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Plot
----
[Red Puckett](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood "Little Red Riding Hood") arrives at her grandmother Abigail's house, where the [Big Bad Wolf](/wiki/Big_Bad_Wolf "Big Bad Wolf") has disguised himself as Red's Granny. The Wolf attacks Red. Granny, who has been tied up, jumps out of a closet just as ax\-wielding woodsman Kirk bursts through the window. The police arrive, and Detective Nicky Flippers questions everyone about the incident.
Red explains she was delivering goodies for her grandmother's business when she discovered a threat from the Goody Bandit, who has been stealing recipes. Red had set out to take the Puckett family recipes to Granny's mountaintop home for safekeeping, but fell out of Bunny Boingo's [cable car](/wiki/Aerial_lift "Aerial lift") and encountered the Wolf, who asked her suspicious questions. Evading the Wolf, she met the old singing goat Japeth, who accompanied her to Granny's house where she found the Wolf waiting in ambush.
The Wolf reveals that he is an investigative reporter on the trail of the Goody Bandit, and had reason to believe Red and Granny were the culprits. The Wolf and his hyperactive squirrel assistant Twitchy confronted Red in hope of solving the Goody Bandit mystery. When they failed to detain Red, they made haste for Granny's house, arriving ahead of Red via a shortcut known to Boingo. They found Granny already tied up in the closet. The Wolf disguised himself as Granny, planning to trick Red into revealing the truth about the Goody Bandit.
Kirk explains his appearance at Granny's house was pure coincidence; he is an aspiring actor trying out for the part of a woodsman in a commercial. After his schnitzel truck was robbed by the Goody Bandit, he received a callback for the commercial and was told to 'find his inner woodsman'. He spent the rest of the day getting into character by chopping trees, until at sunset a tree collapsed and pushed him through the window of Granny's home.
The investigation turns to Granny, who is secretly an extreme sports enthusiast. Earlier that day she had competed in a ski race, with Boingo watching as a fan. Granny had been attacked by the opposing team before winning the race. She learned that the Goody Bandit hired the team to eliminate her. While parachuting back home, she got tangled in the parachute strings, which snagged on her ceiling fan and threw her into the closet.
Feeling betrayed by Granny's secrecy, Red wanders off alone. Flippers deduces that Boingo had been present in all four stories and must be the Goody Bandit. Red notices Boingo sneaking in and stealing the Puckett family recipes. She follows him to his cable car station hideout where she confronts him but is overpowered and captured. The police pursue Boingo in the wrong direction. Granny, the Wolf, and Kirk locate Boingo as he is explaining his evil scheme to Red: he plans to add addictive "Boingonium" to the recipes, then bulldoze the forest for a Boingo\-themed corporate empire.
The Wolf and Kirk distract Boingo as Granny sneaks into Boingo's lair, but they are all found out. Boingo sends a bound and gagged Red down the mountain in a cable car loaded with explosives. Granny goes after Red with Boingo and his henchmen in pursuit. Red frees herself and escapes with Granny, while the police, who have been redirected by a caffeine crazed Twitchy, wait at the bottom of the mountain to arrest Boingo and his henchmen.
Kirk finds success in a yodeling troupe, while Red, Granny, the Wolf, and Twitchy are enlisted by Flippers to join the Happily Ever After Agency crime\-solving organization.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"[Red Puckett](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood \"Little Red Riding Hood\") arrives at her grandmother Abigail's house, where the [Big Bad Wolf](/wiki/Big_Bad_Wolf \"Big Bad Wolf\") has disguised himself as Red's Granny. The Wolf attacks Red. Granny, who has been tied up, jumps out of a closet just as ax\\-wielding woodsman Kirk bursts through the window. The police arrive, and Detective Nicky Flippers questions everyone about the incident.",
"Red explains she was delivering goodies for her grandmother's business when she discovered a threat from the Goody Bandit, who has been stealing recipes. Red had set out to take the Puckett family recipes to Granny's mountaintop home for safekeeping, but fell out of Bunny Boingo's [cable car](/wiki/Aerial_lift \"Aerial lift\") and encountered the Wolf, who asked her suspicious questions. Evading the Wolf, she met the old singing goat Japeth, who accompanied her to Granny's house where she found the Wolf waiting in ambush.",
"The Wolf reveals that he is an investigative reporter on the trail of the Goody Bandit, and had reason to believe Red and Granny were the culprits. The Wolf and his hyperactive squirrel assistant Twitchy confronted Red in hope of solving the Goody Bandit mystery. When they failed to detain Red, they made haste for Granny's house, arriving ahead of Red via a shortcut known to Boingo. They found Granny already tied up in the closet. The Wolf disguised himself as Granny, planning to trick Red into revealing the truth about the Goody Bandit.",
"Kirk explains his appearance at Granny's house was pure coincidence; he is an aspiring actor trying out for the part of a woodsman in a commercial. After his schnitzel truck was robbed by the Goody Bandit, he received a callback for the commercial and was told to 'find his inner woodsman'. He spent the rest of the day getting into character by chopping trees, until at sunset a tree collapsed and pushed him through the window of Granny's home.",
"The investigation turns to Granny, who is secretly an extreme sports enthusiast. Earlier that day she had competed in a ski race, with Boingo watching as a fan. Granny had been attacked by the opposing team before winning the race. She learned that the Goody Bandit hired the team to eliminate her. While parachuting back home, she got tangled in the parachute strings, which snagged on her ceiling fan and threw her into the closet.",
"Feeling betrayed by Granny's secrecy, Red wanders off alone. Flippers deduces that Boingo had been present in all four stories and must be the Goody Bandit. Red notices Boingo sneaking in and stealing the Puckett family recipes. She follows him to his cable car station hideout where she confronts him but is overpowered and captured. The police pursue Boingo in the wrong direction. Granny, the Wolf, and Kirk locate Boingo as he is explaining his evil scheme to Red: he plans to add addictive \"Boingonium\" to the recipes, then bulldoze the forest for a Boingo\\-themed corporate empire.",
"The Wolf and Kirk distract Boingo as Granny sneaks into Boingo's lair, but they are all found out. Boingo sends a bound and gagged Red down the mountain in a cable car loaded with explosives. Granny goes after Red with Boingo and his henchmen in pursuit. Red frees herself and escapes with Granny, while the police, who have been redirected by a caffeine crazed Twitchy, wait at the bottom of the mountain to arrest Boingo and his henchmen.",
"Kirk finds success in a yodeling troupe, while Red, Granny, the Wolf, and Twitchy are enlisted by Flippers to join the Happily Ever After Agency crime\\-solving organization.",
""
] |
Production
----------
{{quote box
\| width \= 33%li
\| quote \= ... I realize that there were other independently funded projects being done at the same time, but ... we were the first ... the first kind of a new model and a new way of making an animated film. It was made with no studio money, overseas, then picked up by a major distributor. A few other animated films have followed this path, but not to the level of success that ''Hoodwinked'' was able to achieve. I know ''Veggie Tales'' had a movie come out earlier that year, but that was with a struck deal and brand recognition. ''Hoodwinked'' was this freak of nature that was made completely outside of the studio system and, thankfully, worked.
\| source \= — Director and co\-writer \[\[Cory Edwards]]{{cite web
\| url \=http://fullecirclestuff.blogspot.com/2009/01/conversation\-with\-cory\-edwards.html
\| title \=A Conversation with Cory Edwards
\| last \= Anders
\| first \= Jason
\| work \=fullecirclestuff.blogspot.com
\| date \=January 26, 2009
\| access\-date \=May 31, 2012
}}{{cite web
\| url \=http://coryedwards.com/?p\=95
\| title \=Interview with Fulle Circle
\| last \=Edwards
\| first\=Cory
\| work \=coryedwards.com
\| date \=January 29, 2009
\| access\-date \=May 31, 2012
}}
}}
*Hoodwinked!* was one of the first independent [computer\-animated](/wiki/Computer-animated "Computer-animated") films to be produced without the aid of a distributor. Although the film's budget is listed as $30 million on [Box Office Mojo](/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo "Box Office Mojo"), several sources have rejected this figure, reporting that the film was produced for no more than $15 million.{{cite web \|author\=Robinson \|first\=Tasha \|date\=January 11, 2006 \|title\=Hoodwinked \|url\=https://www.avclub.com/hoodwinked\-1798201434 \|access\-date\=August 2, 2021 \|work\=\[\[The A.V. Club]]}}{{cite web \|author\=Smith \|first\=Michael \|date\=August 6, 2020 \|title\=Former Tulsa filmmaker Cory Edwards has gone from 'Hoodwinked' to 'Fearless' in the world of animated movies \|url\=https://tulsaworld.com/entertainment/former\-tulsa\-filmmaker\-cory\-edwards\-has\-gone\-from\-hoodwinked\-to\-fearless\-in\-the\-world\-of/article\_d280aa2e\-0078\-553c\-8280\-5a6d2ca77e30\.html \|access\-date\=August 2, 2021 \|work\=\[\[Tulsa World]]}}{{cite web \|author\=Peszko \|first\=J. Paul \|date\=May 11, 2004 \|title\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 2 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/2%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021064649/http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/2%2C1 \|archive\-date\=October 21, 2012 \|access\-date\=March 24, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} Director [Cory Edwards](/wiki/Cory_Edwards "Cory Edwards") explained in a 2009 interview that the film's actual budget was under $8 million. Any of these figures would be significantly lower than is typical for a computer\-animated film's budget.{{cite web \|author\=Goodman \|first\=Martin \|date\=February 3, 2006 \|title\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 2 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/2%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122025058/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/2%2C1 \|archive\-date\=January 22, 2013 \|access\-date\=April 21, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} At the time of *Hoodwinked!*{{'}}s production, the costs of computer\-animation software had only recently decreased to a price that was accessible to more than just major studios, and leading up to the film's release, producer [David Lovegren](/wiki/David_Lovegren "David Lovegren") said, "Six or seven years ago, the idea of doing *Hoodwinked!* as an independent \[animated] feature would have been impossible".{{cite web \|author\=Peszko \|first\=J. Paul \|date\=May 11, 2004 \|title\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 3 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/3%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021064740/http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/3%2C1 \|archive\-date\=October 21, 2012 \|access\-date\=March 24, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}}
The filmmakers only made the film independently by necessity,{{cite web \|author\=Raugust \|first\=Karen \|date\=November 22, 2006 \|title\=Independence Day: The Growth of Indie Animated Features \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/production/independence\-day\-growth\-indie\-animated\-features/page/2%2C1 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042336/http://www.awn.com/animationworld/independence\-day\-growth\-indie\-animated\-features \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2016 \|access\-date\=May 29, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} and Cory Edwards has said, "It's not a model to be followed. It was a once\-in\-a\-lifetime, seat\-of\-your\-pants kind of thing that just barely came off."{{cite web \|author\=Goodman \|first\=Martin \|date\=February 3, 2006 \|title\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 4 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/4%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720042833/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/4%2C1 \|archive\-date\=July 20, 2013 \|access\-date\=May 4, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} However, he added that the process was worth going through to get the film made and encouraged aspiring filmmakers to be willing to follow it.
### Development
[thumb\|left\|The film's production was privately financed by entrepreneur Maurice Kanbar.](/wiki/File:Maurice_Kanbar.jpg "Maurice Kanbar.jpg")
After a number of years spent producing [commercials](/wiki/Television_advertisement "Television advertisement") and [music videos](/wiki/Music_videos "Music videos") in Tulsa, brothers Cory and [Todd Edwards](/wiki/Todd_Edwards_%28film_writer%29 "Todd Edwards (film writer)") founded their own production company, Blue Yonder Films. Joined by their friends producers Brad Knull, Robert Yanovitch and [Preston Stutzman](/wiki/Preston_Stutzman "Preston Stutzman"), who also led marketing for the company. The group released their first feature film, *Chillicothe*, at the 1999 [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival"). Emboldened by this success, the company then moved to Los Angeles in the hopes of producing a sophomore film. Blue Yonder evolved as Knull and Yanovitch left to pursue other interests, and new opportunities for the remaining three partners proved elusive at first.{{cite web \|author\=Lilly \|first\=Deborah \|year\=2006 \|title\=Alumni Rendition of Red Riding Hood hits the big screens \|url\=http://www.anderson.edu/signatures/winter06/article.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207124428/http://www.anderson.edu/signatures/winter06/article.html \|archive\-date\=February 7, 2012 \|access\-date\=July 2, 2012 \|work\=anderson.edu}}
An associate producer on *Chillicothe*, [Sue Bea Montgomery](/wiki/Sue_Bea_Montgomery "Sue Bea Montgomery"), sought out studios that might want to work with the trio; she was met with indifference and determined that Blue Yonder Films would have to further establish itself on the independent scene before anyone would take interest. Montgomery then set up a meeting between the filmmakers and [Maurice Kanbar](/wiki/Maurice_Kanbar "Maurice Kanbar"), a successful entrepreneur who had made a minor investment in *Chillicothe*.{{cite web \|author\=Chattaway \|first\=Peter T. \|date\=May 2, 2006 \|title\=Cory Edwards – the interview's up! \|url\=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/filmchat/2006/05/cory\-edwards\-the\-interviews\-up.html \|access\-date\=January 30, 2013 \|work\=patheos.com}}
The Edwards brothers pitched a number of ideas for live\-action films to Kanbar and proposed a development deal that would have entailed Kanbar paying the group and covering their rent in exchange for a significant portion of the rights to any scripts that Blue Yonder Films ever sold. Kanbar, however, was interested in a more direct approach, preferring to focus efforts on getting a single film produced. He had always admired animation, and after seeing a [direct\-to\-DVD](/wiki/Direct-to-DVD "Direct-to-DVD") computer\-animated short film that Cory had made called *Wobots*, suggested the possibility of producing an animated feature with Blue Yonder Films, one that would tell a familiar narrative with a twist. Kanbar gave the group a month to come up with a story idea.
Although Kanbar expressed interest in producing a retelling of "[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella "Cinderella")" or *[The Adventures of Pinocchio](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Pinocchio "The Adventures of Pinocchio")*, the Edwards brothers insisted on avoiding stories that had already been defined by [the Walt Disney Company](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company "The Walt Disney Company"). Several ideas were considered by the brothers. Cory suggested "[Little Red Riding Hood](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood "Little Red Riding Hood")", describing it as a story "so simple that you can go a lot of different directions with it",{{cite web \|author\= \|date\=May 28, 2013 \|title\=Cory Edwards (Hoodwinked) \- Interview \|url\=https://www.tribute.ca/interviews/cory\-edwards\-hoodwinked/director/12324/ \|access\-date\=August 8, 2021 \|work\=\[\[Tribute.ca]]}}
and within a few days, inspiration came to Todd through non\-linear crime dramas, such as *[Rashomon](/wiki/Rashomon "Rashomon")* (1950\), *[Pulp Fiction](/wiki/Pulp_Fiction_%28film%29 "Pulp Fiction (film)")* (1994\), *[Run Lola Run](/wiki/Run_Lola_Run "Run Lola Run")* (1998\), and *[Memento](/wiki/Memento_%28film%29 "Memento (film)")* (2000\). Todd's proposal to retell "Little Red Riding Hood" as a police investigation, exploring the narrative through multiple points of view, was embraced by Kanbar, who agreed to fully finance the film before seeing a finished script.
Kanbar's initial plan was to release the film directly to DVD. In 2002, Kanbar and Montgomery joined together in founding [Kanbar Entertainment](/wiki/Kanbar_Entertainment "Kanbar Entertainment") and Kanbar Animation, independent production studios that teamed with Blue Yonder Films for the production of *Hoodwinked!*{{cite web \|author\=Mohr \|first\=Ian \|date\=May 17, 2005 \|title\=Weinsteins sign Red Riding Hood \|url\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117923025/?refcatid\=13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000559/http://variety.com/2005/film/features/weinsteins\-sign\-red\-riding\-hood\-1117923025/ \|archive\-date\=March 5, 2016 \|access\-date\=January 20, 2013 \|work\=Variety}}{{cite press release
\|url \= http://www.twcpublicity.com/downloads/production/hoodwinked\_production\_notes\_(1\).pdf
\|title \= Hoodwinked
\|access\-date \= January 30, 2013
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130809100521/http://twcpublicity.com/downloads/production/hoodwinked\_production\_notes\_(1\).pdf
\|archive\-date \= August 9, 2013
\|url\-status \= dead
\|df \= mdy\-all
}}
Cory served as the film's main director, as he had more experience with animation, comedy, and children's entertainment, while Todd served as co\-director. Montgomery and Stutzman were joined by Disney animation veteran David Lovegren as producers on the film, and Cory's and Todd's sister [Katie Hooten](/wiki/Katie_Hooten "Katie Hooten") joined as an associate producer. [Tony Leech](/wiki/Tony_Leech "Tony Leech"), who had worked with the Edwards brothers on *Chillicothe*, was initially hired as an editor, but gained story input as well. He eventually proved to be so valuable to the production that he was given a role as co\-director.
### Pre\-production
[thumb\|left\|alt\=A drawing of Little Red Riding Hood standing next to the Wolf\|*Hoodwinked!* is a parody of the European fairy tale *Little Red Riding Hood*.](/wiki/File:Little_Red_Riding_Hood_pg_8.png "Little Red Riding Hood pg 8.png")
The filmmakers found independently producing the film to have both benefits and challenges. Although they were given a great amount of creative control by their executive producer Maurice Kanbar, their small budget kept them from making potentially beneficial changes to the story once production was underway. Todd Edwards related that "Money doesn't just buy you more talent and more machinery, it also buys you flexibility on a story level. At Disney, if they don't like the third act, they just throw the whole thing out and re\-animate the whole thing, even if it's finished ... We had no such luxury, and so in a way, you're watching our first version of the movie."{{cite web \|author\=Goodman \|first\=Martin \|date\=February 3, 2006 \|title\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 3 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/3%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720042623/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/3%2C1 \|archive\-date\=July 20, 2013 \|access\-date\=April 21, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}}
Knowing ahead of time their inability to alter the film's script once animating had begun, an effort was made by the filmmakers to finalize the script as much as possible before the start of production, which is not a common practice for studio\-produced animated films.
Turning away from the well\-known [archetypes](/wiki/Archetype "Archetype") of the *Little Red Riding Hood* characters, the filmmakers continued to look towards non\-linear crime dramas for inspiration instead. Producer Preston Stutzman explained that "The whole film is about surprises and secret lives".{{cite web \|author\=Goodman \|first\=Martin \|date\=February 3, 2006 \|title\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 5 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/5%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720041836/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/5%2C1 \|archive\-date\=July 20, 2013 \|access\-date\=May 5, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} Not wanting Red to be "boring" or "too innocent", she was patterned on [James Dean](/wiki/James_Dean "James Dean") and given the desire of leaving home to find her way in the world. Todd Edwards had the idea of basing the Wolf on [Chevy Chase](/wiki/Chevy_Chase "Chevy Chase")'s character in *[Fletch](/wiki/Fletch_%28film%29 "Fletch (film)")*, feeling that it would be fun to apply the character's dry, deadpan style of humor to an animated wolf, while Cory Edwards created the hyperactive character of Twitchy to serve as the Wolf's [foil](/wiki/Foil_%28literature%29 "Foil (literature)"). Going against types, Red's Granny was written as a thrill\-seeking action hero, while the strong Woodsman was written as being childishly incompetent.
The police officers were written to come across as everyday guys and Cory Edwards has explained that the decision to make three of them pigs was not politically motivated.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \=Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=03:47–04:57
\| type \=DVD
\| publisher \=\[\[The Weinstein Company]]
}}
Nicky Flippers was not a part of the story as it was initially conceived and prior to his creation, the investigation was going to be led by Chief Grizzly. After producer Sue Bea Montgomery and her husband pointed out similarities between their film and the 1950s film/TV series *[The Thin Man](/wiki/The_Thin_Man_%28TV_series%29 "The Thin Man (TV series)")*, the Edwards brothers and Leech decided to introduce the character and his dog into the film as a homage to [Nick Charles](/wiki/Nick_and_Nora_Charles "Nick and Nora Charles").{{cite web \|author\=Legel \|first\=Laremy \|date\=January 17, 2006 \|title\=INTERVIEW: Cory Edwards Talks 'Hoodwinked' \|url\=https://www.comingsoon.net/movies/news/509027\-interview\_cory\_edwards\_talks\_hoodwinked \|access\-date\=August 8, 2021 \|work\=ComingSoon.net}}
They considered several different types of animals before settling on making him a frog.
[thumb\|right\|alt\=A photograph of Cory Edwards\|Director and co\-writer Cory Edwards also co\-wrote two of the film's songs, performed one of them, and voiced the character Twitchy.](/wiki/File:Cory_Edwards.jpg "Cory Edwards.jpg")
Cory Edwards chose to approach the film predominantly as an action/comedy, instead of as a typical animated film, and wrote the script to appeal to audiences of any age like many of the films produced by [Pixar](/wiki/Pixar "Pixar") or Disney.{{cite web \|author\=Peszko \|first\=J. Paul \|date\=May 11, 2004 \|title\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 4 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/4%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183219/http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/4,1 \|archive\-date\=May 4, 2012 \|access\-date\=June 2, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} [Bugs Bunny](/wiki/Bugs_Bunny "Bugs Bunny"), [Road Runner](/wiki/Wile_E._Coyote_and_the_Road_Runner "Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner"), *[The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Rocky_and_Bullwinkle_and_Friends "The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends")*, *[The Muppets](/wiki/The_Muppets "The Muppets")*, *[The Simpsons](/wiki/The_Simpsons "The Simpsons")*, and *[The Incredibles](/wiki/The_Incredibles "The Incredibles")* (2004\) have all been cited as inspirations for the film. An attempt was made to distance the film from *[Shrek](/wiki/Shrek_franchise "Shrek franchise")* and other similar themed films that had been recently released, by excluding [magic](/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 "Magic (paranormal)"), [wizards](/wiki/Magician_%28fantasy%29 "Magician (fantasy)"), and [fairies](/wiki/Fairy "Fairy") from the film.{{cite web \|author\=Goodman \|first\=Martin \|date\=February 3, 2006 \|title\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 6 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/6%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417131332/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\-toon\-peek\-under\-hood/page/6,1 \|archive\-date\=April 17, 2013 \|access\-date\=May 5, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} Cory Edwards also strived for a different style of humor than *Shrek*, choosing to make his film more [family friendly](/wiki/Family-friendliness "Family-friendliness") and less of a satire.{{cite web \|author\=Edwards \|first\=Cory \|date\=May 19, 2007 \|title\=Living in a Satirical World \|url\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\=62 \|access\-date\=April 2, 2012 \|work\=coryedwards.com}}
Working out of Todd and Preston’s apartment, Cory and Todd Edwards initially wrote the script while Cory sketched most of the film's [storyboards](/wiki/Storyboards "Storyboards"), and Todd wrote the songs. Leech simultaneously scanned the boards and edited the [story reel](/wiki/Traditional_animation%23Animatic "Traditional animation#Animatic") on his [Mac computer](/wiki/Macintosh "Macintosh"). The first (temp) voice cast was the three of them. Producer Sue Bea Montgomery showed test screenings of the story reel to children in her neighborhood, and gained input from their reactions. The filmmakers had been considering removing Japeth the goat, but chose not to when he proved one of the most popular characters at these screenings. The children also particularly liked Twitchy, which led to the expansion of the character's role.{{cite video
\| people \=Montgomery, Sue Bea
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \=Hoodwinked! DVD How To Make An Animated Film
\| time \=06:07–07:10
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}}
In an effort to save costs, the film's cast was originally going to be composed mostly of friends and family members of the filmmakers.{{cite web \|author\=Hayes \|first\=Melanie \|date\=January 11, 2006 \|title\=AU alumni unveil "Hoodwinked!" \|url\=http://www.anderson.edu/w/news/2006/2006\-01\-11\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117203518/http://www.anderson.edu/w/news/2006/2006\-01\-11\.html \|archive\-date\=November 17, 2012 \|access\-date\=May 10, 2012 \|work\=anderson.edu}} Cory and Todd brought in their cousin Tye Edwards to play Dolph and turned to their friend Joshua J. Greene to play Jimmy Lizard.{{cite web \|author\=Strike \|first\=Joe \|date\=August 31, 2007 \|title\="With the Talents Of ..." Celebritization of the VO Biz \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/talents\-celebritization\-vo\-biz/page/3%2C1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212052830/http://www.awn.com/articles/talents\-celebritization\-vo\-biz \|archive\-date\=December 12, 2009 \|access\-date\=May 5, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} Japeth was written specifically for Benjy Gaither, the son of [gospel music](/wiki/Gospel_music "Gospel music") singers [Bill](/wiki/Bill_Gaither_%28gospel_singer%29 "Bill Gaither (gospel singer)") and [Gloria Gaither](/wiki/Gloria_Gaither "Gloria Gaither"). He had been a friend of the Edwards brothers since childhood and Cory's short film *Wobots* had been produced through his animation studio Live Bait Productions.{{cite web \|author\=Peszko \|first\=J. Paul \|date\=May 11, 2004 \|title\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 1 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature/page/1%2C1 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033636/http://www.awn.com/vfxworld/hoodwinked\-anatomy\-independent\-animated\-feature \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2016 \|access\-date\=July 25, 2013 \|work\=awn.com}} Cory's wife Vicki was given the role of a skunk reporter, and while some consideration was initially given to having an adult play the child woodpecker Quill, the role was instead given to producer David K. Lovegren's daughter Kathryn.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \=Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=08:45–08:56
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}} The Edwards brothers, Leech, and producer Preston Stutzman all took on roles as well. Wanting to do one of the voices in his movie and having watched a lot of [squirrels](/wiki/Squirrel "Squirrel"), Cory took on the role of Twitchy, and [Pro Tools](/wiki/Pro_Tools "Pro Tools") was used to speed up the recording of his dialogue by 50 percent.{{cite web \|author\=Edwards \|first\=Cory \|date\=February 15, 2011 \|title\=Twitchy's Voice: The Sequel \|url\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\=301 \|access\-date\=April 2, 2011 \|work\=coryedwards.com}} Todd played the local Sandwich Man, Leech played both Det. Bill Stork and Glen, and Stutzman played Timmy.{{cite web \|author\=Edwards \|first\=Cory \|date\=December 30, 2010 \|title\=Stop the Madness \|url\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\=230 \|access\-date\=March 23, 2012 \|work\=coryedwards.com}}
As the producers gained greater confidence in the film, however, larger name actors were brought in. [Patrick Warburton](/wiki/Patrick_Warburton "Patrick Warburton") was the first celebrity actor to join the film and did so purely out of a love for the script. Though Cory Edwards had originally envisioned the Wolf as sounding like a mixture between a young Chevy Chase and [Bill Murray](/wiki/Bill_Murray "Bill Murray"), he praised Warburton's performance, saying that he "made the Wolf his own character." Warburton, who had past experience in voice acting from *[Buzz Lightyear of Star Command](/wiki/Buzz_Lightyear_of_Star_Command "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command")* and *[The Emperor's New Groove](/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Groove "The Emperor's New Groove")* (2000\), found funny Edwards' idea to voice the Wolf as an investigative reporter who fancied himself like Chevy Chase's *Fletch* character, so he decided to voice the Wolf dryly and inquisitively.{{cite web \|author\=Lee \|first\=Michael J. \|date\=December 12, 2005 \|title\=Patrick Warburton on 'Hoodwinked' \|url\=http://movies.radiofree.com/interviews/hoodwink\_patrick\_warburton.shtml \|access\-date\=August 8, 2021 \|work\=radiofree.com}} [Andy Dick](/wiki/Andy_Dick "Andy Dick") also joined the cast early on, to voice Boingo. He used [improvisation](/wiki/Improvisation "Improvisation") and approached the role differently from how it had been written, interpreting the character as victimized and unstable. The filmmakers were enthusiastic over Dick's angle on the character, and Todd Edwards said, "What we had written was kind of stock, to be honest, but Andy Dick, well, where he was supposed to laugh, he'd be crying. Where he was supposed to yell, he'd be laughing. He just mixed it up!" Prolific [voice performers](/wiki/Voice_acting "Voice acting") [Tara Strong](/wiki/Tara_Strong "Tara Strong"), [David Ogden Stiers](/wiki/David_Ogden_Stiers "David Ogden Stiers") and [Tom Kenny](/wiki/Tom_Kenny "Tom Kenny") were cast in multiple roles. Strong was cast as Red and Zorra, Stiers was cast as Kirk, the Woodsman and Nicky Flippers, and Kenny was cast as Tommy and Woolworth the Sheep. [Emmy](/wiki/Emmy "Emmy")\-winning actress [Sally Struthers](/wiki/Sally_Struthers "Sally Struthers") was brought in to play Granny Puckett and Joel McCrary was cast as Chief Grizzly.
### Animation
{{quote box\|width\=33%\|quote\=I'll be real honest, there are many, many shots that I wince at when I see them, because it's not my standard of excellence. I know they could be better, but there comes a time at the end of the day where we just had to give up on some things. So to hear critics and people on the internet, like, ranting about it, we all want to yell back and go, "We know! We know it's bad! But this is what we could do!" And the fact that the film is successful in spite of that is really cool, because it basically says to the industry, not to continue to make poorly animated films, but to say, "Look at what the story and the charming characters did; they were able to surpass the bad animation and the technical problems."\|source\= —Cory Edwards, director of ''Hoodwinked!'', on the quality of the film's animation.}}
The film's animation was created in [Alias Maya](/wiki/Autodesk_Maya "Autodesk Maya"), and to save costs, was produced in [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"), Philippines.{{cite web \|author\=King \|first\=Dennis \|date\=January 13, 2006 \|title\=Hoodwinked! Review \|url\=http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?no\=subj\&articleid\=060113\_Mo\_s4\_fairy\&archive\=yes \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010170124/https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?no\=subj\&articleid\=060113\_Mo\_s4\_fairy\&archive\=yes \|archive\-date\=October 10, 2012 \|access\-date\=October 29, 2012 \|work\=\[\[Tulsa World]]}} Producers Sue Bea Montgomery and David K. Lovegren founded the animation studio Digital Eye Candy for the purpose of the film's production{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.creativeplanetnetwork.com/dcp/news/indie\-animation/43274
\|title \= Indie Animation
\|work \= creativeplanetnetwork.com
\|access\-date \= October 29, 2012
\|archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20121117204655/http://www.creativeplanetnetwork.com/dcp/news/indie\-animation/43274
\|archive\-date \= November 17, 2012
\|url\-status \= dead
}} and stationed it in a 5,000\-square\-foot rented house. Cory Edwards traveled to this studio a total of fifteen times over the course of the film's three\-year production and has explained that although the house was located in an expensive part of Manila, the rent was no more than that of his two\-bedroom apartment in Los Angeles. When Cory was not able to be on site, Todd took over directing duties. "Along with Tony, we were kind of a 'three\-headed monster,'" Cory explains. "We all knew what movie we were making, and I trusted those guys to make creative calls when I couldn't be there." Lovegren had attempted to start an independent animation studio in the Philippines before in 2001, but the studio, called ImagineAsia, was closed after it failed to attract business. Digital Eye Candy hired approximately twenty animators that had previously been employed by ImagineAsia,{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.digitalproducer.com/2001/06\_jun/news/06\_18/lovegren.htm
\|title \= Global Animation Names Lovegren to VP Post
\|work \= digitalproducer.com
\|date \= June 22, 2001
\|access\-date \= August 28, 2012
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160916134852/http://www.digitalproducer.com/2001/06\_jun/news/06\_18/lovegren.htm
\|archive\-date \= 2016\-09\-16
\|url\-status \= dead
}} and at one point the studio reached fifty employees.
The film's animators had little experience with computer\-animation and feature\-length films and had to be trained by the producers over the course of the film's production. Since none of the animators were specialists, they were not divided into specific teams, but instead each worked on all areas of the animating process. The filmmakers found this to be a poor method though, because it kept the individual skills of the animators from being optimized. Due to their independent backgrounds, the animators were accustomed to working at fast paces, and despite their small numbers, each phase of production was able to be completed within a short period of time. Still, schedule and budget restraints led the filmmakers to enlist [Prana Studios](/wiki/Prana_Studios "Prana Studios") in Mumbai, India to perform [lighting](/wiki/Lighting "Lighting") and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing "Compositing").
The filmmakers found that the most difficult aspect of producing the film independently was their inability to fix all of the mistakes made in the film's animation. Todd Edwards explained that "it becomes an equation: 'I have 10 things that I would like to change in this shot. I have the time and the budget to do three. Pick those three and then let's move on.' And that was hard to do". Another obstacle during the film's production, according to Cory Edwards, was putting fur on the animal characters. It took the filmmakers three and a half years to work out a method to do so perfectly, forcing themselves to redesign and reanimate several aspects.
Knowing that they could not match the quality of other computer\-animated films, the film was instead designed to imitate the look of [stop motion](/wiki/Stop_motion "Stop motion"). Cory Edwards cited [Rankin\-Bass](/wiki/Rankin-Bass "Rankin-Bass") as an inspiration and explained, "If we approach our look like that—photographed miniatures in stop motion—and if that nostalgia resonates with our audience as far as that look, then we're not going to shoot ourselves in the foot trying to put every freckle and hair on photoreal creatures." Edwards contrasted the technically innovative, but critically panned *[Howard the Duck](/wiki/Howard_the_Duck_%28film%29 "Howard the Duck (film)")* (1986\) with the simple, but beloved puppet character [Kermit the Frog](/wiki/Kermit_the_Frog "Kermit the Frog") to illustrate to his crew the importance of well\-written, likeable characters over technical quality.
Distancing the film from what producer Preston Stutzman called the "candy\-coated, brightly colored pastel world\[s]" of other CG animated films, an attempt was made to bring an organic look to the film, and “dirt” was rubbed into the colors. *[The Nightmare Before Christmas](/wiki/The_Nightmare_Before_Christmas "The Nightmare Before Christmas")* (1993\) was cited as an inspiration for the filmmakers to try to bend the characters' shapes into extremes, and many other choices unconventional to computer\-animated films were also made. For example, one of the Woodsman's eyes was made bigger than the other, and Red was given only four fingers, so as to make her look more like a doll. Producer Katie Hooten explained that "CG in the past has been pushing the envelope to make things look more realistic, but *Hoodwinked* takes things back to where CG looks a lot more like a cartoon."
### Music
The film's score was composed by [John Mark Painter](/wiki/John_Mark_Painter "John Mark Painter"), who along with his wife Fleming McWilliams, constituted the [rock](/wiki/Rock_music "Rock music") duo [Fleming and John](/wiki/Fleming_and_John "Fleming and John") in the 1990s. The Edwards brothers were fans of the group and first met Painter while Cory was performing in an animated film on which Painter served as the composer. The score was inspired by music from the 1960s including the soundtracks of *[Planet of the Apes](/wiki/Planet_of_the_Apes_%281968_film%29 "Planet of the Apes (1968 film)")*, *[Dark Shadows](/wiki/Dark_Shadows "Dark Shadows")*, and *[The Untouchables](/wiki/The_Untouchables_%28film%29 "The Untouchables (film)")* have been cited as influences, as well as the works of [Henry Mancini](/wiki/Henry_Mancini "Henry Mancini").{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=54:06–54:51
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}} It was recorded in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), where Kristin Wilkinson served as the [orchestrator](/wiki/Orchestrator "Orchestrator") and [conductor](/wiki/Conducting "Conducting").{{cite video
\| people \= Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=19:29–19:39
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}}{{cite web
\| url \= https://www.amoeba.com/hoodwinked\-ost\-cd\-john\-mark\-painter/albums/667265/
\| title \= Hoodwinked! \[OST] (CD)
\| work \=Amoeba Music
\| access\-date \=March 30, 2023
}}
In an effort to appeal to older audience members, Todd Edwards chose to replace parts of Painter's score with original rock music. From this came the song "Little Boat", written and sung by Daniel Rogers, who had composed Edwards' first film *Chillicothe*.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=07:45–08:19
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}} "Runaway" was written by Joshua J. Greene, a friend of the Edwards brothers', who also provided the voice of Jimmy Lizard in the film. "The Real G", sung by Cory Edwards and "Bounce", sung by Todd Collins were both written by Painter and Cory Edwards. "Blow Your House Down" was performed by the Filipino band [Pupil](/wiki/Pupil_%28band%29 "Pupil (band)") and written by their lead singer [Ely Buendia](/wiki/Ely_Buendia "Ely Buendia").{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=44:04–44:12
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}}
Cory Edwards was willing to include the [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters "Foo Fighters")' song "[All My Life](/wiki/All_My_Life_%28Foo_Fighters_song%29 "All My Life (Foo Fighters song)")". The Foo Fighters decided against it due to having a new album coming out and having no enthusiasm about using their old hit, afraid it was getting overused. No Foo Fighters song was included on the soundtrack.
Todd Edwards wrote nine original songs for the film and sung four of them: "Critters Have Feelings", "Tree Critter", "Eva Deanna", and "Glow". "Eva Deanna" was written about a day that he and his wife spent at the zoo with their niece, the daughter of associate producer Katie Hooten.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=47:08–47:35
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}} "Glow" was written about the Edwards siblings' grandmother, Vera, who had died a few years earlier.{{cite tweet\|number\=1092458572946956289\|last\=Edwards \|first\=Todd\|user\=ToddEdwardsFilm\|date\=February 4, 2019\|access\-date\=March 6, 2019\|title\=Strong women are at the heart of Hoodwinked. Our little indie movie that started in my living room made over $110 MILLION world wide when it was released, though most fans don't know that a couple of its key soundtrack songs were written about strong women in my family...When Granny escapes the avalanche via parachute the song "Glow" has lyrics inspired by my grandma Vera who had passed away a few years prior. The loud song just before that, "Eva Deanna," was about my niece, the first grand baby of her generation. Eva has quite a story..."}} "Great Big World" was sung by Anne Hathaway and replaced another song called "Woods Go\-Round", which Edwards considered too childish and described as being "in the vein of Saturday morning cartoons." This change required the scene to be re\-animated and re\-cut. "Be Prepared" was sung by Benjy Gaither and developed out of a practicality; the filmmakers wanted to introduce Japeth while the character is rocking back and forth on his horns, as though the horns are a rocking chair. However, they realized that this would make the horns too big to fit in a minecart later on in the film. As a solution, they came up with the gag of having the character switch his horns several times, and this led to the song's concept.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=15:14–15:58
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}} McWilliams joined Jim Belushi to sing "The Schnitzel Song" and Painter asked his longtime friend [Ben Folds](/wiki/Ben_Folds "Ben Folds") to sing "Red is Blue", a selection strongly advocated for by Edwards. Folds was working on a new album at the time, but a year after the proposal, found the opportunity to record the song and compose a piano arrangement for it as well.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=51:49–52:33
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}} "Top of the Woods" was sung by Andy Dick and was originally composed to be slow\-paced. The recording of Dick's performance was sped up though at the suggestion of Ralf Palmer, a prolific animator and friend of producer Sue Bea Montgomery.{{cite video
\| people \=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony
\| date \=May 2, 2006
\| title \= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\-Director Todd Edwards
\| time \=1:02:11\-1:02:50
\| type\=DVD
\| publisher \=The Weinstein Company
}}
### Distribution
{{quote box\|width\=33%\|quote\=Sally Struthers was the original Granny for two years of the project. She did a fantastic voice. When Glenn Close walked in, she said, 'Why do you need me? Sally did a great job.' I didn't want to say 'because Harvey made us.' I'm friends with Sally through some other people – I ended up writing her a nice note ... Sally did more of a southern, battleaxe granny, Glenn's was more a prim and proper one.\|source\= —Cory Edwards, director of ''Hoodwinked!'', on the recasting of Sally Struthers.}}
[thumb\|left\|150 px\|[Harvey](/wiki/Harvey_Weinstein "Harvey Weinstein") (pictured here in 2011\) and [Bob Weinstein](/wiki/Bob_Weinstein "Bob Weinstein") distributed *Hoodwinked!* as one of [the Weinstein Company](/wiki/The_Weinstein_Company "The Weinstein Company")'s first films.](/wiki/File:Harvey_Weinstein_2011_Shankbone.JPG "Harvey Weinstein 2011 Shankbone.JPG")
*Hoodwinked!* was shown to potential distributors throughout various stages of its production. Though a distribution offer was made by [DreamWorks Pictures](/wiki/DreamWorks_Pictures "DreamWorks Pictures"), it was turned down as the filmmakers did not feel that it was a good deal.{{cite web \|author\=Peszko \|first\=J. Paul \|date\=January 13, 2006 \|title\=Hoodwinked: Blue Yonder Set to Make Animation History page 2 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/production/ihoodwinkedi\-blue\-yonder\-set\-make\-animation\-history/page/2%2C1 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001130858/http://www.awn.com/animationworld/hoodwinked\-blue\-yonder\-set\-make\-animation\-history \|archive\-date\=October 1, 2015 \|access\-date\=April 29, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}} As the film neared the end of production, it was screened at the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival "Cannes Film Festival"). [Harvey](/wiki/Harvey_Weinstein "Harvey Weinstein") and [Bob Weinstein](/wiki/Bob_Weinstein "Bob Weinstein") were also at the festival at the time, screening [Robert Rodriguez](/wiki/Robert_Rodriguez "Robert Rodriguez")'s film *[Sin City](/wiki/Sin_City_%28film%29 "Sin City (film)")*, which they were distributing through their then newly formed studio, [the Weinstein Company](/wiki/The_Weinstein_Company "The Weinstein Company"). They decided to pick *Hoodwinked!* up for distribution after it was brought to their attention by Rodriguez's wife, whose attorney also happened to work for Blue Yonder Films.{{cite web \|author\=Peszko \|first\=J. Paul \|date\=January 13, 2006 \|title\=Hoodwinked: Blue Yonder Set to Make Animation History page 1 \|url\=http://www.awn.com/articles/production/ihoodwinkedi\-blue\-yonder\-set\-make\-animation\-history \|access\-date\=April 29, 2012 \|work\=awn.com}}{{cite web \|author\=Britton \|first\=Bonnie \|date\=July 25, 2005 \|title\=AU alums score animation breakthrough \|url\=http://www.anderson.edu/events/archive05/2005\-07\-21\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125123858/http://www.anderson.edu/events/archive05/2005\-07\-21\.html \|archive\-date\=January 25, 2013 \|access\-date\=January 20, 2013 \|work\=anderson.edu}} Although Cory Edwards did not meet Rodriguez, he acknowledged him as instrumental to get the film made.
The Weinsteins had recently left the Walt Disney Company and according to Cory Edwards, they "loved the idea of picking up an animated film and giving Disney a run for their money". The involvement of the Weinstein Company encouraged Kanbar enough to enlist [Skywalker Sound](/wiki/Skywalker_Sound "Skywalker Sound"). The film was nearly complete by the time that the Weinsteins became involved, and Edwards has stated that nothing was done by them to ruin "the original vision of the movie." However, a few edit suggestions were made to quicken the film's pace which Edwards felt were good ideas, as he considered the first twenty minutes to be dragging.
The Weinstein Company also heavily recast the film with bigger\-name actors in the hopes of attracting a larger audience. [Anne Hathaway](/wiki/Anne_Hathaway "Anne Hathaway") replaced Tara Strong in the lead role of Red; [Jim Belushi](/wiki/Jim_Belushi "Jim Belushi") replaced David Ogden Stiers in the role of Kirk, the Woodsman; [Anthony Anderson](/wiki/Anthony_Anderson "Anthony Anderson") replaced Tony Leech in the role of Det. Bill Stork; [Glenn Close](/wiki/Glenn_Close "Glenn Close") replaced Sally Struthers in the role of Granny Puckett; [Xzibit](/wiki/Xzibit "Xzibit") replaced Joel McCrary in the role of Chief Grizzly and [Chazz Palminteri](/wiki/Chazz_Palminteri "Chazz Palminteri") replaced Tom Kenny in the role of Woolworth the Sheep. Opining that the final steps in character design were really fleshed out when the actors were hired, Hooten felt that Hathaway put some edge that was missing on Red, making her more sarcastic, sassy and quick. Anderson accepted the role of Bill Stork given his past experience as voice actor and his previous collaborations with the Weinsteins in *[Scary Movie 3](/wiki/Scary_Movie_3 "Scary Movie 3")* (2003\) and *[My Baby's Daddy](/wiki/My_Baby%27s_Daddy "My Baby's Daddy")* (2004\), wanting to do something that his children and godchildren could watch and enjoy.{{cite web \|author\=Lee \|first\=Michael J. \|date\=December 12, 2005 \|title\=Anthony Anderson on 'Hoodwinked' \|url\=http://movies.radiofree.com/interviews/hoodwink\_anthony\_anderson.shtml \|access\-date\=August 8, 2021 \|work\=radiofree.com}} Palminteri was called to be offered the part of Woolworth the Sheep, which he accepted as he found the script hilarious.{{cite web \|author\= \|date\=May 28, 2013 \|title\=Chazz Palminteri (Hoodwinked) \- Interview \|url\=https://www.tribute.ca/interviews/chazz\-palminteri\-hoodwinked/star/21399/ \|access\-date\=August 8, 2021 \|work\=\[\[Tribute.ca]]}} Despite these recastings, Tara Strong retained the much smaller role of Zorra, David Ogden Stiers retained the role of Nicky Flippers, Tom Kenny retained the role of Tommy and Tony Leech retained the role of Glen. Many high\-profile country singers were considered to replace Benjy Gaither in the role of Japeth, but none of them were available and Gaither retained the role. The Weinsteins also wanted to replace Joshua J. Greene in the role of Jimmy Lizard with a more famous actor such as [Albert Brooks](/wiki/Albert_Brooks "Albert Brooks"), but the role was ultimately not recast. Edwards appreciated the reason for the recastings and attributed a large part of the film's financial success to them. He expressed disappointment about the amount of recasting, however, saying, "At a certain point it became Recast\-o\-Rama, everybody got recast\-happy. My feeling is, you get two or three names on that poster, you're fine. Our Hoodwinked poster has like a paragraph of names on it. After a certain point, I don't think you need more than two, three celebrities—give it to the voice actors. It sweetens the pot". Since the film's animation had already been mostly completed by the time the recastings were made, the new actors had to deliver their lines exactly as the old actors had done, giving them no opportunity to improvise. Edwards expressed disappointment with the fact that the original actors would not get any credit for their improvisations in the film, which were copied by the replacement actors.
|
[
"Production\n----------",
"{{quote box\n\\| width \\= 33%li\n\\| quote \\= ... I realize that there were other independently funded projects being done at the same time, but ... we were the first ... the first kind of a new model and a new way of making an animated film. It was made with no studio money, overseas, then picked up by a major distributor. A few other animated films have followed this path, but not to the level of success that ''Hoodwinked'' was able to achieve. I know ''Veggie Tales'' had a movie come out earlier that year, but that was with a struck deal and brand recognition. ''Hoodwinked'' was this freak of nature that was made completely outside of the studio system and, thankfully, worked.\n\\| source \\= — Director and co\\-writer \\[\\[Cory Edwards]]{{cite web\n\\| url \\=http://fullecirclestuff.blogspot.com/2009/01/conversation\\-with\\-cory\\-edwards.html\n\\| title \\=A Conversation with Cory Edwards\n\\| last \\= Anders\n\\| first \\= Jason\n\\| work \\=fullecirclestuff.blogspot.com\n\\| date \\=January 26, 2009\n\\| access\\-date \\=May 31, 2012\n}}{{cite web\n\\| url \\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\\=95\n\\| title \\=Interview with Fulle Circle\n\\| last \\=Edwards\n\\| first\\=Cory\n\\| work \\=coryedwards.com\n\\| date \\=January 29, 2009\n\\| access\\-date \\=May 31, 2012\n}}\n}}",
"*Hoodwinked!* was one of the first independent [computer\\-animated](/wiki/Computer-animated \"Computer-animated\") films to be produced without the aid of a distributor. Although the film's budget is listed as $30 million on [Box Office Mojo](/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo \"Box Office Mojo\"), several sources have rejected this figure, reporting that the film was produced for no more than $15 million.{{cite web \\|author\\=Robinson \\|first\\=Tasha \\|date\\=January 11, 2006 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked \\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/hoodwinked\\-1798201434 \\|access\\-date\\=August 2, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The A.V. Club]]}}{{cite web \\|author\\=Smith \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=August 6, 2020 \\|title\\=Former Tulsa filmmaker Cory Edwards has gone from 'Hoodwinked' to 'Fearless' in the world of animated movies \\|url\\=https://tulsaworld.com/entertainment/former\\-tulsa\\-filmmaker\\-cory\\-edwards\\-has\\-gone\\-from\\-hoodwinked\\-to\\-fearless\\-in\\-the\\-world\\-of/article\\_d280aa2e\\-0078\\-553c\\-8280\\-5a6d2ca77e30\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 2, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Tulsa World]]}}{{cite web \\|author\\=Peszko \\|first\\=J. Paul \\|date\\=May 11, 2004 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 2 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/2%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021064649/http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/2%2C1 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 21, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} Director [Cory Edwards](/wiki/Cory_Edwards \"Cory Edwards\") explained in a 2009 interview that the film's actual budget was under $8 million. Any of these figures would be significantly lower than is typical for a computer\\-animated film's budget.{{cite web \\|author\\=Goodman \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=February 3, 2006 \\|title\\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 2 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/2%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122025058/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/2%2C1 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} At the time of *Hoodwinked!*{{'}}s production, the costs of computer\\-animation software had only recently decreased to a price that was accessible to more than just major studios, and leading up to the film's release, producer [David Lovegren](/wiki/David_Lovegren \"David Lovegren\") said, \"Six or seven years ago, the idea of doing *Hoodwinked!* as an independent \\[animated] feature would have been impossible\".{{cite web \\|author\\=Peszko \\|first\\=J. Paul \\|date\\=May 11, 2004 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 3 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/3%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021064740/http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/3%2C1 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 21, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}}",
"The filmmakers only made the film independently by necessity,{{cite web \\|author\\=Raugust \\|first\\=Karen \\|date\\=November 22, 2006 \\|title\\=Independence Day: The Growth of Indie Animated Features \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/production/independence\\-day\\-growth\\-indie\\-animated\\-features/page/2%2C1 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042336/http://www.awn.com/animationworld/independence\\-day\\-growth\\-indie\\-animated\\-features \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} and Cory Edwards has said, \"It's not a model to be followed. It was a once\\-in\\-a\\-lifetime, seat\\-of\\-your\\-pants kind of thing that just barely came off.\"{{cite web \\|author\\=Goodman \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=February 3, 2006 \\|title\\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 4 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/4%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720042833/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/4%2C1 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 20, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} However, he added that the process was worth going through to get the film made and encouraged aspiring filmmakers to be willing to follow it.",
"### Development",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The film's production was privately financed by entrepreneur Maurice Kanbar.](/wiki/File:Maurice_Kanbar.jpg \"Maurice Kanbar.jpg\")\nAfter a number of years spent producing [commercials](/wiki/Television_advertisement \"Television advertisement\") and [music videos](/wiki/Music_videos \"Music videos\") in Tulsa, brothers Cory and [Todd Edwards](/wiki/Todd_Edwards_%28film_writer%29 \"Todd Edwards (film writer)\") founded their own production company, Blue Yonder Films. Joined by their friends producers Brad Knull, Robert Yanovitch and [Preston Stutzman](/wiki/Preston_Stutzman \"Preston Stutzman\"), who also led marketing for the company. The group released their first feature film, *Chillicothe*, at the 1999 [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\"). Emboldened by this success, the company then moved to Los Angeles in the hopes of producing a sophomore film. Blue Yonder evolved as Knull and Yanovitch left to pursue other interests, and new opportunities for the remaining three partners proved elusive at first.{{cite web \\|author\\=Lilly \\|first\\=Deborah \\|year\\=2006 \\|title\\=Alumni Rendition of Red Riding Hood hits the big screens \\|url\\=http://www.anderson.edu/signatures/winter06/article.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207124428/http://www.anderson.edu/signatures/winter06/article.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 7, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2012 \\|work\\=anderson.edu}}\nAn associate producer on *Chillicothe*, [Sue Bea Montgomery](/wiki/Sue_Bea_Montgomery \"Sue Bea Montgomery\"), sought out studios that might want to work with the trio; she was met with indifference and determined that Blue Yonder Films would have to further establish itself on the independent scene before anyone would take interest. Montgomery then set up a meeting between the filmmakers and [Maurice Kanbar](/wiki/Maurice_Kanbar \"Maurice Kanbar\"), a successful entrepreneur who had made a minor investment in *Chillicothe*.{{cite web \\|author\\=Chattaway \\|first\\=Peter T. \\|date\\=May 2, 2006 \\|title\\=Cory Edwards – the interview's up! \\|url\\=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/filmchat/2006/05/cory\\-edwards\\-the\\-interviews\\-up.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 30, 2013 \\|work\\=patheos.com}}",
"The Edwards brothers pitched a number of ideas for live\\-action films to Kanbar and proposed a development deal that would have entailed Kanbar paying the group and covering their rent in exchange for a significant portion of the rights to any scripts that Blue Yonder Films ever sold. Kanbar, however, was interested in a more direct approach, preferring to focus efforts on getting a single film produced. He had always admired animation, and after seeing a [direct\\-to\\-DVD](/wiki/Direct-to-DVD \"Direct-to-DVD\") computer\\-animated short film that Cory had made called *Wobots*, suggested the possibility of producing an animated feature with Blue Yonder Films, one that would tell a familiar narrative with a twist. Kanbar gave the group a month to come up with a story idea.",
"Although Kanbar expressed interest in producing a retelling of \"[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella \"Cinderella\")\" or *[The Adventures of Pinocchio](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Pinocchio \"The Adventures of Pinocchio\")*, the Edwards brothers insisted on avoiding stories that had already been defined by [the Walt Disney Company](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company \"The Walt Disney Company\"). Several ideas were considered by the brothers. Cory suggested \"[Little Red Riding Hood](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood \"Little Red Riding Hood\")\", describing it as a story \"so simple that you can go a lot of different directions with it\",{{cite web \\|author\\= \\|date\\=May 28, 2013 \\|title\\=Cory Edwards (Hoodwinked) \\- Interview \\|url\\=https://www.tribute.ca/interviews/cory\\-edwards\\-hoodwinked/director/12324/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Tribute.ca]]}} \nand within a few days, inspiration came to Todd through non\\-linear crime dramas, such as *[Rashomon](/wiki/Rashomon \"Rashomon\")* (1950\\), *[Pulp Fiction](/wiki/Pulp_Fiction_%28film%29 \"Pulp Fiction (film)\")* (1994\\), *[Run Lola Run](/wiki/Run_Lola_Run \"Run Lola Run\")* (1998\\), and *[Memento](/wiki/Memento_%28film%29 \"Memento (film)\")* (2000\\). Todd's proposal to retell \"Little Red Riding Hood\" as a police investigation, exploring the narrative through multiple points of view, was embraced by Kanbar, who agreed to fully finance the film before seeing a finished script.\nKanbar's initial plan was to release the film directly to DVD. In 2002, Kanbar and Montgomery joined together in founding [Kanbar Entertainment](/wiki/Kanbar_Entertainment \"Kanbar Entertainment\") and Kanbar Animation, independent production studios that teamed with Blue Yonder Films for the production of *Hoodwinked!*{{cite web \\|author\\=Mohr \\|first\\=Ian \\|date\\=May 17, 2005 \\|title\\=Weinsteins sign Red Riding Hood \\|url\\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117923025/?refcatid\\=13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000559/http://variety.com/2005/film/features/weinsteins\\-sign\\-red\\-riding\\-hood\\-1117923025/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 5, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=January 20, 2013 \\|work\\=Variety}}{{cite press release\n \\|url \\= http://www.twcpublicity.com/downloads/production/hoodwinked\\_production\\_notes\\_(1\\).pdf\n \\|title \\= Hoodwinked\n \\|access\\-date \\= January 30, 2013\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130809100521/http://twcpublicity.com/downloads/production/hoodwinked\\_production\\_notes\\_(1\\).pdf\n \\|archive\\-date \\= August 9, 2013\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|df \\= mdy\\-all\n}}",
"Cory served as the film's main director, as he had more experience with animation, comedy, and children's entertainment, while Todd served as co\\-director. Montgomery and Stutzman were joined by Disney animation veteran David Lovegren as producers on the film, and Cory's and Todd's sister [Katie Hooten](/wiki/Katie_Hooten \"Katie Hooten\") joined as an associate producer. [Tony Leech](/wiki/Tony_Leech \"Tony Leech\"), who had worked with the Edwards brothers on *Chillicothe*, was initially hired as an editor, but gained story input as well. He eventually proved to be so valuable to the production that he was given a role as co\\-director.",
"### Pre\\-production",
"[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=A drawing of Little Red Riding Hood standing next to the Wolf\\|*Hoodwinked!* is a parody of the European fairy tale *Little Red Riding Hood*.](/wiki/File:Little_Red_Riding_Hood_pg_8.png \"Little Red Riding Hood pg 8.png\")\nThe filmmakers found independently producing the film to have both benefits and challenges. Although they were given a great amount of creative control by their executive producer Maurice Kanbar, their small budget kept them from making potentially beneficial changes to the story once production was underway. Todd Edwards related that \"Money doesn't just buy you more talent and more machinery, it also buys you flexibility on a story level. At Disney, if they don't like the third act, they just throw the whole thing out and re\\-animate the whole thing, even if it's finished ... We had no such luxury, and so in a way, you're watching our first version of the movie.\"{{cite web \\|author\\=Goodman \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=February 3, 2006 \\|title\\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 3 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/3%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720042623/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/3%2C1 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 20, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}}\nKnowing ahead of time their inability to alter the film's script once animating had begun, an effort was made by the filmmakers to finalize the script as much as possible before the start of production, which is not a common practice for studio\\-produced animated films.",
"Turning away from the well\\-known [archetypes](/wiki/Archetype \"Archetype\") of the *Little Red Riding Hood* characters, the filmmakers continued to look towards non\\-linear crime dramas for inspiration instead. Producer Preston Stutzman explained that \"The whole film is about surprises and secret lives\".{{cite web \\|author\\=Goodman \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=February 3, 2006 \\|title\\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 5 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/5%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720041836/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/5%2C1 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 20, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} Not wanting Red to be \"boring\" or \"too innocent\", she was patterned on [James Dean](/wiki/James_Dean \"James Dean\") and given the desire of leaving home to find her way in the world. Todd Edwards had the idea of basing the Wolf on [Chevy Chase](/wiki/Chevy_Chase \"Chevy Chase\")'s character in *[Fletch](/wiki/Fletch_%28film%29 \"Fletch (film)\")*, feeling that it would be fun to apply the character's dry, deadpan style of humor to an animated wolf, while Cory Edwards created the hyperactive character of Twitchy to serve as the Wolf's [foil](/wiki/Foil_%28literature%29 \"Foil (literature)\"). Going against types, Red's Granny was written as a thrill\\-seeking action hero, while the strong Woodsman was written as being childishly incompetent.",
"The police officers were written to come across as everyday guys and Cory Edwards has explained that the decision to make three of them pigs was not politically motivated.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\=Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=03:47–04:57\n\\| type \\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=\\[\\[The Weinstein Company]]\n}}\nNicky Flippers was not a part of the story as it was initially conceived and prior to his creation, the investigation was going to be led by Chief Grizzly. After producer Sue Bea Montgomery and her husband pointed out similarities between their film and the 1950s film/TV series *[The Thin Man](/wiki/The_Thin_Man_%28TV_series%29 \"The Thin Man (TV series)\")*, the Edwards brothers and Leech decided to introduce the character and his dog into the film as a homage to [Nick Charles](/wiki/Nick_and_Nora_Charles \"Nick and Nora Charles\").{{cite web \\|author\\=Legel \\|first\\=Laremy \\|date\\=January 17, 2006 \\|title\\=INTERVIEW: Cory Edwards Talks 'Hoodwinked' \\|url\\=https://www.comingsoon.net/movies/news/509027\\-interview\\_cory\\_edwards\\_talks\\_hoodwinked \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2021 \\|work\\=ComingSoon.net}} \nThey considered several different types of animals before settling on making him a frog.\n[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=A photograph of Cory Edwards\\|Director and co\\-writer Cory Edwards also co\\-wrote two of the film's songs, performed one of them, and voiced the character Twitchy.](/wiki/File:Cory_Edwards.jpg \"Cory Edwards.jpg\")\nCory Edwards chose to approach the film predominantly as an action/comedy, instead of as a typical animated film, and wrote the script to appeal to audiences of any age like many of the films produced by [Pixar](/wiki/Pixar \"Pixar\") or Disney.{{cite web \\|author\\=Peszko \\|first\\=J. Paul \\|date\\=May 11, 2004 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 4 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/4%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183219/http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/4,1 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 4, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} [Bugs Bunny](/wiki/Bugs_Bunny \"Bugs Bunny\"), [Road Runner](/wiki/Wile_E._Coyote_and_the_Road_Runner \"Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner\"), *[The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Rocky_and_Bullwinkle_and_Friends \"The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends\")*, *[The Muppets](/wiki/The_Muppets \"The Muppets\")*, *[The Simpsons](/wiki/The_Simpsons \"The Simpsons\")*, and *[The Incredibles](/wiki/The_Incredibles \"The Incredibles\")* (2004\\) have all been cited as inspirations for the film. An attempt was made to distance the film from *[Shrek](/wiki/Shrek_franchise \"Shrek franchise\")* and other similar themed films that had been recently released, by excluding [magic](/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 \"Magic (paranormal)\"), [wizards](/wiki/Magician_%28fantasy%29 \"Magician (fantasy)\"), and [fairies](/wiki/Fairy \"Fairy\") from the film.{{cite web \\|author\\=Goodman \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=February 3, 2006 \\|title\\=Dr. Toon: A Peek Under the Hood page 6 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/6%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417131332/http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/dr\\-toon\\-peek\\-under\\-hood/page/6,1 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 17, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} Cory Edwards also strived for a different style of humor than *Shrek*, choosing to make his film more [family friendly](/wiki/Family-friendliness \"Family-friendliness\") and less of a satire.{{cite web \\|author\\=Edwards \\|first\\=Cory \\|date\\=May 19, 2007 \\|title\\=Living in a Satirical World \\|url\\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\\=62 \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2012 \\|work\\=coryedwards.com}}",
"Working out of Todd and Preston’s apartment, Cory and Todd Edwards initially wrote the script while Cory sketched most of the film's [storyboards](/wiki/Storyboards \"Storyboards\"), and Todd wrote the songs. Leech simultaneously scanned the boards and edited the [story reel](/wiki/Traditional_animation%23Animatic \"Traditional animation#Animatic\") on his [Mac computer](/wiki/Macintosh \"Macintosh\"). The first (temp) voice cast was the three of them. Producer Sue Bea Montgomery showed test screenings of the story reel to children in her neighborhood, and gained input from their reactions. The filmmakers had been considering removing Japeth the goat, but chose not to when he proved one of the most popular characters at these screenings. The children also particularly liked Twitchy, which led to the expansion of the character's role.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Montgomery, Sue Bea\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\=Hoodwinked! DVD How To Make An Animated Film\n\\| time \\=06:07–07:10\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}}",
"In an effort to save costs, the film's cast was originally going to be composed mostly of friends and family members of the filmmakers.{{cite web \\|author\\=Hayes \\|first\\=Melanie \\|date\\=January 11, 2006 \\|title\\=AU alumni unveil \"Hoodwinked!\" \\|url\\=http://www.anderson.edu/w/news/2006/2006\\-01\\-11\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117203518/http://www.anderson.edu/w/news/2006/2006\\-01\\-11\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2012 \\|work\\=anderson.edu}} Cory and Todd brought in their cousin Tye Edwards to play Dolph and turned to their friend Joshua J. Greene to play Jimmy Lizard.{{cite web \\|author\\=Strike \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=August 31, 2007 \\|title\\=\"With the Talents Of ...\" Celebritization of the VO Biz \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/talents\\-celebritization\\-vo\\-biz/page/3%2C1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212052830/http://www.awn.com/articles/talents\\-celebritization\\-vo\\-biz \\|archive\\-date\\=December 12, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} Japeth was written specifically for Benjy Gaither, the son of [gospel music](/wiki/Gospel_music \"Gospel music\") singers [Bill](/wiki/Bill_Gaither_%28gospel_singer%29 \"Bill Gaither (gospel singer)\") and [Gloria Gaither](/wiki/Gloria_Gaither \"Gloria Gaither\"). He had been a friend of the Edwards brothers since childhood and Cory's short film *Wobots* had been produced through his animation studio Live Bait Productions.{{cite web \\|author\\=Peszko \\|first\\=J. Paul \\|date\\=May 11, 2004 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked: Anatomy of an Independent Animated Feature Page 1 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/ihoodwinkedi\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature/page/1%2C1 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033636/http://www.awn.com/vfxworld/hoodwinked\\-anatomy\\-independent\\-animated\\-feature \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=July 25, 2013 \\|work\\=awn.com}} Cory's wife Vicki was given the role of a skunk reporter, and while some consideration was initially given to having an adult play the child woodpecker Quill, the role was instead given to producer David K. Lovegren's daughter Kathryn.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\=Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=08:45–08:56\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}} The Edwards brothers, Leech, and producer Preston Stutzman all took on roles as well. Wanting to do one of the voices in his movie and having watched a lot of [squirrels](/wiki/Squirrel \"Squirrel\"), Cory took on the role of Twitchy, and [Pro Tools](/wiki/Pro_Tools \"Pro Tools\") was used to speed up the recording of his dialogue by 50 percent.{{cite web \\|author\\=Edwards \\|first\\=Cory \\|date\\=February 15, 2011 \\|title\\=Twitchy's Voice: The Sequel \\|url\\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\\=301 \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2011 \\|work\\=coryedwards.com}} Todd played the local Sandwich Man, Leech played both Det. Bill Stork and Glen, and Stutzman played Timmy.{{cite web \\|author\\=Edwards \\|first\\=Cory \\|date\\=December 30, 2010 \\|title\\=Stop the Madness \\|url\\=http://coryedwards.com/?p\\=230 \\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2012 \\|work\\=coryedwards.com}}",
"As the producers gained greater confidence in the film, however, larger name actors were brought in. [Patrick Warburton](/wiki/Patrick_Warburton \"Patrick Warburton\") was the first celebrity actor to join the film and did so purely out of a love for the script. Though Cory Edwards had originally envisioned the Wolf as sounding like a mixture between a young Chevy Chase and [Bill Murray](/wiki/Bill_Murray \"Bill Murray\"), he praised Warburton's performance, saying that he \"made the Wolf his own character.\" Warburton, who had past experience in voice acting from *[Buzz Lightyear of Star Command](/wiki/Buzz_Lightyear_of_Star_Command \"Buzz Lightyear of Star Command\")* and *[The Emperor's New Groove](/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Groove \"The Emperor's New Groove\")* (2000\\), found funny Edwards' idea to voice the Wolf as an investigative reporter who fancied himself like Chevy Chase's *Fletch* character, so he decided to voice the Wolf dryly and inquisitively.{{cite web \\|author\\=Lee \\|first\\=Michael J. \\|date\\=December 12, 2005 \\|title\\=Patrick Warburton on 'Hoodwinked' \\|url\\=http://movies.radiofree.com/interviews/hoodwink\\_patrick\\_warburton.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2021 \\|work\\=radiofree.com}} [Andy Dick](/wiki/Andy_Dick \"Andy Dick\") also joined the cast early on, to voice Boingo. He used [improvisation](/wiki/Improvisation \"Improvisation\") and approached the role differently from how it had been written, interpreting the character as victimized and unstable. The filmmakers were enthusiastic over Dick's angle on the character, and Todd Edwards said, \"What we had written was kind of stock, to be honest, but Andy Dick, well, where he was supposed to laugh, he'd be crying. Where he was supposed to yell, he'd be laughing. He just mixed it up!\" Prolific [voice performers](/wiki/Voice_acting \"Voice acting\") [Tara Strong](/wiki/Tara_Strong \"Tara Strong\"), [David Ogden Stiers](/wiki/David_Ogden_Stiers \"David Ogden Stiers\") and [Tom Kenny](/wiki/Tom_Kenny \"Tom Kenny\") were cast in multiple roles. Strong was cast as Red and Zorra, Stiers was cast as Kirk, the Woodsman and Nicky Flippers, and Kenny was cast as Tommy and Woolworth the Sheep. [Emmy](/wiki/Emmy \"Emmy\")\\-winning actress [Sally Struthers](/wiki/Sally_Struthers \"Sally Struthers\") was brought in to play Granny Puckett and Joel McCrary was cast as Chief Grizzly.",
"### Animation",
"{{quote box\\|width\\=33%\\|quote\\=I'll be real honest, there are many, many shots that I wince at when I see them, because it's not my standard of excellence. I know they could be better, but there comes a time at the end of the day where we just had to give up on some things. So to hear critics and people on the internet, like, ranting about it, we all want to yell back and go, \"We know! We know it's bad! But this is what we could do!\" And the fact that the film is successful in spite of that is really cool, because it basically says to the industry, not to continue to make poorly animated films, but to say, \"Look at what the story and the charming characters did; they were able to surpass the bad animation and the technical problems.\"\\|source\\= —Cory Edwards, director of ''Hoodwinked!'', on the quality of the film's animation.}}",
"The film's animation was created in [Alias Maya](/wiki/Autodesk_Maya \"Autodesk Maya\"), and to save costs, was produced in [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"), Philippines.{{cite web \\|author\\=King \\|first\\=Dennis \\|date\\=January 13, 2006 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked! Review \\|url\\=http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?no\\=subj\\&articleid\\=060113\\_Mo\\_s4\\_fairy\\&archive\\=yes \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010170124/https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?no\\=subj\\&articleid\\=060113\\_Mo\\_s4\\_fairy\\&archive\\=yes \\|archive\\-date\\=October 10, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Tulsa World]]}} Producers Sue Bea Montgomery and David K. Lovegren founded the animation studio Digital Eye Candy for the purpose of the film's production{{cite web\n \\|url \\= http://www.creativeplanetnetwork.com/dcp/news/indie\\-animation/43274\n \\|title \\= Indie Animation\n \\|work \\= creativeplanetnetwork.com\n \\|access\\-date \\= October 29, 2012\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20121117204655/http://www.creativeplanetnetwork.com/dcp/news/indie\\-animation/43274\n \\|archive\\-date \\= November 17, 2012\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n}} and stationed it in a 5,000\\-square\\-foot rented house. Cory Edwards traveled to this studio a total of fifteen times over the course of the film's three\\-year production and has explained that although the house was located in an expensive part of Manila, the rent was no more than that of his two\\-bedroom apartment in Los Angeles. When Cory was not able to be on site, Todd took over directing duties. \"Along with Tony, we were kind of a 'three\\-headed monster,'\" Cory explains. \"We all knew what movie we were making, and I trusted those guys to make creative calls when I couldn't be there.\" Lovegren had attempted to start an independent animation studio in the Philippines before in 2001, but the studio, called ImagineAsia, was closed after it failed to attract business. Digital Eye Candy hired approximately twenty animators that had previously been employed by ImagineAsia,{{cite web\n \\|url \\= http://www.digitalproducer.com/2001/06\\_jun/news/06\\_18/lovegren.htm\n \\|title \\= Global Animation Names Lovegren to VP Post\n \\|work \\= digitalproducer.com\n \\|date \\= June 22, 2001\n \\|access\\-date \\= August 28, 2012\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160916134852/http://www.digitalproducer.com/2001/06\\_jun/news/06\\_18/lovegren.htm\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2016\\-09\\-16\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n}} and at one point the studio reached fifty employees.",
"The film's animators had little experience with computer\\-animation and feature\\-length films and had to be trained by the producers over the course of the film's production. Since none of the animators were specialists, they were not divided into specific teams, but instead each worked on all areas of the animating process. The filmmakers found this to be a poor method though, because it kept the individual skills of the animators from being optimized. Due to their independent backgrounds, the animators were accustomed to working at fast paces, and despite their small numbers, each phase of production was able to be completed within a short period of time. Still, schedule and budget restraints led the filmmakers to enlist [Prana Studios](/wiki/Prana_Studios \"Prana Studios\") in Mumbai, India to perform [lighting](/wiki/Lighting \"Lighting\") and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\").",
"The filmmakers found that the most difficult aspect of producing the film independently was their inability to fix all of the mistakes made in the film's animation. Todd Edwards explained that \"it becomes an equation: 'I have 10 things that I would like to change in this shot. I have the time and the budget to do three. Pick those three and then let's move on.' And that was hard to do\". Another obstacle during the film's production, according to Cory Edwards, was putting fur on the animal characters. It took the filmmakers three and a half years to work out a method to do so perfectly, forcing themselves to redesign and reanimate several aspects.",
"Knowing that they could not match the quality of other computer\\-animated films, the film was instead designed to imitate the look of [stop motion](/wiki/Stop_motion \"Stop motion\"). Cory Edwards cited [Rankin\\-Bass](/wiki/Rankin-Bass \"Rankin-Bass\") as an inspiration and explained, \"If we approach our look like that—photographed miniatures in stop motion—and if that nostalgia resonates with our audience as far as that look, then we're not going to shoot ourselves in the foot trying to put every freckle and hair on photoreal creatures.\" Edwards contrasted the technically innovative, but critically panned *[Howard the Duck](/wiki/Howard_the_Duck_%28film%29 \"Howard the Duck (film)\")* (1986\\) with the simple, but beloved puppet character [Kermit the Frog](/wiki/Kermit_the_Frog \"Kermit the Frog\") to illustrate to his crew the importance of well\\-written, likeable characters over technical quality.",
"Distancing the film from what producer Preston Stutzman called the \"candy\\-coated, brightly colored pastel world\\[s]\" of other CG animated films, an attempt was made to bring an organic look to the film, and “dirt” was rubbed into the colors. *[The Nightmare Before Christmas](/wiki/The_Nightmare_Before_Christmas \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\")* (1993\\) was cited as an inspiration for the filmmakers to try to bend the characters' shapes into extremes, and many other choices unconventional to computer\\-animated films were also made. For example, one of the Woodsman's eyes was made bigger than the other, and Red was given only four fingers, so as to make her look more like a doll. Producer Katie Hooten explained that \"CG in the past has been pushing the envelope to make things look more realistic, but *Hoodwinked* takes things back to where CG looks a lot more like a cartoon.\"",
"### Music",
"The film's score was composed by [John Mark Painter](/wiki/John_Mark_Painter \"John Mark Painter\"), who along with his wife Fleming McWilliams, constituted the [rock](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\") duo [Fleming and John](/wiki/Fleming_and_John \"Fleming and John\") in the 1990s. The Edwards brothers were fans of the group and first met Painter while Cory was performing in an animated film on which Painter served as the composer. The score was inspired by music from the 1960s including the soundtracks of *[Planet of the Apes](/wiki/Planet_of_the_Apes_%281968_film%29 \"Planet of the Apes (1968 film)\")*, *[Dark Shadows](/wiki/Dark_Shadows \"Dark Shadows\")*, and *[The Untouchables](/wiki/The_Untouchables_%28film%29 \"The Untouchables (film)\")* have been cited as influences, as well as the works of [Henry Mancini](/wiki/Henry_Mancini \"Henry Mancini\").{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=54:06–54:51\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}} It was recorded in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), where Kristin Wilkinson served as the [orchestrator](/wiki/Orchestrator \"Orchestrator\") and [conductor](/wiki/Conducting \"Conducting\").{{cite video\n\\| people \\= Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=19:29–19:39\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}}{{cite web\n\\| url \\= https://www.amoeba.com/hoodwinked\\-ost\\-cd\\-john\\-mark\\-painter/albums/667265/\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! \\[OST] (CD) \n\\| work \\=Amoeba Music\n\\| access\\-date \\=March 30, 2023\n}}",
"In an effort to appeal to older audience members, Todd Edwards chose to replace parts of Painter's score with original rock music. From this came the song \"Little Boat\", written and sung by Daniel Rogers, who had composed Edwards' first film *Chillicothe*.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=07:45–08:19\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}} \"Runaway\" was written by Joshua J. Greene, a friend of the Edwards brothers', who also provided the voice of Jimmy Lizard in the film. \"The Real G\", sung by Cory Edwards and \"Bounce\", sung by Todd Collins were both written by Painter and Cory Edwards. \"Blow Your House Down\" was performed by the Filipino band [Pupil](/wiki/Pupil_%28band%29 \"Pupil (band)\") and written by their lead singer [Ely Buendia](/wiki/Ely_Buendia \"Ely Buendia\").{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=44:04–44:12\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}}",
"Cory Edwards was willing to include the [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters \"Foo Fighters\")' song \"[All My Life](/wiki/All_My_Life_%28Foo_Fighters_song%29 \"All My Life (Foo Fighters song)\")\". The Foo Fighters decided against it due to having a new album coming out and having no enthusiasm about using their old hit, afraid it was getting overused. No Foo Fighters song was included on the soundtrack.",
"Todd Edwards wrote nine original songs for the film and sung four of them: \"Critters Have Feelings\", \"Tree Critter\", \"Eva Deanna\", and \"Glow\". \"Eva Deanna\" was written about a day that he and his wife spent at the zoo with their niece, the daughter of associate producer Katie Hooten.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=47:08–47:35\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}} \"Glow\" was written about the Edwards siblings' grandmother, Vera, who had died a few years earlier.{{cite tweet\\|number\\=1092458572946956289\\|last\\=Edwards \\|first\\=Todd\\|user\\=ToddEdwardsFilm\\|date\\=February 4, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 6, 2019\\|title\\=Strong women are at the heart of Hoodwinked. Our little indie movie that started in my living room made over $110 MILLION world wide when it was released, though most fans don't know that a couple of its key soundtrack songs were written about strong women in my family...When Granny escapes the avalanche via parachute the song \"Glow\" has lyrics inspired by my grandma Vera who had passed away a few years prior. The loud song just before that, \"Eva Deanna,\" was about my niece, the first grand baby of her generation. Eva has quite a story...\"}} \"Great Big World\" was sung by Anne Hathaway and replaced another song called \"Woods Go\\-Round\", which Edwards considered too childish and described as being \"in the vein of Saturday morning cartoons.\" This change required the scene to be re\\-animated and re\\-cut. \"Be Prepared\" was sung by Benjy Gaither and developed out of a practicality; the filmmakers wanted to introduce Japeth while the character is rocking back and forth on his horns, as though the horns are a rocking chair. However, they realized that this would make the horns too big to fit in a minecart later on in the film. As a solution, they came up with the gag of having the character switch his horns several times, and this led to the song's concept.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=15:14–15:58\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}} McWilliams joined Jim Belushi to sing \"The Schnitzel Song\" and Painter asked his longtime friend [Ben Folds](/wiki/Ben_Folds \"Ben Folds\") to sing \"Red is Blue\", a selection strongly advocated for by Edwards. Folds was working on a new album at the time, but a year after the proposal, found the opportunity to record the song and compose a piano arrangement for it as well.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=51:49–52:33\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}} \"Top of the Woods\" was sung by Andy Dick and was originally composed to be slow\\-paced. The recording of Dick's performance was sped up though at the suggestion of Ralf Palmer, a prolific animator and friend of producer Sue Bea Montgomery.{{cite video\n\\| people \\=Edwards, Cory; Edwards, Todd; Leech, Tony\n\\| date \\=May 2, 2006\n\\| title \\= Hoodwinked! DVD Feature Commentary By Writer/Director Cory Edwards, Writer/Co\\-Director Tony Leech, And Writer/Co\\-Director Todd Edwards\n\\| time \\=1:02:11\\-1:02:50\n\\| type\\=DVD\n\\| publisher \\=The Weinstein Company\n}}",
"### Distribution",
"{{quote box\\|width\\=33%\\|quote\\=Sally Struthers was the original Granny for two years of the project. She did a fantastic voice. When Glenn Close walked in, she said, 'Why do you need me? Sally did a great job.' I didn't want to say 'because Harvey made us.' I'm friends with Sally through some other people – I ended up writing her a nice note ... Sally did more of a southern, battleaxe granny, Glenn's was more a prim and proper one.\\|source\\= —Cory Edwards, director of ''Hoodwinked!'', on the recasting of Sally Struthers.}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|150 px\\|[Harvey](/wiki/Harvey_Weinstein \"Harvey Weinstein\") (pictured here in 2011\\) and [Bob Weinstein](/wiki/Bob_Weinstein \"Bob Weinstein\") distributed *Hoodwinked!* as one of [the Weinstein Company](/wiki/The_Weinstein_Company \"The Weinstein Company\")'s first films.](/wiki/File:Harvey_Weinstein_2011_Shankbone.JPG \"Harvey Weinstein 2011 Shankbone.JPG\")",
"*Hoodwinked!* was shown to potential distributors throughout various stages of its production. Though a distribution offer was made by [DreamWorks Pictures](/wiki/DreamWorks_Pictures \"DreamWorks Pictures\"), it was turned down as the filmmakers did not feel that it was a good deal.{{cite web \\|author\\=Peszko \\|first\\=J. Paul \\|date\\=January 13, 2006 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked: Blue Yonder Set to Make Animation History page 2 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/production/ihoodwinkedi\\-blue\\-yonder\\-set\\-make\\-animation\\-history/page/2%2C1 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001130858/http://www.awn.com/animationworld/hoodwinked\\-blue\\-yonder\\-set\\-make\\-animation\\-history \\|archive\\-date\\=October 1, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}} As the film neared the end of production, it was screened at the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival \"Cannes Film Festival\"). [Harvey](/wiki/Harvey_Weinstein \"Harvey Weinstein\") and [Bob Weinstein](/wiki/Bob_Weinstein \"Bob Weinstein\") were also at the festival at the time, screening [Robert Rodriguez](/wiki/Robert_Rodriguez \"Robert Rodriguez\")'s film *[Sin City](/wiki/Sin_City_%28film%29 \"Sin City (film)\")*, which they were distributing through their then newly formed studio, [the Weinstein Company](/wiki/The_Weinstein_Company \"The Weinstein Company\"). They decided to pick *Hoodwinked!* up for distribution after it was brought to their attention by Rodriguez's wife, whose attorney also happened to work for Blue Yonder Films.{{cite web \\|author\\=Peszko \\|first\\=J. Paul \\|date\\=January 13, 2006 \\|title\\=Hoodwinked: Blue Yonder Set to Make Animation History page 1 \\|url\\=http://www.awn.com/articles/production/ihoodwinkedi\\-blue\\-yonder\\-set\\-make\\-animation\\-history \\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2012 \\|work\\=awn.com}}{{cite web \\|author\\=Britton \\|first\\=Bonnie \\|date\\=July 25, 2005 \\|title\\=AU alums score animation breakthrough \\|url\\=http://www.anderson.edu/events/archive05/2005\\-07\\-21\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125123858/http://www.anderson.edu/events/archive05/2005\\-07\\-21\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=January 25, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=January 20, 2013 \\|work\\=anderson.edu}} Although Cory Edwards did not meet Rodriguez, he acknowledged him as instrumental to get the film made.",
"The Weinsteins had recently left the Walt Disney Company and according to Cory Edwards, they \"loved the idea of picking up an animated film and giving Disney a run for their money\". The involvement of the Weinstein Company encouraged Kanbar enough to enlist [Skywalker Sound](/wiki/Skywalker_Sound \"Skywalker Sound\"). The film was nearly complete by the time that the Weinsteins became involved, and Edwards has stated that nothing was done by them to ruin \"the original vision of the movie.\" However, a few edit suggestions were made to quicken the film's pace which Edwards felt were good ideas, as he considered the first twenty minutes to be dragging.",
"The Weinstein Company also heavily recast the film with bigger\\-name actors in the hopes of attracting a larger audience. [Anne Hathaway](/wiki/Anne_Hathaway \"Anne Hathaway\") replaced Tara Strong in the lead role of Red; [Jim Belushi](/wiki/Jim_Belushi \"Jim Belushi\") replaced David Ogden Stiers in the role of Kirk, the Woodsman; [Anthony Anderson](/wiki/Anthony_Anderson \"Anthony Anderson\") replaced Tony Leech in the role of Det. Bill Stork; [Glenn Close](/wiki/Glenn_Close \"Glenn Close\") replaced Sally Struthers in the role of Granny Puckett; [Xzibit](/wiki/Xzibit \"Xzibit\") replaced Joel McCrary in the role of Chief Grizzly and [Chazz Palminteri](/wiki/Chazz_Palminteri \"Chazz Palminteri\") replaced Tom Kenny in the role of Woolworth the Sheep. Opining that the final steps in character design were really fleshed out when the actors were hired, Hooten felt that Hathaway put some edge that was missing on Red, making her more sarcastic, sassy and quick. Anderson accepted the role of Bill Stork given his past experience as voice actor and his previous collaborations with the Weinsteins in *[Scary Movie 3](/wiki/Scary_Movie_3 \"Scary Movie 3\")* (2003\\) and *[My Baby's Daddy](/wiki/My_Baby%27s_Daddy \"My Baby's Daddy\")* (2004\\), wanting to do something that his children and godchildren could watch and enjoy.{{cite web \\|author\\=Lee \\|first\\=Michael J. \\|date\\=December 12, 2005 \\|title\\=Anthony Anderson on 'Hoodwinked' \\|url\\=http://movies.radiofree.com/interviews/hoodwink\\_anthony\\_anderson.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2021 \\|work\\=radiofree.com}} Palminteri was called to be offered the part of Woolworth the Sheep, which he accepted as he found the script hilarious.{{cite web \\|author\\= \\|date\\=May 28, 2013 \\|title\\=Chazz Palminteri (Hoodwinked) \\- Interview \\|url\\=https://www.tribute.ca/interviews/chazz\\-palminteri\\-hoodwinked/star/21399/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Tribute.ca]]}} Despite these recastings, Tara Strong retained the much smaller role of Zorra, David Ogden Stiers retained the role of Nicky Flippers, Tom Kenny retained the role of Tommy and Tony Leech retained the role of Glen. Many high\\-profile country singers were considered to replace Benjy Gaither in the role of Japeth, but none of them were available and Gaither retained the role. The Weinsteins also wanted to replace Joshua J. Greene in the role of Jimmy Lizard with a more famous actor such as [Albert Brooks](/wiki/Albert_Brooks \"Albert Brooks\"), but the role was ultimately not recast. Edwards appreciated the reason for the recastings and attributed a large part of the film's financial success to them. He expressed disappointment about the amount of recasting, however, saying, \"At a certain point it became Recast\\-o\\-Rama, everybody got recast\\-happy. My feeling is, you get two or three names on that poster, you're fine. Our Hoodwinked poster has like a paragraph of names on it. After a certain point, I don't think you need more than two, three celebrities—give it to the voice actors. It sweetens the pot\". Since the film's animation had already been mostly completed by the time the recastings were made, the new actors had to deliver their lines exactly as the old actors had done, giving them no opportunity to improvise. Edwards expressed disappointment with the fact that the original actors would not get any credit for their improvisations in the film, which were copied by the replacement actors.",
""
] |
Transport
---------
### Air
The nearest airport is [Nagasaki Airport](/wiki/Nagasaki_Airport "Nagasaki Airport") in [Ōmura City](/wiki/%C5%8Cmura%2C_Nagasaki "Ōmura, Nagasaki"). By car, it is three hours away. Approximately the same distance away is [Fukuoka Airport](/wiki/Fukuoka_Airport "Fukuoka Airport") in [Fukuoka City](/wiki/Fukuoka%2C_Fukuoka "Fukuoka, Fukuoka") ([Fukuoka Prefecture](/wiki/Fukuoka_Prefecture "Fukuoka Prefecture")), which is a large regional air hub in Asia.
