumulation of nutrients in the water resources, like lakes and rivers, has been ultimate threat to the animals and fish.
Linsley and Bauer, 1929 reported fields are not homogeneous and there are techniques recommended for describing the spatial variability in the soil. De-
scribing the differences in soil test levels, fertilizer needs and crop yield within a field due to the spatial variability in soil properties became possible with the introduction of new technologies like global positioning system and geographic information system. Successful precision nutrient management requires accurate maps of soil test level (Sawyer, 1994). Global positioning system helps to locate the sampling site and sampling units and Geographic information system enables the user to overlay spatial data (Havlin et al., 2007) which can accurately create map of the soil sample locations in the field and also compute the complex relationship between the soil fertility factors (Flowers et al., 2005). The spatial nutrient information in soil has direct implication on variable rate fertilizer application (Franzen et al., 2002). Accuracy and precision in soil sampling techniques and soil analysis can be effective in reporting the variability across the field, thus improving site-specific nutrient management.
## Intensive Soil Sampling
Soil sampling is the most crucial part in maintaining soil fertility and increasing the crop productivity, thereby determining the inventories of available nutrients. A better nutrient management plan with any crop comes from appropriate soil sampling techniques that helps growers prioritize and focus on nutrient application that will have highest returns. Proper soil sampling and accurate laboratory analysis can only give a reliable estimate of nutrient status in soil and correct fertilizer and lime recommendations. The intensive soil sampling technique has higher precision and accuracy in reporting the spatial variability of nutrients in the soil, i.e., the sample is representative for a part of field that is relatively homogeneous in terms of yield-limiting factors. These techniques utilize precision technologies like global positioning and geographic information systems that accurately quantify the spatial variation of nutrients in soil.
## Two techniques to Intensive soil sampling
Grid sampling: A technique in which the whole sampling area is divided into rectangles/squares/ triangles or any area of equal size known as grid cells (Figure 10.1C). These grid cells differ in size, typically range from one to five acres or more. About 12 to 15 soil cores are taken from different random places within a grid and mixed together to make a composite sample. The locations of sampling within each grid are recorded using global positioning system by georeferencing of the coordinates on the locations. There are different methods that can be used in grid cell sampling.
Grid sampling is usually recommended for fields with high variability in terms of nutrients or field area that has higher manure application/livestock confinement or small fields with different cropping history merged into one (Ferguson and Hergert, 2009). A certain number of grids may be required, depending on site and target nutrients. However, the sampling density depends on how highly the nutrients vary in a spatial scale. The higher number of samples from a small area would provide an accurate map of spatial distribution of nutrients like phosphorus.
Figure 10.1. (A) Aerial photograph of 27 ha (67 acres) field six weeks after planting cotton; (B) management zones of field; and (C) 0.8 ha (2 acres) field grids. (Source: Rains et al., 2001)
Figure 10.1. (A) Aerial photograph of 27 ha (67 acres) field six weeks after planting cotton; (B) management zones of field; and (C) 0.8 ha (2 acres) field grids. (Source: Rains et al., 2001)
Management zone sampling: Also known as directed sampling, manage ment zone sampling is done by delineating areas into different zones (Figure 10.1B). Factors like yield map, remotely sensed images can be useful in de- lineing and thus interpret the variability exists in soil. All those factors based on their consistency can be combined to form different zones. In some cases, farmers' experiences can serve as guide to how to divide the field into man agement zones based on previous crop, fertilization history, productivity or el evation (slope), etc. From each zone, 12 to 15 cores are collected and mixed thoroughly to form a composite sample.
## Recommendation based on research results
Types of nutrient: The level of immobile nutrients like phosphorus, potassium and zinc tends to change less frequently from one year to other. However, phos phorus levels tend to vary most than any other nutrient within the field (Mallarino and Wittry, 2004). The greatest variability is observed in areas that have a long cropping history (Malarlino et al., 2006). This means they are more predictable, unless there are some conditions like livestock confinement/ frequent heavy manure application. Grid sampling can effectively measure variability phospho rus, whereas both grid and management sampling are good at measuring po tassium levels (Mallarino and Wittry, 2004). Furthermore, research suggested grid point method was better in measuring phosphorus and potassium levels than grid cell methods (Wollenhaupt et al.,1994). Management zone sampling is the best approach for measuring organic matter and pH variability in soils. However, use of grid sampling can be effective to evaluate pH variability in soil. It should be done on yearly basis, so is expensive, but the cost of sampling can be compensated through appropriate recommendation rate (Crop quest, 2016). Efficient use of these expensive inputs like lime and gypsum can save some money. Grid sampling of nitrate -nitrogen is not recommended, as it is mobile and annual fluctuation in soil would require annual sampling, which is expensive
most crops with the current fertilizer prices (Ferguson and Hergert, 2009). More on precision nitrogen management will be discussed later in this chapter.
Number of Soil Samples : The zone sampling resulted in fewer sampling zones than grid approach and lower soil testing costs for producer (Mallarino and Wittry, 2004). When a farmer has 80 acres of land and plans to use both sampling methods, grid sampling will give a total number of 32 composite samples, if 2-5acre grids are used. However, management zones can range from 3 to 10 at maximum with similar characteristics. Even if the zones are increased, they are always less than the number of sample taken with grid. Although expensive to collect and analyze a large number of samples, the use of grid can give detailed information that can be used as benchmark information for that plot. In case the field size is very small, the possibility of forming zone is minimum, so the grid sampling can be used for small areas that will have fewer samples as well.
Variable rate fertilizer applications: Fleming et al. (2000) suggested zone sampling best was viable method for variable rate nitrogen application as this method was better in defining homogeneous sub regions within the field. However, for immobile nutrients phosphorus and potassium, one-year grid followed with zone sampling can be the best option for variable rate applications.
## Variable Rate Nitrogen recommendations
Variable rate nitrogen management is an important topic. The outcome of variable rate nitrogen management promises improved efficiencies, improved economics, improved yields and improved environmental sustainability. As the scientific community learns more about the crops response to fertilizer nitrogen and the soils ability to provide nitrogen, the complexity of providing variable rate nitrogen recommendations, which both maximizes profitability and minimizes environmental risk becomes more evident.
The components of nitrogen fertilizer recommendations are the same whether it is for a field flat rate or a variable rate map. The basis for all nitrogen recom mendations can be traced back to the Stanford equation. At first glance, the Stanford equation is very basic and fairly elegant with only three variables in the equation.
$$\mathbb { N } _ { f o r t e n } = \left ( N _ { c o p } - N _ { c o p } \right ) / \varepsilon _ { l e t r }$$
Stanford, G. 1973. Rationale for Optimum Nitrogen Fertilization in Corn Production . JEQ 2:159-166
Historically, this was accomplished on a field level through yield goal estimates and soil test nitrate values. The generalized conversions such as 1.2 pounds of nitrogen per bushel of corn and 2.0 pounds of nitrogen per bushel for winter wheat took account for N$\_{crop}$ and ε$\_{l}$$\_{est}$ to simplify the process.
However, many challenges are created as recommendations move from a field or farm level to a zone or even sub-acre resolution. Schmidt et al 2011, described the range in economical optimum nitrogen rate (EONR) across a corn field on a research station in central Pennsylvania to be 147, 69 and 147 kilograms per ha-1 in years 1,2 and 3 of the study, respectively. Many other papers
have documented the significance in field variance of EONR for multiple crops in many environments in both field-scale and small plot research (Schmidt et al 2012, Malzer et al., 1996;Mamo et al., 2003; Harrington et al., 1997; Lark and Wheeler, 2003; Scharf et al 2005). When a nitrogen recommendation is made on a field level, the producer immediately has to accept a certain level of error. To reduce potential yield losses, the field recommendation needs to be at or above the nitrogen rate that maximizes yield on the majority of the field. If the yield of the field in normally distributed, there is opportunity for loss on both sides of the curve. There will be a small percentage of the field that does not reach maximum yield and a high percentage of the field that will receive more nitrogen than needed.
Variable rate nitrogen management allows the opportunity to take advantage of the soil and environments inherent variability. Increasing inputs and yields in the areas and environments likely to respond and reduce nitrogen inputs in those areas where yield is restricted. However as concluded by Ferguson et al., (2002) the spatial application of existing recommendation algorithm developed for uniform application may be inappropriate for variable rate nitrogen, and that unique recommendation equations for major soils and climatic regions may be necessary to achieve substantial increases in N -use efficiency.
The mechanisms and inputs for variable rate nitrogen recommendations may vary greatly but as mentioned early can be related back to the Stanford equation.
## N
The basis for N crop is grain yield multiplied by grain nitrogen concentration. As grain is fairly consistent, the goal of variable rate nitrogen methods are to identify grain yield. The use of yield monitor data to determine yield zone was data quickly utilized. With access to multiple years of yield data, yield zones and yield stability, parameters are easily identified. Commonly, these yield zones can then be coupled with a regionally specific conversion factor to determine nitrogen rate by zone. If multiple years of grain yield data is not available, then crop reflectance can be substituted as a proxy for grain yield (Tucker et al., 1980; Raun et al 2001). With the increasing accessibility of remotely sensed (satellite, aerial, low altitude UAV and ground-based) data in-season biomass zones can be developed.
Many regions have been able to identify primary yield driving soil factors such as texture, organic matter and depth to limiting layer. Khosla et al. 2002 and Koch et al. (2004) documented nitrogen management using site-specific management zones that accounted for both soil variability and productivity led to nitrogen recommendations with increased yields and maximized nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency.
N Soil The nitrogen provided by, or in some cases removed, the soil is a dynamic and often weather dependent. Kindred et al. (2014) documented the amount of nitrogen supplied by the soil varied spatially by 120, 75 and 60 kilograms ha-1 across three studies. Much of the soil nitrogen concentration is controlled by
organic matter (OM). For every 1% OM, in the top 15cm of the soil profile, there is approximately 1,120 kg nitrogen ha-1 . Technologies including bare soil imagery and multiple ground-based machines are providing the opportunity to map organic matter on a field scale. Organic matter can then be used as a factor in reducing total nitrogen demand, such as a factor the University of Nebraska uses in their standard fertilizer recommendation (Shapiro et al 2008). The flow of nitrogen into and out of the organic matter system is continuous when the soil has enough moisture and is warm enough for microbial activity. The ability to predict the processes of immobilization (conversion of mineral nitrogen into organic nitrogen by micro-organisms) and mineralization (conversion of organic nitrogen into mineral nitrogen form) would significantly improve nitrogen management. A great deal of effort has been placed in the development of laboratory procedures and computer models. It has been quite challenging to accurately predict in-situ mineralization, partially due to the significant impact weather has on the process.
Currently, models incorporating weather and soil information to determine in-season nitrogen losses are being calibrated and applied on the farm. The nitrogen cycle is a very leaky system with three primary loss pathways of nitrate leaching, ammonia volatilization and denitrification. The amount of loss through any given pathway being determined by weather and soil parameters. The abil -ity to predict in-situ losses in-season provide capability of accurately accounting for the environments impact on N$\_{soil}$ .