### Rail
There are no rail links to Ikitsuki. The nearest rail station is in Tabira (now a part of Hirado), which is approximately 40 minutes away by car.
[thumb\|right\|Ikitsuki Bridge, connecting Ikitsuki to the neighboring island of Hirado](/wiki/File:Ikitsuki_OHashi.jpg "Ikitsuki OHashi.jpg")
### Automobile
The Ikitsuki bridge allows automobile access from Ikitsuki to Hirado and the rest of Japan. Previously, the only option to travel off the island was by ferry to various ports in [Kyūshū](/wiki/Kyushu "Kyushu"). Since the merger of Ikitsuki into Hirado City, tolls on the bridge have significantly decreased. Before October 1, 2005, tolls were 450 yen one way for a yellow plate car (small) and 600 yen for a white plate (large). This has since decreased threefold to 150 yen one way for yellow plate cars, and 200 yen for white plate cars. From April 1, 2010, no fee is required to pass the Ikitsuki Bridge.
Access to mainland Kyūshū is through a separate [bridge](/wiki/Hirado_Bridge "Hirado Bridge") on Hirado Island. It takes about 30 minutes to drive from Ikitsuki to Hirado.
The bridge connecting Ikitsuki to the neighboring Hirado Island is the longest [continuous truss bridge](/wiki/Continuous_truss_bridge "Continuous truss bridge") in the world, measuring in at 1312 ft (400 meters).
#### Principal roads
* Nagasaki Prefectural Highway 42: Hirado\-Ikitsuki Line
* Ikitsuki Bridge Toll Road (大橋生月)
|
[
"Transport\n---------",
"### Air",
"The nearest airport is [Nagasaki Airport](/wiki/Nagasaki_Airport \"Nagasaki Airport\") in [Ōmura City](/wiki/%C5%8Cmura%2C_Nagasaki \"Ōmura, Nagasaki\"). By car, it is three hours away. Approximately the same distance away is [Fukuoka Airport](/wiki/Fukuoka_Airport \"Fukuoka Airport\") in [Fukuoka City](/wiki/Fukuoka%2C_Fukuoka \"Fukuoka, Fukuoka\") ([Fukuoka Prefecture](/wiki/Fukuoka_Prefecture \"Fukuoka Prefecture\")), which is a large regional air hub in Asia.",
"### Rail",
"There are no rail links to Ikitsuki. The nearest rail station is in Tabira (now a part of Hirado), which is approximately 40 minutes away by car.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Ikitsuki Bridge, connecting Ikitsuki to the neighboring island of Hirado](/wiki/File:Ikitsuki_OHashi.jpg \"Ikitsuki OHashi.jpg\")",
"### Automobile",
"The Ikitsuki bridge allows automobile access from Ikitsuki to Hirado and the rest of Japan. Previously, the only option to travel off the island was by ferry to various ports in [Kyūshū](/wiki/Kyushu \"Kyushu\"). Since the merger of Ikitsuki into Hirado City, tolls on the bridge have significantly decreased. Before October 1, 2005, tolls were 450 yen one way for a yellow plate car (small) and 600 yen for a white plate (large). This has since decreased threefold to 150 yen one way for yellow plate cars, and 200 yen for white plate cars. From April 1, 2010, no fee is required to pass the Ikitsuki Bridge.",
"Access to mainland Kyūshū is through a separate [bridge](/wiki/Hirado_Bridge \"Hirado Bridge\") on Hirado Island. It takes about 30 minutes to drive from Ikitsuki to Hirado.",
"The bridge connecting Ikitsuki to the neighboring Hirado Island is the longest [continuous truss bridge](/wiki/Continuous_truss_bridge \"Continuous truss bridge\") in the world, measuring in at 1312 ft (400 meters).",
"#### Principal roads",
"* Nagasaki Prefectural Highway 42: Hirado\\-Ikitsuki Line\n* Ikitsuki Bridge Toll Road (大橋生月)"
] |
Development
-----------
### Announcement
The game was first announced at KAMEX (Korea Amuse World Expo) in November 2004\.{{cite web\|author\=\|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/ragnarokonline2/news\_6129435\.html?new\_theme\=standard\_alt\&sid\=6129435\&msg\_sort\=1 \|title\=Ragnarok Online 2 set for TGS debut \|publisher\=GameSpot.com \|date\=2005\-07\-19 \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-07}} The first trailer of the game was shown during the expo, in which a novice boy and novice girl were running toward each other in an undisclosed [3D](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics "3D computer graphics") city environment.
In September 2005, [Gravity Corp.](/wiki/Gravity_%28Korean_company%29 "Gravity (Korean company)") launched a major campaign to promote the game at the annual [Tokyo Game Show](/wiki/Tokyo_Game_Show "Tokyo Game Show").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rpgamer.com/features/tgs2005/tgsblogfinal.html \|title\=Tokyo Game Show 2005 Blog \- Day 1 \& 2 \|publisher\=RPGamer \|date\=2005\-09\-20 \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-07}} Attendees had the opportunity to play the game for the very first time at Gravity\-hosted booths during the three\-day event (September 16\-18\). Gravity released multiple gameplay videos to the public, as well as an animation video, during this time frame.
Gravity Corp. launched the [remake](/wiki/Video_game_remake "Video game remake") version of *Ragnarok Online 2* and changed their slogan to *[Ragnarok Online 2: Legend of the Second](/wiki/Ragnarok_Online_2:Legend_of_the_Second "Legend of the Second")*. The original version of the game was closed in August 2010 and a new version of *Ragnarok Online 2* was released in March 2012\.
### Beta phases
In December 2006, Gravity began accepting applications for the first closed beta test in South Korea. The first closed beta officially ended on December 29\. Application to participate in this beta was made available for a week. Over 190,000 applications were submitted but only 2000 were chosen to participate for a period of three days (December 27\-29\). Due to several technical issues and server tweaking, the total testing time was only about 10 hours.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ggemguide.com/news\_view.htm?uid\=10691 \|title\=라그나로크 온라인2, 첫 비공개 시범 서비스 12월 27일 실시 \- GG게임 \|publisher\=Ggemguide.com \|date\=2006\-12\-15 \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-07}} According to an interview between the Korean newspaper *[Chosun Ilbo](/wiki/The_Chosun_Ilbo "The Chosun Ilbo")* and developer *Team Mercury*, the main goal for the first closed beta was to test characters. They wanted to see how gamers would react to the overall feel of the game as well as whether character designs were accepted by them.
For the second phase of the Korean closed beta, 3,000 users were automatically accepted upon registration and login via the website, with another 5,000 being selected before and on February 22, 2007\. The original closed beta testers were also given access to phase two. Towards the end of this phase, a special event invited 10,000 additional players to join testing, leading to a total of 20,000 selected accounts.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ragnarok2\.co.kr/userzone/Notice/title\_notice\_in.asp?seqNo\=117 \|title\=::Happy Game Community!! GnJoy:: \|publisher\=Ragnarok2\.co.kr \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-07 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708132211/http://www.ragnarok2\.co.kr/userzone/Notice/title\_notice\_in.asp?seqNo\=117 \|archivedate\=2009\-07\-08}}
The third phase of the Korean closed beta ran from April 26 to May 5, 2007\. It was open for 100,000 registered users as well as those players from the previous closed beta. In order to balance the large amounts of traffic, Gravity opened a second server at the start of the third phase.
The final phase of testing was the Korean open beta running from May 28, 2007, to an unannounced date, where the final release of the game was expected right after. It was open to all Korean citizens with a [Korean resident registration number](/wiki/Korean_resident_registration_number "Korean resident registration number") and during the first week, the servers went through severe maintenance as each server quickly filled up. Several more servers were opened shortly after to fit the demand, including several age 18 and up only servers to accommodate those who wish to participate in a [player versus player](/wiki/Player_versus_player "Player versus player") environment. The focus during open beta was game balance and mechanics. The game content was similar to the previous closed betas and was expected to see a greater release of content in the near future, but most likely after the game was to be released.
In 2008, the Korean open beta had condensed its number of servers to just two. By this point, the game's population had also seen a dramatic decrease since it first opened in May 2007 – many areas in the game such as Hodemines and Prontera were usually found to be empty.
### Current status
Changes in Gravity's leadership along with the game being poorly received in Korea during the open beta slowed development on *Ragnarok Online 2*. Gravity since reworked the entire game.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/26299/Gravity\_Reveals\_Ragnarok\_Social\_Details\_Ragnarok\_II\_for\_2010\.php \|title\=News \- Gravity Reveals Ragnarok Social Details, Ragnarok II for 2010 \|publisher\=Gamasutra \|date\= \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-07}}
The schedule for the launch of *Ragnarok Online 2* was delayed to the fourth quarter of 2010, having originally been scheduled to launch in the first half of the year, but Gravity decided to postpone the launch in order to improve the game further. The company planned to start commercial service of *Ragnarok Online II* in Korea in the fourth quarter of 2010 followed later by the other territories where Gravity has already entered into license and distribution agreements.
> "The launch of *Ragnarok Online II* has been delayed on a number of occasions but we don't want to launch it before it is ready and want to ensure that it meets the expectations of our players as well as those of our own. We will continue to refine *Ragnarok Online II* and look forward to providing our users with a high\-quality experience". \- Mr. Toshiro Ohno, the President and CEO of Gravity.
The game had been in beta testing since May 2007 and was consistently delayed until the announcement was made that the entire game would be rebuilt from the ground up as a true *Ragnarok Online* sequel.{{cite web\|url\=http://seekingalpha.com/article/196602\-patience\-is\-key\-for\-gravity\-investors \|title\=Patience Is Key for Gravity Investors \|publisher\=Seeking Alpha \|date\=2010\-04\-01 \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-07}} The remake has been named *[Ragnarok Online 2: Legend of the Second](/wiki/Ragnarok_Online_2:Legend_of_the_Second "Legend of the Second")* and *Ragnarok Online 2: The Gate of the World*'s service was terminated on August 2, 2010\.
|
[
"Development\n-----------",
"### Announcement",
"The game was first announced at KAMEX (Korea Amuse World Expo) in November 2004\\.{{cite web\\|author\\=\\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/ragnarokonline2/news\\_6129435\\.html?new\\_theme\\=standard\\_alt\\&sid\\=6129435\\&msg\\_sort\\=1 \\|title\\=Ragnarok Online 2 set for TGS debut \\|publisher\\=GameSpot.com \\|date\\=2005\\-07\\-19 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-07}} The first trailer of the game was shown during the expo, in which a novice boy and novice girl were running toward each other in an undisclosed [3D](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics \"3D computer graphics\") city environment.",
"In September 2005, [Gravity Corp.](/wiki/Gravity_%28Korean_company%29 \"Gravity (Korean company)\") launched a major campaign to promote the game at the annual [Tokyo Game Show](/wiki/Tokyo_Game_Show \"Tokyo Game Show\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rpgamer.com/features/tgs2005/tgsblogfinal.html \\|title\\=Tokyo Game Show 2005 Blog \\- Day 1 \\& 2 \\|publisher\\=RPGamer \\|date\\=2005\\-09\\-20 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-07}} Attendees had the opportunity to play the game for the very first time at Gravity\\-hosted booths during the three\\-day event (September 16\\-18\\). Gravity released multiple gameplay videos to the public, as well as an animation video, during this time frame.",
"Gravity Corp. launched the [remake](/wiki/Video_game_remake \"Video game remake\") version of *Ragnarok Online 2* and changed their slogan to *[Ragnarok Online 2: Legend of the Second](/wiki/Ragnarok_Online_2:Legend_of_the_Second \"Legend of the Second\")*. The original version of the game was closed in August 2010 and a new version of *Ragnarok Online 2* was released in March 2012\\.",
"### Beta phases",
"In December 2006, Gravity began accepting applications for the first closed beta test in South Korea. The first closed beta officially ended on December 29\\. Application to participate in this beta was made available for a week. Over 190,000 applications were submitted but only 2000 were chosen to participate for a period of three days (December 27\\-29\\). Due to several technical issues and server tweaking, the total testing time was only about 10 hours.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ggemguide.com/news\\_view.htm?uid\\=10691 \\|title\\=라그나로크 온라인2, 첫 비공개 시범 서비스 12월 27일 실시 \\- GG게임 \\|publisher\\=Ggemguide.com \\|date\\=2006\\-12\\-15 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-07}} According to an interview between the Korean newspaper *[Chosun Ilbo](/wiki/The_Chosun_Ilbo \"The Chosun Ilbo\")* and developer *Team Mercury*, the main goal for the first closed beta was to test characters. They wanted to see how gamers would react to the overall feel of the game as well as whether character designs were accepted by them.",
"For the second phase of the Korean closed beta, 3,000 users were automatically accepted upon registration and login via the website, with another 5,000 being selected before and on February 22, 2007\\. The original closed beta testers were also given access to phase two. Towards the end of this phase, a special event invited 10,000 additional players to join testing, leading to a total of 20,000 selected accounts.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ragnarok2\\.co.kr/userzone/Notice/title\\_notice\\_in.asp?seqNo\\=117 \\|title\\=::Happy Game Community!! GnJoy:: \\|publisher\\=Ragnarok2\\.co.kr \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-07 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708132211/http://www.ragnarok2\\.co.kr/userzone/Notice/title\\_notice\\_in.asp?seqNo\\=117 \\|archivedate\\=2009\\-07\\-08}}",
"The third phase of the Korean closed beta ran from April 26 to May 5, 2007\\. It was open for 100,000 registered users as well as those players from the previous closed beta. In order to balance the large amounts of traffic, Gravity opened a second server at the start of the third phase.",
"The final phase of testing was the Korean open beta running from May 28, 2007, to an unannounced date, where the final release of the game was expected right after. It was open to all Korean citizens with a [Korean resident registration number](/wiki/Korean_resident_registration_number \"Korean resident registration number\") and during the first week, the servers went through severe maintenance as each server quickly filled up. Several more servers were opened shortly after to fit the demand, including several age 18 and up only servers to accommodate those who wish to participate in a [player versus player](/wiki/Player_versus_player \"Player versus player\") environment. The focus during open beta was game balance and mechanics. The game content was similar to the previous closed betas and was expected to see a greater release of content in the near future, but most likely after the game was to be released.",
"In 2008, the Korean open beta had condensed its number of servers to just two. By this point, the game's population had also seen a dramatic decrease since it first opened in May 2007 – many areas in the game such as Hodemines and Prontera were usually found to be empty.",
"### Current status",
"Changes in Gravity's leadership along with the game being poorly received in Korea during the open beta slowed development on *Ragnarok Online 2*. Gravity since reworked the entire game.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/26299/Gravity\\_Reveals\\_Ragnarok\\_Social\\_Details\\_Ragnarok\\_II\\_for\\_2010\\.php \\|title\\=News \\- Gravity Reveals Ragnarok Social Details, Ragnarok II for 2010 \\|publisher\\=Gamasutra \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-07}}",
"The schedule for the launch of *Ragnarok Online 2* was delayed to the fourth quarter of 2010, having originally been scheduled to launch in the first half of the year, but Gravity decided to postpone the launch in order to improve the game further. The company planned to start commercial service of *Ragnarok Online II* in Korea in the fourth quarter of 2010 followed later by the other territories where Gravity has already entered into license and distribution agreements.",
"",
"> \"The launch of *Ragnarok Online II* has been delayed on a number of occasions but we don't want to launch it before it is ready and want to ensure that it meets the expectations of our players as well as those of our own. We will continue to refine *Ragnarok Online II* and look forward to providing our users with a high\\-quality experience\". \\- Mr. Toshiro Ohno, the President and CEO of Gravity.",
"The game had been in beta testing since May 2007 and was consistently delayed until the announcement was made that the entire game would be rebuilt from the ground up as a true *Ragnarok Online* sequel.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://seekingalpha.com/article/196602\\-patience\\-is\\-key\\-for\\-gravity\\-investors \\|title\\=Patience Is Key for Gravity Investors \\|publisher\\=Seeking Alpha \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-01 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-07}} The remake has been named *[Ragnarok Online 2: Legend of the Second](/wiki/Ragnarok_Online_2:Legend_of_the_Second \"Legend of the Second\")* and *Ragnarok Online 2: The Gate of the World*'s service was terminated on August 2, 2010\\.",
""
] |
Gameplay
--------
{{Expand section\|date\=July 2009}}
### Specialty Job system
Normans had the ability to freely change jobs out of combat and level each of the jobs independently; progress on a certain job was not lost when switching between jobs. This was accompanied by a flexible stat system where a majority of the stats were based on job so that players were not forced to select few jobs by their stat selection. The original *Ragnarok Online* had only a small amount of stats from jobs with most of them being decided by the player, forcing them along a certain build/playing style.
In *The Gate of the World*, certain abilities were converted into a block and put onto that character's skill grid. This allowed Sword Mastery, a swordsman skill which increased damage dealt with blades, used to help level another class with a sword. Different abilities had different block shapes and sizes and not all abilities were shared. Special abilities were gained by leveling a character's job class, giving them the ability to create useful and original class combinations, such as battle mages and wares\-selling thieves.
There was a limit to how many special abilities could employ at a time. Characters started with fewer than 16 blocks, but gradually gained additional blocks as they leveled.
### Complex Job Change system
The first *Ragnarok Online* featured a unique leveling system in which a character's base level and job level were leveled separately, but once a job was chosen, it could not be changed.
### Equipment leveling
*RO2* implemented a new system in which equipment could itself level up. This system allowed people to keep their favorite pieces of equipment because they continued to be useful instead of tossing them out when they became outdated. When an item reached enough experience to level up it did not instantly level up. It had to be taken first to a smith in a town and then to upgrade the weapon for a fee. While the class of weapon did not change, its attributes did. For instance a sword which was suited to combat classes favored spell\-casting classes once it had leveled up.
Equipment in *RO2* was separated into two categories: leveling\-type and non\-leveling type. The leveling equipment types could gain experience and level up like the player, whereas the non\-leveling type did not acquire any experience and did not level up at all.
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=July 2009}}\n### Specialty Job system",
"Normans had the ability to freely change jobs out of combat and level each of the jobs independently; progress on a certain job was not lost when switching between jobs. This was accompanied by a flexible stat system where a majority of the stats were based on job so that players were not forced to select few jobs by their stat selection. The original *Ragnarok Online* had only a small amount of stats from jobs with most of them being decided by the player, forcing them along a certain build/playing style.",
"In *The Gate of the World*, certain abilities were converted into a block and put onto that character's skill grid. This allowed Sword Mastery, a swordsman skill which increased damage dealt with blades, used to help level another class with a sword. Different abilities had different block shapes and sizes and not all abilities were shared. Special abilities were gained by leveling a character's job class, giving them the ability to create useful and original class combinations, such as battle mages and wares\\-selling thieves.",
"There was a limit to how many special abilities could employ at a time. Characters started with fewer than 16 blocks, but gradually gained additional blocks as they leveled.",
"### Complex Job Change system",
"The first *Ragnarok Online* featured a unique leveling system in which a character's base level and job level were leveled separately, but once a job was chosen, it could not be changed.",
"### Equipment leveling",
"*RO2* implemented a new system in which equipment could itself level up. This system allowed people to keep their favorite pieces of equipment because they continued to be useful instead of tossing them out when they became outdated. When an item reached enough experience to level up it did not instantly level up. It had to be taken first to a smith in a town and then to upgrade the weapon for a fee. While the class of weapon did not change, its attributes did. For instance a sword which was suited to combat classes favored spell\\-casting classes once it had leveled up.",
"Equipment in *RO2* was separated into two categories: leveling\\-type and non\\-leveling type. The leveling equipment types could gain experience and level up like the player, whereas the non\\-leveling type did not acquire any experience and did not level up at all.",
""
] |
Structure
---------
The Bundesliga is composed of two divisions: the 1\. Bundesliga (although it is rarely referred to with the *First* prefix), and, below that, the 2\. Bundesliga (2nd Bundesliga), which has been the second tier of German football [since 1974](/wiki/Introduction_of_the_2._Bundesliga "Introduction of the 2. Bundesliga"). The Bundesligen (plural) are professional leagues. Since 2008, the [3\. Liga](/wiki/3._Liga "3. Liga") (3rd League) in Germany has also been a professional league, but may not be called Bundesliga because the league is run by the German Football Association (DFB) and not, as are the two Bundesligen, by the [German Football League](/wiki/Deutsche_Fu%C3%9Fball_Liga "Deutsche Fußball Liga") (DFL).
Below the level of the 3\. Liga, leagues are generally subdivided on a regional basis. For example, the Regionalligen are currently made up of Nord (North), Nordost (Northeast), Süd (South), Südwest (Southwest) and West divisions. Below this are thirteen parallel divisions, most of which are called Oberligen (upper leagues) which represent federal states or large urban and geographical areas. The levels below the [Oberligen](/wiki/Oberliga_%28football%29 "Oberliga (football)") differ between the local areas. The league structure has changed frequently and typically reflects the degree of participation in the sport in various parts of the country. In the early 1990s, changes were driven by the [reunification of Germany](/wiki/German_reunification "German reunification") and the subsequent integration of the national league of East Germany.
Every team in the two Bundesligen must have a licence to play in the league, or else they are relegated into the regional leagues. To obtain a licence, teams must be financially healthy and meet certain standards of conduct as organisations.
As in other national leagues, there are significant benefits to being in the top division:
* A greater share of television broadcast licence revenues goes to 1\. Bundesliga sides.
* 1\. Bundesliga teams draw significantly greater levels of fan support. Average attendance in the first league is 42,673 per game—more than twice the average of the 2\. Bundesliga.
* Greater exposure through television and higher attendance levels helps 1\. Bundesliga teams attract the most lucrative sponsorships.
* 1\. Bundesliga teams develop substantial financial muscle through the combination of television and gate revenues, sponsorships and marketing of their team brands. This allows them to attract and retain skilled players from domestic and international sources and to construct first\-class stadium facilities.
The 1\. Bundesliga is financially strong, and the 2\. Bundesliga has begun to evolve in a similar direction, becoming more stable organizationally and financially, and reflecting an increasingly higher standard of professional play.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2021}}
[upright\=1\.05\|thumb\|right\|[Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") against rivals [Schalke](/wiki/FC_Schalke_04 "FC Schalke 04"), known as the [Revierderby](/wiki/Revierderby "Revierderby"), in the Bundesliga in 2009](/wiki/File:Arena_Auf_Schalke_hosting_Schalke_04_vs_Dortmund_in_2009.jpg "Arena Auf Schalke hosting Schalke 04 vs Dortmund in 2009.jpg")
No clubs have played continuously in the Bundesliga since its foundation; on 12 May 2018, Hamburger SV was the last founding club to be relegated for the first time.{{cite web\|title\=Holtbys Siegtreffer kann den Abstieg nicht verhindern\|url\=http://www.kicker.de/news/fussball/bundesliga/spieltag/1\-bundesliga/2017\-18/34/3827891/spielbericht\_hamburger\-sv\-12\_borussia\-mgladbach\-15\.html\|website\=kicker.de\|publisher\=kicker\|access\-date\=13 May 2018\|language\=de}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/soccer/ct\-spt\-hamburg\-relegated\-bundesliga\-20180512\-story.html \|title\=Hamburger SV relegated from Bundesliga for first time amid chaotic scenes \|date\=12 May 2018 \|access\-date\=12 May 2018 \|first\=Ciaran \|last\=Fahey \|agency\=Associated Press \|work\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]] }}
In the 2008–09 season, the Bundesliga reinstated an earlier German system of promotion and relegation, which had been in use from 1981 until 1991:
* The bottom two finishers in the Bundesliga are automatically relegated to the 2\. Bundesliga, with the top two finishers in the 2\. Bundesliga taking their places.
* The third\-from\-bottom club in the Bundesliga will play a two\-legged tie with the third\-place team from the 2\. Bundesliga, with the winner taking up the final place in the following season's Bundesliga.
From 1992 until 2008, a different system was used, in which the bottom three finishers of the Bundesliga were automatically relegated, to be replaced by the top three finishers in the 2\. Bundesliga. From 1963 until 1981 two, or later three, teams were relegated from the Bundesliga automatically, while promotion was decided either completely or partially in [promotion play\-offs](/wiki/Promotion_to_the_Bundesliga "Promotion to the Bundesliga").
The season starts in early AugustGerman National Television and lasts until late May, with a winter break of six weeks (mid\-December through to the end of January). Starting with the 2002\-03 season, opening matches were introduced to feature defending champions on Friday nights on the first match day. Defending champions have not lost the opening matches since then, winning 16 of the 21 matches (up to the 2022\-23 season). Starting with the 2021–22 season, kick off times were changed with Friday matches starting at 8:30 pm, Saturdays at 3:30 pm and 6:30 pm, and Sundays at 3:30 pm, 5:30 pm and 7:30 pm.{{Cite web\|title\=Bundesliga kick\-off times to change from the 2021/22 season\|url\=https://bulinews.com/news/4684/bundesliga\-kick\-off\-times\-change\-from\-the\-2021\-22\-season\|access\-date\=18 August 2021\|website\=Bulinews\|date\=3 March 2020 \|language\=en\|archive\-date\=18 August 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818072056/https://bulinews.com/news/4684/bundesliga\-kick\-off\-times\-change\-from\-the\-2021\-22\-season\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Structure\n---------",
"The Bundesliga is composed of two divisions: the 1\\. Bundesliga (although it is rarely referred to with the *First* prefix), and, below that, the 2\\. Bundesliga (2nd Bundesliga), which has been the second tier of German football [since 1974](/wiki/Introduction_of_the_2._Bundesliga \"Introduction of the 2. Bundesliga\"). The Bundesligen (plural) are professional leagues. Since 2008, the [3\\. Liga](/wiki/3._Liga \"3. Liga\") (3rd League) in Germany has also been a professional league, but may not be called Bundesliga because the league is run by the German Football Association (DFB) and not, as are the two Bundesligen, by the [German Football League](/wiki/Deutsche_Fu%C3%9Fball_Liga \"Deutsche Fußball Liga\") (DFL).",
"Below the level of the 3\\. Liga, leagues are generally subdivided on a regional basis. For example, the Regionalligen are currently made up of Nord (North), Nordost (Northeast), Süd (South), Südwest (Southwest) and West divisions. Below this are thirteen parallel divisions, most of which are called Oberligen (upper leagues) which represent federal states or large urban and geographical areas. The levels below the [Oberligen](/wiki/Oberliga_%28football%29 \"Oberliga (football)\") differ between the local areas. The league structure has changed frequently and typically reflects the degree of participation in the sport in various parts of the country. In the early 1990s, changes were driven by the [reunification of Germany](/wiki/German_reunification \"German reunification\") and the subsequent integration of the national league of East Germany.",
"Every team in the two Bundesligen must have a licence to play in the league, or else they are relegated into the regional leagues. To obtain a licence, teams must be financially healthy and meet certain standards of conduct as organisations.",
"As in other national leagues, there are significant benefits to being in the top division:\n* A greater share of television broadcast licence revenues goes to 1\\. Bundesliga sides.\n* 1\\. Bundesliga teams draw significantly greater levels of fan support. Average attendance in the first league is 42,673 per game—more than twice the average of the 2\\. Bundesliga.\n* Greater exposure through television and higher attendance levels helps 1\\. Bundesliga teams attract the most lucrative sponsorships.\n* 1\\. Bundesliga teams develop substantial financial muscle through the combination of television and gate revenues, sponsorships and marketing of their team brands. This allows them to attract and retain skilled players from domestic and international sources and to construct first\\-class stadium facilities.",
"The 1\\. Bundesliga is financially strong, and the 2\\. Bundesliga has begun to evolve in a similar direction, becoming more stable organizationally and financially, and reflecting an increasingly higher standard of professional play.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}}",
"[upright\\=1\\.05\\|thumb\\|right\\|[Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") against rivals [Schalke](/wiki/FC_Schalke_04 \"FC Schalke 04\"), known as the [Revierderby](/wiki/Revierderby \"Revierderby\"), in the Bundesliga in 2009](/wiki/File:Arena_Auf_Schalke_hosting_Schalke_04_vs_Dortmund_in_2009.jpg \"Arena Auf Schalke hosting Schalke 04 vs Dortmund in 2009.jpg\")\nNo clubs have played continuously in the Bundesliga since its foundation; on 12 May 2018, Hamburger SV was the last founding club to be relegated for the first time.{{cite web\\|title\\=Holtbys Siegtreffer kann den Abstieg nicht verhindern\\|url\\=http://www.kicker.de/news/fussball/bundesliga/spieltag/1\\-bundesliga/2017\\-18/34/3827891/spielbericht\\_hamburger\\-sv\\-12\\_borussia\\-mgladbach\\-15\\.html\\|website\\=kicker.de\\|publisher\\=kicker\\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2018\\|language\\=de}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/soccer/ct\\-spt\\-hamburg\\-relegated\\-bundesliga\\-20180512\\-story.html \\|title\\=Hamburger SV relegated from Bundesliga for first time amid chaotic scenes \\|date\\=12 May 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2018 \\|first\\=Ciaran \\|last\\=Fahey \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|work\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]] }}",
"In the 2008–09 season, the Bundesliga reinstated an earlier German system of promotion and relegation, which had been in use from 1981 until 1991:\n* The bottom two finishers in the Bundesliga are automatically relegated to the 2\\. Bundesliga, with the top two finishers in the 2\\. Bundesliga taking their places.\n* The third\\-from\\-bottom club in the Bundesliga will play a two\\-legged tie with the third\\-place team from the 2\\. Bundesliga, with the winner taking up the final place in the following season's Bundesliga.",
"From 1992 until 2008, a different system was used, in which the bottom three finishers of the Bundesliga were automatically relegated, to be replaced by the top three finishers in the 2\\. Bundesliga. From 1963 until 1981 two, or later three, teams were relegated from the Bundesliga automatically, while promotion was decided either completely or partially in [promotion play\\-offs](/wiki/Promotion_to_the_Bundesliga \"Promotion to the Bundesliga\").",
"The season starts in early AugustGerman National Television and lasts until late May, with a winter break of six weeks (mid\\-December through to the end of January). Starting with the 2002\\-03 season, opening matches were introduced to feature defending champions on Friday nights on the first match day. Defending champions have not lost the opening matches since then, winning 16 of the 21 matches (up to the 2022\\-23 season). Starting with the 2021–22 season, kick off times were changed with Friday matches starting at 8:30 pm, Saturdays at 3:30 pm and 6:30 pm, and Sundays at 3:30 pm, 5:30 pm and 7:30 pm.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Bundesliga kick\\-off times to change from the 2021/22 season\\|url\\=https://bulinews.com/news/4684/bundesliga\\-kick\\-off\\-times\\-change\\-from\\-the\\-2021\\-22\\-season\\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021\\|website\\=Bulinews\\|date\\=3 March 2020 \\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818072056/https://bulinews.com/news/4684/bundesliga\\-kick\\-off\\-times\\-change\\-from\\-the\\-2021\\-22\\-season\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Competition format
------------------
[upright\=0\.9\|thumb\|right\|[Son Heung\-min](/wiki/Son_Heung-min "Son Heung-min") of [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV "Hamburger SV") against [Eljero Elia](/wiki/Eljero_Elia "Eljero Elia") of [Werder Bremen](/wiki/SV_Werder_Bremen "SV Werder Bremen") in the [Nordderby](/wiki/Nordderby "Nordderby")](/wiki/File:Elia_son.JPG "Elia son.JPG")
The German football champion is decided strictly by play in the Bundesliga. Each club plays every other club once at home and once away, which makes a total of 34 matchdays per season. Originally, a victory was worth two points, with one point for a draw and none for a loss. Since the 1995–96 season, a victory has been worth three points, while a draw remains worth a single point, and zero points are given for a loss. The club with the most points at the end of the season becomes the German champion. Currently, the top four clubs in the table qualify automatically for the group phase of the [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League"). The two teams at the bottom of the table are relegated into the 2\. Bundesliga, while the top two teams in the 2\. Bundesliga are promoted. The 16th\-placed team (third\-last) in the 1\. Bundesliga and the third\-placed team in the 2\. Bundesliga play a two\-leg play\-off match. The winner of this match plays the next season in the 1\. Bundesliga, and the losing side in the 2\. Bundesliga.
If teams are level on points, tie\-breakers are applied in the following order:
1. Goal difference for the entire season
2. Total goals scored for the entire season
3. Head\-to\-head results (total points)
4. Head\-to\-head goals scored
5. Head\-to\-head away goals scored
6. Total away goals scored for the entire season
If two clubs are still tied after all of these tie\-breakers have been applied, a single match is held at a neutral site to determine the placement. However, this has never been necessary in the history of the Bundesliga.
In terms of team selection, matchday squads must have no more than five non\-EU representatives. Nine substitutes are permitted to be selected, from which five can be used in the duration of the game.
### Changes in league structure
* Number of teams:
+ 1963–64 to 1964–65: 16
+ 1965–66 to 1990–91: 18
+ [1991–92](/wiki/1991%E2%80%9392_Bundesliga "1991–92 Bundesliga"): 20, while the [East German](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") league was being included after [German reunification](/wiki/German_reunification "German reunification")
+ Since 1992–93: 18
* Number of teams relegated (automatic relegation except as noted):
+ 1963–64 to 1973–74: 2
+ 1974–75 to 1980–81: 3
+ 1981–82 to 1990–91: 2 automatic plus the 16th\-place team in the First Bundesliga played a two\-leg relegation match against the third\-place team of the Second Bundesliga for the final spot in the First Bundesliga
+ 1991–92: 4
+ 1992–93 to 2007–08: 3
+ Since 2008–09: 2 automatic plus the 16th\-place team in the First Bundesliga playing a two\-leg relegation match against the third\-place team of the Second Bundesliga for the final spot in the First Bundesliga
### Qualification for European competitions
* 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th place: Group stage of [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League")
* 5th place: Group stage of [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League "UEFA Europa League")
* 6th place: Play\-off round of [UEFA Europa Conference League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_Conference_League "UEFA Europa Conference League")
* Until the 2016–17 season, an additional place in the Europa League could also be granted via the [UEFA Fair Play](/wiki/UEFA_Fair_Play_ranking "UEFA Fair Play ranking") mechanism. This rule was maintained from the UEFA Cup. The last Bundesliga team to gain entry to the UEFA Cup via the fair play rule was [Mainz 05](/wiki/FSV_Mainz_05 "FSV Mainz 05") in [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_UEFA_Cup "2005–06 UEFA Cup").
* [DFB\-Pokal](/wiki/DFB-Pokal "DFB-Pokal") (German Cup) winner: Qualifies for the group stage of Europa League regardless of league position.
+ Until 2015–16, if the Cup winner qualified for the Champions League or Europa League by more than one method, the cup winner's place in the Europa League went to the losing cup finalist if it had not already qualified for European competition, entering the competition a stage earlier than if it had won the Cup. This rule was retained from the Europa League's predecessor, the UEFA Cup. From 2015–16, the runners\-up no longer qualified for the Europa League, and the Europa League berth reserved for the DFB\-Pokal winners is transferred to the highest finisher below the european qualification places.
- Prior to 2015–16, the team that benefited from that rule did not necessarily have to be a Bundesliga member. For example, although [2\. Bundesliga](/wiki/2._Bundesliga "2. Bundesliga") sides [Alemannia Aachen](/wiki/Alemannia_Aachen "Alemannia Aachen") lost to [Werder Bremen](/wiki/SV_Werder_Bremen "SV Werder Bremen") in the [2004 DFB\-Pokal Final](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_DFB-Pokal%23Final "2003–04 DFB-Pokal#Final"), Alemannia secured an entry in the [2004–05 UEFA Cup](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_UEFA_Cup "2004–05 UEFA Cup"), because Werder qualified for the Champions League as First Bundesliga champions.
The number of German clubs which may participate in UEFA competitions is determined by [UEFA coefficients](/wiki/UEFA_coefficients "UEFA coefficients"), which takes into account the results of a particular nation's clubs in UEFA competitions over the preceding five years.
History of European qualification
* European Cup/Champions League:
+ Up to and including 1996–97: German champion only.
+ 1997–99: Top two teams; champions automatically into group phase, runners\-up entered the qualifying round.
+ 1999–2008: Top two teams automatically into first group phase (only one group phase starting in 2003–04\). Depending on the DFB's [UEFA coefficients](/wiki/UEFA_coefficients "UEFA coefficients") standing, either one or two other clubs (most recently one) entered at the third qualifying round; winners at this level entered the group phase.
+ 2008–11: Top two teams automatically into group phase. Third placed team had to play in the play\-off round for the right to play in the group stage.
* UEFA Cup/Europa League:
+ From 1971–72 to 1998–99, UEFA member nations could send between one and four teams to the UEFA Cup. Germany was always entitled to send at least three teams to the competition and often as many as four. From 1978–79, the number of participants was determined by the DFB's UEFA coefficient standing, prior to this the method for deciding the number of participants is unknown. The best performing teams in the league other than the champion would qualify, although if one of these teams was also winner of the [DFB\-Pokal](/wiki/DFB-Pokal "DFB-Pokal") then they would enter the Cup Winners' Cup instead and their UEFA Cup place would be taken by the next highest\-placed team in the league (5th or 6th place). Briefly in the mid\-1970s the DFB decided to allocate the last UEFA Cup place to the DFB\-Pokal runner\-up instead of a third or fourth team qualified by performance in the league, meaning that at this point the DFB\-Pokal qualified two teams for European competition (winners for the Cup Winners' Cup, runners\-up for the UEFA Cup). This policy was unique amongst UEFA member associations and was dropped after only a few seasons. Starting with the 1999–2000 season and the abolition of the Cup Winners' Cup (which was then folded into the UEFA Cup), the DFB\-Pokal winner now automatically qualified for the UEFA Cup alongside, depending on the DFB's UEFA coefficients standing, between one and three extra participants (if the DFB\-Pokal winner also qualified for the Champions League, they were replaced by the DFB\-Pokal runner\-up; if they were also qualified for the Champions League, the UEFA Cup place went to the next best placed team in the league not otherwise qualified for European competition). Since 1999, the DFB has always been entitled to enter a minimum of three clubs in the UEFA Cup/Europa League, and at times as many as four (the maximum for any European federation). Teams that entered via UEFA's Fair Play mechanism, or those that entered through the now\-defunct [Intertoto Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup "UEFA Intertoto Cup"), did not count against the national quota. From [2006](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup_2006 "UEFA Intertoto Cup 2006") through the final Intertoto Cup in [2008](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup_2008 "UEFA Intertoto Cup 2008"), only one First Bundesliga side was eligible to enter the Intertoto Cup and possibly earn a UEFA Cup berth. For the 2005–06 season, the DFB earned an extra UEFA Cup place via the Fair Play draw; this place went to [Mainz 05](/wiki/1._FSV_Mainz_05 "1. FSV Mainz 05") as the highest\-ranked club in the Fair Play table of the First Bundesliga not already qualified for Europe.
* Cup Winners' Cup (abolished after 1999\):
+ The winner of the DFB\-Pokal entered the Cup Winners' Cup, unless that team was also league champion and therefore competing in the European Cup/Champions League, in which case their place in the Cup Winners' Cup was taken by the DFB\-Pokal runner\-up. Today, the DFB\-Pokal winner (if not otherwise qualified for the Champions League) enters the UEFA Europa League.
|
[
"Competition format\n------------------",
"[upright\\=0\\.9\\|thumb\\|right\\|[Son Heung\\-min](/wiki/Son_Heung-min \"Son Heung-min\") of [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV \"Hamburger SV\") against [Eljero Elia](/wiki/Eljero_Elia \"Eljero Elia\") of [Werder Bremen](/wiki/SV_Werder_Bremen \"SV Werder Bremen\") in the [Nordderby](/wiki/Nordderby \"Nordderby\")](/wiki/File:Elia_son.JPG \"Elia son.JPG\")",
"The German football champion is decided strictly by play in the Bundesliga. Each club plays every other club once at home and once away, which makes a total of 34 matchdays per season. Originally, a victory was worth two points, with one point for a draw and none for a loss. Since the 1995–96 season, a victory has been worth three points, while a draw remains worth a single point, and zero points are given for a loss. The club with the most points at the end of the season becomes the German champion. Currently, the top four clubs in the table qualify automatically for the group phase of the [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\"). The two teams at the bottom of the table are relegated into the 2\\. Bundesliga, while the top two teams in the 2\\. Bundesliga are promoted. The 16th\\-placed team (third\\-last) in the 1\\. Bundesliga and the third\\-placed team in the 2\\. Bundesliga play a two\\-leg play\\-off match. The winner of this match plays the next season in the 1\\. Bundesliga, and the losing side in the 2\\. Bundesliga.",
"If teams are level on points, tie\\-breakers are applied in the following order:\n1. Goal difference for the entire season\n2. Total goals scored for the entire season\n3. Head\\-to\\-head results (total points)\n4. Head\\-to\\-head goals scored\n5. Head\\-to\\-head away goals scored\n6. Total away goals scored for the entire season",
"If two clubs are still tied after all of these tie\\-breakers have been applied, a single match is held at a neutral site to determine the placement. However, this has never been necessary in the history of the Bundesliga.",
"In terms of team selection, matchday squads must have no more than five non\\-EU representatives. Nine substitutes are permitted to be selected, from which five can be used in the duration of the game.",
"### Changes in league structure",
"* Number of teams:\n\t+ 1963–64 to 1964–65: 16\n\t+ 1965–66 to 1990–91: 18\n\t+ [1991–92](/wiki/1991%E2%80%9392_Bundesliga \"1991–92 Bundesliga\"): 20, while the [East German](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") league was being included after [German reunification](/wiki/German_reunification \"German reunification\")\n\t+ Since 1992–93: 18\n* Number of teams relegated (automatic relegation except as noted):\n\t+ 1963–64 to 1973–74: 2\n\t+ 1974–75 to 1980–81: 3\n\t+ 1981–82 to 1990–91: 2 automatic plus the 16th\\-place team in the First Bundesliga played a two\\-leg relegation match against the third\\-place team of the Second Bundesliga for the final spot in the First Bundesliga\n\t+ 1991–92: 4\n\t+ 1992–93 to 2007–08: 3\n\t+ Since 2008–09: 2 automatic plus the 16th\\-place team in the First Bundesliga playing a two\\-leg relegation match against the third\\-place team of the Second Bundesliga for the final spot in the First Bundesliga",
"### Qualification for European competitions",
"* 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th place: Group stage of [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\")\n* 5th place: Group stage of [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League \"UEFA Europa League\")\n* 6th place: Play\\-off round of [UEFA Europa Conference League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_Conference_League \"UEFA Europa Conference League\")\n* Until the 2016–17 season, an additional place in the Europa League could also be granted via the [UEFA Fair Play](/wiki/UEFA_Fair_Play_ranking \"UEFA Fair Play ranking\") mechanism. This rule was maintained from the UEFA Cup. The last Bundesliga team to gain entry to the UEFA Cup via the fair play rule was [Mainz 05](/wiki/FSV_Mainz_05 \"FSV Mainz 05\") in [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_UEFA_Cup \"2005–06 UEFA Cup\").\n* [DFB\\-Pokal](/wiki/DFB-Pokal \"DFB-Pokal\") (German Cup) winner: Qualifies for the group stage of Europa League regardless of league position.\n\t+ Until 2015–16, if the Cup winner qualified for the Champions League or Europa League by more than one method, the cup winner's place in the Europa League went to the losing cup finalist if it had not already qualified for European competition, entering the competition a stage earlier than if it had won the Cup. This rule was retained from the Europa League's predecessor, the UEFA Cup. From 2015–16, the runners\\-up no longer qualified for the Europa League, and the Europa League berth reserved for the DFB\\-Pokal winners is transferred to the highest finisher below the european qualification places.\n\t\t- Prior to 2015–16, the team that benefited from that rule did not necessarily have to be a Bundesliga member. For example, although [2\\. Bundesliga](/wiki/2._Bundesliga \"2. Bundesliga\") sides [Alemannia Aachen](/wiki/Alemannia_Aachen \"Alemannia Aachen\") lost to [Werder Bremen](/wiki/SV_Werder_Bremen \"SV Werder Bremen\") in the [2004 DFB\\-Pokal Final](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_DFB-Pokal%23Final \"2003–04 DFB-Pokal#Final\"), Alemannia secured an entry in the [2004–05 UEFA Cup](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_UEFA_Cup \"2004–05 UEFA Cup\"), because Werder qualified for the Champions League as First Bundesliga champions.",
"The number of German clubs which may participate in UEFA competitions is determined by [UEFA coefficients](/wiki/UEFA_coefficients \"UEFA coefficients\"), which takes into account the results of a particular nation's clubs in UEFA competitions over the preceding five years.",
"History of European qualification\n* European Cup/Champions League:\n\t+ Up to and including 1996–97: German champion only.\n\t+ 1997–99: Top two teams; champions automatically into group phase, runners\\-up entered the qualifying round.\n\t+ 1999–2008: Top two teams automatically into first group phase (only one group phase starting in 2003–04\\). Depending on the DFB's [UEFA coefficients](/wiki/UEFA_coefficients \"UEFA coefficients\") standing, either one or two other clubs (most recently one) entered at the third qualifying round; winners at this level entered the group phase.\n\t+ 2008–11: Top two teams automatically into group phase. Third placed team had to play in the play\\-off round for the right to play in the group stage.\n* UEFA Cup/Europa League:\n\t+ From 1971–72 to 1998–99, UEFA member nations could send between one and four teams to the UEFA Cup. Germany was always entitled to send at least three teams to the competition and often as many as four. From 1978–79, the number of participants was determined by the DFB's UEFA coefficient standing, prior to this the method for deciding the number of participants is unknown. The best performing teams in the league other than the champion would qualify, although if one of these teams was also winner of the [DFB\\-Pokal](/wiki/DFB-Pokal \"DFB-Pokal\") then they would enter the Cup Winners' Cup instead and their UEFA Cup place would be taken by the next highest\\-placed team in the league (5th or 6th place). Briefly in the mid\\-1970s the DFB decided to allocate the last UEFA Cup place to the DFB\\-Pokal runner\\-up instead of a third or fourth team qualified by performance in the league, meaning that at this point the DFB\\-Pokal qualified two teams for European competition (winners for the Cup Winners' Cup, runners\\-up for the UEFA Cup). This policy was unique amongst UEFA member associations and was dropped after only a few seasons. Starting with the 1999–2000 season and the abolition of the Cup Winners' Cup (which was then folded into the UEFA Cup), the DFB\\-Pokal winner now automatically qualified for the UEFA Cup alongside, depending on the DFB's UEFA coefficients standing, between one and three extra participants (if the DFB\\-Pokal winner also qualified for the Champions League, they were replaced by the DFB\\-Pokal runner\\-up; if they were also qualified for the Champions League, the UEFA Cup place went to the next best placed team in the league not otherwise qualified for European competition). Since 1999, the DFB has always been entitled to enter a minimum of three clubs in the UEFA Cup/Europa League, and at times as many as four (the maximum for any European federation). Teams that entered via UEFA's Fair Play mechanism, or those that entered through the now\\-defunct [Intertoto Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup \"UEFA Intertoto Cup\"), did not count against the national quota. From [2006](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup_2006 \"UEFA Intertoto Cup 2006\") through the final Intertoto Cup in [2008](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup_2008 \"UEFA Intertoto Cup 2008\"), only one First Bundesliga side was eligible to enter the Intertoto Cup and possibly earn a UEFA Cup berth. For the 2005–06 season, the DFB earned an extra UEFA Cup place via the Fair Play draw; this place went to [Mainz 05](/wiki/1._FSV_Mainz_05 \"1. FSV Mainz 05\") as the highest\\-ranked club in the Fair Play table of the First Bundesliga not already qualified for Europe.\n* Cup Winners' Cup (abolished after 1999\\):\n\t+ The winner of the DFB\\-Pokal entered the Cup Winners' Cup, unless that team was also league champion and therefore competing in the European Cup/Champions League, in which case their place in the Cup Winners' Cup was taken by the DFB\\-Pokal runner\\-up. Today, the DFB\\-Pokal winner (if not otherwise qualified for the Champions League) enters the UEFA Europa League."
] |
Business model
--------------
In the 2009–10 season the Bundesliga's turnover was €1\.7bn, broken down into match\-day revenue (€424m), sponsorship receipts (€573m) and broadcast income (€594m). That year it was the only European football league where clubs collectively made a profit. Bundesliga clubs paid less than 50% of revenue in players' wages, the lowest percentage out of the European leagues. The Bundesliga has the lowest ticket prices and the highest average attendance among [Europe's five major leagues](/wiki/Big_Five_%28association_football%29 "Big Five (association football)").{{cite web \|last\=Jackson \|first\=Jamie \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2010/apr/11/bundesliga\-premier\-league \|title\=How the Bundesliga puts the Premier League to shame \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=11 April 2010 \|access\-date\=30 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=30 September 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930004740/http://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2010/apr/11/bundesliga\-premier\-league \|url\-status\=live }}
Bundesliga clubs tend to form close associations with local firms, several of which have since grown into big global companies; in a comparison of leading Bundesliga and Premiership clubs, Bayern Munich received 55% of its revenue from company sponsorship deals, while Manchester United got 37%.{{cite web \|last\=Evans \|first\=Stephen \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\-22625160 \|title\=German football model is a league apart \|publisher\=BBC \|date\=23 May 2013 \|access\-date\=30 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=6 June 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606201958/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\-22625160 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|last\=Weil \|first\=Jonathan \|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\-05\-23/at\-last\-germany\-secures\-total\-dominance\-of\-europe.html \|title\=At Last, Germany Secures Total Dominance of Europe \|publisher\=Bloomberg News \|date\=23 May 2013 \|access\-date\=30 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=7 June 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607193734/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\-05\-23/at\-last\-germany\-secures\-total\-dominance\-of\-europe.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|last\=Weil \|first\=Jonathan \|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\-05\-22/has\-german\-soccer\-conquered\-europe\-not\-quite.html \|title\=Has German Soccer Conquered Europe? Not Quite \|publisher\=Bloomberg News \|date\=22 May 2013 \|access\-date\=30 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=7 June 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607215942/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\-05\-22/has\-german\-soccer\-conquered\-europe\-not\-quite.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Bundesliga clubs are required to be majority\-owned by German club members (known as the {{Interlanguage link multi\|50\+1 rule\|2\=de\|3\=50\+1\-Regel\|preserve\=1}} to discourage control by a single entity) and operate under tight restrictions on the use of debt for acquisitions (a team only receives an operating licence if it has solid financials); as a result 11 of the 18 clubs were profitable after the 2008–09 season. By contrast, in the other major European leagues numerous high\-profile teams have come under ownership of foreign billionaires and a significant number of clubs have high levels of debt.
Exceptions to the 50\+1 rule allow [Bayer Leverkusen](/wiki/Bayer_04_Leverkusen "Bayer 04 Leverkusen"), [TSG 1899 Hoffenheim](/wiki/TSG_1899_Hoffenheim "TSG 1899 Hoffenheim"), and [VfL Wolfsburg](/wiki/VfL_Wolfsburg "VfL Wolfsburg") to be owned by corporations or individual investors. In the cases of Bayer Leverkusen and Wolfsburg, the clubs were founded by major corporations (respectively [Bayer AG](/wiki/Bayer_AG "Bayer AG") and [Volkswagen](/wiki/Volkswagen "Volkswagen")) as sports clubs for their employees, while Hoffenheim has long received its primary support from [SAP](/wiki/SAP_SE "SAP SE") co\-founder [Dietmar Hopp](/wiki/Dietmar_Hopp "Dietmar Hopp"), who played in the club's youth system.{{cite web \|last1\=Hesse \|first1\=Uli \|title\=Issues looming for Germany's footballing landscape \|url\=http://www.espnfc.com/german\-bundesliga/10/blog/post/2219877/issues\-looming\-for\-germanys\-footballing\-landscape \|publisher\=ESPN \|access\-date\=8 March 2015 \|date\=30 December 2014 \|archive\-date\=6 March 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306220523/http://www.espnfc.com/german\-bundesliga/10/blog/post/2219877/issues\-looming\-for\-germanys\-footballing\-landscape \|url\-status\=live}}
After 2000 the [German Football Association](/wiki/German_Football_Association "German Football Association") and the Bundesliga required every club to run a [youth academy](/wiki/Youth_academy "Youth academy") with the aim of developing local talent for the club and the national team. As of 2010 the Bundesliga and second Bundesliga spend €75m a year on these youth academies, which train five thousand players aged 12–18\. This increased the percentage of under\-23\-year\-olds in the Bundesliga from 6% in 2000 to 15% in 2010\. This in turn allows more money to be spent on the smaller number of players that are bought.
In the 2000s, the Bundesliga was regarded as competitive, as five teams won the league title. This contrasted with the English [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"), then dominated by a "Big Four" (Manchester United, Chelsea, Liverpool, and Arsenal), as well as France's [Ligue 1](/wiki/Ligue_1 "Ligue 1"), won seven consecutive years by [Lyon](/wiki/Olympique_Lyonnais "Olympique Lyonnais").{{cite web \| url \= https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2013/may/04/barcelona\-real\-madrid\-spain\-pain \| title \= Barcelona and Real Madrid are symbolic of Spain's pain \| work \= The Guardian \| date \= 4 May 2013 \| access\-date \= 14 July 2013 \| first \= Sid \| last \= Lowe \| archive\-date \= 13 May 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140513060804/http://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2013/may/04/barcelona\-real\-madrid\-spain\-pain \| url\-status \= live }} Since then, however, a resurgent [Bayern Munich](/wiki/Bayern_Munich "Bayern Munich") has won each year from 2013 to 2023\.{{cite news \|last1\=Bennett \|first1\=John \|title\=Are brilliant Bayern Munich making the Bundesliga boring? \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25647442\|access\-date\=23 August 2014\|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=23 January 2014\|archive\-date\=9 December 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209220508/http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25647442\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|title\=Bayern Munich: Bundesliga champions in numbers\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/26720137\|access\-date\=23 August 2014\|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=26 March 2014\|archive\-date\=27 March 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327132057/http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/26720137\|url\-status\=live}}
### Financial regulations
For a number of years, the clubs in the Bundesliga have been subject to regulations not unlike the [UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations](/wiki/UEFA_Financial_Fair_Play_Regulations "UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations") agreed upon in September 2009\.
At the end of each season, clubs in the Bundesliga must apply to the [German Football Federation](/wiki/German_Football_Federation "German Football Federation") (DFB) for a licence to participate again the following year; only when the DFB, who have access to all transfer documents and accounts, are satisfied that there is no threat of insolvency do they give approval.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/agblmd26\-the\-bundesliga\-licensing\-process\-explained.jsp\|title\=The Bundesliga licensing process\|date\=2016 \|publisher\=Bundesliga\|access\-date\=3 September 2022\|archive\-date\=3 September 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903015042/https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/agblmd26\-the\-bundesliga\-licensing\-process\-explained.jsp\|url\-status\=live}} The DFB have a system of fines and points deductions for clubs who flout rules, and those who go into the red can only buy a player after selling one for at least the same amount. In addition, no individual is allowed to own more than 49 per cent of any Bundesliga club, the only exceptions being [VfL Wolfsburg](/wiki/VfL_Wolfsburg "VfL Wolfsburg"), [Bayer Leverkusen](/wiki/Bayer_Leverkusen "Bayer Leverkusen") and current [Regionalliga Nordost](/wiki/Regionalliga_Nordost "Regionalliga Nordost") member [FC Carl Zeiss Jena](/wiki/FC_Carl_Zeiss_Jena "FC Carl Zeiss Jena") should they ever be promoted to the Bundesliga, as they were each founded as factory teams.
[thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|The [Commerzbank Arena](/wiki/Commerzbank_Arena "Commerzbank Arena"), is the home ground of [Eintracht Frankfurt](/wiki/Eintracht_Frankfurt "Eintracht Frankfurt").](/wiki/File:MJL_Waldstadion_2006_3.jpg "MJL Waldstadion 2006 3.jpg")
Despite the good economic governance, there have still been some instances of clubs getting into difficulties. In 2004, [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") reported a debt of €118\.8 million (£83 million).*The Daily Telegraph*, 17 November 2004 Having won the Champions League in 1997 and a number of Bundesliga titles, Dortmund had gambled on maintaining their success with an expensive group of largely foreign players but failed, narrowly escaping liquidation in 2006\. In subsequent years, the club went through extensive restructuring to return to financial health, largely with young home\-grown players. In 2004 [Hertha BSC](/wiki/Hertha_BSC "Hertha BSC") reported debts of £24\.7 million and were able to continue in the Bundesliga only after proving they had long term credit with their bank.
The leading German club [Bayern Munich](/wiki/FC_Bayern_Munich "FC Bayern Munich") made a net profit of just €2\.5 million in 2008–09 season (group accounts),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fcbayern.telekom.de/media/native/pressemitteilungen/bilanz\_0809\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=www.fcbayern.telekom.de \|access\-date\=15 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821163732/http://www.fcbayern.telekom.de/media/native/pressemitteilungen/bilanz\_0809\.pdf \|archive\-date\=21 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead}} while [Schalke 04](/wiki/FC_Schalke_04 "FC Schalke 04") made a net loss of €30\.4 million in 2009 financial year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.schalke04\.com/news/single\-view/artikel/schalke\-unveil\-2009\-financials\-debt\-repayment\-and\-firm\-footballing\-foundations\-go\-hand\-in\-hand.html \|title\= Schalke unveil 2009 financials: debt repayment and firm footballing foundations go hand in hand \|access\-date\=7 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820150135/http://www.schalke04\.com/news/single\-view/artikel/schalke\-unveil\-2009\-financials\-debt\-repayment\-and\-firm\-footballing\-foundations\-go\-hand\-in\-hand.html \|archive\-date\=20 August 2012 }} [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") GmbH \& Co. KGaA, made a net loss of just €2\.9 million in 2008–09 season.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.futbolyou.com/en/articles/BVB\-AR\-2009\.pdf \|title\=Watch \|work\=FutbolYou\-Bundesliga \|access\-date\=14 April 2015 \|language\=de \|archive\-date\=27 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727053519/http://www.futbolyou.com/en/articles/BVB\-AR\-2009\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
### Attendances
{{main\|Bundesliga attendance}}
Based on its per\-game average, the Bundesliga is the best\-attended association football league in the world; out of all sports, its average of 45,116 fans per game during the 2011–12 season was the second highest of any [professional sports](/wiki/Professional_sports "Professional sports") league worldwide, behind only the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") of the United States. Bundesliga club [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") has the highest average attendance of any football club in the world.{{Cite web\|url\=http://billsportsmaps.com/?p\=22541\|title\=2011–12 World Football Attendances – Best Drawing Leagues (Chart of Top\-20\-drawing national leagues of association football) / Plus list of 35\-highest drawing association football clubs in the world in 2011–12\.\|accessdate\=8 April 2021\|archive\-date\=18 October 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018090110/http://billsportsmaps.com/?p\=22541\|url\-status\=live}}
Out of Europe's five major football leagues ([Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"), [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga "La Liga"), [Ligue 1](/wiki/Ligue_1 "Ligue 1"), and [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A "Serie A") ), the Bundesliga has the lowest ticket prices and the highest average attendance. Many club stadia have large terraced areas for [standing fans](/wiki/Safe_standing "Safe standing") (by comparison, stadia in the English [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") are all\-seaters due to the [Taylor Report](/wiki/Taylor_Report "Taylor Report")). Teams limit the number of [season tickets](/wiki/Season_ticket "Season ticket") to ensure everyone has a chance to see the games live, and the away club has the right to 10% of the available capacity. Match tickets often double as free rail passes which encourages supporters to travel and celebrate in a relaxed atmosphere. According to Bundesliga chief executive [Christian Seifert](/wiki/Christian_Seifert "Christian Seifert"), tickets are inexpensive (especially for [standing room](/wiki/Safe_standing "Safe standing")) as "It is not in the clubs' culture so much \[to raise prices]. They are very fan orientated". [Uli Hoeneß](/wiki/Uli_Hoene%C3%9F "Uli Hoeneß"), president of Bayern Munich, was quoted as saying "We do not think the fans are like cows to be milked. Football has got to be for everybody."
[thumb\|The Bundesliga has the highest average attendance of any football league in the world. [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") has the highest average attendance at [Signal Iduna Park](/wiki/Westfalenstadion "Westfalenstadion") of any football club in the world.](/wiki/File:Borussia_Dortmund_Hannover_96.jpg "Borussia Dortmund Hannover 96.jpg")
The [spectator figures](/wiki/Bundesliga_attendance "Bundesliga attendance") for league for the last ten seasons:
| \+Bundesliga Spectator Statistics | Season | Overall | Average | Best supported club | Average |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2011–12[Bundesliga 2011/2012 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2011-2012/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005214820/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2011\-2012/1/ \|date\=5 October 2013 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2011–12\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,805,514 | 45,116 | [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") | 80,521 |
| 2012–13[Bundesliga 2012/2013 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2012-2013/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515113321/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2012\-2013/1/ \|date\=15 May 2015 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2012–13\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,042,263 | 42,622 | 80,520 |
| 2013–14[Bundesliga 2013/2014 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2013-2014/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124143914/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2013\-2014/1/ \|date\=24 November 2020 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2013–14\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,311,145 | 43,500 | 80,297 |
| 2014–15[Bundesliga 2014/2015 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2014-2015/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531082511/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2014\-2015/1/ \|date\=31 May 2015 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2014–15\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,323,031 | 43,539 | 80,463 |
| 2015–16[Bundesliga 2015/2016 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2015-2016/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515174252/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2015\-2016/1/ \|date\=15 May 2016 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2015–16\. Retrieved 14 May 2016 | 13,249,778 | 43,300 | 81,178 |
| 2016–17[Bundesliga 2016/2017 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2016-2017/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528112154/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2016\-2017/1/ \|date\=28 May 2017 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2016–17\. Retrieved 20 May 2017 | 12,703,167 | 41,514 | 79,653 |
| 2017–18[Bundesliga 2017/2018 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2017-2018/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514065354/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2017\-2018/1/ \|date\=14 May 2018 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2017–18\. Retrieved 13 May 2018 | 13,661,796 | 44,646 | 79,496 |
| 2018–19[Bundesliga 2018/2019 » Zuschauer](https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2018-2019/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616230822/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2018\-2019/1/ \|date\=16 June 2021 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2018–19\. Retrieved 18 May 2019 | 13,298,147 | 43,458 | 80,820 |
| 2019–20[Bundesliga 2019/2020 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2019-2020/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528184612/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2019\-2020/1/ \|date\=28 May 2020 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2019–20\. Retrieved 27 June 2020 | 9,112,950 | 29,781Due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic in Germany](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany"), several matches were played behind closed doors. | [Bayern Munich](/wiki/FC_Bayern_Munich "FC Bayern Munich") | 57,353 |
| 2020–21[Bundesliga 2020/2021 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2020-2021/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514034440/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2020\-2021/1/ \|date\=14 May 2021 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2020–21\. Retrieved 22 May 2021 | 163,705 | 535Due to the COVID\-19 pandemic in Germany, the majority of matches were played behind closed doors. | [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund "Borussia Dortmund") | 1,282 |
| 2021–22[Bundesliga 2021/2022 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2021-2022/1/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706090126/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\-2021\-2022/1/ \|date\=6 July 2022 }} {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2021–22\. Retrieved 14 May 2022 | 4,641,988 | 21,039Due to the COVID\-19 pandemic in Germany, some matches were played behind closed doors. | 41,789 |
| 2022–23[Bundesliga 2022/2023 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2022-2023/1/) {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2022–23\. Retrieved 27 May 2023 | 13,147,701 | 42,966 | 81,228 |
| 2023–24[Bundesliga 2024/2024 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2023-2024/1/) {{in lang\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2023–24\. Retrieved 18 May 2024 | 12,090,797 | 39,512 | 81,305 |
|
[
"Business model\n--------------",
"In the 2009–10 season the Bundesliga's turnover was €1\\.7bn, broken down into match\\-day revenue (€424m), sponsorship receipts (€573m) and broadcast income (€594m). That year it was the only European football league where clubs collectively made a profit. Bundesliga clubs paid less than 50% of revenue in players' wages, the lowest percentage out of the European leagues. The Bundesliga has the lowest ticket prices and the highest average attendance among [Europe's five major leagues](/wiki/Big_Five_%28association_football%29 \"Big Five (association football)\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Jackson \\|first\\=Jamie \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2010/apr/11/bundesliga\\-premier\\-league \\|title\\=How the Bundesliga puts the Premier League to shame \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=11 April 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930004740/http://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2010/apr/11/bundesliga\\-premier\\-league \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Bundesliga clubs tend to form close associations with local firms, several of which have since grown into big global companies; in a comparison of leading Bundesliga and Premiership clubs, Bayern Munich received 55% of its revenue from company sponsorship deals, while Manchester United got 37%.{{cite web \\|last\\=Evans \\|first\\=Stephen \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\\-22625160 \\|title\\=German football model is a league apart \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|date\\=23 May 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606201958/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\\-22625160 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|last\\=Weil \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\\-05\\-23/at\\-last\\-germany\\-secures\\-total\\-dominance\\-of\\-europe.html \\|title\\=At Last, Germany Secures Total Dominance of Europe \\|publisher\\=Bloomberg News \\|date\\=23 May 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607193734/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\\-05\\-23/at\\-last\\-germany\\-secures\\-total\\-dominance\\-of\\-europe.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|last\\=Weil \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\\-05\\-22/has\\-german\\-soccer\\-conquered\\-europe\\-not\\-quite.html \\|title\\=Has German Soccer Conquered Europe? Not Quite \\|publisher\\=Bloomberg News \\|date\\=22 May 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607215942/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\\-05\\-22/has\\-german\\-soccer\\-conquered\\-europe\\-not\\-quite.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Bundesliga clubs are required to be majority\\-owned by German club members (known as the {{Interlanguage link multi\\|50\\+1 rule\\|2\\=de\\|3\\=50\\+1\\-Regel\\|preserve\\=1}} to discourage control by a single entity) and operate under tight restrictions on the use of debt for acquisitions (a team only receives an operating licence if it has solid financials); as a result 11 of the 18 clubs were profitable after the 2008–09 season. By contrast, in the other major European leagues numerous high\\-profile teams have come under ownership of foreign billionaires and a significant number of clubs have high levels of debt.",
"Exceptions to the 50\\+1 rule allow [Bayer Leverkusen](/wiki/Bayer_04_Leverkusen \"Bayer 04 Leverkusen\"), [TSG 1899 Hoffenheim](/wiki/TSG_1899_Hoffenheim \"TSG 1899 Hoffenheim\"), and [VfL Wolfsburg](/wiki/VfL_Wolfsburg \"VfL Wolfsburg\") to be owned by corporations or individual investors. In the cases of Bayer Leverkusen and Wolfsburg, the clubs were founded by major corporations (respectively [Bayer AG](/wiki/Bayer_AG \"Bayer AG\") and [Volkswagen](/wiki/Volkswagen \"Volkswagen\")) as sports clubs for their employees, while Hoffenheim has long received its primary support from [SAP](/wiki/SAP_SE \"SAP SE\") co\\-founder [Dietmar Hopp](/wiki/Dietmar_Hopp \"Dietmar Hopp\"), who played in the club's youth system.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Hesse \\|first1\\=Uli \\|title\\=Issues looming for Germany's footballing landscape \\|url\\=http://www.espnfc.com/german\\-bundesliga/10/blog/post/2219877/issues\\-looming\\-for\\-germanys\\-footballing\\-landscape \\|publisher\\=ESPN \\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2015 \\|date\\=30 December 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306220523/http://www.espnfc.com/german\\-bundesliga/10/blog/post/2219877/issues\\-looming\\-for\\-germanys\\-footballing\\-landscape \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"After 2000 the [German Football Association](/wiki/German_Football_Association \"German Football Association\") and the Bundesliga required every club to run a [youth academy](/wiki/Youth_academy \"Youth academy\") with the aim of developing local talent for the club and the national team. As of 2010 the Bundesliga and second Bundesliga spend €75m a year on these youth academies, which train five thousand players aged 12–18\\. This increased the percentage of under\\-23\\-year\\-olds in the Bundesliga from 6% in 2000 to 15% in 2010\\. This in turn allows more money to be spent on the smaller number of players that are bought.",
"In the 2000s, the Bundesliga was regarded as competitive, as five teams won the league title. This contrasted with the English [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"), then dominated by a \"Big Four\" (Manchester United, Chelsea, Liverpool, and Arsenal), as well as France's [Ligue 1](/wiki/Ligue_1 \"Ligue 1\"), won seven consecutive years by [Lyon](/wiki/Olympique_Lyonnais \"Olympique Lyonnais\").{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2013/may/04/barcelona\\-real\\-madrid\\-spain\\-pain \\| title \\= Barcelona and Real Madrid are symbolic of Spain's pain \\| work \\= The Guardian \\| date \\= 4 May 2013 \\| access\\-date \\= 14 July 2013 \\| first \\= Sid \\| last \\= Lowe \\| archive\\-date \\= 13 May 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140513060804/http://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2013/may/04/barcelona\\-real\\-madrid\\-spain\\-pain \\| url\\-status \\= live }} Since then, however, a resurgent [Bayern Munich](/wiki/Bayern_Munich \"Bayern Munich\") has won each year from 2013 to 2023\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Bennett \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Are brilliant Bayern Munich making the Bundesliga boring? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25647442\\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2014\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=23 January 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=9 December 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209220508/http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25647442\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Bayern Munich: Bundesliga champions in numbers\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/26720137\\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2014\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=26 March 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327132057/http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/26720137\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Financial regulations",
"For a number of years, the clubs in the Bundesliga have been subject to regulations not unlike the [UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations](/wiki/UEFA_Financial_Fair_Play_Regulations \"UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations\") agreed upon in September 2009\\.",
"At the end of each season, clubs in the Bundesliga must apply to the [German Football Federation](/wiki/German_Football_Federation \"German Football Federation\") (DFB) for a licence to participate again the following year; only when the DFB, who have access to all transfer documents and accounts, are satisfied that there is no threat of insolvency do they give approval.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/agblmd26\\-the\\-bundesliga\\-licensing\\-process\\-explained.jsp\\|title\\=The Bundesliga licensing process\\|date\\=2016 \\|publisher\\=Bundesliga\\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903015042/https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/agblmd26\\-the\\-bundesliga\\-licensing\\-process\\-explained.jsp\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The DFB have a system of fines and points deductions for clubs who flout rules, and those who go into the red can only buy a player after selling one for at least the same amount. In addition, no individual is allowed to own more than 49 per cent of any Bundesliga club, the only exceptions being [VfL Wolfsburg](/wiki/VfL_Wolfsburg \"VfL Wolfsburg\"), [Bayer Leverkusen](/wiki/Bayer_Leverkusen \"Bayer Leverkusen\") and current [Regionalliga Nordost](/wiki/Regionalliga_Nordost \"Regionalliga Nordost\") member [FC Carl Zeiss Jena](/wiki/FC_Carl_Zeiss_Jena \"FC Carl Zeiss Jena\") should they ever be promoted to the Bundesliga, as they were each founded as factory teams.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|The [Commerzbank Arena](/wiki/Commerzbank_Arena \"Commerzbank Arena\"), is the home ground of [Eintracht Frankfurt](/wiki/Eintracht_Frankfurt \"Eintracht Frankfurt\").](/wiki/File:MJL_Waldstadion_2006_3.jpg \"MJL Waldstadion 2006 3.jpg\")",
"Despite the good economic governance, there have still been some instances of clubs getting into difficulties. In 2004, [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") reported a debt of €118\\.8 million (£83 million).*The Daily Telegraph*, 17 November 2004 Having won the Champions League in 1997 and a number of Bundesliga titles, Dortmund had gambled on maintaining their success with an expensive group of largely foreign players but failed, narrowly escaping liquidation in 2006\\. In subsequent years, the club went through extensive restructuring to return to financial health, largely with young home\\-grown players. In 2004 [Hertha BSC](/wiki/Hertha_BSC \"Hertha BSC\") reported debts of £24\\.7 million and were able to continue in the Bundesliga only after proving they had long term credit with their bank.",
"The leading German club [Bayern Munich](/wiki/FC_Bayern_Munich \"FC Bayern Munich\") made a net profit of just €2\\.5 million in 2008–09 season (group accounts),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fcbayern.telekom.de/media/native/pressemitteilungen/bilanz\\_0809\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=www.fcbayern.telekom.de \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821163732/http://www.fcbayern.telekom.de/media/native/pressemitteilungen/bilanz\\_0809\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} while [Schalke 04](/wiki/FC_Schalke_04 \"FC Schalke 04\") made a net loss of €30\\.4 million in 2009 financial year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schalke04\\.com/news/single\\-view/artikel/schalke\\-unveil\\-2009\\-financials\\-debt\\-repayment\\-and\\-firm\\-footballing\\-foundations\\-go\\-hand\\-in\\-hand.html \\|title\\= Schalke unveil 2009 financials: debt repayment and firm footballing foundations go hand in hand \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820150135/http://www.schalke04\\.com/news/single\\-view/artikel/schalke\\-unveil\\-2009\\-financials\\-debt\\-repayment\\-and\\-firm\\-footballing\\-foundations\\-go\\-hand\\-in\\-hand.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2012 }} [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") GmbH \\& Co. KGaA, made a net loss of just €2\\.9 million in 2008–09 season.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.futbolyou.com/en/articles/BVB\\-AR\\-2009\\.pdf \\|title\\=Watch \\|work\\=FutbolYou\\-Bundesliga \\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2015 \\|language\\=de \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727053519/http://www.futbolyou.com/en/articles/BVB\\-AR\\-2009\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Attendances",
"{{main\\|Bundesliga attendance}}",
"Based on its per\\-game average, the Bundesliga is the best\\-attended association football league in the world; out of all sports, its average of 45,116 fans per game during the 2011–12 season was the second highest of any [professional sports](/wiki/Professional_sports \"Professional sports\") league worldwide, behind only the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") of the United States. Bundesliga club [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") has the highest average attendance of any football club in the world.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://billsportsmaps.com/?p\\=22541\\|title\\=2011–12 World Football Attendances – Best Drawing Leagues (Chart of Top\\-20\\-drawing national leagues of association football) / Plus list of 35\\-highest drawing association football clubs in the world in 2011–12\\.\\|accessdate\\=8 April 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018090110/http://billsportsmaps.com/?p\\=22541\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Out of Europe's five major football leagues ([Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"), [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga \"La Liga\"), [Ligue 1](/wiki/Ligue_1 \"Ligue 1\"), and [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A \"Serie A\") ), the Bundesliga has the lowest ticket prices and the highest average attendance. Many club stadia have large terraced areas for [standing fans](/wiki/Safe_standing \"Safe standing\") (by comparison, stadia in the English [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") are all\\-seaters due to the [Taylor Report](/wiki/Taylor_Report \"Taylor Report\")). Teams limit the number of [season tickets](/wiki/Season_ticket \"Season ticket\") to ensure everyone has a chance to see the games live, and the away club has the right to 10% of the available capacity. Match tickets often double as free rail passes which encourages supporters to travel and celebrate in a relaxed atmosphere. According to Bundesliga chief executive [Christian Seifert](/wiki/Christian_Seifert \"Christian Seifert\"), tickets are inexpensive (especially for [standing room](/wiki/Safe_standing \"Safe standing\")) as \"It is not in the clubs' culture so much \\[to raise prices]. They are very fan orientated\". [Uli Hoeneß](/wiki/Uli_Hoene%C3%9F \"Uli Hoeneß\"), president of Bayern Munich, was quoted as saying \"We do not think the fans are like cows to be milked. Football has got to be for everybody.\"",
"[thumb\\|The Bundesliga has the highest average attendance of any football league in the world. [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") has the highest average attendance at [Signal Iduna Park](/wiki/Westfalenstadion \"Westfalenstadion\") of any football club in the world.](/wiki/File:Borussia_Dortmund_Hannover_96.jpg \"Borussia Dortmund Hannover 96.jpg\")",
"The [spectator figures](/wiki/Bundesliga_attendance \"Bundesliga attendance\") for league for the last ten seasons:",
"| \\+Bundesliga Spectator Statistics | Season | Overall | Average | Best supported club | Average |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2011–12[Bundesliga 2011/2012 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2011-2012/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005214820/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2011\\-2012/1/ \\|date\\=5 October 2013 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2011–12\\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,805,514 | 45,116 | [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") | 80,521 |\n| 2012–13[Bundesliga 2012/2013 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2012-2013/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515113321/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2012\\-2013/1/ \\|date\\=15 May 2015 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2012–13\\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,042,263 | 42,622 | 80,520 |\n| 2013–14[Bundesliga 2013/2014 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2013-2014/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124143914/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2013\\-2014/1/ \\|date\\=24 November 2020 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2013–14\\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,311,145 | 43,500 | 80,297 |\n| 2014–15[Bundesliga 2014/2015 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2014-2015/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531082511/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2014\\-2015/1/ \\|date\\=31 May 2015 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2014–15\\. Retrieved 2 June 2015 | 13,323,031 | 43,539 | 80,463 |\n| 2015–16[Bundesliga 2015/2016 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2015-2016/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515174252/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2015\\-2016/1/ \\|date\\=15 May 2016 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2015–16\\. Retrieved 14 May 2016 | 13,249,778 | 43,300 | 81,178 |\n| 2016–17[Bundesliga 2016/2017 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2016-2017/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528112154/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2016\\-2017/1/ \\|date\\=28 May 2017 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2016–17\\. Retrieved 20 May 2017 | 12,703,167 | 41,514 | 79,653 |\n| 2017–18[Bundesliga 2017/2018 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2017-2018/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514065354/http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2017\\-2018/1/ \\|date\\=14 May 2018 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2017–18\\. Retrieved 13 May 2018 | 13,661,796 | 44,646 | 79,496 |\n| 2018–19[Bundesliga 2018/2019 » Zuschauer](https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2018-2019/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616230822/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2018\\-2019/1/ \\|date\\=16 June 2021 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2018–19\\. Retrieved 18 May 2019 | 13,298,147 | 43,458 | 80,820 |\n| 2019–20[Bundesliga 2019/2020 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2019-2020/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528184612/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2019\\-2020/1/ \\|date\\=28 May 2020 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2019–20\\. Retrieved 27 June 2020 | 9,112,950 | 29,781Due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in Germany](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany \"COVID-19 pandemic in Germany\"), several matches were played behind closed doors. | [Bayern Munich](/wiki/FC_Bayern_Munich \"FC Bayern Munich\") | 57,353 |\n| 2020–21[Bundesliga 2020/2021 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2020-2021/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514034440/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2020\\-2021/1/ \\|date\\=14 May 2021 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2020–21\\. Retrieved 22 May 2021 | 163,705 | 535Due to the COVID\\-19 pandemic in Germany, the majority of matches were played behind closed doors. | [Borussia Dortmund](/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund \"Borussia Dortmund\") | 1,282 |\n| 2021–22[Bundesliga 2021/2022 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2021-2022/1/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706090126/https://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga\\-2021\\-2022/1/ \\|date\\=6 July 2022 }} {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2021–22\\. Retrieved 14 May 2022 | 4,641,988 | 21,039Due to the COVID\\-19 pandemic in Germany, some matches were played behind closed doors. | 41,789 |\n| 2022–23[Bundesliga 2022/2023 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2022-2023/1/) {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2022–23\\. Retrieved 27 May 2023 | 13,147,701 | 42,966 | 81,228 |\n| 2023–24[Bundesliga 2024/2024 » Zuschauer](http://www.weltfussball.de/zuschauer/bundesliga-2023-2024/1/) {{in lang\\|de}} weltfussball.de, Spectator figures 2023–24\\. Retrieved 18 May 2024 | 12,090,797 | 39,512 | 81,305 |",
"",
""
] |
Biography
---------
George Noville was born on April 24, 1890, in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio "Cleveland, Ohio").US passport issued on 24 May 1920 He was the son of Otto J. Noville , a rich and well\-known hat manufacturer.[Bill Bryson](/wiki/Bill_Bryson "Bill Bryson") (2013\), *One Summer: America, 1927*, New York: Doubleday, Ch. \[2], "June: The Babe", p. 178, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7679\-1940\-1}} . He was an officer in the [United States Naval Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Reserve "United States Naval Reserve") and was promoted to the rank of [lieutenant commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_commander_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant commander (United States)") on December 17, 1927\.
### Transatlantic flight
In 1927, in a [trimotor](/wiki/Trimotor "Trimotor") [Fokker C\-2](/wiki/Fokker_C-2 "Fokker C-2") [monoplane](/wiki/Monoplane "Monoplane"), named *[America](/wiki/America_%28C-2%29 "America (C-2)")* he flew with [Richard E. Byrd](/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd "Richard E. Byrd"), [Bernt Balchen](/wiki/Bernt_Balchen "Bernt Balchen"), and [Bert Acosta](/wiki/Bert_Acosta "Bert Acosta") on their record\-setting [transatlantic flight](/wiki/Transatlantic_flight "Transatlantic flight").
In 1927, Byrd decided to partner with [Floyd Bennett](/wiki/Floyd_Bennett "Floyd Bennett") (his co\-pilot on the North Pole flight), and attempt to win the [Orteig Prize](/wiki/Orteig_Prize "Orteig Prize") which offered a $25,000 reward for the first non\-stop flight from New York City to Paris. The plane chosen for this flight was a Fokker C\-2 monoplane named *America*. George O. Noville was selected as the flight and fuel engineer. On April 20, 1927, during a test flight in Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey, the plane somersaulted when landing, breaking Byrd's arm and knocking him unconscious. The crash also injured Bennett and Noville required surgery for internal injuries. A fourth person on *America*, aircraft designer Anthony Fokker, was not injured.Famous American flyers By Chelsea Curtis Fraser. 1942\. On Google Books
Fokker later told Bennett that he should have refused to conduct the test flight with Byrd, Bennett, and Noville on board because there was no load in the rear of the plane. As a result, the plane was nose\-heavy.East to the Dawn: The Life of Amelia Earhart By [Susan Butler](/wiki/Susan_Butler_%28American_writer%29 "Susan Butler (American writer)")
While Byrd and his crew regrouped from the accident, [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh "Charles Lindbergh") won the [Orteig Prize](/wiki/Orteig_Prize "Orteig Prize") when he landed in Paris on May 21, 1927\. According to *The Big Aviation Book for Boys* by Richard E. Byrd, Noville was one of the group who gathered to wish Lindbergh godspeed right before his historic flight.
After several delays, Byrd's *America* took off for Paris on June 29, 1927, with Noville and two relief pilots, Bert Acosta and Bernt Balchen. The weather was terrible during the flight. Rain and strong winds made navigating near impossible. When *America* reached Paris after 40 hours, a heavy fog prevented it from landing. Byrd and his crew flew around Paris for about six hours waiting for the fog to lift. When it failed to do so, they flew west and ditched themselves in the ocean near the beach of Ver\-sur\-Mer (later known as the Gold Beach sector of D\-Day, in Normandy) without fatalities on July 1, 1927\. Byrd, Acosta, Balchen and Noville ended up entering France in a rubber life raft as *America* sank after landing on the water.
Popular Science magazine, August 1928, featured an extensive article with photos about this flight, *"Dick Byrd— Adventurer. The Absorbing Story of the America's Flight across the Atlantic – a Valiant Escape from Death in Blinding Fog"*{{Cite web \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dCcDAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA52 \|title \= Popular Science\|date \= August 1928}}
Upon return to the U.S., Byrd and Noville were awarded the [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)") by Secretary of the Navy Wilbur on July 19\.New York Times. July 20, 1927\.{{better source needed\|date\=October 2019}} On November 14, Noville and other "Air Heroes of 1927" were honored at the White House by President Calvin Coolidge.
Noville once again joined an adventure with Byrd, serving as executive officer of Byrd's Second [Antarctic Exploration](/wiki/Antarctic_Exploration "Antarctic Exploration") 1933\-35\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.south\-pole.com/p0000108\.htm\|title \= Antarctic Explorers: Richard e. Byrd \& the Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition}}
### Personal life and death
Noville was married four times. He married Violet E. Wade in 1914, and Lilian Grace MacMurchey in 1918\. His third wife was identified as "Sigrid" in 1930\. He married his fourth and final wife, Lucy Vacheron, in 1953\.
Noville committed suicide by gunshot on January 1, 1963\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"George Noville was born on April 24, 1890, in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio \"Cleveland, Ohio\").US passport issued on 24 May 1920 He was the son of Otto J. Noville , a rich and well\\-known hat manufacturer.[Bill Bryson](/wiki/Bill_Bryson \"Bill Bryson\") (2013\\), *One Summer: America, 1927*, New York: Doubleday, Ch. \\[2], \"June: The Babe\", p. 178, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7679\\-1940\\-1}} . He was an officer in the [United States Naval Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Reserve \"United States Naval Reserve\") and was promoted to the rank of [lieutenant commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_commander_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant commander (United States)\") on December 17, 1927\\.",
"### Transatlantic flight",
"In 1927, in a [trimotor](/wiki/Trimotor \"Trimotor\") [Fokker C\\-2](/wiki/Fokker_C-2 \"Fokker C-2\") [monoplane](/wiki/Monoplane \"Monoplane\"), named *[America](/wiki/America_%28C-2%29 \"America (C-2)\")* he flew with [Richard E. Byrd](/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd \"Richard E. Byrd\"), [Bernt Balchen](/wiki/Bernt_Balchen \"Bernt Balchen\"), and [Bert Acosta](/wiki/Bert_Acosta \"Bert Acosta\") on their record\\-setting [transatlantic flight](/wiki/Transatlantic_flight \"Transatlantic flight\").",
"In 1927, Byrd decided to partner with [Floyd Bennett](/wiki/Floyd_Bennett \"Floyd Bennett\") (his co\\-pilot on the North Pole flight), and attempt to win the [Orteig Prize](/wiki/Orteig_Prize \"Orteig Prize\") which offered a $25,000 reward for the first non\\-stop flight from New York City to Paris. The plane chosen for this flight was a Fokker C\\-2 monoplane named *America*. George O. Noville was selected as the flight and fuel engineer. On April 20, 1927, during a test flight in Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey, the plane somersaulted when landing, breaking Byrd's arm and knocking him unconscious. The crash also injured Bennett and Noville required surgery for internal injuries. A fourth person on *America*, aircraft designer Anthony Fokker, was not injured.Famous American flyers By Chelsea Curtis Fraser. 1942\\. On Google Books",
"Fokker later told Bennett that he should have refused to conduct the test flight with Byrd, Bennett, and Noville on board because there was no load in the rear of the plane. As a result, the plane was nose\\-heavy.East to the Dawn: The Life of Amelia Earhart By [Susan Butler](/wiki/Susan_Butler_%28American_writer%29 \"Susan Butler (American writer)\")",
"While Byrd and his crew regrouped from the accident, [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh \"Charles Lindbergh\") won the [Orteig Prize](/wiki/Orteig_Prize \"Orteig Prize\") when he landed in Paris on May 21, 1927\\. According to *The Big Aviation Book for Boys* by Richard E. Byrd, Noville was one of the group who gathered to wish Lindbergh godspeed right before his historic flight.",
"After several delays, Byrd's *America* took off for Paris on June 29, 1927, with Noville and two relief pilots, Bert Acosta and Bernt Balchen. The weather was terrible during the flight. Rain and strong winds made navigating near impossible. When *America* reached Paris after 40 hours, a heavy fog prevented it from landing. Byrd and his crew flew around Paris for about six hours waiting for the fog to lift. When it failed to do so, they flew west and ditched themselves in the ocean near the beach of Ver\\-sur\\-Mer (later known as the Gold Beach sector of D\\-Day, in Normandy) without fatalities on July 1, 1927\\. Byrd, Acosta, Balchen and Noville ended up entering France in a rubber life raft as *America* sank after landing on the water.",
"Popular Science magazine, August 1928, featured an extensive article with photos about this flight, *\"Dick Byrd— Adventurer. The Absorbing Story of the America's Flight across the Atlantic – a Valiant Escape from Death in Blinding Fog\"*{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dCcDAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA52 \\|title \\= Popular Science\\|date \\= August 1928}}",
"Upon return to the U.S., Byrd and Noville were awarded the [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\") by Secretary of the Navy Wilbur on July 19\\.New York Times. July 20, 1927\\.{{better source needed\\|date\\=October 2019}} On November 14, Noville and other \"Air Heroes of 1927\" were honored at the White House by President Calvin Coolidge.",
"Noville once again joined an adventure with Byrd, serving as executive officer of Byrd's Second [Antarctic Exploration](/wiki/Antarctic_Exploration \"Antarctic Exploration\") 1933\\-35\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.south\\-pole.com/p0000108\\.htm\\|title \\= Antarctic Explorers: Richard e. Byrd \\& the Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition}}",
"### Personal life and death",
"Noville was married four times. He married Violet E. Wade in 1914, and Lilian Grace MacMurchey in 1918\\. His third wife was identified as \"Sigrid\" in 1930\\. He married his fourth and final wife, Lucy Vacheron, in 1953\\.",
"Noville committed suicide by gunshot on January 1, 1963\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
### The Jealous Lover
On an ocean liner, a passenger recognizes famed ballet creator Charles Coudray ([James Mason](/wiki/James_Mason "James Mason")), and asks him politely why one of his works was never performed after its debut. When Coudray remains silent, the fan leaves him alone with his thoughts, leading to a flashback.
Ballerina Paula Woodward ([Moira Shearer](/wiki/Moira_Shearer "Moira Shearer")) auditions for Coudray. Coudray is impressed, but then Paula collapses and has to be carried off stage. A doctor informs her aunt Lydia ([Agnes Moorehead](/wiki/Agnes_Moorehead "Agnes Moorehead")), who in her day had been a highly acclaimed ballerina, that Paula has a heart condition that will force her to give up dancing, if she dances again, she could die. Lydia is deeply saddened, and tells the doctor that Paula would have been an even greater ballerina than she. Paula overhears Lydia wondering aloud how she could tell Paula the terrible news.
Some time later, Paula attends a performance of Coudray's latest ballet. After it seems that everyone else has left, she goes on stage and dances. However, she is not alone, Coudray has been watching. He had been dissatisfied with certain aspects of his work; from what he has seen of Paula's impromptu performance, he believes she can help him fix the defects.
At first, Paula declines his invitation to dance for him at his home studio, but eventually she dons a costume from his ballet and she dances. Paula lives up to Coudray's high expectations, but she exhausts herself in the process. Coudray tenderly kisses her and tells her that they will be together forever. She excuses herself to change, and slips away to return home to Aunt Lydia brimming with the news of what had transpired. But on her way upstairs, she dies, her last words recounting her promise to Coudray that she would be with him always.
### Mademoiselle
The story then shifts to a second passenger, referred to only as Mademoiselle ([Leslie Caron](/wiki/Leslie_Caron "Leslie Caron")). A chance remark by a passerby about a governess triggers her flashback.
She is the governess and French tutor to Thomas Clayton Campbell Jr., a bored eleven\-year\-old American boy ([Ricky Nelson](/wiki/Ricky_Nelson "Ricky Nelson")) left in her charge at a hotel in Rome by his absent parents. One day, another boy dares him to visit Mrs. Hazel Pennicott ([Ethel Barrymore](/wiki/Ethel_Barrymore "Ethel Barrymore")), who lives next door and is reputed to be a witch. When he wishes he were a man, she tells him to wrap a ribbon she has around his finger and recite her name at 8 pm, but she warns him that the spell will only last until midnight. She cuts the ribbon in half (in case she wants to have it for someone else's spell) and gives it to him. After arguing with Mademoiselle to stop her from over\-mothering him and staying in on her last night in Rome, he gets in bed and evokes the spell. The incantation works, and he is transformed into a young man ([Farley Granger](/wiki/Farley_Granger "Farley Granger")).
In his new form, he goes to find Mademoiselle, and is surprised to find that he no longer despises Mademoiselle, nor the romantic poetry that she kept reciting to him. They embark on a whirlwind romance, but he warns her that he has only a few hours before he has to go away. He does however promise that he will see her off at the train station the next day. He flees as the clock strikes midnight.
He keeps his word, but as the young boy. Mademoiselle quits her job to remain in Rome. While waiting for her lover to show up, she bumps into Mrs. Pennicott and spills the contents of the old woman's purse. Mademoiselle gathers up the various items, but after Mrs. Pennicott thanks her and leaves, she picks up an overlooked red ribbon.
The film shifts back to the ship. While Mademoiselle is knitting in a deck chair, the red ribbon blows away. When she goes to retrieve it, she encounters a handsome young man who informs her that he saw her before, from the train as it departed the station.
### Equilibrium
The camera moves to Pierre Narval ([Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas "Kirk Douglas")), leaning over the rail and gazing at the ocean.
In Paris, Narval saves a suicidal Nina Burkhardt ([Pier Angeli](/wiki/Pier_Angeli "Pier Angeli")) after she jumps from a bridge over the Seine River. He goes to visit her in the hospital, and finds her still very depressed. He gives her his address and asks her to come see him.
When she does (having nowhere else to go), he tells her that he was once a great [trapeze](/wiki/Trapeze "Trapeze") artist. However being the best was not enough for him; he kept trying more and more dangerous tricks, and two years before, his partner was killed as a result. After that, nobody would work with him. As Nina has demonstrated that she has no fear of dying, he asks her to be his new partner. When she agrees, he starts training her, despite his friends' warning that his obsession will kill her too.
Narval learns Nina's own dark secret. She and her husband had been imprisoned by the [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") in a concentration camp during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). She was released. Sensing that he was planning an escape, she had written him a letter begging him to wait, that the Allies would liberate him soon enough. However, she entrusted the letter to a man who betrayed them. Her husband was executed.
At last, the act is ready. They audition for an important American, who insists they perform the climax, the "Leap of Death" (a blind jump by Nina through a screen to Narval on the trapeze), without a safety net, just as they would before a live audience. They do the trick, but then Narval makes a decision. They walk away, leaving the circus behind them. Back aboard the ship, Narval is joined by a loving Nina.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"### The Jealous Lover",
"On an ocean liner, a passenger recognizes famed ballet creator Charles Coudray ([James Mason](/wiki/James_Mason \"James Mason\")), and asks him politely why one of his works was never performed after its debut. When Coudray remains silent, the fan leaves him alone with his thoughts, leading to a flashback.",
"Ballerina Paula Woodward ([Moira Shearer](/wiki/Moira_Shearer \"Moira Shearer\")) auditions for Coudray. Coudray is impressed, but then Paula collapses and has to be carried off stage. A doctor informs her aunt Lydia ([Agnes Moorehead](/wiki/Agnes_Moorehead \"Agnes Moorehead\")), who in her day had been a highly acclaimed ballerina, that Paula has a heart condition that will force her to give up dancing, if she dances again, she could die. Lydia is deeply saddened, and tells the doctor that Paula would have been an even greater ballerina than she. Paula overhears Lydia wondering aloud how she could tell Paula the terrible news.",
"Some time later, Paula attends a performance of Coudray's latest ballet. After it seems that everyone else has left, she goes on stage and dances. However, she is not alone, Coudray has been watching. He had been dissatisfied with certain aspects of his work; from what he has seen of Paula's impromptu performance, he believes she can help him fix the defects.",
"At first, Paula declines his invitation to dance for him at his home studio, but eventually she dons a costume from his ballet and she dances. Paula lives up to Coudray's high expectations, but she exhausts herself in the process. Coudray tenderly kisses her and tells her that they will be together forever. She excuses herself to change, and slips away to return home to Aunt Lydia brimming with the news of what had transpired. But on her way upstairs, she dies, her last words recounting her promise to Coudray that she would be with him always.",
"### Mademoiselle",
"The story then shifts to a second passenger, referred to only as Mademoiselle ([Leslie Caron](/wiki/Leslie_Caron \"Leslie Caron\")). A chance remark by a passerby about a governess triggers her flashback.",
"She is the governess and French tutor to Thomas Clayton Campbell Jr., a bored eleven\\-year\\-old American boy ([Ricky Nelson](/wiki/Ricky_Nelson \"Ricky Nelson\")) left in her charge at a hotel in Rome by his absent parents. One day, another boy dares him to visit Mrs. Hazel Pennicott ([Ethel Barrymore](/wiki/Ethel_Barrymore \"Ethel Barrymore\")), who lives next door and is reputed to be a witch. When he wishes he were a man, she tells him to wrap a ribbon she has around his finger and recite her name at 8 pm, but she warns him that the spell will only last until midnight. She cuts the ribbon in half (in case she wants to have it for someone else's spell) and gives it to him. After arguing with Mademoiselle to stop her from over\\-mothering him and staying in on her last night in Rome, he gets in bed and evokes the spell. The incantation works, and he is transformed into a young man ([Farley Granger](/wiki/Farley_Granger \"Farley Granger\")).",
"In his new form, he goes to find Mademoiselle, and is surprised to find that he no longer despises Mademoiselle, nor the romantic poetry that she kept reciting to him. They embark on a whirlwind romance, but he warns her that he has only a few hours before he has to go away. He does however promise that he will see her off at the train station the next day. He flees as the clock strikes midnight.",
"He keeps his word, but as the young boy. Mademoiselle quits her job to remain in Rome. While waiting for her lover to show up, she bumps into Mrs. Pennicott and spills the contents of the old woman's purse. Mademoiselle gathers up the various items, but after Mrs. Pennicott thanks her and leaves, she picks up an overlooked red ribbon.",
"The film shifts back to the ship. While Mademoiselle is knitting in a deck chair, the red ribbon blows away. When she goes to retrieve it, she encounters a handsome young man who informs her that he saw her before, from the train as it departed the station.",
"### Equilibrium",
"The camera moves to Pierre Narval ([Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas \"Kirk Douglas\")), leaning over the rail and gazing at the ocean.",
"In Paris, Narval saves a suicidal Nina Burkhardt ([Pier Angeli](/wiki/Pier_Angeli \"Pier Angeli\")) after she jumps from a bridge over the Seine River. He goes to visit her in the hospital, and finds her still very depressed. He gives her his address and asks her to come see him.",
"When she does (having nowhere else to go), he tells her that he was once a great [trapeze](/wiki/Trapeze \"Trapeze\") artist. However being the best was not enough for him; he kept trying more and more dangerous tricks, and two years before, his partner was killed as a result. After that, nobody would work with him. As Nina has demonstrated that she has no fear of dying, he asks her to be his new partner. When she agrees, he starts training her, despite his friends' warning that his obsession will kill her too.",
"Narval learns Nina's own dark secret. She and her husband had been imprisoned by the [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") in a concentration camp during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). She was released. Sensing that he was planning an escape, she had written him a letter begging him to wait, that the Allies would liberate him soon enough. However, she entrusted the letter to a man who betrayed them. Her husband was executed.",
"At last, the act is ready. They audition for an important American, who insists they perform the climax, the \"Leap of Death\" (a blind jump by Nina through a screen to Narval on the trapeze), without a safety net, just as they would before a live audience. They do the trick, but then Narval makes a decision. They walk away, leaving the circus behind them. Back aboard the ship, Narval is joined by a loving Nina.",
""
] |
### Mademoiselle
The story then shifts to a second passenger, referred to only as Mademoiselle ([Leslie Caron](/wiki/Leslie_Caron "Leslie Caron")). A chance remark by a passerby about a governess triggers her flashback.
She is the governess and French tutor to Thomas Clayton Campbell Jr., a bored eleven\-year\-old American boy ([Ricky Nelson](/wiki/Ricky_Nelson "Ricky Nelson")) left in her charge at a hotel in Rome by his absent parents. One day, another boy dares him to visit Mrs. Hazel Pennicott ([Ethel Barrymore](/wiki/Ethel_Barrymore "Ethel Barrymore")), who lives next door and is reputed to be a witch. When he wishes he were a man, she tells him to wrap a ribbon she has around his finger and recite her name at 8 pm, but she warns him that the spell will only last until midnight. She cuts the ribbon in half (in case she wants to have it for someone else's spell) and gives it to him. After arguing with Mademoiselle to stop her from over\-mothering him and staying in on her last night in Rome, he gets in bed and evokes the spell. The incantation works, and he is transformed into a young man ([Farley Granger](/wiki/Farley_Granger "Farley Granger")).
In his new form, he goes to find Mademoiselle, and is surprised to find that he no longer despises Mademoiselle, nor the romantic poetry that she kept reciting to him. They embark on a whirlwind romance, but he warns her that he has only a few hours before he has to go away. He does however promise that he will see her off at the train station the next day. He flees as the clock strikes midnight.
He keeps his word, but as the young boy. Mademoiselle quits her job to remain in Rome. While waiting for her lover to show up, she bumps into Mrs. Pennicott and spills the contents of the old woman's purse. Mademoiselle gathers up the various items, but after Mrs. Pennicott thanks her and leaves, she picks up an overlooked red ribbon.
The film shifts back to the ship. While Mademoiselle is knitting in a deck chair, the red ribbon blows away. When she goes to retrieve it, she encounters a handsome young man who informs her that he saw her before, from the train as it departed the station.
|
[
"### Mademoiselle",
"The story then shifts to a second passenger, referred to only as Mademoiselle ([Leslie Caron](/wiki/Leslie_Caron \"Leslie Caron\")). A chance remark by a passerby about a governess triggers her flashback.",
"She is the governess and French tutor to Thomas Clayton Campbell Jr., a bored eleven\\-year\\-old American boy ([Ricky Nelson](/wiki/Ricky_Nelson \"Ricky Nelson\")) left in her charge at a hotel in Rome by his absent parents. One day, another boy dares him to visit Mrs. Hazel Pennicott ([Ethel Barrymore](/wiki/Ethel_Barrymore \"Ethel Barrymore\")), who lives next door and is reputed to be a witch. When he wishes he were a man, she tells him to wrap a ribbon she has around his finger and recite her name at 8 pm, but she warns him that the spell will only last until midnight. She cuts the ribbon in half (in case she wants to have it for someone else's spell) and gives it to him. After arguing with Mademoiselle to stop her from over\\-mothering him and staying in on her last night in Rome, he gets in bed and evokes the spell. The incantation works, and he is transformed into a young man ([Farley Granger](/wiki/Farley_Granger \"Farley Granger\")).",
"In his new form, he goes to find Mademoiselle, and is surprised to find that he no longer despises Mademoiselle, nor the romantic poetry that she kept reciting to him. They embark on a whirlwind romance, but he warns her that he has only a few hours before he has to go away. He does however promise that he will see her off at the train station the next day. He flees as the clock strikes midnight.",
"He keeps his word, but as the young boy. Mademoiselle quits her job to remain in Rome. While waiting for her lover to show up, she bumps into Mrs. Pennicott and spills the contents of the old woman's purse. Mademoiselle gathers up the various items, but after Mrs. Pennicott thanks her and leaves, she picks up an overlooked red ribbon.",
"The film shifts back to the ship. While Mademoiselle is knitting in a deck chair, the red ribbon blows away. When she goes to retrieve it, she encounters a handsome young man who informs her that he saw her before, from the train as it departed the station.",
""
] |
### Equilibrium
The camera moves to Pierre Narval ([Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas "Kirk Douglas")), leaning over the rail and gazing at the ocean.
In Paris, Narval saves a suicidal Nina Burkhardt ([Pier Angeli](/wiki/Pier_Angeli "Pier Angeli")) after she jumps from a bridge over the Seine River. He goes to visit her in the hospital, and finds her still very depressed. He gives her his address and asks her to come see him.
When she does (having nowhere else to go), he tells her that he was once a great [trapeze](/wiki/Trapeze "Trapeze") artist. However being the best was not enough for him; he kept trying more and more dangerous tricks, and two years before, his partner was killed as a result. After that, nobody would work with him. As Nina has demonstrated that she has no fear of dying, he asks her to be his new partner. When she agrees, he starts training her, despite his friends' warning that his obsession will kill her too.
Narval learns Nina's own dark secret. She and her husband had been imprisoned by the [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") in a concentration camp during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). She was released. Sensing that he was planning an escape, she had written him a letter begging him to wait, that the Allies would liberate him soon enough. However, she entrusted the letter to a man who betrayed them. Her husband was executed.
At last, the act is ready. They audition for an important American, who insists they perform the climax, the "Leap of Death" (a blind jump by Nina through a screen to Narval on the trapeze), without a safety net, just as they would before a live audience. They do the trick, but then Narval makes a decision. They walk away, leaving the circus behind them. Back aboard the ship, Narval is joined by a loving Nina.
|
[
"### Equilibrium",
"The camera moves to Pierre Narval ([Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas \"Kirk Douglas\")), leaning over the rail and gazing at the ocean.",
"In Paris, Narval saves a suicidal Nina Burkhardt ([Pier Angeli](/wiki/Pier_Angeli \"Pier Angeli\")) after she jumps from a bridge over the Seine River. He goes to visit her in the hospital, and finds her still very depressed. He gives her his address and asks her to come see him.",
"When she does (having nowhere else to go), he tells her that he was once a great [trapeze](/wiki/Trapeze \"Trapeze\") artist. However being the best was not enough for him; he kept trying more and more dangerous tricks, and two years before, his partner was killed as a result. After that, nobody would work with him. As Nina has demonstrated that she has no fear of dying, he asks her to be his new partner. When she agrees, he starts training her, despite his friends' warning that his obsession will kill her too.",
"Narval learns Nina's own dark secret. She and her husband had been imprisoned by the [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") in a concentration camp during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). She was released. Sensing that he was planning an escape, she had written him a letter begging him to wait, that the Allies would liberate him soon enough. However, she entrusted the letter to a man who betrayed them. Her husband was executed.",
"At last, the act is ready. They audition for an important American, who insists they perform the climax, the \"Leap of Death\" (a blind jump by Nina through a screen to Narval on the trapeze), without a safety net, just as they would before a live audience. They do the trick, but then Narval makes a decision. They walk away, leaving the circus behind them. Back aboard the ship, Narval is joined by a loving Nina.",
""
] |
Site policy and remediation
---------------------------
### Site policy
The [Safe Drinking Water Act](/wiki/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act "Safe Drinking Water Act") (SDWA), [Clean Water Act](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act "Clean Water Act") (CWA), and [Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980](/wiki/Superfund "Superfund") (CERCLA) are applicable to Ohio River Park.
The SDWA protects the water quality of drinking water in the US.United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2020\-02\-27\). *[Background on Drinking Water Standards in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)](https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/background-drinking-water-standards-safe-drinking-water-act-sdwa).* Retrieved 2020\-11\-06\. Under the SDWA, there are [maximum contaminant levels](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level "Maximum Contaminant Level") (MCLs) that must be met. In the Site Investigation Report, [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic"), [cadmium](/wiki/Cadmium "Cadmium"), [chromium](/wiki/Chromium "Chromium"), [lead](/wiki/Lead "Lead"), and [selenium](/wiki/Selenium "Selenium") all greatly exceeded the MCL.
The CWA protects water quality in bodies of water (such as [rivers](/wiki/River "River") and [lakes](/wiki/Lake "Lake")) and it determines *water quality criteria* (i.e. standards to protect water quality in water bodies).United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2020\-06\-15\). *[History of the Clean Water Act](https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act)*. Retrieved 2020\-11\-06\. [Benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene"), [phenol](/wiki/Phenol "Phenol"), [silvex](/wiki/Silvex "Silvex"), 2,4\-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ([2,4\-D](/wiki/2%2C4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic_acid "2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid")), 2,4,6\-trichlorophenol ([2,4,6\-TCP](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol "2,4,6-Trichlorophenol")), [2\-chlorophenol](/wiki/2-Chlorophenol "2-Chlorophenol"), and [2,4\-dichlorophenol](/wiki/2%2C4-Dichlorophenol "2,4-Dichlorophenol") did not meet the water quality criteria (WQC) suggested by the EPA.
CERCLA was designed to protect the environment by cleaning up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites.{{Cite web\|last\=United States Environmental Protection Agency\|title\=Summary of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund)\|url\=https://www.epa.gov/laws\-regulations/summary\-comprehensive\-environmental\-response\-compensation\-and\-liability\-act\|access\-date\=7 December 2020\|website\=United States Environmental Protection Agency}} Additionally, the EPA seeks payment from parties responsible under CERCLA.
### Remediation
In remediation projects, engineers make contaminants of concern (COCs) which are the most toxic chemicals targeted for full clean\-up. The soil contaminants of concern in 1996 were [benzo(a)anthracene](/wiki/Benz%28a%29anthracene "Benz(a)anthracene") and [benzo(a)pyrene](/wiki/Benzo%28a%29pyrene "Benzo(a)pyrene"). The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was set at a soil concentration of 7,800 ug/kg and 780 ug/kg, respectively. The groundwater contaminants of concern in 1998 were [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") and [2,4,6\-trichlorophenol](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol "2,4,6-Trichlorophenol") (2,4,6\-TCP). The cleanup goal for [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") was set at its [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level "Maximum Contaminant Level") (MCL), 5 μg/L and 2,4,6\-trichlorophenol was set at a concentration of 61 μg/L.
The EPA determines remediating any parts of a Site as an *operable unit* (abbreviated as OU). There were 3 OUs on the Site.
OU1 dealt with remediating the soil and it consisted of creating a [multi\-layer cap](/wiki/In_situ_capping_of_subaqueous_waste "In situ capping of subaqueous waste") and gas collection system, an erosion cap, and an erosion control system with vertical barrier [slurry walls](/wiki/Slurry_wall "Slurry wall"). Multi\-layer capping prevents various contaminants from reaching groundwater through [infiltration](/wiki/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29 "Infiltration (hydrology)"). OU1 construction occurred in February 1998 and ended in September 1999\. The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was achieved.
OU2 dealt with building a new [Coraopolis Bridge](/wiki/Coraopolis_Bridge "Coraopolis Bridge") on top of a portion of the Site. OU2 had no human health hazards in the soil. Thus, OU2 was given *no action* and bridge construction was completed by 1995\.
OU3 dealt with monitoring the groundwater via [Monitored Natural Attenuation](https://www.enviro.wiki/index.php?title=Monitored_Natural_Attenuation_(MNA)) (MNA) and began in 2004\. MNA is still ongoing. The cleanup goal for 2,4,6\-trichlorophenol ([2,4,6\-TCP](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol "2,4,6-Trichlorophenol")) was 61 μg/L and this goal was achieved by having a well reach less than 61 μg/L from October 2015 to December 2017\. By December 2017, only two wells did not meet the [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level "Maximum Contaminant Level") (MCL). One well is currently being projected to be under the MCL by 2034 (called ERT\-27S). The other well (called URS\-24S) may not achieve the MCL by 2034, but the EPA is not concerned.
|
[
"Site policy and remediation\n---------------------------",
"### Site policy",
"The [Safe Drinking Water Act](/wiki/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act \"Safe Drinking Water Act\") (SDWA), [Clean Water Act](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act \"Clean Water Act\") (CWA), and [Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980](/wiki/Superfund \"Superfund\") (CERCLA) are applicable to Ohio River Park.",
"The SDWA protects the water quality of drinking water in the US.United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2020\\-02\\-27\\). *[Background on Drinking Water Standards in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)](https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/background-drinking-water-standards-safe-drinking-water-act-sdwa).* Retrieved 2020\\-11\\-06\\. Under the SDWA, there are [maximum contaminant levels](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level \"Maximum Contaminant Level\") (MCLs) that must be met. In the Site Investigation Report, [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic \"Arsenic\"), [cadmium](/wiki/Cadmium \"Cadmium\"), [chromium](/wiki/Chromium \"Chromium\"), [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"), and [selenium](/wiki/Selenium \"Selenium\") all greatly exceeded the MCL.",
"The CWA protects water quality in bodies of water (such as [rivers](/wiki/River \"River\") and [lakes](/wiki/Lake \"Lake\")) and it determines *water quality criteria* (i.e. standards to protect water quality in water bodies).United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2020\\-06\\-15\\). *[History of the Clean Water Act](https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act)*. Retrieved 2020\\-11\\-06\\. [Benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\"), [phenol](/wiki/Phenol \"Phenol\"), [silvex](/wiki/Silvex \"Silvex\"), 2,4\\-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ([2,4\\-D](/wiki/2%2C4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic_acid \"2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid\")), 2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol ([2,4,6\\-TCP](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol \"2,4,6-Trichlorophenol\")), [2\\-chlorophenol](/wiki/2-Chlorophenol \"2-Chlorophenol\"), and [2,4\\-dichlorophenol](/wiki/2%2C4-Dichlorophenol \"2,4-Dichlorophenol\") did not meet the water quality criteria (WQC) suggested by the EPA.",
"CERCLA was designed to protect the environment by cleaning up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites.{{Cite web\\|last\\=United States Environmental Protection Agency\\|title\\=Summary of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund)\\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/laws\\-regulations/summary\\-comprehensive\\-environmental\\-response\\-compensation\\-and\\-liability\\-act\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2020\\|website\\=United States Environmental Protection Agency}} Additionally, the EPA seeks payment from parties responsible under CERCLA.",
"### Remediation",
"In remediation projects, engineers make contaminants of concern (COCs) which are the most toxic chemicals targeted for full clean\\-up. The soil contaminants of concern in 1996 were [benzo(a)anthracene](/wiki/Benz%28a%29anthracene \"Benz(a)anthracene\") and [benzo(a)pyrene](/wiki/Benzo%28a%29pyrene \"Benzo(a)pyrene\"). The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was set at a soil concentration of 7,800 ug/kg and 780 ug/kg, respectively. The groundwater contaminants of concern in 1998 were [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") and [2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol \"2,4,6-Trichlorophenol\") (2,4,6\\-TCP). The cleanup goal for [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") was set at its [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level \"Maximum Contaminant Level\") (MCL), 5 μg/L and 2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol was set at a concentration of 61 μg/L.",
"The EPA determines remediating any parts of a Site as an *operable unit* (abbreviated as OU). There were 3 OUs on the Site.",
"OU1 dealt with remediating the soil and it consisted of creating a [multi\\-layer cap](/wiki/In_situ_capping_of_subaqueous_waste \"In situ capping of subaqueous waste\") and gas collection system, an erosion cap, and an erosion control system with vertical barrier [slurry walls](/wiki/Slurry_wall \"Slurry wall\"). Multi\\-layer capping prevents various contaminants from reaching groundwater through [infiltration](/wiki/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29 \"Infiltration (hydrology)\"). OU1 construction occurred in February 1998 and ended in September 1999\\. The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was achieved.",
"OU2 dealt with building a new [Coraopolis Bridge](/wiki/Coraopolis_Bridge \"Coraopolis Bridge\") on top of a portion of the Site. OU2 had no human health hazards in the soil. Thus, OU2 was given *no action* and bridge construction was completed by 1995\\.",
"OU3 dealt with monitoring the groundwater via [Monitored Natural Attenuation](https://www.enviro.wiki/index.php?title=Monitored_Natural_Attenuation_(MNA)) (MNA) and began in 2004\\. MNA is still ongoing. The cleanup goal for 2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol ([2,4,6\\-TCP](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol \"2,4,6-Trichlorophenol\")) was 61 μg/L and this goal was achieved by having a well reach less than 61 μg/L from October 2015 to December 2017\\. By December 2017, only two wells did not meet the [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level \"Maximum Contaminant Level\") (MCL). One well is currently being projected to be under the MCL by 2034 (called ERT\\-27S). The other well (called URS\\-24S) may not achieve the MCL by 2034, but the EPA is not concerned.",
""
] |
### Remediation
In remediation projects, engineers make contaminants of concern (COCs) which are the most toxic chemicals targeted for full clean\-up. The soil contaminants of concern in 1996 were [benzo(a)anthracene](/wiki/Benz%28a%29anthracene "Benz(a)anthracene") and [benzo(a)pyrene](/wiki/Benzo%28a%29pyrene "Benzo(a)pyrene"). The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was set at a soil concentration of 7,800 ug/kg and 780 ug/kg, respectively. The groundwater contaminants of concern in 1998 were [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") and [2,4,6\-trichlorophenol](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol "2,4,6-Trichlorophenol") (2,4,6\-TCP). The cleanup goal for [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") was set at its [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level "Maximum Contaminant Level") (MCL), 5 μg/L and 2,4,6\-trichlorophenol was set at a concentration of 61 μg/L.
The EPA determines remediating any parts of a Site as an *operable unit* (abbreviated as OU). There were 3 OUs on the Site.
OU1 dealt with remediating the soil and it consisted of creating a [multi\-layer cap](/wiki/In_situ_capping_of_subaqueous_waste "In situ capping of subaqueous waste") and gas collection system, an erosion cap, and an erosion control system with vertical barrier [slurry walls](/wiki/Slurry_wall "Slurry wall"). Multi\-layer capping prevents various contaminants from reaching groundwater through [infiltration](/wiki/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29 "Infiltration (hydrology)"). OU1 construction occurred in February 1998 and ended in September 1999\. The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was achieved.
OU2 dealt with building a new [Coraopolis Bridge](/wiki/Coraopolis_Bridge "Coraopolis Bridge") on top of a portion of the Site. OU2 had no human health hazards in the soil. Thus, OU2 was given *no action* and bridge construction was completed by 1995\.
OU3 dealt with monitoring the groundwater via [Monitored Natural Attenuation](https://www.enviro.wiki/index.php?title=Monitored_Natural_Attenuation_(MNA)) (MNA) and began in 2004\. MNA is still ongoing. The cleanup goal for 2,4,6\-trichlorophenol ([2,4,6\-TCP](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol "2,4,6-Trichlorophenol")) was 61 μg/L and this goal was achieved by having a well reach less than 61 μg/L from October 2015 to December 2017\. By December 2017, only two wells did not meet the [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level "Maximum Contaminant Level") (MCL). One well is currently being projected to be under the MCL by 2034 (called ERT\-27S). The other well (called URS\-24S) may not achieve the MCL by 2034, but the EPA is not concerned.
|
[
"### Remediation",
"In remediation projects, engineers make contaminants of concern (COCs) which are the most toxic chemicals targeted for full clean\\-up. The soil contaminants of concern in 1996 were [benzo(a)anthracene](/wiki/Benz%28a%29anthracene \"Benz(a)anthracene\") and [benzo(a)pyrene](/wiki/Benzo%28a%29pyrene \"Benzo(a)pyrene\"). The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was set at a soil concentration of 7,800 ug/kg and 780 ug/kg, respectively. The groundwater contaminants of concern in 1998 were [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") and [2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol \"2,4,6-Trichlorophenol\") (2,4,6\\-TCP). The cleanup goal for [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") was set at its [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level \"Maximum Contaminant Level\") (MCL), 5 μg/L and 2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol was set at a concentration of 61 μg/L.",
"The EPA determines remediating any parts of a Site as an *operable unit* (abbreviated as OU). There were 3 OUs on the Site.",
"OU1 dealt with remediating the soil and it consisted of creating a [multi\\-layer cap](/wiki/In_situ_capping_of_subaqueous_waste \"In situ capping of subaqueous waste\") and gas collection system, an erosion cap, and an erosion control system with vertical barrier [slurry walls](/wiki/Slurry_wall \"Slurry wall\"). Multi\\-layer capping prevents various contaminants from reaching groundwater through [infiltration](/wiki/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29 \"Infiltration (hydrology)\"). OU1 construction occurred in February 1998 and ended in September 1999\\. The cleanup goal of benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene was achieved.",
"OU2 dealt with building a new [Coraopolis Bridge](/wiki/Coraopolis_Bridge \"Coraopolis Bridge\") on top of a portion of the Site. OU2 had no human health hazards in the soil. Thus, OU2 was given *no action* and bridge construction was completed by 1995\\.",
"OU3 dealt with monitoring the groundwater via [Monitored Natural Attenuation](https://www.enviro.wiki/index.php?title=Monitored_Natural_Attenuation_(MNA)) (MNA) and began in 2004\\. MNA is still ongoing. The cleanup goal for 2,4,6\\-trichlorophenol ([2,4,6\\-TCP](/wiki/2%2C4%2C6-Trichlorophenol \"2,4,6-Trichlorophenol\")) was 61 μg/L and this goal was achieved by having a well reach less than 61 μg/L from October 2015 to December 2017\\. By December 2017, only two wells did not meet the [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") [maximum contaminant level](/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level \"Maximum Contaminant Level\") (MCL). One well is currently being projected to be under the MCL by 2034 (called ERT\\-27S). The other well (called URS\\-24S) may not achieve the MCL by 2034, but the EPA is not concerned.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1870\-1927: German\-American Bank
The Continental Bank and Trust Company was established on August 1, 1870 at the original [Equitable Building](/wiki/Equitable_Life_Building_%28Manhattan%29 "Equitable Life Building (Manhattan)") at [120 Broadway](/wiki/120_Broadway "120 Broadway"). The building was the first structure in the city to have passenger elevators. The bank went on to have its main office in several buildings, including one at 50 [Wall Street](/wiki/Wall_Street "Wall Street") facing what was then the [New York Custom House](/wiki/New_York_Custom_House "New York Custom House"). Founders included [Jacob H. Schiff](/wiki/Jacob_H._Schiff "Jacob H. Schiff"), [H. B. Claflin](/wiki/H._B._Claflin "H. B. Claflin"), [Marcellus Hartley](/wiki/Marcellus_Hartley "Marcellus Hartley"), [Robert L. Cutting](/wiki/Robert_L._Cutting "Robert L. Cutting"), and [Joseph Seligman](/wiki/Joseph_Seligman "Joseph Seligman").
Upon the United States entry into the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") against the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire"), the old German\-American Bank became the Continental Bank of New York in 1918\. Prior to the 1930s, the bank "identified during most of its career with the brokerage and investment banking interests of [Wall Street](/wiki/Wall_Street "Wall Street")," and the bank's activities expanded to also include the trust field. It became known as the "brokers bank" for its collaboration with Wall Street brokers to expand financially.
### 1928\-1929: Name change and first acquisitions
To encapsulate the bank's increasing work in the trust field, it was renamed the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York around 1929, prior to a series of mergers.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Continental Bank Advances Merger; Its Directors and Those of Fidelity Trust Company Approve Union. Details to be Worked Out \- Committees Appointed for That Purpose, Presidents Report\-\-$151,993,555 Involved. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1929/10/10/archives/continental\-bank\-advances\-merger\-its\-directors\-and\-those\-of.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=October 10, 1929 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} In 1929, "through the subscription of new money by more than three hundred and fifty Stock Exchange and [Curb Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Curb_Exchange "New York Curb Exchange") houses, individual partners and other Wall Street interests and the purchase of new stock by the bank's stockholders," the bank increased its capital funds from $2,500,000 to $20,000,000\. It decided to erect a new building that year, and began the development process with the oversight of the bank's president Frederick Harrison Hornby. The result would be the creation of [Continental Bank Building](/wiki/Continental_Bank_Building "Continental Bank Building"), a fifty\-story building at 30 Broad Street, built cooperatively by the bank and other organizations.
Also in the fall of 1929, the bank underwent negotiations on a prospective merger of the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York and the [Fidelity Trust Company](/wiki/Fidelity_Trust_Company_%28New_York_bank%29 "Fidelity Trust Company (New York bank)"). On October 9, 1929, the boards of both issued a joint announcement that they had approved a merger plan.
### 1930\-1931: Mergers in the 1930s
By the 1930s, the bank was involved in extending its business with acquisitions of commercial banking and fiduciary operations.
On August 3, 1931, it was reported that on September 16, the merger of Continental Bank and Trust Company and [Straus National Bank and Trust Company](/wiki/Straus_National_Bank_and_Trust_Company_%28New_York%29 "Straus National Bank and Trust Company (New York)"), both of New York, and the acquisition "by the merged bank of the [International Trust Company](/wiki/International_Trust_Company "International Trust Company"), subject to ratification by stockholders," would be effective.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Basis Is Worked Out For Merger of Banks; Union of Continental and Straus and International Trust Acquisition Due Sept. 16\. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/08/03/archives/basis\-is\-worked\-out\-for\-merger\-of\-banks\-union\-of\-continental\-and.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=August 3, 1931 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} On end of business on September 15, 1931, the consolidation of the Straus National Bank and Trust Company of New York with the Continental Bank was completed, and the merged institution acquired certain assets of the International Trust Company. The Continental in its enlarged form opened the morning of September 16, 1931\. Chairman of the consolidated bank was Frederick H. Hornby, who had formerly been president of Continental. President [C. Howard Marfield](/wiki/C._Howard_Marfield "C. Howard Marfield") was of Straus National as former president.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Straus Bank Joins With Continental; Merged Institution Acquires Certain of the Assets of International Trust. DOld Personnel Retained \- Capital Funds Set at $11,000,000, including $6,000,000 Surplus and $1,000,000 Reserves. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/09/16/archives/straus\-bank\-joins\-with\-continental\-merged\-institution\-acquires.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=September 16, 1931 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} After the company absorbed Straus and the International Trust, Hornby relinquished the presidency and became chairman for several years, resuming becoming president in 1933\.
To be effective on December 21, 1931, on December 15, the Continental Bank agreed to acquire the [Industrial National Bank](/wiki/Industrial_National_Bank "Industrial National Bank"), with the backing of both boards. The combined company would have $53,000,000 in combined deposits, but no increase in capital.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Continental Bank Ready For Merger; Plans for Acquisition of the Industrial National Backed by Both Boards. Deal Effective On Dec. 21 \- Combined Institution Will Have $53,000,000 Deposits\-\-No Increase in Capital. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/12/15/archives/continental\-bank\-ready\-for\-merger\-plans\-for\-acquisition\-of\-the.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=December 15, 1931 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}}
### 1932\-1947: Continental Bank Building and new presidents
The Continental Bank and Trust Company opened for business on May 9, 1932, at the newly opened skyscraper at [30 Broad Street](/wiki/30_Broad_Street "30 Broad Street"), after moving in to the Continental Bank Building the weekend before. Continental occupied basement A and B, and floors two, three, and four. The new headquarters combined the bank's previous headquarters across the street at [25 Broad Street](/wiki/25_Broad_Street "25 Broad Street"), and its branch office at [26 Broadway](/wiki/26_Broadway "26 Broadway"). Branches remained at 565 [Fifth Avenue](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue "Fifth Avenue"), 512 [Seventh Avenue](/wiki/Seventh_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Seventh Avenue (Manhattan)"), and 72 [Second Avenue](/wiki/Second_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Second Avenue (Manhattan)").{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Continental Moves To Skyscraper Home; Bank Occupies 5 Floors of New Structure at 30 Broad St. \-\- Mural by Cox in Main Room. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/05/09/archives/continental\-moves\-to\-skyscraper\-home\-bank\-occupies\-5\-floors\-of\-new.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=May 9, 1932 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} According to *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, in the decade following the bank became known as the "friendly bank," as Hornby and other officers would sit at their desks in the main banking room, where they were accessible to customers. By 1940, it was using seven floors of the building.
On August 1, 1940, the Continental Bank and Trust Company celebrated its seventieth anniversary.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Continental Bank to Mark 70th Year; Institution Has 3,500 Depositors and 6,000 Stockholders \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/08/01/archives/continental\-bank\-to\-mark\-70th\-year\-institution\-has\-3500\-depositors.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=August 1, 1940 \|access\-date\=November 2, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} The day prior, the president noted that the bank had deposits of $64,475,000, and was in the "unusual position" of having 6,000 stockholders but only 3,500 depositors, a result of a policy of "developing a selective, specialized commercial banking business."
The president of the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York, F. H. Hornby, died on October 19, 1942, after falling ill.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\= F. H. Hornby Dies; President of Bank; For Last 14 Years Had Guided the Continental Bank and Trust Co. of New York A 'Friendly' Institution \- He Was a Director in Other Corporations \- Erected a 50\-Story Structure \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1942/10/20/archives/f\-h\-hornby\-dies\-president\-of\-bank\-for\-last\-14\-years\-had\-guided\-the.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=October 20, 1942 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} He was replaced in February 1944 by James A. Jackson, after the presidency was assumed for several years by chairman Frederick E. Hasler.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=James A. Jackson Slated to Head Continental Bank and Trust Co.; Partner in Lazard Freres Is Expected to Be Successor of the Late F.H. Hornby \-\- Long Active in the Field \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1944/02/26/archives/james\-a\-jackson\-slated\-to\-head\-continental\-bank\-and\-trust\-co.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=February 26, 1944 \|access\-date\=November 2, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} As of December 31, 1943, it had total resources amounting to $129,620,215, and total deposits of $119,437,880\. Branch offices were maintained at 345 [Madison Avenue](/wiki/Madison_Avenue "Madison Avenue") and 512 Seventh Avenue. With banker [Rafael Carrión Sr.](/wiki/Rafael_Carri%C3%B3n_Sr. "Rafael Carrión Sr.") one of the largest stockholders, in 1947 the bank earned $804,000 in net profits. As of December 31, 1947, Continental had total resources of $202,000,000, and deposits of $188,000,000\.
### 1948: Buyout by Chemical Bank
On February 14, 1948, it was reported that the [Chemical Bank and Trust Company](/wiki/Chemical_Bank_and_Trust_Company "Chemical Bank and Trust Company") was seeking to absorb the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York. It was said the deal would return $12,500,000 to Continental's shareholders, and transfer about $190,000,000 in resources to the Chemical Bank. it was reported that the terms were seen as "acceptable" to Continental directors, with the bank's Broad Street headquarters and two branches to become the property of Chemical Bank. John K. McKee, president of Continental, was asked to become a senior officer at Chemical, with all other officers and employees invited to join Chemical Bank as well. The board of Chemical Bank, it was disclosed, would increase from 22 to 25\. Along with two other directors from Continental,{{cite news \|author\=George A. Mooney \|title\=Chemical Bank Plans to Absorb The Continental in a Cash Deal; Offer Made in Letter, 'Acceptable' to Latter's Directorate, Would Entail Payment of About $12,500,000 to Stockholders \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1948/02/14/archives/chemical\-bank\-plans\-to\-absorb\-the\-continental\-in\-a\-cash\-deal\-offer.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|location\=New York City, New York, United States \|date\=February 14, 1948 \|access\-date\=November 2, 2017 \|url\-access\=subscription}} [Rafael Carrión Sr.](/wiki/Rafael_Carri%C3%B3n_Sr. "Rafael Carrión Sr.") became a member of Chemical's board of directors.{{cite book \|title\=Tradition into the Future: The First Century of the Banco Popular De Puerto Rico 1893\-1993 \|first\=Guillermo A. \|last\=Baralt \|publisher\=Banco Popular de Puerto Rico \|year\=1993 \|pages\=66–68 \|isbn\=978\-0963340900}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1870\\-1927: German\\-American Bank",
"The Continental Bank and Trust Company was established on August 1, 1870 at the original [Equitable Building](/wiki/Equitable_Life_Building_%28Manhattan%29 \"Equitable Life Building (Manhattan)\") at [120 Broadway](/wiki/120_Broadway \"120 Broadway\"). The building was the first structure in the city to have passenger elevators. The bank went on to have its main office in several buildings, including one at 50 [Wall Street](/wiki/Wall_Street \"Wall Street\") facing what was then the [New York Custom House](/wiki/New_York_Custom_House \"New York Custom House\"). Founders included [Jacob H. Schiff](/wiki/Jacob_H._Schiff \"Jacob H. Schiff\"), [H. B. Claflin](/wiki/H._B._Claflin \"H. B. Claflin\"), [Marcellus Hartley](/wiki/Marcellus_Hartley \"Marcellus Hartley\"), [Robert L. Cutting](/wiki/Robert_L._Cutting \"Robert L. Cutting\"), and [Joseph Seligman](/wiki/Joseph_Seligman \"Joseph Seligman\").",
"Upon the United States entry into the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") against the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\"), the old German\\-American Bank became the Continental Bank of New York in 1918\\. Prior to the 1930s, the bank \"identified during most of its career with the brokerage and investment banking interests of [Wall Street](/wiki/Wall_Street \"Wall Street\"),\" and the bank's activities expanded to also include the trust field. It became known as the \"brokers bank\" for its collaboration with Wall Street brokers to expand financially.",
"### 1928\\-1929: Name change and first acquisitions",
"To encapsulate the bank's increasing work in the trust field, it was renamed the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York around 1929, prior to a series of mergers.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Continental Bank Advances Merger; Its Directors and Those of Fidelity Trust Company Approve Union. Details to be Worked Out \\- Committees Appointed for That Purpose, Presidents Report\\-\\-$151,993,555 Involved. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1929/10/10/archives/continental\\-bank\\-advances\\-merger\\-its\\-directors\\-and\\-those\\-of.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=October 10, 1929 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} In 1929, \"through the subscription of new money by more than three hundred and fifty Stock Exchange and [Curb Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Curb_Exchange \"New York Curb Exchange\") houses, individual partners and other Wall Street interests and the purchase of new stock by the bank's stockholders,\" the bank increased its capital funds from $2,500,000 to $20,000,000\\. It decided to erect a new building that year, and began the development process with the oversight of the bank's president Frederick Harrison Hornby. The result would be the creation of [Continental Bank Building](/wiki/Continental_Bank_Building \"Continental Bank Building\"), a fifty\\-story building at 30 Broad Street, built cooperatively by the bank and other organizations.",
"Also in the fall of 1929, the bank underwent negotiations on a prospective merger of the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York and the [Fidelity Trust Company](/wiki/Fidelity_Trust_Company_%28New_York_bank%29 \"Fidelity Trust Company (New York bank)\"). On October 9, 1929, the boards of both issued a joint announcement that they had approved a merger plan.",
"### 1930\\-1931: Mergers in the 1930s",
"By the 1930s, the bank was involved in extending its business with acquisitions of commercial banking and fiduciary operations.",
"On August 3, 1931, it was reported that on September 16, the merger of Continental Bank and Trust Company and [Straus National Bank and Trust Company](/wiki/Straus_National_Bank_and_Trust_Company_%28New_York%29 \"Straus National Bank and Trust Company (New York)\"), both of New York, and the acquisition \"by the merged bank of the [International Trust Company](/wiki/International_Trust_Company \"International Trust Company\"), subject to ratification by stockholders,\" would be effective.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Basis Is Worked Out For Merger of Banks; Union of Continental and Straus and International Trust Acquisition Due Sept. 16\\. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/08/03/archives/basis\\-is\\-worked\\-out\\-for\\-merger\\-of\\-banks\\-union\\-of\\-continental\\-and.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=August 3, 1931 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} On end of business on September 15, 1931, the consolidation of the Straus National Bank and Trust Company of New York with the Continental Bank was completed, and the merged institution acquired certain assets of the International Trust Company. The Continental in its enlarged form opened the morning of September 16, 1931\\. Chairman of the consolidated bank was Frederick H. Hornby, who had formerly been president of Continental. President [C. Howard Marfield](/wiki/C._Howard_Marfield \"C. Howard Marfield\") was of Straus National as former president.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Straus Bank Joins With Continental; Merged Institution Acquires Certain of the Assets of International Trust. DOld Personnel Retained \\- Capital Funds Set at $11,000,000, including $6,000,000 Surplus and $1,000,000 Reserves. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/09/16/archives/straus\\-bank\\-joins\\-with\\-continental\\-merged\\-institution\\-acquires.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=September 16, 1931 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} After the company absorbed Straus and the International Trust, Hornby relinquished the presidency and became chairman for several years, resuming becoming president in 1933\\.",
"To be effective on December 21, 1931, on December 15, the Continental Bank agreed to acquire the [Industrial National Bank](/wiki/Industrial_National_Bank \"Industrial National Bank\"), with the backing of both boards. The combined company would have $53,000,000 in combined deposits, but no increase in capital.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Continental Bank Ready For Merger; Plans for Acquisition of the Industrial National Backed by Both Boards. Deal Effective On Dec. 21 \\- Combined Institution Will Have $53,000,000 Deposits\\-\\-No Increase in Capital. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/12/15/archives/continental\\-bank\\-ready\\-for\\-merger\\-plans\\-for\\-acquisition\\-of\\-the.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=December 15, 1931 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}",
"### 1932\\-1947: Continental Bank Building and new presidents",
"The Continental Bank and Trust Company opened for business on May 9, 1932, at the newly opened skyscraper at [30 Broad Street](/wiki/30_Broad_Street \"30 Broad Street\"), after moving in to the Continental Bank Building the weekend before. Continental occupied basement A and B, and floors two, three, and four. The new headquarters combined the bank's previous headquarters across the street at [25 Broad Street](/wiki/25_Broad_Street \"25 Broad Street\"), and its branch office at [26 Broadway](/wiki/26_Broadway \"26 Broadway\"). Branches remained at 565 [Fifth Avenue](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue \"Fifth Avenue\"), 512 [Seventh Avenue](/wiki/Seventh_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Seventh Avenue (Manhattan)\"), and 72 [Second Avenue](/wiki/Second_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Second Avenue (Manhattan)\").{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Continental Moves To Skyscraper Home; Bank Occupies 5 Floors of New Structure at 30 Broad St. \\-\\- Mural by Cox in Main Room. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/05/09/archives/continental\\-moves\\-to\\-skyscraper\\-home\\-bank\\-occupies\\-5\\-floors\\-of\\-new.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=May 9, 1932 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} According to *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, in the decade following the bank became known as the \"friendly bank,\" as Hornby and other officers would sit at their desks in the main banking room, where they were accessible to customers. By 1940, it was using seven floors of the building.",
"On August 1, 1940, the Continental Bank and Trust Company celebrated its seventieth anniversary.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Continental Bank to Mark 70th Year; Institution Has 3,500 Depositors and 6,000 Stockholders \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/08/01/archives/continental\\-bank\\-to\\-mark\\-70th\\-year\\-institution\\-has\\-3500\\-depositors.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=August 1, 1940 \\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} The day prior, the president noted that the bank had deposits of $64,475,000, and was in the \"unusual position\" of having 6,000 stockholders but only 3,500 depositors, a result of a policy of \"developing a selective, specialized commercial banking business.\"",
"The president of the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York, F. H. Hornby, died on October 19, 1942, after falling ill.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\= F. H. Hornby Dies; President of Bank; For Last 14 Years Had Guided the Continental Bank and Trust Co. of New York A 'Friendly' Institution \\- He Was a Director in Other Corporations \\- Erected a 50\\-Story Structure \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1942/10/20/archives/f\\-h\\-hornby\\-dies\\-president\\-of\\-bank\\-for\\-last\\-14\\-years\\-had\\-guided\\-the.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=October 20, 1942 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} He was replaced in February 1944 by James A. Jackson, after the presidency was assumed for several years by chairman Frederick E. Hasler.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=James A. Jackson Slated to Head Continental Bank and Trust Co.; Partner in Lazard Freres Is Expected to Be Successor of the Late F.H. Hornby \\-\\- Long Active in the Field \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1944/02/26/archives/james\\-a\\-jackson\\-slated\\-to\\-head\\-continental\\-bank\\-and\\-trust\\-co.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=February 26, 1944 \\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} As of December 31, 1943, it had total resources amounting to $129,620,215, and total deposits of $119,437,880\\. Branch offices were maintained at 345 [Madison Avenue](/wiki/Madison_Avenue \"Madison Avenue\") and 512 Seventh Avenue. With banker [Rafael Carrión Sr.](/wiki/Rafael_Carri%C3%B3n_Sr. \"Rafael Carrión Sr.\") one of the largest stockholders, in 1947 the bank earned $804,000 in net profits. As of December 31, 1947, Continental had total resources of $202,000,000, and deposits of $188,000,000\\.",
"### 1948: Buyout by Chemical Bank",
"On February 14, 1948, it was reported that the [Chemical Bank and Trust Company](/wiki/Chemical_Bank_and_Trust_Company \"Chemical Bank and Trust Company\") was seeking to absorb the Continental Bank and Trust Company of New York. It was said the deal would return $12,500,000 to Continental's shareholders, and transfer about $190,000,000 in resources to the Chemical Bank. it was reported that the terms were seen as \"acceptable\" to Continental directors, with the bank's Broad Street headquarters and two branches to become the property of Chemical Bank. John K. McKee, president of Continental, was asked to become a senior officer at Chemical, with all other officers and employees invited to join Chemical Bank as well. The board of Chemical Bank, it was disclosed, would increase from 22 to 25\\. Along with two other directors from Continental,{{cite news \\|author\\=George A. Mooney \\|title\\=Chemical Bank Plans to Absorb The Continental in a Cash Deal; Offer Made in Letter, 'Acceptable' to Latter's Directorate, Would Entail Payment of About $12,500,000 to Stockholders \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1948/02/14/archives/chemical\\-bank\\-plans\\-to\\-absorb\\-the\\-continental\\-in\\-a\\-cash\\-deal\\-offer.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|location\\=New York City, New York, United States \\|date\\=February 14, 1948 \\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2017 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} [Rafael Carrión Sr.](/wiki/Rafael_Carri%C3%B3n_Sr. \"Rafael Carrión Sr.\") became a member of Chemical's board of directors.{{cite book \\|title\\=Tradition into the Future: The First Century of the Banco Popular De Puerto Rico 1893\\-1993 \\|first\\=Guillermo A. \\|last\\=Baralt \\|publisher\\=Banco Popular de Puerto Rico \\|year\\=1993 \\|pages\\=66–68 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0963340900}}",
""
] |
Historical counting
-------------------
[thumb\|Finger positions used for counting up to 9999 from [Luca Pacioli](/wiki/Luca_Pacioli "Luca Pacioli")'s 1494 *[Summa de arithmetica](/wiki/Summa_de_arithmetica "Summa de arithmetica")*, based on the earlier Arabic system.](/wiki/File:Finger_counting.jpg "Finger counting.jpg")
Complex systems of dactylonomy were used in the ancient world.{{cite web \| url\=http://bcm.bc.edu/issues/spring\_2002/ll\_hand.html \| title\=Hand sums: The ancient art of counting with your fingers \| publisher\=Yale University Press \| year\=2001 \| access\-date\=May 12, 2012 \| author\=Bloom, Jonathan M. \| archive\-date\=September 29, 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929110054/http://bcm.bc.edu/issues/spring\_2002/ll\_hand.html \| url\-status\=dead }} The Greco\-Roman author Plutarch, in his [Lives](/wiki/Parallel_Lives "Parallel Lives"), mentions finger counting as being used in Persia in the first centuries CE, so the practice may have originated in Iran. It was later used widely in medieval Islamic lands. The earliest reference to this method of using the hands to refer to the natural numbers may have been in some Prophetic traditions going back to the [early days of Islam](/wiki/History_of_Islam%23Origins_of_Islam "History of Islam#Origins of Islam") during the early 600s. In one tradition as reported by Yusayra, [Muhammad](/wiki/Prophet_Muhammad "Prophet Muhammad") enjoined upon his female companions to express praise to God and to count using their fingers (\=واعقدن بالأنامل )( سنن الترمذي).
In Arabic, dactylonomy is known as "Number reckoning by finger folding" (\=حساب العقود ). The practice was well known in the [Arabic\-speaking world](/wiki/Arab_world "Arab world") and was quite commonly used as evidenced by the numerous references to it in Classical Arabic literature. Poets could allude to a miser by saying that his hand made "ninety\-three", i.e. a closed fist, the sign of avarice. When an old man was asked how old he was he could answer by showing a closed fist, meaning 93\. The gesture for 50 was used by some poets (for example Ibn Al\-Moutaz) to describe the beak of the goshawk.
Some of the gestures used to refer to numbers were even known in Arabic by special technical terms such as Kas' (\=القصع ) for the gesture signifying 29, Dabth (\=الـضَـبْـث ) for 63 and Daff (\= الـضَـفّ) for 99 (فقه اللغة).
The polymath Al\-Jahiz advised schoolmasters in his book Al\-Bayan (البيان والتبيين) to teach finger counting which he placed among the five methods of human expression. Similarly, Al\-Suli, in his Handbook for Secretaries, wrote that scribes preferred dactylonomy to any other system because it required neither materials nor an instrument, apart from a limb. Furthermore, it ensured secrecy and was thus in keeping with the dignity of the scribe's profession.
Books dealing with dactylonomy, such as a treatise by the mathematician [Abu'l\-Wafa al\-Buzajani](/wiki/Abu_al-Wafa%27_al-Buzjani "Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani"), gave rules for performing complex operations, including the approximate determination of square roots. Several pedagogical poems dealt exclusively with finger counting, some of which were translated into European languages, including a short poem by Shamsuddeen Al\-Mawsili (translated into French by [Aristide Marre](/wiki/Aristide_Marre "Aristide Marre")) and one by Abul\-Hasan Al\-Maghribi (translated into German by Julius RuskaJulius Ruska, Arabische Texte über das Fingerrechnen, available at Digilibrary.de.).
A very similar form is presented by the English monk and historian [Bede](/wiki/Bede "Bede") in the first chapter of his *De temporum ratione,* (725\), entitled "Tractatus de computo, vel loquela per gestum digitorum", which allowed counting up to 9,999 on two hands, though it was apparently little\-used for numbers of 100 or more. This system remained in use through the European Middle Ages, being presented in slightly modified form by [Luca Pacioli](/wiki/Luca_Pacioli "Luca Pacioli") in his seminal *[Summa de arithmetica](/wiki/Summa_de_arithmetica "Summa de arithmetica")* (1494\).
|
[
"Historical counting\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|Finger positions used for counting up to 9999 from [Luca Pacioli](/wiki/Luca_Pacioli \"Luca Pacioli\")'s 1494 *[Summa de arithmetica](/wiki/Summa_de_arithmetica \"Summa de arithmetica\")*, based on the earlier Arabic system.](/wiki/File:Finger_counting.jpg \"Finger counting.jpg\")",
"Complex systems of dactylonomy were used in the ancient world.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://bcm.bc.edu/issues/spring\\_2002/ll\\_hand.html \\| title\\=Hand sums: The ancient art of counting with your fingers \\| publisher\\=Yale University Press \\| year\\=2001 \\| access\\-date\\=May 12, 2012 \\| author\\=Bloom, Jonathan M. \\| archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929110054/http://bcm.bc.edu/issues/spring\\_2002/ll\\_hand.html \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} The Greco\\-Roman author Plutarch, in his [Lives](/wiki/Parallel_Lives \"Parallel Lives\"), mentions finger counting as being used in Persia in the first centuries CE, so the practice may have originated in Iran. It was later used widely in medieval Islamic lands. The earliest reference to this method of using the hands to refer to the natural numbers may have been in some Prophetic traditions going back to the [early days of Islam](/wiki/History_of_Islam%23Origins_of_Islam \"History of Islam#Origins of Islam\") during the early 600s. In one tradition as reported by Yusayra, [Muhammad](/wiki/Prophet_Muhammad \"Prophet Muhammad\") enjoined upon his female companions to express praise to God and to count using their fingers (\\=واعقدن بالأنامل )( سنن الترمذي).",
"In Arabic, dactylonomy is known as \"Number reckoning by finger folding\" (\\=حساب العقود ). The practice was well known in the [Arabic\\-speaking world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\") and was quite commonly used as evidenced by the numerous references to it in Classical Arabic literature. Poets could allude to a miser by saying that his hand made \"ninety\\-three\", i.e. a closed fist, the sign of avarice. When an old man was asked how old he was he could answer by showing a closed fist, meaning 93\\. The gesture for 50 was used by some poets (for example Ibn Al\\-Moutaz) to describe the beak of the goshawk.",
"Some of the gestures used to refer to numbers were even known in Arabic by special technical terms such as Kas' (\\=القصع ) for the gesture signifying 29, Dabth (\\=الـضَـبْـث ) for 63 and Daff (\\= الـضَـفّ) for 99 (فقه اللغة). \nThe polymath Al\\-Jahiz advised schoolmasters in his book Al\\-Bayan (البيان والتبيين) to teach finger counting which he placed among the five methods of human expression. Similarly, Al\\-Suli, in his Handbook for Secretaries, wrote that scribes preferred dactylonomy to any other system because it required neither materials nor an instrument, apart from a limb. Furthermore, it ensured secrecy and was thus in keeping with the dignity of the scribe's profession.",
"Books dealing with dactylonomy, such as a treatise by the mathematician [Abu'l\\-Wafa al\\-Buzajani](/wiki/Abu_al-Wafa%27_al-Buzjani \"Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani\"), gave rules for performing complex operations, including the approximate determination of square roots. Several pedagogical poems dealt exclusively with finger counting, some of which were translated into European languages, including a short poem by Shamsuddeen Al\\-Mawsili (translated into French by [Aristide Marre](/wiki/Aristide_Marre \"Aristide Marre\")) and one by Abul\\-Hasan Al\\-Maghribi (translated into German by Julius RuskaJulius Ruska, Arabische Texte über das Fingerrechnen, available at Digilibrary.de.).",
"A very similar form is presented by the English monk and historian [Bede](/wiki/Bede \"Bede\") in the first chapter of his *De temporum ratione,* (725\\), entitled \"Tractatus de computo, vel loquela per gestum digitorum\", which allowed counting up to 9,999 on two hands, though it was apparently little\\-used for numbers of 100 or more. This system remained in use through the European Middle Ages, being presented in slightly modified form by [Luca Pacioli](/wiki/Luca_Pacioli \"Luca Pacioli\") in his seminal *[Summa de arithmetica](/wiki/Summa_de_arithmetica \"Summa de arithmetica\")* (1494\\).",
""
] |
History
-------
### Edward the Second and the Red Hot Polkas
The band formed in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire in 1980, in order to play for monthly dances at The Victory Club. Founder members Lizzy Howe\-Pellant (melodeon) and Dion Cochrane (tenor banjo) were joined by Paul Burgess, Floss Headford and John Gill (fiddles), Martin Brinsford (sax) and Dave Haines (melodeon and concertina), and bringing in Richard Valentine on piano and as caller. It ran for a year or so in that form.
The Band personnel gradually changed over the years, and in around 1983, [Rod Stradling](/wiki/Rod_Stradling "Rod Stradling") (2\-row melodeon) and Danny Stradling (percussion) \- newly parted from the Old Swan Band \- were asked to join, and John Gill changed from fiddle to bass. With this lineup, in 1985, they recorded a cassette called *Demos*, and a second one, *Promos*, in 1986, by which time Dion had left, replaced by Jon Moore (lead guitar) and they had added two rhythm guitar players, Tom Greenhalgh (from the Mekons) and Barn Stradling. At the end of 1986 they recorded a further 6 tracks which, together with the 5 Promos ones were published as *Ethos*. By 1987 the band had added Steve Goulding (drums), and with this lineup recorded the LP Let's Polkasteady: Edward the Second, Cooking Vinyl COOK 007, in 1987\.
At a time when the emerging folk rock movement was flourishing as part of the broader folk revival, the band decided that a more natural connection would be with the reggae music of Jamaica, rather than the punk rock they were more familiar with. This came from the rationale that the two music forms were harmonically very similar, were both clearly folk music, the two nations sea\-faring heritage, but most importantly to make the politically motivated argument that Britain was and always had been an island of immigrants and that this was reflected in the UK's musical heritage. There was also no doubt at the time of the slow and steady impact the West Indian communities, brought to the UK as part of the Windrush migration, was starting to have on British urban culture, and the early Edward II collective were heavily involved in the emerging anti\-fascist Rock Against Racism movement.
The band made their LP debut in 1987 with *Let's Polka Steady!*, with British dub producer [Mad Professor](/wiki/Mad_Professor "Mad Professor"), which contained several reggae inspired instrumentals and is usually considered the highpoint for the original line up. However, it was as a live act that they made their name with a series of gigs at festivals throughout the UK and Europe. Further additions to the fluid line\-up during the late 80s included [Neil Yates](/wiki/Neil_Yates "Neil Yates") (trumpet), Lorna Bailey (vocals), John Hart (trombone), Gavin Sharp (tenor saxophone), and Alton Zebby (drums), all of whom made their début on the second album *Two Step To Heaven* (1989\).
The collective's centre of gravity moved with John Gill (bass player, producer and assistant engineer on Never Mind the Bollocks) to Manchester, where he soon developed connections with the reggae musicians surrounding Moss Side and specifically the Rastafarian organisation, The Twelve Tribes of Israel. From this fertile ground (and after John Gill's departure) the long\-standing line\-up, familiar to those that followed the band throughout the nineties, was formed.
### Edward II
At the start of the 90s the band shortened their name to Edward II and then EII, with Moore, Yates, Sharp, Hart and Zebby joined by new members Tee Carthy (bass), Glen Latouche (vocals), Rees Wesson (melodeon/accordion), and rapper McKilla on 1991's *Wicked Men*. Ex\-[Albion Band](/wiki/Albion_Band "Albion Band") member Simon Care (melodeon) joined Edward II in the mid\-90s, featuring on the studio albums *Zest* and *This Way Up*. The last of these featured some pure reggae tunes, including ‘Don't Let the Fire Go Out’, but the album still retrained more\-culturally blended songs. The band performed twice at the [Cropredy Folk Festival](/wiki/Fairport%27s_Cropredy_Convention "Fairport's Cropredy Convention"), held every year by [Fairport Convention](/wiki/Fairport_Convention "Fairport Convention") and one of these performances was released on CD entitled *Live at Cropredy (2000\)*. After a ‘sell out’ gig at [De Montfort Hall](/wiki/De_Montfort_Hall "De Montfort Hall"), Leicester on 19 November 1999, Zebby, Latouche, and Carthy elected to leave the band, and this line\-up dissolved.["edward\-ii\-and\-the\-red\-hot\-polkas"](https://www.nme.com/artists/edward-ii-and-the-red-hot-polkas){{Dead link\|date\=July 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}, *NME Artists*, retrieved 10 January 2009\.
### e2K
Moore, Yates, and Care re\-launched the band in the new millennium as e2K, bringing in Ghanaian instrumentalist Kwame Yeboah, and [Albion Band](/wiki/Albion_Band "Albion Band") lead singer and guitarist [Kellie While](/wiki/Kellie_While "Kellie While"). The new infusion of African and traditional British folk influences re\-energized the band for two more albums: *Shift* ( 2001\) and *If Not Now* (2003\). Devotees may feel that this line up could not recapture the originality and vitality of the EII days, but they won some appreciation of their music, being described as ‘a multicultural group for the 21st century',B. Elder, ["e2K, If Not Now"](https://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/11/14/1068674374399.html?from=storyrhs), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 15 November 2003, retrieved 10 January 2009\. whilst popular folk reviewers Living Tradition said of their last album *If Not Now* that "this is an album that crosses a lot of barriers and the folk world should be proud to count them as one of their own."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.folkmusic.net/htmfiles/webrevs/tscd538\.htm \|title\=E2K \- If Not Now CD review \- The Living Tradition Magazine \|website\=Folkmusic.net \|date\= \|accessdate\=2020\-06\-09}} The lineup dissolved after a tour in 2003\.
### Reunion
To celebrate the ten\-year anniversary of their final gig, the last line\-up of EII undertook a series of reunion gigs in 2009\.[Edward II, Official Website](http://edwardthesecond.co.uk/), retrieved 5 June 2009\.
A double\-disc 'best\-of' album was also released in 2009, *[Edward II: The Definitive Collection](/wiki/Edward_II:The_Definitive_Collection "The Definitive Collection")*. It uses the 'Edward II' name but covers the band's entire career under all of their names except for e2K. Disc 1 includes songs from their time as Edward the Second and the Red Hot Polkas, whilst Disc 2 includes songs from their time as Edward II.
### Manchester's Improving Daily
Taking place throughout 2015 and 2016 the band have come back together, inspired by the discovery of the repertoire known as the Manchester Broadsides and the history and stories which lie behind the songs. Produced in Manchester throughout the industrial revolution, this material tells of hardship, politics, social justice and good times as experienced in the nineteenth century. Often a way of spreading news, promoting events, places or businesses or spreading a political or social message, these songs were designed to have a short shelf life and as such were printed on cheap paper and distributed at the markets around what is now the northern quarter of the city.
The Manchester\-born Palestinian singer, [Reem Kelani](/wiki/Reem_Kelani "Reem Kelani"), was commissioned by the Manchester International Festival in 2007 to write a 30\-minute composition and to orchestrate and lead its performance by the Beating Wing Orchestra, an assembly of local migrant musicians. Her "Paradise in Strangers" encompassed melodic modes and rhythmic patterns from the wide diversity of origins of the orchestra members.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2007/07/09/080707\_exodus\_live\_mif\_feature.shtml \|title\=Manchester \- Entertainment \- Exodus Live at Club Academy \|publisher\=BBC \|date\=2014\-10\-28 \|accessdate\=2020\-06\-09}} In the concluding movement, Kelani opened with the "Soldier’s Farewell to Manchester" (1859\), and the composition closed with a resounding chorus from the whole cast of "Manchester’s Improving Daily"(1830\).{{cite web\|author\= \|url\=http://reemkelani.com/page\_media\_joint.asp \|title\=Reem Kelani \|website\=Reemkelani.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=2020\-06\-09}}
The music critic, Mike Butler, wrote thus in the Manchester Metro: "*Kelani mischievously sprang the biggest surprise with the final section \- an adaption in 6/8 time of a Manchester broadside ballad. It was the first full outing for her own incomparable voice, and surely represented a reconciliation with her birthplace: Reem Kelani is the world’s most prominent Manchester\-born Palestinian singer. This impression was confirmed when the singers began chanting in unison, ‘sing hey, sing ho, sing hey down gai\-ly, Manchester’s improving dai\-ly.’ Exile has its bright moments too.*"
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Edward the Second and the Red Hot Polkas",
"The band formed in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire in 1980, in order to play for monthly dances at The Victory Club. Founder members Lizzy Howe\\-Pellant (melodeon) and Dion Cochrane (tenor banjo) were joined by Paul Burgess, Floss Headford and John Gill (fiddles), Martin Brinsford (sax) and Dave Haines (melodeon and concertina), and bringing in Richard Valentine on piano and as caller. It ran for a year or so in that form.",
"The Band personnel gradually changed over the years, and in around 1983, [Rod Stradling](/wiki/Rod_Stradling \"Rod Stradling\") (2\\-row melodeon) and Danny Stradling (percussion) \\- newly parted from the Old Swan Band \\- were asked to join, and John Gill changed from fiddle to bass. With this lineup, in 1985, they recorded a cassette called *Demos*, and a second one, *Promos*, in 1986, by which time Dion had left, replaced by Jon Moore (lead guitar) and they had added two rhythm guitar players, Tom Greenhalgh (from the Mekons) and Barn Stradling. At the end of 1986 they recorded a further 6 tracks which, together with the 5 Promos ones were published as *Ethos*. By 1987 the band had added Steve Goulding (drums), and with this lineup recorded the LP Let's Polkasteady: Edward the Second, Cooking Vinyl COOK 007, in 1987\\.",
"At a time when the emerging folk rock movement was flourishing as part of the broader folk revival, the band decided that a more natural connection would be with the reggae music of Jamaica, rather than the punk rock they were more familiar with. This came from the rationale that the two music forms were harmonically very similar, were both clearly folk music, the two nations sea\\-faring heritage, but most importantly to make the politically motivated argument that Britain was and always had been an island of immigrants and that this was reflected in the UK's musical heritage. There was also no doubt at the time of the slow and steady impact the West Indian communities, brought to the UK as part of the Windrush migration, was starting to have on British urban culture, and the early Edward II collective were heavily involved in the emerging anti\\-fascist Rock Against Racism movement.",
"The band made their LP debut in 1987 with *Let's Polka Steady!*, with British dub producer [Mad Professor](/wiki/Mad_Professor \"Mad Professor\"), which contained several reggae inspired instrumentals and is usually considered the highpoint for the original line up. However, it was as a live act that they made their name with a series of gigs at festivals throughout the UK and Europe. Further additions to the fluid line\\-up during the late 80s included [Neil Yates](/wiki/Neil_Yates \"Neil Yates\") (trumpet), Lorna Bailey (vocals), John Hart (trombone), Gavin Sharp (tenor saxophone), and Alton Zebby (drums), all of whom made their début on the second album *Two Step To Heaven* (1989\\).",
"The collective's centre of gravity moved with John Gill (bass player, producer and assistant engineer on Never Mind the Bollocks) to Manchester, where he soon developed connections with the reggae musicians surrounding Moss Side and specifically the Rastafarian organisation, The Twelve Tribes of Israel. From this fertile ground (and after John Gill's departure) the long\\-standing line\\-up, familiar to those that followed the band throughout the nineties, was formed.",
"### Edward II",
"At the start of the 90s the band shortened their name to Edward II and then EII, with Moore, Yates, Sharp, Hart and Zebby joined by new members Tee Carthy (bass), Glen Latouche (vocals), Rees Wesson (melodeon/accordion), and rapper McKilla on 1991's *Wicked Men*. Ex\\-[Albion Band](/wiki/Albion_Band \"Albion Band\") member Simon Care (melodeon) joined Edward II in the mid\\-90s, featuring on the studio albums *Zest* and *This Way Up*. The last of these featured some pure reggae tunes, including ‘Don't Let the Fire Go Out’, but the album still retrained more\\-culturally blended songs. The band performed twice at the [Cropredy Folk Festival](/wiki/Fairport%27s_Cropredy_Convention \"Fairport's Cropredy Convention\"), held every year by [Fairport Convention](/wiki/Fairport_Convention \"Fairport Convention\") and one of these performances was released on CD entitled *Live at Cropredy (2000\\)*. After a ‘sell out’ gig at [De Montfort Hall](/wiki/De_Montfort_Hall \"De Montfort Hall\"), Leicester on 19 November 1999, Zebby, Latouche, and Carthy elected to leave the band, and this line\\-up dissolved.[\"edward\\-ii\\-and\\-the\\-red\\-hot\\-polkas\"](https://www.nme.com/artists/edward-ii-and-the-red-hot-polkas){{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}, *NME Artists*, retrieved 10 January 2009\\.",
"### e2K",
"Moore, Yates, and Care re\\-launched the band in the new millennium as e2K, bringing in Ghanaian instrumentalist Kwame Yeboah, and [Albion Band](/wiki/Albion_Band \"Albion Band\") lead singer and guitarist [Kellie While](/wiki/Kellie_While \"Kellie While\"). The new infusion of African and traditional British folk influences re\\-energized the band for two more albums: *Shift* ( 2001\\) and *If Not Now* (2003\\). Devotees may feel that this line up could not recapture the originality and vitality of the EII days, but they won some appreciation of their music, being described as ‘a multicultural group for the 21st century',B. Elder, [\"e2K, If Not Now\"](https://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/11/14/1068674374399.html?from=storyrhs), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 15 November 2003, retrieved 10 January 2009\\. whilst popular folk reviewers Living Tradition said of their last album *If Not Now* that \"this is an album that crosses a lot of barriers and the folk world should be proud to count them as one of their own.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.folkmusic.net/htmfiles/webrevs/tscd538\\.htm \\|title\\=E2K \\- If Not Now CD review \\- The Living Tradition Magazine \\|website\\=Folkmusic.net \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-06\\-09}} The lineup dissolved after a tour in 2003\\.",
"### Reunion",
"To celebrate the ten\\-year anniversary of their final gig, the last line\\-up of EII undertook a series of reunion gigs in 2009\\.[Edward II, Official Website](http://edwardthesecond.co.uk/), retrieved 5 June 2009\\.",
"A double\\-disc 'best\\-of' album was also released in 2009, *[Edward II: The Definitive Collection](/wiki/Edward_II:The_Definitive_Collection \"The Definitive Collection\")*. It uses the 'Edward II' name but covers the band's entire career under all of their names except for e2K. Disc 1 includes songs from their time as Edward the Second and the Red Hot Polkas, whilst Disc 2 includes songs from their time as Edward II.",
"### Manchester's Improving Daily",
"Taking place throughout 2015 and 2016 the band have come back together, inspired by the discovery of the repertoire known as the Manchester Broadsides and the history and stories which lie behind the songs. Produced in Manchester throughout the industrial revolution, this material tells of hardship, politics, social justice and good times as experienced in the nineteenth century. Often a way of spreading news, promoting events, places or businesses or spreading a political or social message, these songs were designed to have a short shelf life and as such were printed on cheap paper and distributed at the markets around what is now the northern quarter of the city.",
"The Manchester\\-born Palestinian singer, [Reem Kelani](/wiki/Reem_Kelani \"Reem Kelani\"), was commissioned by the Manchester International Festival in 2007 to write a 30\\-minute composition and to orchestrate and lead its performance by the Beating Wing Orchestra, an assembly of local migrant musicians. Her \"Paradise in Strangers\" encompassed melodic modes and rhythmic patterns from the wide diversity of origins of the orchestra members.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2007/07/09/080707\\_exodus\\_live\\_mif\\_feature.shtml \\|title\\=Manchester \\- Entertainment \\- Exodus Live at Club Academy \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-28 \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-06\\-09}} In the concluding movement, Kelani opened with the \"Soldier’s Farewell to Manchester\" (1859\\), and the composition closed with a resounding chorus from the whole cast of \"Manchester’s Improving Daily\"(1830\\).{{cite web\\|author\\= \\|url\\=http://reemkelani.com/page\\_media\\_joint.asp \\|title\\=Reem Kelani \\|website\\=Reemkelani.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-06\\-09}}",
"The music critic, Mike Butler, wrote thus in the Manchester Metro: \"*Kelani mischievously sprang the biggest surprise with the final section \\- an adaption in 6/8 time of a Manchester broadside ballad. It was the first full outing for her own incomparable voice, and surely represented a reconciliation with her birthplace: Reem Kelani is the world’s most prominent Manchester\\-born Palestinian singer. This impression was confirmed when the singers began chanting in unison, ‘sing hey, sing ho, sing hey down gai\\-ly, Manchester’s improving dai\\-ly.’ Exile has its bright moments too.*\"",
""
] |
### Edward the Second and the Red Hot Polkas
The band formed in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire in 1980, in order to play for monthly dances at The Victory Club. Founder members Lizzy Howe\-Pellant (melodeon) and Dion Cochrane (tenor banjo) were joined by Paul Burgess, Floss Headford and John Gill (fiddles), Martin Brinsford (sax) and Dave Haines (melodeon and concertina), and bringing in Richard Valentine on piano and as caller. It ran for a year or so in that form.
The Band personnel gradually changed over the years, and in around 1983, [Rod Stradling](/wiki/Rod_Stradling "Rod Stradling") (2\-row melodeon) and Danny Stradling (percussion) \- newly parted from the Old Swan Band \- were asked to join, and John Gill changed from fiddle to bass. With this lineup, in 1985, they recorded a cassette called *Demos*, and a second one, *Promos*, in 1986, by which time Dion had left, replaced by Jon Moore (lead guitar) and they had added two rhythm guitar players, Tom Greenhalgh (from the Mekons) and Barn Stradling. At the end of 1986 they recorded a further 6 tracks which, together with the 5 Promos ones were published as *Ethos*. By 1987 the band had added Steve Goulding (drums), and with this lineup recorded the LP Let's Polkasteady: Edward the Second, Cooking Vinyl COOK 007, in 1987\.
At a time when the emerging folk rock movement was flourishing as part of the broader folk revival, the band decided that a more natural connection would be with the reggae music of Jamaica, rather than the punk rock they were more familiar with. This came from the rationale that the two music forms were harmonically very similar, were both clearly folk music, the two nations sea\-faring heritage, but most importantly to make the politically motivated argument that Britain was and always had been an island of immigrants and that this was reflected in the UK's musical heritage. There was also no doubt at the time of the slow and steady impact the West Indian communities, brought to the UK as part of the Windrush migration, was starting to have on British urban culture, and the early Edward II collective were heavily involved in the emerging anti\-fascist Rock Against Racism movement.