## E
Historically, the efficiency at which nitrogen fertilizer is utilized was integrated into nitrogen recommendations and not provided as an input option. For example, the general conversion factor for corn of 1.2 pounds of nitrogen per bushel. Nitrogen concentration in corn grain ranges from 1.23 to 1.46 percent with an average of 1.31 percent (Heckman et al. 2003) or 0.73 lbs N per bushel. Therefore, the 1.2-pound value is assuming a 60 percent fertilizer use efficiency. More recently, recommendations have been to incorporate application method or timing factors in attempt to account for efficiencies.
There are many soil parameters that may lead to changes in nutrient use ef -ficiencies. Soil texture may be one of the most important (Lang and MacKenzie 1994 and Cambouris et all 2016). When variable rate nitrogen methods involve soil type or soil texture, they may inherently account for changes in e$^{o}$fort .
## Integration of Nitrogen Recommendations
While the parameters of a nitrogen recommendation seem quite clear, Bee -gle and Murrell provided great insight in an ASA symposium entitled "Stanford's equation as a framework for making nitrogen recommendations and for improv ing nitrogen recommendations." Figure 10.2 provides a graphic representation Stanford's simple mass balance equation. Beegle and Murrell then took it fur -ther to partition components of N$\_{soil}$ . Figure 10.3. The true complexity of a fully
Figure 10.2 Graphic representation of Stanford's equation for nitrogen recommendations. Adapted from Beeleg and Murrell 2012.
| N$_{fert}$ = ( N$_{crop}$ - N$_{soil}$ ) / E$_{fert}$ | N$_{fert}$ = ( N$_{crop}$ - N$_{soil}$ ) / E$_{fert}$ | |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| Expanded Stanford Equation to include organic and inorganic forms and other sources such as manure and legumes: | | |
| N$_{fert}$ = ( N$_{crop}$ - N$_{sin}$ - N$_{son}$ - N$_{cnR}$ - N$_{manure RON}$ - N$_{manufacturer IN}$ - N$_{manure ON}$ - N$_{neg}$ ) / E$_{fert}$ | N$_{fert}$ = ( N$_{crop}$ - N$_{sin}$ - N$_{son}$ - N$_{cnR}$ - N$_{manure RON}$ - N$_{manufacturer IN}$ - N$_{manure ON}$ - N$_{neg}$ ) / E$_{fert}$ | |
| N$_{fert}$ = Total fertilizer N required | Total | Partitions |
| N$_{rop}$ = Total N in Crop | = Available soil inorganic N | Quantity of nutrient uptake |
| N$_{sn}$ = Available soil organic N | = Available crop residue N | Total plant/plant aggregate |
| N$_{rot}$ = Available manure residual organic N | = Available manure inorganic N | Quality of nutrient uptake |
| N$_{marre IN}$ = Available manure organic N | = Available manure inorganic N | Total plant/plant aggregate |
| N$_{marre OH}$ = Available manure organic N | = Available legume N | Sell |
| N$_{neq}$ = Fertilizer N efficiency | = Available | Total |
Figure 10.3. Expanded Stanford Equation to include organic and inorganic-ic forms and other sources such as manure and legumes. Adapted from Beegle and Murrell 2012.
integrated nitrogen recommendation was outlined in the final step of propose a framework for improved nitrogen recommendations by Beeleg and Murrell. In Figure 10.4, the framework of the components needed and the sources of the data is outlined in the final theoretical equation. However, this extremely complex and in-depth analysis of nitrogen recommendation did not partition N$\_{roc}$ for e$\_{tot}$ , but instead left them as single variables and focused on N$\_{sol}$ only. Many variable rate nitrogen focuses on one parameter, even if the technique involves multiple inputs.
An early attempt to integrate the components N$\_{crop}$ and N$\_{sil}$ was the use of ground-based remote sensing and nitrogen reference strips described by Luki na et al (2001) and Raun et al (2002). In this approach, canopy reflectance data
Figure 10.4. Expanded Stanford Equation to include organic and inorganic forms and other sources such as manure and legumes.The diagram also includes the framework of the components needed and the sources of the data is outlined in the final theoretical equation. Adapted from Beegle and Murrell 2012.
(NDVI) is utilized to predict potential grain yield. A nitrogen-rich reference strip, area of the field that received a rate of nitrogen higher than the rest of the field is compared to the rest of the field. The difference of the two is described as response index. Johnson and Raun (2003) proposed that since response to nitrogen fertilizer is strongly dependent on supply of non-fertilizer nitrogen in a given year, any nitrogen management strategy that includes a reliable in-s ea son predictor of response index should dramatically improve NUE in cereal production. Thus, this approach of utilizing in-season crop reflectance actively incorporated both N$\_{app}$ and N$\_{all}$ .
The integrations of the three components in nitrogen is becoming more com mon as data acquisition is becoming common practice and access to powerful data processing systems much easier. Today, many groups offer variable rate nitrogen recommendations based upon yield data (either multiple years of yield data or multiple years of reflectance data), soil data (soil survey, soil sample, EC, EM, etc.data), historical weather data (to provide likelihood of future weather), daily weather data (to provide real-time precipitation and temperatures) all incorporated into computer models which will predict crop growth patterns, organic matter mineralization and probably of nitrogen losses and plant stresses. All of these are incorporated into nitrogen management strategies. It should be noted that at the time of this publication, little or no validation of these models have been performed in the southern Great Plains.
## VRN Summary
While a variable rate nitrogen strategy that works across all regions, landscapes and cropping systems has yet to be developed, it is without question the process of nitrogen management has greatly improved and is evolving almost daily. Those methods capable of determining the three inputs of the Stanford equation while incorporating regional specificity will capture the greatest level of accuracy and precision. Ferguson et al. (2002) suggested that improved recom mendation algorithms may often need to be combined with methods (such as remote sensing) to detect crop nitrogen status at early, critical growth stag es followed by carefully timed, spatially adjusted supplemental fertilization to achieve optimum pitrogen-use efficiency. As information and data are gathered and incorporated and data processing systems improve in both capacity and speed, the likelihood of significantly increasing nitrogen use efficiency for the benefit of the society and industry improves. The goal of all practitioners is to improve upon the efficiencies and economics of the system, and this should be kept in mind as new techniques and methods are evaluated. This improvement can be as small as a few percentages.
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## Chapter 11. Nitrogen-Rich Strips, GreenSeeker™ Sensor and Sensor-Based Nitrogen Rate Calculator
The need to improve nitrogen recommendation strategies are more important today than ever as cost of commercial nitrogen fertilizer continue to rise steadily. Methods that increase nitrogen use efficiencies and farmers profitability are no longer simply commendable, but required. The Nitrogen-Rich Strip (nitrogen-rich strip) discussed in the next few pages along with the Sensor-Based Nitrogen Rate Calculator (SBNRC) can provide farmers with immediate improvement in N use efficiency and profitability.
## The Nitrogen-Rich Strips
What are nitrogen-rich strips? The nitrogen-rich strip is an area in the field that has received a high rate of nitrogen than the rest of the field (Figure 1). The nitrogen-rich strip is used in conjunction with the GreenSeeker™ handheld sensor (discussed below) to determine the mid-season nitrogen rates. The rest of the field that receive the standard pre-plant rate is called the Farmer's Practice.
Why use nitrogen-rich strip? The crop's demand for fertilizer nitrogen and the amount of fertilizer nitrogen available in the soil greatly vary from year to year, even in fields where the same crop and the same amount of fertilizer rates are used every year. Why? Because the environment delivers a lot of free nitrogen in some years (warm, wet winters where lot of nitrogen is mineralized from soil organic matter, and nitrogen deposition in rainfall). A soil test provides an
accurate determination of the amount of nitrogen available at the exact moment of sampling. However, pre-plant soil test does not provide all the necessary information for mid-season nitrogen rate decision. Producers need to have some knowledge of the crop yield potential and nitrogen mineralization to make fertility decisions.
The nitrogen-rich strip is used to estimate the potential yield for that field and for that growing season. The amount of required nitrogen mid-season is gauged by comparing the farmer practice field area to that of the nitrogen-rich strip.
How and when to establish the nitrogen-rich strip? The strip should be at least 10 feet wide and 100 feet long. One strip is recommended in every field every year. For best results, the strip should be placed in a yield zone area or in each management area (such as different soil types or topography) of the field. It is best to change the location of the strip every year.
Zero nitrogen is not recommended unless soil test NO$\_{3}$ levels are high. Field should at least receive a starter. The amount of nitrogen applied is crop and region dependent. Table 11.1 shows the minimum amount of suggested nitrogen for both the nitrogen-rich strip and the rest of the field. To timely and effectively use the nitrogen-rich strip, the farmer's practice rate should not exceed 50 percent of the yield goal recommended rate. Any source of nitrogen can be used for the nitrogen-rich strip.
Pre-plant application is the preferred timing, however for winter wheat and winter canola, application can be delayed up to 30 days after planting. An efficient way of applying nitrogen-rich strip is made by a double or triple pass of the applicator when pre-plant is being applied. Other methods of application can be reviewed in CR-227, Applying N-Rich Strips.
When to sense the nitrogen-rich strip? The nitrogen-rich strip is sensed when it becomes visible or prior to applying nitrogen mid-season. For winter wheat, sense prior to hollow stem, sensing and nitrogen application can take place after hollow stem but response to nitrogen decreases as crop nears flag
leaf. Decisions about early nitrogen fertilization should be made when the nitrogen-rich strip appears to be better in condition than the rest of the field. When the nitrogen-rich strip looks the same as the rest of the field, take a sensor reading to determine if there is no true difference observed. If no difference is observed, continue checking the field on a regular basis.
## GreenSeeker™ Hand-held Sensor and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
The GreenSeeker™ hand-held sensor is an easy-to-use optical sensor that instantly measure plant health and vigor in terms of NDVI readings. The sensor emits brief bursts of red infrared light, and then measures the amount of each type of light that is reflected back from the plant.
How to use the GreenSeeker™ hand-held sensor . Point the sensor towards the ground then press and hold the trigger button located near the handle of the sensor. The sensor continues to sample the scanned area as long as the trigger remains engaged. When the trigger is released, the sensor displays the measured value in terms of an NDVI reading (ranging from 0.00 to 0.99) on its LCD display screen for 10 seconds.
What is NDVI? Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is commonly used to measure plant health and vigor. One indicator of plant health is light absorption and reflectance. Healthy green plants absorb strongly wavelengths of visible (red, R) light and reflects wavelengths of near-infrared (NIR) light. Conversely, when plant are under stress, red band reflectance increases and near infrared band decreases. The strength of the detected light is a direct indicator of the health of the crop; the higher the reading, the healthier the plant. NDVI is a good biomass indicator and also implies total nitrogen content. The NDVI is typically calculated as follows:
$$\mathrm N D V I = \left ( { \mathrm N I R } - { \mathrm Y } / { \mathrm N I R + { \mathrm R } \right )$$
How to collect NDVI readings ? Prior to applying fertilizer, collect NDVI readings from both nitrogen-rich strip and farmer practice plots at least 10 feet to 20 feet apart. Walk approximately 100 paces at the center of each plot. To ensure accuracy of your readings, hold the sensor 24 to 48 inches (60 to 120 centimeters) above the crop canopy when the trigger is pulled. Avoid sensing in areas that are unrepresentative of the remaining acres, including areas of poor crop stand.