The band made their LP debut in 1987 with *Let's Polka Steady!*, with British dub producer [Mad Professor](/wiki/Mad_Professor "Mad Professor"), which contained several reggae inspired instrumentals and is usually considered the highpoint for the original line up. However, it was as a live act that they made their name with a series of gigs at festivals throughout the UK and Europe. Further additions to the fluid line\-up during the late 80s included [Neil Yates](/wiki/Neil_Yates "Neil Yates") (trumpet), Lorna Bailey (vocals), John Hart (trombone), Gavin Sharp (tenor saxophone), and Alton Zebby (drums), all of whom made their début on the second album *Two Step To Heaven* (1989\).
The collective's centre of gravity moved with John Gill (bass player, producer and assistant engineer on Never Mind the Bollocks) to Manchester, where he soon developed connections with the reggae musicians surrounding Moss Side and specifically the Rastafarian organisation, The Twelve Tribes of Israel. From this fertile ground (and after John Gill's departure) the long\-standing line\-up, familiar to those that followed the band throughout the nineties, was formed.
|
[
"### Edward the Second and the Red Hot Polkas",
"The band formed in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire in 1980, in order to play for monthly dances at The Victory Club. Founder members Lizzy Howe\\-Pellant (melodeon) and Dion Cochrane (tenor banjo) were joined by Paul Burgess, Floss Headford and John Gill (fiddles), Martin Brinsford (sax) and Dave Haines (melodeon and concertina), and bringing in Richard Valentine on piano and as caller. It ran for a year or so in that form.",
"The Band personnel gradually changed over the years, and in around 1983, [Rod Stradling](/wiki/Rod_Stradling \"Rod Stradling\") (2\\-row melodeon) and Danny Stradling (percussion) \\- newly parted from the Old Swan Band \\- were asked to join, and John Gill changed from fiddle to bass. With this lineup, in 1985, they recorded a cassette called *Demos*, and a second one, *Promos*, in 1986, by which time Dion had left, replaced by Jon Moore (lead guitar) and they had added two rhythm guitar players, Tom Greenhalgh (from the Mekons) and Barn Stradling. At the end of 1986 they recorded a further 6 tracks which, together with the 5 Promos ones were published as *Ethos*. By 1987 the band had added Steve Goulding (drums), and with this lineup recorded the LP Let's Polkasteady: Edward the Second, Cooking Vinyl COOK 007, in 1987\\.",
"At a time when the emerging folk rock movement was flourishing as part of the broader folk revival, the band decided that a more natural connection would be with the reggae music of Jamaica, rather than the punk rock they were more familiar with. This came from the rationale that the two music forms were harmonically very similar, were both clearly folk music, the two nations sea\\-faring heritage, but most importantly to make the politically motivated argument that Britain was and always had been an island of immigrants and that this was reflected in the UK's musical heritage. There was also no doubt at the time of the slow and steady impact the West Indian communities, brought to the UK as part of the Windrush migration, was starting to have on British urban culture, and the early Edward II collective were heavily involved in the emerging anti\\-fascist Rock Against Racism movement.",
"The band made their LP debut in 1987 with *Let's Polka Steady!*, with British dub producer [Mad Professor](/wiki/Mad_Professor \"Mad Professor\"), which contained several reggae inspired instrumentals and is usually considered the highpoint for the original line up. However, it was as a live act that they made their name with a series of gigs at festivals throughout the UK and Europe. Further additions to the fluid line\\-up during the late 80s included [Neil Yates](/wiki/Neil_Yates \"Neil Yates\") (trumpet), Lorna Bailey (vocals), John Hart (trombone), Gavin Sharp (tenor saxophone), and Alton Zebby (drums), all of whom made their début on the second album *Two Step To Heaven* (1989\\).",
"The collective's centre of gravity moved with John Gill (bass player, producer and assistant engineer on Never Mind the Bollocks) to Manchester, where he soon developed connections with the reggae musicians surrounding Moss Side and specifically the Rastafarian organisation, The Twelve Tribes of Israel. From this fertile ground (and after John Gill's departure) the long\\-standing line\\-up, familiar to those that followed the band throughout the nineties, was formed.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|align\=left
\|1880\= 411
\|1890\= 804
\|1900\= 798
\|1910\= 706
\|1920\= 975
\|1930\= 764
\|1940\= 671
\|1950\= 795
\|1960\= 1015
\|1970\= 868
\|1980\= 839
\|1990\= 865
\|2000\= 836
\|2010\= 855
\|2020\= 708
\|estyear\=
\|estimate\=
\|estref\=
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=\[https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]
}}
### 2020 census
The [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census") counted 708 people, 271 households, and 188 families in Enterprise.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: HOUSEHOLD TYPE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20p16\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}} The population density was 1,056\.7 per square mile (408\.0/km{{sup\|2}}). There were 316 housing units at an average density of 471\.6 per square mile (182\.1/km{{sup\|2}}).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table DP1: PROFILE OF GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\.DP1?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20dp1 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \|last\=Bureau \|first\=US Census \|title\=Gazetteer Files \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\-files/2020/geo/gazetter\-file.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-30 \|website\=Census.gov}} The racial makeup was 89\.12% (631\) [white](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") or [European American](/wiki/European_American "European American") (86\.72% [non\-Hispanic white](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_White "Non-Hispanic White")), 0\.0% (0\) [black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") or [African\-American](/wiki/African_American "African American"), 0\.56% (4\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native"), 0\.28% (2\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.14% (1\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)") or [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian "Native Hawaiian"), 1\.13% (8\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 8\.76% (62\) from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans").{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P1: RACE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\.P1?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20p1\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}} [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race was 5\.23% (37\) of the population.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\.P2?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20p2\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}}
Of the 271 households, 33\.9% had children under the age of 18; 49\.1% were married couples living together; 21\.4% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 24\.7% of households consisted of individuals and 8\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.5 and the average family size was 3\.1\.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1101: HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1101?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1101%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}} The percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher was estimated to be 9\.7% of the population.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1501: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1501?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1501%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}}
23\.7% of the population was under the age of 18, 7\.2% from 18 to 24, 24\.3% from 25 to 44, 26\.8% from 45 to 64, and 17\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40\.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 99\.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 100\.0 males.
The 2016\-2020 5\-year [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey") estimates show that the median household income was $49,333 (with a margin of error of \+/\- $13,594\) and the median family income was $54,306 (\+/\- $20,848\).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1903: MEDIAN INCOME IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1903?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1903%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}} Males had a median income of $32,823 (\+/\- $2,934\) versus $15,601 (\+/\- $2,310\) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $22,176 (\+/\- $5,977\).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S2001: EARNINGS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S2001?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s2001%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}} Approximately, 13\.9% of families and 15\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 26\.1% of those under the age of 18 and 12\.3% of those ages 65 or over.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1701: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1701?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1701%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1702: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS OF FAMILIES \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1702?q\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1702\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-02 \|website\=data.census.gov}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2012\-07\-06}} of 2010, there were 855 people, 294 households, and 221 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1315\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 335 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|515\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 1\.6% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 3\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 4\.1% of the population.
There were 294 households, of which 37\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 24\.8% were non\-families. 22\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.66 and the average family size was 3\.03\.
The median age in the city was 34\.9 years. 28\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23\.1% were from 25 to 44; 23\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 16\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46\.7% male and 53\.3% female.
### 2000 census
[thumb\|right](/wiki/File:Enterprise_Kansas_Sign_1.JPG "Enterprise Kansas Sign 1.JPG")
[thumb\|right](/wiki/File:Enterprise%2C_Kansas_Sign_2.JPG "Enterprise, Kansas Sign 2.JPG")
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=2008\-01\-31 \|title\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 836 people, 299 households, and 218 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,276\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 334 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|509\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.77% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.24% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.84% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.12% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.03% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.84% of the population.
There were 299 households, out of which 37\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 9\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\.8% were non\-families. 23\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.64 and the average family size was 3\.11\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\.6% under the age of 18, 7\.3% from 18 to 24, 23\.9% from 25 to 44, 21\.5% from 45 to 64, and 19\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 82\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\.6 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $36,613, and the median income for a family was $39,479\. Males had a median income of $28,214 versus $20,357 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $15,619\. About 7\.8% of families and 8\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 7\.0% of those under age 18 and 11\.3% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=left\n\\|1880\\= 411\n\\|1890\\= 804\n\\|1900\\= 798\n\\|1910\\= 706\n\\|1920\\= 975\n\\|1930\\= 764\n\\|1940\\= 671\n\\|1950\\= 795\n\\|1960\\= 1015\n\\|1970\\= 868\n\\|1980\\= 839\n\\|1990\\= 865\n\\|2000\\= 836\n\\|2010\\= 855\n\\|2020\\= 708\n\\|estyear\\=\n\\|estimate\\=\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=\\[https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]\n}}\n### 2020 census",
"The [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\") counted 708 people, 271 households, and 188 families in Enterprise.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: HOUSEHOLD TYPE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20p16\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} The population density was 1,056\\.7 per square mile (408\\.0/km{{sup\\|2}}). There were 316 housing units at an average density of 471\\.6 per square mile (182\\.1/km{{sup\\|2}}).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table DP1: PROFILE OF GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\\.DP1?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20dp1 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bureau \\|first\\=US Census \\|title\\=Gazetteer Files \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\\-files/2020/geo/gazetter\\-file.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-30 \\|website\\=Census.gov}} The racial makeup was 89\\.12% (631\\) [white](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") or [European American](/wiki/European_American \"European American\") (86\\.72% [non\\-Hispanic white](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_White \"Non-Hispanic White\")), 0\\.0% (0\\) [black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") or [African\\-American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\"), 0\\.56% (4\\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\"), 0\\.28% (2\\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.14% (1\\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\") or [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian \"Native Hawaiian\"), 1\\.13% (8\\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 8\\.76% (62\\) from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P1: RACE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\\.P1?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20p1\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race was 5\\.23% (37\\) of the population.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20p2\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}",
"Of the 271 households, 33\\.9% had children under the age of 18; 49\\.1% were married couples living together; 21\\.4% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 24\\.7% of households consisted of individuals and 8\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.5 and the average family size was 3\\.1\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1101: HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1101?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1101%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} The percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher was estimated to be 9\\.7% of the population.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1501: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1501?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1501%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}",
"23\\.7% of the population was under the age of 18, 7\\.2% from 18 to 24, 24\\.3% from 25 to 44, 26\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40\\.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 99\\.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 100\\.0 males.",
"The 2016\\-2020 5\\-year [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") estimates show that the median household income was $49,333 (with a margin of error of \\+/\\- $13,594\\) and the median family income was $54,306 (\\+/\\- $20,848\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1903: MEDIAN INCOME IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1903?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1903%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} Males had a median income of $32,823 (\\+/\\- $2,934\\) versus $15,601 (\\+/\\- $2,310\\) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $22,176 (\\+/\\- $5,977\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S2001: EARNINGS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S2001?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s2001%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} Approximately, 13\\.9% of families and 15\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 26\\.1% of those under the age of 18 and 12\\.3% of those ages 65 or over.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1701: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1701?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1701%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1702: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS OF FAMILIES \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1702?q\\=Enterprise%20city,%20Kansas%20s1702\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-06}} of 2010, there were 855 people, 294 households, and 221 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1315\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 335 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|515\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.6% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 3\\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 4\\.1% of the population.",
"There were 294 households, of which 37\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 24\\.8% were non\\-families. 22\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.66 and the average family size was 3\\.03\\.",
"The median age in the city was 34\\.9 years. 28\\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23\\.1% were from 25 to 44; 23\\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 16\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46\\.7% male and 53\\.3% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"[thumb\\|right](/wiki/File:Enterprise_Kansas_Sign_1.JPG \"Enterprise Kansas Sign 1.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|right](/wiki/File:Enterprise%2C_Kansas_Sign_2.JPG \"Enterprise, Kansas Sign 2.JPG\")\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 836 people, 299 households, and 218 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,276\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 334 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|509\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.77% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.24% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.84% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.12% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.03% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.84% of the population.",
"There were 299 households, out of which 37\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 9\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\\.8% were non\\-families. 23\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.64 and the average family size was 3\\.11\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\\.6% under the age of 18, 7\\.3% from 18 to 24, 23\\.9% from 25 to 44, 21\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 19\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 82\\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\\.6 males.",
"As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $36,613, and the median income for a family was $39,479\\. Males had a median income of $28,214 versus $20,357 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $15,619\\. About 7\\.8% of families and 8\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.0% of those under age 18 and 11\\.3% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
End of the period
-----------------
{{Main\|Ordovician–Silurian extinction events}}
The Ordovician came to a close in a series of [extinction events](/wiki/Extinction_event "Extinction event") that, taken together, comprise the second largest of the five major extinction events in [Earth's history](/wiki/History_of_Earth "History of Earth") in terms of percentage of [genera](/wiki/Genus "Genus") that became extinct. The only larger one was the [Permian–Triassic extinction event](/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event "Permian–Triassic extinction event").
The extinctions occurred approximately 447–444 million years ago and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian "Silurian") Period. At that time all complex multicellular organisms lived in the sea, and about 49% of genera of fauna disappeared forever; [brachiopods](/wiki/Brachiopods "Brachiopods") and [bryozoans](/wiki/Bryozoans "Bryozoans") were greatly reduced, along with many [trilobite](/wiki/Trilobite "Trilobite"), [conodont](/wiki/Conodont "Conodont") and [graptolite](/wiki/Graptolithina "Graptolithina") families.
The most commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of cold conditions in the late Katian, followed by an [ice age](/wiki/Ice_age "Ice age"), in the Hirnantian faunal stage, that ended the long, stable [greenhouse](/wiki/Greenhouse "Greenhouse") conditions typical of the Ordovician.
The ice age was possibly not long\-lasting. Oxygen [isotopes](/wiki/Isotopes "Isotopes") in fossil brachiopods show its duration may have been only 0\.5 to 1\.5 million years.{{cite book \|title\=Earth System History \|last\=Stanley \|first\=Steven M. \|year\=1999 \|publisher\=W.H. Freeman and Company \|location\=New York \|isbn\=978\-0\-7167\-2882\-5 \|pages\=358, 360 }} Other researchers (Page et al.) estimate more temperate conditions did not return until the late Silurian.
The [late Ordovician glaciation](/wiki/Late_Ordovician_glaciation "Late Ordovician glaciation") event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000 ppm to 4400 ppm).{{cite journal \| last1 \= Young \| first1 \= Seth A. \| last2 \= Saltzman \| first2 \= Matthew R. \| last3 \= Ausich \| first3 \= William I. \| last4 \= Desrochers \| first4 \= André \| last5 \= Kaljo \| first5 \= Dimitri \| year \= 2010 \| title \= Did changes in atmospheric CO2 coincide with latest Ordovician glacial–interglacial cycles? \| journal \= Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology \| volume \= 296 \| issue \= 3–4\| pages \= 376–388 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.palaeo.2010\.02\.033\| bibcode \= 2010PPP...296\..376Y }}Jeff Hecht, [High\-carbon ice age mystery solved](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18618-highcarbon-ice-age-mystery-solved.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423082538/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18618\-highcarbon\-ice\-age\-mystery\-solved.html \|date\=2015\-04\-23 }}, *[New Scientist](/wiki/New_Scientist "New Scientist")*, 8 March 2010 (retrieved 30 June 2014\) The dip may have been caused by a burst of volcanic activity that deposited new silicate rocks, which draw CO2 out of the air as they erode. Another possibility is that [bryophytes](/wiki/Bryophyte "Bryophyte") and lichens, which colonized land in the middle to late Ordovician, may have increased weathering enough to draw down {{CO2}} levels. The drop in {{CO2}} selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. It has also been suggested that shielding of the sun's rays from the proposed Ordovician ring system, which also caused the [Ordovician meteor event](/wiki/Ordovician_meteor_event "Ordovician meteor event"), may have also led to the glaciation. As the southern supercontinent [Gondwana](/wiki/Gondwana "Gondwana") drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it, which have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa") and then\-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south\-polar locations at the time.
As glaciers grew, the sea level dropped, and the vast shallow intra\-continental Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many ecological niches. When they returned, they carried diminished founder populations that lacked many whole families of organisms. They then withdrew again with the next pulse of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity with each change.Emiliani, Cesare. (1992\). *Planet Earth : Cosmology, Geology, \& the Evolution of Life \& the Environment* (Cambridge University Press) p. 491 Species limited to a single epicontinental sea on a given landmass were severely affected. Tropical lifeforms were hit particularly hard in the first wave of extinction, while cool\-water species were hit worst in the second pulse.
Those species able to adapt to the changing conditions survived to fill the ecological niches left by the extinctions. For example, there is evidence the oceans became more deeply oxygenated during the glaciation, allowing unusual benthic organisms (Hirnantian fauna) to colonize the depths. These organisms were cosmopolitan in distribution and present at most latitudes.{{sfn\|Torsvik\|Cocks\|2017\|p\=112\-113}}
At the end of the second event, melting glaciers caused the sea level to rise and stabilise once more. The rebound of life's diversity with the permanent re\-flooding of continental shelves at the onset of the Silurian saw increased biodiversity within the surviving Orders. Recovery was characterized by an unusual number of "Lazarus taxa", disappearing during the extinction and reappearing well into the Silurian, which suggests that the taxa survived in small numbers in [refugia](/wiki/Refugium_%28population_biology%29 "Refugium (population biology)").{{sfn\|Torsvik\|Cocks\|2017\|pp\=122\-123}}
An alternate extinction hypothesis suggested that a ten\-second [gamma\-ray burst](/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst "Gamma-ray burst") could have destroyed the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer "Ozone layer") and exposed terrestrial and marine surface\-dwelling life to deadly ultraviolet [radiation](/wiki/Radiation "Radiation") and initiated global cooling.{{cite journal \|last\=Melott \|first\=Adrian \|year\=2004 \|title\=Did a gamma\-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction? \|journal\=International Journal of Astrobiology \|volume\=3 \|issue\= 1\|pages\=55–61 \|doi\=10\.1017/S1473550404001910 \|bibcode\=2004IJAsB...3\...55M\|arxiv \= astro\-ph/0309415 \|display\-authors\=etal\|hdl\=1808/9204 \|s2cid\=13124815 }}
Recent work considering the [sequence stratigraphy](/wiki/Sequence_stratigraphy "Sequence stratigraphy") of the Late Ordovician argues that the mass extinction was a single protracted episode lasting several hundred thousand years, with abrupt changes in water depth and sedimentation rate producing two pulses of last occurrences of species.{{Cite journal\|doi \= 10\.1111/pala.12188\|title \= The stratigraphy of mass extinction\|journal \= Palaeontology\|volume \= 58\|issue \= 5\|pages \= 903–924\|year \= 2015\|last1 \= Holland\|first1 \= Steven M\|last2 \= Patzkowsky\|first2 \= Mark E\|s2cid \= 129522636\|doi\-access \= free}}
|
[
"End of the period\n-----------------",
"{{Main\\|Ordovician–Silurian extinction events}}\nThe Ordovician came to a close in a series of [extinction events](/wiki/Extinction_event \"Extinction event\") that, taken together, comprise the second largest of the five major extinction events in [Earth's history](/wiki/History_of_Earth \"History of Earth\") in terms of percentage of [genera](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") that became extinct. The only larger one was the [Permian–Triassic extinction event](/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event \"Permian–Triassic extinction event\").",
"The extinctions occurred approximately 447–444 million years ago and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian \"Silurian\") Period. At that time all complex multicellular organisms lived in the sea, and about 49% of genera of fauna disappeared forever; [brachiopods](/wiki/Brachiopods \"Brachiopods\") and [bryozoans](/wiki/Bryozoans \"Bryozoans\") were greatly reduced, along with many [trilobite](/wiki/Trilobite \"Trilobite\"), [conodont](/wiki/Conodont \"Conodont\") and [graptolite](/wiki/Graptolithina \"Graptolithina\") families.",
"The most commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of cold conditions in the late Katian, followed by an [ice age](/wiki/Ice_age \"Ice age\"), in the Hirnantian faunal stage, that ended the long, stable [greenhouse](/wiki/Greenhouse \"Greenhouse\") conditions typical of the Ordovician.",
"The ice age was possibly not long\\-lasting. Oxygen [isotopes](/wiki/Isotopes \"Isotopes\") in fossil brachiopods show its duration may have been only 0\\.5 to 1\\.5 million years.{{cite book \\|title\\=Earth System History \\|last\\=Stanley \\|first\\=Steven M. \\|year\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=W.H. Freeman and Company \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7167\\-2882\\-5 \\|pages\\=358, 360 }} Other researchers (Page et al.) estimate more temperate conditions did not return until the late Silurian.",
"The [late Ordovician glaciation](/wiki/Late_Ordovician_glaciation \"Late Ordovician glaciation\") event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000 ppm to 4400 ppm).{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Young \\| first1 \\= Seth A. \\| last2 \\= Saltzman \\| first2 \\= Matthew R. \\| last3 \\= Ausich \\| first3 \\= William I. \\| last4 \\= Desrochers \\| first4 \\= André \\| last5 \\= Kaljo \\| first5 \\= Dimitri \\| year \\= 2010 \\| title \\= Did changes in atmospheric CO2 coincide with latest Ordovician glacial–interglacial cycles? \\| journal \\= Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology \\| volume \\= 296 \\| issue \\= 3–4\\| pages \\= 376–388 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.palaeo.2010\\.02\\.033\\| bibcode \\= 2010PPP...296\\..376Y }}Jeff Hecht, [High\\-carbon ice age mystery solved](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18618-highcarbon-ice-age-mystery-solved.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423082538/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18618\\-highcarbon\\-ice\\-age\\-mystery\\-solved.html \\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-23 }}, *[New Scientist](/wiki/New_Scientist \"New Scientist\")*, 8 March 2010 (retrieved 30 June 2014\\) The dip may have been caused by a burst of volcanic activity that deposited new silicate rocks, which draw CO2 out of the air as they erode. Another possibility is that [bryophytes](/wiki/Bryophyte \"Bryophyte\") and lichens, which colonized land in the middle to late Ordovician, may have increased weathering enough to draw down {{CO2}} levels. The drop in {{CO2}} selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. It has also been suggested that shielding of the sun's rays from the proposed Ordovician ring system, which also caused the [Ordovician meteor event](/wiki/Ordovician_meteor_event \"Ordovician meteor event\"), may have also led to the glaciation. As the southern supercontinent [Gondwana](/wiki/Gondwana \"Gondwana\") drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it, which have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\") and then\\-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south\\-polar locations at the time.",
"As glaciers grew, the sea level dropped, and the vast shallow intra\\-continental Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many ecological niches. When they returned, they carried diminished founder populations that lacked many whole families of organisms. They then withdrew again with the next pulse of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity with each change.Emiliani, Cesare. (1992\\). *Planet Earth : Cosmology, Geology, \\& the Evolution of Life \\& the Environment* (Cambridge University Press) p. 491 Species limited to a single epicontinental sea on a given landmass were severely affected. Tropical lifeforms were hit particularly hard in the first wave of extinction, while cool\\-water species were hit worst in the second pulse.",
"Those species able to adapt to the changing conditions survived to fill the ecological niches left by the extinctions. For example, there is evidence the oceans became more deeply oxygenated during the glaciation, allowing unusual benthic organisms (Hirnantian fauna) to colonize the depths. These organisms were cosmopolitan in distribution and present at most latitudes.{{sfn\\|Torsvik\\|Cocks\\|2017\\|p\\=112\\-113}}",
"At the end of the second event, melting glaciers caused the sea level to rise and stabilise once more. The rebound of life's diversity with the permanent re\\-flooding of continental shelves at the onset of the Silurian saw increased biodiversity within the surviving Orders. Recovery was characterized by an unusual number of \"Lazarus taxa\", disappearing during the extinction and reappearing well into the Silurian, which suggests that the taxa survived in small numbers in [refugia](/wiki/Refugium_%28population_biology%29 \"Refugium (population biology)\").{{sfn\\|Torsvik\\|Cocks\\|2017\\|pp\\=122\\-123}}",
"An alternate extinction hypothesis suggested that a ten\\-second [gamma\\-ray burst](/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst \"Gamma-ray burst\") could have destroyed the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer \"Ozone layer\") and exposed terrestrial and marine surface\\-dwelling life to deadly ultraviolet [radiation](/wiki/Radiation \"Radiation\") and initiated global cooling.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Melott \\|first\\=Adrian \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Did a gamma\\-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction? \\|journal\\=International Journal of Astrobiology \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\= 1\\|pages\\=55–61 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S1473550404001910 \\|bibcode\\=2004IJAsB...3\\...55M\\|arxiv \\= astro\\-ph/0309415 \\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|hdl\\=1808/9204 \\|s2cid\\=13124815 }}",
"Recent work considering the [sequence stratigraphy](/wiki/Sequence_stratigraphy \"Sequence stratigraphy\") of the Late Ordovician argues that the mass extinction was a single protracted episode lasting several hundred thousand years, with abrupt changes in water depth and sedimentation rate producing two pulses of last occurrences of species.{{Cite journal\\|doi \\= 10\\.1111/pala.12188\\|title \\= The stratigraphy of mass extinction\\|journal \\= Palaeontology\\|volume \\= 58\\|issue \\= 5\\|pages \\= 903–924\\|year \\= 2015\\|last1 \\= Holland\\|first1 \\= Steven M\\|last2 \\= Patzkowsky\\|first2 \\= Mark E\\|s2cid \\= 129522636\\|doi\\-access \\= free}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Context
In the late 19th century, Glossop and Hadfield, which sit at the base of [Longdendale](/wiki/Longdendale "Longdendale") in the [South Pennines](/wiki/South_Pennines "South Pennines"), were spread\-out settlements with many works and factories strung along the routes between them. The valley bottom was populated by cotton mills making use of water power. Although the [Sheffield, Ashton\-under\-Lyne and Manchester Railway](/wiki/Sheffield%2C_Ashton-under-Lyne_and_Manchester_Railway "Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway") had opened stations at {{rws\|Glossop}}, {{rws\|Hadfield}} and {{rws\|Dinting}} in 1844\-5,{{sfn\|Marsden\|2004}} urban public transport, to connect the areas where workers lived with the town centre mills, did not exist. The first service came with the introduction by the Glossop Carriage Company in the early 1890s of a [horse\-drawn bus](/wiki/Horsebus "Horsebus") from the Norfolk Hotel at Howard Town to the Commercial Inn at Bankbottom in Hadfield, which ran three times daily.{{cite web \|title\=Glossop Tramways \|url\=https://glossopheritage.co.uk/ghtarchive/trams01/ \|website\=Glossop Heritage Trust \|access\-date\=5 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005140454/https://glossopheritage.co.uk/ghtarchive/trams01/ \|archive\-date\=5 October 2022 \|date\=23 September 2020}}
### Origin
Glossop, being a small mill town with a population of around only 22,000,{{cite news \|title\=Urban Electric Supply Company Limited Prospectus \|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/uk/middlesex/london/london\-standard/1901/06\-25/page\-8/ \|url\-access\=registration \|access\-date\=5 October 2022 \|work\=\[\[London Evening Standard\|London Standard]] \|date\=25 June 1901 \|page\=8}} was an unusual choice for a new urban tramway. However, there was a large supply of potential customers in the cotton workers holding jobs at the many factories. Additionally, the [Stalybridge, Hyde, Mossley and Dukinfield Joint Board](/wiki/SHMD_Joint_Board "SHMD Joint Board") (SHMD) network was being developed to run to Mottram, only {{convert\|2\|mi}} from the county boundary, which may have offered the possibility of a future connection.
The [Glossop Corporation](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Glossop "Municipal Borough of Glossop") (borough council) had been negotiating with a small number of private companies to exercise its powers to provide electrical lighting and supply since 1898, and an agreement was made with the [Urban Electric Supply Company](/wiki/Urban_Electric_Supply_Company "Urban Electric Supply Company") (UESCo) in December 1899\.{{cite web \|title\=How Electricity and Tramways came to Glossop \|url\=https://gjh.me.uk/gllochis/glh151\.htm \|website\=gjh.me.uk \|access\-date\=28 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228203959/https://gjh.me.uk/gllochis/glh151\.htm \|archive\-date\=28 December 2022 \|date\=6 November 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} The UESCo was itself a subsidiary of [Edmundsons Electricity Corporation](/wiki/Edmundsons_Electricity_Corporation "Edmundsons Electricity Corporation"), which controlled numerous electricity supply companies across the country, as well as the [Scarborough Tramways Company](/wiki/Scarborough_Tramways_Company "Scarborough Tramways Company").{{cite web \|last1\=Birch \|first1\=Ashley \|title\=Glossop Tramways Uniform \|url\=http://www.tramwaybadgesandbuttons.com/page148/page149/page369/page369\.html \|website\=British Tramway Company Uniforms and Insignia \|access\-date\=27 January 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127063959/http://www.tramwaybadgesandbuttons.com/page148/page149/page369/page369\.html \|archive\-date\=27 November 2022 }} Edmunsons advised the Corporation that, should it wish to establish a tramway in the future, it would be much cheaper to do those works at the same time as the power and lighting supply were installed than to put one in later. They came to an agreement that the UESCo would build, operate and take on the risk of the tramway under similar terms to the electrical contract, and the Corporation would authorise the seeking of a provisional order under the Tramways Act, which it did in August 1900\. There was an attempted amendment to extend the route into Padfield, which was prevented by a low railway arch at Platt Street, and also an objection from the railway to the tramway passing under [Dinting Viaduct](/wiki/Dinting_Viaduct "Dinting Viaduct"), but the Order passed its readings in the Lords and Commons. Authority for the tramway was given by the [Board of Trade](/wiki/Board_of_Trade "Board of Trade") and by Parliament under the Glossop Electric Tramways Order of 1901\.
The UESCo appointed local magistrate and electrical engineer Charles Edward Knowles was appointed manager of the project,{{sfn\|Marsden\|2004}} and Leo Arthur Hards [MIEE](/wiki/Institution_of_Electrical_Engineers "Institution of Electrical Engineers"), an expert electric tramway engineer with the UESCo, was given responsibility for the layout of the system. It was planned as a {{convert\|4\|mi\|adj\=on}} inverted C, with the north\-west terminus in Hadfield, and the north\-east at [Old Glossop](/wiki/Old_Glossop "Old Glossop"), joining relatively undeveloped stretches of roadway peppered with factories and large mills. A half\-mile spur, known as the [Whitfield](/wiki/Whitfield%2C_Derbyshire "Whitfield, Derbyshire") Branch, ran south of the main track to [Charlestown](/wiki/Charlestown%2C_Derbyshire "Charlestown, Derbyshire"). The route was planned to be [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard-gauge_railway "Standard-gauge railway"), like other tramways in the Manchester region, powered by [overhead catenary](/wiki/Overhead_line "Overhead line"), and single\-track with [passing loops](/wiki/Passing_loop "Passing loop"). For the depot and [power station](/wiki/Power_station "Power station"), a site on the north bank of the Glossop Brook at Dinting was selected. Tracklaying began in December 1902\. Seven open top, double decker tramcars with reversed stairs were ordered.{{sfn\|Marsden\|2004}}
The power station was functional by August 1903 and the formal opening for passengers was set for the 20th. However, the Board of Trade deferred its final inspection until the 21st, though the opening ceremony went ahead as scheduled, with a ceremony and an inaugural tramcar which took dignitaries on a tour of the whole system. Public services started the following day (21 August 1903\).
### Operation
[thumb\|250px\|Westbound tram at the corner of High Street East and Hall Street (now Manor Park Road), {{circa}} 1903](/wiki/File:Glossop_tram_at_Hall_Street_c.1903.jpg "Glossop tram at Hall Street c.1903.jpg")
There was initial success upon the tramway's opening. It ran a 15\-minute service with a one\-hour round trip time, which required four cars, each with a driver and conductor, to operate. Services divided at Glossop with alternate cars taking the Whitfield and Old Glossop routes. 8,505 passengers used the system within the first two days, averaging 20,000 per week over the first three months. This popularity forced the railway to reduce its fares, with the tramway attracting three\-quarters of passenger traffic between Glossop and Hadfield. The fare for the whole journey between termini was 2d, but later penny stages (and halfpenny stages for workmen) were introduced.{{cite news \|title\=Advertisement \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001348/19040722/238/0005 \|work\=\[\[Tameside Reporter\|Glossop\-dale Chronicle and North Derbyshire Reporter]] \|date\=22 July 1904 \|page\=5 \|quote\=The management of the Glossop Electric Tramway Co. have pleasure in announcing through our columns that they have decided to try the experiment of halfpenny fares for short stages on the electric tramways. \|url\-access\=subscription}}
Despite the high number of Hadfield to Glossop journeys, a lack of demand was soon demonstrated for the Whitfield branch. A one\-man, single\-deck demi\-car was purchased from the British Electric Car Company (BEC) to take over shuttle operations on the spur in August 1904,{{sfn\|Marsden\|2004}} the same year the tramway's only recorded accident occurred, in the form of a runaway tram which lost control, sped down Victoria Street and collided with a shopfront in High Street.
The financial viability of the tramway came into doubt within only a few years; revenues began to fall sharply in 1905 as the cotton industry, on whose workers the tramway was dependent for most of its passengers, began to experience depressions. The company paid no dividend from 1910 to 1920, with the profits made insufficient to cover the ongoing maintenance of the track and trams. Though Royal Assent was gained in 1915 for a plan to create a connection with the SHMD, this attempt did not succeed.{{sfn\|Marsden\|2004}} [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") necessitated the first use of female conductors by the tramway. By the end of the war in 1918, a run\-down Glossop Tramway was left with a backlog of repairs after several years of minimal investment and labour shortage. It resulted in 1918 in the originally temporary closure of the less\-used Whitfield branch line, in response to a Board of Trade request for tramways to save coal by reducing miles travelled, but this became a permanent closure.
### Decline and closure
Terminal troubles began after the war with the tramway facing significant costs needed for works to renew its track, and also public dissatisfaction with the service. Journey frequency went down as the tramway tried to save money. Glossop Borough Council asked for the wartime economy closure of the Whitfield branch to be reversed but this did not happen. In June 1920, a ten\-day strike was held by the tram crews disgruntled at their reduced working hours and to improve wages, though they did not win the dispute.{{cite news \|title\=Glossop Tramway Strike Settled \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000250/19200702/156/0005 \|work\=\[\[Sheffield Telegraph\|Sheffield Daily Telegraph]] \|date\=2 July 1920 \|page\=5 \|url\-access\=subscription}} The system was fast becoming a liability to the UESCo, which offered it for sale to the Council in the same month, which was declined.
By 1923, motorbuses were providing unwelcome competition along the tram route, while revenue and mileage on the trams continued to slide. A final offer was made to offload to the Council in November 1927, this time to hand over the tramway, whose infrastructure was reaching a dangerous state, for free if the borough agreed to buy electricity off the UESCo. It was again refused, and the announcement was subsequently made that Glossop Tramway would be closed in its entirety on at 23\.00 on 24 December 1927\. The [North Western Road Car Company](/wiki/North_Western_Road_Car_Company_%281923%29 "North Western Road Car Company (1923)") took over the disused route with a motorbus service from 26 December.{{sfn\|Marsden\|2004}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Context",
"In the late 19th century, Glossop and Hadfield, which sit at the base of [Longdendale](/wiki/Longdendale \"Longdendale\") in the [South Pennines](/wiki/South_Pennines \"South Pennines\"), were spread\\-out settlements with many works and factories strung along the routes between them. The valley bottom was populated by cotton mills making use of water power. Although the [Sheffield, Ashton\\-under\\-Lyne and Manchester Railway](/wiki/Sheffield%2C_Ashton-under-Lyne_and_Manchester_Railway \"Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway\") had opened stations at {{rws\\|Glossop}}, {{rws\\|Hadfield}} and {{rws\\|Dinting}} in 1844\\-5,{{sfn\\|Marsden\\|2004}} urban public transport, to connect the areas where workers lived with the town centre mills, did not exist. The first service came with the introduction by the Glossop Carriage Company in the early 1890s of a [horse\\-drawn bus](/wiki/Horsebus \"Horsebus\") from the Norfolk Hotel at Howard Town to the Commercial Inn at Bankbottom in Hadfield, which ran three times daily.{{cite web \\|title\\=Glossop Tramways \\|url\\=https://glossopheritage.co.uk/ghtarchive/trams01/ \\|website\\=Glossop Heritage Trust \\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005140454/https://glossopheritage.co.uk/ghtarchive/trams01/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 October 2022 \\|date\\=23 September 2020}}",
"### Origin",
"Glossop, being a small mill town with a population of around only 22,000,{{cite news \\|title\\=Urban Electric Supply Company Limited Prospectus \\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/uk/middlesex/london/london\\-standard/1901/06\\-25/page\\-8/ \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[London Evening Standard\\|London Standard]] \\|date\\=25 June 1901 \\|page\\=8}} was an unusual choice for a new urban tramway. However, there was a large supply of potential customers in the cotton workers holding jobs at the many factories. Additionally, the [Stalybridge, Hyde, Mossley and Dukinfield Joint Board](/wiki/SHMD_Joint_Board \"SHMD Joint Board\") (SHMD) network was being developed to run to Mottram, only {{convert\\|2\\|mi}} from the county boundary, which may have offered the possibility of a future connection.",
"The [Glossop Corporation](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Glossop \"Municipal Borough of Glossop\") (borough council) had been negotiating with a small number of private companies to exercise its powers to provide electrical lighting and supply since 1898, and an agreement was made with the [Urban Electric Supply Company](/wiki/Urban_Electric_Supply_Company \"Urban Electric Supply Company\") (UESCo) in December 1899\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=How Electricity and Tramways came to Glossop \\|url\\=https://gjh.me.uk/gllochis/glh151\\.htm \\|website\\=gjh.me.uk \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228203959/https://gjh.me.uk/gllochis/glh151\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2022 \\|date\\=6 November 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The UESCo was itself a subsidiary of [Edmundsons Electricity Corporation](/wiki/Edmundsons_Electricity_Corporation \"Edmundsons Electricity Corporation\"), which controlled numerous electricity supply companies across the country, as well as the [Scarborough Tramways Company](/wiki/Scarborough_Tramways_Company \"Scarborough Tramways Company\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Birch \\|first1\\=Ashley \\|title\\=Glossop Tramways Uniform \\|url\\=http://www.tramwaybadgesandbuttons.com/page148/page149/page369/page369\\.html \\|website\\=British Tramway Company Uniforms and Insignia \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127063959/http://www.tramwaybadgesandbuttons.com/page148/page149/page369/page369\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=27 November 2022 }} Edmunsons advised the Corporation that, should it wish to establish a tramway in the future, it would be much cheaper to do those works at the same time as the power and lighting supply were installed than to put one in later. They came to an agreement that the UESCo would build, operate and take on the risk of the tramway under similar terms to the electrical contract, and the Corporation would authorise the seeking of a provisional order under the Tramways Act, which it did in August 1900\\. There was an attempted amendment to extend the route into Padfield, which was prevented by a low railway arch at Platt Street, and also an objection from the railway to the tramway passing under [Dinting Viaduct](/wiki/Dinting_Viaduct \"Dinting Viaduct\"), but the Order passed its readings in the Lords and Commons. Authority for the tramway was given by the [Board of Trade](/wiki/Board_of_Trade \"Board of Trade\") and by Parliament under the Glossop Electric Tramways Order of 1901\\.",
"The UESCo appointed local magistrate and electrical engineer Charles Edward Knowles was appointed manager of the project,{{sfn\\|Marsden\\|2004}} and Leo Arthur Hards [MIEE](/wiki/Institution_of_Electrical_Engineers \"Institution of Electrical Engineers\"), an expert electric tramway engineer with the UESCo, was given responsibility for the layout of the system. It was planned as a {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} inverted C, with the north\\-west terminus in Hadfield, and the north\\-east at [Old Glossop](/wiki/Old_Glossop \"Old Glossop\"), joining relatively undeveloped stretches of roadway peppered with factories and large mills. A half\\-mile spur, known as the [Whitfield](/wiki/Whitfield%2C_Derbyshire \"Whitfield, Derbyshire\") Branch, ran south of the main track to [Charlestown](/wiki/Charlestown%2C_Derbyshire \"Charlestown, Derbyshire\"). The route was planned to be [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard-gauge_railway \"Standard-gauge railway\"), like other tramways in the Manchester region, powered by [overhead catenary](/wiki/Overhead_line \"Overhead line\"), and single\\-track with [passing loops](/wiki/Passing_loop \"Passing loop\"). For the depot and [power station](/wiki/Power_station \"Power station\"), a site on the north bank of the Glossop Brook at Dinting was selected. Tracklaying began in December 1902\\. Seven open top, double decker tramcars with reversed stairs were ordered.{{sfn\\|Marsden\\|2004}}",
"The power station was functional by August 1903 and the formal opening for passengers was set for the 20th. However, the Board of Trade deferred its final inspection until the 21st, though the opening ceremony went ahead as scheduled, with a ceremony and an inaugural tramcar which took dignitaries on a tour of the whole system. Public services started the following day (21 August 1903\\).",
"### Operation",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Westbound tram at the corner of High Street East and Hall Street (now Manor Park Road), {{circa}} 1903](/wiki/File:Glossop_tram_at_Hall_Street_c.1903.jpg \"Glossop tram at Hall Street c.1903.jpg\")\nThere was initial success upon the tramway's opening. It ran a 15\\-minute service with a one\\-hour round trip time, which required four cars, each with a driver and conductor, to operate. Services divided at Glossop with alternate cars taking the Whitfield and Old Glossop routes. 8,505 passengers used the system within the first two days, averaging 20,000 per week over the first three months. This popularity forced the railway to reduce its fares, with the tramway attracting three\\-quarters of passenger traffic between Glossop and Hadfield. The fare for the whole journey between termini was 2d, but later penny stages (and halfpenny stages for workmen) were introduced.{{cite news \\|title\\=Advertisement \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001348/19040722/238/0005 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Tameside Reporter\\|Glossop\\-dale Chronicle and North Derbyshire Reporter]] \\|date\\=22 July 1904 \\|page\\=5 \\|quote\\=The management of the Glossop Electric Tramway Co. have pleasure in announcing through our columns that they have decided to try the experiment of halfpenny fares for short stages on the electric tramways. \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}",
"Despite the high number of Hadfield to Glossop journeys, a lack of demand was soon demonstrated for the Whitfield branch. A one\\-man, single\\-deck demi\\-car was purchased from the British Electric Car Company (BEC) to take over shuttle operations on the spur in August 1904,{{sfn\\|Marsden\\|2004}} the same year the tramway's only recorded accident occurred, in the form of a runaway tram which lost control, sped down Victoria Street and collided with a shopfront in High Street.",
"The financial viability of the tramway came into doubt within only a few years; revenues began to fall sharply in 1905 as the cotton industry, on whose workers the tramway was dependent for most of its passengers, began to experience depressions. The company paid no dividend from 1910 to 1920, with the profits made insufficient to cover the ongoing maintenance of the track and trams. Though Royal Assent was gained in 1915 for a plan to create a connection with the SHMD, this attempt did not succeed.{{sfn\\|Marsden\\|2004}} [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") necessitated the first use of female conductors by the tramway. By the end of the war in 1918, a run\\-down Glossop Tramway was left with a backlog of repairs after several years of minimal investment and labour shortage. It resulted in 1918 in the originally temporary closure of the less\\-used Whitfield branch line, in response to a Board of Trade request for tramways to save coal by reducing miles travelled, but this became a permanent closure.",
"### Decline and closure",
"Terminal troubles began after the war with the tramway facing significant costs needed for works to renew its track, and also public dissatisfaction with the service. Journey frequency went down as the tramway tried to save money. Glossop Borough Council asked for the wartime economy closure of the Whitfield branch to be reversed but this did not happen. In June 1920, a ten\\-day strike was held by the tram crews disgruntled at their reduced working hours and to improve wages, though they did not win the dispute.{{cite news \\|title\\=Glossop Tramway Strike Settled \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000250/19200702/156/0005 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Sheffield Telegraph\\|Sheffield Daily Telegraph]] \\|date\\=2 July 1920 \\|page\\=5 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} The system was fast becoming a liability to the UESCo, which offered it for sale to the Council in the same month, which was declined.",
"By 1923, motorbuses were providing unwelcome competition along the tram route, while revenue and mileage on the trams continued to slide. A final offer was made to offload to the Council in November 1927, this time to hand over the tramway, whose infrastructure was reaching a dangerous state, for free if the borough agreed to buy electricity off the UESCo. It was again refused, and the announcement was subsequently made that Glossop Tramway would be closed in its entirety on at 23\\.00 on 24 December 1927\\. The [North Western Road Car Company](/wiki/North_Western_Road_Car_Company_%281923%29 \"North Western Road Car Company (1923)\") took over the disused route with a motorbus service from 26 December.{{sfn\\|Marsden\\|2004}}",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Houston Rockets (1991–1995\)
Tabak was selected by the [Houston Rockets](/wiki/Houston_Rockets "Houston Rockets") with the 24th pick in the second round (51st overall) of the [1991 NBA draft](/wiki/1991_NBA_draft "1991 NBA draft"). He did not immediately play for Houston, however, opting instead to spend another year in Croatia with SD Split.
### Return to Europe (1991–1994\)
On June 25, 1991, Croatia, along with [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia"), decided to end relationships with the other republics of the [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia"). The newly independent state, then, was able to send its own athletes to the [1992 Summer Olympic Games](/wiki/1992_Summer_Olympics "1992 Summer Olympics"); this delegation also included a national basketball team.
Along with previous Split teammates and [Dražen Petrović](/wiki/Dra%C5%BEen_Petrovi%C4%87 "Dražen Petrović"), Tabak and the Croatian team performed well and won the silver medal; they were bested only by the star\-studded [United States Dream Team](/wiki/1992_United_States_men%27s_Olympic_basketball_team "1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team").
After Barcelona, Tabak continued with his career, spending two years in the [Italian](/wiki/Italy "Italy") [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A_%28basketball%29 "Serie A (basketball)") league. In his years there, Tabak shot the ball extremely well, with a field goal percentage of over 60%. He also averaged a [double\-double](/wiki/Double_%28basketball%29%23Double-double "Double (basketball)#Double-double") in points and rebounds in both the 1992–93 season for [Baker Livorno](/wiki/Libertas_Livorno "Libertas Livorno") and in the 1993–94 season for [Recoaro Milano](/wiki/Olimpia_Milano "Olimpia Milano").[Lega A Basket](http://195.56.77.208/player/pbd.phtml)
### Return to NBA (1994–1998\)
Over three years after he was drafted by them, Tabak was signed by the Rockets on July 20, 1994\. With nine years of experience, he played his first NBA minutes on November 5, 1994\. As a rookie, he saw limited playing time, averaging less than five minutes per game in thirty\-seven appearances. He spent the season as a backup to [Hakeem Olajuwon](/wiki/Hakeem_Olajuwon "Hakeem Olajuwon"), who led Houston to the franchise's second [NBA title](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association_Finals "National Basketball Association Finals") that year as Tabak won his first and only [NBA championship](/wiki/NBA_championship_trophy "NBA championship trophy").
#### Toronto Raptors (1995–1998\)
In the 1995 [expansion draft](/wiki/1995_NBA_expansion_draft "1995 NBA expansion draft"), Tabak was selected by the [Toronto Raptors](/wiki/Toronto_Raptors "Toronto Raptors").
On February 25, 1996 Tabak recorded a career high 16 rebounds in a 98–105 loss to the [Dallas Mavericks](/wiki/Dallas_Mavericks "Dallas Mavericks").{{Cite web\|title\=Toronto Raptors at Dallas Mavericks Box Score, February 25, 1996\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/boxscores/199602250DAL.html\|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}}
On March 27, 1996 Tabak dropped a career high 26 points in a 94–103 loss to the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers").{{Cite web\|title\=Toronto Raptors at Philadelphia 76ers Box Score, March 27, 1996\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/boxscores/199603270PHI.html\|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}}
He started several games and saw increased playing time, but a strained left groin kept him from competing during the close of the [1995–96](/wiki/1995-96_NBA_season "1995-96 NBA season") season. As for the Raptors, the franchise had an expectably bad season ending with a sub\-par 21–61 record and missing the playoffs. Tabak did not fare well in the [following season](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_NBA_season "1996–97 NBA season"), either; [plantar fasciitis](/wiki/Plantar_fasciitis "Plantar fasciitis") in his left foot restricted his appearances to thirteen games.[NBA.com: Zan Tabak Bio](http://www.nba.com/playerfile/zan_tabak/bio.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302232225/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/zan\_tabak/bio.html \|date\=2008\-03\-02 }}
After another average start and a transverse fracture to a metacarpal bone in his right hand, Tabak was traded in a seven\-player deal to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics "Boston Celtics") in February 1998\.
Tabak played in Turkey for [Fenerbahçe](/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_Men%27s_Basketball "Fenerbahçe Men's Basketball") during the next year. He then returned to the NBA and signed with the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers "Indiana Pacers"). As back\-up to [Rik Smits](/wiki/Rik_Smits "Rik Smits"), Tabak contributed to the Pacers' appearance in the [2000 NBA Finals](/wiki/2000_NBA_Finals "2000 NBA Finals"), which was ultimately won by the [Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers "Los Angeles Lakers").
The [2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_NBA_season "2000–01 NBA season") was to be Tabak's last in the NBA, despite improved numbers and increased playing time. When asked about his decision to return to European basketball Tabak said "...I wanted to come back \[to Europe] because I felt I was 31 years old and I was feeling my career was coming to the end. I didn't want to finish my career being just one of the players. I wanted to be an important player in my team."[HoopsHype \- Interviews \- Zan Tabak: "Pitino made some wrong choices about players"](http://www.hoopshype.com/interviews/tabak_sierra.htm)
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Houston Rockets (1991–1995\\)",
"Tabak was selected by the [Houston Rockets](/wiki/Houston_Rockets \"Houston Rockets\") with the 24th pick in the second round (51st overall) of the [1991 NBA draft](/wiki/1991_NBA_draft \"1991 NBA draft\"). He did not immediately play for Houston, however, opting instead to spend another year in Croatia with SD Split.",
"### Return to Europe (1991–1994\\)",
"On June 25, 1991, Croatia, along with [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\"), decided to end relationships with the other republics of the [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\"). The newly independent state, then, was able to send its own athletes to the [1992 Summer Olympic Games](/wiki/1992_Summer_Olympics \"1992 Summer Olympics\"); this delegation also included a national basketball team.",
"Along with previous Split teammates and [Dražen Petrović](/wiki/Dra%C5%BEen_Petrovi%C4%87 \"Dražen Petrović\"), Tabak and the Croatian team performed well and won the silver medal; they were bested only by the star\\-studded [United States Dream Team](/wiki/1992_United_States_men%27s_Olympic_basketball_team \"1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team\").",
"After Barcelona, Tabak continued with his career, spending two years in the [Italian](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A_%28basketball%29 \"Serie A (basketball)\") league. In his years there, Tabak shot the ball extremely well, with a field goal percentage of over 60%. He also averaged a [double\\-double](/wiki/Double_%28basketball%29%23Double-double \"Double (basketball)#Double-double\") in points and rebounds in both the 1992–93 season for [Baker Livorno](/wiki/Libertas_Livorno \"Libertas Livorno\") and in the 1993–94 season for [Recoaro Milano](/wiki/Olimpia_Milano \"Olimpia Milano\").[Lega A Basket](http://195.56.77.208/player/pbd.phtml)",
"### Return to NBA (1994–1998\\)",
"Over three years after he was drafted by them, Tabak was signed by the Rockets on July 20, 1994\\. With nine years of experience, he played his first NBA minutes on November 5, 1994\\. As a rookie, he saw limited playing time, averaging less than five minutes per game in thirty\\-seven appearances. He spent the season as a backup to [Hakeem Olajuwon](/wiki/Hakeem_Olajuwon \"Hakeem Olajuwon\"), who led Houston to the franchise's second [NBA title](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association_Finals \"National Basketball Association Finals\") that year as Tabak won his first and only [NBA championship](/wiki/NBA_championship_trophy \"NBA championship trophy\").",
"#### Toronto Raptors (1995–1998\\)",
"In the 1995 [expansion draft](/wiki/1995_NBA_expansion_draft \"1995 NBA expansion draft\"), Tabak was selected by the [Toronto Raptors](/wiki/Toronto_Raptors \"Toronto Raptors\").",
"On February 25, 1996 Tabak recorded a career high 16 rebounds in a 98–105 loss to the [Dallas Mavericks](/wiki/Dallas_Mavericks \"Dallas Mavericks\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Toronto Raptors at Dallas Mavericks Box Score, February 25, 1996\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/boxscores/199602250DAL.html\\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}}",
"On March 27, 1996 Tabak dropped a career high 26 points in a 94–103 loss to the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Toronto Raptors at Philadelphia 76ers Box Score, March 27, 1996\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/boxscores/199603270PHI.html\\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}}",
"He started several games and saw increased playing time, but a strained left groin kept him from competing during the close of the [1995–96](/wiki/1995-96_NBA_season \"1995-96 NBA season\") season. As for the Raptors, the franchise had an expectably bad season ending with a sub\\-par 21–61 record and missing the playoffs. Tabak did not fare well in the [following season](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_NBA_season \"1996–97 NBA season\"), either; [plantar fasciitis](/wiki/Plantar_fasciitis \"Plantar fasciitis\") in his left foot restricted his appearances to thirteen games.[NBA.com: Zan Tabak Bio](http://www.nba.com/playerfile/zan_tabak/bio.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302232225/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/zan\\_tabak/bio.html \\|date\\=2008\\-03\\-02 }}",
"After another average start and a transverse fracture to a metacarpal bone in his right hand, Tabak was traded in a seven\\-player deal to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics \"Boston Celtics\") in February 1998\\.",
"Tabak played in Turkey for [Fenerbahçe](/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_Men%27s_Basketball \"Fenerbahçe Men's Basketball\") during the next year. He then returned to the NBA and signed with the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers \"Indiana Pacers\"). As back\\-up to [Rik Smits](/wiki/Rik_Smits \"Rik Smits\"), Tabak contributed to the Pacers' appearance in the [2000 NBA Finals](/wiki/2000_NBA_Finals \"2000 NBA Finals\"), which was ultimately won by the [Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers \"Los Angeles Lakers\").",
"The [2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_NBA_season \"2000–01 NBA season\") was to be Tabak's last in the NBA, despite improved numbers and increased playing time. When asked about his decision to return to European basketball Tabak said \"...I wanted to come back \\[to Europe] because I felt I was 31 years old and I was feeling my career was coming to the end. I didn't want to finish my career being just one of the players. I wanted to be an important player in my team.\"[HoopsHype \\- Interviews \\- Zan Tabak: \"Pitino made some wrong choices about players\"](http://www.hoopshype.com/interviews/tabak_sierra.htm)",
""
] |
History
-------
### Māori history
Napier has well\-documented [Māori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people "Māori people") history. When the [Ngāti Kahungunu](/wiki/Ng%C4%81ti_Kahungunu "Ngāti Kahungunu") party of Taraia reached the district many centuries ago, the Whatumamoa, Rangitane, Ngāti Awa and elements of the Ngāti Tara [iwi](/wiki/Iwi "Iwi") lived in the nearby areas of Petane, Te Whanganui\-a\-Orotu and Waiohiki. Ngāti Kahungunu later became the dominant force from [Poverty Bay](/wiki/Poverty_Bay "Poverty Bay") to Wellington. Chief Te Ahuriri cut a channel from the lagoon to the sea at Ahuriri because the [Westshore](/wiki/Westshore%2C_New_Zealand "Westshore, New Zealand") entrance had become blocked, threatening cultivations surrounding the lagoon and the fishing villages on the islands in the lagoon. The rivers were continually feeding freshwater into the area. Ngāti Kahungunu were one of the first Māori tribes that European settlers had contact with.
### European settlers history
[Captain James Cook](/wiki/Captain_James_Cook "Captain James Cook") and his crew were the first Europeans to see the future site of Napier when they sailed down the east coast in October 1769\. He commented: "On each side of this bluff head is a low, narrow sand or stone beach, between these beaches and the mainland is a pretty large lake of salt water I suppose."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.napier.govt.nz/napier/about/history/ \|title\=History \|work\=napier.govt.nz}} He said the harbour entrance was at the Westshore end of the shingle beach.
After 1830, the site was visited and later settled by European traders, whalers and missionaries. By the 1850s, farmers and hotel\-keepers arrived.
[alt\=\|left\|thumb\|Hastings Street, 1862](/wiki/File:Hasting_Street%2C_Napier%2C_1862.jpg "Hasting Street, Napier, 1862.jpg")
[alt\=\|right\|thumb\|Napier Barracks, {{circa\|1864}}](/wiki/File:Napier_Barracks_c1864.jpg "Napier Barracks c1864.jpg")
The Crown purchased the Ahuriri block (including the site of Napier) in 1851\. In 1854 [Alfred Domett](/wiki/Alfred_Domett "Alfred Domett"), a future Prime Minister of New Zealand, was appointed as the Commissioner of Crown Lands and the resident magistrate at the village of Ahuriri. It was decided to place a planned town here, its streets and avenues were laid out, and the new town named for [Sir Charles Napier](/wiki/Charles_James_Napier "Charles James Napier"), a military leader during the "Battle of Meeanee" fought in the country of [Sindh](/wiki/Sindh "Sindh"), in the Indian subcontinent. Domett named many streets in Napier to commemorate the colonial era of the [British Indian Empire](/wiki/British_India "British India").
Development was generally confined to the hills and to the port area of Ahuriri. In the early years, Napier covered almost exclusively an oblong group of hills (the [Scinde Island](/wiki/Napier_Hill "Napier Hill")) which was nearly entirely surrounded by the ocean, but from which ran out two single spits, one to the north and one to the south. There was a swamp between the now Hastings Street and Wellesley Road, and the sea extended to Clive Square.
Napier was designated as a [borough](/wiki/Borough "Borough") in 1874, but the development of the surrounding marshlands and [reclamation](/wiki/Land_reclamation "Land reclamation") proceeded slowly. Napier was the administrative centre for the [Hawke's Bay Province](/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay_Province "Hawke's Bay Province") from 1858 until the abolition of [New Zealand's provincial governments](/wiki/Provinces_of_New_Zealand "Provinces of New Zealand") in 1876\.
### 20th century
On 3 February 1931, most of Napier and nearby Hastings were levelled by [an earthquake](/wiki/1931_Hawke%27s_Bay_earthquake "1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake"). The collapse of buildings and the ensuing fires killed 256 people. Some 4000 hectares of today's Napier were undersea before the earthquake raised it above sea level. The earthquake uplifted an area of 1500 km2 with a maximum of 2\.7 m of uplift. In Hastings, about 1 m of ground subsidence occurred.
[thumb\|200px\|left\|Halsbury Chambers (architect [Louis Hay](/wiki/Louis_Hay "Louis Hay"), 1932\)](/wiki/Image:Napier_Halsbury_Chambers_n.jpg "Napier Halsbury Chambers n.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|200px\|Sound Shell (built 1935\) at night](/wiki/Image:Napier-SoundShell.jpg "Napier-SoundShell.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Lit\-up dome of the T \& G building (built 1936\) at dusk](/wiki/Image:Napier-TypicalView.jpg "Napier-TypicalView.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|150px\|Tom Parker Fountain (built 1936\) at dusk](/wiki/Image:Napier_fountain.jpg "Napier fountain.jpg")
The centre of Napier, destroyed by the earthquake, was rebuilt in the [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") style popular in the 1930s. Although a few Art Deco buildings were replaced with contemporary structures in the 1960s to 1980s, most of the centre remained intact for long enough to become recognised as architecturally important, and it has been protected and restored since the 1990s. Napier and the area of [South Beach](/wiki/South_Beach "South Beach"), Miami, Florida, are considered to be the two best\-preserved Art Deco towns (with the town of [Miami Beach, Florida](/wiki/Miami_Beach%2C_Florida "Miami Beach, Florida"), being mostly decorated in the somewhat later [Streamline Moderne](/wiki/Streamline_Moderne "Streamline Moderne") style of Art Deco). Beginning in 2007, Napier was nominated as a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site") with [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO"). This is the first cultural site in New Zealand to be so nominated.[Napier Art Deco historic precinct](https://whc.unesco.org/pg_friendly_print.cfm?id=5125&cid=326&). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved on 7 May 2012\. It was denied World Heritage status in 2011 as it did not meet the appropriate criteria. Still, the report of the application acknowledged the Art Deco heritage as "first and foremost of outstanding value to all New Zealanders".{{Cite news \|last\=O'Sullivan \|first\=Patrick \|date\=16 September 2011 \|title\='No' to World Heritage status for Napier \|url\= https://www.nzherald.co.nz/hawkes\-bay\-today/news/no\-to\-world\-heritage\-status\-for\-napier/UDYKQFYYNGQ63LHOSK5F5HLWSY/ \|newspaper\=Hawkes Bay Today \|access\-date\=23 February 2023}}
In January 1945, the {{GS\|U\-862}} entered and departed from the port of Napier undetected. This event became the basis of a widely circulated postwar [tall tale](/wiki/Tall_tale "Tall tale") that the [captain of this U\-boat](/wiki/Kapit%C3%A4nleutnant "Kapitänleutnant"), [Heinrich Timm](/wiki/Heinrich_Timm "Heinrich Timm"), had led crewmen ashore near Napier to milk cows to supplement their meagre rations.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2020}}
### Modern history
Napier was the scene of an [armed attack by cannabis dealer Jan Molenaar](/wiki/Napier_shootings "Napier shootings") on three police officers searching his home in May 2009\. He killed one officer, and wounded two others and a civilian. He continued to fire shots from his house, which police besieged, until he committed suicide 40 hours later.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c\_id\=1\&objectid\=10571362 \|title\=Napier shooting: Siege over as Molenaar's body located \|date\=9 May 2009 \|work\=\[\[The New Zealand Herald]] \|access\-date\=9 May 2009}}
On 9 November 2020, a local state of emergency was declared in Napier after the region received 237 mm of rainfall across 24 hours – the most daily rainfall in the city since 1963 and the second most since records began.{{cite news \|last1\=Wiltshire \|first1\=Laura \|title\=State of emergency as two months' rain falls on Napier in 24 hours \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion\-post/news/hawkes\-bay/123346600/state\-of\-emergency\-as\-two\-months\-rain\-falls\-on\-napier\-in\-24\-hours \|access\-date\=10 November 2020 \|work\=\[\[Stuff (website)\|Stuff]] \|date\=10 November 2020 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201110021229/https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion\-post/news/hawkes\-bay/123346600/state\-of\-emergency\-as\-two\-months\-rain\-falls\-on\-napier\-in\-24\-hours \|archive\-date\=10 November 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} The event caused widespread flooding, slips, power cuts and evacuations.{{cite news \|last1\=Robertson \|first1\=Georgina\-May \|title\=Napier flooding: State of emergency declared as floods cause landslips, evacuations and power cuts \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300153612/napier\-flooding\-state\-of\-emergency\-declared\-as\-floods\-cause\-landslips\-evacuations\-and\-power\-cuts \|access\-date\=9 November 2020 \|work\=\[\[Stuff (website)\|Stuff]] \|date\=9 November 2020 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201109100240/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300153612/napier\-flooding\-state\-of\-emergency\-declared\-as\-floods\-cause\-landslips\-evacuations\-and\-power\-cuts \|archive\-date\=9 November 2020 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|title\=Flooding in Napier as heavy rain sweeps across North Island \|url\=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/430190/flooding\-in\-napier\-as\-heavy\-rain\-sweeps\-across\-north\-island \|access\-date\=9 November 2020 \|work\=\[\[Radio New Zealand]] \|date\=9 November 2020 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201109100458/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/430190/flooding\-in\-napier\-as\-heavy\-rain\-sweeps\-across\-north\-island \|archive\-date\=9 November 2020 \|url\-status\=live}}
On 14 February 2023, floods caused by [Cyclone Gabrielle](/wiki/Cyclone_Gabrielle "Cyclone Gabrielle") destroyed bridges over the [Tutaekuri River](/wiki/Tutaekuri_River "Tutaekuri River"), and damaged a major regional electrical substation at Redclyffe, which cut power to much of northern Hawke's Bay including its telecommunication infrastructure.{{Cite web \|title\=Gisborne and Hawke's Bay could be without power for 'weeks', Transpower warns \|last\=Pullar\-Strecker \|first\=Tom \|date\=13 February 2023 \|work\=Stuff \|url\= https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/131223166/gisborne\-and\-hawkes\-bay\-could\-be\-without\-power\-for\-weeks\-transpower\-warns \|access\-date\=19 February 2023 }} Flooding also caused extensive property damage to [Esk Valley](/wiki/Esk_River_%28Hawke%27s_Bay%29 "Esk River (Hawke's Bay)"), [Taradale](/wiki/Taradale%2C_New_Zealand "Taradale, New Zealand") and [Meeanee](/wiki/Meeanee%2C_New_Zealand "Meeanee, New Zealand"), as well as loss of crops, livestock and several human lives.{{Cite web \|title\=Cyclone Gabrielle: In Hawke's Bay, a week of devastation that time forgot \|last\=Duff \|first\=Michelle \|work\=Stuff \|date\=18 February 2023 \|url\= https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300810707/cyclone\-gabrielle\-in\-hawkes\-bay\-a\-week\-of\-devastation\-that\-time\-forgot \|access\-date\=19 February 2023 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Māori history",
"Napier has well\\-documented [Māori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people \"Māori people\") history. When the [Ngāti Kahungunu](/wiki/Ng%C4%81ti_Kahungunu \"Ngāti Kahungunu\") party of Taraia reached the district many centuries ago, the Whatumamoa, Rangitane, Ngāti Awa and elements of the Ngāti Tara [iwi](/wiki/Iwi \"Iwi\") lived in the nearby areas of Petane, Te Whanganui\\-a\\-Orotu and Waiohiki. Ngāti Kahungunu later became the dominant force from [Poverty Bay](/wiki/Poverty_Bay \"Poverty Bay\") to Wellington. Chief Te Ahuriri cut a channel from the lagoon to the sea at Ahuriri because the [Westshore](/wiki/Westshore%2C_New_Zealand \"Westshore, New Zealand\") entrance had become blocked, threatening cultivations surrounding the lagoon and the fishing villages on the islands in the lagoon. The rivers were continually feeding freshwater into the area. Ngāti Kahungunu were one of the first Māori tribes that European settlers had contact with.",
"### European settlers history",
"[Captain James Cook](/wiki/Captain_James_Cook \"Captain James Cook\") and his crew were the first Europeans to see the future site of Napier when they sailed down the east coast in October 1769\\. He commented: \"On each side of this bluff head is a low, narrow sand or stone beach, between these beaches and the mainland is a pretty large lake of salt water I suppose.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.napier.govt.nz/napier/about/history/ \\|title\\=History \\|work\\=napier.govt.nz}} He said the harbour entrance was at the Westshore end of the shingle beach.",
"After 1830, the site was visited and later settled by European traders, whalers and missionaries. By the 1850s, farmers and hotel\\-keepers arrived.",
"[alt\\=\\|left\\|thumb\\|Hastings Street, 1862](/wiki/File:Hasting_Street%2C_Napier%2C_1862.jpg \"Hasting Street, Napier, 1862.jpg\")\n[alt\\=\\|right\\|thumb\\|Napier Barracks, {{circa\\|1864}}](/wiki/File:Napier_Barracks_c1864.jpg \"Napier Barracks c1864.jpg\")",
"The Crown purchased the Ahuriri block (including the site of Napier) in 1851\\. In 1854 [Alfred Domett](/wiki/Alfred_Domett \"Alfred Domett\"), a future Prime Minister of New Zealand, was appointed as the Commissioner of Crown Lands and the resident magistrate at the village of Ahuriri. It was decided to place a planned town here, its streets and avenues were laid out, and the new town named for [Sir Charles Napier](/wiki/Charles_James_Napier \"Charles James Napier\"), a military leader during the \"Battle of Meeanee\" fought in the country of [Sindh](/wiki/Sindh \"Sindh\"), in the Indian subcontinent. Domett named many streets in Napier to commemorate the colonial era of the [British Indian Empire](/wiki/British_India \"British India\").",
"Development was generally confined to the hills and to the port area of Ahuriri. In the early years, Napier covered almost exclusively an oblong group of hills (the [Scinde Island](/wiki/Napier_Hill \"Napier Hill\")) which was nearly entirely surrounded by the ocean, but from which ran out two single spits, one to the north and one to the south. There was a swamp between the now Hastings Street and Wellesley Road, and the sea extended to Clive Square.",
"Napier was designated as a [borough](/wiki/Borough \"Borough\") in 1874, but the development of the surrounding marshlands and [reclamation](/wiki/Land_reclamation \"Land reclamation\") proceeded slowly. Napier was the administrative centre for the [Hawke's Bay Province](/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay_Province \"Hawke's Bay Province\") from 1858 until the abolition of [New Zealand's provincial governments](/wiki/Provinces_of_New_Zealand \"Provinces of New Zealand\") in 1876\\.",
"### 20th century",
"On 3 February 1931, most of Napier and nearby Hastings were levelled by [an earthquake](/wiki/1931_Hawke%27s_Bay_earthquake \"1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake\"). The collapse of buildings and the ensuing fires killed 256 people. Some 4000 hectares of today's Napier were undersea before the earthquake raised it above sea level. The earthquake uplifted an area of 1500 km2 with a maximum of 2\\.7 m of uplift. In Hastings, about 1 m of ground subsidence occurred.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|left\\|Halsbury Chambers (architect [Louis Hay](/wiki/Louis_Hay \"Louis Hay\"), 1932\\)](/wiki/Image:Napier_Halsbury_Chambers_n.jpg \"Napier Halsbury Chambers n.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Sound Shell (built 1935\\) at night](/wiki/Image:Napier-SoundShell.jpg \"Napier-SoundShell.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Lit\\-up dome of the T \\& G building (built 1936\\) at dusk](/wiki/Image:Napier-TypicalView.jpg \"Napier-TypicalView.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|Tom Parker Fountain (built 1936\\) at dusk](/wiki/Image:Napier_fountain.jpg \"Napier fountain.jpg\")",
"The centre of Napier, destroyed by the earthquake, was rebuilt in the [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") style popular in the 1930s. Although a few Art Deco buildings were replaced with contemporary structures in the 1960s to 1980s, most of the centre remained intact for long enough to become recognised as architecturally important, and it has been protected and restored since the 1990s. Napier and the area of [South Beach](/wiki/South_Beach \"South Beach\"), Miami, Florida, are considered to be the two best\\-preserved Art Deco towns (with the town of [Miami Beach, Florida](/wiki/Miami_Beach%2C_Florida \"Miami Beach, Florida\"), being mostly decorated in the somewhat later [Streamline Moderne](/wiki/Streamline_Moderne \"Streamline Moderne\") style of Art Deco). Beginning in 2007, Napier was nominated as a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\") with [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\"). This is the first cultural site in New Zealand to be so nominated.[Napier Art Deco historic precinct](https://whc.unesco.org/pg_friendly_print.cfm?id=5125&cid=326&). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved on 7 May 2012\\. It was denied World Heritage status in 2011 as it did not meet the appropriate criteria. Still, the report of the application acknowledged the Art Deco heritage as \"first and foremost of outstanding value to all New Zealanders\".{{Cite news \\|last\\=O'Sullivan \\|first\\=Patrick \\|date\\=16 September 2011 \\|title\\='No' to World Heritage status for Napier \\|url\\= https://www.nzherald.co.nz/hawkes\\-bay\\-today/news/no\\-to\\-world\\-heritage\\-status\\-for\\-napier/UDYKQFYYNGQ63LHOSK5F5HLWSY/ \\|newspaper\\=Hawkes Bay Today \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023}}",
"In January 1945, the {{GS\\|U\\-862}} entered and departed from the port of Napier undetected. This event became the basis of a widely circulated postwar [tall tale](/wiki/Tall_tale \"Tall tale\") that the [captain of this U\\-boat](/wiki/Kapit%C3%A4nleutnant \"Kapitänleutnant\"), [Heinrich Timm](/wiki/Heinrich_Timm \"Heinrich Timm\"), had led crewmen ashore near Napier to milk cows to supplement their meagre rations.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2020}}",
"### Modern history",
"Napier was the scene of an [armed attack by cannabis dealer Jan Molenaar](/wiki/Napier_shootings \"Napier shootings\") on three police officers searching his home in May 2009\\. He killed one officer, and wounded two others and a civilian. He continued to fire shots from his house, which police besieged, until he committed suicide 40 hours later.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c\\_id\\=1\\&objectid\\=10571362 \\|title\\=Napier shooting: Siege over as Molenaar's body located \\|date\\=9 May 2009 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New Zealand Herald]] \\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2009}}",
"On 9 November 2020, a local state of emergency was declared in Napier after the region received 237 mm of rainfall across 24 hours – the most daily rainfall in the city since 1963 and the second most since records began.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiltshire \\|first1\\=Laura \\|title\\=State of emergency as two months' rain falls on Napier in 24 hours \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion\\-post/news/hawkes\\-bay/123346600/state\\-of\\-emergency\\-as\\-two\\-months\\-rain\\-falls\\-on\\-napier\\-in\\-24\\-hours \\|access\\-date\\=10 November 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Stuff (website)\\|Stuff]] \\|date\\=10 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201110021229/https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion\\-post/news/hawkes\\-bay/123346600/state\\-of\\-emergency\\-as\\-two\\-months\\-rain\\-falls\\-on\\-napier\\-in\\-24\\-hours \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The event caused widespread flooding, slips, power cuts and evacuations.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Robertson \\|first1\\=Georgina\\-May \\|title\\=Napier flooding: State of emergency declared as floods cause landslips, evacuations and power cuts \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300153612/napier\\-flooding\\-state\\-of\\-emergency\\-declared\\-as\\-floods\\-cause\\-landslips\\-evacuations\\-and\\-power\\-cuts \\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Stuff (website)\\|Stuff]] \\|date\\=9 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201109100240/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300153612/napier\\-flooding\\-state\\-of\\-emergency\\-declared\\-as\\-floods\\-cause\\-landslips\\-evacuations\\-and\\-power\\-cuts \\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Flooding in Napier as heavy rain sweeps across North Island \\|url\\=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/430190/flooding\\-in\\-napier\\-as\\-heavy\\-rain\\-sweeps\\-across\\-north\\-island \\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Radio New Zealand]] \\|date\\=9 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201109100458/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/430190/flooding\\-in\\-napier\\-as\\-heavy\\-rain\\-sweeps\\-across\\-north\\-island \\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"On 14 February 2023, floods caused by [Cyclone Gabrielle](/wiki/Cyclone_Gabrielle \"Cyclone Gabrielle\") destroyed bridges over the [Tutaekuri River](/wiki/Tutaekuri_River \"Tutaekuri River\"), and damaged a major regional electrical substation at Redclyffe, which cut power to much of northern Hawke's Bay including its telecommunication infrastructure.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Gisborne and Hawke's Bay could be without power for 'weeks', Transpower warns \\|last\\=Pullar\\-Strecker \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=13 February 2023 \\|work\\=Stuff \\|url\\= https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/131223166/gisborne\\-and\\-hawkes\\-bay\\-could\\-be\\-without\\-power\\-for\\-weeks\\-transpower\\-warns \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2023 }} Flooding also caused extensive property damage to [Esk Valley](/wiki/Esk_River_%28Hawke%27s_Bay%29 \"Esk River (Hawke's Bay)\"), [Taradale](/wiki/Taradale%2C_New_Zealand \"Taradale, New Zealand\") and [Meeanee](/wiki/Meeanee%2C_New_Zealand \"Meeanee, New Zealand\"), as well as loss of crops, livestock and several human lives.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cyclone Gabrielle: In Hawke's Bay, a week of devastation that time forgot \\|last\\=Duff \\|first\\=Michelle \\|work\\=Stuff \\|date\\=18 February 2023 \\|url\\= https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300810707/cyclone\\-gabrielle\\-in\\-hawkes\\-bay\\-a\\-week\\-of\\-devastation\\-that\\-time\\-forgot \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2023 }}",
""
] |
Transportation
--------------
### Air
[Hawke's Bay Airport](/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay_Airport "Hawke's Bay Airport") is the main airport in the Hawke's Bay region and has domestic flight services. It is jointly owned by the government, Napier City Council, and Hastings District Council, and is operated by Hawke's Bay Airport Ltd. The airport is located in the Napier suburb of [Westshore](/wiki/Westshore%2C_New_Zealand "Westshore, New Zealand"). [Air New Zealand](/wiki/Air_New_Zealand "Air New Zealand") provides frequent direct flights to and from Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. [Sunair](/wiki/Sunair "Sunair") serves Tauranga, Gisborne and Wairoa. [Jetstar](/wiki/Jetstar_Airways "Jetstar Airways"), a [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas "Qantas") subsidiary, served Auckland from 2015 to 2019{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/74572971/jetstars\-first\-napier\-to\-auckland\-regional\-flight\-touches\-down\-early \|title\=Jetstar's first Napier to Auckland regional flight touches down early \|website\=Stuff \|date\=December 2015 \|access\-date\=11 November 2017}} and [Sounds Air](/wiki/Sounds_Air "Sounds Air") used to operate direct flights to [Blenheim](/wiki/Blenheim%2C_New_Zealand "Blenheim, New Zealand") daily. Smaller charter companies also operate, including [Air Napier](/wiki/Air_Napier "Air Napier") to Gisborne. The airport was historically referred to as Napier Airport, and its [IATA](/wiki/IATA_airport_code "IATA airport code") code reflects that: NPE. It is situated on land that was formerly the Ahuriri Lagoon, an area that was raised above sea level by the 1931 Napier earthquake.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/hawkes\-bay\-today/news/article.cfm?c\_id\=1503462\&objectid\=11531922 \|title\=Airport's 'historic' renaming \|date\=20 October 2015 \|work\=The New Zealand Herald}} The airport is located approximately 22 km north of [Hastings Aerodrome](/wiki/Hastings_Aerodrome "Hastings Aerodrome"), a smaller airport located close to Hastings that caters mainly for flight training and general aviation.
### Pathways
The Hawke's Bay region has extensive cycleways and footpaths that originally began as the 'Rotary Pathways' between Napier and Hastings, and is now known as the 'Hawke's Bay Trails'. The network of pathways links the urban areas of Napier and Hastings, as well as many of the other outlying suburbs of the two cities. Some of the cycleways include dedicated cycling lanes on roads within the city, as well as separate dedicated pathways on roadsides and through parks and other areas, many of which are mixed use pathways for cyclists and pedestrians, such as the paths that stretch from Bay View to Clifton. The Hawke's Bay Trails contain over 200 km of cycleways that meander through and around the Napier\-Hastings twin cities.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nzcycletrail.com/hawkes\-bay\-trails \|title\=Hawke's Bay Trails \|work\=NZ Cycle Trail}} The Napier Rotary Pathway creates a loop that encompasses the city from Esk River, to Westshore, Napier Central, Awatoto, Taradale, Poraiti, and looping back to the Esk Valley. This rotary also has several links to the Hastings Rotary Pathway.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.napier.govt.nz/napier/projects/rotary\-pathway/ \|title\=Rotary Pathway \|work\=napier.govt.nz}}
### Roads
[State Highway 2](/wiki/State_Highway_2_%28New_Zealand%29 "State Highway 2 (New Zealand)") is the principal state highway serving Napier, connecting it to [Wairoa](/wiki/Wairoa "Wairoa") and [Gisborne](/wiki/Gisborne%2C_New_Zealand "Gisborne, New Zealand") to the north, and, via [Dannevirke](/wiki/Dannevirke "Dannevirke"), to [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"), [Masterton](/wiki/Masterton "Masterton") and [Palmerston North](/wiki/Palmerston_North "Palmerston North") to the south. Between Napier and Hastings, SH 2 follows the [Hawke's Bay Expressway](/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay_Expressway "Hawke's Bay Expressway"), also known as the Napier\-Hastings Expressway, which provides a direct and efficient link between the two cities. Although the Hawke's Bay Expressway bypasses Napier itself, it has connections to many of Napier's arterial roads that lead to the city centre and the Port (such as the junctions at Kennedy Road, Taradale Road, Prebensen Drive and Meeanee Quay) and also intersects with the access road to Hawke's Bay Airport.
[State Highway 5](/wiki/State_Highway_5_%28New_Zealand%29 "State Highway 5 (New Zealand)"), known as the Napier\-Taupo Road, begins at a junction on SH 2 just north of the Napier suburb of Bay View, and connects Napier and the Hawke's Bay region to [Taupō](/wiki/Taup%C5%8D "Taupō") and the central North Island. It is also the main route used for traffic travelling from Napier\-Hastings to Auckland, Hamilton, Rotorua and Tauranga, as it is quicker than the route through Gisborne taken by SH 2\.
[State Highway 50](/wiki/State_Highway_50_%28New_Zealand%29 "State Highway 50 (New Zealand)") connects Napier to the southwestern Hawke's Bay, going through many small settlements. It also connects Napier to many of Hawke's Bay's wineries, of which the region is well known for. It makes up part of the Hawke's Bay Wine Trail.
[State Highway 51](/wiki/State_Highway_51_%28New_Zealand%29 "State Highway 51 (New Zealand)") is an alternative connection between Napier and Hastings, and largely follows the original route of SH 2 between the two cities prior to the completion of the Hawke's Bay Expressway, and SH 2 being shifted to run along it. While the original route followed Meeanee Quay through the suburbs of Westshore and Ahuriri before bridging across the Pandora Pond area of the Napier Inner Harbour marina, the SH 51 route follows Taradale Road instead, meeting up with the original SH 2 route at the southern base of Napier Hill at Hyderabad Road. The route then moves onto Georges Drive, where it borders the southern and western edges of the Napier city centre. It meets up with Marine Parade south of the CBD, and then follows the coast south from Napier through Clive to Hastings.
#### Buses
[Go Bus](/wiki/Go_Bus_Transport "Go Bus Transport") operates 9 *Go Bay* routes in Napier, with funding from Regional Council.{{Cite web \|title\=goBay Hawke's Bay Bus Service {{!}} New Zealand \|url\=https://www.gobay.co.nz/ \|access\-date\=21 August 2020\|website\=www.gobay.co.nz}} [Bee Cards](/wiki/Bee_Card_%28New_Zealand%29 "Bee Card (New Zealand)") replaced goBay cards in August 2020\.{{Cite web \|title\=Bee Card {{!}} goBay Hawke's Bay Bus Service \|url\=https://www.gobay.co.nz/bee\-card/ \|access\-date\=21 August 2020\|website\=www.gobay.co.nz}}
### Rail
The [Palmerston North–Gisborne Line](/wiki/Palmerston_North%E2%80%93Gisborne_Line "Palmerston North–Gisborne Line") runs through Napier. The southern portion of the line between Napier and Palmerston North was built between 1872 and 1891, and the northern portion between Napier and Gisborne from 1912 to 1942\. The line from Gisborne enters Napier via the coast, making its way through the city, before eventually turning inland towards Hastings, and onwards to [Woodville](/wiki/Woodville%2C_New_Zealand "Woodville, New Zealand") (where the [Wairarapa Line](/wiki/Wairarapa_Line "Wairarapa Line") branches off) and Palmerston North.
The [Napier Port Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch "Ahuriri Branch"), formerly known as the Ahuriri Branch, is a 2 km railway branch line off the Palmerston North\-Gisborne Line that serves the Port of Napier. [Napier Railway Station](/wiki/Napier_Railway_Station%2C_New_Zealand "Napier Railway Station, New Zealand") was the main railway station in Napier and an intermediate stop on the Palmerston North\-Gisborne Line. It opened on 12 October 1874, when the station and the first section of the line between Napier and Hastings was opened. The line through the [Manawatū Gorge](/wiki/Manawat%C5%AB_Gorge "Manawatū Gorge") to Palmerston North and hence to Wellington was opened on 9 March 1891\. The line north of Napier to Gisborne was opened on 3 August 1942, with passenger services from 7 September. Napier was the terminus for both Gisborne and Wellington goods trains, though some passenger trains ran straight through.
The original Napier station building was on the corner of Station Street and Millar Street, close to the centre of Napier. The facilities on the site increased to include the passenger station plus a goods yard, locomotive depot, workshop and a way and works branch. The line was on a curve and difficult to work, and the site was limited by level crossings at each end and with no room for expansion.
Hence, in a two\-year programme to 1991, most functions followed the Way and Works to Pandora Point, at the start of the [Ahuriri Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch "Ahuriri Branch"), leaving only a new InterCity coach and train terminal on the city site, fronting Munroe Street. The old station was closed on 6 October 1990, and was replaced by a new station on 9 June 1991\.*Names \& Opening \& Closing Dates of Railway Stations in New Zealand* by Juliet Scoble (2012\) The existing station and three\-story administrative block built in the late 1950s and early 1960s were demolished and some three hectares of land was available for retail development.