## Sensor-Based Nitrogen Rate Calculator
Sensor Based Nitrogen Rate Calculator enables farmers to estimate yield potential, obtain nitrogen fertilization rates, and decide if its practical and economical to apply nitrogen based on GreenSeeker sensor measurements, the response index, number of days where growing degree days are more than 0, agronomic maximum yield, expected grain price and fertilizer price.
## What information do I need?
- 1. NDVI readings from the nitrogen-rich strip and Farmer's Practice fields.
- 2. Planting date.
- 3. Knowledge of the nearest Mesonet Station.
## What should I do?
Step 1. Go to the sensor-based nitrogen rate calculator webpage.
You can either google "NUE" or go to the website: nue.okstate.edu. Once at the website, go to the NUE tools and click on the "Sensor Based Nitrogen Rate Calculator" button (Figure 11.2a). This will bring a drop-down menu of options (Figure 11.2b. As of 2015, it has 32 options). Choose the crop of interest, for example, "Winter Wheat (US Grain Belt)". This will bring you to the online cal -culator. Once you are on the online calculator webpage, there will be an input and output section. Scroll down to the bottom of the page then click "Within Oklahoma" button. This will allow the system to access the Oklahoma Mesonet site (www.mesonet.org) which gives the readings of temperature and growing degree days (GDD). These information are very important in the calculation of the N rate. That is also where the planting date becomes important.
## Step 2. Enter required data in the input section (Figure 11.3).
- · Planting date. Date of wheat planting.
- Day prior to sensing. The day prior to sensing is necessary because this calculator relies on weather data from the Oklahoma Mesonet. Since Me -soneh has not compiled the weather data for the current day (the day being sensed), enter the date prior to sensing.
- Location. Enter your location or choose the closest Mesonet site to the field of interest.
- NDVI Farmer Practice. This would be from an area in the field adjacent to where the N-rich strip was placed and that is representative of the rest of your field.
- NDVI Nitrogen-Rich Strip. This is the NDVI reading you got from your nitrogen-rich strip plot.
- NDVI values of both farmer's practice and nitrogen-rich strip need to be collected within each and every field. Even if two adjacent fields dif-
Figure 11.3. Fill out required data in the input section.
fered in planting dates by only two days, the nitrogen recommendation is likely to be different.
- · Producer estimate of max yield . Should be at least two to three times greater than the maximum yield for a field. The need for this input is to avoid fertilizing for unrealistic yields.
- · Expected grain price and fertilizer cost . These numbers need to be filled out but do not make a difference in the nitrogen rate that is recommended. It is something that you can use to decide whether or not applying fertilizer is economical.
## Sensor-Based Nitrogen Rate Calculator
Step 3. Click submit. This will give you the outputs (Figure 11.4). What do these output values mean?
- · Response index . This is the estimate of the responsiveness to applied nitrogen that a farmer is likely to encounter and that varies from year to year in the same field. The response index is essentially the NDVI of the nitrogen-rich strip divided by the NDVI of the farmer practice. If this is 1.33, it means that an increase of 33 percent can be achieved if fertilizer is applied, but does not provide the nitrogen rate that should be applied.
- · Days, GDD>0. Number of days the winter wheat has grown since it was planted. Growing degree days (GDD) is a way of assigning a heat value each day. The values are added together to give an estimate of the amount of seasonal growth the plants have achieved. GDD is computed as daily (Tmin + Tmax)/2 - 40 F. This basically determines the number of days were average temperatures were >40 F, or where growth was possible.
- · Yield potential, YPO. Possible attainable yield without fertilizer.
- · Yield potential, YPN. Possible attainable yield when fertilizer is applied.
- · Yield potential is the estimated optimum yield that a farmer can obtain based on growing conditions from planting to sensing time. This is yield potential, not "yield" and essentially replaces "yield goals". By dividing NDVI (an estimate of biomass) by GDD from planting to sensing, provides the biomass accumulated per number of days where growth was possible. Biomass produced per day and final grain yield has been shown to be highly correlated.
- · Cumulative GDD. Value that is used for summer crops and winter canola. For winter wheat it is not important. Typically 80+ GDD>0 is needed for wheat and canola.
- · N rate recommendation. Amount of N fertilizer that is needed to attain the YPN
- · Gross return (no nitrogen fertilizer). The total expected rate of return with no nitrogen fertilizer
- · Gross return (using nitrogen Rec). The total expected rate of return when the nitrogen rate recommendation is used.
## Other Sources of Information
www.nue.okstate.edu
www.npk.okstate.edu
www.osunpk.com
CR-2277 - Applying Nitrogen-Rich Strips
CH-2270 - Impact of Sensor-Based Nitrogen Management on Yield and Soil Quality
PSS-2278 - Using the GreenSeeker™ Handheld Sensor and Sensor-based Nitrogen Rate Calculator
PSS-2261 - Methods for Applying Topdress Nitrogen to Wheat
PSS-2260 - The History of the GreenSeeker™ Sensor
PSS-2258 - The Evolution of Reference Strips in Oklahoma
## Chapter 12.
## Laws and Acts Governing the Marketing of Fertilizer, Lime and Soil Amendments in Oklahoma
The sale of fertilizer, agricultural lime and soil amendments is governed within Oklahoma by specific laws and acts. This legislation has been enacted by State Government to provide recognizable product standards and to protect unsuspecting consumers from marketing fraud. Provisions of the legislation are carried out by the State Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry. Copies of each document may be obtained by request from:
Oklahoma State Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry Consumer Protection Services Division 2800 North Lincoln Blvd. Oklahoma City, OK 73105-4298 Phone: 405-521-3864
Or online at:
oda.state.ok.us/odaff-forms.htm
The laws and acts most important to soil fertility and soil management are:
- 1. Oklahoma Fertilizer Act and Rules
- 2. Oklahoma Soil Amendment Act and Rules
- 3. Oklahoma Agricultural Liming Materials Act and Rules
This chapter includes excerpts from the laws and acts that should be of most interest to users of fertilizer, lime and soil amendments.
## The Oklahoma Fertilizer Act and Rules
The Oklahoma fertilizer act contains several sections, each addressing a particular issue pertaining to fertilizer use in Oklahoma. These sections and significant excerpts relating to soil fertility and fertilizer use follow.
## Statutes
## § 2-8-77.1. Short Title - Purpose - Preemption
A. Sections 8-77.1 through 8-77.18 of this sub article shall be known and may be cited as the "Oklahoma Fertilizer Act."
## § 2-8-77.3. Definitions
Fertilizer material - Any substance containing one or more recognized plant nutrients which are used for its plant nutrient content and is designed for use or claimed to have value in promoting plant growth except unmanipulated animal and vegetable manures, marl, lime, limestone, and wood ashes.
Mixed fertilizer - Any combination or mixture of fertilizer materials.
Bulk fertilizer - A fertilizer distributed in a non-packaged form.
Custom blend - A fertilizer formulated according to specifications furnished by a final consumer.
Custom blender - A person who mixes or commingles commercial fertilizer into a custom blend and who distributes such special blend. A custom blender shall not be required to register each grade of fertilizer in the following circumstances:
- a. the custom blend is formulated according to specifications furnished by the ultimate consumer prior to mixing, and
- b. the custom blend is prepared by a lawn care or tree service company that mixes or commingles fertilizer and who applies the special blend for the ultimate consumer.
Brand - A term, design, or trademark used in connection with one or several grades of commercial fertilizer.
Label - The display of all written, printed, or graphic matter upon the immediate container, or a statement accompanying a fertilizer.
Labeling - All written, printed, or graphic matter, upon or accompanying any fertilizer, or advertisements, brochures, posters, or television and radio announcements used in promoting the sale of fertilizer. Unmanipulated manufactures - Substances composed primarily of excreta, plant remains, or mixtures of these substances which have not been processed in any manner.
Manipulated manures - Substances composed primarily of animal excreta, plant remains or mixtures of these substances which have been processed by natural or mechanical drying or composting and no other chemicals have been added.
Grade - The percentage of total nitrogen, available phosphate, and soluble potash stated in whole numbers. Speciality fertilizers may be guaranteed in fractional units of less than one percent of total nitrogen, available phos- pate, and soluble potash. Fertilizer materials, bone meal, manures, and similar materials may be guaranteed in fractional units.
Specialty fertilizer - A fertilizer sold in packages of less than thirty (30) pounds. Distributor - Any person who distributes fertilizer.
Distribute - To import, consign, manufacture, blend, offer for sale, sell, barter, commercially apply, or supply fertilizer in this state including, but not limited to, the delivery of bagged, labeled and registered fertilizer to a nonregis- trant that sells the fertilizer in this state.
Broker - A person who negotiates sales and purchases between a manufactur er, distributor, final consumer, or retailer of fertilizer.
Fertilizer dealer - Any person operating a business that is engaged in the distribution or sale of a fertilizer. The term fertilizer dealer shall not include an ultimate consumer who is engaged in the physical act of application of fertilizer or a retail store selling only bagged registered commercial fertiliz- er other than bagged ammonium nitrate.
## $ 2-8-77.4. Manipulated Manures Excluded
Any person operating a business engaged in the distribution or sale of manipulated manures shall not be subject to provisions of Sections 8-77.5 through 8-77.7 of this title if manipulated manures offered for sale, sold, or distributed do not reflect by label any warrantees or guarantees of the contents of the manures other than the animal sources of the manures.
## § 2-8-77.5. Fees - License - Application
A. The annual license fee for persons operating a business engaged in the distribution or sale of fertilizer shall be Fifty Dollars ($50.00) and expire on a date to be determined by the State Board of Agriculture.
- B. All fertilizer dealers shall obtain a license from the Board for each business location.
## C. An application for license shall include:
- 1. The name and address of licensee; and
- 2. The name and address of each business location in the state. The licensee shall inform the Board in writing of additional business loca tions established during the period of the license.
- D. No person, whose name appears on the label, shall distribute in this state fertilizer until it is registered with the Board by such person. An application for each brand and product name of each grade of fertilizer shall be made on a form furnished by the Board. Upon the approval of an application by the Board, a copy of the registration shall be furnished to the applicant. A distributor shall not be required to register any fertilizer which is already
registered under the Oklahoma Fertilizer Act by another person, provided the label does not differ in any respect.
- E. Registrations for commercial fertilizer products sold in bulk quantities or packages of greater than thirty (30) pounds shall be permanent unless cancelled by the registrant or the Board.
- F. 1. Registrations for specialty fertilizer products sold in packages of less than thirty (30) pounds shall pay a one-hundred-dollar registration fee for each product.
- 2. Specialty fertilizer product registrations shall expire on June 30 of each year.
- 3. If the Board finds any specialty fertilizer products that have not been registered, a penalty of One Hundred Dollars ($100.00) per product will be assessed. The penalty shall be added to the registration fee and payment shall be made within thirty (30) days after receipt of notice.
- G. A custom blender shall not be required to register each grade of fertilizer formulated according to specifications which are furnished by the final consumer prior to mixing, but shall be required to be licensed and shall be the guarantor of that custom blend.
- H. An application for registration shall include the following:
- 1. The brand and grade;
- 2. The guaranteed analysis;
- 3. Name and address of the registrant;
- 4. Net weight for packaged fertilizer; and
- 5. Oklahoma fertilizer license number.