A marshalling yard, freight terminal, locomotive depot and other facilities were established at Pandora Point, with a triangle provided to turn trains and giving direct access north and south from the port branch. The Ahuriri yard was closed. The old main line north to Gisborne was realigned to the east to allow a new link road to the Tamatea area of Napier, and railways land was redeveloped as an industrial subdivision. On 7 October 2001 the [Bay Express](/wiki/Bay_Express "Bay Express") from Wellington to Napier was cancelled and passenger services on the line ceased.
|
[
"Transportation\n--------------",
"### Air",
"[Hawke's Bay Airport](/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay_Airport \"Hawke's Bay Airport\") is the main airport in the Hawke's Bay region and has domestic flight services. It is jointly owned by the government, Napier City Council, and Hastings District Council, and is operated by Hawke's Bay Airport Ltd. The airport is located in the Napier suburb of [Westshore](/wiki/Westshore%2C_New_Zealand \"Westshore, New Zealand\"). [Air New Zealand](/wiki/Air_New_Zealand \"Air New Zealand\") provides frequent direct flights to and from Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. [Sunair](/wiki/Sunair \"Sunair\") serves Tauranga, Gisborne and Wairoa. [Jetstar](/wiki/Jetstar_Airways \"Jetstar Airways\"), a [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas \"Qantas\") subsidiary, served Auckland from 2015 to 2019{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/74572971/jetstars\\-first\\-napier\\-to\\-auckland\\-regional\\-flight\\-touches\\-down\\-early \\|title\\=Jetstar's first Napier to Auckland regional flight touches down early \\|website\\=Stuff \\|date\\=December 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2017}} and [Sounds Air](/wiki/Sounds_Air \"Sounds Air\") used to operate direct flights to [Blenheim](/wiki/Blenheim%2C_New_Zealand \"Blenheim, New Zealand\") daily. Smaller charter companies also operate, including [Air Napier](/wiki/Air_Napier \"Air Napier\") to Gisborne. The airport was historically referred to as Napier Airport, and its [IATA](/wiki/IATA_airport_code \"IATA airport code\") code reflects that: NPE. It is situated on land that was formerly the Ahuriri Lagoon, an area that was raised above sea level by the 1931 Napier earthquake.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/hawkes\\-bay\\-today/news/article.cfm?c\\_id\\=1503462\\&objectid\\=11531922 \\|title\\=Airport's 'historic' renaming \\|date\\=20 October 2015 \\|work\\=The New Zealand Herald}} The airport is located approximately 22 km north of [Hastings Aerodrome](/wiki/Hastings_Aerodrome \"Hastings Aerodrome\"), a smaller airport located close to Hastings that caters mainly for flight training and general aviation.",
"### Pathways",
"The Hawke's Bay region has extensive cycleways and footpaths that originally began as the 'Rotary Pathways' between Napier and Hastings, and is now known as the 'Hawke's Bay Trails'. The network of pathways links the urban areas of Napier and Hastings, as well as many of the other outlying suburbs of the two cities. Some of the cycleways include dedicated cycling lanes on roads within the city, as well as separate dedicated pathways on roadsides and through parks and other areas, many of which are mixed use pathways for cyclists and pedestrians, such as the paths that stretch from Bay View to Clifton. The Hawke's Bay Trails contain over 200 km of cycleways that meander through and around the Napier\\-Hastings twin cities.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nzcycletrail.com/hawkes\\-bay\\-trails \\|title\\=Hawke's Bay Trails \\|work\\=NZ Cycle Trail}} The Napier Rotary Pathway creates a loop that encompasses the city from Esk River, to Westshore, Napier Central, Awatoto, Taradale, Poraiti, and looping back to the Esk Valley. This rotary also has several links to the Hastings Rotary Pathway.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.napier.govt.nz/napier/projects/rotary\\-pathway/ \\|title\\=Rotary Pathway \\|work\\=napier.govt.nz}}",
"### Roads",
"[State Highway 2](/wiki/State_Highway_2_%28New_Zealand%29 \"State Highway 2 (New Zealand)\") is the principal state highway serving Napier, connecting it to [Wairoa](/wiki/Wairoa \"Wairoa\") and [Gisborne](/wiki/Gisborne%2C_New_Zealand \"Gisborne, New Zealand\") to the north, and, via [Dannevirke](/wiki/Dannevirke \"Dannevirke\"), to [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"), [Masterton](/wiki/Masterton \"Masterton\") and [Palmerston North](/wiki/Palmerston_North \"Palmerston North\") to the south. Between Napier and Hastings, SH 2 follows the [Hawke's Bay Expressway](/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay_Expressway \"Hawke's Bay Expressway\"), also known as the Napier\\-Hastings Expressway, which provides a direct and efficient link between the two cities. Although the Hawke's Bay Expressway bypasses Napier itself, it has connections to many of Napier's arterial roads that lead to the city centre and the Port (such as the junctions at Kennedy Road, Taradale Road, Prebensen Drive and Meeanee Quay) and also intersects with the access road to Hawke's Bay Airport.",
"[State Highway 5](/wiki/State_Highway_5_%28New_Zealand%29 \"State Highway 5 (New Zealand)\"), known as the Napier\\-Taupo Road, begins at a junction on SH 2 just north of the Napier suburb of Bay View, and connects Napier and the Hawke's Bay region to [Taupō](/wiki/Taup%C5%8D \"Taupō\") and the central North Island. It is also the main route used for traffic travelling from Napier\\-Hastings to Auckland, Hamilton, Rotorua and Tauranga, as it is quicker than the route through Gisborne taken by SH 2\\.",
"[State Highway 50](/wiki/State_Highway_50_%28New_Zealand%29 \"State Highway 50 (New Zealand)\") connects Napier to the southwestern Hawke's Bay, going through many small settlements. It also connects Napier to many of Hawke's Bay's wineries, of which the region is well known for. It makes up part of the Hawke's Bay Wine Trail.",
"[State Highway 51](/wiki/State_Highway_51_%28New_Zealand%29 \"State Highway 51 (New Zealand)\") is an alternative connection between Napier and Hastings, and largely follows the original route of SH 2 between the two cities prior to the completion of the Hawke's Bay Expressway, and SH 2 being shifted to run along it. While the original route followed Meeanee Quay through the suburbs of Westshore and Ahuriri before bridging across the Pandora Pond area of the Napier Inner Harbour marina, the SH 51 route follows Taradale Road instead, meeting up with the original SH 2 route at the southern base of Napier Hill at Hyderabad Road. The route then moves onto Georges Drive, where it borders the southern and western edges of the Napier city centre. It meets up with Marine Parade south of the CBD, and then follows the coast south from Napier through Clive to Hastings.",
"#### Buses",
"[Go Bus](/wiki/Go_Bus_Transport \"Go Bus Transport\") operates 9 *Go Bay* routes in Napier, with funding from Regional Council.{{Cite web \\|title\\=goBay Hawke's Bay Bus Service {{!}} New Zealand \\|url\\=https://www.gobay.co.nz/ \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2020\\|website\\=www.gobay.co.nz}} [Bee Cards](/wiki/Bee_Card_%28New_Zealand%29 \"Bee Card (New Zealand)\") replaced goBay cards in August 2020\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bee Card {{!}} goBay Hawke's Bay Bus Service \\|url\\=https://www.gobay.co.nz/bee\\-card/ \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2020\\|website\\=www.gobay.co.nz}}",
"### Rail",
"The [Palmerston North–Gisborne Line](/wiki/Palmerston_North%E2%80%93Gisborne_Line \"Palmerston North–Gisborne Line\") runs through Napier. The southern portion of the line between Napier and Palmerston North was built between 1872 and 1891, and the northern portion between Napier and Gisborne from 1912 to 1942\\. The line from Gisborne enters Napier via the coast, making its way through the city, before eventually turning inland towards Hastings, and onwards to [Woodville](/wiki/Woodville%2C_New_Zealand \"Woodville, New Zealand\") (where the [Wairarapa Line](/wiki/Wairarapa_Line \"Wairarapa Line\") branches off) and Palmerston North.",
"The [Napier Port Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch \"Ahuriri Branch\"), formerly known as the Ahuriri Branch, is a 2 km railway branch line off the Palmerston North\\-Gisborne Line that serves the Port of Napier. [Napier Railway Station](/wiki/Napier_Railway_Station%2C_New_Zealand \"Napier Railway Station, New Zealand\") was the main railway station in Napier and an intermediate stop on the Palmerston North\\-Gisborne Line. It opened on 12 October 1874, when the station and the first section of the line between Napier and Hastings was opened. The line through the [Manawatū Gorge](/wiki/Manawat%C5%AB_Gorge \"Manawatū Gorge\") to Palmerston North and hence to Wellington was opened on 9 March 1891\\. The line north of Napier to Gisborne was opened on 3 August 1942, with passenger services from 7 September. Napier was the terminus for both Gisborne and Wellington goods trains, though some passenger trains ran straight through.",
"The original Napier station building was on the corner of Station Street and Millar Street, close to the centre of Napier. The facilities on the site increased to include the passenger station plus a goods yard, locomotive depot, workshop and a way and works branch. The line was on a curve and difficult to work, and the site was limited by level crossings at each end and with no room for expansion.",
"Hence, in a two\\-year programme to 1991, most functions followed the Way and Works to Pandora Point, at the start of the [Ahuriri Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch \"Ahuriri Branch\"), leaving only a new InterCity coach and train terminal on the city site, fronting Munroe Street. The old station was closed on 6 October 1990, and was replaced by a new station on 9 June 1991\\.*Names \\& Opening \\& Closing Dates of Railway Stations in New Zealand* by Juliet Scoble (2012\\) The existing station and three\\-story administrative block built in the late 1950s and early 1960s were demolished and some three hectares of land was available for retail development.",
"A marshalling yard, freight terminal, locomotive depot and other facilities were established at Pandora Point, with a triangle provided to turn trains and giving direct access north and south from the port branch. The Ahuriri yard was closed. The old main line north to Gisborne was realigned to the east to allow a new link road to the Tamatea area of Napier, and railways land was redeveloped as an industrial subdivision. On 7 October 2001 the [Bay Express](/wiki/Bay_Express \"Bay Express\") from Wellington to Napier was cancelled and passenger services on the line ceased.",
""
] |
### Rail
The [Palmerston North–Gisborne Line](/wiki/Palmerston_North%E2%80%93Gisborne_Line "Palmerston North–Gisborne Line") runs through Napier. The southern portion of the line between Napier and Palmerston North was built between 1872 and 1891, and the northern portion between Napier and Gisborne from 1912 to 1942\. The line from Gisborne enters Napier via the coast, making its way through the city, before eventually turning inland towards Hastings, and onwards to [Woodville](/wiki/Woodville%2C_New_Zealand "Woodville, New Zealand") (where the [Wairarapa Line](/wiki/Wairarapa_Line "Wairarapa Line") branches off) and Palmerston North.
The [Napier Port Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch "Ahuriri Branch"), formerly known as the Ahuriri Branch, is a 2 km railway branch line off the Palmerston North\-Gisborne Line that serves the Port of Napier. [Napier Railway Station](/wiki/Napier_Railway_Station%2C_New_Zealand "Napier Railway Station, New Zealand") was the main railway station in Napier and an intermediate stop on the Palmerston North\-Gisborne Line. It opened on 12 October 1874, when the station and the first section of the line between Napier and Hastings was opened. The line through the [Manawatū Gorge](/wiki/Manawat%C5%AB_Gorge "Manawatū Gorge") to Palmerston North and hence to Wellington was opened on 9 March 1891\. The line north of Napier to Gisborne was opened on 3 August 1942, with passenger services from 7 September. Napier was the terminus for both Gisborne and Wellington goods trains, though some passenger trains ran straight through.
The original Napier station building was on the corner of Station Street and Millar Street, close to the centre of Napier. The facilities on the site increased to include the passenger station plus a goods yard, locomotive depot, workshop and a way and works branch. The line was on a curve and difficult to work, and the site was limited by level crossings at each end and with no room for expansion.
Hence, in a two\-year programme to 1991, most functions followed the Way and Works to Pandora Point, at the start of the [Ahuriri Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch "Ahuriri Branch"), leaving only a new InterCity coach and train terminal on the city site, fronting Munroe Street. The old station was closed on 6 October 1990, and was replaced by a new station on 9 June 1991\.*Names \& Opening \& Closing Dates of Railway Stations in New Zealand* by Juliet Scoble (2012\) The existing station and three\-story administrative block built in the late 1950s and early 1960s were demolished and some three hectares of land was available for retail development.
A marshalling yard, freight terminal, locomotive depot and other facilities were established at Pandora Point, with a triangle provided to turn trains and giving direct access north and south from the port branch. The Ahuriri yard was closed. The old main line north to Gisborne was realigned to the east to allow a new link road to the Tamatea area of Napier, and railways land was redeveloped as an industrial subdivision. On 7 October 2001 the [Bay Express](/wiki/Bay_Express "Bay Express") from Wellington to Napier was cancelled and passenger services on the line ceased.
|
[
"### Rail",
"The [Palmerston North–Gisborne Line](/wiki/Palmerston_North%E2%80%93Gisborne_Line \"Palmerston North–Gisborne Line\") runs through Napier. The southern portion of the line between Napier and Palmerston North was built between 1872 and 1891, and the northern portion between Napier and Gisborne from 1912 to 1942\\. The line from Gisborne enters Napier via the coast, making its way through the city, before eventually turning inland towards Hastings, and onwards to [Woodville](/wiki/Woodville%2C_New_Zealand \"Woodville, New Zealand\") (where the [Wairarapa Line](/wiki/Wairarapa_Line \"Wairarapa Line\") branches off) and Palmerston North.",
"The [Napier Port Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch \"Ahuriri Branch\"), formerly known as the Ahuriri Branch, is a 2 km railway branch line off the Palmerston North\\-Gisborne Line that serves the Port of Napier. [Napier Railway Station](/wiki/Napier_Railway_Station%2C_New_Zealand \"Napier Railway Station, New Zealand\") was the main railway station in Napier and an intermediate stop on the Palmerston North\\-Gisborne Line. It opened on 12 October 1874, when the station and the first section of the line between Napier and Hastings was opened. The line through the [Manawatū Gorge](/wiki/Manawat%C5%AB_Gorge \"Manawatū Gorge\") to Palmerston North and hence to Wellington was opened on 9 March 1891\\. The line north of Napier to Gisborne was opened on 3 August 1942, with passenger services from 7 September. Napier was the terminus for both Gisborne and Wellington goods trains, though some passenger trains ran straight through.",
"The original Napier station building was on the corner of Station Street and Millar Street, close to the centre of Napier. The facilities on the site increased to include the passenger station plus a goods yard, locomotive depot, workshop and a way and works branch. The line was on a curve and difficult to work, and the site was limited by level crossings at each end and with no room for expansion.",
"Hence, in a two\\-year programme to 1991, most functions followed the Way and Works to Pandora Point, at the start of the [Ahuriri Branch](/wiki/Ahuriri_Branch \"Ahuriri Branch\"), leaving only a new InterCity coach and train terminal on the city site, fronting Munroe Street. The old station was closed on 6 October 1990, and was replaced by a new station on 9 June 1991\\.*Names \\& Opening \\& Closing Dates of Railway Stations in New Zealand* by Juliet Scoble (2012\\) The existing station and three\\-story administrative block built in the late 1950s and early 1960s were demolished and some three hectares of land was available for retail development.",
"A marshalling yard, freight terminal, locomotive depot and other facilities were established at Pandora Point, with a triangle provided to turn trains and giving direct access north and south from the port branch. The Ahuriri yard was closed. The old main line north to Gisborne was realigned to the east to allow a new link road to the Tamatea area of Napier, and railways land was redeveloped as an industrial subdivision. On 7 October 2001 the [Bay Express](/wiki/Bay_Express \"Bay Express\") from Wellington to Napier was cancelled and passenger services on the line ceased.",
""
] |
Letters and phonemes
--------------------
In Classical spelling, individual letters mainly corresponded to individual phonemes ([alphabetic principle](/wiki/Alphabetic_principle "Alphabetic principle")). Exceptions include:
1. The letters {{angbr\|a e i o u y}}, each of which could represent either a short vowel or a long one. The long vowels were sometimes marked with [apices](/wiki/Apex_%28diacritic%29 "Apex (diacritic)"), as in {{angbr\|á é ó ú ý}}, while long {{IPA\|/iː/}} could be marked with [the special character](/wiki/Long_I "Long I") {{angbr\|ꟾ}}.{{Harvnb\|Sihler\|1995\|pp\=20–22\|loc\=§25: the Italic alphabets}} In modern times{{when\|date\=March 2024}} long vowels are marked with [macrons](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 "Macron (diacritic)"), as in {{angbr\|ā ē ī ō ū ȳ}}; sometimes [breves](/wiki/Breve "Breve") may also be used to indicate short vowels, as in {{angbr\|ă ĕ ŏ ŭ y̆}}.
2. The letters {{angbr\|i u}}, which could either indicate vowels (as mentioned) or the consonants {{IPA\|/j w/}} respectively. In modern times the letters {{angbr\|j v}} began to be used as distinct spellings for these consonants (now often pronounced very differently).
3. Digraphs such as {{angbr\|ae au oe}}, which represented the diphthongs {{IPA\|/ae̯ au̯ oe̯/}}. In a few words {{angbr\|ae oe}} also stood for sequences of two adjacent vowels.
4. Digraphs such as {{angbr\|ph th ch}}, standing for the aspirated consonants {{IPA\|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}.
### Consonants
Below are the distinctive (i.e. [phonemic](/wiki/Phoneme "Phoneme")) consonants that are assumed for Classical Latin. Those placed in brackets have a debated phonemic status, and those preceded by a dagger are found mainly or only in Greek loanwords.
| | | [Labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant "Labial consonant") | [Coronal](/wiki/Coronal_consonant "Coronal consonant") | [Palatal](/wiki/Palatal_consonant "Palatal consonant") | [Velar](/wiki/Velar_consonant "Velar consonant") | | [Glottal](/wiki/Glottal_consonant "Glottal consonant") |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{small\|plain}} | {{small\|\[\[Labialization\|labialized]]}} |
| [Plosive](/wiki/Plosive_consonant "Plosive consonant") | {{small\|\[\[Voice (phonetics)\|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link\|b}} | {{IPA link\|d}} | | {{IPA link\|ɡ}} | ({{IPA link\|ɡʷ}}) | |
| {{small\|\[\[Voicelessness\|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link\|p}} | {{IPA link\|t}} | | {{IPA link\|k}} | ({{IPA link\|kʷ}}) | |
| | {{small\|\[\[Aspirated consonant\|aspirated]]}} | †{{IPA link\|pʰ}} | †{{IPA link\|tʰ}} | | †{{IPA link\|kʰ}} | | |
| [Fricative](/wiki/Fricative_consonant "Fricative consonant") | {{small\|\[\[Voice (phonetics)\|voiced]]}} | | †{{IPA link\|z}} | | | | |
| {{small\|\[\[Voicelessness\|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link\|f}} | {{IPA link\|s}} | | | | {{IPA link\|h}} |
| [Nasal](/wiki/Nasal_consonant "Nasal consonant") | | {{IPA link\|m}} | {{IPA link\|n}} | | | | |
| [Rhotic](/wiki/Rhotic_consonant "Rhotic consonant") | | | {{IPA link\|r}} | | | | |
| [Approximant](/wiki/Approximant_consonant "Approximant consonant") | | | {{IPA link\|l}} | {{IPA link\|j}} | | {{IPA link\|w}} | |
#### Phonetics
* Latin may have had the labialized velar stops {{IPA\|/kʷ ɡʷ/}} as opposed to the stop \+ semivowel sequences {{IPA\|/kw ɡw/}} (as in the English ***qu**ick* or *pen**gu**in*). The argument for {{IPA\|/kʷ/}} is stronger than that for {{IPA\|/ɡʷ/}}.{{efn\|{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978}} (p. 17\) judges the evidence to favour /kʷ ɡʷ/, while {{Harvnb\|Cser\|2020}} (§2\.2\.2\) comes to the opposite conclusion. The relevant facts, per the latter, are as follows:
⟨qu⟩ enjoyed a wide lexical distribution, while ⟨gu(V)⟩ was limited to a dozen or so words, where it was always preceded by /n/. The grammarian \[\[Velius Longus]] indicated that the ⟨u⟩ of ⟨qu⟩ was in some way different from /w/ in general. No geminate \*⟨ququ⟩ is attested, whereas all (other) Latin stops are also found as geminates. Sequences of obstruent \+ glide are rare in Classical Latin. In poetry, whenever sequences of stop \+ glide occur in medial position, the scansion reveals that can be split across syllables, but this is never the case for ⟨qu⟩. Neither ⟨qu⟩ nor ⟨gu⟩ are ever followed by a consonant, unlike any (other) Latin stop, nor can they occur word\-finally. The voicing contrast between ⟨nqu⟩ and ⟨ngu⟩ is not found in any (other) sequence of three consonants. Assimilation of the prefix ''ad''\- to a following ⟨qu⟩ is relatively rare, which is also the case when ''ad''\- is followed by a consonant cluster. The Proto\-Indo\-European predecessor of Latin ⟨qu⟩ is, in many cases, reconstructed as a single consonant \*/kʷ/, notably distinct from sequences of \*/kw/. Occasionally Latin /w/ scans as a vowel in poetry, when preceded by /s/ or /l/, but this is never the case for the ⟨u⟩ of ⟨qu⟩.}}
* The former could occur between vowels, where it always counted as a single consonant in Classical poetry, whereas the latter only occurred after {{IPA\|/n/}}, where it is impossible to tell whether it counted as one consonant or two.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=25}} The labial element, whether {{IPA\|\[ʷ]}} or {{IPA\|\[w]}}, appears to have been palatalised before a front vowel, resulting in {{IPA\|\[ᶣ]}}/{{IPA\|\[ɥ]}} (for instance {{lang\|la\|quī}} would have sounded something like {{audio\|La\-cls\-qui.ogg\|listen}}). This palatalisation did not affect the independent consonant {{IPA\|/w/}} before front vowels.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=17}}
* {{IPA\|/kʷ ɡʷ/}} before {{IPA\|/u/}} were not distinct from {{IPA\|/k ɡ/}}, which were allophonically labialized to {{IPA\|\[kʷ ɡʷ]}} by a following {{IPA\|/u/}} such that writing a double *uu* was unnecessary. This is suggested by the fact that {{lang\|la\|equus}} and {{lang\|la\|unguunt}} (from Old Latin {{lang\|la\|equos}} and {{lang\|la\|unguont}}) are also found spelt as {{lang\|la\|ecus}} and {{lang\|la\|ungunt}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=19, 20}}
* {{IPA\|/p t k/}} were less aspirated than the corresponding English consonants, as implied by their usually being transliterated into Ancient Greek as {{angbr\|π τ κ}} and their pronunciation in most Romance languages. In many cases however it was not the Latin {{IPA\|/p k/}} but rather {{IPA\|/b ɡ/}} that were used to render Greek word\-initial {{IPA\|/p k/}} in borrowings (as in {{lang\|grc\|πύξος}}, {{lang\|grc\|κυβερνῶ}} \> {{lang\|la\|buxus}}, {{lang\|la\|guberno}}), especially borrowings of a non\-learned character. This might suggest that the Latin {{IPA\|/p k/}} had some degree of aspiration, making {{IPA\|/b ɡ/}} more suitable to approximate the Greek sounds.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=12–13}}
* {{IPA\|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}} were pronounced with notable aspiration, like the initial consonants of the English ***p**ot*, ***t**op*, and ***c**ot* respectively. They are attested beginning c. 150 BC, in the spellings {{angbr\|ph th ch}}, at first only used to render the Greek {{angbr\|φ θ χ}} in loanwords. (Previously these had been rendered in Latin as {{angbr\|p t c}}.) From c. 100 BC onward {{angbr\|ph th ch}} spread to a number of native Latin words as well, such as {{lang\|la\|pulcher}} and {{lang\|la\|lachrima}}. When this occurred it was nearly always in the vicinity of the consonant {{IPA\|/r/}} or {{IPA\|/l/}}, and the implication is that Latin {{IPA\|/p t k/}} had become aspirated in that context.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=26, 27}}{{Harvnb\|Clackson\|Horrocks\|2007\|p\=190}}
* {{IPA\|/z/}} was found as a rendering of the Greek {{angbr\|ζ}} in borrowings starting around the first century BC. (In earlier borrowings, the Greek sound had been rendered in Latin as {{IPA\|/ss/}}.) In initial position this appears to have been pronounced {{IPA\|\[z]}}, and between vowels it appears to have been [doubled](/wiki/Gemination "Gemination") to {{IPA\|\[zz]}} (counted as two consonants in poetry).{{Harvnb\|Levy\|1989\|p\=150}}{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=46}}
* {{IPA\|/s/}} was unvoiced in all positions in Classical Latin. Previously however Old Latin {{IPA\|/s/}} appears to have voiced to {{IPA\|\[z]}} between vowels, ultimately [turning to](/wiki/Rhotacism "Rhotacism") {{IPA\|/r/}}. Cicero reports the family\-name *Papisius* being changed to *Papirius* in the fourth century BC, which may give some idea of the chronology. Afterward new instances of {{IPA\|/s/}} developed between vowels from sound\-changes like the degemination of {{IPA\|/ss/}} after long vowels and diphthongs (as in {{lang\|la\|caussa}} \> {{lang\|la\|causa}}), which [Quintilian](/wiki/Quintilian "Quintilian") reports to have happened a little after the time of [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero "Cicero") and [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil").{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=35–37}}
* In Old Latin, final {{IPA\|/s/}} after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first [debuccalizing](/wiki/Debuccalization "Debuccalization") to {{IPA\|\[h]}}, as in the inscriptional form {{lang\|la\|Cornelio}} for {{lang\|la\|Cornelios}} (Classical {{lang\|la\|Cornelius}}). Often in the poetry of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus "Plautus"), [Ennius](/wiki/Ennius "Ennius"), and [Lucretius](/wiki/Lucretius "Lucretius"), final {{IPA\|/s/}} did not count as a consonant when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. By the Classical period this practice was described as characteristic of non\-urban speech by Cicero.
* {{IPA\|/f/}} was [labiodental](/wiki/Labiodental "Labiodental") in Classical Latin but may have been a [bilabial](/wiki/Bilabial "Bilabial") {{IPA\|/ɸ/}} in Old Latin,{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=34, 35}} or perhaps {{IPA\|\[ɸ]}} in free variation with {{IPA\|\[f]}}. Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on misspellings in early inscriptions, the fact that many instances of Latin {{IPA\|/f/}} descend from Proto\-Indo\-European \*{{PIE\|/bʰ/}}, and the outcomes of the sound in Romance (particularly in Spain).{{Harvnb\|Lloyd\|1987\|p\=80}}
* In most cases {{IPA\|/m/}} was pronounced as a bilabial nasal. At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), leaving [compensatory lengthening](/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening "Compensatory lengthening") and [nasalization](/wiki/Nasal_vowel "Nasal vowel") on the preceding vowel (such that {{lang\|la\|decem}} may have sounded something like {{audio\|La\-cls\-decem.ogg\|listen}}). In Old Latin inscriptions, final {{angbr\|m}} is often omitted, as in {{angbr\|viro}} for *{{lang\|la\|virom}}* (Classical {{lang\|la\|virum}}). It was frequently elided before a following vowel in poetry and lost without a trace (apart from perhaps lengthening) in the Romance languages,{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=30, 31}} except in a number of monosyllabic words, where it often survives as {{IPA\|/n/}} or a further development thereof.
* {{IPA\|/n/}} and {{IPA\|/m/}} [merged](/wiki/Phoneme%23Neutralization_and_archiphonemes "Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes") via assimilation before a following consonant, with the following consonant determining the resulting pronunciation: bilabial {{IPA\|\[m]}} before a bilabial consonant ({{IPA\|/p b/}}), coronal {{IPA\|\[n]}} before a coronal consonant ({{IPA\|/t d/}}) and velar {{IPA\|\[ŋ]}} before a velar consonant ({{IPA\|/k kʷ ɡ/}}). This occurred both within words (e.g. {{lang\|la\|quī'''nq'''ue}} may have sounded something like {{audio\|La\-cls\-quinque.ogg\|listen}}) and across word\-boundaries (for instance {{lang\|la\|i'''n''' causā}} with {{IPA\|\[ŋ]}}*,* or {{lang\|la\|i'''m''' pace}}).{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=27–30}}
* {{IPA\|/ɡ/}} assimilated to a [velar nasal](/wiki/Velar_nasal "Velar nasal") {{IPA\|\[ŋ]}} before {{IPA\|/n/}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=23–25}} Allen and [Greenough](/wiki/James_B._Greenough "James B. Greenough") say that a vowel before {{IPA\|\[ŋn]}} is always long,{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§10d}} but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an [interpolation](/wiki/Interpolation_%28manuscripts%29 "Interpolation (manuscripts)") in [Priscian](/wiki/Priscian "Priscian"), and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example {{lang\|la\|rēgnum}} from the root of {{lang\|la\|rēx}} but {{lang\|la\|magnus}} from the root of {{lang\|la\|magis}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=71–73}} {{IPA\|/ɡ/}} probably did not assimilate to {{IPA\|\[ŋ]}} before {{IPA\|/m/}}. The cluster {{IPA\|/ɡm/}} arose by [syncope](/wiki/Syncope_%28phonetics%29 "Syncope (phonetics)"), as for example {{lang\|la\|tegmen}} from {{lang\|la\|tegimen}}. Original {{IPA\|/ɡm/}} developed into {{IPA\|/mm/}} in {{lang\|la\|flamma}}, from the root of {{lang\|la\|flagrō}}. At the start of a word, original {{IPA\|/ɡn/}} was reduced to {{IPA\|\[n]}}, and this change was reflected in the orthography of later texts, as in {{lang\|la\|gnātus}}, {{lang\|la\|gnōscō}} \> {{lang\|la\|nātus}}, {{lang\|la\|nōscō}}.
* In Classical Latin, the [rhotic](/wiki/Rhotic_consonant "Rhotic consonant") {{IPA\|/r/}} was most likely an [alveolar trill](/wiki/Alveolar_trill "Alveolar trill") {{IPA\|\[r]}} in some positions and when doubled. [Gaius Lucilius](/wiki/Gaius_Lucilius "Gaius Lucilius") likened it to the sound of a dog, and later writers described it as being produced by vibration. {{IPA\|/d/}} was sometimes written as {{angbr\|r}}, possibly suggesting a tap {{IPAblink\|ɾ}} (like the single {{IPA\|/ɾ/}} in Spanish).{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=33}}
* {{IPA\|/l/}} was strongly [velarized](/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") in [syllable coda](/wiki/Syllable_coda "Syllable coda") and probably somewhat [palatalized](/wiki/Palatalization_%28phonetics%29 "Palatalization (phonetics)") when [geminated](/wiki/Gemination "Gemination") or followed by {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}}. In [intervocalic](/wiki/Intervocalic_consonant "Intervocalic consonant") position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}}.{{Harvnb\|Cser\|2020\|loc\=§4\.9}}. In footnote 206, he adds: "The evidence has been thoroughly assessed in the diachronic literature; see Sen (2012: 472–3; 2015: 15 sqq.), Meiser (1998: 68–9\), Leumann (1977: 85–7\)."
* {{IPA\|/j/}} generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in {{lang\|la\|iaceō}}, except in compound words such as {{lang\|la\|adiaceō}} (pronounced something like {{audio\|La\-cls\-iaceo, adiaceo.ogg\|listen}}). Between vowels, it was generally as a geminate {{IPA\|/jj/}}, as in {{lang\|la\|cuius}} (pronounced something like {{audio\|La\-cls\-cuius.ogg\|listen}}) except in compound words such as {{lang\|la\|trāiectus}}. This {{IPA\|/jj/}} is sometimes marked in modern editions by a [circumflex](/wiki/Circumflex "Circumflex") on the preceding vowel, e.g. {{lang\|la\|cûius}}, {{lang\|la\|êius}}, {{lang\|la\|mâior}}, etc. {{IPA\|/j/}} could also varied with {{IPA\|/i/}} in the same [morpheme](/wiki/Morpheme "Morpheme"), as in {{lang\|la\|iam}} {{IPA\|/jam/}} and {{lang\|la\|etiam}} {{IPA\|/ˈe.ti.am/}}, and in poetry one could be replaced with the other for [metrical](/wiki/Metre_%28poetry%29 "Metre (poetry)") purpose.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=37–40}}
* {{IPA\|/w/}} was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when {{IPA\|/w/}} and intervocalic {{IPA\|/b/}} began to develop into fricatives. In poetry, {{IPA\|/w/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} could be replaced with each other, as in {{IPA\|/ˈsilua/}}\~{{IPA\|/ˈsilwa/}} or {{IPA\|/ˈɡenua/}}\~{{IPA\|/ˈɡenwa/}}. Unlike {{IPA\|/j/}} it remained a single consonant in most words, e.g. in {{lang\|la\|cavē}}, although it did represent a double {{IPA\|/ww/}} in borrowings from Greek such as the name {{lang\|la\|Evander}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=40–42}}
* {{IPA\|/h/}} was generally still pronounced in Classical Latin, at least by educated speakers, but in many cases it appears to have been lost early on between vowels, and sometimes in other contexts as well ({{lang\|la\|diribeō}} \< *\*{{lang\|la\|dis\-habeō}}* being a particularly early example). Where intervocalic {{IPA\|/h/}} survived, it was likely voiced{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=43–45}} (that is, {{IPA\|\[ɦ]}}).
#### Notes on spelling
* Doubled consonant letters represented genuinely [doubled](/wiki/Gemination "Gemination") consonants, as in {{angbr\|cc}} for {{IPA\|/kk/}}. In [Old Latin](/wiki/Old_Latin "Old Latin"), geminate consonants were written as if they were single until the middle of the second century BC, when orthographic doubling began to appear.{{efn\|{{lang\|la\|epistula ad tiburtes}}, a letter by \[\[praetor]] Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words {{lang\|la\|potuisse}}, {{lang\|la\|esse}}, and {{lang\|la\|peccatum}} {{Harv\|Clackson\|Horrocks\|2007\|pp\=147, 149}}.}} Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the [sicilicus](/wiki/Sicilicus "Sicilicus"), a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. It appears in a few inscriptions of the [Augustan era](/wiki/Augustan_literature_%28ancient_Rome%29 "Augustan literature (ancient Rome)").{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=11}}
* {{angbr\|c}} and {{angbr\|k}} both represented {{IPA\|/k/}}, whereas {{angbr\|qu}} represented {{IPA\|/kʷ/}}. {{angbr\|c}} and {{angbr\|q}} distinguish minimal pairs such as {{lang\|la\|cui}} {{IPA\|/kui̯/}} and {{lang\|la\|quī}} {{IPA\|/kʷiː/}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=42}} In Classical Latin {{angbr\|k}} appeared in only a few words like {{lang\|la\|kalendae}}, {{lang\|la\|Karthagō}} \- which could also be spelt {{lang\|la\|calendae}}, {{lang\|la\|Carthagō}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=15, 16}}
* {{angbr\|x}} represented {{IPA\|/ks/}}. In Old Latin, {{IPA\|/ks/}} was also spelled in other ways like {{angbr\|ks cs xs}}. The letter {{angbr\|x}} was borrowed from the [Western Greek alphabet](/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets%23Aspirate_and_consonant_cluster_symbols "Archaic Greek alphabets#Aspirate and consonant cluster symbols"), where [chi](/wiki/Chi_%28letter%29 "Chi (letter)") {{angbr\|χ}} stood for {{IPA\|/ks/}} as well. This was unlike the usage of chi in the [Ionic alphabet](/wiki/Greek_alphabet "Greek alphabet"), where it stood for {{IPA\|/kʰ/}}, with {{IPA\|/ks/}} instead represented by the letter [xi](/wiki/Xi_%28letter%29 "Xi (letter)") {{angbr\|ξ}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=45}}
* In Old Latin inscriptions, {{IPA\|/k/}} and {{IPA\|/ɡ/}} were not distinguished. They were both represented by {{angbr\|c}} before {{angbr\|e i}}, by {{angbr\|q}} before {{angbr\|o u}}, and by {{angbr\|k}} before consonants or {{angbr\|a}}. The letterform {{angbr\|c}} derives from the Greek [gamma](/wiki/Gamma "Gamma") {{angbr\|Γ}}, which represented {{IPA\|/ɡ/}}. Its use for {{IPA\|/k/}} may come from [Etruscan](/wiki/Etruscan_language "Etruscan language"), which did not distinguish voiced plosives from voiceless ones. In Classical Latin, {{angbr\|c}} represented {{IPA\|/ɡ/}} only in the abbreviations {{lang\|la\|c}} and {{lang\|la\|cn}}, for {{lang\|la\|Gaius}} and {{lang\|la\|Gnaeus}} respectively.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§1a}}
* {{angbr\|g}} was created in the third century BC to distinguish {{IPA\|/ɡ/}} from {{IPA\|/k/}}.{{Harvnb\|Clackson\|Horrocks\|2007\|p\=96}} Its letterform derived from {{angbr\|c}} with the addition of a [diacritic](/wiki/Diacritic "Diacritic") or [stroke](/wiki/Typeface_anatomy "Typeface anatomy"). [Plutarch](/wiki/Plutarch "Plutarch") attributes this innovation to [Spurius Carvilius Ruga](/wiki/Spurius_Carvilius_Ruga "Spurius Carvilius Ruga") around 230 BC, but it may have originated with [Appius Claudius Caecus](/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus "Appius Claudius Caecus") in the fourth century BC.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=15}}
* The combination *gn* probably represented the consonant cluster {{IPA\|\[ŋn]}}, at least between vowels, as in {{lang\|la\|agnus}} {{IPA\|\[ˈäŋ.nʊs]}} {{audio\|La\-cls\-agnus2\.ogg\|listen}}.{{Harvnb\|Lloyd\|1987\|p\=81}}{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=23}} Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.
* The digraphs *ph*, *th,* and *ch* represented the aspirated plosives {{IPA\|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA\|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA\|/kʰ/}}. They began to be used in writing around 150 BC, primarily as a transcription of Greek [phi](/wiki/Phi "Phi") {{lang\|grc\|Φ}}, [theta](/wiki/Theta "Theta") {{lang\|grc\|Θ}}, and [chi](/wiki/Chi_%28letter%29 "Chi (letter)") {{lang\|grc\|Χ}}, as in {{lang\|la\|Philippus}}, {{lang\|la\|cithara}}, and {{lang\|la\|achāia}}. Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as {{lang\|la\|pulcher}}, {{lang\|la\|lachrima}}, {{lang\|la\|gracchus}}, {{lang\|la\|triumphus}}, probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near {{IPA\|/r/}} and {{IPA\|/l/}}. Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative {{IPA\|/h/}} were also used [hypercorrectively](/wiki/Hypercorrection "Hypercorrection"), an affectation satirized in [Catullus 84](/wiki/s:Translation:Catullus_84 "Translation:Catullus 84").
* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial {{IPA\|/z/}} and {{IPA\|/zz/}} between vowels were represented by *s* and *ss*, as in {{lang\|la\|sona}} from {{lang\|grc\|ζώνη}} and {{lang\|la\|massa}} from {{lang\|grc\|μᾶζα}}. Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter [zeta](/wiki/Zeta "Zeta") Ζ was adopted to represent {{IPA\|/z/}} and {{IPA\|/zz/}}. However, the [Vulgar Latin](/wiki/Vulgar_Latin "Vulgar Latin") spellings *z* or *zi* for earlier *di* and *d* before *e*, and the spellings *di* and *dz* for earlier *z*, suggest the pronunciation {{IPA\|/dz/}}, as for example {{lang\|la\|ziomedis}} for {{lang\|la\|diomedis}}, and {{lang\|la\|diaeta}} for {{lang\|la\|zeta}}.{{Harvnb\|Sturtevant\|1920\|pp\=115–116}}
* In ancient times *u* and *i* represented the [approximant](/wiki/Approximant_consonant "Approximant consonant") consonants {{IPA\|/w/}} and {{IPA\|/j/}}, as well as the close vowels {{IPA\|/u(ː)/}} and {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}}.
* *i* representing the consonant {{IPA\|/j/}} was usually not doubled in writing, so a single *i* represented double {{IPA\|/jː/}} or {{IPA\|/jj/}} and the sequences {{IPA\|/ji/}} and {{IPA\|/jːi/}}, as in {{lang\|la\|cuius}} for \*{{lang\|la\|cuiius}} {{IPA\|/ˈkuj.jus/}}, {{lang\|la\|conicit}} for \*{{lang\|la\|coniicit}} {{IPA\|/ˈkon.ji.kit/}}, and {{lang\|la\|rēicit}} for \*{{lang\|la\|reiiicit}} {{IPA\|/ˈrej.ji.kit/}}. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of *i* could occur in some of the same environments: compare {{lang\|la\|māius}} {{IPA\|/ˈmaj.jus/}} with {{lang\|la\|Gāius}} {{IPA\|/ˈɡaː.i.us/}}, and {{lang\|la\|Iūlius}} {{IPA\|/ˈjuː.li.us/}} with {{lang\|la\|Iūlus}} {{IPA\|/iˈuː.lus/}}. The vowel before a doubled {{IPA\|/jː/}} is sometimes marked with a [macron](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 "Macron (diacritic)"), as in {{lang\|la\|cūius}}. It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is [heavy](/wiki/Syllable_weight "Syllable weight") from the double consonant.
* *v* between vowels represented single {{IPA\|/w/}} in native Latin words but double {{IPA\|/ww/}} in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of *v* sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in {{lang\|la\|genua}} {{IPA\|\[ˈɡɛ.nu.ä]}} and {{lang\|la\|silva}} {{IPA\|\[ˈsɪl.wä]}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§6d, 11c}}
### Vowels
#### Monophthongs
[thumb\|The Latin vowel\-space per {{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=47}}](/wiki/File:Latin_vowel_space.png "Latin vowel space.png")
Classical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs, five [short](/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length") {{IPA\|/i e a o u/}} and five long {{IPA\|/iː eː aː oː uː/}}. Some [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") from Greek had ⟨y⟩, which would have been pronounced as {{IPA\|/y(ː)/}} by educated speakers but approximated with the native vowels {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\|/u(ː)/}} by the less\-educated.
| | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel "Front vowel") | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel "Central vowel") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel "Back vowel") |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel "Close vowel") | {{IPA link\|i}} {{IPA link\|iː}}([y yː](/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel "Close front rounded vowel")) | | {{IPA link\|u}} {{IPA link\|uː}} |
| [Mid](/wiki/Mid_vowel "Mid vowel") | {{IPA link\|e}} {{IPA link\|eː}} | | {{IPA link\|o}} {{IPA link\|oː}} |
| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel "Open vowel") | | {{IPA link\|ä\|a}} {{IPA link\|ä\|aː}} | |
#### Long and short vowels
The short vowels {{IPA\|/i e o u/}} appear to have been pronounced with a relatively [open](/wiki/Open_vowel "Open vowel") quality, which may be approximated as {{IPAblink\|ɪ}} {{IPAblink\|ɛ}} {{IPAblink\|ɔ}} {{IPAblink\|ʊ}}, and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively close quality, approximately {{IPAblink\|iː}} {{IPAblink\|eː}} {{IPAblink\|oː}} {{IPAblink\|uː}}.{{efn\|There is, however, a fringe view that the short high vowels {{IPA\|/i u/}} were tense {{IPA\|\[i u]}} and that the long mid vowels {{IPA\|/eː oː/}} were lax {{IPA\|\[ɛː ɔː]}}, implying that none of the Latin short\-long vowel pairs differed in quality {{Harv\|Calabrese\|2005}}.}} That the short {{IPA\|/i u/}} were, as this implies, similar in quality to the long {{IPA\|/eː oː/}} is suggested by attested misspellings such as:{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=47–49}}
* ⟨trebibos⟩ for {{lang\|la\|tribibus}}
* ⟨minsis⟩ for {{lang\|la\|mēnsis}}
* ⟨sob⟩ for {{lang\|la\|sub}}
* ⟨punere⟩ for {{lang\|la\|pōnere}}
{{IPA\|/e/}} most likely had a more open allophone before {{IPA\|/r/}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=51}}
{{IPA\|/e/}} and {{IPA\|/i/}} were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g. {{lang\|la\|mea}} written as ⟨mia⟩ in some inscriptions. Short {{IPA\|/i/}} before another vowel is often written with the so\-called [*i longa*](/wiki/Long_I "Long I"), as in ⟨dꟾes⟩ for *diēs*, indicating that its quality was similar to that of long {{IPA\|/iː/}}; it was almost never confused with *e* in this position.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=51, 52}}
#### Adoption of Greek upsilon
*y* was used in Greek loanwords with [upsilon](/wiki/Upsilon_%28letter%29 "Upsilon (letter)") Υ. This letter represented the [close front rounded vowel](/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel "Close front rounded vowel"), both short and long: {{IPA\|/y yː/}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=52}} Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with {{IPA\|/u uː/}} in Old Latin and {{IPA\|/i iː/}} in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce {{IPA\|/y yː/}}.
#### {{lang\|la\|Sonus medius}}
An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel {{IPAblink\|ɨ}} or possibly its rounded counterpart {{IPAblink\|ʉ}}), called {{lang\|la\|sonus medius}}, can be reconstructed for the classical period.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=56}} Such a vowel is found in {{lang\|la\|doc'''u'''mentum}}, {{lang\|la\|opt'''i'''mus}}, {{lang\|la\|lacr'''i'''ma}} (also spelled {{lang\|la\|doc'''i'''mentum}}, {{lang\|la\|opt'''u'''mus}}, {{lang\|la\|lacr'''u'''ma}}) and other words. It developed out of a historical short {{IPA\|/u/}}, later fronted by vowel reduction. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short {{IPA\|/u/}} {{IPAblink\|ʊ}}.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=59}} The [Claudian letter](/wiki/Claudian_letter "Claudian letter") Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the [upsilon](/wiki/Upsilon "Upsilon")).
#### Vowel nasalization
{{listen\|header\=Examples of nasalized vowels at ends of words and before \-ns\-, \-nf\- sequences\|type\=speech
\|filename\=La\-cls\-monstrum.ogg\|title\=monstrum
\|filename3\=La\-cls\-mensis.ogg\|title3\=mensis
\|filename4\=La\-cls\-infans, infantem.ogg\|title4\=infans, infantem}}
Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long [nasal vowels](/wiki/Nasal_vowel "Nasal vowel") in two environments:{{Harvnb\|Clackson\|2008\|p\=77}}
* Before word\-final *m*:
+ {{lang\|la\|monstrum}} {{IPA\|/ˈmon.strum/}} \> {{IPA\|\[ˈmõː.strʊ̃]}}
+ {{lang\|la\|dentem}} {{IPA\|/ˈden.tem/}} \> {{IPA\|\[ˈdɛn.tɛ̃]}}
* Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative:
+ {{lang\|la\|censor}} {{IPA\|/ˈken.sor/}} \> {{IPA\|\[ˈkẽː.sɔr]}} (in early inscriptions, often written as {{lang\|la\|cesor}})
+ {{lang\|la\|consul}} {{IPA\|/ˈkon.sul/}} \> {{IPA\|\[ˈkõː.sʊɫ̪]}} (often written as {{lang\|la\|cosol}} and abbreviated as {{lang\|la\|cos}})
+ {{lang\|la\|inferōs}} {{IPA\|/ˈin.fe.roːs/}} \> {{IPA\|\[ˈĩː.fæ.roːs]}} (written as {{lang\|la\|iferos}})
Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In [Vulgar Latin](/wiki/Vulgar_Latin "Vulgar Latin"), the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish {{lang\|es\|costar}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang\|la\|cōstāre}} (originally {{lang\|la\|constāre}}) and Italian {{lang\|it\|mese}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang\|la\|mēse}} (Classical Latin {{lang\|la\|mensem}}). On the other hand, the short vowel and {{IPA\|/n/}} were restored, for example, in French {{lang\|fr\|enseigne}} and {{lang\|fr\|enfant}} from {{lang\|la\|insignia}} and {{lang\|la\|infantem}} (*e* is the normal development of Latin short *i*), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix *in\-*.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=55, 56}}
When a final *\-m* occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, {{lang\|la\|tan dūrum}} {{IPA\|\[tan ˈduː.rũː]}} was written for {{lang\|la\|tam dūrum}} in inscriptions, and {{lang\|la\|cum nōbīs}} {{IPA\|\[kʊn ˈnoː.biːs]}} was a [double entendre](/wiki/Double_entendre "Double entendre"), presumably for {{lang\|la\|cunnō bis}} {{IPA\|\[ˈkʊnnoː bɪs]}}.
#### Diphthongs
| \+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound | | Front | Back |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Close | | ***ui***{{spaces\|4}}{{IPA\|ui̯}} |
| Mid | ***ei***{{spaces\|4}}{{IPA\|ei̯}}***eu***{{spaces\|4}}{{IPA\|eu̯}} | ***oe***{{spaces\|4}}{{IPA\|oe̯ \~ eː}} |
| Open | ***ae***{{spaces\|4}}{{IPA\|ae̯ \~ ɛː}}***au***{{spaces\|4}}{{IPA\|au̯}} | |
*ae*, *oe*, *au*, *ei*, *eu* could represent diphthongs: *ae* represented {{IPA\|/ae̯/}}, *oe* represented {{IPA\|/oe̯/}}, *au* represented {{IPA\|/au̯/}}, *ei* represented {{IPA\|/ei̯/}}, and *eu* represented {{IPA\|/eu̯/}}. *ui* sometimes represented the diphthong {{IPA\|/ui̯/}}, as in {{lang\|la\|cui}} {{audio\|La\-cls\-cui.oga\|listen}} and {{lang\|la\|huic}}. The diphthong *ei* mostly had changed to *ī* by the classical epoch; *ei* remained only in a few words such as the interjection {{lang\|la\|hei}}.
If there is a [tréma](/wiki/Tr%C3%A9ma "Tréma") above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: *aë* {{IPA\|\[ä.ɛ]}}, *aü* {{IPA\|\[a.ʊ]}}, *eü* {{IPA\|\[e.ʊ]}} and *oë* {{IPA\|\[ɔ.ɛ]}}. However, disyllabic *eu* in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: {{lang\|la\|meus}} {{IPA\|\[ˈme.ʊs]}} 'my'.
In Old Latin, *ae*, *oe* were written as *ai*, *oi* and probably pronounced as {{IPA\|\[äi̯, oi̯]}}, with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French {{Audio\|Fr\-travail.ogg\|''travail''}}. In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to {{IPA\|\[e]}},{{Harvnb\|Ward\|1962}} so that the diphthongs were pronounced {{IPA\|\[äe̯]}} and {{IPA\|\[oe̯]}} in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to {{IPA\|\[ɛː]}} and {{IPA\|\[eː]}} respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.{{efn\|The simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of \[\[Marcus Terentius Varro\|Varro]] (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. ''De lingua Latina'', 5:97 (referred to in {{Harvnb\|Smith\|2004\|p\=47}}).}} The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.{{Harvnb\|Clackson\|Horrocks\|2007\|pp\=273, 274}}
### Vowel and consonant length
Vowel and consonant [length](/wiki/Length_%28phonetics%29 "Length (phonetics)") were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, [macrons](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 "Macron (diacritic)") are frequently used to mark long vowels: {{angbr\|ā ē ī ō ū ȳ}}, while the [breve](/wiki/Breve "Breve") is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: {{angbr\|ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ y̆}}.
Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of *i* and *v*. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short\-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet [Lucius Accius](/wiki/Lucius_Accius "Lucius Accius"). Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28Latin_spelling%29 "Apex (Latin spelling)") (a diacritic similar to an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent "Acute accent")) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter ([long i](/wiki/Long_i "Long i")); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=65}} The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo\-Romance, cf. Italian {{lang\|it\|nono}} "ninth" versus {{lang\|it\|nonno}} "grandfather".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.italianlanguageguide.com/pronunciation/consonants/double\-consonants.asp\|title\=Pronouncing Italian double consonants\|website\=www.italianlanguageguide.com\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-03}}
[thumb\|Recording of *ānus, annus, anus*](/wiki/File:La-cls-anus%2C_annus%2C_anus.ogg "La-cls-anus, annus, anus.ogg")
A [minimal set](/wiki/Minimal_pair "Minimal pair") showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is {{lang\|la\|ānus}} {{IPA\|/ˈaː.nus/}} ('anus'), {{lang\|la\|annus}} {{IPA\|/ˈan.nus/}} ('year'), {{lang\|la\|anus}} {{IPA\|/ˈa.nus/}} ('old woman').
### Table of orthography
The letters *b*, *d*, *f*, *h*, *m*, *n* are always pronounced as in English {{IPA\|\[b]}}, {{IPA\|\[d]}}, {{IPA\|\[f]}}, {{IPA\|\[h]}}, {{IPA\|\[m]}}, {{IPA\|\[n]}} respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:
| \+ Pronunciation of Latin consonants |
| --- |
| Latingrapheme | Latinphoneme | English approximation |
| {{angbr\|c}}, {{angbr\|k}} | {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Always hard as *k* in *sky*, never [soft](/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C "Hard and soft C") as in *cellar*, *cello*, or *social*. {{angbr\|k}} is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by c. |
| {{angbr\|ch}} | {{IPA\|\[kʰ]}} | As *ch* in *chemistry*, and aspirated; never as in *challenge* or *change* and also never as in *Bach* or *chutzpa.* Transliteration of Greek ⟨χ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |
| {{angbr\|g}} | {{IPA\|\[ɡ]}} | Always hard as *g* in *good*, never [soft](/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G "Hard and soft G") as *g* in *gem*. |
| {{angbr\|gn}} | {{IPA\|\[ɡn \~ ŋn]}} | As *ngn* in *wingnut*. |
| {{angbr\|i}} | {{IPA\|\[j]}} | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as *y* in *yard*, never as *j* in *just*. |
| {{IPA\|\[jː]}} | Doubled between vowels, as *y y* in *toy yacht*. |
| {{angbr\|l}} | {{IPA\|\[l]}} | When doubled {{angbr\|ll}} or before {{angbr\|i}}, as clear *l* in *link* (known as {{lang\|la\|L exilis}}).{{harvnb\|Sihler\|1995\|p\=174}}.{{harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=33–34}} |
| {{IPA\|\[ɫ]}} | In all other positions,{{dubious\|date\=October 2023}}{{citation needed\|date\=October 2023}} as dark *l* in *bowl* (known as {{lang\|la\|L pinguis}}). |
| {{angbr\|p}} | {{IPA\|\[p]}} | As *p* in *spy*, unaspirated. |
| {{angbr\|ph}} | {{IPA\|\[pʰ]}} | As *p* in *party*, always aspirated; never as in *photo* when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek ⟨φ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |
| {{angbr\|qu}} | {{IPA\|\[kʷ]}} | Similar to *qu* in *quick*, never as *qu* in *antique*. Before {{angbr\|i}}, like *cu* in French {{lang\|fr\|cuir}}. |
| {{angbr\|quu}} | {{IPA\|\[kʷɔ \~ kʷu \~ ku]}} | There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced {{IPA\|\[kʷɔ]}}, evoking the [Old Latin](/wiki/Old_Latin "Old Latin") pronunciation ({{lang\|la\|equos}}, {{lang\|la\|sequontur}}); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced {{IPA\|\[ku]}} ({{lang\|la\|ecus}}, {{lang\|la\|secuntur}}).{{Citation\|last1\=Traina \|first1\=Alfonso \|last2\= Perini \|first2\=Giorgio Bernardi \|title\= Propedeutica al latino universitario \|year\=1998 \|pages\=62–63 \|ref\=TrainaPropedeutica \|language\=it}}{{cite book\|author\-link1\=Alfonso Traina\|first\=Alfonso\|last\=Traina\|title\=L'alfabeto e la pronunzia del latino\|publisher\=Pàtron\|location\=Bologna\|year\=2002\|edition\=5\|pages\=44 and 59–60}}. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26\) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced \[ku]; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'. |
| {{angbr\|r}} | {{IPA\|\[r]}} | As *r* in Italian and several Romance languages. |
| {{angbr\|rh}} | {{IPA\|\[r̥]}} | As *r* in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. {{lang\|la\|diarrhoea}} ⟨διάῤῥοια⟩. (see [Voiceless alveolar trill](/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill "Voiceless alveolar trill")). Transcription of Greek ῥ, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |
| {{angbr\|s}} | {{IPA\|\[s]}} | As *s* in *say*, never as *s* in *rise* or *measure*. |
| {{angbr\|t}} | {{IPA\|\[t]}} | As *t* in *stay* |
| {{angbr\|th}} | {{IPA\|\[tʰ]}} | As *th* in *thyme*, and aspirated; never as in *thing*, or *that.* Transliteration of Greek ⟨θ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |
| {{angbr\|v}} | {{IPA\|\[w]}} | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr\|g}} and {{angbr\|s}}, as *w* in *wine*, never as *v* in *vine*. |
| {{angbr\|vu}} | {{IPA\|\[wɔ \~ wu]}} | As *one* is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: {{lang\|la\|parvus}} {{IPA\|\[ˈpɐr.wɔs]}}, {{lang\|la\|vivunt}} {{IPA\|\[ˈwiː.wɔnt]}}. The spelling *vu* is post\-classical (in order to become regular in spelling). |
| {{angbr\|x}} | {{IPA\|\[k͡s]}} | A letter representing {{angbr\|c}} \+ {{angbr\|s}}, as well as {{angbr\|g}} \+ {{angbr\|s}}: as *x* in English *axe*. |
| {{angbr\|z}} | {{IPA\|\[d͡z \~ zː]}} | As in *zoom*, never as in *pizza* (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek ⟨ζ⟩. |
| \+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels | Latingrapheme | Latinphone | English approximation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{angbr\|a}} | {{IPA\|\[ä]}} | Similar to *u* in *cut* when short. Transliteration of Greek short ⟨α⟩. |
| {{IPA\|\[äː]}} | Similar to *a* in *father* when long. Transliteration of Greek long ⟨α⟩. |
| {{angbr\|e}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛ]}} | As *e* in *pet* when short. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ε⟩. |
| {{IPA\|\[eː]}} | Similar to *ey* in *they* when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨η⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. |
| {{angbr\|i}} | {{IPA\|\[ɪ]}} | As *i* in *sit* when short. Transliteration of short Greek ⟨ι⟩. |
| {{IPA\|\[iː]}} | Similar to *i* in *machine* when long. Transliteration of Greek long ⟨ι⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. |
| {{angbr\|o}} | {{IPA\|\[ɔ]}} | As *o* in *sort* when short. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ο⟩. |
| {{IPA\|\[oː]}} | Similar to *o* in *holy* when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ω⟩, and ⟨ου⟩ in some cases. |
| {{angbr\|u}} | {{IPA\|\[ʊ]}} | Similar to *u* in *put* when short. |
| {{IPA\|\[uː]}} | Similar to *u* in *true* when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ου⟩. |
| {{angbr\|y}} | {{IPA\|\[ʏ]}} | As in German *Stück* when short (or as short *u* or *i*) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short ⟨υ⟩. |
| {{IPA\|\[yː]}} | As in German *früh* when long (or as long *u* or *i*) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long ⟨υ⟩. |
| \+ Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs | Latingrapheme | Latinphone | English approximation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{angbr\|ae}} | {{IPA\|\[ae̯]}} | As in *aisle*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨αι⟩. |
| {{angbr\|au}} | {{IPA\|\[au̯]}} | As in *out*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨αυ⟩. |
| {{angbr\|ei}} | {{IPA\|\[ei̯]}} | As to *ey* in *they*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. |
| {{angbr\|eu}} | {{IPA\|\[eu̯]}} | As in Portuguese *eu*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ευ⟩. |
| {{angbr\|oe}} | {{IPA\|\[oe̯]}} | As in *boy*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨οι⟩. |
| {{angbr\|ui}} | {{IPA\|\[ui̯]}} | As in Spanish *muy*, approximately to *hooey*. |
| {{angbr\|yi}} | {{IPA\|\[ʏɪ̯]}} | Transliteration of the Greek diphthong ⟨υι⟩. |
|
[
"Letters and phonemes\n--------------------",
"In Classical spelling, individual letters mainly corresponded to individual phonemes ([alphabetic principle](/wiki/Alphabetic_principle \"Alphabetic principle\")). Exceptions include:\n1. The letters {{angbr\\|a e i o u y}}, each of which could represent either a short vowel or a long one. The long vowels were sometimes marked with [apices](/wiki/Apex_%28diacritic%29 \"Apex (diacritic)\"), as in {{angbr\\|á é ó ú ý}}, while long {{IPA\\|/iː/}} could be marked with [the special character](/wiki/Long_I \"Long I\") {{angbr\\|ꟾ}}.{{Harvnb\\|Sihler\\|1995\\|pp\\=20–22\\|loc\\=§25: the Italic alphabets}} In modern times{{when\\|date\\=March 2024}} long vowels are marked with [macrons](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 \"Macron (diacritic)\"), as in {{angbr\\|ā ē ī ō ū ȳ}}; sometimes [breves](/wiki/Breve \"Breve\") may also be used to indicate short vowels, as in {{angbr\\|ă ĕ ŏ ŭ y̆}}.\n2. The letters {{angbr\\|i u}}, which could either indicate vowels (as mentioned) or the consonants {{IPA\\|/j w/}} respectively. In modern times the letters {{angbr\\|j v}} began to be used as distinct spellings for these consonants (now often pronounced very differently).\n3. Digraphs such as {{angbr\\|ae au oe}}, which represented the diphthongs {{IPA\\|/ae̯ au̯ oe̯/}}. In a few words {{angbr\\|ae oe}} also stood for sequences of two adjacent vowels.\n4. Digraphs such as {{angbr\\|ph th ch}}, standing for the aspirated consonants {{IPA\\|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}.",
"### Consonants",
"Below are the distinctive (i.e. [phonemic](/wiki/Phoneme \"Phoneme\")) consonants that are assumed for Classical Latin. Those placed in brackets have a debated phonemic status, and those preceded by a dagger are found mainly or only in Greek loanwords.",
"",
"| | | [Labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant \"Labial consonant\") | [Coronal](/wiki/Coronal_consonant \"Coronal consonant\") | [Palatal](/wiki/Palatal_consonant \"Palatal consonant\") | [Velar](/wiki/Velar_consonant \"Velar consonant\") | | [Glottal](/wiki/Glottal_consonant \"Glottal consonant\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{small\\|plain}} | {{small\\|\\[\\[Labialization\\|labialized]]}} |\n| [Plosive](/wiki/Plosive_consonant \"Plosive consonant\") | {{small\\|\\[\\[Voice (phonetics)\\|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link\\|b}} | {{IPA link\\|d}} | | {{IPA link\\|ɡ}} | ({{IPA link\\|ɡʷ}}) | |\n| {{small\\|\\[\\[Voicelessness\\|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link\\|p}} | {{IPA link\\|t}} | | {{IPA link\\|k}} | ({{IPA link\\|kʷ}}) | |\n| | {{small\\|\\[\\[Aspirated consonant\\|aspirated]]}} | †{{IPA link\\|pʰ}} | †{{IPA link\\|tʰ}} | | †{{IPA link\\|kʰ}} | | |\n| [Fricative](/wiki/Fricative_consonant \"Fricative consonant\") | {{small\\|\\[\\[Voice (phonetics)\\|voiced]]}} | | †{{IPA link\\|z}} | | | | |\n| {{small\\|\\[\\[Voicelessness\\|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link\\|f}} | {{IPA link\\|s}} | | | | {{IPA link\\|h}} |\n| [Nasal](/wiki/Nasal_consonant \"Nasal consonant\") | | {{IPA link\\|m}} | {{IPA link\\|n}} | | | | |\n| [Rhotic](/wiki/Rhotic_consonant \"Rhotic consonant\") | | | {{IPA link\\|r}} | | | | |\n| [Approximant](/wiki/Approximant_consonant \"Approximant consonant\") | | | {{IPA link\\|l}} | {{IPA link\\|j}} | | {{IPA link\\|w}} | |",
"#### Phonetics",
"* Latin may have had the labialized velar stops {{IPA\\|/kʷ ɡʷ/}} as opposed to the stop \\+ semivowel sequences {{IPA\\|/kw ɡw/}} (as in the English ***qu**ick* or *pen**gu**in*). The argument for {{IPA\\|/kʷ/}} is stronger than that for {{IPA\\|/ɡʷ/}}.{{efn\\|{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978}} (p. 17\\) judges the evidence to favour /kʷ ɡʷ/, while {{Harvnb\\|Cser\\|2020}} (§2\\.2\\.2\\) comes to the opposite conclusion. The relevant facts, per the latter, are as follows: \n \n⟨qu⟩ enjoyed a wide lexical distribution, while ⟨gu(V)⟩ was limited to a dozen or so words, where it was always preceded by /n/. The grammarian \\[\\[Velius Longus]] indicated that the ⟨u⟩ of ⟨qu⟩ was in some way different from /w/ in general. No geminate \\*⟨ququ⟩ is attested, whereas all (other) Latin stops are also found as geminates. Sequences of obstruent \\+ glide are rare in Classical Latin. In poetry, whenever sequences of stop \\+ glide occur in medial position, the scansion reveals that can be split across syllables, but this is never the case for ⟨qu⟩. Neither ⟨qu⟩ nor ⟨gu⟩ are ever followed by a consonant, unlike any (other) Latin stop, nor can they occur word\\-finally. The voicing contrast between ⟨nqu⟩ and ⟨ngu⟩ is not found in any (other) sequence of three consonants. Assimilation of the prefix ''ad''\\- to a following ⟨qu⟩ is relatively rare, which is also the case when ''ad''\\- is followed by a consonant cluster. The Proto\\-Indo\\-European predecessor of Latin ⟨qu⟩ is, in many cases, reconstructed as a single consonant \\*/kʷ/, notably distinct from sequences of \\*/kw/. Occasionally Latin /w/ scans as a vowel in poetry, when preceded by /s/ or /l/, but this is never the case for the ⟨u⟩ of ⟨qu⟩.}}\n* The former could occur between vowels, where it always counted as a single consonant in Classical poetry, whereas the latter only occurred after {{IPA\\|/n/}}, where it is impossible to tell whether it counted as one consonant or two.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=25}} The labial element, whether {{IPA\\|\\[ʷ]}} or {{IPA\\|\\[w]}}, appears to have been palatalised before a front vowel, resulting in {{IPA\\|\\[ᶣ]}}/{{IPA\\|\\[ɥ]}} (for instance {{lang\\|la\\|quī}} would have sounded something like {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-qui.ogg\\|listen}}). This palatalisation did not affect the independent consonant {{IPA\\|/w/}} before front vowels.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=17}}\n* {{IPA\\|/kʷ ɡʷ/}} before {{IPA\\|/u/}} were not distinct from {{IPA\\|/k ɡ/}}, which were allophonically labialized to {{IPA\\|\\[kʷ ɡʷ]}} by a following {{IPA\\|/u/}} such that writing a double *uu* was unnecessary. This is suggested by the fact that {{lang\\|la\\|equus}} and {{lang\\|la\\|unguunt}} (from Old Latin {{lang\\|la\\|equos}} and {{lang\\|la\\|unguont}}) are also found spelt as {{lang\\|la\\|ecus}} and {{lang\\|la\\|ungunt}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=19, 20}}\n* {{IPA\\|/p t k/}} were less aspirated than the corresponding English consonants, as implied by their usually being transliterated into Ancient Greek as {{angbr\\|π τ κ}} and their pronunciation in most Romance languages. In many cases however it was not the Latin {{IPA\\|/p k/}} but rather {{IPA\\|/b ɡ/}} that were used to render Greek word\\-initial {{IPA\\|/p k/}} in borrowings (as in {{lang\\|grc\\|πύξος}}, {{lang\\|grc\\|κυβερνῶ}} \\> {{lang\\|la\\|buxus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|guberno}}), especially borrowings of a non\\-learned character. This might suggest that the Latin {{IPA\\|/p k/}} had some degree of aspiration, making {{IPA\\|/b ɡ/}} more suitable to approximate the Greek sounds.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=12–13}}\n* {{IPA\\|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}} were pronounced with notable aspiration, like the initial consonants of the English ***p**ot*, ***t**op*, and ***c**ot* respectively. They are attested beginning c. 150 BC, in the spellings {{angbr\\|ph th ch}}, at first only used to render the Greek {{angbr\\|φ θ χ}} in loanwords. (Previously these had been rendered in Latin as {{angbr\\|p t c}}.) From c. 100 BC onward {{angbr\\|ph th ch}} spread to a number of native Latin words as well, such as {{lang\\|la\\|pulcher}} and {{lang\\|la\\|lachrima}}. When this occurred it was nearly always in the vicinity of the consonant {{IPA\\|/r/}} or {{IPA\\|/l/}}, and the implication is that Latin {{IPA\\|/p t k/}} had become aspirated in that context.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=26, 27}}{{Harvnb\\|Clackson\\|Horrocks\\|2007\\|p\\=190}}\n* {{IPA\\|/z/}} was found as a rendering of the Greek {{angbr\\|ζ}} in borrowings starting around the first century BC. (In earlier borrowings, the Greek sound had been rendered in Latin as {{IPA\\|/ss/}}.) In initial position this appears to have been pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[z]}}, and between vowels it appears to have been [doubled](/wiki/Gemination \"Gemination\") to {{IPA\\|\\[zz]}} (counted as two consonants in poetry).{{Harvnb\\|Levy\\|1989\\|p\\=150}}{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=46}}\n* {{IPA\\|/s/}} was unvoiced in all positions in Classical Latin. Previously however Old Latin {{IPA\\|/s/}} appears to have voiced to {{IPA\\|\\[z]}} between vowels, ultimately [turning to](/wiki/Rhotacism \"Rhotacism\") {{IPA\\|/r/}}. Cicero reports the family\\-name *Papisius* being changed to *Papirius* in the fourth century BC, which may give some idea of the chronology. Afterward new instances of {{IPA\\|/s/}} developed between vowels from sound\\-changes like the degemination of {{IPA\\|/ss/}} after long vowels and diphthongs (as in {{lang\\|la\\|caussa}} \\> {{lang\\|la\\|causa}}), which [Quintilian](/wiki/Quintilian \"Quintilian\") reports to have happened a little after the time of [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\") and [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\").{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=35–37}}\n* In Old Latin, final {{IPA\\|/s/}} after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first [debuccalizing](/wiki/Debuccalization \"Debuccalization\") to {{IPA\\|\\[h]}}, as in the inscriptional form {{lang\\|la\\|Cornelio}} for {{lang\\|la\\|Cornelios}} (Classical {{lang\\|la\\|Cornelius}}). Often in the poetry of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus \"Plautus\"), [Ennius](/wiki/Ennius \"Ennius\"), and [Lucretius](/wiki/Lucretius \"Lucretius\"), final {{IPA\\|/s/}} did not count as a consonant when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. By the Classical period this practice was described as characteristic of non\\-urban speech by Cicero.\n* {{IPA\\|/f/}} was [labiodental](/wiki/Labiodental \"Labiodental\") in Classical Latin but may have been a [bilabial](/wiki/Bilabial \"Bilabial\") {{IPA\\|/ɸ/}} in Old Latin,{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=34, 35}} or perhaps {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ]}} in free variation with {{IPA\\|\\[f]}}. Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on misspellings in early inscriptions, the fact that many instances of Latin {{IPA\\|/f/}} descend from Proto\\-Indo\\-European \\*{{PIE\\|/bʰ/}}, and the outcomes of the sound in Romance (particularly in Spain).{{Harvnb\\|Lloyd\\|1987\\|p\\=80}}\n* In most cases {{IPA\\|/m/}} was pronounced as a bilabial nasal. At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), leaving [compensatory lengthening](/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening \"Compensatory lengthening\") and [nasalization](/wiki/Nasal_vowel \"Nasal vowel\") on the preceding vowel (such that {{lang\\|la\\|decem}} may have sounded something like {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-decem.ogg\\|listen}}). In Old Latin inscriptions, final {{angbr\\|m}} is often omitted, as in {{angbr\\|viro}} for *{{lang\\|la\\|virom}}* (Classical {{lang\\|la\\|virum}}). It was frequently elided before a following vowel in poetry and lost without a trace (apart from perhaps lengthening) in the Romance languages,{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=30, 31}} except in a number of monosyllabic words, where it often survives as {{IPA\\|/n/}} or a further development thereof.\n* {{IPA\\|/n/}} and {{IPA\\|/m/}} [merged](/wiki/Phoneme%23Neutralization_and_archiphonemes \"Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes\") via assimilation before a following consonant, with the following consonant determining the resulting pronunciation: bilabial {{IPA\\|\\[m]}} before a bilabial consonant ({{IPA\\|/p b/}}), coronal {{IPA\\|\\[n]}} before a coronal consonant ({{IPA\\|/t d/}}) and velar {{IPA\\|\\[ŋ]}} before a velar consonant ({{IPA\\|/k kʷ ɡ/}}). This occurred both within words (e.g. {{lang\\|la\\|quī'''nq'''ue}} may have sounded something like {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-quinque.ogg\\|listen}}) and across word\\-boundaries (for instance {{lang\\|la\\|i'''n''' causā}} with {{IPA\\|\\[ŋ]}}*,* or {{lang\\|la\\|i'''m''' pace}}).{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=27–30}}\n* {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}} assimilated to a [velar nasal](/wiki/Velar_nasal \"Velar nasal\") {{IPA\\|\\[ŋ]}} before {{IPA\\|/n/}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=23–25}} Allen and [Greenough](/wiki/James_B._Greenough \"James B. Greenough\") say that a vowel before {{IPA\\|\\[ŋn]}} is always long,{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§10d}} but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an [interpolation](/wiki/Interpolation_%28manuscripts%29 \"Interpolation (manuscripts)\") in [Priscian](/wiki/Priscian \"Priscian\"), and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example {{lang\\|la\\|rēgnum}} from the root of {{lang\\|la\\|rēx}} but {{lang\\|la\\|magnus}} from the root of {{lang\\|la\\|magis}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=71–73}} {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}} probably did not assimilate to {{IPA\\|\\[ŋ]}} before {{IPA\\|/m/}}. The cluster {{IPA\\|/ɡm/}} arose by [syncope](/wiki/Syncope_%28phonetics%29 \"Syncope (phonetics)\"), as for example {{lang\\|la\\|tegmen}} from {{lang\\|la\\|tegimen}}. Original {{IPA\\|/ɡm/}} developed into {{IPA\\|/mm/}} in {{lang\\|la\\|flamma}}, from the root of {{lang\\|la\\|flagrō}}. At the start of a word, original {{IPA\\|/ɡn/}} was reduced to {{IPA\\|\\[n]}}, and this change was reflected in the orthography of later texts, as in {{lang\\|la\\|gnātus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|gnōscō}} \\> {{lang\\|la\\|nātus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|nōscō}}.\n* In Classical Latin, the [rhotic](/wiki/Rhotic_consonant \"Rhotic consonant\") {{IPA\\|/r/}} was most likely an [alveolar trill](/wiki/Alveolar_trill \"Alveolar trill\") {{IPA\\|\\[r]}} in some positions and when doubled. [Gaius Lucilius](/wiki/Gaius_Lucilius \"Gaius Lucilius\") likened it to the sound of a dog, and later writers described it as being produced by vibration. {{IPA\\|/d/}} was sometimes written as {{angbr\\|r}}, possibly suggesting a tap {{IPAblink\\|ɾ}} (like the single {{IPA\\|/ɾ/}} in Spanish).{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=33}}\n* {{IPA\\|/l/}} was strongly [velarized](/wiki/Velarization \"Velarization\") in [syllable coda](/wiki/Syllable_coda \"Syllable coda\") and probably somewhat [palatalized](/wiki/Palatalization_%28phonetics%29 \"Palatalization (phonetics)\") when [geminated](/wiki/Gemination \"Gemination\") or followed by {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}}. In [intervocalic](/wiki/Intervocalic_consonant \"Intervocalic consonant\") position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}}.{{Harvnb\\|Cser\\|2020\\|loc\\=§4\\.9}}. In footnote 206, he adds: \"The evidence has been thoroughly assessed in the diachronic literature; see Sen (2012: 472–3; 2015: 15 sqq.), Meiser (1998: 68–9\\), Leumann (1977: 85–7\\).\"\n* {{IPA\\|/j/}} generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in {{lang\\|la\\|iaceō}}, except in compound words such as {{lang\\|la\\|adiaceō}} (pronounced something like {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-iaceo, adiaceo.ogg\\|listen}}). Between vowels, it was generally as a geminate {{IPA\\|/jj/}}, as in {{lang\\|la\\|cuius}} (pronounced something like {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-cuius.ogg\\|listen}}) except in compound words such as {{lang\\|la\\|trāiectus}}. This {{IPA\\|/jj/}} is sometimes marked in modern editions by a [circumflex](/wiki/Circumflex \"Circumflex\") on the preceding vowel, e.g. {{lang\\|la\\|cûius}}, {{lang\\|la\\|êius}}, {{lang\\|la\\|mâior}}, etc. {{IPA\\|/j/}} could also varied with {{IPA\\|/i/}} in the same [morpheme](/wiki/Morpheme \"Morpheme\"), as in {{lang\\|la\\|iam}} {{IPA\\|/jam/}} and {{lang\\|la\\|etiam}} {{IPA\\|/ˈe.ti.am/}}, and in poetry one could be replaced with the other for [metrical](/wiki/Metre_%28poetry%29 \"Metre (poetry)\") purpose.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=37–40}}\n* {{IPA\\|/w/}} was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when {{IPA\\|/w/}} and intervocalic {{IPA\\|/b/}} began to develop into fricatives. In poetry, {{IPA\\|/w/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} could be replaced with each other, as in {{IPA\\|/ˈsilua/}}\\~{{IPA\\|/ˈsilwa/}} or {{IPA\\|/ˈɡenua/}}\\~{{IPA\\|/ˈɡenwa/}}. Unlike {{IPA\\|/j/}} it remained a single consonant in most words, e.g. in {{lang\\|la\\|cavē}}, although it did represent a double {{IPA\\|/ww/}} in borrowings from Greek such as the name {{lang\\|la\\|Evander}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=40–42}}\n* {{IPA\\|/h/}} was generally still pronounced in Classical Latin, at least by educated speakers, but in many cases it appears to have been lost early on between vowels, and sometimes in other contexts as well ({{lang\\|la\\|diribeō}} \\< *\\*{{lang\\|la\\|dis\\-habeō}}* being a particularly early example). Where intervocalic {{IPA\\|/h/}} survived, it was likely voiced{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=43–45}} (that is, {{IPA\\|\\[ɦ]}}).",
"#### Notes on spelling",
"* Doubled consonant letters represented genuinely [doubled](/wiki/Gemination \"Gemination\") consonants, as in {{angbr\\|cc}} for {{IPA\\|/kk/}}. In [Old Latin](/wiki/Old_Latin \"Old Latin\"), geminate consonants were written as if they were single until the middle of the second century BC, when orthographic doubling began to appear.{{efn\\|{{lang\\|la\\|epistula ad tiburtes}}, a letter by \\[\\[praetor]] Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words {{lang\\|la\\|potuisse}}, {{lang\\|la\\|esse}}, and {{lang\\|la\\|peccatum}} {{Harv\\|Clackson\\|Horrocks\\|2007\\|pp\\=147, 149}}.}} Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the [sicilicus](/wiki/Sicilicus \"Sicilicus\"), a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. It appears in a few inscriptions of the [Augustan era](/wiki/Augustan_literature_%28ancient_Rome%29 \"Augustan literature (ancient Rome)\").{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=11}}\n* {{angbr\\|c}} and {{angbr\\|k}} both represented {{IPA\\|/k/}}, whereas {{angbr\\|qu}} represented {{IPA\\|/kʷ/}}. {{angbr\\|c}} and {{angbr\\|q}} distinguish minimal pairs such as {{lang\\|la\\|cui}} {{IPA\\|/kui̯/}} and {{lang\\|la\\|quī}} {{IPA\\|/kʷiː/}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=42}} In Classical Latin {{angbr\\|k}} appeared in only a few words like {{lang\\|la\\|kalendae}}, {{lang\\|la\\|Karthagō}} \\- which could also be spelt {{lang\\|la\\|calendae}}, {{lang\\|la\\|Carthagō}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=15, 16}}\n* {{angbr\\|x}} represented {{IPA\\|/ks/}}. In Old Latin, {{IPA\\|/ks/}} was also spelled in other ways like {{angbr\\|ks cs xs}}. The letter {{angbr\\|x}} was borrowed from the [Western Greek alphabet](/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets%23Aspirate_and_consonant_cluster_symbols \"Archaic Greek alphabets#Aspirate and consonant cluster symbols\"), where [chi](/wiki/Chi_%28letter%29 \"Chi (letter)\") {{angbr\\|χ}} stood for {{IPA\\|/ks/}} as well. This was unlike the usage of chi in the [Ionic alphabet](/wiki/Greek_alphabet \"Greek alphabet\"), where it stood for {{IPA\\|/kʰ/}}, with {{IPA\\|/ks/}} instead represented by the letter [xi](/wiki/Xi_%28letter%29 \"Xi (letter)\") {{angbr\\|ξ}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=45}}\n* In Old Latin inscriptions, {{IPA\\|/k/}} and {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}} were not distinguished. They were both represented by {{angbr\\|c}} before {{angbr\\|e i}}, by {{angbr\\|q}} before {{angbr\\|o u}}, and by {{angbr\\|k}} before consonants or {{angbr\\|a}}. The letterform {{angbr\\|c}} derives from the Greek [gamma](/wiki/Gamma \"Gamma\") {{angbr\\|Γ}}, which represented {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}}. Its use for {{IPA\\|/k/}} may come from [Etruscan](/wiki/Etruscan_language \"Etruscan language\"), which did not distinguish voiced plosives from voiceless ones. In Classical Latin, {{angbr\\|c}} represented {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}} only in the abbreviations {{lang\\|la\\|c}} and {{lang\\|la\\|cn}}, for {{lang\\|la\\|Gaius}} and {{lang\\|la\\|Gnaeus}} respectively.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§1a}}\n* {{angbr\\|g}} was created in the third century BC to distinguish {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}} from {{IPA\\|/k/}}.{{Harvnb\\|Clackson\\|Horrocks\\|2007\\|p\\=96}} Its letterform derived from {{angbr\\|c}} with the addition of a [diacritic](/wiki/Diacritic \"Diacritic\") or [stroke](/wiki/Typeface_anatomy \"Typeface anatomy\"). [Plutarch](/wiki/Plutarch \"Plutarch\") attributes this innovation to [Spurius Carvilius Ruga](/wiki/Spurius_Carvilius_Ruga \"Spurius Carvilius Ruga\") around 230 BC, but it may have originated with [Appius Claudius Caecus](/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus \"Appius Claudius Caecus\") in the fourth century BC.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=15}}\n* The combination *gn* probably represented the consonant cluster {{IPA\\|\\[ŋn]}}, at least between vowels, as in {{lang\\|la\\|agnus}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈäŋ.nʊs]}} {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-agnus2\\.ogg\\|listen}}.{{Harvnb\\|Lloyd\\|1987\\|p\\=81}}{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=23}} Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.\n* The digraphs *ph*, *th,* and *ch* represented the aspirated plosives {{IPA\\|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA\\|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA\\|/kʰ/}}. They began to be used in writing around 150 BC, primarily as a transcription of Greek [phi](/wiki/Phi \"Phi\") {{lang\\|grc\\|Φ}}, [theta](/wiki/Theta \"Theta\") {{lang\\|grc\\|Θ}}, and [chi](/wiki/Chi_%28letter%29 \"Chi (letter)\") {{lang\\|grc\\|Χ}}, as in {{lang\\|la\\|Philippus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|cithara}}, and {{lang\\|la\\|achāia}}. Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as {{lang\\|la\\|pulcher}}, {{lang\\|la\\|lachrima}}, {{lang\\|la\\|gracchus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|triumphus}}, probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near {{IPA\\|/r/}} and {{IPA\\|/l/}}. Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative {{IPA\\|/h/}} were also used [hypercorrectively](/wiki/Hypercorrection \"Hypercorrection\"), an affectation satirized in [Catullus 84](/wiki/s:Translation:Catullus_84 \"Translation:Catullus 84\").\n* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial {{IPA\\|/z/}} and {{IPA\\|/zz/}} between vowels were represented by *s* and *ss*, as in {{lang\\|la\\|sona}} from {{lang\\|grc\\|ζώνη}} and {{lang\\|la\\|massa}} from {{lang\\|grc\\|μᾶζα}}. Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter [zeta](/wiki/Zeta \"Zeta\") Ζ was adopted to represent {{IPA\\|/z/}} and {{IPA\\|/zz/}}. However, the [Vulgar Latin](/wiki/Vulgar_Latin \"Vulgar Latin\") spellings *z* or *zi* for earlier *di* and *d* before *e*, and the spellings *di* and *dz* for earlier *z*, suggest the pronunciation {{IPA\\|/dz/}}, as for example {{lang\\|la\\|ziomedis}} for {{lang\\|la\\|diomedis}}, and {{lang\\|la\\|diaeta}} for {{lang\\|la\\|zeta}}.{{Harvnb\\|Sturtevant\\|1920\\|pp\\=115–116}}\n* In ancient times *u* and *i* represented the [approximant](/wiki/Approximant_consonant \"Approximant consonant\") consonants {{IPA\\|/w/}} and {{IPA\\|/j/}}, as well as the close vowels {{IPA\\|/u(ː)/}} and {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}}.\n* *i* representing the consonant {{IPA\\|/j/}} was usually not doubled in writing, so a single *i* represented double {{IPA\\|/jː/}} or {{IPA\\|/jj/}} and the sequences {{IPA\\|/ji/}} and {{IPA\\|/jːi/}}, as in {{lang\\|la\\|cuius}} for \\*{{lang\\|la\\|cuiius}} {{IPA\\|/ˈkuj.jus/}}, {{lang\\|la\\|conicit}} for \\*{{lang\\|la\\|coniicit}} {{IPA\\|/ˈkon.ji.kit/}}, and {{lang\\|la\\|rēicit}} for \\*{{lang\\|la\\|reiiicit}} {{IPA\\|/ˈrej.ji.kit/}}. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of *i* could occur in some of the same environments: compare {{lang\\|la\\|māius}} {{IPA\\|/ˈmaj.jus/}} with {{lang\\|la\\|Gāius}} {{IPA\\|/ˈɡaː.i.us/}}, and {{lang\\|la\\|Iūlius}} {{IPA\\|/ˈjuː.li.us/}} with {{lang\\|la\\|Iūlus}} {{IPA\\|/iˈuː.lus/}}. The vowel before a doubled {{IPA\\|/jː/}} is sometimes marked with a [macron](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 \"Macron (diacritic)\"), as in {{lang\\|la\\|cūius}}. It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is [heavy](/wiki/Syllable_weight \"Syllable weight\") from the double consonant.\n* *v* between vowels represented single {{IPA\\|/w/}} in native Latin words but double {{IPA\\|/ww/}} in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of *v* sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in {{lang\\|la\\|genua}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈɡɛ.nu.ä]}} and {{lang\\|la\\|silva}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈsɪl.wä]}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§6d, 11c}}",
"### Vowels",
"#### Monophthongs",
"[thumb\\|The Latin vowel\\-space per {{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=47}}](/wiki/File:Latin_vowel_space.png \"Latin vowel space.png\")\nClassical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs, five [short](/wiki/Vowel_length \"Vowel length\") {{IPA\\|/i e a o u/}} and five long {{IPA\\|/iː eː aː oː uː/}}. Some [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\") from Greek had ⟨y⟩, which would have been pronounced as {{IPA\\|/y(ː)/}} by educated speakers but approximated with the native vowels {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\\|/u(ː)/}} by the less\\-educated.",
"",
"| | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel \"Front vowel\") | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel \"Central vowel\") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel \"Back vowel\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel \"Close vowel\") | {{IPA link\\|i}} {{IPA link\\|iː}}([y yː](/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel \"Close front rounded vowel\")) | | {{IPA link\\|u}} {{IPA link\\|uː}} |\n| [Mid](/wiki/Mid_vowel \"Mid vowel\") | {{IPA link\\|e}} {{IPA link\\|eː}} | | {{IPA link\\|o}} {{IPA link\\|oː}} |\n| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel \"Open vowel\") | | {{IPA link\\|ä\\|a}} {{IPA link\\|ä\\|aː}} | |",
"#### Long and short vowels",
"The short vowels {{IPA\\|/i e o u/}} appear to have been pronounced with a relatively [open](/wiki/Open_vowel \"Open vowel\") quality, which may be approximated as {{IPAblink\\|ɪ}} {{IPAblink\\|ɛ}} {{IPAblink\\|ɔ}} {{IPAblink\\|ʊ}}, and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively close quality, approximately {{IPAblink\\|iː}} {{IPAblink\\|eː}} {{IPAblink\\|oː}} {{IPAblink\\|uː}}.{{efn\\|There is, however, a fringe view that the short high vowels {{IPA\\|/i u/}} were tense {{IPA\\|\\[i u]}} and that the long mid vowels {{IPA\\|/eː oː/}} were lax {{IPA\\|\\[ɛː ɔː]}}, implying that none of the Latin short\\-long vowel pairs differed in quality {{Harv\\|Calabrese\\|2005}}.}} That the short {{IPA\\|/i u/}} were, as this implies, similar in quality to the long {{IPA\\|/eː oː/}} is suggested by attested misspellings such as:{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=47–49}}\n* ⟨trebibos⟩ for {{lang\\|la\\|tribibus}}\n* ⟨minsis⟩ for {{lang\\|la\\|mēnsis}}\n* ⟨sob⟩ for {{lang\\|la\\|sub}}\n* ⟨punere⟩ for {{lang\\|la\\|pōnere}}",
"{{IPA\\|/e/}} most likely had a more open allophone before {{IPA\\|/r/}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=51}}",
"{{IPA\\|/e/}} and {{IPA\\|/i/}} were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g. {{lang\\|la\\|mea}} written as ⟨mia⟩ in some inscriptions. Short {{IPA\\|/i/}} before another vowel is often written with the so\\-called [*i longa*](/wiki/Long_I \"Long I\"), as in ⟨dꟾes⟩ for *diēs*, indicating that its quality was similar to that of long {{IPA\\|/iː/}}; it was almost never confused with *e* in this position.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=51, 52}}",
"#### Adoption of Greek upsilon",
"*y* was used in Greek loanwords with [upsilon](/wiki/Upsilon_%28letter%29 \"Upsilon (letter)\") Υ. This letter represented the [close front rounded vowel](/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel \"Close front rounded vowel\"), both short and long: {{IPA\\|/y yː/}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=52}} Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with {{IPA\\|/u uː/}} in Old Latin and {{IPA\\|/i iː/}} in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce {{IPA\\|/y yː/}}.",
"#### {{lang\\|la\\|Sonus medius}}",
"An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel {{IPAblink\\|ɨ}} or possibly its rounded counterpart {{IPAblink\\|ʉ}}), called {{lang\\|la\\|sonus medius}}, can be reconstructed for the classical period.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=56}} Such a vowel is found in {{lang\\|la\\|doc'''u'''mentum}}, {{lang\\|la\\|opt'''i'''mus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|lacr'''i'''ma}} (also spelled {{lang\\|la\\|doc'''i'''mentum}}, {{lang\\|la\\|opt'''u'''mus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|lacr'''u'''ma}}) and other words. It developed out of a historical short {{IPA\\|/u/}}, later fronted by vowel reduction. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short {{IPA\\|/u/}} {{IPAblink\\|ʊ}}.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=59}} The [Claudian letter](/wiki/Claudian_letter \"Claudian letter\") Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the [upsilon](/wiki/Upsilon \"Upsilon\")).",
"#### Vowel nasalization",
"{{listen\\|header\\=Examples of nasalized vowels at ends of words and before \\-ns\\-, \\-nf\\- sequences\\|type\\=speech\n\\|filename\\=La\\-cls\\-monstrum.ogg\\|title\\=monstrum\n\\|filename3\\=La\\-cls\\-mensis.ogg\\|title3\\=mensis\n\\|filename4\\=La\\-cls\\-infans, infantem.ogg\\|title4\\=infans, infantem}}\nVowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long [nasal vowels](/wiki/Nasal_vowel \"Nasal vowel\") in two environments:{{Harvnb\\|Clackson\\|2008\\|p\\=77}}\n* Before word\\-final *m*:\n\t+ {{lang\\|la\\|monstrum}} {{IPA\\|/ˈmon.strum/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[ˈmõː.strʊ̃]}}\n\t+ {{lang\\|la\\|dentem}} {{IPA\\|/ˈden.tem/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[ˈdɛn.tɛ̃]}}\n* Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative:\n\t+ {{lang\\|la\\|censor}} {{IPA\\|/ˈken.sor/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[ˈkẽː.sɔr]}} (in early inscriptions, often written as {{lang\\|la\\|cesor}})\n\t+ {{lang\\|la\\|consul}} {{IPA\\|/ˈkon.sul/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[ˈkõː.sʊɫ̪]}} (often written as {{lang\\|la\\|cosol}} and abbreviated as {{lang\\|la\\|cos}})\n\t+ {{lang\\|la\\|inferōs}} {{IPA\\|/ˈin.fe.roːs/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[ˈĩː.fæ.roːs]}} (written as {{lang\\|la\\|iferos}})\n\tThose long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In [Vulgar Latin](/wiki/Vulgar_Latin \"Vulgar Latin\"), the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish {{lang\\|es\\|costar}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang\\|la\\|cōstāre}} (originally {{lang\\|la\\|constāre}}) and Italian {{lang\\|it\\|mese}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang\\|la\\|mēse}} (Classical Latin {{lang\\|la\\|mensem}}). On the other hand, the short vowel and {{IPA\\|/n/}} were restored, for example, in French {{lang\\|fr\\|enseigne}} and {{lang\\|fr\\|enfant}} from {{lang\\|la\\|insignia}} and {{lang\\|la\\|infantem}} (*e* is the normal development of Latin short *i*), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix *in\\-*.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=55, 56}}",
"When a final *\\-m* occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, {{lang\\|la\\|tan dūrum}} {{IPA\\|\\[tan ˈduː.rũː]}} was written for {{lang\\|la\\|tam dūrum}} in inscriptions, and {{lang\\|la\\|cum nōbīs}} {{IPA\\|\\[kʊn ˈnoː.biːs]}} was a [double entendre](/wiki/Double_entendre \"Double entendre\"), presumably for {{lang\\|la\\|cunnō bis}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈkʊnnoː bɪs]}}.",
"#### Diphthongs",
"",
"| \\+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound | | Front | Back |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Close | | ***ui***{{spaces\\|4}}{{IPA\\|ui̯}} |\n| Mid | ***ei***{{spaces\\|4}}{{IPA\\|ei̯}}***eu***{{spaces\\|4}}{{IPA\\|eu̯}} | ***oe***{{spaces\\|4}}{{IPA\\|oe̯ \\~ eː}} |\n| Open | ***ae***{{spaces\\|4}}{{IPA\\|ae̯ \\~ ɛː}}***au***{{spaces\\|4}}{{IPA\\|au̯}} | |",
"*ae*, *oe*, *au*, *ei*, *eu* could represent diphthongs: *ae* represented {{IPA\\|/ae̯/}}, *oe* represented {{IPA\\|/oe̯/}}, *au* represented {{IPA\\|/au̯/}}, *ei* represented {{IPA\\|/ei̯/}}, and *eu* represented {{IPA\\|/eu̯/}}. *ui* sometimes represented the diphthong {{IPA\\|/ui̯/}}, as in {{lang\\|la\\|cui}} {{audio\\|La\\-cls\\-cui.oga\\|listen}} and {{lang\\|la\\|huic}}. The diphthong *ei* mostly had changed to *ī* by the classical epoch; *ei* remained only in a few words such as the interjection {{lang\\|la\\|hei}}.",
"If there is a [tréma](/wiki/Tr%C3%A9ma \"Tréma\") above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: *aë* {{IPA\\|\\[ä.ɛ]}}, *aü* {{IPA\\|\\[a.ʊ]}}, *eü* {{IPA\\|\\[e.ʊ]}} and *oë* {{IPA\\|\\[ɔ.ɛ]}}. However, disyllabic *eu* in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: {{lang\\|la\\|meus}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈme.ʊs]}} 'my'.",
"In Old Latin, *ae*, *oe* were written as *ai*, *oi* and probably pronounced as {{IPA\\|\\[äi̯, oi̯]}}, with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French {{Audio\\|Fr\\-travail.ogg\\|''travail''}}. In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to {{IPA\\|\\[e]}},{{Harvnb\\|Ward\\|1962}} so that the diphthongs were pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[äe̯]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[oe̯]}} in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to {{IPA\\|\\[ɛː]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}} respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.{{efn\\|The simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of \\[\\[Marcus Terentius Varro\\|Varro]] (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. ''De lingua Latina'', 5:97 (referred to in {{Harvnb\\|Smith\\|2004\\|p\\=47}}).}} The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.{{Harvnb\\|Clackson\\|Horrocks\\|2007\\|pp\\=273, 274}}",
"### Vowel and consonant length",
"Vowel and consonant [length](/wiki/Length_%28phonetics%29 \"Length (phonetics)\") were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, [macrons](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 \"Macron (diacritic)\") are frequently used to mark long vowels: {{angbr\\|ā ē ī ō ū ȳ}}, while the [breve](/wiki/Breve \"Breve\") is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: {{angbr\\|ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ y̆}}.",
"Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of *i* and *v*. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short\\-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet [Lucius Accius](/wiki/Lucius_Accius \"Lucius Accius\"). Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28Latin_spelling%29 \"Apex (Latin spelling)\") (a diacritic similar to an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent \"Acute accent\")) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter ([long i](/wiki/Long_i \"Long i\")); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=65}} The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo\\-Romance, cf. Italian {{lang\\|it\\|nono}} \"ninth\" versus {{lang\\|it\\|nonno}} \"grandfather\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.italianlanguageguide.com/pronunciation/consonants/double\\-consonants.asp\\|title\\=Pronouncing Italian double consonants\\|website\\=www.italianlanguageguide.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-03}}",
"[thumb\\|Recording of *ānus, annus, anus*](/wiki/File:La-cls-anus%2C_annus%2C_anus.ogg \"La-cls-anus, annus, anus.ogg\")\nA [minimal set](/wiki/Minimal_pair \"Minimal pair\") showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is {{lang\\|la\\|ānus}} {{IPA\\|/ˈaː.nus/}} ('anus'), {{lang\\|la\\|annus}} {{IPA\\|/ˈan.nus/}} ('year'), {{lang\\|la\\|anus}} {{IPA\\|/ˈa.nus/}} ('old woman').",
"### Table of orthography",
"The letters *b*, *d*, *f*, *h*, *m*, *n* are always pronounced as in English {{IPA\\|\\[b]}}, {{IPA\\|\\[d]}}, {{IPA\\|\\[f]}}, {{IPA\\|\\[h]}}, {{IPA\\|\\[m]}}, {{IPA\\|\\[n]}} respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:",
"",
"| \\+ Pronunciation of Latin consonants |\n| --- |\n| Latingrapheme | Latinphoneme | English approximation |\n| {{angbr\\|c}}, {{angbr\\|k}} | {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Always hard as *k* in *sky*, never [soft](/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C \"Hard and soft C\") as in *cellar*, *cello*, or *social*. {{angbr\\|k}} is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by c. |\n| {{angbr\\|ch}} | {{IPA\\|\\[kʰ]}} | As *ch* in *chemistry*, and aspirated; never as in *challenge* or *change* and also never as in *Bach* or *chutzpa.* Transliteration of Greek ⟨χ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |\n| {{angbr\\|g}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɡ]}} | Always hard as *g* in *good*, never [soft](/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G \"Hard and soft G\") as *g* in *gem*. |\n| {{angbr\\|gn}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɡn \\~ ŋn]}} | As *ngn* in *wingnut*. |\n| {{angbr\\|i}} | {{IPA\\|\\[j]}} | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as *y* in *yard*, never as *j* in *just*. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[jː]}} | Doubled between vowels, as *y y* in *toy yacht*. |\n| {{angbr\\|l}} | {{IPA\\|\\[l]}} | When doubled {{angbr\\|ll}} or before {{angbr\\|i}}, as clear *l* in *link* (known as {{lang\\|la\\|L exilis}}).{{harvnb\\|Sihler\\|1995\\|p\\=174}}.{{harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=33–34}} |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɫ]}} | In all other positions,{{dubious\\|date\\=October 2023}}{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2023}} as dark *l* in *bowl* (known as {{lang\\|la\\|L pinguis}}). |\n| {{angbr\\|p}} | {{IPA\\|\\[p]}} | As *p* in *spy*, unaspirated. |\n| {{angbr\\|ph}} | {{IPA\\|\\[pʰ]}} | As *p* in *party*, always aspirated; never as in *photo* when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek ⟨φ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |\n| {{angbr\\|qu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[kʷ]}} | Similar to *qu* in *quick*, never as *qu* in *antique*. Before {{angbr\\|i}}, like *cu* in French {{lang\\|fr\\|cuir}}. |\n| {{angbr\\|quu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[kʷɔ \\~ kʷu \\~ ku]}} | There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[kʷɔ]}}, evoking the [Old Latin](/wiki/Old_Latin \"Old Latin\") pronunciation ({{lang\\|la\\|equos}}, {{lang\\|la\\|sequontur}}); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[ku]}} ({{lang\\|la\\|ecus}}, {{lang\\|la\\|secuntur}}).{{Citation\\|last1\\=Traina \\|first1\\=Alfonso \\|last2\\= Perini \\|first2\\=Giorgio Bernardi \\|title\\= Propedeutica al latino universitario \\|year\\=1998 \\|pages\\=62–63 \\|ref\\=TrainaPropedeutica \\|language\\=it}}{{cite book\\|author\\-link1\\=Alfonso Traina\\|first\\=Alfonso\\|last\\=Traina\\|title\\=L'alfabeto e la pronunzia del latino\\|publisher\\=Pàtron\\|location\\=Bologna\\|year\\=2002\\|edition\\=5\\|pages\\=44 and 59–60}}. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26\\) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced \\[ku]; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'. |\n| {{angbr\\|r}} | {{IPA\\|\\[r]}} | As *r* in Italian and several Romance languages. |\n| {{angbr\\|rh}} | {{IPA\\|\\[r̥]}} | As *r* in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. {{lang\\|la\\|diarrhoea}} ⟨διάῤῥοια⟩. (see [Voiceless alveolar trill](/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill \"Voiceless alveolar trill\")). Transcription of Greek ῥ, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |\n| {{angbr\\|s}} | {{IPA\\|\\[s]}} | As *s* in *say*, never as *s* in *rise* or *measure*. |\n| {{angbr\\|t}} | {{IPA\\|\\[t]}} | As *t* in *stay* |\n| {{angbr\\|th}} | {{IPA\\|\\[tʰ]}} | As *th* in *thyme*, and aspirated; never as in *thing*, or *that.* Transliteration of Greek ⟨θ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. |\n| {{angbr\\|v}} | {{IPA\\|\\[w]}} | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr\\|g}} and {{angbr\\|s}}, as *w* in *wine*, never as *v* in *vine*. |\n| {{angbr\\|vu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[wɔ \\~ wu]}} | As *one* is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: {{lang\\|la\\|parvus}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈpɐr.wɔs]}}, {{lang\\|la\\|vivunt}} {{IPA\\|\\[ˈwiː.wɔnt]}}. The spelling *vu* is post\\-classical (in order to become regular in spelling). |\n| {{angbr\\|x}} | {{IPA\\|\\[k͡s]}} | A letter representing {{angbr\\|c}} \\+ {{angbr\\|s}}, as well as {{angbr\\|g}} \\+ {{angbr\\|s}}: as *x* in English *axe*. |\n| {{angbr\\|z}} | {{IPA\\|\\[d͡z \\~ zː]}} | As in *zoom*, never as in *pizza* (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek ⟨ζ⟩. |",
"",
"| \\+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels | Latingrapheme | Latinphone | English approximation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{angbr\\|a}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ä]}} | Similar to *u* in *cut* when short. Transliteration of Greek short ⟨α⟩. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[äː]}} | Similar to *a* in *father* when long. Transliteration of Greek long ⟨α⟩. |\n| {{angbr\\|e}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛ]}} | As *e* in *pet* when short. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ε⟩. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}} | Similar to *ey* in *they* when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨η⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. |\n| {{angbr\\|i}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɪ]}} | As *i* in *sit* when short. Transliteration of short Greek ⟨ι⟩. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[iː]}} | Similar to *i* in *machine* when long. Transliteration of Greek long ⟨ι⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. |\n| {{angbr\\|o}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɔ]}} | As *o* in *sort* when short. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ο⟩. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[oː]}} | Similar to *o* in *holy* when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ω⟩, and ⟨ου⟩ in some cases. |\n| {{angbr\\|u}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ʊ]}} | Similar to *u* in *put* when short. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[uː]}} | Similar to *u* in *true* when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ου⟩. |\n| {{angbr\\|y}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ʏ]}} | As in German *Stück* when short (or as short *u* or *i*) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short ⟨υ⟩. |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[yː]}} | As in German *früh* when long (or as long *u* or *i*) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long ⟨υ⟩. |",
"",
"| \\+ Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs | Latingrapheme | Latinphone | English approximation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{angbr\\|ae}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ae̯]}} | As in *aisle*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨αι⟩. |\n| {{angbr\\|au}} | {{IPA\\|\\[au̯]}} | As in *out*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨αυ⟩. |\n| {{angbr\\|ei}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ei̯]}} | As to *ey* in *they*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. |\n| {{angbr\\|eu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[eu̯]}} | As in Portuguese *eu*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ευ⟩. |\n| {{angbr\\|oe}} | {{IPA\\|\\[oe̯]}} | As in *boy*. Transliteration of Greek ⟨οι⟩. |\n| {{angbr\\|ui}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ui̯]}} | As in Spanish *muy*, approximately to *hooey*. |\n| {{angbr\\|yi}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ʏɪ̯]}} | Transliteration of the Greek diphthong ⟨υι⟩. |",
""
] |
Syllables and stress
--------------------
### Nature of the accent
Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent. One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|φῶς}} (falling accent) "light" vs. {{lang\|grc\|φώς}} (rising accent) "man" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.W. C. de Melo (2007\), [Review: Cesare Questa, La metrica di Plauto e Terenzio](https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.12.21). Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as {{lang\|la\|discip(u)līna}} and {{lang\|la\|sinist(e)ra}}; and the shortening of post or pre\-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by [brevis brevians](/wiki/Brevis_brevians "Brevis brevians"), for example, scansions such as {{lang\|la\|senex}} and {{lang\|la\|voluptātem}} with the second syllable short.W. Sidney Allen (1978\), *Vox Latina*, 2nd edition, pp. 85–86\.