## § 2-8-77.6. Fertilizer Container Label Information
- A. Containers of fertilizer distributed in this state shall have placed on or affixed to the container a label setting forth in clearly legible and conspicuous form the following information:
- 1. Net weight;
- 2. Brand and grade;
- 3. Guaranteed analysis; and
- 4. Name and address of the registrant/licensee.
- B. In case of bulk shipments, this information in written or printed form shall accompany delivery.
- C. A fertilizer formulated according to specifications which are furnished by and for the final consumer prior to mixing shall be labeled to show the net weight, the guaranteed analysis, and the name and address of the distributor, registrant, or licensee.
## § 2-8-77.7. Inspection Fee - Semi Annual Statement - Exemptions - Penalty
- A. Each registrant distributing fertilizer in this state shall file with the State Board of Agriculture, not later than the last day of January and July of each year, a semiannual inspection fee report setting forth, under oath, the number of tons sold or distributed during the period and pay an inspection fee of One Dollar ($1.00) per ton of which fifty cents ($0.50) per ton shall be forwarded directly to a special Soil Fertility Research Account in the De-
partment of Plant and Soil Sciences of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources at OSU for the purpose of conducting soil fertility research and extension involving efficient fertilizer use for agronomic crops and forages and groundwater and surface water protection from plant food nutrients. OSU shall present an annual report to the Agriculture Committees of the Legislature on the use of the special Soil Fertility Research Account Fund.
- B. Each registrant distributing commercial fertilizer in this state shall file with the State Board of Agriculture not later than the last day of January and July of each year, a semiannual tonnage report stating under oath:
- 1. The number of net tons of fertilizer distributed during the preceding six (6) calendar months;
- 2. The amount in tons of each grade of fertilizer distributed during the preceding six (6) calendar months; and
- 3. Whether the fertilizer was distributed in bag, bulk, or liquid.
- C. If no fertilizer was sold or distributed in this state for the semiannual period, the registrant shall submit a statement reflecting that information and shall remit a minimum fee of Ten Dollars ($10.00). If the inspection fee and tonnage report are not filed and the payment of the inspection fee is not made within thirty (30) days after the end of the specified filing period, a collection fee of ten percent (10%) of the inspection fee due or a minimum Ten Dollars ($10.00), shall be assessed and added to the amount due.
- D. Sales or exchanges between importers, manufacturers, distributors, regi-trants, or licenses are exempt.
- E. When more than one person is involved in the distribution of a fertilizer the last person who has the fertilizer registered and who distributed the fertilizer to a nonregistrant dealer or consumer is responsible for reporting the tonnage and paying the inspection fee, unless the report and payment is made by a prior distributor or manufacturer of the fertilizer.
- F. If the Board finds any deficient inspection fees due as a result of an audit of the records of any person subject to the provisions of the Oklahoma Fertilizer Act, the Board shall assess a penalty fee of ten percent (10%) of the amount due, with a maximum not to exceed Two Thousand Dollars ($2,000.00) or a minimum of One Hundred Dollars ($100.00) whichever is greater. The audit penalty shall be added to the deficient inspection fees due and payment shall be made within thirty (30) days of notice of the deficiency.
- G. No information furnished to the Board under this section shall be disclosed in a way which divulges proprietary information about the operation of any person.
- H. Each registrant, distributor, or manufacturer shall keep accurate records of the tonnage of fertilizer distributed in this state.
## § 2-8-77.9. Sampling And Analysis Methods
- A. The methods of sampling and analysis shall be those adopted by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. In cases not covered by these meth-ods, or in cases where methods are available in which improved applica-
## § 2-8-77.10. Penalties
- A. A payment of two (2) times the value of the deficiency or deficiencies shall be assessed:
- 1. If the analysis shows that a fertilizer is deficient in one of its guaran -teed primary plant nutrients beyond the investigational allowances and compensations as established by rules; or
- 2. If the overall commercial value of the fertilizer is below the level es tablished by rule, a penalty payment of two (2) times the value of the deficiency or deficiencies shall be assessed.
- C. When a fertilizer is subject to a penalty payment under subsection A of this section, the larger penalty payment shall apply.
- D. All penalty payments assessed under this subsection A of this section shall be paid by the registrant or licensee to the consumer of the lot of fertilizer represented by the sample analyzed within thirty (30) days after the date of notice. Copies of consumer refund receipts shall be forwarded to the State Board of Agriculture. If a consumer cannot be found, the penalty shall be paid and deposited in the State Department of Agriculture Revolving Fund. E. A deficiency in an official sample of mixed fertilizer resulting from non -uni -formity is not distinguishable from a deficiency due to actual plant nutrient shortage and is properly subject to official action.
## § 2-8-77.11. Determining Commercial Value For Purpose Of Assessing Penalty
For the purpose of determining the commercial value to be applied under the provisions of Section 8-77.10 of Title 2 of the Oklahoma Statutes, the State Board of Agriculture or its agent shall determine the values per unit of nitrogen, available phosphate, and soluble potash in fertilizers in this state. The value determined shall be used in assessing penalty payments.
## § 2-8-77.12. Misbranded Fertilizer
No person shall distribute misbranded fertilizer. A fertilizer shall be misbranded if:
- 1. Its labeling is false or misleading;
- 2. It is distributed under the name of another fertilizer product; or
- 3. It is not labeled as required in Section 8-77.5 of Title 2 of the Oklahoma Statutes and rules promulgated by the State Board of Agriculture.
## § 2-8-77.13. Adulterated Fertilizer Product
No person shall distribute an adulterated fertilizer product. A fertilizer shall be
- 1. It contains any deleterious or harmful substance in sufficient amount to render it injurious to beneficial plant life, animals, humans, aquatic life, soil, or water when applied in accordance with directions for use on the label;
- 2. If adequate warning statements or directions for use which may be necessary to protect plant life, animals, humans, aquatic life, soil, or water are not shown upon the label;
- 3. Its composition falls below or differs from that which it is purported to possess by its labeling; or
- 4. It contains unwanted crop seed or weed seed.
## § 2-8-77.14. Authority To Publish Information
This section provides for the publication of test results for the analysis of fertilizers compared to their guaranteed analysis and for the publication of the sale and distribution of fertilizer in the state.
## § 2-8-77.15. Contamination Of Ground Water - Preventive Measures Jurisdiction
This section prohibits fertilizer discharges.
## § 2-8-77.16. Seizure Of Fertilizer
This section provides the Board authority to take appropriate action in the event fertilizer sales are in violation of this act.
## § 2-8-77.17. Prosecutorial Discretion - Minor Violations
This section allows for discretionary enforcement action for minor violations by utilizing notice of violations and warnings.
## § 2-8-77.18. Sales And Exchanges Of Licensed Brands Among Importers, Manufactures, Or Manipulators
Allows free exchange of materials among members of the industry.
## Rules
## 35:30-29-22. General
- A. Guarantee requirements. Other plant nutrients when mentioned in any form or manner shall be registered and shall be guaranteed. Guarantees shall be made on the elemental basis. Sources of the elements guaranteed and proof of availability shall be provided to the Board upon request. Except guarantees for those water soluble nutrients labeled for ready to use foliar fertilizer, ready to use specifically liquid fertilizer, hydroponic, or continuous liquid feed programs and guarantees for potting soils, the minimum percentages that shall be accepted for registration are as follows:
- (1) Calcium (Ca) - 1.0000%
- (2) Magnesium (Mg) - 0.5000%
- (3) Sulfur (S) - 1.0000%
EXAMPLES FROM APPENDIX A:
Total Nitrogen (N)* ............................................................... %
% Ammoniacal Nitrogen
% Nitrate Nitrogen
% Water Insoluble Nitrogen
% Urea Nitrogen
% (Other recognized and determinable forms of N)
Available Phosphate (P2O5)......................................................
%
Soluble Potash (K2O)........................................................................... %
(Other nutrients, elemental basis)........................................................... %
"If chemical forms of any nutrients are claimed or required, the chemical forms shall be shown.
- (5) Sources of nutrients shall be listed below the completed guaranteed analysis statement.
- (6) Name and address of registrant or licensee.
- (7) Directions for use for fertilizer to the end user shall follow the guidelines established by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials.
- F. Plant nutrients. When a plant nutrient is broken down into the component forms, the percentage for each component shall be shown before the name of the form as illustrated in Appendix B of this Chapter.
## EXAMPLES FROM APPENDIX B:
Total Nitrogen (N)
..............................................................................................
%.
% Ammoniacal Nitrogen
% Nitrate Nitrogen
Magnesium (Mg) ...................................................................................... %
Water Soluble Magnesium (Mg)
Sulfur (S) .............................................................................................. %
% Free Sulfur (S)
Combined Sulfur (S)
Iron (Fe) .............................................................................................. %
Chelated Iron (Fe)
%.
Manganese (Mn) .......................................................................................... %
Water Soluble Manganese (Mn)
Water Soluble Manganese (Mn)
No fertilizer label shall bear a statement that implies that certain plant nutrients contained in a fertilizer are released slowly over a period of time
(1) No fertilizer label shall bear a statement that implies that certain plant nutrients contained in a fertilizer are released slowly over a period of time, unless the slow release components are identified and guaranteed at a level of at least 15% of the total guarantee for that nutrient.
- (2) Types of products with slow release properties recognized are:
- (1) Water insoluble, such as natural organics, ureafrom materials, urea-formaldehyde products, isobutylidene diurea, oxamide, etc.,
- Coated slow release, such as sulfur coated urea and other encapsulated soluble fertilizer,
- (3) Occluded slow release, where fertilizer or fertilizer materials are mixed with waxes, resins, or other inert materials an formed into particles, and
The terms "water insoluble," "coated slow release," "slow release," "controlled release," "slowly available water soluble" and "occluded slow release" are accepted as descriptive of these products, provided the manufacturer can show a testing program substantiating the claim (testing under guidance of Experiment Station personnel or a recognized reputable researcher acceptable to the Board). A laboratory procedure, acceptable to the Board for evaluating the release characteristics of the product(s) shall also be provided by the manufacturer.
- (3) Until more appropriate methods are developed, AOAC International Method 970.04 (15th Edition) is to be used to confirm the coated slow release and occluded slow release nutrients and others whose slow release charac-teristics depend on particle size. AOAC International Method 945.01 (15th Edition) shall be used to determine the water insoluble nitrogen of organic materials.
- H. Definitions. Except as the Board designates in specific cases, the names and definitions for commercial fertilizer shall be those adopted by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials.
- I. Percentages. The term of "percentage" by symbol or word, when used on a fertilizer label shall represent only the amount of individual plant nutrients in relation to the total product by weight.
- J. Penalties. When the combined commercial value for total nitrogen, available phosphoric acid or phosphate P2O5, and soluble potash is found to be 4% or more deficient from the guarantee, or when any one of the above is found to be 10% deficient from the guarantee, the penalty assessed the manufacturer, or custom blender shall be twice the commercial value of the nutrient deficiency. Penalties shall be assessed in accordance with the AAPFCO formula: a 4% penalty is calculated at twice the value of the deficiency times total tons (i.e., 5 tons of 34-0-0 found to be 30.97-0-0 is 2 x $12.12 x 5); a 10% penalty is calculated at twice the units deficient times the value per unit times total tons (i.e., 5 tons of 27-13-13 found to be 23.26-13-13 is 2 x 3.76 x commercial value x 5). When a fertilizer is subject to a penalty payment under both 4% and 10%, the larger penalty shall be assessed.
- (1) A deficiency in an official sample of mixed fertilizer resulting from non-uniformity is not distinguishable from a deficiency due to actual plant nutrient shortage and is properly subject of official action.
- (2) The commercial values of fertilizer shall be established by the Board for calculating penalties.
- (3) Penalty assessment refunds shall be documented by receipts signed by the consumer acknowledging the refund or credit, and shall be furnished to the Board within forty-five (45) days after receiving notice of the penalty assessed. If the consumer(s) cannot be found, the penalty (or amount not refunded) shall be paid to the Board within forty-five (45) days after receiving notice of the penalty assessed.
K. Organic nitrogen. If an amount of nitrogen is designated as organic, then the water insoluble nitrogen or the slow release nitrogen guarantee shall not be less than 60% of the nitrogen so designated. Coated urea shall not be included in meeting the 60% requirement.
- L. Discharges. For the purpose of protecting surface and groundwater, any discharge of two hundred (200) pounds of dry or fifty-five (55) gallons or more of liquid fertilizer shall be reported (telephone or fax) to the Board or its authorized agent within 24 hours if discharged outside the loading, transfer or application area.
M. Accidental discharge response plan for dry, liquid, and anhydrous ammonia. The operator of a commercial storage facility shall prepare a written "Discharge response plan" for the storage facility. The plan shall include:
- (1) The identity and telephone number of the persons or agencies who are to be contacted in the event of a discharge, including persons responsible for the stored fertilizer; and,
- (2) For each bulk fertilizer stored at the facility, a complete copy of the storage container labeling required by these rules and the labeling required under Oklahoma Fertilizer Law to accompany sale of the fertilizer; and,
- (3) An identification, by location, of every storage container located at the storage facility, and the type of bulk fertilizer stored in each storage container; and,
- (4) For each type of bulk fertilizer stored at the facility, the procedures to be used in controlling and recovering, or otherwise responding to a discharge; and,
- (5) Procedures to be followed in using or disposing of a recovered discharge. N. Availability. A copy of the discharge response plan shall be kept readily available at the storage facility and at the nearest local office from which the storage facility is administered.
- O. Community awareness. The operator of a commercial storage facility shall inform the local fire and police departments, and the appropriate state environmental agency, of the existence of the plan and shall provide a current copy of the plan to the local fire and police departments and the appropriate state environmental agency.
## 35:30-29-23. Heavy Metals
Fertilizers stating guaranteed amounts of phosphates or micronutrients shall be considered adulterated if the fertilizers contain metals in amounts greater than the levels of metals established by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials in the SUIP 25 guide.
## Oklahoma Soil amendment Act and Rules
## Statutes
This legislation has many of the same provisions as the Oklahoma Fertilizer Law and the Oklahoma Liming Materials Act. Additional, relevant provisions include the following.
§ 2-8-85.3. Definitions.
Soil Amendment - Includes any substance which is intended to improve the physical, chemical or other characteristics of the soil, horticultural growing media, or any natural or synthetic substance applied to plants or seeds that is intended to improve crop production, germination, growth, yield, product quality, reproduction, flavor or other desirable characteristics of plants except the following: commercial fertilizers, agricultural liming materials, agricultural gypsum, unmanipulated animal manures, unmanipulated vegetable manures and pesticides; provided that commercial fertilizer shall be included if it is represented to contain, as an active ingredient, a substance other than a recognized plant food element or is represented as promoting plant growth by other than supplying a recognized plant food element. Labeling - All written, printed or graphic matter upon or accompanying any soil amendment, and all advertisements, brochures, posters, television or radio announcements used in promoting the sale of such soil amendments.
## Active Ingredient or Soil Amending Ingredient
- a. The ingredient or ingredients which affect the physical, chemical or other characteristics of the soil and thereby improve soil conditions.
- b. any natural or synthetic substance when applied to plants or seeds that is intended to improve crop production, germination, growth, yield, product quality, reproduction, flavor, or other desirable characteristics of plants
Inert Ingredient or Other Ingredient - The ingredients with no beneficial effect that are present in the product
Misbranded - Means and shall apply if:
- a. any soil amendment bears a label that is false or misleading in any particular,
- b. any soil amendment is distributed under the name of another soil amendment,
- c. any material is represented as a soil amendment or is represented as containing a soil amendment, unless such soil amendment conforms to the definition of identity, if any, prescribed by regulation,
- d. the active ingredient in any soil amendment is not shown in the approved ingredient form, or
- e. the labeling on any soil amendment is false or misleading in any particular. Adulterated means and shall apply to any soil amendment if:
- it contains any deleterious or harmful agent sufficient amount to render it injurious to beneficial plants, animals, or aquatic life when applied in accordance with the directions for use shown on the label; or if adequate warning statements and directions for use, necessary to protect plants, animals, or aquatic life are not shown on the label,
- b. its composition falls below purported labeling requirements, or
- c. it contains noxious weed seed
## § 2-8-85.4. Labeling.
A. Each container of a soil amendment shall be labeled on the face or display side in a readable and conspicuous form to show the following information:
- 1) The net weight of the contents;
- 2) The name of the product;
## § 2-8-85.5. Registration - Fee .
- A. Each soil amendment product shall be registered with the State Board of Agriculture before it is distributed in this state. Application for registra tion shall be submitted to the Board, on a form, showing the information required on the label, as provided in Section 8-85.4 of this title and rules promulgated pursuant thereto, except net weight of product.
- B. The registration fee shall be One Hundred Dollars ($100.00) for each prod uct.
- C. All registrations shall expire on December 31 of the year for which the soil amendment product is registered.
- D. The applicant shall submit with the application for registration a copy of the label and a copy of all advertisements, brochures, posters, and television and radio announcements to be used in promoting the sale of the soil amendment.
- E. If the Board finds any soil amendment product that has not been regis tered, the registration was falsely submitted, or the registration was late, the Board may establish and assess a penalty. The penalty shall be assessed per product and added to the registration fee and payment shall be made within thirty (30) days after receipt of notice.
## Rules
35:30-30-1. Definitions
Biosolid - A primary organic solid material produced by wastewater treatment processes that can be beneficially recycled for its plant nutrient content and soil amending characteristics, as regulated pursuant to 40 CFR 503, as amended.
Custom Media - A horticultural growing medium that is prepared to exact specifications of the person utilizing the medium.
Horticultural Growing Media - Any substance or mixture of substances promoted as or is intended to function as a growing medium for the managed growth of horticultural crops in containers and shall be considered a soil amendment for the purposes of this chapter.
Microbial Based - A biological substance or mixture of substances distributed to be applied to the soil, plants,or seeds for corrective soil purposes; intended to improve germination, growth yield, product quality, reproduction, flavor, or other desirable characteristics of plants; or intended to produce any chemical, biochemical, biological, or physical change in the soil.
## 35:30-30-2. Registration and fees
- a) Each soil amendment product shall be registered with the Board prior to distribution on a registration document supplied by the Board.
- b) All registrations expire on December 31st of the year registered.
- c) No product name shall be registered that misrepresents the product's primary component or component formulation.
- d) Each product name shall refer to a specific formulation; different product names may refer to the same specific formulation. Products for which formulations change or are modified beyond the ranges reported in the registration document shall either be reregistered with a name that distinguish es them from the previous formulation, or production and distribution of the previous formulation shall cease.
- e) Reregistered products shall be accompanied by a new registration document for that formulation.
- f) Each product registration document shall be accompanied by a label or facsimile of a label for that product as named. If the same product is sold in more than one size, only one label sample shall be submitted.
- g) The Board shall not issue and may revoke any soil amendment registration if the Board determines the registration is for the primary purpose of disposal of the product or substance.
## 35:30-30-3. Contents of the label
- (a) Label information may be printed on the primary or secondary display panel on the bag containing the product, printed on a sticker placed on the bag, printed on a flyer or tag attached to the bag, or in the case of bulk bags or bulk, any of the above or printed on a fact sheet accompanying the shipment.
- (b) The Board shall require each label to contain the following minimum in- formation. Additional information of an instructional or explanatory nature may be provided at the discretion of the registrant.
- (1) The product name as registered.
- (2) The quantity of the product in quarts, cubic feet, yards, or metric equivalents or the weight of theproduct in ounces, pounds, tons or metric weights or the fluid measure in fluid oz, quarts or gallons or metric equivalents as determined by the dominant method of sale by the industry and as registered.
- (3) The guaranteed analysis for inorganic based soil amendments shall include the name and the percentage of each active ingredient, and the percentage of inert ingredients.
- (4) The guaranteed analysis for microbiological based soil amendments intend- ed as an inoculum shall include the expiration date, state the number and kind of viable organisms per milliliter, or if the product is other than liquid, state the number and kind of viable organisms per gram. If the product is not intended as an inoculum, then the product label shall state that the product is not a viable culture.
- (5) In lieu of a guaranteed analysis for organic based soil amendments an in- gredient list shall show all components whether organic or inorganic. Com- ponents shall be listed in order of decreasing volume, if they comprise at least three percent (3%) or more of the total volume of the product. Com- ponents shall be described as follows:
- (A) Bark products shall be described as raw, aged, processed, or composted. Bark shall also be specified as pine or softwood (meaning Gymnosperm), or hardwood (not Gymnosperm), and may include no more than fifteen per cent (15%) wood by volume.
- (B) Peat products shall be described in accordance with ASTM standards as to whether they are sphagnum, hypnum, reed-sedge, humus, or other peat.
- (C) Wood products shall be described as raw, aged, processed, reprocessed or composted.
- (D) Readily degradable organic substances shall be listed and described as raw, aged, processed or composted.
- (E) The base material for any other composted product shall be described as listed.
- (F) Mulches shall be described as listed in the components.
## 35:30-30-6. Exemptions
- (a) Distribution of horticultural growing media planted with live plant material is exempt from the labeling and registration requirements.
- (b) Distribution of custom media is exempt from registration requirements imposed provided it is prepared for a single end user.
- (c) Distribution of a soil amendment that is registered pursuant to the Oklahoma Fertilizer Act may be exempt from the registration requirement, but shall not be exempt from any requirements other than registration.
## Oklahoma Agricultural Liming Materials Act and Rules
## Statutes
In addition to the provisions identified by the Oklahoma Fertilizer Law and the Oklahoma Soil Amendment Act, the Oklahoma Agricultural Liming Materials Act provides for the following specifics relevant to liming materials.
## § 2-8-80.2. Definitions:
Agricultural Liming Material - A product whose calcium and magnesium compounds are capable of neutralizing soil acidity.
Burnt Lime - A calcined material comprised chiefly of calcium oxide in natural association with lesser amounts of magnesium and is capable of slaking with water.
Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE) - The acid neutralizing capacity of an agricultural liming material expressed as weight percentage of calcium carbonate.
Effective calcium Carbonate Equivalent (Effective calcium carbonate equivalent) - The percent of calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) multiplied by the "fineness factor."