### Old Latin stress
In [Old Latin](/wiki/Old_Latin "Old Latin"), as in [Proto\-Italic](/wiki/Proto-Italic "Proto-Italic"), stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.{{Harvnb\|Fortson\|2004\|p\=254}} During this period, the word\-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non\-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example:
* {{lang\|la\|f'''a'''ciō}} 'I do/make', {{lang\|la\|f'''a'''ctus}} 'made'; pronounced {{IPA\|/ˈfa.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA\|/ˈfak.tus/}} in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.
* {{lang\|la\|aff'''i'''ciō}} 'I affect', {{lang\|la\|aff'''e'''ctus}} 'affected'; pronounced {{IPA\|/ˈaf.fi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA\|/ˈaf.fek.tus/}} in Old Latin following vowel reduction, {{IPA\|/af.ˈfi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA\|/af.ˈfek.tus/}} in Classical Latin.
In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word\-initial until around the time of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus "Plautus"), in the 3rd century BC.{{harvnb\|Sturtevant\|1920\|pp\=207–218}} The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.
### Classical Latin syllables and stress
{{See also\|Dreimorengesetz{{!}}''Dreimorengesetz''}}
In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for {{lang\|la\|antepaenultima}} 'before almost last', {{lang\|la\|paenultima}} 'almost last', and {{lang\|la\|ultima syllaba}} 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the [syllable weight](/wiki/Syllable_weight "Syllable weight") of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=83}} In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=87}}
#### Syllable
To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§11}} In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).
#### Nucleus
Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus {{lang\|la\|magistrārum}} has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), {{lang\|la\|aereus}} has three (ae e u: VV V V), {{lang\|la\|tuō}} has two (u ō: V VV), and {{lang\|la\|cui}} has one (ui: VV).{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§7}}
#### Onset and coda
A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.
* {{lang\|la\|fēminae}} {{IPA\|/feː.mi.nae̯/}} (CVV.CV.CVV)
* {{lang\|la\|uidēre}} {{IPA\|/wi.deː.re/}} (CV.CVV.CV)
* {{lang\|la\|puerō}} {{IPA\|/pu.e.roː/}} (CV.V.CVV)
* {{lang\|la\|beātae}} {{IPA\|/be.aː.tae̯/}} (CV.VV.CVV)
* {{lang\|la\|grauiter}} {{IPA\|/ɡra.wi.ter/}} (CCV.CV.CVC)
* {{lang\|la\|strātum}} {{IPA\|/straː.tum/}} (CCCVV.CVC)
After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=89–92}}
* {{lang\|la\|puella}} {{IPA\|/pu.el.la/}} (CV.VC.CV)
* {{lang\|la\|supersum}} {{IPA\|/su.per.sum/}} (CV.CVC.CVC)
* {{lang\|la\|coāctus}} {{IPA\|/ko.aːk.tus/}} (CV.VVC.CVC)
* {{lang\|la\|intellēxit}} {{IPA\|/in.tel.leːk.sit/}} (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)
There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop *p t c b d g* followed by a liquid *l r* between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.
* {{lang\|la\|volucris}} {{IPA\|/wo.lu.kris/}} or {{IPA\|/wo.luk.ris/}} (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)
#### Heavy and light syllables
As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.
| | | | V | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | C | V | | |
| | C | C | V | | |
| C | C | C | V | | |
| | | C | V | V | |
| | | C | V | C | |
| | | C | V | V | C |
| | | | V | V | |
| | | | V | C | |
| | | | V | V | C |
Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.
The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.
In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called {{lang\|la\|syllaba nātūrā longa}} ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called {{lang\|la\|positiōne longa}} ('long by position'). These terms are translations of Greek {{lang\|el\|συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει}} (*syllabḕ makrá phýsei* \= 'syllable long by nature') and {{lang\|el\|μακρὰ θέσει}} (*makrà thései* \= 'long by **pro**position'), respectively; therefore {{lang\|la\|positiōne}} should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention". This article uses the words *heavy* and *light* for syllables, and *long* and *short* for vowels since the two are not the same.
#### Stress rule
In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult. Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark {{angbr IPA\|ˈ}} before the stressed syllable.
| \+ Words with stress on antepenult |
| --- |
| {{lang\|la\|volucris}} | {{lang\|la\|fēminae}} | {{lang\|la\|puerō}} |
| {{IPA\|/ˈwo.lu.kris/}} | {{IPA\|/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/}} | {{IPA\|/ˈpu.e.roː/}} |
| CV.CV.CCVC | CVV.CV.CVV | CV.V.CVV |
| \+ Words with stress on penult | {{lang\|la\|volucris}} | {{lang\|la\|vidēre}} | {{lang\|la\|intellēxit}} | {{lang\|la\|beātae}} | {{lang\|la\|puella}} | {{lang\|la\|coāctus}} |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| CV.CVC.CVC | CV.CVV.CV | VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC | CV.VV.CVV | CV.VC.CV | CV.VVC.CVC |
| {{IPA\|/woˈluk.ris/}} | {{IPA\|/wiˈdeː.re/}} | {{IPA\|/in.telˈleːk.sit/}} | {{IPA\|/beˈaː.tae̯/}} | {{IPA\|/puˈel.la/}} | {{IPA\|/koˈaːk.tus/}} |
#### Iambic shortening
{{main\|Brevis brevians}}
**Iambic shortening** or {{lang\|la\|brevis brevians}} is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type *light–heavy*, where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like {{lang\|la\|egō}}, {{lang\|la\|modō}}, {{lang\|la\|benē}}, {{lang\|la\|amā}} with long final vowel change to {{lang\|la\|ego}}, {{lang\|la\|modo}}, {{lang\|la\|bene}}, {{lang\|la\|ama}} with short final vowel.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=86}}
The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example {{lang\|la\|quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem}} and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus "Plautus") and [Terence](/wiki/Terence "Terence"), but not in poetry of the classical period.
|
[
"Syllables and stress\n--------------------",
"### Nature of the accent",
"Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent. One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek {{lang\\|grc\\|φῶς}} (falling accent) \"light\" vs. {{lang\\|grc\\|φώς}} (rising accent) \"man\" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.W. C. de Melo (2007\\), [Review: Cesare Questa, La metrica di Plauto e Terenzio](https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.12.21). Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as {{lang\\|la\\|discip(u)līna}} and {{lang\\|la\\|sinist(e)ra}}; and the shortening of post or pre\\-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by [brevis brevians](/wiki/Brevis_brevians \"Brevis brevians\"), for example, scansions such as {{lang\\|la\\|senex}} and {{lang\\|la\\|voluptātem}} with the second syllable short.W. Sidney Allen (1978\\), *Vox Latina*, 2nd edition, pp. 85–86\\.",
"### Old Latin stress",
"In [Old Latin](/wiki/Old_Latin \"Old Latin\"), as in [Proto\\-Italic](/wiki/Proto-Italic \"Proto-Italic\"), stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.{{Harvnb\\|Fortson\\|2004\\|p\\=254}} During this period, the word\\-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non\\-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example:\n* {{lang\\|la\\|f'''a'''ciō}} 'I do/make', {{lang\\|la\\|f'''a'''ctus}} 'made'; pronounced {{IPA\\|/ˈfa.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA\\|/ˈfak.tus/}} in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.\n* {{lang\\|la\\|aff'''i'''ciō}} 'I affect', {{lang\\|la\\|aff'''e'''ctus}} 'affected'; pronounced {{IPA\\|/ˈaf.fi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA\\|/ˈaf.fek.tus/}} in Old Latin following vowel reduction, {{IPA\\|/af.ˈfi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA\\|/af.ˈfek.tus/}} in Classical Latin.\nIn the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word\\-initial until around the time of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus \"Plautus\"), in the 3rd century BC.{{harvnb\\|Sturtevant\\|1920\\|pp\\=207–218}} The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.",
"### Classical Latin syllables and stress",
"{{See also\\|Dreimorengesetz{{!}}''Dreimorengesetz''}}\nIn Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for {{lang\\|la\\|antepaenultima}} 'before almost last', {{lang\\|la\\|paenultima}} 'almost last', and {{lang\\|la\\|ultima syllaba}} 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the [syllable weight](/wiki/Syllable_weight \"Syllable weight\") of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=83}} In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=87}}",
"#### Syllable",
"To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§11}} In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).",
"#### Nucleus",
"Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus {{lang\\|la\\|magistrārum}} has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), {{lang\\|la\\|aereus}} has three (ae e u: VV V V), {{lang\\|la\\|tuō}} has two (u ō: V VV), and {{lang\\|la\\|cui}} has one (ui: VV).{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§7}}",
"#### Onset and coda",
"A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.\n* {{lang\\|la\\|fēminae}} {{IPA\\|/feː.mi.nae̯/}} (CVV.CV.CVV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|uidēre}} {{IPA\\|/wi.deː.re/}} (CV.CVV.CV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|puerō}} {{IPA\\|/pu.e.roː/}} (CV.V.CVV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|beātae}} {{IPA\\|/be.aː.tae̯/}} (CV.VV.CVV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|grauiter}} {{IPA\\|/ɡra.wi.ter/}} (CCV.CV.CVC)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|strātum}} {{IPA\\|/straː.tum/}} (CCCVV.CVC)",
"After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=89–92}}\n* {{lang\\|la\\|puella}} {{IPA\\|/pu.el.la/}} (CV.VC.CV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|supersum}} {{IPA\\|/su.per.sum/}} (CV.CVC.CVC)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|coāctus}} {{IPA\\|/ko.aːk.tus/}} (CV.VVC.CVC)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|intellēxit}} {{IPA\\|/in.tel.leːk.sit/}} (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)",
"There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop *p t c b d g* followed by a liquid *l r* between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.\n* {{lang\\|la\\|volucris}} {{IPA\\|/wo.lu.kris/}} or {{IPA\\|/wo.luk.ris/}} (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)",
"#### Heavy and light syllables",
"As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.",
"",
"| | | | V | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | | C | V | | |\n| | C | C | V | | |\n| C | C | C | V | | |\n| | | C | V | V | |\n| | | C | V | C | |\n| | | C | V | V | C |\n| | | | V | V | |\n| | | | V | C | |\n| | | | V | V | C |",
"Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.",
"The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.",
"In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called {{lang\\|la\\|syllaba nātūrā longa}} ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called {{lang\\|la\\|positiōne longa}} ('long by position'). These terms are translations of Greek {{lang\\|el\\|συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει}} (*syllabḕ makrá phýsei* \\= 'syllable long by nature') and {{lang\\|el\\|μακρὰ θέσει}} (*makrà thései* \\= 'long by **pro**position'), respectively; therefore {{lang\\|la\\|positiōne}} should not be mistaken for implying a syllable \"is long because of its position/place in a word\" but rather \"is treated as 'long' by convention\". This article uses the words *heavy* and *light* for syllables, and *long* and *short* for vowels since the two are not the same.",
"#### Stress rule",
"In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult. Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark {{angbr IPA\\|ˈ}} before the stressed syllable.",
"| \\+ Words with stress on antepenult |\n| --- |\n| {{lang\\|la\\|volucris}} | {{lang\\|la\\|fēminae}} | {{lang\\|la\\|puerō}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/ˈwo.lu.kris/}} | {{IPA\\|/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/}} | {{IPA\\|/ˈpu.e.roː/}} |\n| CV.CV.CCVC | CVV.CV.CVV | CV.V.CVV |",
"",
"| \\+ Words with stress on penult | {{lang\\|la\\|volucris}} | {{lang\\|la\\|vidēre}} | {{lang\\|la\\|intellēxit}} | {{lang\\|la\\|beātae}} | {{lang\\|la\\|puella}} | {{lang\\|la\\|coāctus}} |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| CV.CVC.CVC | CV.CVV.CV | VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC | CV.VV.CVV | CV.VC.CV | CV.VVC.CVC |\n| {{IPA\\|/woˈluk.ris/}} | {{IPA\\|/wiˈdeː.re/}} | {{IPA\\|/in.telˈleːk.sit/}} | {{IPA\\|/beˈaː.tae̯/}} | {{IPA\\|/puˈel.la/}} | {{IPA\\|/koˈaːk.tus/}} |",
"",
"#### Iambic shortening",
"{{main\\|Brevis brevians}}\n**Iambic shortening** or {{lang\\|la\\|brevis brevians}} is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type *light–heavy*, where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like {{lang\\|la\\|egō}}, {{lang\\|la\\|modō}}, {{lang\\|la\\|benē}}, {{lang\\|la\\|amā}} with long final vowel change to {{lang\\|la\\|ego}}, {{lang\\|la\\|modo}}, {{lang\\|la\\|bene}}, {{lang\\|la\\|ama}} with short final vowel.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=86}}",
"The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example {{lang\\|la\\|quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem}} and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus \"Plautus\") and [Terence](/wiki/Terence \"Terence\"), but not in poetry of the classical period.",
""
] |
### Classical Latin syllables and stress
{{See also\|Dreimorengesetz{{!}}''Dreimorengesetz''}}
In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for {{lang\|la\|antepaenultima}} 'before almost last', {{lang\|la\|paenultima}} 'almost last', and {{lang\|la\|ultima syllaba}} 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the [syllable weight](/wiki/Syllable_weight "Syllable weight") of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=83}} In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=87}}
#### Syllable
To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§11}} In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).
#### Nucleus
Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus {{lang\|la\|magistrārum}} has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), {{lang\|la\|aereus}} has three (ae e u: VV V V), {{lang\|la\|tuō}} has two (u ō: V VV), and {{lang\|la\|cui}} has one (ui: VV).{{Harvnb\|Allen\|Greenough\|2001\|loc\=§7}}
#### Onset and coda
A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.
* {{lang\|la\|fēminae}} {{IPA\|/feː.mi.nae̯/}} (CVV.CV.CVV)
* {{lang\|la\|uidēre}} {{IPA\|/wi.deː.re/}} (CV.CVV.CV)
* {{lang\|la\|puerō}} {{IPA\|/pu.e.roː/}} (CV.V.CVV)
* {{lang\|la\|beātae}} {{IPA\|/be.aː.tae̯/}} (CV.VV.CVV)
* {{lang\|la\|grauiter}} {{IPA\|/ɡra.wi.ter/}} (CCV.CV.CVC)
* {{lang\|la\|strātum}} {{IPA\|/straː.tum/}} (CCCVV.CVC)
After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|pp\=89–92}}
* {{lang\|la\|puella}} {{IPA\|/pu.el.la/}} (CV.VC.CV)
* {{lang\|la\|supersum}} {{IPA\|/su.per.sum/}} (CV.CVC.CVC)
* {{lang\|la\|coāctus}} {{IPA\|/ko.aːk.tus/}} (CV.VVC.CVC)
* {{lang\|la\|intellēxit}} {{IPA\|/in.tel.leːk.sit/}} (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)
There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop *p t c b d g* followed by a liquid *l r* between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.
* {{lang\|la\|volucris}} {{IPA\|/wo.lu.kris/}} or {{IPA\|/wo.luk.ris/}} (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)
#### Heavy and light syllables
As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.
| | | | V | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | C | V | | |
| | C | C | V | | |
| C | C | C | V | | |
| | | C | V | V | |
| | | C | V | C | |
| | | C | V | V | C |
| | | | V | V | |
| | | | V | C | |
| | | | V | V | C |
Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.
The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.
In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called {{lang\|la\|syllaba nātūrā longa}} ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called {{lang\|la\|positiōne longa}} ('long by position'). These terms are translations of Greek {{lang\|el\|συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει}} (*syllabḕ makrá phýsei* \= 'syllable long by nature') and {{lang\|el\|μακρὰ θέσει}} (*makrà thései* \= 'long by **pro**position'), respectively; therefore {{lang\|la\|positiōne}} should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention". This article uses the words *heavy* and *light* for syllables, and *long* and *short* for vowels since the two are not the same.
#### Stress rule
In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult. Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark {{angbr IPA\|ˈ}} before the stressed syllable.
| \+ Words with stress on antepenult |
| --- |
| {{lang\|la\|volucris}} | {{lang\|la\|fēminae}} | {{lang\|la\|puerō}} |
| {{IPA\|/ˈwo.lu.kris/}} | {{IPA\|/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/}} | {{IPA\|/ˈpu.e.roː/}} |
| CV.CV.CCVC | CVV.CV.CVV | CV.V.CVV |
| \+ Words with stress on penult | {{lang\|la\|volucris}} | {{lang\|la\|vidēre}} | {{lang\|la\|intellēxit}} | {{lang\|la\|beātae}} | {{lang\|la\|puella}} | {{lang\|la\|coāctus}} |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| CV.CVC.CVC | CV.CVV.CV | VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC | CV.VV.CVV | CV.VC.CV | CV.VVC.CVC |
| {{IPA\|/woˈluk.ris/}} | {{IPA\|/wiˈdeː.re/}} | {{IPA\|/in.telˈleːk.sit/}} | {{IPA\|/beˈaː.tae̯/}} | {{IPA\|/puˈel.la/}} | {{IPA\|/koˈaːk.tus/}} |
#### Iambic shortening
{{main\|Brevis brevians}}
**Iambic shortening** or {{lang\|la\|brevis brevians}} is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type *light–heavy*, where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like {{lang\|la\|egō}}, {{lang\|la\|modō}}, {{lang\|la\|benē}}, {{lang\|la\|amā}} with long final vowel change to {{lang\|la\|ego}}, {{lang\|la\|modo}}, {{lang\|la\|bene}}, {{lang\|la\|ama}} with short final vowel.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=86}}
The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example {{lang\|la\|quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem}} and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus "Plautus") and [Terence](/wiki/Terence "Terence"), but not in poetry of the classical period.
|
[
"### Classical Latin syllables and stress",
"{{See also\\|Dreimorengesetz{{!}}''Dreimorengesetz''}}\nIn Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for {{lang\\|la\\|antepaenultima}} 'before almost last', {{lang\\|la\\|paenultima}} 'almost last', and {{lang\\|la\\|ultima syllaba}} 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the [syllable weight](/wiki/Syllable_weight \"Syllable weight\") of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=83}} In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=87}}",
"#### Syllable",
"To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§11}} In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).",
"#### Nucleus",
"Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus {{lang\\|la\\|magistrārum}} has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), {{lang\\|la\\|aereus}} has three (ae e u: VV V V), {{lang\\|la\\|tuō}} has two (u ō: V VV), and {{lang\\|la\\|cui}} has one (ui: VV).{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|Greenough\\|2001\\|loc\\=§7}}",
"#### Onset and coda",
"A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.\n* {{lang\\|la\\|fēminae}} {{IPA\\|/feː.mi.nae̯/}} (CVV.CV.CVV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|uidēre}} {{IPA\\|/wi.deː.re/}} (CV.CVV.CV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|puerō}} {{IPA\\|/pu.e.roː/}} (CV.V.CVV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|beātae}} {{IPA\\|/be.aː.tae̯/}} (CV.VV.CVV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|grauiter}} {{IPA\\|/ɡra.wi.ter/}} (CCV.CV.CVC)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|strātum}} {{IPA\\|/straː.tum/}} (CCCVV.CVC)",
"After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|pp\\=89–92}}\n* {{lang\\|la\\|puella}} {{IPA\\|/pu.el.la/}} (CV.VC.CV)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|supersum}} {{IPA\\|/su.per.sum/}} (CV.CVC.CVC)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|coāctus}} {{IPA\\|/ko.aːk.tus/}} (CV.VVC.CVC)\n* {{lang\\|la\\|intellēxit}} {{IPA\\|/in.tel.leːk.sit/}} (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)",
"There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop *p t c b d g* followed by a liquid *l r* between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.\n* {{lang\\|la\\|volucris}} {{IPA\\|/wo.lu.kris/}} or {{IPA\\|/wo.luk.ris/}} (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)",
"#### Heavy and light syllables",
"As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.",
"",
"| | | | V | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | | C | V | | |\n| | C | C | V | | |\n| C | C | C | V | | |\n| | | C | V | V | |\n| | | C | V | C | |\n| | | C | V | V | C |\n| | | | V | V | |\n| | | | V | C | |\n| | | | V | V | C |",
"Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.",
"The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.",
"In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called {{lang\\|la\\|syllaba nātūrā longa}} ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called {{lang\\|la\\|positiōne longa}} ('long by position'). These terms are translations of Greek {{lang\\|el\\|συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει}} (*syllabḕ makrá phýsei* \\= 'syllable long by nature') and {{lang\\|el\\|μακρὰ θέσει}} (*makrà thései* \\= 'long by **pro**position'), respectively; therefore {{lang\\|la\\|positiōne}} should not be mistaken for implying a syllable \"is long because of its position/place in a word\" but rather \"is treated as 'long' by convention\". This article uses the words *heavy* and *light* for syllables, and *long* and *short* for vowels since the two are not the same.",
"#### Stress rule",
"In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult. Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark {{angbr IPA\\|ˈ}} before the stressed syllable.",
"| \\+ Words with stress on antepenult |\n| --- |\n| {{lang\\|la\\|volucris}} | {{lang\\|la\\|fēminae}} | {{lang\\|la\\|puerō}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/ˈwo.lu.kris/}} | {{IPA\\|/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/}} | {{IPA\\|/ˈpu.e.roː/}} |\n| CV.CV.CCVC | CVV.CV.CVV | CV.V.CVV |",
"",
"| \\+ Words with stress on penult | {{lang\\|la\\|volucris}} | {{lang\\|la\\|vidēre}} | {{lang\\|la\\|intellēxit}} | {{lang\\|la\\|beātae}} | {{lang\\|la\\|puella}} | {{lang\\|la\\|coāctus}} |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| CV.CVC.CVC | CV.CVV.CV | VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC | CV.VV.CVV | CV.VC.CV | CV.VVC.CVC |\n| {{IPA\\|/woˈluk.ris/}} | {{IPA\\|/wiˈdeː.re/}} | {{IPA\\|/in.telˈleːk.sit/}} | {{IPA\\|/beˈaː.tae̯/}} | {{IPA\\|/puˈel.la/}} | {{IPA\\|/koˈaːk.tus/}} |",
"",
"#### Iambic shortening",
"{{main\\|Brevis brevians}}\n**Iambic shortening** or {{lang\\|la\\|brevis brevians}} is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type *light–heavy*, where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like {{lang\\|la\\|egō}}, {{lang\\|la\\|modō}}, {{lang\\|la\\|benē}}, {{lang\\|la\\|amā}} with long final vowel change to {{lang\\|la\\|ego}}, {{lang\\|la\\|modo}}, {{lang\\|la\\|bene}}, {{lang\\|la\\|ama}} with short final vowel.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=86}}",
"The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example {{lang\\|la\\|quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem}} and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of [Plautus](/wiki/Plautus \"Plautus\") and [Terence](/wiki/Terence \"Terence\"), but not in poetry of the classical period.",
""
] |
Modern conventions
------------------
### Spelling
#### Letters
Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of *I* and *V*. During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use *I* (upper case) and *i* (lower case) for both vocalic {{IPA\|/i/}} and consonantal {{IPA\|/j/}}, to use *V* in the upper case and in the lower case to use *v* at the start of words and *u* subsequently within the word regardless of whether {{IPA\|/u/}} and {{IPA\|/w/}} was represented.For example, Henri Estienne's {{lang\|la\|Dictionarium, seu Latinae linguae thesaurus}} (1531\)
Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using *I* (upper case) and *i* (lower case) for both {{IPA\|/i/}} and {{IPA\|/j/}}, and *V* (upper case) and *u* (lower case) for both {{IPA\|/u/}} and {{IPA\|/w/}}.
An alternative approach, less common today, is to use *i* and *u* only for the vowels and *j* and *v* for the approximants.
Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between *u* and *v* but not between *i* and *j*. Usually, the non\-vocalic *v* after *q* or *g* is still printed as *u* rather than *v*, probably because in this position it did not change from {{IPA\|/w/}} to {{IPA\|/v/}} in post\-classical times.{{efn\|This approach is also recommended in the \[\[:la:Vicipaedia:Commendationes paginarum recte scribendarum\|help page]] for the \[\[:la:\|Latin Wikipedia]].}}
#### Diacritics
Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a [macron](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 "Macron (diacritic)") or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a [circumflex](/wiki/Circumflex "Circumflex") used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, {{lang\|la\|Româ}} {{IPA\|/ˈroːmaː/}} ('from Rome' [ablative](/wiki/Ablative_case "Ablative case")) compared to {{lang\|la\|Roma}} {{IPA\|/ˈroːma/}} ('Rome' [nominative](/wiki/Nominative_case "Nominative case")).{{Harvnb\|Gilbert\|1939}}
Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent "Acute accent") over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. It would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud.
### Pronunciation
#### Post\-Medieval Latin
{{main\|Neo\-Latin\#Pronunciation\|l1\=Pronunciation of Neo\-Latin}}
Since around the beginning of the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the [phonology](/wiki/Phonology "Phonology") of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article *[Latin regional pronunciation](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation "Latin regional pronunciation")* for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on *Ecclesiastical pronunciation* below).
#### Loan words and formal study
When Latin words are used as [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.
Latin words in common use in English are generally [fully assimilated](/wiki/Loanword%23Classification "Loanword#Classification") into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, *cranium*, *saliva*. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs *ae* and *oe* (occasionally written as ligatures: *æ* and *œ*, respectively), which both denote {{IPA\|/iː/}} in English. The [digraph](/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29 "Digraph (orthography)") *ae* or [ligature](/wiki/Typographic_ligature "Typographic ligature") *æ* in some words tend to be given an {{IPA\|/aɪ/}} pronunciation, for example, *curriculum vitae*.
However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages "Romance languages"),{{citation needed\|date\=October 2014}} the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section {{slink\|\|Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages}} below).
However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.
#### Ecclesiastical pronunciation
{{see also\|Ecclesiastical Latin}}
Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"). Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.{{sfn\|Brittain\|1955}} Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.
A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter\-combinations *b*, *d*, *f*, *m*, *n*, *ph*, and *v* are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.
| \+ Consonants |
| --- |
| Grapheme | Pronunciation | Context | Example | English approximation |
| {{angbr\|c}} | {{IPA\|\[t͡ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | procella | ***ch**ange* |
| {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | carnem | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|ch}} | {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Always | Antiochia |
| {{angbr\|g}} | {{IPA\|\[d͡ʒ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | agere | ***g**em* |
| {{IPA\|\[ɡ]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | plaga | ***g**ate* |
| {{angbr\|gn}} | {{IPA\|\[ɲ(ː)]}} | Always | signum | *ca**ny**on* (roughly); precisely Italian ***gn**occhi* |
| {{angbr\|h}} | ∅ | In nearly all cases | hora | (silent) |
| {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Between vowels in a few words | mihi | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|i}} | {{IPA\|\[j]}} | Beginning of a word and before a vowel | ianua | ***y**ard* |
| {{IPA\|\[jː]}} | Between vowels | Gaius | Doubled, as in *to**y y**acht* |
| {{angbr\|k}} | {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Always | kalendae | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|l}} | {{IPA\|\[l]}} | Always | paulum | *s**l**ip* (never 'dark' as in *poo**l**s*) |
| {{angbr\|p}} | {{IPA\|\[p]}} | Always | praeda | *s**p**y* (never aspirated as in ***p**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|qu}} | {{IPA\|\[kʷ]}} | Always | atque | ***qu**ick* (never as in *anti**qu**e*) |
| {{angbr\|r}} | {{IPA\|\[r]}} | Always | regina | (rolled like Italian or Spanish ***r**ana)* |
| {{angbr\|rh}} |
| {{angbr\|s}} | {{IPA\|\[s]}} | Always (formally) | sanctum | ***s**ing* |
| {{IPA\|\[z]}} | Between vowels (informally) | miser | *tea**s**e* |
| {{angbr\|sc}} | {{IPA\|\[ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | ascendit | ***sh**ade* |
| {{IPA\|\[sk]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | pascunt | ***sc**are* |
| {{angbr\|t}} | {{IPA\|\[t]}} | Generally | tironibus | *s**t**ay* (never aspirated as in ***t**able* nor soft as in *na**t**ion*) |
| {{IPA\|\[t͡s]}} | Before unstressed *i* and not after *s/t/x* | nationem | *pi**zz**a* |
| {{angbr\|v}} | {{IPA\|\[v]}} | Always | conservare | preser**v**e |
|
| {{angbr\|x}} | {{IPA\|\[ks]}} | Generally | dextro | *fo**x*** |
| {{IPA\|\[ɡz]}} | Word internally before a stressed vowel | exaudi | *e**x**amine* |
| {{angbr\|xc}} | {{IPA\|\[ksk]}} | Generally | exclamavit | *e**xc**laim* |
| {{IPA\|\[kʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | excelsis | *thi**ck sh**ell* |
| {{angbr\|z}} | {{IPA\|\[d͡z]}} | Always | zona | la**ds** |
| \+ Vowels | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{angbr\|a}} | {{IPA\|\[ä]}} | *f**a**ther* (roughly) precisely Spanish *r**a**mo* |
| {{angbr\|ae}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛ]}}/{{IPA\|\[e]}} | *p**e**t* |
| {{angbr\|oe}} |
| {{angbr\|e}} |
| {{angbr\|i}} | {{IPA\|\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |
| {{angbr\|o}} | {{IPA\|\[ɔ]}}/{{IPA\|\[o]}} | *s**o**rt* |
| {{angbr\|u}} | {{IPA\|\[u]}} | *c**oo**l* |
| {{angbr\|y}} | {{IPA\|\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |
| \+ Diphthongs | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{angbr\|au}} | {{IPA\|\[au̯]}} | *out* |
| {{angbr\|ei}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛi̯]}} | *they* |
| {{angbr\|eu}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛu̯]}} | no obvious example; roughly EH\-oo |
| {{angbr\|ui}} | {{IPA\|\[ui̯]}} | *screwy* |
* Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic [stress accent](/wiki/Stress_accent "Stress accent") of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent "Acute accent") in words of three or more syllables.)
* Word\-final *m* and *n* are pronounced fully, with no [nasalization of the preceding vowel](/wiki/Nasal_vowel "Nasal vowel").
In his *Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin*, [William Sidney Allen](/wiki/William_Sidney_Allen "William Sidney Allen") remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X "Pope Pius X") recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=108}} The introduction to the *[Liber Usualis](/wiki/Liber_Usualis "Liber Usualis")* indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.[Liber Usualis](http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf), p. xxxvj The [Pontifical Academy for Latin](/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_for_Latin "Pontifical Academy for Latin") is the [pontifical academy](/wiki/Pontifical_academy "Pontifical academy") in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.
Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in [choral](/wiki/Choir "Choir") singing which, with a few exceptions like [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky "Stravinsky")'s {{lang\|la\|\[\[Oedipus rex (opera)\|Oedipus rex]]}}, is concerned with liturgical texts.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2020}} [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of [historically informed performance](/wiki/Historically_informed_performance "Historically informed performance") and the availability of guides such as Copeman's *Singing in Latin* has led to the recent revival of [regional pronunciations](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation "Latin regional pronunciation").
|
[
"Modern conventions\n------------------",
"### Spelling",
"#### Letters",
"Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of *I* and *V*. During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use *I* (upper case) and *i* (lower case) for both vocalic {{IPA\\|/i/}} and consonantal {{IPA\\|/j/}}, to use *V* in the upper case and in the lower case to use *v* at the start of words and *u* subsequently within the word regardless of whether {{IPA\\|/u/}} and {{IPA\\|/w/}} was represented.For example, Henri Estienne's {{lang\\|la\\|Dictionarium, seu Latinae linguae thesaurus}} (1531\\)",
"Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using *I* (upper case) and *i* (lower case) for both {{IPA\\|/i/}} and {{IPA\\|/j/}}, and *V* (upper case) and *u* (lower case) for both {{IPA\\|/u/}} and {{IPA\\|/w/}}.",
"An alternative approach, less common today, is to use *i* and *u* only for the vowels and *j* and *v* for the approximants.",
"Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between *u* and *v* but not between *i* and *j*. Usually, the non\\-vocalic *v* after *q* or *g* is still printed as *u* rather than *v*, probably because in this position it did not change from {{IPA\\|/w/}} to {{IPA\\|/v/}} in post\\-classical times.{{efn\\|This approach is also recommended in the \\[\\[:la:Vicipaedia:Commendationes paginarum recte scribendarum\\|help page]] for the \\[\\[:la:\\|Latin Wikipedia]].}}",
"#### Diacritics",
"Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a [macron](/wiki/Macron_%28diacritic%29 \"Macron (diacritic)\") or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a [circumflex](/wiki/Circumflex \"Circumflex\") used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, {{lang\\|la\\|Româ}} {{IPA\\|/ˈroːmaː/}} ('from Rome' [ablative](/wiki/Ablative_case \"Ablative case\")) compared to {{lang\\|la\\|Roma}} {{IPA\\|/ˈroːma/}} ('Rome' [nominative](/wiki/Nominative_case \"Nominative case\")).{{Harvnb\\|Gilbert\\|1939}}",
"Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent \"Acute accent\") over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. It would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud.",
"### Pronunciation",
"#### Post\\-Medieval Latin",
"{{main\\|Neo\\-Latin\\#Pronunciation\\|l1\\=Pronunciation of Neo\\-Latin}}\nSince around the beginning of the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the [phonology](/wiki/Phonology \"Phonology\") of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article *[Latin regional pronunciation](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation \"Latin regional pronunciation\")* for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on *Ecclesiastical pronunciation* below).",
"#### Loan words and formal study",
"When Latin words are used as [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\") in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.",
"Latin words in common use in English are generally [fully assimilated](/wiki/Loanword%23Classification \"Loanword#Classification\") into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, *cranium*, *saliva*. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs *ae* and *oe* (occasionally written as ligatures: *æ* and *œ*, respectively), which both denote {{IPA\\|/iː/}} in English. The [digraph](/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29 \"Digraph (orthography)\") *ae* or [ligature](/wiki/Typographic_ligature \"Typographic ligature\") *æ* in some words tend to be given an {{IPA\\|/aɪ/}} pronunciation, for example, *curriculum vitae*.",
"However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages \"Romance languages\"),{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2014}} the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section {{slink\\|\\|Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages}} below).",
"However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.",
"#### Ecclesiastical pronunciation",
"{{see also\\|Ecclesiastical Latin}}\nSince the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"). Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.{{sfn\\|Brittain\\|1955}} Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.",
"A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter\\-combinations *b*, *d*, *f*, *m*, *n*, *ph*, and *v* are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.",
"| \\+ Consonants |\n| --- |\n| Grapheme | Pronunciation | Context | Example | English approximation |\n| {{angbr\\|c}} | {{IPA\\|\\[t͡ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | procella | ***ch**ange* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | carnem | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|ch}} | {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Always | Antiochia |\n| {{angbr\\|g}} | {{IPA\\|\\[d͡ʒ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | agere | ***g**em* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɡ]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | plaga | ***g**ate* |\n| {{angbr\\|gn}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɲ(ː)]}} | Always | signum | *ca**ny**on* (roughly); precisely Italian ***gn**occhi* |\n| {{angbr\\|h}} | ∅ | In nearly all cases | hora | (silent) |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Between vowels in a few words | mihi | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|i}} | {{IPA\\|\\[j]}} | Beginning of a word and before a vowel | ianua | ***y**ard* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[jː]}} | Between vowels | Gaius | Doubled, as in *to**y y**acht* |\n| {{angbr\\|k}} | {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Always | kalendae | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|l}} | {{IPA\\|\\[l]}} | Always | paulum | *s**l**ip* (never 'dark' as in *poo**l**s*) |\n| {{angbr\\|p}} | {{IPA\\|\\[p]}} | Always | praeda | *s**p**y* (never aspirated as in ***p**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|qu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[kʷ]}} | Always | atque | ***qu**ick* (never as in *anti**qu**e*) |\n| {{angbr\\|r}} | {{IPA\\|\\[r]}} | Always | regina | (rolled like Italian or Spanish ***r**ana)* |\n| {{angbr\\|rh}} |\n| {{angbr\\|s}} | {{IPA\\|\\[s]}} | Always (formally) | sanctum | ***s**ing* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[z]}} | Between vowels (informally) | miser | *tea**s**e* |\n| {{angbr\\|sc}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | ascendit | ***sh**ade* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[sk]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | pascunt | ***sc**are* |\n| {{angbr\\|t}} | {{IPA\\|\\[t]}} | Generally | tironibus | *s**t**ay* (never aspirated as in ***t**able* nor soft as in *na**t**ion*) |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[t͡s]}} | Before unstressed *i* and not after *s/t/x* | nationem | *pi**zz**a* |\n| {{angbr\\|v}} | {{IPA\\|\\[v]}} | Always | conservare | preser**v**e |\n|\n| {{angbr\\|x}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ks]}} | Generally | dextro | *fo**x*** |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɡz]}} | Word internally before a stressed vowel | exaudi | *e**x**amine* |\n| {{angbr\\|xc}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ksk]}} | Generally | exclamavit | *e**xc**laim* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[kʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | excelsis | *thi**ck sh**ell* |\n| {{angbr\\|z}} | {{IPA\\|\\[d͡z]}} | Always | zona | la**ds** |",
"",
"| \\+ Vowels | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{angbr\\|a}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ä]}} | *f**a**ther* (roughly) precisely Spanish *r**a**mo* |\n| {{angbr\\|ae}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛ]}}/{{IPA\\|\\[e]}} | *p**e**t* |\n| {{angbr\\|oe}} |\n| {{angbr\\|e}} |\n| {{angbr\\|i}} | {{IPA\\|\\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |\n| {{angbr\\|o}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɔ]}}/{{IPA\\|\\[o]}} | *s**o**rt* |\n| {{angbr\\|u}} | {{IPA\\|\\[u]}} | *c**oo**l* |\n| {{angbr\\|y}} | {{IPA\\|\\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |",
"",
"| \\+ Diphthongs | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{angbr\\|au}} | {{IPA\\|\\[au̯]}} | *out* |\n| {{angbr\\|ei}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛi̯]}} | *they* |\n| {{angbr\\|eu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛu̯]}} | no obvious example; roughly EH\\-oo |\n| {{angbr\\|ui}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ui̯]}} | *screwy* |",
"",
"* Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic [stress accent](/wiki/Stress_accent \"Stress accent\") of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent \"Acute accent\") in words of three or more syllables.)\n* Word\\-final *m* and *n* are pronounced fully, with no [nasalization of the preceding vowel](/wiki/Nasal_vowel \"Nasal vowel\").",
"In his *Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin*, [William Sidney Allen](/wiki/William_Sidney_Allen \"William Sidney Allen\") remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X \"Pope Pius X\") recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, \"is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation\"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=108}} The introduction to the *[Liber Usualis](/wiki/Liber_Usualis \"Liber Usualis\")* indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.[Liber Usualis](http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf), p. xxxvj The [Pontifical Academy for Latin](/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_for_Latin \"Pontifical Academy for Latin\") is the [pontifical academy](/wiki/Pontifical_academy \"Pontifical academy\") in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.",
"Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in [choral](/wiki/Choir \"Choir\") singing which, with a few exceptions like [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky \"Stravinsky\")'s {{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[Oedipus rex (opera)\\|Oedipus rex]]}}, is concerned with liturgical texts.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}} [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of [historically informed performance](/wiki/Historically_informed_performance \"Historically informed performance\") and the availability of guides such as Copeman's *Singing in Latin* has led to the recent revival of [regional pronunciations](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation \"Latin regional pronunciation\").",
""
] |
### Pronunciation
#### Post\-Medieval Latin
{{main\|Neo\-Latin\#Pronunciation\|l1\=Pronunciation of Neo\-Latin}}
Since around the beginning of the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the [phonology](/wiki/Phonology "Phonology") of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article *[Latin regional pronunciation](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation "Latin regional pronunciation")* for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on *Ecclesiastical pronunciation* below).
#### Loan words and formal study
When Latin words are used as [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.
Latin words in common use in English are generally [fully assimilated](/wiki/Loanword%23Classification "Loanword#Classification") into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, *cranium*, *saliva*. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs *ae* and *oe* (occasionally written as ligatures: *æ* and *œ*, respectively), which both denote {{IPA\|/iː/}} in English. The [digraph](/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29 "Digraph (orthography)") *ae* or [ligature](/wiki/Typographic_ligature "Typographic ligature") *æ* in some words tend to be given an {{IPA\|/aɪ/}} pronunciation, for example, *curriculum vitae*.
However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages "Romance languages"),{{citation needed\|date\=October 2014}} the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section {{slink\|\|Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages}} below).
However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.
#### Ecclesiastical pronunciation
{{see also\|Ecclesiastical Latin}}
Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"). Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.{{sfn\|Brittain\|1955}} Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.
A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter\-combinations *b*, *d*, *f*, *m*, *n*, *ph*, and *v* are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.
| \+ Consonants |
| --- |
| Grapheme | Pronunciation | Context | Example | English approximation |
| {{angbr\|c}} | {{IPA\|\[t͡ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | procella | ***ch**ange* |
| {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | carnem | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|ch}} | {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Always | Antiochia |
| {{angbr\|g}} | {{IPA\|\[d͡ʒ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | agere | ***g**em* |
| {{IPA\|\[ɡ]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | plaga | ***g**ate* |
| {{angbr\|gn}} | {{IPA\|\[ɲ(ː)]}} | Always | signum | *ca**ny**on* (roughly); precisely Italian ***gn**occhi* |
| {{angbr\|h}} | ∅ | In nearly all cases | hora | (silent) |
| {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Between vowels in a few words | mihi | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|i}} | {{IPA\|\[j]}} | Beginning of a word and before a vowel | ianua | ***y**ard* |
| {{IPA\|\[jː]}} | Between vowels | Gaius | Doubled, as in *to**y y**acht* |
| {{angbr\|k}} | {{IPA\|\[k]}} | Always | kalendae | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|l}} | {{IPA\|\[l]}} | Always | paulum | *s**l**ip* (never 'dark' as in *poo**l**s*) |
| {{angbr\|p}} | {{IPA\|\[p]}} | Always | praeda | *s**p**y* (never aspirated as in ***p**ill*) |
| {{angbr\|qu}} | {{IPA\|\[kʷ]}} | Always | atque | ***qu**ick* (never as in *anti**qu**e*) |
| {{angbr\|r}} | {{IPA\|\[r]}} | Always | regina | (rolled like Italian or Spanish ***r**ana)* |
| {{angbr\|rh}} |
| {{angbr\|s}} | {{IPA\|\[s]}} | Always (formally) | sanctum | ***s**ing* |
| {{IPA\|\[z]}} | Between vowels (informally) | miser | *tea**s**e* |
| {{angbr\|sc}} | {{IPA\|\[ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | ascendit | ***sh**ade* |
| {{IPA\|\[sk]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | pascunt | ***sc**are* |
| {{angbr\|t}} | {{IPA\|\[t]}} | Generally | tironibus | *s**t**ay* (never aspirated as in ***t**able* nor soft as in *na**t**ion*) |
| {{IPA\|\[t͡s]}} | Before unstressed *i* and not after *s/t/x* | nationem | *pi**zz**a* |
| {{angbr\|v}} | {{IPA\|\[v]}} | Always | conservare | preser**v**e |
|
| {{angbr\|x}} | {{IPA\|\[ks]}} | Generally | dextro | *fo**x*** |
| {{IPA\|\[ɡz]}} | Word internally before a stressed vowel | exaudi | *e**x**amine* |
| {{angbr\|xc}} | {{IPA\|\[ksk]}} | Generally | exclamavit | *e**xc**laim* |
| {{IPA\|\[kʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | excelsis | *thi**ck sh**ell* |
| {{angbr\|z}} | {{IPA\|\[d͡z]}} | Always | zona | la**ds** |
| \+ Vowels | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{angbr\|a}} | {{IPA\|\[ä]}} | *f**a**ther* (roughly) precisely Spanish *r**a**mo* |
| {{angbr\|ae}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛ]}}/{{IPA\|\[e]}} | *p**e**t* |
| {{angbr\|oe}} |
| {{angbr\|e}} |
| {{angbr\|i}} | {{IPA\|\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |
| {{angbr\|o}} | {{IPA\|\[ɔ]}}/{{IPA\|\[o]}} | *s**o**rt* |
| {{angbr\|u}} | {{IPA\|\[u]}} | *c**oo**l* |
| {{angbr\|y}} | {{IPA\|\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |
| \+ Diphthongs | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{angbr\|au}} | {{IPA\|\[au̯]}} | *out* |
| {{angbr\|ei}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛi̯]}} | *they* |
| {{angbr\|eu}} | {{IPA\|\[ɛu̯]}} | no obvious example; roughly EH\-oo |
| {{angbr\|ui}} | {{IPA\|\[ui̯]}} | *screwy* |
* Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic [stress accent](/wiki/Stress_accent "Stress accent") of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent "Acute accent") in words of three or more syllables.)
* Word\-final *m* and *n* are pronounced fully, with no [nasalization of the preceding vowel](/wiki/Nasal_vowel "Nasal vowel").
In his *Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin*, [William Sidney Allen](/wiki/William_Sidney_Allen "William Sidney Allen") remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X "Pope Pius X") recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.{{Harvnb\|Allen\|1978\|p\=108}} The introduction to the *[Liber Usualis](/wiki/Liber_Usualis "Liber Usualis")* indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.[Liber Usualis](http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf), p. xxxvj The [Pontifical Academy for Latin](/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_for_Latin "Pontifical Academy for Latin") is the [pontifical academy](/wiki/Pontifical_academy "Pontifical academy") in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.
Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in [choral](/wiki/Choir "Choir") singing which, with a few exceptions like [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky "Stravinsky")'s {{lang\|la\|\[\[Oedipus rex (opera)\|Oedipus rex]]}}, is concerned with liturgical texts.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2020}} [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of [historically informed performance](/wiki/Historically_informed_performance "Historically informed performance") and the availability of guides such as Copeman's *Singing in Latin* has led to the recent revival of [regional pronunciations](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation "Latin regional pronunciation").
|
[
"### Pronunciation",
"#### Post\\-Medieval Latin",
"{{main\\|Neo\\-Latin\\#Pronunciation\\|l1\\=Pronunciation of Neo\\-Latin}}\nSince around the beginning of the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the [phonology](/wiki/Phonology \"Phonology\") of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article *[Latin regional pronunciation](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation \"Latin regional pronunciation\")* for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on *Ecclesiastical pronunciation* below).",
"#### Loan words and formal study",
"When Latin words are used as [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\") in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.",
"Latin words in common use in English are generally [fully assimilated](/wiki/Loanword%23Classification \"Loanword#Classification\") into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, *cranium*, *saliva*. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs *ae* and *oe* (occasionally written as ligatures: *æ* and *œ*, respectively), which both denote {{IPA\\|/iː/}} in English. The [digraph](/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29 \"Digraph (orthography)\") *ae* or [ligature](/wiki/Typographic_ligature \"Typographic ligature\") *æ* in some words tend to be given an {{IPA\\|/aɪ/}} pronunciation, for example, *curriculum vitae*.",
"However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages \"Romance languages\"),{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2014}} the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section {{slink\\|\\|Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages}} below).",
"However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.",
"#### Ecclesiastical pronunciation",
"{{see also\\|Ecclesiastical Latin}}\nSince the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"). Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.{{sfn\\|Brittain\\|1955}} Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.",
"A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter\\-combinations *b*, *d*, *f*, *m*, *n*, *ph*, and *v* are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.",
"| \\+ Consonants |\n| --- |\n| Grapheme | Pronunciation | Context | Example | English approximation |\n| {{angbr\\|c}} | {{IPA\\|\\[t͡ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | procella | ***ch**ange* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | carnem | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|ch}} | {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Always | Antiochia |\n| {{angbr\\|g}} | {{IPA\\|\\[d͡ʒ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | agere | ***g**em* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɡ]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | plaga | ***g**ate* |\n| {{angbr\\|gn}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɲ(ː)]}} | Always | signum | *ca**ny**on* (roughly); precisely Italian ***gn**occhi* |\n| {{angbr\\|h}} | ∅ | In nearly all cases | hora | (silent) |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Between vowels in a few words | mihi | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|i}} | {{IPA\\|\\[j]}} | Beginning of a word and before a vowel | ianua | ***y**ard* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[jː]}} | Between vowels | Gaius | Doubled, as in *to**y y**acht* |\n| {{angbr\\|k}} | {{IPA\\|\\[k]}} | Always | kalendae | *s**k**y* (never aspirated as in ***k**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|l}} | {{IPA\\|\\[l]}} | Always | paulum | *s**l**ip* (never 'dark' as in *poo**l**s*) |\n| {{angbr\\|p}} | {{IPA\\|\\[p]}} | Always | praeda | *s**p**y* (never aspirated as in ***p**ill*) |\n| {{angbr\\|qu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[kʷ]}} | Always | atque | ***qu**ick* (never as in *anti**qu**e*) |\n| {{angbr\\|r}} | {{IPA\\|\\[r]}} | Always | regina | (rolled like Italian or Spanish ***r**ana)* |\n| {{angbr\\|rh}} |\n| {{angbr\\|s}} | {{IPA\\|\\[s]}} | Always (formally) | sanctum | ***s**ing* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[z]}} | Between vowels (informally) | miser | *tea**s**e* |\n| {{angbr\\|sc}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | ascendit | ***sh**ade* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[sk]}} | Before *a*, *o*, *u* | pascunt | ***sc**are* |\n| {{angbr\\|t}} | {{IPA\\|\\[t]}} | Generally | tironibus | *s**t**ay* (never aspirated as in ***t**able* nor soft as in *na**t**ion*) |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[t͡s]}} | Before unstressed *i* and not after *s/t/x* | nationem | *pi**zz**a* |\n| {{angbr\\|v}} | {{IPA\\|\\[v]}} | Always | conservare | preser**v**e |\n|\n| {{angbr\\|x}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ks]}} | Generally | dextro | *fo**x*** |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɡz]}} | Word internally before a stressed vowel | exaudi | *e**x**amine* |\n| {{angbr\\|xc}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ksk]}} | Generally | exclamavit | *e**xc**laim* |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[kʃ]}} | Before *ae*, *e*, *i*, *oe*, *y* | excelsis | *thi**ck sh**ell* |\n| {{angbr\\|z}} | {{IPA\\|\\[d͡z]}} | Always | zona | la**ds** |",
"",
"| \\+ Vowels | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{angbr\\|a}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ä]}} | *f**a**ther* (roughly) precisely Spanish *r**a**mo* |\n| {{angbr\\|ae}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛ]}}/{{IPA\\|\\[e]}} | *p**e**t* |\n| {{angbr\\|oe}} |\n| {{angbr\\|e}} |\n| {{angbr\\|i}} | {{IPA\\|\\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |\n| {{angbr\\|o}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɔ]}}/{{IPA\\|\\[o]}} | *s**o**rt* |\n| {{angbr\\|u}} | {{IPA\\|\\[u]}} | *c**oo**l* |\n| {{angbr\\|y}} | {{IPA\\|\\[i]}} | *s**ee**k* |",
"",
"| \\+ Diphthongs | Grapheme | Pronunciation | English approximation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{angbr\\|au}} | {{IPA\\|\\[au̯]}} | *out* |\n| {{angbr\\|ei}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛi̯]}} | *they* |\n| {{angbr\\|eu}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɛu̯]}} | no obvious example; roughly EH\\-oo |\n| {{angbr\\|ui}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ui̯]}} | *screwy* |",
"",
"* Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic [stress accent](/wiki/Stress_accent \"Stress accent\") of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an [acute accent](/wiki/Acute_accent \"Acute accent\") in words of three or more syllables.)\n* Word\\-final *m* and *n* are pronounced fully, with no [nasalization of the preceding vowel](/wiki/Nasal_vowel \"Nasal vowel\").",
"In his *Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin*, [William Sidney Allen](/wiki/William_Sidney_Allen \"William Sidney Allen\") remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X \"Pope Pius X\") recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, \"is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation\"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.{{Harvnb\\|Allen\\|1978\\|p\\=108}} The introduction to the *[Liber Usualis](/wiki/Liber_Usualis \"Liber Usualis\")* indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.[Liber Usualis](http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf), p. xxxvj The [Pontifical Academy for Latin](/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_for_Latin \"Pontifical Academy for Latin\") is the [pontifical academy](/wiki/Pontifical_academy \"Pontifical academy\") in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.",
"Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in [choral](/wiki/Choir \"Choir\") singing which, with a few exceptions like [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky \"Stravinsky\")'s {{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[Oedipus rex (opera)\\|Oedipus rex]]}}, is concerned with liturgical texts.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}} [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of [historically informed performance](/wiki/Historically_informed_performance \"Historically informed performance\") and the availability of guides such as Copeman's *Singing in Latin* has led to the recent revival of [regional pronunciations](/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation \"Latin regional pronunciation\").",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Aerlith is a planet of rocks and wilderness orbiting a distant bright star known as Skene which appears as "an actinic point" in the daytime. The sky is described as being black rather than blue. The planet's rotation is slow, taking several days. It is so slow that dawn and dusk are accompanied by storms that follow the boundary between day and night around the planet. The night has an effect on the "Dragons" of the title, making them more vicious and unmanageable. This means that all movement of the armies must take place during daylight.
Humans live in valleys where the soil is good. Occasionally they make war on each other across the hills, passes and fells between their valley homes. Their technology is limited to steel and gunpowder. They also use semi\-precious stones for decoration.
From time to time, often after many years, a spaceship appears and abducts as many humans as can be caught. The settlements are also bombarded, ensuring that humanity will not rise above its present technological level. During one such raid, a charismatic leader named Kergan Banbeck captures a group of the alien raiders, who are accompanied by their human servants. Without their masters, the humans go mad and destroy the ship. The aliens, many\-limbed lizard\-like creatures known as "grephs", become prisoners of the humans they came to kidnap.
Many years later, Kergan's descendant, Joaz Banbeck, is troubled by two things. He believes the grephs will return soon, and his neighbor, Ervis Carcolo of the ironically named Happy Valley, is forever plotting against him. The captive grephs have been bred over the years into fighting creatures known as dragons, ranging from the man\-sized "Termagant" to the gigantic "Jugger". As each new variety has been bred over the years, the fortunes of war have shifted between the Banbecks and the Carcolos. Now there is an uneasy peace.
There is a third group of humans, the "Sacerdotes", mysterious [ascetics](/wiki/Ascetic "Ascetic") who walk naked in all weathers. They are characterized by very long hair, pale complexions, and the golden [torc](/wiki/Torc "Torc") each wears around the neck. Only males are seen. They trade for what they need and seem to possess advanced technologies. They believe that they are beyond human, calling the rest of humankind "Utter Men", who will eventually disappear and leave the universe to them.
Joaz Banbeck tries without success to convince Ervis Carcolo and the Sacerdotes of the need to prepare for the next visit by the grephs. Ervis Carcolo, far from cooperating, attacks Banbeck Vale, only to have his army routed by Joaz's ingenious tactics.
Joaz is able to confine a Sacerdote and ask him questions, only to have the man apparently die. Taking his torc and making a wig from the man's hair, Joaz attempts to examine the Sacerdotes' cave home. They are definitely working on something big. Returning home, he is confronted by the Sacerdote he had thought dead, who demands the return of his torc and walks silently away.
Subsequently, Joaz has a dream in which he talks to the sacerdote leader and tries to persuade him to help. The leader, known as the Demie, refuses, claiming that to involve himself in the affairs of Utter Men is to destroy the detachment necessary to their lifestyle. Joaz suspects they are building a spaceship.
Ervis Carcolo attacks again. Once again, Joaz defeats him, but at that moment, the grephs reappear. Happy Valley is destroyed and Banbeck Vale is obviously next.
Besides the power of the ship itself, the grephs have humans whom they have bred, just as the men of Aerlith have bred their dragons. The "Heavy Trooper" is physically equal to the Termagant, and a "Giant" matches the monstrous Jugger. Some of the humans have been bred to track people by smell, and still others are used like horses, like their dragon counterparts, the Spiders.
The grephs attack, tentatively at first. Their troops are astonished by the dragons who so resemble their masters. The fighting is bloody and Joaz moves his people into caves and tunnels for safety. The grephs decide simply to bombard the Vale since they cannot take the people. Joaz has anticipated this, and lures them to a spot where he believes the sacerdotes' workshops are located.
Carcolo, almost with his last remaining energy and backed by his now demoralized troops, assaults the ship from an unguarded quarter. Joaz coincidentally decides on a similar tactic, and is amazed to find Carcolo already inside. Together they free many people, but cannot gain control of the ship. The destruction of the Vale seems inevitable, until Joaz's scheme pays off. The Sacerdote cavern is blown open, and the Sacerdotes are forced to use the engine of their spaceship to project a beam of energy at the alien ship, disabling it. Joaz and his troops complete the rout and capture the ship. However, the Sacerdote ship is destroyed.
The Demie is driven out of his detachment by what Joaz has forced him to do. He upbraids Joaz for causing the destruction of the work of centuries just to save himself. Joaz refuses to apologize, and when Carcolo, now a prisoner, absurdly continues to assert his claim to the ship, Joaz has him executed.
At the end, Joaz surveys the ruins of his home. He picks up a small round object, a semi\-precious stone carved to be a globe of Eden or Tempe or even Earth, the mythical home of humans. He plans to find the other worlds where humans live, if he can repair the alien ship. For now, he must rebuild the homes of his people. He tosses the globe back on the rockpile and walks away.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Aerlith is a planet of rocks and wilderness orbiting a distant bright star known as Skene which appears as \"an actinic point\" in the daytime. The sky is described as being black rather than blue. The planet's rotation is slow, taking several days. It is so slow that dawn and dusk are accompanied by storms that follow the boundary between day and night around the planet. The night has an effect on the \"Dragons\" of the title, making them more vicious and unmanageable. This means that all movement of the armies must take place during daylight.",
"Humans live in valleys where the soil is good. Occasionally they make war on each other across the hills, passes and fells between their valley homes. Their technology is limited to steel and gunpowder. They also use semi\\-precious stones for decoration.",
"From time to time, often after many years, a spaceship appears and abducts as many humans as can be caught. The settlements are also bombarded, ensuring that humanity will not rise above its present technological level. During one such raid, a charismatic leader named Kergan Banbeck captures a group of the alien raiders, who are accompanied by their human servants. Without their masters, the humans go mad and destroy the ship. The aliens, many\\-limbed lizard\\-like creatures known as \"grephs\", become prisoners of the humans they came to kidnap.",
"Many years later, Kergan's descendant, Joaz Banbeck, is troubled by two things. He believes the grephs will return soon, and his neighbor, Ervis Carcolo of the ironically named Happy Valley, is forever plotting against him. The captive grephs have been bred over the years into fighting creatures known as dragons, ranging from the man\\-sized \"Termagant\" to the gigantic \"Jugger\". As each new variety has been bred over the years, the fortunes of war have shifted between the Banbecks and the Carcolos. Now there is an uneasy peace.",
"There is a third group of humans, the \"Sacerdotes\", mysterious [ascetics](/wiki/Ascetic \"Ascetic\") who walk naked in all weathers. They are characterized by very long hair, pale complexions, and the golden [torc](/wiki/Torc \"Torc\") each wears around the neck. Only males are seen. They trade for what they need and seem to possess advanced technologies. They believe that they are beyond human, calling the rest of humankind \"Utter Men\", who will eventually disappear and leave the universe to them.",
"Joaz Banbeck tries without success to convince Ervis Carcolo and the Sacerdotes of the need to prepare for the next visit by the grephs. Ervis Carcolo, far from cooperating, attacks Banbeck Vale, only to have his army routed by Joaz's ingenious tactics.",
"Joaz is able to confine a Sacerdote and ask him questions, only to have the man apparently die. Taking his torc and making a wig from the man's hair, Joaz attempts to examine the Sacerdotes' cave home. They are definitely working on something big. Returning home, he is confronted by the Sacerdote he had thought dead, who demands the return of his torc and walks silently away.",
"Subsequently, Joaz has a dream in which he talks to the sacerdote leader and tries to persuade him to help. The leader, known as the Demie, refuses, claiming that to involve himself in the affairs of Utter Men is to destroy the detachment necessary to their lifestyle. Joaz suspects they are building a spaceship.",
"Ervis Carcolo attacks again. Once again, Joaz defeats him, but at that moment, the grephs reappear. Happy Valley is destroyed and Banbeck Vale is obviously next.",
"Besides the power of the ship itself, the grephs have humans whom they have bred, just as the men of Aerlith have bred their dragons. The \"Heavy Trooper\" is physically equal to the Termagant, and a \"Giant\" matches the monstrous Jugger. Some of the humans have been bred to track people by smell, and still others are used like horses, like their dragon counterparts, the Spiders.",
"The grephs attack, tentatively at first. Their troops are astonished by the dragons who so resemble their masters. The fighting is bloody and Joaz moves his people into caves and tunnels for safety. The grephs decide simply to bombard the Vale since they cannot take the people. Joaz has anticipated this, and lures them to a spot where he believes the sacerdotes' workshops are located.",
"Carcolo, almost with his last remaining energy and backed by his now demoralized troops, assaults the ship from an unguarded quarter. Joaz coincidentally decides on a similar tactic, and is amazed to find Carcolo already inside. Together they free many people, but cannot gain control of the ship. The destruction of the Vale seems inevitable, until Joaz's scheme pays off. The Sacerdote cavern is blown open, and the Sacerdotes are forced to use the engine of their spaceship to project a beam of energy at the alien ship, disabling it. Joaz and his troops complete the rout and capture the ship. However, the Sacerdote ship is destroyed.",
"The Demie is driven out of his detachment by what Joaz has forced him to do. He upbraids Joaz for causing the destruction of the work of centuries just to save himself. Joaz refuses to apologize, and when Carcolo, now a prisoner, absurdly continues to assert his claim to the ship, Joaz has him executed.",
"At the end, Joaz surveys the ruins of his home. He picks up a small round object, a semi\\-precious stone carved to be a globe of Eden or Tempe or even Earth, the mythical home of humans. He plans to find the other worlds where humans live, if he can repair the alien ship. For now, he must rebuild the homes of his people. He tosses the globe back on the rockpile and walks away.",
""
] |
Characters
----------
### Joaz Banbeck
Joaz Banbeck is the lord of Banbeck Vale. He is descended from a line of ruthless and charismatic fighters, particularly Kergan Banbeck who captured almost the entire crew of a greph ship, thus establishing the breeding population from which the Dragons are descended. Joaz himself is educated and cultured, and regarded as weak by his enemies because of that. His people, however, live well thanks to well\-built dwellings, mostly in freshly\-excavated caves, and a well\-engineered water supply from a dam. Banbeck Vale is described as having better soil than the other valley habitats.