Fineness - The percentage by weight of the material which will pass U.S. standard sieves of specified sizes.
Fineness Factor - The degree of fineness of the liming material used and shall
be determined as prescribed under rules.
Hydrated Lime - A dry material made from burnt lime.
Industrial By-Products - Any industrial waste or by-product containing calcium or calcium and magnesium in a form that will neutralize soil acidity and it may be designated by prefixing the name of the industry or process used for its production.
Limestone - A material consisting essentially of calcium carbonate or a combination of calcium carbonate with magnesium carbonate capable of neutralizing soil acidity.
Marl - A granular or loosely consolidated earthy material composed largely of sea shell fragments and calcium carbonate.
## § 2-8-80.3. Distribution, Labeling and Sale of Liming Materials -- Regula tions.
- A. Agricultural liming materials sold, offered, or exposed for sale in the state shall have affixed in a conspicuous manner on the outside of each package a plainly printed, stamped or marked label, tag, or statement, or in the case of bulk sales, a delivery slip or invoice, setting forth the following information:
- 1. The name and principal office address of the manufacturer or distributor;
- 2. The brand or trade name of the material;
- 3. The identification of the product as to the type of the agricultural liming material;
- 4. The net weight of the agricultural liming material; and
- 5. The minimum percentage of Effective calcium Carbonate Equivalent (Effective calcium carbonate equivalent) guaranteed.
- B. No information or statement shall appear on any package, label, delivery slip, or advertising that is false or misleading to the purchaser as to the quality, analysis, type, or composition of the agricultural liming material.
- C. In the case of any adulterated material subsequent to packaging, labeling, or loading and before delivery to the consumer, a plainly marked notice shall be affixed by the vendor to the package or delivery slip to identify the kind and degree of adulteration.
- D. At every site from which agricultural liming materials are delivered in bulk and at every place where consumer orders for bulk deliveries are placed, there shall be conspicuously posted a copy of the statement required by this section for each brand of material.
- E. Each separately identified product or each effective calcium carbonate equivalent shall be registered before being distributed in this state. The application for registration shall be submitted to the Board on forms furnished. Upon approval, a copy of the registration shall be furnished to the applicant. The registration shall contain the labeling information required in subsection A of this section. Registrations shall be permanent unless canceled by the registrant or by the Board.
- F. A distributor shall not be required to register any brand of agricultural lim ing material that is already registered pursuant to the Oklahoma Agricultural Liming Materials Act by another person, providing the label does not differ in any respect.
§ 2-8-80.4. Information required by § 8-80.3 of this title to be affixed to containers .
- A. Any agricultural limiting material offered for sale, sold, or distributed in this state in bags, barrels, or other containers shall have placed on or affixed to the container in written or printed form the information required by subsection A of Section 8-80.3 of this title, either:
- 1. On tags affixed to the end of the package between the ears or on the sewn end or both between the ears and on the sewn end; or
- 2. Directly on the package in a manner as determined by the Board.
- B. If distributed in bulk, a written or printed statement of the weight, as well as the information required by paragraphs 1, 2, 3 and 5 of subsection A of Section 8-80.3 of this title, shall accompany delivery and be supplied to the purchaser.
## § 2-8-80.5. Compliance With Act - Toxic Materials Prohibited - Adminis trative Penalty.
- A. No agricultural limiting material shall be sold or offered for sale in this state unless it complies with provisions of the Oklahoma Agricultural Liming Materials Act or rules promulgated thereto.
- B. No agricultural limiting material shall be sold or offered for sale in this state that contains toxic materials in quantities injurious to plants or animals.
- C. If an analysis shows that a commercial agricultural liming material falls below the guaranteed analysis, the State Board of Agriculture may require the payment of an administrative penalty to the consumer in the amount of the current value of the deficiency. All administrative penalties assessed pursuant to this section shall be paid to the consumer represented by the sample analyzed within thirty (30) days after the date of notice from the Board to the guarantor, with receipts taken and promptly forwarded to the Board. If the consumers cannot be found, the amount of the penalty shall be forwarded to the Board and be deposited in the State Department of Agriculture Revolving Fund.
## § 2-8-80.6. Vendor's License for Spreading - Application - Fee.
A. It shall be unlawful for any person to engage in the spreading of liming materials on properties belonging to others unless the person has a current vendor's license issued by the State Board of Agriculture.
- B. Application for a license shall be in the form prescribed by the Board and shall state the name and address of the applicant and the number of spreader trucks or similar vehicles to be used by the applicant. The application shall be accompanied by an annual license fee of Twenty-five Dollars ($25.00). Each license shall expire December 31 of each year.
## § 2-8-80.7. Inspection Fees - Reports .
- A. For the purpose of helping to defray the expenses of inspection, administering, and carrying out the provisions of the Oklahoma Agricultural Liming Materials Act, an inspection fee of ten cents ($0.10) per ton shall be paid to the State Board of Agriculture on all agricultural liming material sold or distributed for use within this state.
## Rules
## 35:30-31-1. Lime terminology
- (a) Gypsum (CASO4) shall not be considered as an agricultural liming materi al.
- "Fineness" of a product shall be determined by passing a sample through a number eight (8) and number sixty (60) U.S. Standard Sieve, and calculating the percentage of weight of the material which passes through each sieve. The minimum "fineness" for any agricultural liming material distrib uted for use in Oklahoma shall be that 98% must pass through a four (4) mesh, 90% must pass through an eight (8) mesh and 30% through a sixty (60) mesh sieve.
- (c) The "fineness factor" of a product shall be calculated as one-half (1/2) the percent passing through a number eight (8) sieve plus one-half (1/2) the percent passing through a number sixty (60) sieve equals "fineness factor".
## 35:30-31-2. Lime vendor requirements
Lime vendors shall be responsible:
- (1) To purchase, haul, and spread only limestone or other liming materials from manufacturers or producers who are registered in Oklahoma and reporting the inspection fee.
- (2) To make sure all limestone or liming material is properly labeled when purchased from the manufacturer or producer; also that the product is properly labeled when delivered to the consumer.
## You have questions... We have answers backed by research
The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service is your resource for unbiased, research based information and recommendations. |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/tropical-soda-apple | Tropical Soda Apple | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"John Byrd Jr.",
"Victor Maddox",
"Charles T. Bryson",
"Randy Westbrooks"
] | null | [
"Weed Control",
"Agriculture",
"Invasive Species"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Tropical Soda Apple
## Tropical Soda Apple
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Weed Control for Lawn and Garden |
|---------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3200 | |
| View as PDF: P3200.pdf | |
Tropical soda apple, Solanum virum Dunal is a perennial shrub (Figure 1). It is native to Brazil and Argentina, but it has become a weed in other areas of South America and in Africa, India, Nepal, the West Indies, Honduras, Mexico, and the United States. It has been reported that tropical soda apple foliage is unpalatable to livestock, although cattle will eat the mature fruit. Scarification of seeds by digestive systems of livestock and wildlife seems to promote germination. Movement of livestock that have recently consumed tropical soda apple is the primary cause for long-distance spread. However, contaminated equipment, hay, seeds, composted manure, and sod may also disperse the weed. Once established in an area, wildlife may continue the short-range spread of tropical soda apple.
Tropical soda apple is an alternate host for diseases of eggplant, peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes. Tropical soda apple cost the cattle business over $11 million in 1994. Damage to croplands, forestlands, and natural habitats and the cost of control of currently infested areas is difficult to determine, but tropical soda apple has the potential to become a major problem throughout the U.S. south.
To detect and prevent further spread of this weed in the U.S., extension services, departments of agriculture in several southern states, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture have initiated an education and notification campaign on the potential problem of the tropical soda apple. Early detection and persistent monitoring of populations is paramount to containing the threat of this weed, which can potentially infest millions of acres of pastures, crops, forests, and natural areas in the country.
Tropical soda apple is a noxious weed in the U.S; it is a state noxious weed in Florida, Mississippi, and Texas. Cattle from areas infested with tropical soda apple plants must be quarantined before moving into several states.
## Description
## Vegetative Growth
Mature tropical soda apple plants are 3 to 6 feet tall and can be as wide. Plants are armed on the leaves, stems, pedicels, petioles, and calyxes with broad-based, white to yellowish, thorn-like prickles up to 3/4 inch long (Figure 2). The leaves and stems are downy. Stems are green. Tropical soda apple is closely related to Carolina horsenettle ( Solanum carolinense L.), which rarely exceeds 3 feet tall and can have green or purple stems.
## Flowering and Fruit
Not to be confused with Carolina horsentletle, tropical soda apple flowers are white with five petals that curve backward and white-cream stamens that surround the single pistil. Carolina horsentletle flower petals are not curved backward and can be either white or purple.
Immature fruits are mottled whitish to light green and dark green, like a watermelon (Figure 2). Mature fruits are smooth, round, and 3/4 to 1-1/4 inches in diameter with a leathery, yellow skin surrounding a thin-layered, pale green, scented pulp and 180 to 420 flattened, reddish-brown seeds (Figure 3). Each plant is capable of producing 200 or more fruit per year. In comparison, Carolina horsentlette fruits are glossy-green (immature), turn yellow at maturity, are 1/2 to 3/4 inch in diameter, and typically occur in clusters.
## Habitat
Since its introduction into the U.S., tropical soda apple has spread rapidly, infesting an estimated one million acres of improved pastures, citrus groves, sugar cane fields, ditches, vegetable crops, sod farms, forestlands (oak hammocks and cypress heads), and other natural areas in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi. Although it is a threat to a variety of habitats, it tends to be most problematic in pastures and surrounding woodlands in the Midsouth.
## Distribution
The primary means of dispersal of tropical soda apple in the U.S. is livestock and wildlife, such as raccoons, deer, feral hogs, and birds. The first known collection of tropical soda apple in the U.S. was from Glades County, Florida, in 1988. Because of its rapid population explosion in Florida and the concerns of livestock producers, tropical soda apple was placed on the Florida noxious weed list in late February 1994 and was placed on the federal noxious list in 1995. It has currently escaped from North Carolina to Tennessee and Louisiana in the southeast and Pennsylvania in the northeast. Tropical soda apple occurs in most of Florida's counties. It was found in Mississippi in October 1993. It has been confirmed at 20 sites in 10 Mississippi counties. It has been reported in all Midsouth states except Arkansas.
## Control Methods
## Chemical
Aminopyralid, triclopyr, and hexazinone are effective for controlling emerged tropical soda apple when applied at recommended rates (Table 1). If plants have been established long enough to release seed, the site should be frequently inspected and newly emerged seedlings treated. Aminopyralid and hexazinone have longer residual than triclopyr.
| Chemical | Trade name | Rate per acre |
|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|-----------------|
| Aminopyralid | Milestone | 7 fl oz |
| Aminopyralid + 2,4-D | Grazon Next | 42 fl oz |
| Aminpyralid + metsulfuron | Chaparral, Opensight | 2.5-3 oz |
| Aminopyralid + triclopyr | Milestone VM | 7 fl oz |
| Hexazinone (2 lb ai/gallon) | Hexar, Velpar, Velossa, etc. | 64 fl oz |
| Triclopyr (4 lb ae/gallon) | Garlon, Remedy, Triclopyr, Trycera, etc. | 32 fl oz |
| Triclopyr (3 lb ae/gallon) | Garlon 3A, Element, Renovate, Tahoe, Tailspin, etc. | 43 fl oz |
| Triclopyr + fluoroxypyr | PastureGard | 48 fl oz |
## Mechanical and Cultural
Since plants have thorns, use caution if removing by hand. Plants can regenerate from roots, so complete removal is necessary. To prevent tropical soda apple spread within a farm or community, take steps to minimize seed production. Mowing is an effective practice to prevent seed production, even after flowering has started, although plant regrowth will occur, and the practice must be repeated when plants start flowering again. Plants with mature fruit should be cut, piled, and burned to destroy seed viability, or buried more than 3 feet deep.
The only cultural control is sanitation. Collect fruit prior to maturity and dispose of by burning or cooking. Quarantine livestock at least 7 days in an area with no tropical soda apple before moving to new, uninfested locations.
## References
Mullaey, J. J., Cornell, J. A., & Colvin, D. L. (1993). Tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum) control. Weed Technology, 7 , 723-727.
Mullaey, J. J., Nee, M., Wunderlin, R. P., & Delaney, K. R. (1993). Tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum): A weed threat to subtropical regions. Weed Technology, 7 , 783-786.
Publication 3200 (POD-03-24)
By John Byrd Jr., PhD, Extension/Research Professor, Plant and Soil Sciences; Victor Maddox, PhD, Senior Research Associate, Plant and Soil Sciences; Charles T. Bryson, Research Botanist, USDA Crop Production Research Unit, Stoneville, MS; and Randy Westbrooks, PhD, former Invasive Species Specialist, U.S. Geological Survey.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. John D. Byrd , Jr. Extension/Research Professor Weed Scientist/Weed Control - Agronomic and Horticultural Crops and noncropland
## Your Extension Experts
Dr. John D. Byrd , Jr. Extension/Research Professor
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KudzŁu
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-winegrape-growers-guide/chapter-12-crop-prediction | Chapter 12. Crop Prediction | NC State Extension | [
"Tony Wolf"
] | null | [
"Winegrape",
"Agriculture",
"Horticulture"
] | NC | ## Chapter 12. Crop Prediction
Department Horticultural Science Publication Date
Feb. 28, 2007
Authors
Tony Wolf
☐ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=chapter-12crop-prediction#zoom=page-fit
## Other Publications in The North Carolina Winegrape Grower's Guide
```
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Cost and Investment Analysis of Chardonnay (Vitis Vinifera) Winewrapes in North
Carolina
Chapter 3. Choice of Varieties
Chapter 4. Vineyard Site Selection
Chapter 5. Vineyard Establishment
Chapter 6. Pruning and Training
Chapter 7. Canopy Management
Chapter 8. Pest Management
Chapter 9. Vine Nutrition
Chapter 10. Grapevine Water Relations and Vineyard Irrigation
Chapter 11. Spring Frost Control
Chapter 12. Crop Prediction
Chapter 13. Appendix Contact Information
Chapter 14. Glossary
```
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/understanding-the-oklahoma-home-bakery-act.html | Clarifying the OK Home Baking Act of 2017 - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Renee Albers-Nelson",
"William McGlynn"
] | 2020-01-07 | [] | OK | ## ing Act of 2017
.publications/fapc-food-and-agricultural-productsme-baking-act-of-2017-fapc-183.pdf)
would be subjected to regulations regarding alcoholic products; therefore, they are not allowed under
- under the Home Baking Act was not the intent of this Act. These items fall under the regulation of the uana Authority.
i an animal. The common definition of "meat" includes beef, pork, lamb, poultry, fish, other seafood and n meat, lard and tallow are not allowed under the Home Baking Act.
jm the ovary of a flowering plant. Vegetables would be all other plant parts such as roots, leaves and
s market or store, that has NOT been processed in any manner. A "process" would be: canning, drying or baked product. For example, placing "fresh pineapple slices" on an already baked cake.
·ore) is allowed in bakery items only if the bakery product is baked at traditional temperatures and times.
the Home Baking Act to be placed on an al-ready baked product. Home-canning or home-freezing of VOT qualify as "commercial" processing methods. "Commercial processing" methods of fruit processing s) and consist of the following: canning, drying or freezing.
nues:
farmers market is defined as a designated area in which farmers, growers or producers from a defined non-potentially hazardous farm food products and whole shell eggs to the public. Some, not all, farmers used by the individual vendor to produce a product must have been grown or raised by the vendor. rs wishing to process food, as defined by Oklahoma Good Manufacturing Practices regulations (Chapter
market, and therefore, are not venues of sale under the Home Baking Act
t of the Month Club").
## Home Baking Act 2017?
ross annual sales. This includes sales from multiple locations.
ave a label affixed, when possible, to the product containing the following information:
t licensed by the State Department of Health' in at least a 10-point font and in a color that provides clear
jm, a free-standing label may be placed by the product or placed on the receipt.
y must obtain a "Sales Tax Permit." These are required at farmers markets.
## Act 2017 enforced?
AFF) will receive complaints regarding ineffective adherence to the Home Baking Act. A "Home Bakery
00 in gross annual sales, ODAFF can request written documentation for evaluation. If a home food e establishment may be charged with a misdemeanor, punish-able by a fine not to exceed $100.
## ty best practices beyond the le Baking Act of 2017?
nd/or an "allergen listing" on the label of the bakery item for sale; however, Oklahoma does not. This, in s should be mindful of the ingredients they use in the baked items intended for sale. The eight major food uts, wheat and soybean. Surprisingly, there are also ingredients available, even flours, that can cause a Immunology explains cross-allergenicity as an allergic reaction that occurs when proteins in one
- . For example, consumption of lupine flour may trigger a reaction to peanuts, and cricket flour may t required to place any ingredient and allergen information on their label; however, providing such p ep potential consumers safe.
d remember to follow the "2 Hour / 4 Hour Rule." This is a system that can be implemented when Øeratures greater than 45 degrees Fahrenheit) during preparation, serving or display for sale. The rule
Þntrol for 2 hours or less, then, it may continue to be used or be placed back in the refrigerator.
Þntrol for more than 2 hours but less than 4 hours, it needs to be used quickly or discarded.
Þntrol for more than 4 hours, it must be discarded.
of foods that the total accumulation of time a food is out of temperature control must be considered. For he oven was 20 minutes. Then, the cheesecake was placed in the refrigerator. The refrigerator needed to minutes. In total, the cheesecake, in the example, had been out of the temperature control for 30 Þms requiring refrigeration are unrefrigerated. One of the best ways to keep track of this is to make and Þsafety world is: "If it wasn't written down, it didn't happen:" It is good practice to make a habit to record
- i. (FDA, 2014)
- able. Such pies con-tain protein, in the form of egg and milk, and have a high moisture content, which at (Waitrovich, 2013)
|cmc093704.htm(https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm093704.htm)
nmunology. https://www.aaaai.org/conditions-and-treatments/conditions-dictionary/cross-
Health. %20Guidelines- (https://www.ok.gov/health2/documents/FarmersMarket%20Guidelinesfinal.pdf)
'OK/text/SB508/2017(https://legiscan.com/OK/text/SB508/2017), 2017. Retrieved 10, July
of Health, 2013. Retrieved 14, October 2017.
jan State University.
.pie\_or\_not(http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news/to\_refrigerate\_pumpkin\_pie\_or\_not), 2013.
$^{ }$|publications/fapc-food-and-agricultural-productsme-baking-act-of-2017-fapc-183.pdf)
j-and-food-safety/) Food Products /topics/business-and-community/food-products/)
Share Fact Sheet
YES |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2016/09/26/yellowstone-national-park-geothermal-energy/ | Yellowstone National Park & Geothermal Energy | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2016-09-26 | [
"Energy",
"Environment",
"Geothermal Energy"
] | GA | ## Yellowstone National Park & Geothermal Energy
Written by
September 26, 2016
Pamela Turner
When you walk through Yellowstone National Park you can hear the energy from the earth bubbling up all around you. There are over 10,000 thermal features in Yellowstone. It's amazing! This is geothermal energy, a great source of renewable energy.
Geothermal isn't widely used. In the United States, geothermal energy accounts for less than one percent of all energy consumed. Globally, communities and governments have tapped into only 6-7 percent of the potential geothermal power.
Source: EIA, MER, March 2016
Not all geothermal energy sources are available for use. For example, harnessing the heat energy in Yellowstone Park is not an option. In the U.S., most of the accessible geothermal energy is found in seven states - California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Oregon and Hawaii. Some of the advantages of geothermal energy are: (i) it can be extracted without burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas or oil; (2) it is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year; and (3) harnessing it leaves a small carbon footprint. The disadvantages are: (1) many of the geothermal resources are located in, or near, protected areas; (2) the water is often mineral-rich and may also contain toxic heavy metals like mercury and arsenic; and (3) earthquakes can be triggered when developing geothermal power plants.
Research and technological advancements in the area of geothermal energy look promising. Worldwide, countries are focusing on advancing renewable energy sources. In April 2016, 174 countries and the European Union signed the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. Industry predictions are for a worldwide five-fold increase in geothermal. The top geothermal producing countries are Indonesia, United States, and Mexico. There is great growth potential in Caribbean countries, Chile and Kenya. Learn more about geothermal energy at https://energy.gov/eeree/forge/thermal-basics - and be sure to add Yellowstone Park to your bucket list.
Posted in: Energy, Environment, GeothermalEnergy
Tags: energy, Extension, geothermal, geysers, nature, renewableenergy, UGA, Yellowstone park
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/effects-flooding-southern-bottomland-hardwoods | Effects of Flooding on Southern Bottomland Hardwoods | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Brady Self"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Flooding",
"Environmental Impact"
] | MS | " Effects of Flooding on Southern Bottomland Hardwoods
## Effects of Flooding on Southern Bottomland Hardwoods
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3452
Filed Under: Forestry
Bottomland sites often flood during periods of above-average rainfall. Considering tree mortality, flood waters are rarely problematic in natural systems due to the short duration of flooding events. However, issues arise when flooding is longer in duration in systems where levees, inter-levees, and dredging schedules alter the natural flow of water. A hard-to-quantify yet frequently asked question is, "What did the flooding do to the trees?"
While research can explain what happens to individual trees in floods, there have been no landscapelevel studies that consider all combinations of flooding duration, water movement, flood timing, tree species involvement, overall tree health, and similar factors. Unfortunately, in many cases, this deficiency limits our ability to provide definitive answers to the question about trees. In addition, any answer provided is relatively limited because of ongoing environmental stressors, such as additional precipitation, drought, insect infestations, or herbicide drift. However, the likelihood is high that damage extends beyond what is currently visible, especially after multiple years of flooding. This publication attempts to detail the effects of flooding on bottomland hardwoods along with mortality/damage expectations for various classes of trees.
## Flooding Variables that Affect Hardwoods
Several variables influence flood damage in bottomland hardwoods: water temperature, site topography, flood timing, flood duration, water movement and stagnation, tree age and health, and flood tolerance of tree species. While generalizations can be made regarding the individual influence of these factors, they are interrelated with multiple factors serving to simultaneously impact tree health, damage, and possibly mortality.