Joaz has various artifacts in his possession that show his interest in matters beyond the planet he lives on. One is a globe made of marble that depicts a world variously known as Eden, Tempe, or Earth, the original home of humans. Another is a device that shows the local stars in relation to each other in real time, allowing Joaz to predict the close approach of the star Coralyne, whose appearance always means a greph invasion.
Joaz's family life is only hinted at. There is mention of a son and the son's mother, but other than that his main companion is Phade, a "minstrel\-maiden" who seems to act as a [geisha](/wiki/Geisha "Geisha") or even a [concubine](/wiki/Concubine "Concubine"). Joaz's rival Ervis Carcolo is described as having many wives, and it is reasonable to suppose that Joaz may also have more than one consort.
### Ervis Carcolo
Ervis Carcolo is lord of the ironically named Happy Valley. He is also descended from famous fighters. However, he is obsessed with regaining the glory Happy Valley once enjoyed, before the first greph invasion, and the subsequent Dragon wars. He focuses entirely on breeding more and better Dragons at the expense of the well\-being of his people. Joaz Banbeck points out that most of his people live in huts rather than caves, leaving them easy prey for the grephs. Carcolo dismisses him as weak and effete. His only reason to parley with Joaz is to invite him to plot against the Sacerdotes.
Carcolo is probably older than Joaz, since he fought in battle against Joaz's great\-uncle when Joaz himself was just a sickly child. At that time Carcolo was gored by a horned Dragon but managed to retreat. Since that time there has been an uneasy peace between the two communities.
### Bast Givven
Bast Givven is Carcolo's Head Dragon Master, military adviser and to some extent, his conscience. When Carcolo plots attacks on Banbeck Vale it is Givven who points out the poor quality of their forces, particularly their lack of large Dragons. Givven has a deep understanding of tactics and knows the limitations of men and Dragons in the peculiar conditions of Aerlith. After Carcolo is executed, Joaz makes Givven lord of Happy Valley, or at least what is left of it.
### Dae Alvonso
Dae Alvonso is an itinerant merchant, and a trafficker in dragon eggs, children, gossip, and anything else that will make him a profit. He is used by both Joaz Banbeck and Ervis Carcolo to send messages to each other.
### Phade
Phade is a "minstrel\-maiden" in the service of Joaz Banbeck. She is trained to entertain and please men, though the exact nature of her services is not described. She is the one who discovers the sacerdote in Joaz's study at the beginning of the story. Her impressions of Joaz, particularly her inability to understand his personality to apply her training to him, serve to introduce him before he first appears in the story.
Thereafter she is an [interlocutor](/wiki/Interlocutor_%28linguistics%29 "Interlocutor (linguistics)") character to whom Joaz explains elements of the plot.
### The Sacerdotes
The sacerdotes are ascetics who walk naked in all weathers and are devoted to truth and knowledge. Their only attire is a golden [torc](/wiki/Torc "Torc") around the neck and their long hair. They live in caves somewhere around Banbeck Vale and possibly in other locations. Only male sacerdotes are seen outside the caves, although Joaz sees females when he sneaks into the sacerdote cave. Like the men they are thin with clear pale skin, long hair and no clothes. The most important thing in a sacerdote's life is the *tand*, a construction of twisted wire created by each individual based on study of the original *tand*. The *tand* reflects the individual's personality and philosophy. It is judged by the senior sacerdotes, and based on their assessment the individual can enjoy promotion within the community, or even be expelled.
One feature of the sacerdote creed is that they must answer any question put to them, and answer truthfully. On the other hand, they are skilled at giving answers that avoid giving away their secrets, or affecting the conduct of others. Some answers can be accurate but useless. For instance, when dealing with a human emissary from the grephs, Kergan Banbeck asks a sacerdote how he can persuade the emissary to do as he wishes. The sacerdote suggests erasing his memory and rewriting it, clearly an impossible task.
The sacerdotes have no names. Their leader is called "The Demie". Two sacerdotes and the Demie feature in the plot. One is the sacerdote who invades Joaz Banbeck's personal chambers. He is discovered by Phade but escapes via a secret passage. Joaz discovers the passage and sets a trap which the sacerdote later springs. Joaz detains him and asks him questions about his reason for being there. The sacerdote is evasive but admits that his mission is to learn about Joaz, and implies that he is in line to become the Demie. After lengthy questioning, he enters a deathlike state, whereupon Joaz uses his hair to fashion a wig and, taking the torc he wears, enters the secret passage himself disguised as a sacerdote. The sacerdote himself revives just as Joaz returns from his expedition.
Another sacerdote appeared, years before, as Kergan Banbeck, having captured twenty\-three grephs, negotiated with a human servant of the grephs. The emissary speaks and thinks in a way that Kergan cannot handle. To the emissary, reality is a predestined sequence of events that does not include the holding of grephs as hostages. The only way of preserving reality is for the hostages to be released. The sacerdote understands this, but cannot or will not make any suggestion that gets Kergan what he wants.
### The grephs
As the captive grephs are led away by Kergan Banbeck, we gain some insight into their thought processes. They think of themselves as "The Revered". Their entire philosophy is predicated on a series of predestined events described in a way similar to the mathematics of [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics"). Some events and outcomes – such as being captured – are forbidden for the Revered. They are therefore forced to conclude that they are not Revered and must be some other kind of creature altogether.
The grephs are described as "standing on two legs, with two versatile members at mid\-body, a pair of multi\-articulated brachs at the neck", indicating that they have six limbs. As they provided the original breeding stock for the Dragons, they are also called Basics.
### The Dragons
After many years of breeding by the humans, thanks to their providing eggs almost every year, the Dragons are changed into semi\-intelligent beasts that can be trained to use weapons and respond to voice commands using "dragon talk", a code that is different for each dragon army. Their scaly skin resists bullets and blades, except in certain vulnerable locations.
Breeds include:
* Termagants \- these are closest to the Basics in size. They are tough, reproduce quickly, and can be trained to use pistol, sword and [mace](/wiki/Mace_%28bludgeon%29 "Mace (bludgeon)"). They are usually the biggest component of a Dragon army. The color of their scales is rusty\-red.Colors of all Dragon breeds, p92\-3\.
* Murderers \- these come in two varieties, known as Striding and Long\-horned. They are not described in detail, except to note that the Long\-horned variety has a horn growing from the midsection, although another part of the story implies that there are horns on the head as well. Murderers seem to be used as shock troops. The color of their scales is brown.
* Fiends \- these are squat, powerful beasts that can fight with sword and mace, but also have a heavy spiked ball at the end of a tail. This can be swung from side to side. It is particularly effective against Juggers if the Fiend can employ it between the Jugger's legs. The color of their scales is black\-green.
* Blue Horrors \- these are agile beasts equipped with pincers enabling them to dismember an opponent. The color of their scales is toxic\-blue.
* Juggers \- these are much larger than all the other Dragon breeds. They can use large hand weapons, but they are slow and ponderous. They are also hard to breed, so an army will have relatively few Juggers. However they can be extremely effective in the right situation, being able to pick up opponents and tear them apart. The color of their scales is grey.
* Spiders \- these are bred to be large and fast enough to carry a human rider. The name implies that they use all available limbs for running. A high status individual such as Ervis Carcolo rides a beast that has been heavily decorated and is well\-disciplined.
### Servants of the grephs
The grephs use the humans they harvest from different planets in the same way as the humans on Aerlith use the Dragons. Since humans breed more slowly than grephs, they are less diverse than the Dragons.
In the story, the humans encounter the following types:
* Heavy Troopers. Short and squat, these are the infantry soldiers of the grephs. They use various weapons, ranging from "blasters" to swords, and are equipped with body armor. One Heavy Trooper is typically able to defeat a single Termagant in hand\-to\-hand combat.
* Weaponeers. These are similar to the men of Aerlith. They are in charge of advanced weapons, as their name implies. They are also used as go\-betweens in negotiations.
* Giants. Described as "twice the size of a man", they have body armor and can carry large "energy projectors". However they are no match for the Juggers in hand\-to\-hand combat.
* Trackers. Bred for a highly developed sense of smell, they are used to find opponents who are hiding. They have enlarged noses and weak or nonexistent chins. They are agile and can climb quickly.
* Mounts. These are humans bred to run on all fours and carry a greph on their backs.
* Matrons. These are seen in the dormitories where the humans captured by the grephs are kept.
* Mechanics. Described as small and sharp\-featured, these are the maintenance crews on the greph ships.
|
[
"Characters\n----------",
"### Joaz Banbeck",
"Joaz Banbeck is the lord of Banbeck Vale. He is descended from a line of ruthless and charismatic fighters, particularly Kergan Banbeck who captured almost the entire crew of a greph ship, thus establishing the breeding population from which the Dragons are descended. Joaz himself is educated and cultured, and regarded as weak by his enemies because of that. His people, however, live well thanks to well\\-built dwellings, mostly in freshly\\-excavated caves, and a well\\-engineered water supply from a dam. Banbeck Vale is described as having better soil than the other valley habitats.",
"Joaz has various artifacts in his possession that show his interest in matters beyond the planet he lives on. One is a globe made of marble that depicts a world variously known as Eden, Tempe, or Earth, the original home of humans. Another is a device that shows the local stars in relation to each other in real time, allowing Joaz to predict the close approach of the star Coralyne, whose appearance always means a greph invasion.",
"Joaz's family life is only hinted at. There is mention of a son and the son's mother, but other than that his main companion is Phade, a \"minstrel\\-maiden\" who seems to act as a [geisha](/wiki/Geisha \"Geisha\") or even a [concubine](/wiki/Concubine \"Concubine\"). Joaz's rival Ervis Carcolo is described as having many wives, and it is reasonable to suppose that Joaz may also have more than one consort.",
"### Ervis Carcolo",
"Ervis Carcolo is lord of the ironically named Happy Valley. He is also descended from famous fighters. However, he is obsessed with regaining the glory Happy Valley once enjoyed, before the first greph invasion, and the subsequent Dragon wars. He focuses entirely on breeding more and better Dragons at the expense of the well\\-being of his people. Joaz Banbeck points out that most of his people live in huts rather than caves, leaving them easy prey for the grephs. Carcolo dismisses him as weak and effete. His only reason to parley with Joaz is to invite him to plot against the Sacerdotes.",
"Carcolo is probably older than Joaz, since he fought in battle against Joaz's great\\-uncle when Joaz himself was just a sickly child. At that time Carcolo was gored by a horned Dragon but managed to retreat. Since that time there has been an uneasy peace between the two communities.",
"### Bast Givven",
"Bast Givven is Carcolo's Head Dragon Master, military adviser and to some extent, his conscience. When Carcolo plots attacks on Banbeck Vale it is Givven who points out the poor quality of their forces, particularly their lack of large Dragons. Givven has a deep understanding of tactics and knows the limitations of men and Dragons in the peculiar conditions of Aerlith. After Carcolo is executed, Joaz makes Givven lord of Happy Valley, or at least what is left of it.",
"### Dae Alvonso",
"Dae Alvonso is an itinerant merchant, and a trafficker in dragon eggs, children, gossip, and anything else that will make him a profit. He is used by both Joaz Banbeck and Ervis Carcolo to send messages to each other.",
"### Phade",
"Phade is a \"minstrel\\-maiden\" in the service of Joaz Banbeck. She is trained to entertain and please men, though the exact nature of her services is not described. She is the one who discovers the sacerdote in Joaz's study at the beginning of the story. Her impressions of Joaz, particularly her inability to understand his personality to apply her training to him, serve to introduce him before he first appears in the story. \nThereafter she is an [interlocutor](/wiki/Interlocutor_%28linguistics%29 \"Interlocutor (linguistics)\") character to whom Joaz explains elements of the plot.",
"### The Sacerdotes",
"The sacerdotes are ascetics who walk naked in all weathers and are devoted to truth and knowledge. Their only attire is a golden [torc](/wiki/Torc \"Torc\") around the neck and their long hair. They live in caves somewhere around Banbeck Vale and possibly in other locations. Only male sacerdotes are seen outside the caves, although Joaz sees females when he sneaks into the sacerdote cave. Like the men they are thin with clear pale skin, long hair and no clothes. The most important thing in a sacerdote's life is the *tand*, a construction of twisted wire created by each individual based on study of the original *tand*. The *tand* reflects the individual's personality and philosophy. It is judged by the senior sacerdotes, and based on their assessment the individual can enjoy promotion within the community, or even be expelled.",
"One feature of the sacerdote creed is that they must answer any question put to them, and answer truthfully. On the other hand, they are skilled at giving answers that avoid giving away their secrets, or affecting the conduct of others. Some answers can be accurate but useless. For instance, when dealing with a human emissary from the grephs, Kergan Banbeck asks a sacerdote how he can persuade the emissary to do as he wishes. The sacerdote suggests erasing his memory and rewriting it, clearly an impossible task.",
"The sacerdotes have no names. Their leader is called \"The Demie\". Two sacerdotes and the Demie feature in the plot. One is the sacerdote who invades Joaz Banbeck's personal chambers. He is discovered by Phade but escapes via a secret passage. Joaz discovers the passage and sets a trap which the sacerdote later springs. Joaz detains him and asks him questions about his reason for being there. The sacerdote is evasive but admits that his mission is to learn about Joaz, and implies that he is in line to become the Demie. After lengthy questioning, he enters a deathlike state, whereupon Joaz uses his hair to fashion a wig and, taking the torc he wears, enters the secret passage himself disguised as a sacerdote. The sacerdote himself revives just as Joaz returns from his expedition.",
"Another sacerdote appeared, years before, as Kergan Banbeck, having captured twenty\\-three grephs, negotiated with a human servant of the grephs. The emissary speaks and thinks in a way that Kergan cannot handle. To the emissary, reality is a predestined sequence of events that does not include the holding of grephs as hostages. The only way of preserving reality is for the hostages to be released. The sacerdote understands this, but cannot or will not make any suggestion that gets Kergan what he wants.",
"### The grephs",
"As the captive grephs are led away by Kergan Banbeck, we gain some insight into their thought processes. They think of themselves as \"The Revered\". Their entire philosophy is predicated on a series of predestined events described in a way similar to the mathematics of [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\"). Some events and outcomes – such as being captured – are forbidden for the Revered. They are therefore forced to conclude that they are not Revered and must be some other kind of creature altogether.",
"The grephs are described as \"standing on two legs, with two versatile members at mid\\-body, a pair of multi\\-articulated brachs at the neck\", indicating that they have six limbs. As they provided the original breeding stock for the Dragons, they are also called Basics.",
"### The Dragons",
"After many years of breeding by the humans, thanks to their providing eggs almost every year, the Dragons are changed into semi\\-intelligent beasts that can be trained to use weapons and respond to voice commands using \"dragon talk\", a code that is different for each dragon army. Their scaly skin resists bullets and blades, except in certain vulnerable locations.",
"Breeds include:\n* Termagants \\- these are closest to the Basics in size. They are tough, reproduce quickly, and can be trained to use pistol, sword and [mace](/wiki/Mace_%28bludgeon%29 \"Mace (bludgeon)\"). They are usually the biggest component of a Dragon army. The color of their scales is rusty\\-red.Colors of all Dragon breeds, p92\\-3\\.\n* Murderers \\- these come in two varieties, known as Striding and Long\\-horned. They are not described in detail, except to note that the Long\\-horned variety has a horn growing from the midsection, although another part of the story implies that there are horns on the head as well. Murderers seem to be used as shock troops. The color of their scales is brown.\n* Fiends \\- these are squat, powerful beasts that can fight with sword and mace, but also have a heavy spiked ball at the end of a tail. This can be swung from side to side. It is particularly effective against Juggers if the Fiend can employ it between the Jugger's legs. The color of their scales is black\\-green.\n* Blue Horrors \\- these are agile beasts equipped with pincers enabling them to dismember an opponent. The color of their scales is toxic\\-blue.\n* Juggers \\- these are much larger than all the other Dragon breeds. They can use large hand weapons, but they are slow and ponderous. They are also hard to breed, so an army will have relatively few Juggers. However they can be extremely effective in the right situation, being able to pick up opponents and tear them apart. The color of their scales is grey.\n* Spiders \\- these are bred to be large and fast enough to carry a human rider. The name implies that they use all available limbs for running. A high status individual such as Ervis Carcolo rides a beast that has been heavily decorated and is well\\-disciplined.",
"### Servants of the grephs",
"The grephs use the humans they harvest from different planets in the same way as the humans on Aerlith use the Dragons. Since humans breed more slowly than grephs, they are less diverse than the Dragons.",
"In the story, the humans encounter the following types:\n* Heavy Troopers. Short and squat, these are the infantry soldiers of the grephs. They use various weapons, ranging from \"blasters\" to swords, and are equipped with body armor. One Heavy Trooper is typically able to defeat a single Termagant in hand\\-to\\-hand combat.\n* Weaponeers. These are similar to the men of Aerlith. They are in charge of advanced weapons, as their name implies. They are also used as go\\-betweens in negotiations.\n* Giants. Described as \"twice the size of a man\", they have body armor and can carry large \"energy projectors\". However they are no match for the Juggers in hand\\-to\\-hand combat.\n* Trackers. Bred for a highly developed sense of smell, they are used to find opponents who are hiding. They have enlarged noses and weak or nonexistent chins. They are agile and can climb quickly.\n* Mounts. These are humans bred to run on all fours and carry a greph on their backs.\n* Matrons. These are seen in the dormitories where the humans captured by the grephs are kept.\n* Mechanics. Described as small and sharp\\-featured, these are the maintenance crews on the greph ships.",
""
] |
Life and politics
-----------------
Weichel was born in [Sandusky, Ohio](/wiki/Sandusky%2C_Ohio "Sandusky, Ohio"), three of his grandparents were [German](/wiki/Germans "Germans") immigrants.
{{citation \|url\= https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:MMZ3\-8CG \|title\= United States Census, 1900 \|website\= \[\[FamilySearch]] \|accessdate\=March 21, 2018 }}
### World War I
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), he enlisted on December 14, 1917, and assigned to Company P, Ordnance Training Camp, and later to Headquarters Supply Company at [Camp Hancock, Georgia](/wiki/Camp_Hancock%2C_Georgia "Camp Hancock, Georgia"), and was discharged a sergeant on January 31, 1919\. He was appointed second lieutenant, Ordnance Section, Officers' Reserve Corps, December 10, 1918, and commission terminated December 8, 1928\.
### Legal career
He was graduated from [Ferris Institute](/wiki/Ferris_Institute "Ferris Institute") in [Big Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Big_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Big Rapids, Michigan"), from the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan") at [Ann Arbor](/wiki/Ann_Arbor%2C_Michigan "Ann Arbor, Michigan"), and from the [University of Michigan Law School](/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School "University of Michigan Law School") in 1924\. He was admitted to the bar in 1924\. He served as commissioner of insolvents for the State of Ohio, and prosecuting attorney of [Erie County, Ohio](/wiki/Erie_County%2C_Ohio "Erie County, Ohio"), from 1931 to 1937\.
He served as special counsel for the attorney general of Ohio and a lecturer for the School Police Administration at the [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University "Ohio State University") in [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio").
### Congress
Weichel was elected as a Republican to the [Seventy\-eighth](/wiki/78th_United_States_Congress "78th United States Congress") and to the five succeeding Congresses. He served as chairman of the [United States House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Merchant_Marine_and_Fisheries "United States House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries") during the [Eightieth](/wiki/80th_United_States_Congress "80th United States Congress") and [Eighty\-third](/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress "83rd United States Congress") Congresses. Weichel made national media attention when he claimed that the Soviet Union had failed to return lend\-leased ships. Weichel issued a subpoena for U.S. army General and then Secretary of State [George C Marshall](/wiki/George_C._Marshall "George C. Marshall") drawing criticism from many of his colleagues.{{Cite news \|title\=HOUSE CHIEF VOIDS WRIT FOR MARSHALL; Bradley Rebukes Weichel, Who Ordered It \-\- Soviet Ignores U.S. Notes on Ship Return GOP ROW IS CAUSED BY MARSHALL WRIT \|language\=en \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=http://timesmachine.nytimes.comhttp//timesmachine.content\-tagging.us\-east\-1\-01\.prd.dvsp.nyt.net/timesmachine/1947/02/28/87506948\.html?pageNumber\=1 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-30}} The subpoena was withdrawn after no evidence of Soviet reluctance was found.{{Cite news \|title\=ALVIN F. WEICHEL DEAD; Ohio Republican Served Six Terms in Congress \|language\=en \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=http://timesmachine.nytimes.comhttp//timesmachine.content\-tagging.us\-east\-1\-01\.prd.dvsp.nyt.net/timesmachine/1956/11/29/306199492\.html?pageNumber\=35 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-30}} He was not a candidate for renomination in [1954](/wiki/1954_United_States_House_election "1954 United States House election").
### Later career and death
He resumed the practice of law and died in Sandusky, Ohio, on November 27, 1956\. Interment in Calvary Cemetery.
|
[
"Life and politics\n-----------------",
"Weichel was born in [Sandusky, Ohio](/wiki/Sandusky%2C_Ohio \"Sandusky, Ohio\"), three of his grandparents were [German](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\") immigrants.\n{{citation \\|url\\= https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:MMZ3\\-8CG \\|title\\= United States Census, 1900 \\|website\\= \\[\\[FamilySearch]] \\|accessdate\\=March 21, 2018 }}",
"### World War I",
"During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), he enlisted on December 14, 1917, and assigned to Company P, Ordnance Training Camp, and later to Headquarters Supply Company at [Camp Hancock, Georgia](/wiki/Camp_Hancock%2C_Georgia \"Camp Hancock, Georgia\"), and was discharged a sergeant on January 31, 1919\\. He was appointed second lieutenant, Ordnance Section, Officers' Reserve Corps, December 10, 1918, and commission terminated December 8, 1928\\.",
"### Legal career",
"He was graduated from [Ferris Institute](/wiki/Ferris_Institute \"Ferris Institute\") in [Big Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Big_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Big Rapids, Michigan\"), from the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\") at [Ann Arbor](/wiki/Ann_Arbor%2C_Michigan \"Ann Arbor, Michigan\"), and from the [University of Michigan Law School](/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School \"University of Michigan Law School\") in 1924\\. He was admitted to the bar in 1924\\. He served as commissioner of insolvents for the State of Ohio, and prosecuting attorney of [Erie County, Ohio](/wiki/Erie_County%2C_Ohio \"Erie County, Ohio\"), from 1931 to 1937\\.",
"He served as special counsel for the attorney general of Ohio and a lecturer for the School Police Administration at the [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University \"Ohio State University\") in [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\").",
"### Congress",
"Weichel was elected as a Republican to the [Seventy\\-eighth](/wiki/78th_United_States_Congress \"78th United States Congress\") and to the five succeeding Congresses. He served as chairman of the [United States House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Merchant_Marine_and_Fisheries \"United States House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries\") during the [Eightieth](/wiki/80th_United_States_Congress \"80th United States Congress\") and [Eighty\\-third](/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress \"83rd United States Congress\") Congresses. Weichel made national media attention when he claimed that the Soviet Union had failed to return lend\\-leased ships. Weichel issued a subpoena for U.S. army General and then Secretary of State [George C Marshall](/wiki/George_C._Marshall \"George C. Marshall\") drawing criticism from many of his colleagues.{{Cite news \\|title\\=HOUSE CHIEF VOIDS WRIT FOR MARSHALL; Bradley Rebukes Weichel, Who Ordered It \\-\\- Soviet Ignores U.S. Notes on Ship Return GOP ROW IS CAUSED BY MARSHALL WRIT \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=http://timesmachine.nytimes.comhttp//timesmachine.content\\-tagging.us\\-east\\-1\\-01\\.prd.dvsp.nyt.net/timesmachine/1947/02/28/87506948\\.html?pageNumber\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-30}} The subpoena was withdrawn after no evidence of Soviet reluctance was found.{{Cite news \\|title\\=ALVIN F. WEICHEL DEAD; Ohio Republican Served Six Terms in Congress \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=http://timesmachine.nytimes.comhttp//timesmachine.content\\-tagging.us\\-east\\-1\\-01\\.prd.dvsp.nyt.net/timesmachine/1956/11/29/306199492\\.html?pageNumber\\=35 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-30}} He was not a candidate for renomination in [1954](/wiki/1954_United_States_House_election \"1954 United States House election\").",
"### Later career and death",
"He resumed the practice of law and died in Sandusky, Ohio, on November 27, 1956\\. Interment in Calvary Cemetery.",
""
] |
History
-------
During the late years of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, many [Polish](/wiki/Polish_people "Polish people") [immigrants](/wiki/Immigrants "Immigrants") came to America seeking a better future and way of life. They brought with them their religion, as well as many customs and traditions. Many settled in Wilmington during this time, particularly on the West Side of Wilmington in the Hedgeville/Browntown area. They worked together and formed [St. Hedwig's Parish](/wiki/St._Hedwig%27s_Roman_Catholic_Church "St. Hedwig's Roman Catholic Church") in the late eighteen hundreds, with the supervision and guidance of Monsignor John S. Gulcz, who was born in Poznan, Poland, and arrived in Delaware in 1896 to serve the Polish community.
As time went on, the Polish population began to expand into the East Side of Wilmington, attracted by the shipbuilding and leather works industries. The immigrants faced the problem of not being able to send their children all the way across town to St. Hedwig's parish school.[St. Hedwig Church](http://sthedwigde.org/index.html) Faced with the problem of establishing a home and raising their children, they had little money. Most troubling of all, they could not worship in their native tongue. The immigrants requested Monsignor Gulcz to establish a new parish on the East Side of Wilmington where they could worship closer to their homes.
On November 8, 1912, Monsignor Gulcz obtained permission from Bishop [John James Joseph Monaghan](/wiki/John_James_Joseph_Monaghan "John James Joseph Monaghan") to build a new Polish parish on the East Side of Wilmington. In the time before the new church could be built, the Polish immigrants attended Mass and liturgical services in the basement of [St. Mary of the Immaculate Conception Church](/wiki/St._Mary_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_Church_%28Wilmington%2C_Delaware%29 "St. Mary of the Immaculate Conception Church (Wilmington, Delaware)") at 6th and Pine streets, which was consecrated by [St. John Neumann](/wiki/St._John_Neumann "St. John Neumann")."History of St.Stanislaus Kostka Church", 75th Anniversary Celebration of St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Wilmington, Delaware The new church was officially completed and consecrated, with the cornerstone laid on November 23, 1913\. Former parishioners and pictures indicated that the event attracted over 1200 people and stretched from the end of East 7th and Church Streets all the way to the railroad bridge adjacent to the Church. Searching through the history of the parish, there was no special grant of any large sum of money or donations made in order to build the Church. Money had to be collected in small increments and for the most part the parishioners built the church themselves with their own talents, time, and resources.
The first pastor, Rev. John Supinski, was appointed in October 1912, but only stayed about fifteen days. The church was originally called "Holy Spirit", but during Supinski's brief tenure it was renamed at the request of the parishioners "St. Stanislaus Kostka".[Lafort, Remigius. "The Diocese of Wilmington", *The Catholic Church in the United States of America*: Undertaken to Celebrate the Golden Jubilee of His Holiness, Pope Pius X. Volume 3: The Province of Baltimore and the Province of New York,(New York City: The Catholic Editing Company, 1914\), p.218](https://books.google.com/books?id=KL4YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA218) The parochial school was staffed by the [Felician Sisters](/wiki/Felician_Sisters "Felician Sisters"). It closed in 1972\. The parish, throughout its many years, was credited with inspiring many religious vocations.
The parish remained active for about ninety\-seven years and was an integral part of the Diocese of Wilmington. St. Stanislaus was instrumental in preserving many of the traditional Polish religious customs: [Corpus Christi](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_%28feast%29 "Corpus Christi (feast)"), the blessing of flowers on the [Feast of the Assumption](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Assumption "Feast of the Assumption"), [Gorzkie żale](/wiki/Gorzkie_%C5%BCale "Gorzkie żale"), the blessing of food at Easter ([Swieconka](/wiki/Swieconka "Swieconka")), and many others. The parish organized many fund\-raising events, had weekly bingo games for many years, [Polka](/wiki/Polka "Polka") dances, food festivals, and established internal Catholic societies for religious devotions including the Holy Rosary and Holy Name Societies. Mayor John E. Babiarz Sr., a lifelong parishioner, went on to become Wilmington's [mayor](/wiki/Mayor "Mayor") in 1960s.
Eventually many of the parishioners migrated to the suburbs. Due to the reduced number of parishioners and a decline in the number of available priests, the parish of St. Stanislaus Kostka closed on February 15, 2009\. A final closing Mass was celebrated by Bishop [Michael Angelo Saltarelli](/wiki/Michael_Angelo_Saltarelli "Michael Angelo Saltarelli"). More than 500 people attended, including many former parishioners and school students.
A list of the past Pastors (Priests) of St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, in chronological order:
* John Supinski
* Szymon Nawrocki
* Anthoni C. Oleksinski{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=p9sGAwAAQBAJ\&q\=St.\+Stanislaus\+Kostka\+Church\+(Wilmington,\+Delaware)\|title\=The Diocese of Wilmington\|last\=Parks\|first\=Jim\|date\=2001\-08\-01\|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing\|isbn\=9781439612163\|language\=en}}
* Sylvester Hosinski
* Stanley Delikat
* Alex Gorski
* Francis Szperka
* Edward Kaczorowski
|
[
"History\n-------",
"During the late years of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, many [Polish](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\") [immigrants](/wiki/Immigrants \"Immigrants\") came to America seeking a better future and way of life. They brought with them their religion, as well as many customs and traditions. Many settled in Wilmington during this time, particularly on the West Side of Wilmington in the Hedgeville/Browntown area. They worked together and formed [St. Hedwig's Parish](/wiki/St._Hedwig%27s_Roman_Catholic_Church \"St. Hedwig's Roman Catholic Church\") in the late eighteen hundreds, with the supervision and guidance of Monsignor John S. Gulcz, who was born in Poznan, Poland, and arrived in Delaware in 1896 to serve the Polish community.",
"As time went on, the Polish population began to expand into the East Side of Wilmington, attracted by the shipbuilding and leather works industries. The immigrants faced the problem of not being able to send their children all the way across town to St. Hedwig's parish school.[St. Hedwig Church](http://sthedwigde.org/index.html) Faced with the problem of establishing a home and raising their children, they had little money. Most troubling of all, they could not worship in their native tongue. The immigrants requested Monsignor Gulcz to establish a new parish on the East Side of Wilmington where they could worship closer to their homes.",
"On November 8, 1912, Monsignor Gulcz obtained permission from Bishop [John James Joseph Monaghan](/wiki/John_James_Joseph_Monaghan \"John James Joseph Monaghan\") to build a new Polish parish on the East Side of Wilmington. In the time before the new church could be built, the Polish immigrants attended Mass and liturgical services in the basement of [St. Mary of the Immaculate Conception Church](/wiki/St._Mary_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_Church_%28Wilmington%2C_Delaware%29 \"St. Mary of the Immaculate Conception Church (Wilmington, Delaware)\") at 6th and Pine streets, which was consecrated by [St. John Neumann](/wiki/St._John_Neumann \"St. John Neumann\").\"History of St.Stanislaus Kostka Church\", 75th Anniversary Celebration of St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Wilmington, Delaware The new church was officially completed and consecrated, with the cornerstone laid on November 23, 1913\\. Former parishioners and pictures indicated that the event attracted over 1200 people and stretched from the end of East 7th and Church Streets all the way to the railroad bridge adjacent to the Church. Searching through the history of the parish, there was no special grant of any large sum of money or donations made in order to build the Church. Money had to be collected in small increments and for the most part the parishioners built the church themselves with their own talents, time, and resources.",
"The first pastor, Rev. John Supinski, was appointed in October 1912, but only stayed about fifteen days. The church was originally called \"Holy Spirit\", but during Supinski's brief tenure it was renamed at the request of the parishioners \"St. Stanislaus Kostka\".[Lafort, Remigius. \"The Diocese of Wilmington\", *The Catholic Church in the United States of America*: Undertaken to Celebrate the Golden Jubilee of His Holiness, Pope Pius X. Volume 3: The Province of Baltimore and the Province of New York,(New York City: The Catholic Editing Company, 1914\\), p.218](https://books.google.com/books?id=KL4YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA218) The parochial school was staffed by the [Felician Sisters](/wiki/Felician_Sisters \"Felician Sisters\"). It closed in 1972\\. The parish, throughout its many years, was credited with inspiring many religious vocations.",
"The parish remained active for about ninety\\-seven years and was an integral part of the Diocese of Wilmington. St. Stanislaus was instrumental in preserving many of the traditional Polish religious customs: [Corpus Christi](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_%28feast%29 \"Corpus Christi (feast)\"), the blessing of flowers on the [Feast of the Assumption](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Assumption \"Feast of the Assumption\"), [Gorzkie żale](/wiki/Gorzkie_%C5%BCale \"Gorzkie żale\"), the blessing of food at Easter ([Swieconka](/wiki/Swieconka \"Swieconka\")), and many others. The parish organized many fund\\-raising events, had weekly bingo games for many years, [Polka](/wiki/Polka \"Polka\") dances, food festivals, and established internal Catholic societies for religious devotions including the Holy Rosary and Holy Name Societies. Mayor John E. Babiarz Sr., a lifelong parishioner, went on to become Wilmington's [mayor](/wiki/Mayor \"Mayor\") in 1960s.",
"Eventually many of the parishioners migrated to the suburbs. Due to the reduced number of parishioners and a decline in the number of available priests, the parish of St. Stanislaus Kostka closed on February 15, 2009\\. A final closing Mass was celebrated by Bishop [Michael Angelo Saltarelli](/wiki/Michael_Angelo_Saltarelli \"Michael Angelo Saltarelli\"). More than 500 people attended, including many former parishioners and school students.",
"A list of the past Pastors (Priests) of St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, in chronological order:\n* John Supinski\n* Szymon Nawrocki\n* Anthoni C. Oleksinski{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=p9sGAwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=St.\\+Stanislaus\\+Kostka\\+Church\\+(Wilmington,\\+Delaware)\\|title\\=The Diocese of Wilmington\\|last\\=Parks\\|first\\=Jim\\|date\\=2001\\-08\\-01\\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing\\|isbn\\=9781439612163\\|language\\=en}}\n* Sylvester Hosinski\n* Stanley Delikat\n* Alex Gorski\n* Francis Szperka\n* Edward Kaczorowski",
""
] |
Middle Ages
-----------
In the late 7th century most of Crimea fell to the Khazars. In the 12th century, Rabbi [Yehuda haLevi](/wiki/Judah_Halevi "Judah Halevi") wrote a philosophical work known as the *[Kuzari](/wiki/Kuzari "Kuzari")*, in which he placed a learned Jew in a long discussion with the Khazar king, who was searching for the religion he would take up. According to *Kuzari* and certain other written sources, some or all of his people followed him into Judaism. In the 20th century, a Jewish writer by the name of [Arthur Koestler](/wiki/Arthur_Koestler "Arthur Koestler") suggested that [Ashkenazi Jews descended from this episode](/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry"). Since then, this theory has reemerged, including by antisemites who seek to deny continuity between ancient Jews with modern Jewish populations.
In 2013, Professor [Shaul Stampfer](/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer "Shaul Stampfer") of the history department of the [Hebrew University of Jerusalem](/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem "Hebrew University of Jerusalem"), argued that Kuzari was never intended to be a true description of the events but merely an allegory using the supposed discussion to explain Jewish philosophy. According to Stampfer, there are no Jewish graveyards, buildings, writings or references in the writings of others to suggest that there was ever any significant Jewish community among the Khazars or their leadership.{{cite journal \|id\={{Project MUSE\|547127}} \|last1\=Stampfer \|first1\=Shaul \|title\=Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism? \|journal\=Jewish Social Studies \|date\=2013 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=1–72 \|doi\=10\.2979/jewisocistud.19\.3\.1 \|s2cid\=161320785 }} However, Stampfer's assessment regarding a lack of writings is contradicted by numerous other scholars who have cited wide\-ranging medieval documents, some written contemporaneous with Khazaria's existence, beginning in the 860s, that claimed that the conversion was widespread, whether among the ruling classes or the population at large.{{cite journal \|last\=Pritsak \|first\=Omeljan \|title\=The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism \|journal\=Harvard Ukrainian Studies \|date\=September 1978 \|volume\=3 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=261–281}}{{cite journal \|last\=Golden \|first\=Peter B. \|title\=Khazaria and Judaism \|journal\=Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi \|date\=1983 \|volume\=3 \|pages\=127–156}}{{cite book \|last\=Shapira \|first\=Dan \|date\=2008 \|title\=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|volume\=3 \|chapter\=Jews in Khazaria \|pages\=1097–1104 \|isbn\=978\-1851098736}}{{cite book \|last\=Brook \|first\=Kevin A. \|date\=2018 \|title\=The Jews of Khazaria \|edition\=3rd \|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield Publishers \|chapter\=Chapter 6: The Khazars' Conversion to Judaism \|isbn\=978\-1\-5381\-0342\-5}}
During the period of Khazar rule, some degree of intermarriage between Crimean Jews and Khazars could have occurred, but suggestions that the Krymchaks absorbed numerous Khazar refugees during the decline and fall of the Khazar kingdom (or during the Khazar [successor state](/wiki/Successor_state "Successor state"), ruled by [Georgius Tzul](/wiki/Georgius_Tzul "Georgius Tzul"), centered in [Kerch](/wiki/Kerch "Kerch")), seem to be fanciful. It is known that [Kipchak](/wiki/Kipchak_people "Kipchak people") converts to Judaism existed,{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2010}} and it is possible that from these converts the Krymchaks adopted their distinctive language.
In times when the Crimea belonged to the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") and after then, waves of [Byzantine Jews](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire "History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire") settled there. These newcomers were in most cases merchants from Constantinople and brought with them Romaniote Jewish practices (Bonfil 2011\).
The [Mongol](/wiki/Mongol "Mongol") conquerors of the [Pontic–Caspian steppe](/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe "Pontic–Caspian steppe") were promoters of religious freedom, and the [Genoese](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa") occupation of southern Crimea (1315–1475\) saw rising degrees of Jewish settlement in the region. The Jewish community was divided among those who prayed according to the [Sephardi](/wiki/Sephardi_Jews "Sephardi Jews"), Ashkenazi and [Romaniote](/wiki/Romaniotes "Romaniotes") rites. In 1515 the different traditions were united into a distinctive Krymchak prayer book, which represented the Romaniote riteBernstein, S. "S. K. Mirsky Memorial Volume" pp. 451–538\. 1970Glazer, S. M. Piyyut and Pesah: Poetry and Passover, p. 11, 2013 by Rabbi Moshe Ha\-Golah, a [Chief Rabbi](/wiki/Chief_Rabbi "Chief Rabbi") of [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev "Kiev"), who had settled in Crimea.Ueber das Maḥsor nach Ritus Kaffa. Isaac Markon, 1909\.
In the 18th century the community was headed by David Ben Eliezer Lehno (d. 1735\), author of the introduction to the "Kaffa" rite prayer book and *Mishkan David* ("Abode of David"), devoted to Hebrew grammar. He was also the author of a monumental Hebrew historical chronicle, *Devar sefataim* ("Utterance the mouth"), on the history of the Crimean Khanate.
|
[
"Middle Ages\n-----------",
"In the late 7th century most of Crimea fell to the Khazars. In the 12th century, Rabbi [Yehuda haLevi](/wiki/Judah_Halevi \"Judah Halevi\") wrote a philosophical work known as the *[Kuzari](/wiki/Kuzari \"Kuzari\")*, in which he placed a learned Jew in a long discussion with the Khazar king, who was searching for the religion he would take up. According to *Kuzari* and certain other written sources, some or all of his people followed him into Judaism. In the 20th century, a Jewish writer by the name of [Arthur Koestler](/wiki/Arthur_Koestler \"Arthur Koestler\") suggested that [Ashkenazi Jews descended from this episode](/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry \"Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry\"). Since then, this theory has reemerged, including by antisemites who seek to deny continuity between ancient Jews with modern Jewish populations.",
"In 2013, Professor [Shaul Stampfer](/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer \"Shaul Stampfer\") of the history department of the [Hebrew University of Jerusalem](/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem \"Hebrew University of Jerusalem\"), argued that Kuzari was never intended to be a true description of the events but merely an allegory using the supposed discussion to explain Jewish philosophy. According to Stampfer, there are no Jewish graveyards, buildings, writings or references in the writings of others to suggest that there was ever any significant Jewish community among the Khazars or their leadership.{{cite journal \\|id\\={{Project MUSE\\|547127}} \\|last1\\=Stampfer \\|first1\\=Shaul \\|title\\=Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism? \\|journal\\=Jewish Social Studies \\|date\\=2013 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=1–72 \\|doi\\=10\\.2979/jewisocistud.19\\.3\\.1 \\|s2cid\\=161320785 }} However, Stampfer's assessment regarding a lack of writings is contradicted by numerous other scholars who have cited wide\\-ranging medieval documents, some written contemporaneous with Khazaria's existence, beginning in the 860s, that claimed that the conversion was widespread, whether among the ruling classes or the population at large.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Pritsak \\|first\\=Omeljan \\|title\\=The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism \\|journal\\=Harvard Ukrainian Studies \\|date\\=September 1978 \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=261–281}}{{cite journal \\|last\\=Golden \\|first\\=Peter B. \\|title\\=Khazaria and Judaism \\|journal\\=Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi \\|date\\=1983 \\|volume\\=3 \\|pages\\=127–156}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Shapira \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=2008 \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|volume\\=3 \\|chapter\\=Jews in Khazaria \\|pages\\=1097–1104 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1851098736}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Brook \\|first\\=Kevin A. \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=The Jews of Khazaria \\|edition\\=3rd \\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield Publishers \\|chapter\\=Chapter 6: The Khazars' Conversion to Judaism \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5381\\-0342\\-5}}",
"During the period of Khazar rule, some degree of intermarriage between Crimean Jews and Khazars could have occurred, but suggestions that the Krymchaks absorbed numerous Khazar refugees during the decline and fall of the Khazar kingdom (or during the Khazar [successor state](/wiki/Successor_state \"Successor state\"), ruled by [Georgius Tzul](/wiki/Georgius_Tzul \"Georgius Tzul\"), centered in [Kerch](/wiki/Kerch \"Kerch\")), seem to be fanciful. It is known that [Kipchak](/wiki/Kipchak_people \"Kipchak people\") converts to Judaism existed,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2010}} and it is possible that from these converts the Krymchaks adopted their distinctive language.",
"In times when the Crimea belonged to the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") and after then, waves of [Byzantine Jews](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire \"History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire\") settled there. These newcomers were in most cases merchants from Constantinople and brought with them Romaniote Jewish practices (Bonfil 2011\\).",
"The [Mongol](/wiki/Mongol \"Mongol\") conquerors of the [Pontic–Caspian steppe](/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe \"Pontic–Caspian steppe\") were promoters of religious freedom, and the [Genoese](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\") occupation of southern Crimea (1315–1475\\) saw rising degrees of Jewish settlement in the region. The Jewish community was divided among those who prayed according to the [Sephardi](/wiki/Sephardi_Jews \"Sephardi Jews\"), Ashkenazi and [Romaniote](/wiki/Romaniotes \"Romaniotes\") rites. In 1515 the different traditions were united into a distinctive Krymchak prayer book, which represented the Romaniote riteBernstein, S. \"S. K. Mirsky Memorial Volume\" pp. 451–538\\. 1970Glazer, S. M. Piyyut and Pesah: Poetry and Passover, p. 11, 2013 by Rabbi Moshe Ha\\-Golah, a [Chief Rabbi](/wiki/Chief_Rabbi \"Chief Rabbi\") of [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev \"Kiev\"), who had settled in Crimea.Ueber das Maḥsor nach Ritus Kaffa. Isaac Markon, 1909\\.",
"In the 18th century the community was headed by David Ben Eliezer Lehno (d. 1735\\), author of the introduction to the \"Kaffa\" rite prayer book and *Mishkan David* (\"Abode of David\"), devoted to Hebrew grammar. He was also the author of a monumental Hebrew historical chronicle, *Devar sefataim* (\"Utterance the mouth\"), on the history of the Crimean Khanate.",
""
] |
France
------
### Early days
The early history of the telecommunications switching [network in France](/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France "Telecommunications in France") is, unusually for this country, one of decentralized development. Early telephone exchanges were installed by local communities, often by private companies, and only later taken over by the French government. As a result, by 1930, France was served by almost 25,000 local exchanges, but almost half of these had fewer than five subscribers. Additionally, telephones were not considered important for residential customers (nor for small businesses), so France had a low penetration rate of telephone subscribers.
Under these conditions, early network development revolved around two major distinctions, "Paris" and "not Paris." Within metropolitan Paris, automated step\-by\-step (Strowger) switches appeared, with a level of tandem switching, before World War II. In the rest of the country, automation was confined to major cities, with a high level of manual intervention.
The French telephone system was heavily damaged in World War II, so that by the end of the War only about 140 automatic exchanges (mostly in Paris and its "banlieues") and 228 manual exchanges were fully operational. Repair of much of the network had been deferred during the war due to lack of parts, as well as co\-opting of technical personnel for German military needs.
### Postwar recovery
Recovery was rapid after the war, and the extensive damage in some ways helped the modernization of the system as new technology was introduced. The DGT (Direction Générale des Télécommunications) introduced automated operator dialing of long\-distance connections, generally using the [INSEE](/wiki/INSEE "INSEE") codes as "area codes" for the various departments \- with special handling for Paris. These codes subsequently became public as customer dialing of long\-distance calls began to be introduced in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
The network had a minimal hierarchy, with most connections routed into a central tandem in each department, and from there to Paris. As greater installation of private telephones, for both small business and private residences, increased in the 1970s, direct connections among the tandems in adjacent regions were installed, and a three\-level tier of switches, local, tandem, and regional interconnection was implemented, with final routing through Paris. Also, during the 1970s and 1980s, the smaller rural switches were replaced and combined with nearby automated offices, and a closed numbering scheme was adopted for dialing consistency.
### Technological development
In common with most countries, the development of technology allowed for different networking, and the maintenance of a formal hierarchy disappeared into a distributed network. By the mid\-1990s, a revised structure had appeared, reflected by the replacement of the old departmental area codes by the assignment of regional codes and a major renumbering scheme for strategic planning, privatization, and deregulation under the auspices of ART, the {{lang\|fr\|\[\[Autorité de Régulation des Communications Électroniques, des Postes et de la Distribution de la Presse]]}} (Regulatory Authority for Telecommunications \- known since 2005 as ARCEP, as responsibility for postal services was added and later expanded in 2019 to print media distribution). After 1996, the country prepared for complete deregulation of the telephone network.
Thus, the local exchanges ({{lang\|fr\|zones à autonomie d'acheminement}}) are connected somewhat differently by various carriers. However, the largest of these, based upon the (partially) privatised former government network, is a two\-level long\-distance hierarchy, based on 80 CTS (centre de transit secondaire) and 8 CTP (centre de transit primaire) locations. In addition, there are 12 CTI (centre de transit internationaux) for connections to areas which are not integrated into the French telephone network \[note that some overseas locations are considered "domestic" for telecommunications purposes].
|
[
"France\n------",
"### Early days",
"The early history of the telecommunications switching [network in France](/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France \"Telecommunications in France\") is, unusually for this country, one of decentralized development. Early telephone exchanges were installed by local communities, often by private companies, and only later taken over by the French government. As a result, by 1930, France was served by almost 25,000 local exchanges, but almost half of these had fewer than five subscribers. Additionally, telephones were not considered important for residential customers (nor for small businesses), so France had a low penetration rate of telephone subscribers.",
"Under these conditions, early network development revolved around two major distinctions, \"Paris\" and \"not Paris.\" Within metropolitan Paris, automated step\\-by\\-step (Strowger) switches appeared, with a level of tandem switching, before World War II. In the rest of the country, automation was confined to major cities, with a high level of manual intervention.",
"The French telephone system was heavily damaged in World War II, so that by the end of the War only about 140 automatic exchanges (mostly in Paris and its \"banlieues\") and 228 manual exchanges were fully operational. Repair of much of the network had been deferred during the war due to lack of parts, as well as co\\-opting of technical personnel for German military needs.",
"### Postwar recovery",
"Recovery was rapid after the war, and the extensive damage in some ways helped the modernization of the system as new technology was introduced. The DGT (Direction Générale des Télécommunications) introduced automated operator dialing of long\\-distance connections, generally using the [INSEE](/wiki/INSEE \"INSEE\") codes as \"area codes\" for the various departments \\- with special handling for Paris. These codes subsequently became public as customer dialing of long\\-distance calls began to be introduced in the late 1960s and early 1970s.",
"The network had a minimal hierarchy, with most connections routed into a central tandem in each department, and from there to Paris. As greater installation of private telephones, for both small business and private residences, increased in the 1970s, direct connections among the tandems in adjacent regions were installed, and a three\\-level tier of switches, local, tandem, and regional interconnection was implemented, with final routing through Paris. Also, during the 1970s and 1980s, the smaller rural switches were replaced and combined with nearby automated offices, and a closed numbering scheme was adopted for dialing consistency.",
"### Technological development",
"In common with most countries, the development of technology allowed for different networking, and the maintenance of a formal hierarchy disappeared into a distributed network. By the mid\\-1990s, a revised structure had appeared, reflected by the replacement of the old departmental area codes by the assignment of regional codes and a major renumbering scheme for strategic planning, privatization, and deregulation under the auspices of ART, the {{lang\\|fr\\|\\[\\[Autorité de Régulation des Communications Électroniques, des Postes et de la Distribution de la Presse]]}} (Regulatory Authority for Telecommunications \\- known since 2005 as ARCEP, as responsibility for postal services was added and later expanded in 2019 to print media distribution). After 1996, the country prepared for complete deregulation of the telephone network.",
"Thus, the local exchanges ({{lang\\|fr\\|zones à autonomie d'acheminement}}) are connected somewhat differently by various carriers. However, the largest of these, based upon the (partially) privatised former government network, is a two\\-level long\\-distance hierarchy, based on 80 CTS (centre de transit secondaire) and 8 CTP (centre de transit primaire) locations. In addition, there are 12 CTI (centre de transit internationaux) for connections to areas which are not integrated into the French telephone network \\[note that some overseas locations are considered \"domestic\" for telecommunications purposes].",
""
] |
Organisation
------------
[thumb\|right\|200px\|380X Defender of the ABDF Coast Guard during the "Tradewinds 2013" joint training\-exercise](/wiki/File:A_Royal_Antigua_and_Barbuda_Defense_Force_Coast_Guard_380X_Defender_All-Weather_Interceptor_high-speed_boat_breeches_the_wake_of_another_vessel_May_24%2C_2013%2C_during_the_maritime_operations_phase_of_Tradewinds_130524-N-HP195-034.jpg "A Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force Coast Guard 380X Defender All-Weather Interceptor high-speed boat breeches the wake of another vessel May 24, 2013, during the maritime operations phase of Tradewinds 130524-N-HP195-034.jpg")
The ABDF consists of five major units:
* [Regiment](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Regiment "Antigua and Barbuda Regiment") – comprises four line companies and is the [infantry unit](/wiki/Infantry "Infantry") and fighting arm of the defence force.
* Service and Support Unit – provides administrative, logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force.
* [Coast Guard](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Coast_Guard "Antigua and Barbuda Coast Guard") – the maritime element of the defence force, and is divided into four units:
+ Commanding Officer's Office
+ Engineer Unit
+ Administration Unit
+ Flotilla – the flotilla is the operational part of the Coast Guard, and consists of the following water\-craft:
- 1 [Swiftships Shipbuilders](/wiki/Swiftships_Shipbuilders "Swiftships Shipbuilders") 19\.81\-metre Commercial Cruiser\-class [patrol boat](/wiki/Patrol_boat "Patrol boat") (P\-01 *Liberta*), in service since 1984{{cite book\|last\=Wertheim\|first\=Eric\|title\=The Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft, and Systems\|publisher\=Naval Institute Press\|location\=Annapolis, MD\|date\=2007\|pages\=6\|isbn\=9781591149552\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TJunjRvplU4C\|access\-date\=18 March 2014}}
- 1 [SeaArk Boats](/wiki/SeaArk_Boats "SeaArk Boats") Dauntless\-class patrol boat (P\-02 *Palmetto*), in service since 1995
- 1 [Point\-class cutter](/wiki/Point-class_cutter "Point-class cutter") ([P\-03 *Hermitage*](/wiki/USCGC_Point_Steele_%28WPB-82359%29 "USCGC Point Steele (WPB-82359)")), transferred from the [U.S. Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard "United States Coast Guard") in 1998
- 1 [Defender 380X\-class all\-weather interceptor](/wiki/Defender-class_boat "Defender-class boat") (D\-8\), date of acquisition unknown{{cite web\|url\=http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html?\&guid\=a662ab12031f1d873d887e597b772ed110f362f1\|title\=130524\-N\-HP195\-034\|last\=Okula\|first\=Christopher\|date\=30 May 2013\|publisher\=DefenseImagery.mil\|access\-date\=18 March 2014}}
- 2 [Boston Whaler](/wiki/Boston_Whaler "Boston Whaler") 8\.23\-metre [launches](/wiki/Launch_%28boat%29 "Launch (boat)") (071 and 072\), in service since 1988
- 1 [Zodiac Marine \& Pool](/wiki/Zodiac_Marine_%26_Pool "Zodiac Marine & Pool") 8\.23\-metre Hurricane\-type [rigid\-hulled inflatable boat](/wiki/Rigid-hulled_inflatable_boat "Rigid-hulled inflatable boat") in service since 1998
* [Air Wing](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Defence_Force_Air_Wing "Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Air Wing")
* [Cadet Corps](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Cadet_Corps "Antigua and Barbuda Cadet Corps")
### Defence Board
The Defence Board is in charge of overseeing the leadership, management, and discipline of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force as well as all other matters pertaining to it. The Defence Board has the authority to govern its work, how it will carry out its duties, and the responsibilities of its members. It can also assign any member of the Board any authority or duty, by publishing a notice in the Official Gazette; consult with non\-members as appropriate, including officers commanding units of the Force, regarding matters pertaining to their units; and the officers are required to attend the meetings as the Board requests; decide on the protocol to be followed in conducting its business; and provide for any other matter that it deems necessary or desirable for achieving the better performance of its functions.{{Cite book \|url\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\-10\.pdf \|title\=Defence Act \|pages\=8–9}} {{PD\-notice}}
### Officers
A person cannot be appointed to the force unless they have received a recommendation from a board, known as the Commissions Board in the Defence Act. This board is made up of the chairman, who is appointed by the Chief of Defence Staff; the Chairman of the Public Service Commission, or in his absence, the Vice Chairman of the Public Service Commission; and an individual appointed by the Defence Board for a duration determined by the Board. His Majesty has the authority to appoint people to the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, and the Governor\-General may act in that capacity. A commission may be awarded for a predetermined amount of time or for an unlimited amount of time.{{Cite book \|url\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\-10\.pdf \|title\=Defence Act \|pages\=9–10}} {{PD\-notice}}
### Reserve forces
There are two classes in the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Reserve. The soldiers enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\-engaged in accordance with this Part for service in that class; the Reserve soldiers of the second class who have, upon written application to the appropriate military authority, been accepted by that authority for service in the first class; and the soldiers transferred to the first class in accordance with section 31 of the Defence Act comprise the first class. The soldiers who are members of the second class by virtue of Part IV of the Defence Act, the officers who are appointed or transferred to that class, and the soldiers who are enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\-engaged in accordance with Part IX of the Defence Act for service in that class are all included in the second class.{{Cite book \|url\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\-10\.pdf \|title\=Defence Act \|pages\=109–116}} {{PD\-notice}}
Each officer and soldier in the first class of the Reserve is required to report for duty at the location and for the duration determined by the Defence Board. They are also required to meet all training\-related requirements. Subject to any general directives from the Defence Board, the requirements of the related section may be disregarded in whole or in part with regard to any unit of the first class of the Reserve, as well as with regard to any individual officer or soldier of the first class of the Reserve, by his commanding officer. Nothing stops a Reserve officer or soldier from participating in optional training in addition to any mandated training.
The first class of the Reserve, or as many officers and soldiers of that class as the Board deems necessary, may be called out on temporary duty by the Defence Board when needed. Under section 203, officers and soldiers who are called out for duty are not required to serve for more than ninety days at a time. Because the worker is a Reserve member who is called out in accordance with the section, no employer may fire or give notice of termination to any worker. When an employer violates, they are guilty of a crime and face a maximum fine of $5,000, a maximum sentence of two (2\) years in jail, or both. This applies even in cases of summary conviction.
The Governor\-General may, on the advice of the Prime Minister, by proclamation order that the Reserve, or any class thereof, be called out on permanent service in the event of a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency; the Defence Board will then take appropriate action. When called out on permanent duty, every Reserve officer and soldier is eligible to stay on permanent duty until told otherwise. Every officer and soldier belonging to such a class, as the case may be, to the part of any class so called out, shall attend in person at the designated location whenever the whole or any part of the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary or permanent service; or whenever the whole or any part of the second class of the Reserve is called out on permanent service. The Defence Board shall cause every officer or soldier subject to such call\-out to be served with a notice requiring him to attend at the time and place specified in the notice in the event that the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary service or the Reserve is called out on permanent service.
An officer of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force may file a summarily complaint against a person who willfully takes away pawns, wrongfully destroys or damages, carelessly loses anything issued to him as an officer or soldier of the Reserve, or willfully refuses or fails to deliver up anything issued to him as an officer or soldier as a debt owed to the Crown. This applies even if the amount exceeds the normal monetary limit on a magistrate's jurisdiction.
A Reserve soldier may be released at any point during the duration of their service in the Reserve by the appropriate military authority under the prescribed conditions.
|
[
"Organisation\n------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|380X Defender of the ABDF Coast Guard during the \"Tradewinds 2013\" joint training\\-exercise](/wiki/File:A_Royal_Antigua_and_Barbuda_Defense_Force_Coast_Guard_380X_Defender_All-Weather_Interceptor_high-speed_boat_breeches_the_wake_of_another_vessel_May_24%2C_2013%2C_during_the_maritime_operations_phase_of_Tradewinds_130524-N-HP195-034.jpg \"A Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force Coast Guard 380X Defender All-Weather Interceptor high-speed boat breeches the wake of another vessel May 24, 2013, during the maritime operations phase of Tradewinds 130524-N-HP195-034.jpg\")\nThe ABDF consists of five major units:\n* [Regiment](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Regiment \"Antigua and Barbuda Regiment\") – comprises four line companies and is the [infantry unit](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\") and fighting arm of the defence force.\n* Service and Support Unit – provides administrative, logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force.\n* [Coast Guard](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Coast_Guard \"Antigua and Barbuda Coast Guard\") – the maritime element of the defence force, and is divided into four units:\n\t+ Commanding Officer's Office\n\t+ Engineer Unit\n\t+ Administration Unit\n\t+ Flotilla – the flotilla is the operational part of the Coast Guard, and consists of the following water\\-craft:\n\t\t- 1 [Swiftships Shipbuilders](/wiki/Swiftships_Shipbuilders \"Swiftships Shipbuilders\") 19\\.81\\-metre Commercial Cruiser\\-class [patrol boat](/wiki/Patrol_boat \"Patrol boat\") (P\\-01 *Liberta*), in service since 1984{{cite book\\|last\\=Wertheim\\|first\\=Eric\\|title\\=The Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft, and Systems\\|publisher\\=Naval Institute Press\\|location\\=Annapolis, MD\\|date\\=2007\\|pages\\=6\\|isbn\\=9781591149552\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TJunjRvplU4C\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2014}}\n\t\t- 1 [SeaArk Boats](/wiki/SeaArk_Boats \"SeaArk Boats\") Dauntless\\-class patrol boat (P\\-02 *Palmetto*), in service since 1995\n\t\t- 1 [Point\\-class cutter](/wiki/Point-class_cutter \"Point-class cutter\") ([P\\-03 *Hermitage*](/wiki/USCGC_Point_Steele_%28WPB-82359%29 \"USCGC Point Steele (WPB-82359)\")), transferred from the [U.S. Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard \"United States Coast Guard\") in 1998\n\t\t- 1 [Defender 380X\\-class all\\-weather interceptor](/wiki/Defender-class_boat \"Defender-class boat\") (D\\-8\\), date of acquisition unknown{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html?\\&guid\\=a662ab12031f1d873d887e597b772ed110f362f1\\|title\\=130524\\-N\\-HP195\\-034\\|last\\=Okula\\|first\\=Christopher\\|date\\=30 May 2013\\|publisher\\=DefenseImagery.mil\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2014}}\n\t\t- 2 [Boston Whaler](/wiki/Boston_Whaler \"Boston Whaler\") 8\\.23\\-metre [launches](/wiki/Launch_%28boat%29 \"Launch (boat)\") (071 and 072\\), in service since 1988\n\t\t- 1 [Zodiac Marine \\& Pool](/wiki/Zodiac_Marine_%26_Pool \"Zodiac Marine & Pool\") 8\\.23\\-metre Hurricane\\-type [rigid\\-hulled inflatable boat](/wiki/Rigid-hulled_inflatable_boat \"Rigid-hulled inflatable boat\") in service since 1998\n* [Air Wing](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Defence_Force_Air_Wing \"Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Air Wing\")\n* [Cadet Corps](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Cadet_Corps \"Antigua and Barbuda Cadet Corps\")",
"### Defence Board",
"The Defence Board is in charge of overseeing the leadership, management, and discipline of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force as well as all other matters pertaining to it. The Defence Board has the authority to govern its work, how it will carry out its duties, and the responsibilities of its members. It can also assign any member of the Board any authority or duty, by publishing a notice in the Official Gazette; consult with non\\-members as appropriate, including officers commanding units of the Force, regarding matters pertaining to their units; and the officers are required to attend the meetings as the Board requests; decide on the protocol to be followed in conducting its business; and provide for any other matter that it deems necessary or desirable for achieving the better performance of its functions.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\\-10\\.pdf \\|title\\=Defence Act \\|pages\\=8–9}} {{PD\\-notice}}",
"### Officers",
"A person cannot be appointed to the force unless they have received a recommendation from a board, known as the Commissions Board in the Defence Act. This board is made up of the chairman, who is appointed by the Chief of Defence Staff; the Chairman of the Public Service Commission, or in his absence, the Vice Chairman of the Public Service Commission; and an individual appointed by the Defence Board for a duration determined by the Board. His Majesty has the authority to appoint people to the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, and the Governor\\-General may act in that capacity. A commission may be awarded for a predetermined amount of time or for an unlimited amount of time.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\\-10\\.pdf \\|title\\=Defence Act \\|pages\\=9–10}} {{PD\\-notice}}",
"### Reserve forces",
"There are two classes in the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Reserve. The soldiers enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\\-engaged in accordance with this Part for service in that class; the Reserve soldiers of the second class who have, upon written application to the appropriate military authority, been accepted by that authority for service in the first class; and the soldiers transferred to the first class in accordance with section 31 of the Defence Act comprise the first class. The soldiers who are members of the second class by virtue of Part IV of the Defence Act, the officers who are appointed or transferred to that class, and the soldiers who are enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\\-engaged in accordance with Part IX of the Defence Act for service in that class are all included in the second class.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\\-10\\.pdf \\|title\\=Defence Act \\|pages\\=109–116}} {{PD\\-notice}}",
"Each officer and soldier in the first class of the Reserve is required to report for duty at the location and for the duration determined by the Defence Board. They are also required to meet all training\\-related requirements. Subject to any general directives from the Defence Board, the requirements of the related section may be disregarded in whole or in part with regard to any unit of the first class of the Reserve, as well as with regard to any individual officer or soldier of the first class of the Reserve, by his commanding officer. Nothing stops a Reserve officer or soldier from participating in optional training in addition to any mandated training.",
"The first class of the Reserve, or as many officers and soldiers of that class as the Board deems necessary, may be called out on temporary duty by the Defence Board when needed. Under section 203, officers and soldiers who are called out for duty are not required to serve for more than ninety days at a time. Because the worker is a Reserve member who is called out in accordance with the section, no employer may fire or give notice of termination to any worker. When an employer violates, they are guilty of a crime and face a maximum fine of $5,000, a maximum sentence of two (2\\) years in jail, or both. This applies even in cases of summary conviction.",
"The Governor\\-General may, on the advice of the Prime Minister, by proclamation order that the Reserve, or any class thereof, be called out on permanent service in the event of a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency; the Defence Board will then take appropriate action. When called out on permanent duty, every Reserve officer and soldier is eligible to stay on permanent duty until told otherwise. Every officer and soldier belonging to such a class, as the case may be, to the part of any class so called out, shall attend in person at the designated location whenever the whole or any part of the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary or permanent service; or whenever the whole or any part of the second class of the Reserve is called out on permanent service. The Defence Board shall cause every officer or soldier subject to such call\\-out to be served with a notice requiring him to attend at the time and place specified in the notice in the event that the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary service or the Reserve is called out on permanent service.",
"An officer of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force may file a summarily complaint against a person who willfully takes away pawns, wrongfully destroys or damages, carelessly loses anything issued to him as an officer or soldier of the Reserve, or willfully refuses or fails to deliver up anything issued to him as an officer or soldier as a debt owed to the Crown. This applies even if the amount exceeds the normal monetary limit on a magistrate's jurisdiction.",
"A Reserve soldier may be released at any point during the duration of their service in the Reserve by the appropriate military authority under the prescribed conditions.",
""
] |
### Reserve forces
There are two classes in the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Reserve. The soldiers enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\-engaged in accordance with this Part for service in that class; the Reserve soldiers of the second class who have, upon written application to the appropriate military authority, been accepted by that authority for service in the first class; and the soldiers transferred to the first class in accordance with section 31 of the Defence Act comprise the first class. The soldiers who are members of the second class by virtue of Part IV of the Defence Act, the officers who are appointed or transferred to that class, and the soldiers who are enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\-engaged in accordance with Part IX of the Defence Act for service in that class are all included in the second class.{{Cite book \|url\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\-10\.pdf \|title\=Defence Act \|pages\=109–116}} {{PD\-notice}}
Each officer and soldier in the first class of the Reserve is required to report for duty at the location and for the duration determined by the Defence Board. They are also required to meet all training\-related requirements. Subject to any general directives from the Defence Board, the requirements of the related section may be disregarded in whole or in part with regard to any unit of the first class of the Reserve, as well as with regard to any individual officer or soldier of the first class of the Reserve, by his commanding officer. Nothing stops a Reserve officer or soldier from participating in optional training in addition to any mandated training.
The first class of the Reserve, or as many officers and soldiers of that class as the Board deems necessary, may be called out on temporary duty by the Defence Board when needed. Under section 203, officers and soldiers who are called out for duty are not required to serve for more than ninety days at a time. Because the worker is a Reserve member who is called out in accordance with the section, no employer may fire or give notice of termination to any worker. When an employer violates, they are guilty of a crime and face a maximum fine of $5,000, a maximum sentence of two (2\) years in jail, or both. This applies even in cases of summary conviction.
The Governor\-General may, on the advice of the Prime Minister, by proclamation order that the Reserve, or any class thereof, be called out on permanent service in the event of a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency; the Defence Board will then take appropriate action. When called out on permanent duty, every Reserve officer and soldier is eligible to stay on permanent duty until told otherwise. Every officer and soldier belonging to such a class, as the case may be, to the part of any class so called out, shall attend in person at the designated location whenever the whole or any part of the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary or permanent service; or whenever the whole or any part of the second class of the Reserve is called out on permanent service. The Defence Board shall cause every officer or soldier subject to such call\-out to be served with a notice requiring him to attend at the time and place specified in the notice in the event that the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary service or the Reserve is called out on permanent service.
An officer of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force may file a summarily complaint against a person who willfully takes away pawns, wrongfully destroys or damages, carelessly loses anything issued to him as an officer or soldier of the Reserve, or willfully refuses or fails to deliver up anything issued to him as an officer or soldier as a debt owed to the Crown. This applies even if the amount exceeds the normal monetary limit on a magistrate's jurisdiction.
A Reserve soldier may be released at any point during the duration of their service in the Reserve by the appropriate military authority under the prescribed conditions.
|
[
"### Reserve forces",
"There are two classes in the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Reserve. The soldiers enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\\-engaged in accordance with this Part for service in that class; the Reserve soldiers of the second class who have, upon written application to the appropriate military authority, been accepted by that authority for service in the first class; and the soldiers transferred to the first class in accordance with section 31 of the Defence Act comprise the first class. The soldiers who are members of the second class by virtue of Part IV of the Defence Act, the officers who are appointed or transferred to that class, and the soldiers who are enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re\\-engaged in accordance with Part IX of the Defence Act for service in that class are all included in the second class.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://laws.gov.ag/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006\\-10\\.pdf \\|title\\=Defence Act \\|pages\\=109–116}} {{PD\\-notice}}",
"Each officer and soldier in the first class of the Reserve is required to report for duty at the location and for the duration determined by the Defence Board. They are also required to meet all training\\-related requirements. Subject to any general directives from the Defence Board, the requirements of the related section may be disregarded in whole or in part with regard to any unit of the first class of the Reserve, as well as with regard to any individual officer or soldier of the first class of the Reserve, by his commanding officer. Nothing stops a Reserve officer or soldier from participating in optional training in addition to any mandated training.",
"The first class of the Reserve, or as many officers and soldiers of that class as the Board deems necessary, may be called out on temporary duty by the Defence Board when needed. Under section 203, officers and soldiers who are called out for duty are not required to serve for more than ninety days at a time. Because the worker is a Reserve member who is called out in accordance with the section, no employer may fire or give notice of termination to any worker. When an employer violates, they are guilty of a crime and face a maximum fine of $5,000, a maximum sentence of two (2\\) years in jail, or both. This applies even in cases of summary conviction.",
"The Governor\\-General may, on the advice of the Prime Minister, by proclamation order that the Reserve, or any class thereof, be called out on permanent service in the event of a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency; the Defence Board will then take appropriate action. When called out on permanent duty, every Reserve officer and soldier is eligible to stay on permanent duty until told otherwise. Every officer and soldier belonging to such a class, as the case may be, to the part of any class so called out, shall attend in person at the designated location whenever the whole or any part of the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary or permanent service; or whenever the whole or any part of the second class of the Reserve is called out on permanent service. The Defence Board shall cause every officer or soldier subject to such call\\-out to be served with a notice requiring him to attend at the time and place specified in the notice in the event that the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary service or the Reserve is called out on permanent service.",
"An officer of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force may file a summarily complaint against a person who willfully takes away pawns, wrongfully destroys or damages, carelessly loses anything issued to him as an officer or soldier of the Reserve, or willfully refuses or fails to deliver up anything issued to him as an officer or soldier as a debt owed to the Crown. This applies even if the amount exceeds the normal monetary limit on a magistrate's jurisdiction.",
"A Reserve soldier may be released at any point during the duration of their service in the Reserve by the appropriate military authority under the prescribed conditions.",
""
] |
Design
------
[thumb\|General physical structure of a UAV](/wiki/File:UAV_Physical_and_hardware.jpg "UAV Physical and hardware.jpg")
Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the [cockpit](/wiki/Cockpit "Cockpit") and [environmental control system](/wiki/Environmental_control_system_%28aircraft%29 "Environmental control system (aircraft)") or [life support systems](/wiki/Life_support_system "Life support system"). Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.
Small civilian UAVs have no [life\-critical systems](/wiki/Life-critical_system "Life-critical system"), and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the [quadcopter](/wiki/Quadcopter "Quadcopter") design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less\-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.
Control systems for UAVs are often different from crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio\-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. [Autopilot](/wiki/Autopilot "Autopilot") software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.{{Cite web \|title\=Design, Simulation and New Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles \|url\=https://www.mdpi.com/topics/UAV \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=www.mdpi.com \|language\=en}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Nagel \|first1\=Huub \|last2\=Bondt \|first2\=Geert \|last3\=Custers \|first3\=Bart \|last4\=Vergouw \|first4\=Bas \|date\=16 July 2016 \|title\=Drone Technology: Types, Payloads, Applications, Frequency Spectrum Issues and Future Developments \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309184029 \|journal\=The Future of Drone Use}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=da Silva \|first1\=F.B \|last2\=Scott \|first2\=S.D \|last3\=Cummings \|first3\=M.L \|date\=December 2007 \|title\=Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination \|url\=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721\.1/46732/HAL2007\_05\.pdf \|journal\=Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination}}
### Aircraft configuration
UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally piloted modes. [Air safety](/wiki/Air_safety "Air safety") is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs.
For conventional flight the [flying wing](/wiki/Flying_wing "Flying wing") and [blended wing body](/wiki/Blended_wing_body "Blended wing body") offer light weight combined with low [drag](/wiki/Drag_%28aerodynamics%29 "Drag (aerodynamics)") and [stealth](/wiki/Stealth_aircraft "Stealth aircraft"), and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct [fuselage](/wiki/Fuselage "Fuselage") with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the [wing configurations](/wiki/Wing_configuration "Wing configuration") in use vary widely.
For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless [quadcopter](/wiki/Quadcopter "Quadcopter") requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. [Multirotor](/wiki/Multirotor "Multirotor") designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs, where redundancy is prioritized.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Torres\-Sánchez \|first1\=Jorge \|last2\=López\-Granados \|first2\=Francisca \|last3\=Castro \|first3\=Ana Isabel De \|last4\=Peña\-Barragán \|first4\=José Manuel \|date\=2013\-03\-06 \|title\=Configuration and Specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Early Site Specific Weed Management \|journal\=PLOS ONE \|language\=en \|volume\=8 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=e58210 \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0058210 \|issn\=1932\-6203 \|pmc\=3590160 \|pmid\=23483997\|bibcode\=2013PLoSO...858210T \|doi\-access\=free }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Torres\-Sánchez \|first1\=Jorge \|last2\=López\-Granados \|first2\=Francisca \|last3\=De Castro \|first3\=Ana Isabel \|last4\=Peña\-Barragán \|first4\=José Manuel \|date\=2013 \|title\=Configuration and specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for early site specific weed management \|journal\=PLOS ONE \|volume\=8 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=e58210 \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0058210 \|issn\=1932\-6203 \|pmc\=3590160 \|pmid\=23483997\|bibcode\=2013PLoSO...858210T \|doi\-access\=free }}
### Propulsion
Traditional [internal combustion](/wiki/Internal_combustion "Internal combustion") and [jet engines](/wiki/Jet_engine "Jet engine") remain in use for drones requiring long range. However, for shorter\-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/model\-airplane\-history\-maker\-maynard\-hill\-dies\-at\-the\-age\-of\-85/2011/06/08/AGcnyQNH\_story.html\|title\=Model airplane history\-maker Maynard Hill dies at the age of 85\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|access\-date\=17 May 2018\|archive\-date\=4 July 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704034821/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/model\-airplane\-history\-maker\-maynard\-hill\-dies\-at\-the\-age\-of\-85/2011/06/08/AGcnyQNH\_story.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Besides the traditional piston engine, the [Wankel rotary engine](/wiki/Wankel_rotary_engine "Wankel rotary engine") is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration\-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2021\|reason\=not cited elsewhere}}
Small drones mostly use [lithium\-polymer batteries](/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery "Lithium polymer battery") (Li\-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the [hydrogen fuel cell](/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell "Hydrogen fuel cell"). The energy density of modern Li\-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi\-engine, multi\-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, [battery elimination circuitry](/wiki/Battery_eliminator_circuit "Battery eliminator circuit") (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a [microcontroller unit](/wiki/Microcontroller "Microcontroller") (MCU).
### Ornithopters – wing propulsion
Flapping\-wing [ornithopters](/wiki/Ornithopter "Ornithopter"), imitating birds or insects, have been flown as [microUAVs](/wiki/Micro_air_vehicle "Micro air vehicle"). Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.
Sub\-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on vertical surfaces.{{Citation \|url\=https://micro.seas.harvard.edu/papers/BB14\_Chirarattananon.pdf \|title\=Adaptive control of a millimeter\-scale flapping\-wing robot \|date\=22 May 2014 \|last1\=Chirarattananon \|first1\=Pakpong \|first2\=Kevin Y \|last2\=Ma \|first3\=J \|last3\=Wood \|journal\=Bioinspiration \& Biomimetics \|doi\=10\.1088/1748\-3182/9/2/025004 \|pmid\=24855052 \|volume\=9 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=025004 \|bibcode\=2014BiBi....9b5004C \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416223803/http://micro.seas.harvard.edu/papers/BB14\_Chirarattananon.pdf \|archive\-date\=16 April 2016 \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.650\.3728 \|s2cid\=12799012 }} Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/29/giant\-remote\-controlled\-beetles\-could\-replace\-drones/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401144132/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/29/giant\-remote\-controlled\-beetles\-could\-replace\-drones/\|archive\-date\=1 April 2016\|title\=Giant remote\-controlled beetles and 'biobot' insects could replace drones\|author1\=Sarah Knapton \|date\=29 March 2016\|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph\|The Telegraph]]}}
|
[
"Design\n------",
"[thumb\\|General physical structure of a UAV](/wiki/File:UAV_Physical_and_hardware.jpg \"UAV Physical and hardware.jpg\")",
"Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the [cockpit](/wiki/Cockpit \"Cockpit\") and [environmental control system](/wiki/Environmental_control_system_%28aircraft%29 \"Environmental control system (aircraft)\") or [life support systems](/wiki/Life_support_system \"Life support system\"). Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.",
"Small civilian UAVs have no [life\\-critical systems](/wiki/Life-critical_system \"Life-critical system\"), and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the [quadcopter](/wiki/Quadcopter \"Quadcopter\") design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less\\-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.",
"Control systems for UAVs are often different from crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio\\-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. [Autopilot](/wiki/Autopilot \"Autopilot\") software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Design, Simulation and New Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles \\|url\\=https://www.mdpi.com/topics/UAV \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=www.mdpi.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Nagel \\|first1\\=Huub \\|last2\\=Bondt \\|first2\\=Geert \\|last3\\=Custers \\|first3\\=Bart \\|last4\\=Vergouw \\|first4\\=Bas \\|date\\=16 July 2016 \\|title\\=Drone Technology: Types, Payloads, Applications, Frequency Spectrum Issues and Future Developments \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309184029 \\|journal\\=The Future of Drone Use}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=da Silva \\|first1\\=F.B \\|last2\\=Scott \\|first2\\=S.D \\|last3\\=Cummings \\|first3\\=M.L \\|date\\=December 2007 \\|title\\=Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination \\|url\\=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721\\.1/46732/HAL2007\\_05\\.pdf \\|journal\\=Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination}}",
"### Aircraft configuration",
"UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally piloted modes. [Air safety](/wiki/Air_safety \"Air safety\") is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs.",
"For conventional flight the [flying wing](/wiki/Flying_wing \"Flying wing\") and [blended wing body](/wiki/Blended_wing_body \"Blended wing body\") offer light weight combined with low [drag](/wiki/Drag_%28aerodynamics%29 \"Drag (aerodynamics)\") and [stealth](/wiki/Stealth_aircraft \"Stealth aircraft\"), and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct [fuselage](/wiki/Fuselage \"Fuselage\") with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the [wing configurations](/wiki/Wing_configuration \"Wing configuration\") in use vary widely.",
"For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless [quadcopter](/wiki/Quadcopter \"Quadcopter\") requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. [Multirotor](/wiki/Multirotor \"Multirotor\") designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs, where redundancy is prioritized.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Torres\\-Sánchez \\|first1\\=Jorge \\|last2\\=López\\-Granados \\|first2\\=Francisca \\|last3\\=Castro \\|first3\\=Ana Isabel De \\|last4\\=Peña\\-Barragán \\|first4\\=José Manuel \\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=Configuration and Specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Early Site Specific Weed Management \\|journal\\=PLOS ONE \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=e58210 \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0058210 \\|issn\\=1932\\-6203 \\|pmc\\=3590160 \\|pmid\\=23483997\\|bibcode\\=2013PLoSO...858210T \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Torres\\-Sánchez \\|first1\\=Jorge \\|last2\\=López\\-Granados \\|first2\\=Francisca \\|last3\\=De Castro \\|first3\\=Ana Isabel \\|last4\\=Peña\\-Barragán \\|first4\\=José Manuel \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=Configuration and specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for early site specific weed management \\|journal\\=PLOS ONE \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=e58210 \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0058210 \\|issn\\=1932\\-6203 \\|pmc\\=3590160 \\|pmid\\=23483997\\|bibcode\\=2013PLoSO...858210T \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Propulsion",
"Traditional [internal combustion](/wiki/Internal_combustion \"Internal combustion\") and [jet engines](/wiki/Jet_engine \"Jet engine\") remain in use for drones requiring long range. However, for shorter\\-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill \"in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel\" holds this record.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/model\\-airplane\\-history\\-maker\\-maynard\\-hill\\-dies\\-at\\-the\\-age\\-of\\-85/2011/06/08/AGcnyQNH\\_story.html\\|title\\=Model airplane history\\-maker Maynard Hill dies at the age of 85\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=4 July 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704034821/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/model\\-airplane\\-history\\-maker\\-maynard\\-hill\\-dies\\-at\\-the\\-age\\-of\\-85/2011/06/08/AGcnyQNH\\_story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Besides the traditional piston engine, the [Wankel rotary engine](/wiki/Wankel_rotary_engine \"Wankel rotary engine\") is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration\\-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021\\|reason\\=not cited elsewhere}}",
"Small drones mostly use [lithium\\-polymer batteries](/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery \"Lithium polymer battery\") (Li\\-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the [hydrogen fuel cell](/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell \"Hydrogen fuel cell\"). The energy density of modern Li\\-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi\\-engine, multi\\-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, [battery elimination circuitry](/wiki/Battery_eliminator_circuit \"Battery eliminator circuit\") (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a [microcontroller unit](/wiki/Microcontroller \"Microcontroller\") (MCU).",
"### Ornithopters – wing propulsion",
"Flapping\\-wing [ornithopters](/wiki/Ornithopter \"Ornithopter\"), imitating birds or insects, have been flown as [microUAVs](/wiki/Micro_air_vehicle \"Micro air vehicle\"). Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.",
"Sub\\-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to \"land\" on vertical surfaces.{{Citation \\|url\\=https://micro.seas.harvard.edu/papers/BB14\\_Chirarattananon.pdf \\|title\\=Adaptive control of a millimeter\\-scale flapping\\-wing robot \\|date\\=22 May 2014 \\|last1\\=Chirarattananon \\|first1\\=Pakpong \\|first2\\=Kevin Y \\|last2\\=Ma \\|first3\\=J \\|last3\\=Wood \\|journal\\=Bioinspiration \\& Biomimetics \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/1748\\-3182/9/2/025004 \\|pmid\\=24855052 \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=025004 \\|bibcode\\=2014BiBi....9b5004C \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416223803/http://micro.seas.harvard.edu/papers/BB14\\_Chirarattananon.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2016 \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.650\\.3728 \\|s2cid\\=12799012 }} Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/29/giant\\-remote\\-controlled\\-beetles\\-could\\-replace\\-drones/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401144132/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/29/giant\\-remote\\-controlled\\-beetles\\-could\\-replace\\-drones/\\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2016\\|title\\=Giant remote\\-controlled beetles and 'biobot' insects could replace drones\\|author1\\=Sarah Knapton \\|date\\=29 March 2016\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph\\|The Telegraph]]}}",
""
] |
Computer control systems
------------------------
[thumb\|upright\=1\.35\|A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or BaseFlight firmware for [multirotor](/wiki/Multirotor "Multirotor") UAVs](/wiki/File:AbuseMark_AfroFlight_Naze_32_Flight_Controller_rev5_white.jpg "AbuseMark AfroFlight Naze 32 Flight Controller rev5 white.jpg")
UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then [system\-on\-a\-chip](/wiki/System_on_a_chip "System on a chip") (SOC) and [single\-board computers](/wiki/Single-board_computer "Single-board computer") (SBC).
Modern system hardware for UAV control is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot. Common [UAV\-systems control hardware](/wiki/UAV-systems_hardware_chart%23Consumer_UAV_Flight_Controller_List "UAV-systems hardware chart#Consumer UAV Flight Controller List") typically incorporate a primary microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor, and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers into a single module.