## Flood Timing and Duration
While there is no specific date or time that flood damage begins or intensifies, some generalizations can be made regarding bottomland hardwoods. Typically, flood-induced tree mortality is minimal during the months when trees are physiologically dormant (late November through February for most of Mississippi) (Table 1). This dormancy occurs when tree physiology slows down, nutrient reserves are pulled into root systems, and the tree stops transpiration. However, even during these months, flooding often impacts trees that have not completely entered dormancy, resulting in some degree of damage to roots (Figure 1). This problem is readily observed in green tree reservoirs (GTRs), or timber stands flooded annually for waterfowl purposes across the region. Damage incurred during this period is often exacerbated by the fact that GTR flooding is typically initiated even earlier in the year, with some managers starting as early as September. Continued regimented "dormant season" flooding in GTRs results in an accumulation of damage that often forces changes in the species composition of these stands over time.
As a rule, damage and mortality increase when flooding occurs (or continues) farther into the year. Again, there are no specific dates when increased tree damage/mortality is assured. However, damage typically increases when floods occur during spring (March through May), and it is greatest when floods occur during summer and fall (late May through October).
Duration of flooding is another important factor in determining the extent of damage and/or mortality in hardwoods. During winter months, a hardwood stand can stay flooded for months without severe damage to trees. However, as the year progresses, longer periods of flooding become more serious. If trees have broken dormancy and are physiologically active, damage and mortality may occur in just a few weeks. Damage/mortality may result in a few days when continued flooding is coupled with other factors, such as when newly planted seedlings are inundated by warmer, slowmoving water.
| Time of year | Speed of water movement | Damage Potential |
|------------------------------|----------------------------|---------------------------|
| Dormant season | Fast | Minimal/Low |
| (Late November to February) | Slow | Low/Low to moderate |
| Spring | Summer/Fall | Stagnant Moderate to high |
## Water Movement, Stagnation, and Temperature
Water movement is another factor that influences damage severity from flooding. This issue relates to the level of dissolved oxygen present in water. Fast-moving water has a high oxygen concentration, which decreases as the velocity of moving water slows. Stagnant (non-moving) water reaches a point where low oxygen concentrations force root systems into anaerobic respiration, which results in the creation of various alcohols and acids that cause root damage and/or mortality in a short time. Due to dissolved oxygen concentration, variability in water temperature has a similar effect on tree damage and mortality. Cooler water can maintain higher concentrations of oxygen due to greater solubility at lower temperatures. As water warms, dissolved oxygen is decreased to the point that damage occurs. Consequently, trees inundated by warm water that is slow-moving or stagnant are much more likely to sustain damage or mortality than trees flooded by cool, fast-flowing water.
| Class | Age | Damage Potential |
|-------------|------------------------------|--------------------|
| Seedlings | Freshly planted | High |
| Seedlings | Established less than 1 year | Low to Moderate |
| Older trees | Saplings to mature | Low |
| Older trees | Over-mature | Increased |
Mortality in freshly planted seedlings is usually high in all but the shortest floods. This greater level of mortality results from a lack of nutrient reserves in root systems and the inability of newly planted seedlings to withstand longer floods. U.S. Forest Service research on the effects of the 1973 Mississippi River flood found that newly planted hardwood plantations were severely impacted with mortality of various species, reaching levels as high as 100 percent by mid-June. Conversely,
plantations of established 1-year-old or older seedlings/saplings/trees did not exhibit high levels of mortality if species were appropriate for the site. However, the 1973 flood reached neither the depth nor the duration of recent Mississippi floods. Much of the 1973 flooding did not occur until March/April and receded May through late June on many sites. Consequently, tree mortality in the 2019 and 2020 floods may be greater than that observed in the 1973 flood.
Over-mature trees are also at an increased risk from effects of flooding. Like all biological organisms, older trees typically possess lower vigor (health). These trees are more likely to experience damage due to already compromised root systems, and ensuing mortality is more common. In addition, tree vigor can be negatively impacted from issues with other stressors encountered before flooding, such as insect infestations, fungal infections, suppressed crown status, herbicide drift from adjacent agricultural fields, root mortality from soil compaction, or mechanical damage to tree holes or roots. All can result in greater susceptibility of trees to flooding damage.
## Flood Tolerance and Topography
If inundated trees are of a species that possesses low flood tolerance, damage and/or mortality is probable. In naturally regenerated, bottomland hardwood stands, the species present typically have
a level of flood tolerance appropriate for survival in all but the most severe floods. However, even species with a high level of flood tolerance-black willow, green ash, water hickory, bald cypress, swamp tupelo, and overcup oak-may be damaged in long-duration flooding with warm water that is slow-moving or stagnant (Figure 3). Artificially regenerated hardwood plantations in which species were chosen without proper consideration for species/site relationships can experience significant damage/mortality from even relatively minor flooding.
Mismatching species to a site is one of the more common mistakes in establishing hardwood plantations. Many species do not have a wide range of site suitability. Even within the same species group, different species may have vastly different soil, moisture, and nutritional tolerances. For example, cherry bark oak is unsuitable for growing on wet, clay soils, while Nuttall oak is well-suited for such sites. Managers who ignore these basic traits often meet with plantation failure. When species-site relationships are not considered, stands established on bottomland sites may experience extreme damage and/or high levels of tree mortality during floods.
Hardwood stands growing on floodplain sites contend with variable soils that have a wide range of productivity and species suitability. Site changes are driven by topographical changes due to variable soil deposition during floods (Figure 4). Elevational changes of as little as 6 inches may completely change site suitability for a given species due to variations in drainage class, onsite vegetation, soil texture, structure, or pH, among others. All can have major impacts on tree damage and mortality during flooding (Figure 5). For a more thorough explanation of bottomland hardwood species/site relationships, please read Mississippi State University Extension Service Publication 2004 Bottomland Hardwood Management Species/Site Relationships .
## What Does Flood Damage Look Like?
Flooding damage to trees is typically the result of injury to root systems. Often, this damage escapes immediate observation and accumulates gradually over time. Physical signs like crown dieback are obvious indicators. It is often impossible to provide a complete long-term prognosis of flood damage using only observable physical indicators. In many cases, root damage will continue to influence overall decline in tree health. This decline may not become apparent for several years. More immediate symptoms (often only manifesting in major flooding events) may occur in the form of leaf chlorosis (yellowing), smaller-than-normal leaves, a complete lack of foliage, death of small branches/twigs, and epicormic sprouting (dormant buds that emerge as branches in stressful events).
## Final Thoughts
The effects of flooding on bottomland hardwoods may be understood and explainable in the case of individual trees, or even smaller stands, but overall impact is difficult to qualify or quantify on a landscape scale. Many variables influence the overall damage/mortality of trees. Only generalizations can be made in the absence of stand-specific details. Generally speaking, short-duration floods of stands ranging from healthy sampling to mature-aged hardwood result in very little tree damage/mortality when waters are cool and flowing. On the other hand, increased damage occurs in trees of low vigor, those that are freshly planted or over-mature, or in long-duration floods later in the year with warm water that is slow-moving or stagnant. In addition, observable symptoms are unlikely to encompass the extent of flood damage sustained, and additional physical damage may become evident over a period of several years, especially with repeated flooding.
## Suggested Reading
Kennedy, H. E., and R. M. Krinard. 1974. 1973 Mississippi River flood's impact on natural hardwood forests and plantations. Research Note SO-RN-177. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, 6 p.
Quintana-Ashwell, N. E., and others. 2020. Final Report: Survey of Overlooked Costs of the 2019 Backwater Flood in the Yazoo Mississippi Delta. Mississippi State University Extension publication 3418. 12 p.
Rousseau, R. J., A. W. Ezell, and J. D. Hodges. 2016. Bottomland Hardwood Management Species/Site Relationships. Mississippi State University Extension, Publication 2004. 4p.
Publication 3452 (POD-09-23)
By Brady Self, PhD, Associate Extension Professor, Department of Forestry
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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THE OVERSTORY
Volume 11, Issue 1, February 2022
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/yellownecked-caterpillar | Yellownecked Caterpillar in the Landscape | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"Pdic",
"Caterpillar"
] | NC | ## Yellownecked Caterpillar in the Landscape
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
The yellownecked caterpillar, Data na minstra , is one of the most frequently reported pests of oaks, birches and other hardwoods. Young caterpillars are small green worms that grow into medium orangish worms with yellow stripes and then into large (about 2 inches long), black- and yellowishcaterpills with black heads and reddish prolebs. The body is covered by long, fine, white hairs. Behind the head is a bright yellow to orange patch from which this insect's common name is derived. Moths emerge from the soil during June and July. Male moths are sometimes attracted to lights. Moths are reddish to cinnamon brown, and the forewings have irregular, fine dark lines. The wingspread is about 2 inches. Females lay their tiny, white eggs in masses - sometimes a 100 or more - on the lower surface of leaves. The larvae typically feed in groups near the ends of the twigs and branches. When disturbed the whole group often elevates both ends of the body, a behavior that predators might find intimidating. In August and September, the mature caterpillars burrow into the soil 2 to 4 inches and pupate to spend the winter there. There is one generation per year.
Host Plants
Oaks are among the favorite hosts of yellownecked caterpillars, although it also feeds on basswood, birch, elm, honeylocust, oak, maple, mountain-ash, walnut and witchhazel. This insect is also destructive on blueberry, apple, and other fruit trees.
## Residential Recommendations
Yellownecked caterpillars are parasitized by tachinid flies and are preyed upon by insects and birds. Because yellownecked caterpillars feed gregariously, they can be dislodged from low branches and trampled underfoot if one has the stomach. Sevin or one of the other insecticides labeled for home use should give adequate control. Once the caterpillars mature and crawl about seeking a place to dig into the soil, they are much less susceptible to insecticides.
## References
- · Caterpillars in blueberries (and other woody perennials). Burrack, H. 2009. NC Small Fruit & Specialty Crop IPM.
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension Center.
This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: Feb. 3, 2017
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 13, 2021
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/southeastern-us-pest-control-guide-for-nursery-crops-and-landscape-plantings/pesticide-use-and-safety-information-1 | Pesticide Use and Safety Information | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Wayne Buhler"
] | null | [
"Pesticide Safety",
"Horticulture",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Pesticide Use and Safety Information
Department
Horticultural Science
Publication Date
March 3, 2017
Authors
Wayne Buhler
View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=pesticide- use-and-safety-information-1#zoom=page-fit
## Other Publications in 2017 Southeastern US Pest Control Guide for Nursery Crops and Landscape Plantings
Preemergence Herbicide Efficacy in Nurseries and Landscape Plantings
Principles of Integrated Pest Management
Pesticide Use and Safety Information
Pesticide Application - Calibrating Chemical Application Equipment
Arthropod Pest Control
Disease Control
Weed Control
Vertebrate Pest Control
Complete Southeastern US Pest Control Guide
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/mecklenburg-county | Mecklenburg County Forestry Impacts 2012 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"James Jeuck",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel",
"Corey Sugerik"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Extension Publications"
] | NC | ## Mecklenburg County Forestry Impacts 2012
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan, 1, 2014
Authors
James Jeuck
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
Corey Sugerik
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
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