In 2024 EASA agreed on the first certification basis for a UAV flight controller in compliance with the ETSO\-C198 for Embention's autopilot. The certification of the UAV flight control systems aims to facilitate the integration of UAVs within the airspace and the operation of drones in critical areas. {{Cite web \|last\=Antonio \|date\=2024\-07\-11 \|title\=EASA Approves ETSO Certification Basis for Veronte Autopilot \|url\=https://www.embention.com/en/news/easa\-approves\-etso\-certification\-basis\-for\-veronte\-autopilot/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-02 \|website\=Embention \|language\=en\-US}}
### Architecture
#### Sensors
Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.{{cite journal\|last1\=Floreano\|first1\=Dario\|last2\=Wood\|first2\=Robert J.\|title\=Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones\|journal\=Nature\|date\=27 May 2015\|volume\=521\|issue\=7553\|pages\=460–466\|doi\=10\.1038/nature14542\|pmid\=26017445\|bibcode\=2015Natur.521\..460F\|s2cid\=4463263\|url\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\|access\-date\=26 October 2019\|archive\-date\=26 October 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026050814/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\|url\-status\=live}}
Non\-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Fasano\|first1\=Giancarmine\|last2\=Accardo\|first2\=Domenico\|last3\=Tirri\|first3\=Anna Elena\|last4\=Moccia\|first4\=Antonio\|last5\=De Lellis\|first5\=Ettore\|date\=1 October 2015\|title\=Radar/electro\-optical data fusion for non\-cooperative UAS sense and avoid\|journal\=Aerospace Science and Technology\|volume\=46\|pages\=436–450\|doi\=10\.1016/j.ast.2015\.08\.010\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2015AeST...46\..436F }}
Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3\-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical [inertial measurement unit](/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit "Inertial measurement unit"){{snd}} IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.{{Cite web\|title \= Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\|url \= http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\|website \= playground.arduino.cc\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 18 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160218110500/http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\|url\-status \= live}}
In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: [RGB](/wiki/RGB_color_model "RGB color model"), [multispectral](/wiki/Multispectral_imaging "Multispectral imaging"), [hyper\-spectral](/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging "Hyperspectral imaging") cameras or [LiDAR](/wiki/Lidar "Lidar"), which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Manfreda \|first1\=Salvatore \|last2\=McCabe \|first2\=Matthew \|last3\=Miller \|first3\=Pauline \|last4\=Lucas \|first4\=Richard \|last5\=Pajuelo Madrigal \|first5\=Victor \|last6\=Mallinis \|first6\=Giorgos \|last7\=Ben Dor \|first7\=Eyal \|last8\=Helman \|first8\=David \|last9\=Estes \|first9\=Lyndon \|last10\=Ciraolo \|first10\=Giuseppe \|last11\=Müllerová \|first11\=Jana \|last12\=Tauro \|first12\=Flavia \|last13\=de Lima \|first13\=M. \|last14\=de Lima \|first14\=João \|last15\=Maltese \|first15\=Antonino \|date\=2018\-04\-20 \|title\=On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring \|journal\=Remote Sensing \|language\=en \|volume\=10 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=641 \|doi\=10\.3390/rs10040641 \|bibcode\=2018RemS...10\..641M \|issn\=2072\-4292\|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\=10251/127481 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
#### Actuators
UAV [actuators](/wiki/Actuator "Actuator") include [digital electronic speed controllers](/wiki/Electronic_speed_control "Electronic speed control") (which control the [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") of the motors) linked to motors/[engines](/wiki/Engine "Engine") and [propellers](/wiki/Propeller "Propeller"), [servomotors](/wiki/Servomotor "Servomotor") (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.
#### Software
{{Update section\|date\=February 2022}}
The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote\-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.{{Cite journal\|date\=1 January 2018\|title\=Adapting open\-source drone autopilots for real\-time iceberg observations\|url\= \|journal\=MethodsX\|language\=en\|volume\=5\|pages\=1059–1072\|doi\=10\.1016/j.mex.2018\.09\.003\|issn\=2215\-0161\|pmc\=6139390\|pmid\=30225206\|last1\=Carlson\|first1\=Daniel F.\|last2\=Rysgaard\|first2\=Søren}}
UAVs are [real\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computing "Real-time computing") systems that require high\-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single\-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single\-board computers include [Raspberry Pis](/wiki/Raspberry_Pi "Raspberry Pi"), [Beagleboards](/wiki/BeagleBoard "BeagleBoard"), etc. shielded with [NavIO](/wiki/NavIO "NavIO"), [PXFMini](/wiki/PXFMini "PXFMini"), etc. or designed from scratch such as [NuttX](/wiki/NuttX "NuttX"), preemptive\-[RT Linux](/wiki/RT_Linux "RT Linux"), [Xenomai](/wiki/Xenomai "Xenomai"), [Orocos\-Robot Operating System](/wiki/Orocos-Robot_Operating_System "Orocos-Robot Operating System") or [DDS\-ROS 2\.0](/wiki/DDS-ROS_2.0 "DDS-ROS 2.0").
| \+ Flight stack overview |
| --- |
| Layer | Requirement | Operations | Example |
| Firmware | Time\-critical | From machine code to processor execution, memory access | ArduCopter\-v1, PX4 |
| Middleware | Time\-critical | Flight control, navigation, radio management | PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot |
| Operating system | Computer\-intensive | Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision\-making | ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT |
Due to the open\-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.{{Cite book\|last1\=Lesko\|first1\=J.\|last2\=Schreiner\|first2\=M.\|last3\=Megyesi\|first3\=D.\|last4\=Kovacs\|first4\=Levente\|title\=2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT) \|chapter\=Pixhawk PX\-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane \|date\=November 2019\|chapter\-url\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\|location\=Kosice, Slovakia\|publisher\=IEEE\|pages\=90–93\|doi\=10\.1109/MOSATT48908\.2019\.8944101\|isbn\=978\-1\-7281\-5083\-3\|s2cid\=209695691\|access\-date\=8 October 2020\|archive\-date\=27 February 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213807/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\|url\-status\=live}} This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open\-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.
#### Loop principles
[thumb\|Typical flight\-control loops for a multirotor](/wiki/File:UAV_Flight_control.jpg "UAV Flight control.jpg")
UAVs employ open\-loop, closed\-loop or hybrid control architectures.
* [Open loop](/wiki/Open-loop_controller "Open-loop controller"){{snd}} This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.
* [Closed loop](/wiki/Closed-loop_transfer_function "Closed-loop transfer function"){{snd}} This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The [PID controller](/wiki/PID_controller "PID controller") is common. Sometimes, [feedforward](/wiki/Feed_forward_%28control%29 "Feed forward (control)") is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\.pdf\|title \= The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV\|date \= 2011\|website \= IFAC World Congress\|author \= Pierre\-Jean Bristeau\|author2 \= François Callou\|author3 \= David Vissière\|author4 \= Nicolas Petit\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 27 February 2023\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213841/https://folk.ntnu.no/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\.pdf\|url\-status \= live}}
#### Communications
UAVs use a [radio](/wiki/Radio "Radio") for control and [exchange of video and other data](/wiki/Data_link "Data link"). Early UAVs had only [narrowband](/wiki/Narrowband "Narrowband") uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi\-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C\&C) and [telemetry](/wiki/Telemetry "Telemetry") data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.
In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C\&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [broadband](/wiki/Broadband "Broadband") link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage [quality of service](/wiki/Quality_of_service "Quality of service") techniques and carry [TCP/IP](/wiki/TCP/IP "TCP/IP") traffic that can be routed over the internet.
The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:
* Ground control – a human operating a [radio transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter "Transmitter")/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a [military ground control station (GCS)](/wiki/UAV_ground_control_station "UAV ground control station").
* Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some [military powers](/wiki/Armed_forces "Armed forces"). Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.{{Cite web\|title \= Cellular enables safer drone deployments\|url \= https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\-pro/cellular\-drone\-communication\|website \= Qualcomm\|access\-date \= 9 May 2018\|archive\-date \= 9 May 2018\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151213/https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\-pro/cellular\-drone\-communication\|url\-status \= live}}
* Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station{{snd}} military manned\-unmanned teaming (MUM\-T).{{Cite web\|url \= http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\.pdf\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104148/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\.pdf\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-date \= 6 February 2016\|title \= Identifying Critical Manned\-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators\|date \= September 2012\|website \= U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences}}
Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra\-reliable and low\-latency communications.{{Cite web\|title\=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT\-2020 radio interface(s)\|url\=https://www.itu.int/pub/R\-REP\-M.2410\-2017\|access\-date\=8 October 2020\|website\=www.itu.int\|archive\-date\=6 August 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806202716/https://www.itu.int/pub/R\-REP\-M.2410\-2017\|url\-status\=live}}
UAV\-to\-UAV coordination supported by [Remote ID](/wiki/Remote_ID "Remote ID") communication technology. Remote ID messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision\-free navigation.{{Cite book\| last1 \= Vinogradov\| first1 \= Evgenii\| last2 \= Kumar\| first2 \= A. V. S. Sai Bhargav\| last3 \= Minucci\| first3 \= Franco\| last4 \= Pollin\| first4 \= Sofie\| last5 \= Natalizio\| first5 \= Enrico\| chapter \= Remote ID for separation provision and multi\-agent navigation\| title \= 2023 IEEE/AIAA 42nd Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC)\| year \= 2023\| pages \= 1–10\| doi \= 10\.1109/DASC58513\.2023\.10311133\| arxiv \= 2309\.00843\| isbn \= 979\-8\-3503\-3357\-2}}
### Autonomy
{{main\|Autonomous aircraft}}
[thumb\|UAV's degrees of autonomy](/wiki/File:Degrees_of_autonomy.jpg "Degrees of autonomy.jpg")
The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:{{Cite web\|title\=Automated Vehicles for Safety {{!}} NHTSA\|url\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology\-innovation/automated\-vehicles\-safety\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-08\|website\=www.nhtsa.gov\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=7 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007021013/https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology\-innovation/automated\-vehicles\-safety\|url\-status\=live}}
* Self\-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.
* Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data.
* Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using [GNSS](/wiki/GNSS "GNSS") or inertial sensors.
* Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes.
* Care\-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
* Take\-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground\-based sensors and systems; see also "[autoland](/wiki/Autoland "Autoland")")
* Failsafe: automatic landing or return\-to\-home upon loss of control signal
* Return\-to\-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).
* Follow\-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, [image recognition](/wiki/Image_recognition "Image recognition") or homing beacon.
* GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.
* Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow\-me but continuously circle a target.
* Pre\-programmed [aerobatics](/wiki/Aerobatics "Aerobatics") (such as rolls and loops)
* Pre\-programmed delivery ( delivery drones)
One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on [OODA](/wiki/OODA_loop "OODA loop") terminology, as suggested by a 2002 US [Air Force Research Laboratory](/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory "Air Force Research Laboratory") report, and used in the table on the right.{{Cite web\|url \= https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA515926\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200924155100/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA515926\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-date \= 24 September 2020\|title \= Metrics, Schmetrics! How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV's Autonomy Anyway?\|date \= August 2002\|website \= US Air Force Research Laboratory\|last \= Clough\|first \= Bruce}}
[thumb\|A [Northrop Grumman X\-47B](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_X-47B "Northrop Grumman X-47B") unmanned combat aircraft demonstrator of the US Navy refuels in flight from a tanker aircraft.](/wiki/File:X-47B_receives_fuel_from_an_Omega_K-707_tanker_while_operating_in_the_Atlantic_Test_Ranges.jpg "X-47B receives fuel from an Omega K-707 tanker while operating in the Atlantic Test Ranges.jpg")
Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as [airborne refueling](/wiki/Airborne_refueling "Airborne refueling"){{Cite news\|title \= Watch a step in Navy history: an autonomous drone gets refueled mid\-air\|url \= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/04/23/watch\-a\-step\-in\-aviation\-history\-an\-autonomous\-drone\-getting\-refueled\-mid\-air/\|newspaper \= The Washington Post\|date \= 23 April 2015\|access\-date \= 3 February 2016\|issn \= 0190\-8286\|first \= Christian\|last \= Davenport\|archive\-date \= 20 January 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160120103200/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/04/23/watch\-a\-step\-in\-aviation\-history\-an\-autonomous\-drone\-getting\-refueled\-mid\-air/\|url\-status \= live}} or ground\-based battery switching.
Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real\-time [collision avoidance](/wiki/Collision_avoidance_system "Collision avoidance system"), wall following, corridor centring, simultaneous localization and mapping and [swarming](/wiki/Swarm_robotics "Swarm robotics"), [cognitive radio](/wiki/Cognitive_radio "Cognitive radio") and [machine learning](/wiki/Machine_learning "Machine learning"). In this context, [computer vision](/wiki/Computer_vision "Computer vision") can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety.
|
[
"Computer control systems\n------------------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\|A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or BaseFlight firmware for [multirotor](/wiki/Multirotor \"Multirotor\") UAVs](/wiki/File:AbuseMark_AfroFlight_Naze_32_Flight_Controller_rev5_white.jpg \"AbuseMark AfroFlight Naze 32 Flight Controller rev5 white.jpg\")\nUAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then [system\\-on\\-a\\-chip](/wiki/System_on_a_chip \"System on a chip\") (SOC) and [single\\-board computers](/wiki/Single-board_computer \"Single-board computer\") (SBC).",
"Modern system hardware for UAV control is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot. Common [UAV\\-systems control hardware](/wiki/UAV-systems_hardware_chart%23Consumer_UAV_Flight_Controller_List \"UAV-systems hardware chart#Consumer UAV Flight Controller List\") typically incorporate a primary microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor, and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers into a single module.",
"In 2024 EASA agreed on the first certification basis for a UAV flight controller in compliance with the ETSO\\-C198 for Embention's autopilot. The certification of the UAV flight control systems aims to facilitate the integration of UAVs within the airspace and the operation of drones in critical areas. {{Cite web \\|last\\=Antonio \\|date\\=2024\\-07\\-11 \\|title\\=EASA Approves ETSO Certification Basis for Veronte Autopilot \\|url\\=https://www.embention.com/en/news/easa\\-approves\\-etso\\-certification\\-basis\\-for\\-veronte\\-autopilot/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=Embention \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Architecture",
"#### Sensors",
"Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Floreano\\|first1\\=Dario\\|last2\\=Wood\\|first2\\=Robert J.\\|title\\=Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones\\|journal\\=Nature\\|date\\=27 May 2015\\|volume\\=521\\|issue\\=7553\\|pages\\=460–466\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nature14542\\|pmid\\=26017445\\|bibcode\\=2015Natur.521\\..460F\\|s2cid\\=4463263\\|url\\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026050814/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Non\\-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Fasano\\|first1\\=Giancarmine\\|last2\\=Accardo\\|first2\\=Domenico\\|last3\\=Tirri\\|first3\\=Anna Elena\\|last4\\=Moccia\\|first4\\=Antonio\\|last5\\=De Lellis\\|first5\\=Ettore\\|date\\=1 October 2015\\|title\\=Radar/electro\\-optical data fusion for non\\-cooperative UAS sense and avoid\\|journal\\=Aerospace Science and Technology\\|volume\\=46\\|pages\\=436–450\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ast.2015\\.08\\.010\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2015AeST...46\\..436F }}",
"Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3\\-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical [inertial measurement unit](/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit \"Inertial measurement unit\"){{snd}} IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\\|url \\= http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\\|website \\= playground.arduino.cc\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 18 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160218110500/http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: [RGB](/wiki/RGB_color_model \"RGB color model\"), [multispectral](/wiki/Multispectral_imaging \"Multispectral imaging\"), [hyper\\-spectral](/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging \"Hyperspectral imaging\") cameras or [LiDAR](/wiki/Lidar \"Lidar\"), which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Manfreda \\|first1\\=Salvatore \\|last2\\=McCabe \\|first2\\=Matthew \\|last3\\=Miller \\|first3\\=Pauline \\|last4\\=Lucas \\|first4\\=Richard \\|last5\\=Pajuelo Madrigal \\|first5\\=Victor \\|last6\\=Mallinis \\|first6\\=Giorgos \\|last7\\=Ben Dor \\|first7\\=Eyal \\|last8\\=Helman \\|first8\\=David \\|last9\\=Estes \\|first9\\=Lyndon \\|last10\\=Ciraolo \\|first10\\=Giuseppe \\|last11\\=Müllerová \\|first11\\=Jana \\|last12\\=Tauro \\|first12\\=Flavia \\|last13\\=de Lima \\|first13\\=M. \\|last14\\=de Lima \\|first14\\=João \\|last15\\=Maltese \\|first15\\=Antonino \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-20 \\|title\\=On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring \\|journal\\=Remote Sensing \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=641 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/rs10040641 \\|bibcode\\=2018RemS...10\\..641M \\|issn\\=2072\\-4292\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=10251/127481 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"#### Actuators",
"UAV [actuators](/wiki/Actuator \"Actuator\") include [digital electronic speed controllers](/wiki/Electronic_speed_control \"Electronic speed control\") (which control the [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") of the motors) linked to motors/[engines](/wiki/Engine \"Engine\") and [propellers](/wiki/Propeller \"Propeller\"), [servomotors](/wiki/Servomotor \"Servomotor\") (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.",
"#### Software",
"{{Update section\\|date\\=February 2022}}\nThe software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote\\-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=1 January 2018\\|title\\=Adapting open\\-source drone autopilots for real\\-time iceberg observations\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=MethodsX\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=5\\|pages\\=1059–1072\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.mex.2018\\.09\\.003\\|issn\\=2215\\-0161\\|pmc\\=6139390\\|pmid\\=30225206\\|last1\\=Carlson\\|first1\\=Daniel F.\\|last2\\=Rysgaard\\|first2\\=Søren}}",
"UAVs are [real\\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computing \"Real-time computing\") systems that require high\\-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single\\-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single\\-board computers include [Raspberry Pis](/wiki/Raspberry_Pi \"Raspberry Pi\"), [Beagleboards](/wiki/BeagleBoard \"BeagleBoard\"), etc. shielded with [NavIO](/wiki/NavIO \"NavIO\"), [PXFMini](/wiki/PXFMini \"PXFMini\"), etc. or designed from scratch such as [NuttX](/wiki/NuttX \"NuttX\"), preemptive\\-[RT Linux](/wiki/RT_Linux \"RT Linux\"), [Xenomai](/wiki/Xenomai \"Xenomai\"), [Orocos\\-Robot Operating System](/wiki/Orocos-Robot_Operating_System \"Orocos-Robot Operating System\") or [DDS\\-ROS 2\\.0](/wiki/DDS-ROS_2.0 \"DDS-ROS 2.0\").",
"",
"| \\+ Flight stack overview |\n| --- |\n| Layer | Requirement | Operations | Example |\n| Firmware | Time\\-critical | From machine code to processor execution, memory access | ArduCopter\\-v1, PX4 |\n| Middleware | Time\\-critical | Flight control, navigation, radio management | PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot |\n| Operating system | Computer\\-intensive | Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision\\-making | ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT |",
"Due to the open\\-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Lesko\\|first1\\=J.\\|last2\\=Schreiner\\|first2\\=M.\\|last3\\=Megyesi\\|first3\\=D.\\|last4\\=Kovacs\\|first4\\=Levente\\|title\\=2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT) \\|chapter\\=Pixhawk PX\\-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane \\|date\\=November 2019\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\\|location\\=Kosice, Slovakia\\|publisher\\=IEEE\\|pages\\=90–93\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/MOSATT48908\\.2019\\.8944101\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-7281\\-5083\\-3\\|s2cid\\=209695691\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213807/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open\\-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.",
"#### Loop principles",
"[thumb\\|Typical flight\\-control loops for a multirotor](/wiki/File:UAV_Flight_control.jpg \"UAV Flight control.jpg\")\nUAVs employ open\\-loop, closed\\-loop or hybrid control architectures.",
"* [Open loop](/wiki/Open-loop_controller \"Open-loop controller\"){{snd}} This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.\n* [Closed loop](/wiki/Closed-loop_transfer_function \"Closed-loop transfer function\"){{snd}} This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The [PID controller](/wiki/PID_controller \"PID controller\") is common. Sometimes, [feedforward](/wiki/Feed_forward_%28control%29 \"Feed forward (control)\") is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\\.pdf\\|title \\= The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV\\|date \\= 2011\\|website \\= IFAC World Congress\\|author \\= Pierre\\-Jean Bristeau\\|author2 \\= François Callou\\|author3 \\= David Vissière\\|author4 \\= Nicolas Petit\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 27 February 2023\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213841/https://folk.ntnu.no/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\\.pdf\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"#### Communications",
"UAVs use a [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\") for control and [exchange of video and other data](/wiki/Data_link \"Data link\"). Early UAVs had only [narrowband](/wiki/Narrowband \"Narrowband\") uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi\\-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C\\&C) and [telemetry](/wiki/Telemetry \"Telemetry\") data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.",
"In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C\\&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [broadband](/wiki/Broadband \"Broadband\") link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage [quality of service](/wiki/Quality_of_service \"Quality of service\") techniques and carry [TCP/IP](/wiki/TCP/IP \"TCP/IP\") traffic that can be routed over the internet.",
"The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:",
"* Ground control – a human operating a [radio transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter \"Transmitter\")/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a [military ground control station (GCS)](/wiki/UAV_ground_control_station \"UAV ground control station\").\n* Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some [military powers](/wiki/Armed_forces \"Armed forces\"). Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Cellular enables safer drone deployments\\|url \\= https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\\-pro/cellular\\-drone\\-communication\\|website \\= Qualcomm\\|access\\-date \\= 9 May 2018\\|archive\\-date \\= 9 May 2018\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151213/https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\\-pro/cellular\\-drone\\-communication\\|url\\-status \\= live}}\n* Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station{{snd}} military manned\\-unmanned teaming (MUM\\-T).{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104148/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\\.pdf\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-date \\= 6 February 2016\\|title \\= Identifying Critical Manned\\-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators\\|date \\= September 2012\\|website \\= U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences}}",
"Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra\\-reliable and low\\-latency communications.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT\\-2020 radio interface(s)\\|url\\=https://www.itu.int/pub/R\\-REP\\-M.2410\\-2017\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2020\\|website\\=www.itu.int\\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806202716/https://www.itu.int/pub/R\\-REP\\-M.2410\\-2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"UAV\\-to\\-UAV coordination supported by [Remote ID](/wiki/Remote_ID \"Remote ID\") communication technology. Remote ID messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision\\-free navigation.{{Cite book\\| last1 \\= Vinogradov\\| first1 \\= Evgenii\\| last2 \\= Kumar\\| first2 \\= A. V. S. Sai Bhargav\\| last3 \\= Minucci\\| first3 \\= Franco\\| last4 \\= Pollin\\| first4 \\= Sofie\\| last5 \\= Natalizio\\| first5 \\= Enrico\\| chapter \\= Remote ID for separation provision and multi\\-agent navigation\\| title \\= 2023 IEEE/AIAA 42nd Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC)\\| year \\= 2023\\| pages \\= 1–10\\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/DASC58513\\.2023\\.10311133\\| arxiv \\= 2309\\.00843\\| isbn \\= 979\\-8\\-3503\\-3357\\-2}}",
"### Autonomy",
"{{main\\|Autonomous aircraft}}\n[thumb\\|UAV's degrees of autonomy](/wiki/File:Degrees_of_autonomy.jpg \"Degrees of autonomy.jpg\")\nThe level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:{{Cite web\\|title\\=Automated Vehicles for Safety {{!}} NHTSA\\|url\\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology\\-innovation/automated\\-vehicles\\-safety\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-08\\|website\\=www.nhtsa.gov\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=7 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007021013/https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology\\-innovation/automated\\-vehicles\\-safety\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"* Self\\-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.\n* Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data.\n* Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using [GNSS](/wiki/GNSS \"GNSS\") or inertial sensors.\n* Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes.\n* Care\\-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally\n* Take\\-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground\\-based sensors and systems; see also \"[autoland](/wiki/Autoland \"Autoland\")\")\n* Failsafe: automatic landing or return\\-to\\-home upon loss of control signal\n* Return\\-to\\-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).\n* Follow\\-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, [image recognition](/wiki/Image_recognition \"Image recognition\") or homing beacon.\n* GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.\n* Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow\\-me but continuously circle a target.\n* Pre\\-programmed [aerobatics](/wiki/Aerobatics \"Aerobatics\") (such as rolls and loops)\n* Pre\\-programmed delivery ( delivery drones)",
"One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on [OODA](/wiki/OODA_loop \"OODA loop\") terminology, as suggested by a 2002 US [Air Force Research Laboratory](/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory \"Air Force Research Laboratory\") report, and used in the table on the right.{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA515926\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200924155100/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA515926\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-date \\= 24 September 2020\\|title \\= Metrics, Schmetrics! How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV's Autonomy Anyway?\\|date \\= August 2002\\|website \\= US Air Force Research Laboratory\\|last \\= Clough\\|first \\= Bruce}}",
"[thumb\\|A [Northrop Grumman X\\-47B](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_X-47B \"Northrop Grumman X-47B\") unmanned combat aircraft demonstrator of the US Navy refuels in flight from a tanker aircraft.](/wiki/File:X-47B_receives_fuel_from_an_Omega_K-707_tanker_while_operating_in_the_Atlantic_Test_Ranges.jpg \"X-47B receives fuel from an Omega K-707 tanker while operating in the Atlantic Test Ranges.jpg\")\nFull autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as [airborne refueling](/wiki/Airborne_refueling \"Airborne refueling\"){{Cite news\\|title \\= Watch a step in Navy history: an autonomous drone gets refueled mid\\-air\\|url \\= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/04/23/watch\\-a\\-step\\-in\\-aviation\\-history\\-an\\-autonomous\\-drone\\-getting\\-refueled\\-mid\\-air/\\|newspaper \\= The Washington Post\\|date \\= 23 April 2015\\|access\\-date \\= 3 February 2016\\|issn \\= 0190\\-8286\\|first \\= Christian\\|last \\= Davenport\\|archive\\-date \\= 20 January 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160120103200/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/04/23/watch\\-a\\-step\\-in\\-aviation\\-history\\-an\\-autonomous\\-drone\\-getting\\-refueled\\-mid\\-air/\\|url\\-status \\= live}} or ground\\-based battery switching.",
"Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real\\-time [collision avoidance](/wiki/Collision_avoidance_system \"Collision avoidance system\"), wall following, corridor centring, simultaneous localization and mapping and [swarming](/wiki/Swarm_robotics \"Swarm robotics\"), [cognitive radio](/wiki/Cognitive_radio \"Cognitive radio\") and [machine learning](/wiki/Machine_learning \"Machine learning\"). In this context, [computer vision](/wiki/Computer_vision \"Computer vision\") can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety.",
""
] |
### Architecture
#### Sensors
Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.{{cite journal\|last1\=Floreano\|first1\=Dario\|last2\=Wood\|first2\=Robert J.\|title\=Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones\|journal\=Nature\|date\=27 May 2015\|volume\=521\|issue\=7553\|pages\=460–466\|doi\=10\.1038/nature14542\|pmid\=26017445\|bibcode\=2015Natur.521\..460F\|s2cid\=4463263\|url\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\|access\-date\=26 October 2019\|archive\-date\=26 October 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026050814/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\|url\-status\=live}}
Non\-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Fasano\|first1\=Giancarmine\|last2\=Accardo\|first2\=Domenico\|last3\=Tirri\|first3\=Anna Elena\|last4\=Moccia\|first4\=Antonio\|last5\=De Lellis\|first5\=Ettore\|date\=1 October 2015\|title\=Radar/electro\-optical data fusion for non\-cooperative UAS sense and avoid\|journal\=Aerospace Science and Technology\|volume\=46\|pages\=436–450\|doi\=10\.1016/j.ast.2015\.08\.010\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2015AeST...46\..436F }}
Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3\-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical [inertial measurement unit](/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit "Inertial measurement unit"){{snd}} IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.{{Cite web\|title \= Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\|url \= http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\|website \= playground.arduino.cc\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 18 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160218110500/http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\|url\-status \= live}}
In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: [RGB](/wiki/RGB_color_model "RGB color model"), [multispectral](/wiki/Multispectral_imaging "Multispectral imaging"), [hyper\-spectral](/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging "Hyperspectral imaging") cameras or [LiDAR](/wiki/Lidar "Lidar"), which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Manfreda \|first1\=Salvatore \|last2\=McCabe \|first2\=Matthew \|last3\=Miller \|first3\=Pauline \|last4\=Lucas \|first4\=Richard \|last5\=Pajuelo Madrigal \|first5\=Victor \|last6\=Mallinis \|first6\=Giorgos \|last7\=Ben Dor \|first7\=Eyal \|last8\=Helman \|first8\=David \|last9\=Estes \|first9\=Lyndon \|last10\=Ciraolo \|first10\=Giuseppe \|last11\=Müllerová \|first11\=Jana \|last12\=Tauro \|first12\=Flavia \|last13\=de Lima \|first13\=M. \|last14\=de Lima \|first14\=João \|last15\=Maltese \|first15\=Antonino \|date\=2018\-04\-20 \|title\=On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring \|journal\=Remote Sensing \|language\=en \|volume\=10 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=641 \|doi\=10\.3390/rs10040641 \|bibcode\=2018RemS...10\..641M \|issn\=2072\-4292\|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\=10251/127481 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
#### Actuators
UAV [actuators](/wiki/Actuator "Actuator") include [digital electronic speed controllers](/wiki/Electronic_speed_control "Electronic speed control") (which control the [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") of the motors) linked to motors/[engines](/wiki/Engine "Engine") and [propellers](/wiki/Propeller "Propeller"), [servomotors](/wiki/Servomotor "Servomotor") (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.
#### Software
{{Update section\|date\=February 2022}}
The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote\-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.{{Cite journal\|date\=1 January 2018\|title\=Adapting open\-source drone autopilots for real\-time iceberg observations\|url\= \|journal\=MethodsX\|language\=en\|volume\=5\|pages\=1059–1072\|doi\=10\.1016/j.mex.2018\.09\.003\|issn\=2215\-0161\|pmc\=6139390\|pmid\=30225206\|last1\=Carlson\|first1\=Daniel F.\|last2\=Rysgaard\|first2\=Søren}}
UAVs are [real\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computing "Real-time computing") systems that require high\-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single\-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single\-board computers include [Raspberry Pis](/wiki/Raspberry_Pi "Raspberry Pi"), [Beagleboards](/wiki/BeagleBoard "BeagleBoard"), etc. shielded with [NavIO](/wiki/NavIO "NavIO"), [PXFMini](/wiki/PXFMini "PXFMini"), etc. or designed from scratch such as [NuttX](/wiki/NuttX "NuttX"), preemptive\-[RT Linux](/wiki/RT_Linux "RT Linux"), [Xenomai](/wiki/Xenomai "Xenomai"), [Orocos\-Robot Operating System](/wiki/Orocos-Robot_Operating_System "Orocos-Robot Operating System") or [DDS\-ROS 2\.0](/wiki/DDS-ROS_2.0 "DDS-ROS 2.0").
| \+ Flight stack overview |
| --- |
| Layer | Requirement | Operations | Example |
| Firmware | Time\-critical | From machine code to processor execution, memory access | ArduCopter\-v1, PX4 |
| Middleware | Time\-critical | Flight control, navigation, radio management | PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot |
| Operating system | Computer\-intensive | Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision\-making | ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT |
Due to the open\-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.{{Cite book\|last1\=Lesko\|first1\=J.\|last2\=Schreiner\|first2\=M.\|last3\=Megyesi\|first3\=D.\|last4\=Kovacs\|first4\=Levente\|title\=2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT) \|chapter\=Pixhawk PX\-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane \|date\=November 2019\|chapter\-url\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\|location\=Kosice, Slovakia\|publisher\=IEEE\|pages\=90–93\|doi\=10\.1109/MOSATT48908\.2019\.8944101\|isbn\=978\-1\-7281\-5083\-3\|s2cid\=209695691\|access\-date\=8 October 2020\|archive\-date\=27 February 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213807/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\|url\-status\=live}} This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open\-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.
#### Loop principles
[thumb\|Typical flight\-control loops for a multirotor](/wiki/File:UAV_Flight_control.jpg "UAV Flight control.jpg")
UAVs employ open\-loop, closed\-loop or hybrid control architectures.
* [Open loop](/wiki/Open-loop_controller "Open-loop controller"){{snd}} This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.
* [Closed loop](/wiki/Closed-loop_transfer_function "Closed-loop transfer function"){{snd}} This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The [PID controller](/wiki/PID_controller "PID controller") is common. Sometimes, [feedforward](/wiki/Feed_forward_%28control%29 "Feed forward (control)") is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\.pdf\|title \= The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV\|date \= 2011\|website \= IFAC World Congress\|author \= Pierre\-Jean Bristeau\|author2 \= François Callou\|author3 \= David Vissière\|author4 \= Nicolas Petit\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 27 February 2023\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213841/https://folk.ntnu.no/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\.pdf\|url\-status \= live}}
#### Communications
UAVs use a [radio](/wiki/Radio "Radio") for control and [exchange of video and other data](/wiki/Data_link "Data link"). Early UAVs had only [narrowband](/wiki/Narrowband "Narrowband") uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi\-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C\&C) and [telemetry](/wiki/Telemetry "Telemetry") data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.
In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C\&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [broadband](/wiki/Broadband "Broadband") link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage [quality of service](/wiki/Quality_of_service "Quality of service") techniques and carry [TCP/IP](/wiki/TCP/IP "TCP/IP") traffic that can be routed over the internet.
The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:
* Ground control – a human operating a [radio transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter "Transmitter")/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a [military ground control station (GCS)](/wiki/UAV_ground_control_station "UAV ground control station").
* Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some [military powers](/wiki/Armed_forces "Armed forces"). Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.{{Cite web\|title \= Cellular enables safer drone deployments\|url \= https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\-pro/cellular\-drone\-communication\|website \= Qualcomm\|access\-date \= 9 May 2018\|archive\-date \= 9 May 2018\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151213/https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\-pro/cellular\-drone\-communication\|url\-status \= live}}
* Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station{{snd}} military manned\-unmanned teaming (MUM\-T).{{Cite web\|url \= http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\.pdf\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104148/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\.pdf\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-date \= 6 February 2016\|title \= Identifying Critical Manned\-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators\|date \= September 2012\|website \= U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences}}
Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra\-reliable and low\-latency communications.{{Cite web\|title\=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT\-2020 radio interface(s)\|url\=https://www.itu.int/pub/R\-REP\-M.2410\-2017\|access\-date\=8 October 2020\|website\=www.itu.int\|archive\-date\=6 August 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806202716/https://www.itu.int/pub/R\-REP\-M.2410\-2017\|url\-status\=live}}
UAV\-to\-UAV coordination supported by [Remote ID](/wiki/Remote_ID "Remote ID") communication technology. Remote ID messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision\-free navigation.{{Cite book\| last1 \= Vinogradov\| first1 \= Evgenii\| last2 \= Kumar\| first2 \= A. V. S. Sai Bhargav\| last3 \= Minucci\| first3 \= Franco\| last4 \= Pollin\| first4 \= Sofie\| last5 \= Natalizio\| first5 \= Enrico\| chapter \= Remote ID for separation provision and multi\-agent navigation\| title \= 2023 IEEE/AIAA 42nd Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC)\| year \= 2023\| pages \= 1–10\| doi \= 10\.1109/DASC58513\.2023\.10311133\| arxiv \= 2309\.00843\| isbn \= 979\-8\-3503\-3357\-2}}
|
[
"### Architecture",
"#### Sensors",
"Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Floreano\\|first1\\=Dario\\|last2\\=Wood\\|first2\\=Robert J.\\|title\\=Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones\\|journal\\=Nature\\|date\\=27 May 2015\\|volume\\=521\\|issue\\=7553\\|pages\\=460–466\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nature14542\\|pmid\\=26017445\\|bibcode\\=2015Natur.521\\..460F\\|s2cid\\=4463263\\|url\\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026050814/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Non\\-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Fasano\\|first1\\=Giancarmine\\|last2\\=Accardo\\|first2\\=Domenico\\|last3\\=Tirri\\|first3\\=Anna Elena\\|last4\\=Moccia\\|first4\\=Antonio\\|last5\\=De Lellis\\|first5\\=Ettore\\|date\\=1 October 2015\\|title\\=Radar/electro\\-optical data fusion for non\\-cooperative UAS sense and avoid\\|journal\\=Aerospace Science and Technology\\|volume\\=46\\|pages\\=436–450\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ast.2015\\.08\\.010\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2015AeST...46\\..436F }}",
"Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3\\-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical [inertial measurement unit](/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit \"Inertial measurement unit\"){{snd}} IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\\|url \\= http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\\|website \\= playground.arduino.cc\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 18 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160218110500/http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: [RGB](/wiki/RGB_color_model \"RGB color model\"), [multispectral](/wiki/Multispectral_imaging \"Multispectral imaging\"), [hyper\\-spectral](/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging \"Hyperspectral imaging\") cameras or [LiDAR](/wiki/Lidar \"Lidar\"), which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Manfreda \\|first1\\=Salvatore \\|last2\\=McCabe \\|first2\\=Matthew \\|last3\\=Miller \\|first3\\=Pauline \\|last4\\=Lucas \\|first4\\=Richard \\|last5\\=Pajuelo Madrigal \\|first5\\=Victor \\|last6\\=Mallinis \\|first6\\=Giorgos \\|last7\\=Ben Dor \\|first7\\=Eyal \\|last8\\=Helman \\|first8\\=David \\|last9\\=Estes \\|first9\\=Lyndon \\|last10\\=Ciraolo \\|first10\\=Giuseppe \\|last11\\=Müllerová \\|first11\\=Jana \\|last12\\=Tauro \\|first12\\=Flavia \\|last13\\=de Lima \\|first13\\=M. \\|last14\\=de Lima \\|first14\\=João \\|last15\\=Maltese \\|first15\\=Antonino \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-20 \\|title\\=On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring \\|journal\\=Remote Sensing \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=641 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/rs10040641 \\|bibcode\\=2018RemS...10\\..641M \\|issn\\=2072\\-4292\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=10251/127481 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"#### Actuators",
"UAV [actuators](/wiki/Actuator \"Actuator\") include [digital electronic speed controllers](/wiki/Electronic_speed_control \"Electronic speed control\") (which control the [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") of the motors) linked to motors/[engines](/wiki/Engine \"Engine\") and [propellers](/wiki/Propeller \"Propeller\"), [servomotors](/wiki/Servomotor \"Servomotor\") (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.",
"#### Software",
"{{Update section\\|date\\=February 2022}}\nThe software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote\\-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=1 January 2018\\|title\\=Adapting open\\-source drone autopilots for real\\-time iceberg observations\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=MethodsX\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=5\\|pages\\=1059–1072\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.mex.2018\\.09\\.003\\|issn\\=2215\\-0161\\|pmc\\=6139390\\|pmid\\=30225206\\|last1\\=Carlson\\|first1\\=Daniel F.\\|last2\\=Rysgaard\\|first2\\=Søren}}",
"UAVs are [real\\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computing \"Real-time computing\") systems that require high\\-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single\\-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single\\-board computers include [Raspberry Pis](/wiki/Raspberry_Pi \"Raspberry Pi\"), [Beagleboards](/wiki/BeagleBoard \"BeagleBoard\"), etc. shielded with [NavIO](/wiki/NavIO \"NavIO\"), [PXFMini](/wiki/PXFMini \"PXFMini\"), etc. or designed from scratch such as [NuttX](/wiki/NuttX \"NuttX\"), preemptive\\-[RT Linux](/wiki/RT_Linux \"RT Linux\"), [Xenomai](/wiki/Xenomai \"Xenomai\"), [Orocos\\-Robot Operating System](/wiki/Orocos-Robot_Operating_System \"Orocos-Robot Operating System\") or [DDS\\-ROS 2\\.0](/wiki/DDS-ROS_2.0 \"DDS-ROS 2.0\").",
"",
"| \\+ Flight stack overview |\n| --- |\n| Layer | Requirement | Operations | Example |\n| Firmware | Time\\-critical | From machine code to processor execution, memory access | ArduCopter\\-v1, PX4 |\n| Middleware | Time\\-critical | Flight control, navigation, radio management | PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot |\n| Operating system | Computer\\-intensive | Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision\\-making | ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT |",
"Due to the open\\-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Lesko\\|first1\\=J.\\|last2\\=Schreiner\\|first2\\=M.\\|last3\\=Megyesi\\|first3\\=D.\\|last4\\=Kovacs\\|first4\\=Levente\\|title\\=2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT) \\|chapter\\=Pixhawk PX\\-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane \\|date\\=November 2019\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\\|location\\=Kosice, Slovakia\\|publisher\\=IEEE\\|pages\\=90–93\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/MOSATT48908\\.2019\\.8944101\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-7281\\-5083\\-3\\|s2cid\\=209695691\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213807/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open\\-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.",
"#### Loop principles",
"[thumb\\|Typical flight\\-control loops for a multirotor](/wiki/File:UAV_Flight_control.jpg \"UAV Flight control.jpg\")\nUAVs employ open\\-loop, closed\\-loop or hybrid control architectures.",
"* [Open loop](/wiki/Open-loop_controller \"Open-loop controller\"){{snd}} This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.\n* [Closed loop](/wiki/Closed-loop_transfer_function \"Closed-loop transfer function\"){{snd}} This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The [PID controller](/wiki/PID_controller \"PID controller\") is common. Sometimes, [feedforward](/wiki/Feed_forward_%28control%29 \"Feed forward (control)\") is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\\.pdf\\|title \\= The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV\\|date \\= 2011\\|website \\= IFAC World Congress\\|author \\= Pierre\\-Jean Bristeau\\|author2 \\= François Callou\\|author3 \\= David Vissière\\|author4 \\= Nicolas Petit\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 27 February 2023\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213841/https://folk.ntnu.no/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11\\-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327\\.pdf\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"#### Communications",
"UAVs use a [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\") for control and [exchange of video and other data](/wiki/Data_link \"Data link\"). Early UAVs had only [narrowband](/wiki/Narrowband \"Narrowband\") uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi\\-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C\\&C) and [telemetry](/wiki/Telemetry \"Telemetry\") data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.",
"In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C\\&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [broadband](/wiki/Broadband \"Broadband\") link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage [quality of service](/wiki/Quality_of_service \"Quality of service\") techniques and carry [TCP/IP](/wiki/TCP/IP \"TCP/IP\") traffic that can be routed over the internet.",
"The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:",
"* Ground control – a human operating a [radio transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter \"Transmitter\")/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a [military ground control station (GCS)](/wiki/UAV_ground_control_station \"UAV ground control station\").\n* Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some [military powers](/wiki/Armed_forces \"Armed forces\"). Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Cellular enables safer drone deployments\\|url \\= https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\\-pro/cellular\\-drone\\-communication\\|website \\= Qualcomm\\|access\\-date \\= 9 May 2018\\|archive\\-date \\= 9 May 2018\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151213/https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced\\-pro/cellular\\-drone\\-communication\\|url\\-status \\= live}}\n* Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station{{snd}} military manned\\-unmanned teaming (MUM\\-T).{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104148/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510\\.pdf\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-date \\= 6 February 2016\\|title \\= Identifying Critical Manned\\-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators\\|date \\= September 2012\\|website \\= U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences}}",
"Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra\\-reliable and low\\-latency communications.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT\\-2020 radio interface(s)\\|url\\=https://www.itu.int/pub/R\\-REP\\-M.2410\\-2017\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2020\\|website\\=www.itu.int\\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806202716/https://www.itu.int/pub/R\\-REP\\-M.2410\\-2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"UAV\\-to\\-UAV coordination supported by [Remote ID](/wiki/Remote_ID \"Remote ID\") communication technology. Remote ID messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision\\-free navigation.{{Cite book\\| last1 \\= Vinogradov\\| first1 \\= Evgenii\\| last2 \\= Kumar\\| first2 \\= A. V. S. Sai Bhargav\\| last3 \\= Minucci\\| first3 \\= Franco\\| last4 \\= Pollin\\| first4 \\= Sofie\\| last5 \\= Natalizio\\| first5 \\= Enrico\\| chapter \\= Remote ID for separation provision and multi\\-agent navigation\\| title \\= 2023 IEEE/AIAA 42nd Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC)\\| year \\= 2023\\| pages \\= 1–10\\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/DASC58513\\.2023\\.10311133\\| arxiv \\= 2309\\.00843\\| isbn \\= 979\\-8\\-3503\\-3357\\-2}}",
""
] |
Performance considerations
--------------------------
### Flight envelope
UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces,{{Cite web\|title \= Teaching tiny drones how to fly themselves\|url \= https://arstechnica.com/information\-technology/2012/11/a\-beautiful\-robotic\-mind/1/\|website \= Ars Technica\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|date \= 27 November 2012\|archive\-date \= 5 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160205171813/http://arstechnica.com/information\-technology/2012/11/a\-beautiful\-robotic\-mind/1/\|url\-status \= live}} and then to climb toward better communication spots.{{Cite web\|url\=http://bdml.stanford.edu/Main/MultiModalRobots\|title\=Biomimetics and Dextrous Manipulation Lab – MultiModalRobots\|website\=bdml.stanford.edu\|access\-date\=21 March 2016\|archive\-date\=23 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323135154/http://bdml.stanford.edu/Main/MultiModalRobots\|url\-status\=live}} Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation,{{Cite web\|title \= The astounding athletic power of quadcopters\|url \= http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello\_d\_andrea\_the\_astounding\_athletic\_power\_of\_quadcopters\#t\-1461\|website \= www.ted.com\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|first \= Raffaello\|last \= D'Andrea\| date\=11 June 2013 \|archive\-date \= 5 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160205181354/http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello\_d\_andrea\_the\_astounding\_athletic\_power\_of\_quadcopters\#t\-1461\|url\-status \= live}}{{Cite journal\|title \= Design of Flight Control System for a Small Unmanned Tilt Rotor Aircraft\|journal \= Chinese Journal of Aeronautics\|date \= 1 June 2009\|pages \= 250–256\|volume \= 22\|issue \= 3\|doi \= 10\.1016/S1000\-9361(08\)60095\-3\|first1 \= Song\|last1 \= Yanguo\|first2 \= Wang\|last2 \= Huanjin\|doi\-access \= free\| bibcode\=2009ChJAn..22\..250Y }} such as VTOL designs.
UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.{{Cite web\|title \= The device, designed for landing UAV helicopter type on a flat vertical surface\|url \= https://patents.google.com/patent/RU160508U1/en?inventor\=%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9\+%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE\|website \= patents.google.com\|access\-date \= 6 November 2016\|archive\-date \= 7 March 2017\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170307103055/https://patents.google.com/patent/RU160508U1/en?inventor\=%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9\+%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE\|url\-status \= live}}
### Endurance
[thumb\|UEL UAV\-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations](/wiki/File:UAV-741-F.jpg "UAV-741-F.jpg")
[thumb\|Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones](/wiki/File:Flight_time_against_mass_of_small_drones.svg "Flight time against mass of small drones.svg")
UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.
Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, [Wankel rotary engines](/wiki/Wankel_rotary_engines "Wankel rotary engines") are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock\-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.
Proper drone cooling is essential for long\-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\-cooling\-drone\-performance\|title\=The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance\|website\=Pelonis Technologies\|access\-date\=22 June 2018\|archive\-date\=22 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220335/https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\-cooling\-drone\-performance\|url\-status\=live}}
[Hydrogen fuel cells](/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cells "Hydrogen fuel cells"), using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.{{Cite web\|title \= Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle {{!}} Georgia Tech Research Institute\|url \= http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\-hydrogen\|website \= www.gtri.gatech.edu\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 3 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160203120006/http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\-hydrogen\|url\-status \= live}}{{Cite web\|title \= Hydrogen\-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time\|url \= http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\-energy\-systems\-hycopter\-fuel\-cell\-drone/37585/\|website \= www.gizmag.com\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|date \= 20 May 2015\|archive\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194507/http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\-energy\-systems\-hycopter\-fuel\-cell\-drone/37585/\|url\-status \= live}}
Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping\-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number "Reynolds number").
Solar\-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.
Solar\-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [low Earth orbit](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit "Low Earth orbit") satellites. Likely applications include [weather drones](/wiki/Weather_drone "Weather drone") for [weather monitoring](/wiki/Weather_reconnaissance "Weather reconnaissance"), [disaster recovery](/wiki/Emergency_management%23Recovery "Emergency management#Recovery"), [Earth imaging](/wiki/Earth_imaging "Earth imaging") and communications.
Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\-087\-DFRC.html\|title\=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs\|last\=Gibbs\|first\=Yvonne\|date\=31 March 2015\|work\=NASA\|access\-date\=22 June 2018\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=5 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405021645/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\-087\-DFRC.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS\-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.
| \+ Lengthy endurance flights |
| --- |
| UAV | Flight timehours:minutes | Date | Notes |
| [Boeing Condor](/wiki/Boeing_Condor "Boeing Condor") | 58:11 | 1989 | The aircraft is currently in the [Hiller Aviation Museum](/wiki/Hiller_Aviation_Museum "Hiller Aviation Museum"). {{citation \|url\=http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\.pdf \|title\=Vertical Challenge: "Monsters of the sky" \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911145056/http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\.pdf \|archive\-date\=11 September 2013 }} |
| [General Atomics Gnat](/wiki/General_Atomics_Gnat "General Atomics Gnat") | 40:00 | 1992 | {{cite web\|url\=http://www.designation\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\|title\=General Atomics Gnat\|publisher\=Designation\-systems.net\|access\-date\=8 January 2015\|archive\-date\=11 December 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211063639/http://www.designation\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\_12\.html \|title\=UAV Notes \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730032004/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\_12\.html \|archive\-date\=30 July 2013 }} |
| [TAM\-5](/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Butts_Farm "The Spirit of Butts Farm") | 38:52 | 11 August 2003 | Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic {{cite web\|url\=http://tam.plannet21\.com/\|title\=Trans atlantic Model\|publisher\=Tam.plannet21\.com\|access\-date\=8 January 2015\|archive\-url\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522211703/http://tam.plannet21\.com/\|archive\-date\=22 May 2016}} |
| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr "QinetiQ Zephyr") Solar Electric | 54:00 | September 2007 | {{cite press release \|url\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2007/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|date\=10 September 2007 \|publisher\=QinetiQ \|title\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV exceeds official world record for longest duration unmanned flight \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423162325/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2007/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|archive\-date\=23 April 2011}}{{cite web\|first\= Tom \|last\=Simonite \|url\=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\-flyer\-en\-route\-to\-everlasting.html \|title\=New Scientist Technology Blog: Solar plane en route to everlasting flight \|work\=New Scientist \|access\-date\=8 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090342/http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\-flyer\-en\-route\-to\-everlasting.html\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015}} |
| [RQ\-4 Global Hawk](/wiki/RQ-4_Global_Hawk "RQ-4 Global Hawk") | 33:06 | 22 March 2008 | Set an endurance record for a full\-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\_Grumman\_Global\_Hawk\_Unmanned\_Aircraft\_Sets\_33\_Hour\_Flight\_Endurance\_Record\_999\.html \|title\=Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33\-Hour Flight Endurance Record \|publisher\=Spacewar.com \|access\-date\=27 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=1 July 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130701060609/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\_Grumman\_Global\_Hawk\_Unmanned\_Aircraft\_Sets\_33\_Hour\_Flight\_Endurance\_Record\_999\.html \|url\-status\=live }} |
| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr "QinetiQ Zephyr") Solar Electric | 82:37 | 28–31 July 2008 | {{cite press release\|publisher\=QinetiQ\|date\=24 August 2008 \|url\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2008/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|title\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV flies for three and a half days to set unofficial world record for longest duration unmanned flight \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524020631/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2008/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|archive\-date\=24 May 2011}} |
| [QinetiQ Zephyr 7](/wiki/Airbus_Zephyr "Airbus Zephyr") | 336:22 | 9–23 July 2010 | Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740 ft (21,561 m){{cite press release \| url\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2010/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_files\_for.html \| title\=QinetiQ files for three world records for its Zephyr Solar powered UAV \| work\=QinetiQ \| date\=24 August 2010 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924231501/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2010/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_files\_for.html \| archive\-date\=24 September 2010}} |
The delicacy of the British [PHASA\-35](/wiki/PHASA-35 "PHASA-35") military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however, remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to [near\-space](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line "Kármán line") for them to be regarded in "pseudo\-satellites" as regards to their operational capabilities.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/drones\-reach\-stratospheric\-heights\-in\-race\-to\-fly\-higher\-longer\-a29ceea3\|title\=Drones Reach Stratospheric Heights in Race to Fly Higher, Longer\|first\=Alistair\|last\=MacDonald\|newspaper\=Wall Street Journal \|date\=14 July 2023\|via\=www.wsj.com}}
### Reliability
Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using [resilience engineering](/wiki/Resilience_%28engineering_and_construction%29 "Resilience (engineering and construction)") and [fault tolerance](/wiki/Fault_tolerance "Fault tolerance") techniques.
Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.aerospacelab\-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelab\-journal.org/files/AL08\-02\_0\.pdf\|title \= Towards Modular and Certified Avionics for UAV\|date \= December 2014\|website \= Aerospacelab Journal\|last \= Boniol\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204200527/http://www.aerospacelab\-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelab\-journal.org/files/AL08\-02\_0\.pdf\|url\-status \= live}} Besides, dynamic assessment of [flight envelope](/wiki/Flight_envelope "Flight envelope") allows damage\-resilient UAVs, using [non\-linear analysis](/wiki/Nonlinear_system "Nonlinear system") with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks.{{Cite web\|url \= http://enu.kz/repository/2009/AIAA\-2009\-5736\.pdf\|title \= A Comparison Study of Several Adaptive Control Strategies for Resilient Flight Control\|date \= 2009\|website \= AIAA Guidance, Navigation andControl Conference\|last \= D. Boskovic and Knoebel\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204191326/http://enu.kz/repository/2009/AIAA\-2009\-5736\.pdf\|archive\-date \= 4 February 2016\|df \= dmy\-all}} UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of [crewed avionics software](/wiki/Avionics_software "Avionics software").{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.naefrontiers.org/File.aspx?id\=25848\|title \= Certifiable Autonomous Flight Management for Unmanned Aircraft Systems\|website \= University of Michigan\|last \= Atkins\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 5 March 2017\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170305144615/https://www.naefrontiers.org/File.aspx?id\=25848\|url\-status \= live}}
Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/\~gokhale/WWW/papers/EASe14\_AutonomousDnC.pdf \|title\=Key Considerations for a Resilient and Autonomous Deployment and Configuration Infrastructure for Cyber\-Physical Systems \|date\=2013 \|website\=Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vanderbilt University, Nashville \|author\=Subhav Pradhan \|author2\=William Otte \|author3\=Abhishek Dubey \|author4\=Aniruddha Gokhale \|author5\=Gabor Karsai \|access\-date\=4 February 2016 \|archive\-date\=4 February 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194114/http://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/\~gokhale/WWW/papers/EASe14\_AutonomousDnC.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Performance considerations\n--------------------------",
"### Flight envelope",
"UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces,{{Cite web\\|title \\= Teaching tiny drones how to fly themselves\\|url \\= https://arstechnica.com/information\\-technology/2012/11/a\\-beautiful\\-robotic\\-mind/1/\\|website \\= Ars Technica\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|date \\= 27 November 2012\\|archive\\-date \\= 5 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160205171813/http://arstechnica.com/information\\-technology/2012/11/a\\-beautiful\\-robotic\\-mind/1/\\|url\\-status \\= live}} and then to climb toward better communication spots.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://bdml.stanford.edu/Main/MultiModalRobots\\|title\\=Biomimetics and Dextrous Manipulation Lab – MultiModalRobots\\|website\\=bdml.stanford.edu\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323135154/http://bdml.stanford.edu/Main/MultiModalRobots\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation,{{Cite web\\|title \\= The astounding athletic power of quadcopters\\|url \\= http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello\\_d\\_andrea\\_the\\_astounding\\_athletic\\_power\\_of\\_quadcopters\\#t\\-1461\\|website \\= www.ted.com\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|first \\= Raffaello\\|last \\= D'Andrea\\| date\\=11 June 2013 \\|archive\\-date \\= 5 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160205181354/http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello\\_d\\_andrea\\_the\\_astounding\\_athletic\\_power\\_of\\_quadcopters\\#t\\-1461\\|url\\-status \\= live}}{{Cite journal\\|title \\= Design of Flight Control System for a Small Unmanned Tilt Rotor Aircraft\\|journal \\= Chinese Journal of Aeronautics\\|date \\= 1 June 2009\\|pages \\= 250–256\\|volume \\= 22\\|issue \\= 3\\|doi \\= 10\\.1016/S1000\\-9361(08\\)60095\\-3\\|first1 \\= Song\\|last1 \\= Yanguo\\|first2 \\= Wang\\|last2 \\= Huanjin\\|doi\\-access \\= free\\| bibcode\\=2009ChJAn..22\\..250Y }} such as VTOL designs.",
"UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.{{Cite web\\|title \\= The device, designed for landing UAV helicopter type on a flat vertical surface\\|url \\= https://patents.google.com/patent/RU160508U1/en?inventor\\=%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9\\+%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\\+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE\\|website \\= patents.google.com\\|access\\-date \\= 6 November 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 7 March 2017\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170307103055/https://patents.google.com/patent/RU160508U1/en?inventor\\=%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9\\+%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\\+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"### Endurance",
"[thumb\\|UEL UAV\\-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations](/wiki/File:UAV-741-F.jpg \"UAV-741-F.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones](/wiki/File:Flight_time_against_mass_of_small_drones.svg \"Flight time against mass of small drones.svg\")\nUAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.",
"Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, [Wankel rotary engines](/wiki/Wankel_rotary_engines \"Wankel rotary engines\") are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock\\-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.",
"Proper drone cooling is essential for long\\-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\\-cooling\\-drone\\-performance\\|title\\=The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance\\|website\\=Pelonis Technologies\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220335/https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\\-cooling\\-drone\\-performance\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[Hydrogen fuel cells](/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cells \"Hydrogen fuel cells\"), using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle {{!}} Georgia Tech Research Institute\\|url \\= http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\\-hydrogen\\|website \\= www.gtri.gatech.edu\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 3 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160203120006/http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\\-hydrogen\\|url\\-status \\= live}}{{Cite web\\|title \\= Hydrogen\\-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time\\|url \\= http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\\-energy\\-systems\\-hycopter\\-fuel\\-cell\\-drone/37585/\\|website \\= www.gizmag.com\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|date \\= 20 May 2015\\|archive\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194507/http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\\-energy\\-systems\\-hycopter\\-fuel\\-cell\\-drone/37585/\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping\\-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number \"Reynolds number\").",
"Solar\\-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.",
"Solar\\-powered atmospheric satellites (\"atmosats\") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [low Earth orbit](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") satellites. Likely applications include [weather drones](/wiki/Weather_drone \"Weather drone\") for [weather monitoring](/wiki/Weather_reconnaissance \"Weather reconnaissance\"), [disaster recovery](/wiki/Emergency_management%23Recovery \"Emergency management#Recovery\"), [Earth imaging](/wiki/Earth_imaging \"Earth imaging\") and communications.",
"Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\\-087\\-DFRC.html\\|title\\=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs\\|last\\=Gibbs\\|first\\=Yvonne\\|date\\=31 March 2015\\|work\\=NASA\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2018\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405021645/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\\-087\\-DFRC.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to \"stare\" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS\\-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.",
"",
"| \\+ Lengthy endurance flights |\n| --- |\n| UAV | Flight timehours:minutes | Date | Notes |\n| [Boeing Condor](/wiki/Boeing_Condor \"Boeing Condor\") | 58:11 | 1989 | The aircraft is currently in the [Hiller Aviation Museum](/wiki/Hiller_Aviation_Museum \"Hiller Aviation Museum\"). {{citation \\|url\\=http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\\.pdf \\|title\\=Vertical Challenge: \"Monsters of the sky\" \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911145056/http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2013 }} |\n| [General Atomics Gnat](/wiki/General_Atomics_Gnat \"General Atomics Gnat\") | 40:00 | 1992 | {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.designation\\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\\|title\\=General Atomics Gnat\\|publisher\\=Designation\\-systems.net\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211063639/http://www.designation\\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\\_12\\.html \\|title\\=UAV Notes \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730032004/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\\_12\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 July 2013 }} |\n| [TAM\\-5](/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Butts_Farm \"The Spirit of Butts Farm\") | 38:52 | 11 August 2003 | Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic {{cite web\\|url\\=http://tam.plannet21\\.com/\\|title\\=Trans atlantic Model\\|publisher\\=Tam.plannet21\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522211703/http://tam.plannet21\\.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 May 2016}} |\n| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr \"QinetiQ Zephyr\") Solar Electric | 54:00 | September 2007 | {{cite press release \\|url\\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2007/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|date\\=10 September 2007 \\|publisher\\=QinetiQ \\|title\\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV exceeds official world record for longest duration unmanned flight \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423162325/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2007/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|archive\\-date\\=23 April 2011}}{{cite web\\|first\\= Tom \\|last\\=Simonite \\|url\\=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\\-flyer\\-en\\-route\\-to\\-everlasting.html \\|title\\=New Scientist Technology Blog: Solar plane en route to everlasting flight \\|work\\=New Scientist \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090342/http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\\-flyer\\-en\\-route\\-to\\-everlasting.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015}} |\n| [RQ\\-4 Global Hawk](/wiki/RQ-4_Global_Hawk \"RQ-4 Global Hawk\") | 33:06 | 22 March 2008 | Set an endurance record for a full\\-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\\_Grumman\\_Global\\_Hawk\\_Unmanned\\_Aircraft\\_Sets\\_33\\_Hour\\_Flight\\_Endurance\\_Record\\_999\\.html \\|title\\=Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33\\-Hour Flight Endurance Record \\|publisher\\=Spacewar.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130701060609/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\\_Grumman\\_Global\\_Hawk\\_Unmanned\\_Aircraft\\_Sets\\_33\\_Hour\\_Flight\\_Endurance\\_Record\\_999\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} |\n| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr \"QinetiQ Zephyr\") Solar Electric | 82:37 | 28–31 July 2008 | {{cite press release\\|publisher\\=QinetiQ\\|date\\=24 August 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2008/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|title\\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV flies for three and a half days to set unofficial world record for longest duration unmanned flight \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524020631/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2008/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 May 2011}} |\n| [QinetiQ Zephyr 7](/wiki/Airbus_Zephyr \"Airbus Zephyr\") | 336:22 | 9–23 July 2010 | Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740 ft (21,561 m){{cite press release \\| url\\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2010/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_files\\_for.html \\| title\\=QinetiQ files for three world records for its Zephyr Solar powered UAV \\| work\\=QinetiQ \\| date\\=24 August 2010 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924231501/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2010/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_files\\_for.html \\| archive\\-date\\=24 September 2010}} |",
"The delicacy of the British [PHASA\\-35](/wiki/PHASA-35 \"PHASA-35\") military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however, remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to [near\\-space](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line \"Kármán line\") for them to be regarded in \"pseudo\\-satellites\" as regards to their operational capabilities.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/drones\\-reach\\-stratospheric\\-heights\\-in\\-race\\-to\\-fly\\-higher\\-longer\\-a29ceea3\\|title\\=Drones Reach Stratospheric Heights in Race to Fly Higher, Longer\\|first\\=Alistair\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|newspaper\\=Wall Street Journal \\|date\\=14 July 2023\\|via\\=www.wsj.com}}",
"### Reliability",
"Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using [resilience engineering](/wiki/Resilience_%28engineering_and_construction%29 \"Resilience (engineering and construction)\") and [fault tolerance](/wiki/Fault_tolerance \"Fault tolerance\") techniques.",
"Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.aerospacelab\\-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelab\\-journal.org/files/AL08\\-02\\_0\\.pdf\\|title \\= Towards Modular and Certified Avionics for UAV\\|date \\= December 2014\\|website \\= Aerospacelab Journal\\|last \\= Boniol\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204200527/http://www.aerospacelab\\-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelab\\-journal.org/files/AL08\\-02\\_0\\.pdf\\|url\\-status \\= live}} Besides, dynamic assessment of [flight envelope](/wiki/Flight_envelope \"Flight envelope\") allows damage\\-resilient UAVs, using [non\\-linear analysis](/wiki/Nonlinear_system \"Nonlinear system\") with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://enu.kz/repository/2009/AIAA\\-2009\\-5736\\.pdf\\|title \\= A Comparison Study of Several Adaptive Control Strategies for Resilient Flight Control\\|date \\= 2009\\|website \\= AIAA Guidance, Navigation andControl Conference\\|last \\= D. Boskovic and Knoebel\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204191326/http://enu.kz/repository/2009/AIAA\\-2009\\-5736\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|df \\= dmy\\-all}} UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of [crewed avionics software](/wiki/Avionics_software \"Avionics software\").{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.naefrontiers.org/File.aspx?id\\=25848\\|title \\= Certifiable Autonomous Flight Management for Unmanned Aircraft Systems\\|website \\= University of Michigan\\|last \\= Atkins\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 5 March 2017\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170305144615/https://www.naefrontiers.org/File.aspx?id\\=25848\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/\\~gokhale/WWW/papers/EASe14\\_AutonomousDnC.pdf \\|title\\=Key Considerations for a Resilient and Autonomous Deployment and Configuration Infrastructure for Cyber\\-Physical Systems \\|date\\=2013 \\|website\\=Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vanderbilt University, Nashville \\|author\\=Subhav Pradhan \\|author2\\=William Otte \\|author3\\=Abhishek Dubey \\|author4\\=Aniruddha Gokhale \\|author5\\=Gabor Karsai \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194114/http://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/\\~gokhale/WWW/papers/EASe14\\_AutonomousDnC.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
### Endurance
[thumb\|UEL UAV\-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations](/wiki/File:UAV-741-F.jpg "UAV-741-F.jpg")
[thumb\|Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones](/wiki/File:Flight_time_against_mass_of_small_drones.svg "Flight time against mass of small drones.svg")
UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.
Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, [Wankel rotary engines](/wiki/Wankel_rotary_engines "Wankel rotary engines") are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock\-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.
Proper drone cooling is essential for long\-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\-cooling\-drone\-performance\|title\=The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance\|website\=Pelonis Technologies\|access\-date\=22 June 2018\|archive\-date\=22 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220335/https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\-cooling\-drone\-performance\|url\-status\=live}}
[Hydrogen fuel cells](/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cells "Hydrogen fuel cells"), using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.{{Cite web\|title \= Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle {{!}} Georgia Tech Research Institute\|url \= http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\-hydrogen\|website \= www.gtri.gatech.edu\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-date \= 3 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160203120006/http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\-hydrogen\|url\-status \= live}}{{Cite web\|title \= Hydrogen\-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time\|url \= http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\-energy\-systems\-hycopter\-fuel\-cell\-drone/37585/\|website \= www.gizmag.com\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|date \= 20 May 2015\|archive\-date \= 4 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194507/http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\-energy\-systems\-hycopter\-fuel\-cell\-drone/37585/\|url\-status \= live}}
Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping\-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number "Reynolds number").
Solar\-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.
Solar\-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [low Earth orbit](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit "Low Earth orbit") satellites. Likely applications include [weather drones](/wiki/Weather_drone "Weather drone") for [weather monitoring](/wiki/Weather_reconnaissance "Weather reconnaissance"), [disaster recovery](/wiki/Emergency_management%23Recovery "Emergency management#Recovery"), [Earth imaging](/wiki/Earth_imaging "Earth imaging") and communications.
Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\-087\-DFRC.html\|title\=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs\|last\=Gibbs\|first\=Yvonne\|date\=31 March 2015\|work\=NASA\|access\-date\=22 June 2018\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=5 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405021645/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\-087\-DFRC.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS\-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.
| \+ Lengthy endurance flights |
| --- |
| UAV | Flight timehours:minutes | Date | Notes |
| [Boeing Condor](/wiki/Boeing_Condor "Boeing Condor") | 58:11 | 1989 | The aircraft is currently in the [Hiller Aviation Museum](/wiki/Hiller_Aviation_Museum "Hiller Aviation Museum"). {{citation \|url\=http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\.pdf \|title\=Vertical Challenge: "Monsters of the sky" \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911145056/http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\.pdf \|archive\-date\=11 September 2013 }} |
| [General Atomics Gnat](/wiki/General_Atomics_Gnat "General Atomics Gnat") | 40:00 | 1992 | {{cite web\|url\=http://www.designation\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\|title\=General Atomics Gnat\|publisher\=Designation\-systems.net\|access\-date\=8 January 2015\|archive\-date\=11 December 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211063639/http://www.designation\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\_12\.html \|title\=UAV Notes \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730032004/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\_12\.html \|archive\-date\=30 July 2013 }} |
| [TAM\-5](/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Butts_Farm "The Spirit of Butts Farm") | 38:52 | 11 August 2003 | Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic {{cite web\|url\=http://tam.plannet21\.com/\|title\=Trans atlantic Model\|publisher\=Tam.plannet21\.com\|access\-date\=8 January 2015\|archive\-url\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522211703/http://tam.plannet21\.com/\|archive\-date\=22 May 2016}} |
| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr "QinetiQ Zephyr") Solar Electric | 54:00 | September 2007 | {{cite press release \|url\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2007/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|date\=10 September 2007 \|publisher\=QinetiQ \|title\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV exceeds official world record for longest duration unmanned flight \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423162325/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2007/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|archive\-date\=23 April 2011}}{{cite web\|first\= Tom \|last\=Simonite \|url\=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\-flyer\-en\-route\-to\-everlasting.html \|title\=New Scientist Technology Blog: Solar plane en route to everlasting flight \|work\=New Scientist \|access\-date\=8 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090342/http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\-flyer\-en\-route\-to\-everlasting.html\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015}} |
| [RQ\-4 Global Hawk](/wiki/RQ-4_Global_Hawk "RQ-4 Global Hawk") | 33:06 | 22 March 2008 | Set an endurance record for a full\-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\_Grumman\_Global\_Hawk\_Unmanned\_Aircraft\_Sets\_33\_Hour\_Flight\_Endurance\_Record\_999\.html \|title\=Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33\-Hour Flight Endurance Record \|publisher\=Spacewar.com \|access\-date\=27 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=1 July 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130701060609/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\_Grumman\_Global\_Hawk\_Unmanned\_Aircraft\_Sets\_33\_Hour\_Flight\_Endurance\_Record\_999\.html \|url\-status\=live }} |
| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr "QinetiQ Zephyr") Solar Electric | 82:37 | 28–31 July 2008 | {{cite press release\|publisher\=QinetiQ\|date\=24 August 2008 \|url\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2008/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|title\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV flies for three and a half days to set unofficial world record for longest duration unmanned flight \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524020631/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2008/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_s\_zephyr\_uav.html \|archive\-date\=24 May 2011}} |
| [QinetiQ Zephyr 7](/wiki/Airbus_Zephyr "Airbus Zephyr") | 336:22 | 9–23 July 2010 | Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740 ft (21,561 m){{cite press release \| url\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2010/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_files\_for.html \| title\=QinetiQ files for three world records for its Zephyr Solar powered UAV \| work\=QinetiQ \| date\=24 August 2010 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924231501/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\_releases\_homepage/2010/3rd\_quarter/qinetiq\_files\_for.html \| archive\-date\=24 September 2010}} |
The delicacy of the British [PHASA\-35](/wiki/PHASA-35 "PHASA-35") military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however, remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to [near\-space](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line "Kármán line") for them to be regarded in "pseudo\-satellites" as regards to their operational capabilities.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/drones\-reach\-stratospheric\-heights\-in\-race\-to\-fly\-higher\-longer\-a29ceea3\|title\=Drones Reach Stratospheric Heights in Race to Fly Higher, Longer\|first\=Alistair\|last\=MacDonald\|newspaper\=Wall Street Journal \|date\=14 July 2023\|via\=www.wsj.com}}
|
[
"### Endurance",
"[thumb\\|UEL UAV\\-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations](/wiki/File:UAV-741-F.jpg \"UAV-741-F.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones](/wiki/File:Flight_time_against_mass_of_small_drones.svg \"Flight time against mass of small drones.svg\")\nUAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.",
"Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, [Wankel rotary engines](/wiki/Wankel_rotary_engines \"Wankel rotary engines\") are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock\\-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.",
"Proper drone cooling is essential for long\\-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\\-cooling\\-drone\\-performance\\|title\\=The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance\\|website\\=Pelonis Technologies\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220335/https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper\\-cooling\\-drone\\-performance\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[Hydrogen fuel cells](/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cells \"Hydrogen fuel cells\"), using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle {{!}} Georgia Tech Research Institute\\|url \\= http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\\-hydrogen\\|website \\= www.gtri.gatech.edu\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-date \\= 3 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160203120006/http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying\\-hydrogen\\|url\\-status \\= live}}{{Cite web\\|title \\= Hydrogen\\-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time\\|url \\= http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\\-energy\\-systems\\-hycopter\\-fuel\\-cell\\-drone/37585/\\|website \\= www.gizmag.com\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|date \\= 20 May 2015\\|archive\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194507/http://www.gizmag.com/horizon\\-energy\\-systems\\-hycopter\\-fuel\\-cell\\-drone/37585/\\|url\\-status \\= live}}",
"Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping\\-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number \"Reynolds number\").",
"Solar\\-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.",
"Solar\\-powered atmospheric satellites (\"atmosats\") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [low Earth orbit](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") satellites. Likely applications include [weather drones](/wiki/Weather_drone \"Weather drone\") for [weather monitoring](/wiki/Weather_reconnaissance \"Weather reconnaissance\"), [disaster recovery](/wiki/Emergency_management%23Recovery \"Emergency management#Recovery\"), [Earth imaging](/wiki/Earth_imaging \"Earth imaging\") and communications.",
"Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\\-087\\-DFRC.html\\|title\\=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs\\|last\\=Gibbs\\|first\\=Yvonne\\|date\\=31 March 2015\\|work\\=NASA\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2018\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405021645/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS\\-087\\-DFRC.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to \"stare\" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS\\-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.",
"",
"| \\+ Lengthy endurance flights |\n| --- |\n| UAV | Flight timehours:minutes | Date | Notes |\n| [Boeing Condor](/wiki/Boeing_Condor \"Boeing Condor\") | 58:11 | 1989 | The aircraft is currently in the [Hiller Aviation Museum](/wiki/Hiller_Aviation_Museum \"Hiller Aviation Museum\"). {{citation \\|url\\=http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\\.pdf \\|title\\=Vertical Challenge: \"Monsters of the sky\" \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911145056/http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2013 }} |\n| [General Atomics Gnat](/wiki/General_Atomics_Gnat \"General Atomics Gnat\") | 40:00 | 1992 | {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.designation\\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\\|title\\=General Atomics Gnat\\|publisher\\=Designation\\-systems.net\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211063639/http://www.designation\\-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\\_12\\.html \\|title\\=UAV Notes \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730032004/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav\\_12\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 July 2013 }} |\n| [TAM\\-5](/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Butts_Farm \"The Spirit of Butts Farm\") | 38:52 | 11 August 2003 | Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic {{cite web\\|url\\=http://tam.plannet21\\.com/\\|title\\=Trans atlantic Model\\|publisher\\=Tam.plannet21\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522211703/http://tam.plannet21\\.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 May 2016}} |\n| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr \"QinetiQ Zephyr\") Solar Electric | 54:00 | September 2007 | {{cite press release \\|url\\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2007/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|date\\=10 September 2007 \\|publisher\\=QinetiQ \\|title\\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV exceeds official world record for longest duration unmanned flight \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423162325/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2007/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|archive\\-date\\=23 April 2011}}{{cite web\\|first\\= Tom \\|last\\=Simonite \\|url\\=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\\-flyer\\-en\\-route\\-to\\-everlasting.html \\|title\\=New Scientist Technology Blog: Solar plane en route to everlasting flight \\|work\\=New Scientist \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090342/http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar\\-flyer\\-en\\-route\\-to\\-everlasting.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015}} |\n| [RQ\\-4 Global Hawk](/wiki/RQ-4_Global_Hawk \"RQ-4 Global Hawk\") | 33:06 | 22 March 2008 | Set an endurance record for a full\\-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\\_Grumman\\_Global\\_Hawk\\_Unmanned\\_Aircraft\\_Sets\\_33\\_Hour\\_Flight\\_Endurance\\_Record\\_999\\.html \\|title\\=Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33\\-Hour Flight Endurance Record \\|publisher\\=Spacewar.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130701060609/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop\\_Grumman\\_Global\\_Hawk\\_Unmanned\\_Aircraft\\_Sets\\_33\\_Hour\\_Flight\\_Endurance\\_Record\\_999\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} |\n| [QinetiQ Zephyr](/wiki/QinetiQ_Zephyr \"QinetiQ Zephyr\") Solar Electric | 82:37 | 28–31 July 2008 | {{cite press release\\|publisher\\=QinetiQ\\|date\\=24 August 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2008/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|title\\=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV flies for three and a half days to set unofficial world record for longest duration unmanned flight \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524020631/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2008/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_s\\_zephyr\\_uav.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 May 2011}} |\n| [QinetiQ Zephyr 7](/wiki/Airbus_Zephyr \"Airbus Zephyr\") | 336:22 | 9–23 July 2010 | Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740 ft (21,561 m){{cite press release \\| url\\=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2010/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_files\\_for.html \\| title\\=QinetiQ files for three world records for its Zephyr Solar powered UAV \\| work\\=QinetiQ \\| date\\=24 August 2010 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924231501/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news\\_releases\\_homepage/2010/3rd\\_quarter/qinetiq\\_files\\_for.html \\| archive\\-date\\=24 September 2010}} |",
"The delicacy of the British [PHASA\\-35](/wiki/PHASA-35 \"PHASA-35\") military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however, remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to [near\\-space](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line \"Kármán line\") for them to be regarded in \"pseudo\\-satellites\" as regards to their operational capabilities.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/drones\\-reach\\-stratospheric\\-heights\\-in\\-race\\-to\\-fly\\-higher\\-longer\\-a29ceea3\\|title\\=Drones Reach Stratospheric Heights in Race to Fly Higher, Longer\\|first\\=Alistair\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|newspaper\\=Wall Street Journal \\|date\\=14 July 2023\\|via\\=www.wsj.com}}",
""
] |
Applications
------------
{{Main\|List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications}}
In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS){{cite web \|title\=How Autonomous Drone Flights Will Go Beyond Line of Sight \|url\=https://www.nanalyze.com/2019/12/autonomous\-drone\-flights/ \|website\=Nanalyze \|date\=31 December 2019 \|access\-date\=16 April 2020 \|archive\-date\=20 May 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520194214/https://www.nanalyze.com/2019/12/autonomous\-drone\-flights/ \|url\-status\=live }} while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance,{{cite web \|last1\=McNabb \|first1\=Miriam \|title\=Drones Get the Lights Back on Faster for Florida Communities \|url\=https://dronelife.com/2020/02/28/drones\-get\-the\-lights\-back\-on\-faster\-for\-florida\-communities/ \|website\=DRONELIFE \|date\=28 February 2020 \|access\-date\=16 April 2020 \|archive\-date\=12 March 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312063842/https://dronelife.com/2020/02/28/drones\-get\-the\-lights\-back\-on\-faster\-for\-florida\-communities/ \|url\-status\=live }} and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic.{{cite web \|last1\=Peck \|first1\=Abe \|title\=Coronavirus Spurs Percepto's Drone\-in\-a\-Box Surveillance Solution \|url\=https://insideunmannedsystems.com/unintended\-consequences\-coronavirus\-spurs\-perceptos\-drone\-in\-a\-box\-surveillance\-solution/ \|website\=Inside Unmanned Systems \|date\=19 March 2020 \|access\-date\=16 April 2020 \|archive\-date\=24 March 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324195138/https://insideunmannedsystems.com/unintended\-consequences\-coronavirus\-spurs\-perceptos\-drone\-in\-a\-box\-surveillance\-solution/ \|url\-status\=live }} They can also be used for consumer\-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by [Amazon Prime Air](/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Air "Amazon Prime Air"), and critical deliveries of health supplies.
There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs. These include:
General [Recreation](/wiki/Recreation "Recreation"), [disaster relief](/wiki/Disaster_relief "Disaster relief"), [archeology](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology"), conservation of [biodiversity](/wiki/Conservation_biology "Conservation biology") and [habitat](/wiki/Habitat_conservation "Habitat conservation"),{{Cite journal \|last\=Valle \|first\=Roberto G. \|date\=January 2022 \|title\=Rapid drone semi\-automated counts of wintering Greater Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus roseus ) as a tool for amateur researchers \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1111/ibi.12993 \|journal\=Ibis \|language\=en \|volume\=164 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=320–328 \|doi\=10\.1111/ibi.12993 \|s2cid\=237865267 \|issn\=0019\-1019 \|access\-date\=13 October 2022 \|archive\-date\=13 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125343/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1111/ibi.12993 \|url\-status\=live }} [law enforcement](/wiki/Law_enforcement "Law enforcement"), [crime](/wiki/Crime "Crime"), and [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism").
Commercial [Aerial surveillance](/wiki/Surveillance_aircraft "Surveillance aircraft"), [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking "Filmmaking"), [journalism](/wiki/Journalism "Journalism"), [scientific research](/wiki/Scientific_method "Scientific method"), [surveying](/wiki/Surveying "Surveying"), [cargo transport](/wiki/Freight_transport "Freight transport"), [mining](/wiki/Mining "Mining"), [manufacturing](/wiki/Manufacturing "Manufacturing"), [forestry](/wiki/Forestry "Forestry"), [solar farming](/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station "Photovoltaic power station"), [thermal energy](/wiki/Thermal_power_station "Thermal power station"), [ports](/wiki/Port "Port") and [agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture "Agriculture").
### Warfare
{{Main\|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle\|Drone warfare\|Loitering munition\|Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle\|Miniature UAV\|Micro air vehicle\|Target drone}}
[thumb\|A [Baykar Bayraktar TB2](/wiki/Baykar_Bayraktar_TB2 "Baykar Bayraktar TB2") of the [Ukrainian Air Force](/wiki/Ukrainian_Air_Force "Ukrainian Air Force") armed with [MAM\-L](/wiki/MAM_%28Smart_Micro_Munition%29 "MAM (Smart Micro Munition)"); two [ground control stations](/wiki/UAV_ground_control_station "UAV ground control station") in the background](/wiki/File:Bayraktar_TB2_of_UAF%2C_2020%2C_09.jpg "Bayraktar TB2 of UAF, 2020, 09.jpg")
As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-polisci\-050718\-032725\|doi\-access\=free\|title\=Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics?\|year\=2020\|last1\=Horowitz\|first1\=Michael C.\|journal\=Annual Review of Political Science\|volume\=23\|issue\=1 \|pages\=385–400}} The first five countries producing domestic UAV designs are the United States, China, Israel, Iran and Turkey.{{cite web \|url\= https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/strengthening\-turkish\-policy\-on\-drone\-exports\-pub\-86183 \|title\= Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports \|publisher\= Carnegie Endowment for International \|access\-date\= 17 March 2022 \|archive\-date\= 23 March 2022 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220323025634/https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/strengthening\-turkish\-policy\-on\-drone\-exports\-pub\-86183 \|url\-status\= live }}{{cite web \|url\= https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkeys\-defense\-industry\-targets\-more\-than\-4\-billion\-in\-exports\-this\-year\-official\-172005 \|title\= Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official \|publisher\= Hürriyet Daily News \|date\= 6 March 2022 \|access\-date\= 17 March 2022 \|archive\-date\= 17 March 2022 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220317015136/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkeys\-defense\-industry\-targets\-more\-than\-4\-billion\-in\-exports\-this\-year\-official\-172005 \|url\-status\= live }}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.intelligent\-aerospace.com/unmanned/article/14199662/china\-military\-drones\-uav\-unmanned\|title\=Combat drones in China are coming to a conflict near you\|website\=www.intelligent\-aerospace.com\|date\=19 March 2021 \|access\-date\=7 June 2021\|archive\-date\=7 June 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607015056/https://www.intelligent\-aerospace.com/unmanned/article/14199662/china\-military\-drones\-uav\-unmanned\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://insideunmannedsystems.com/market\-military\-drones\-will\-surge/ \|title\=Market for Military Drones will Surge\|date\=27 October 2016\|access\-date\=19 February 2018\|archive\-date\=19 February 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219152237/http://insideunmannedsystems.com/market\-military\-drones\-will\-surge/\|url\-status\=live}} Top military UAV manufactures are including [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics "General Atomics"), [Lockheed Martin](/wiki/Lockheed_Martin "Lockheed Martin"), [Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman "Northrop Grumman"), [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing "Boeing"), [Baykar](/wiki/Baykar "Baykar"),{{cite web\|url\= https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish\-defence\-industry\-grows\-as\-akinci\-ucav\-signs\-first\-export\-deal\-53987\|title\= Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal\|publisher\= TRTWORLD\|date\= 23 January 2022\|access\-date\= 17 March 2022\|archive\-date\= 30 January 2022\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220130161059/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish\-defence\-industry\-grows\-as\-akinci\-ucav\-signs\-first\-export\-deal\-53987\|url\-status\= live}} [TAI](/wiki/Turkish_Aerospace_Industries "Turkish Aerospace Industries"), [IAIO](/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization "Iran Aviation Industries Organization"), [CASC](/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology_Corporation "China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation") and [CAIG](/wiki/Chengdu_Aircraft_Industry_Group "Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group"). China has established and expanded its presence in military UAV market since 2010\. In the early 2020s, Turkey also established and expanded its presence in the military UAV market.
In the early 2010s, Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems, and by the number of drones, Israel exported 60\.7% (2014\) of UAVs on the market while the United States exported 23\.9% (2014\).{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers\-behind\-worldwide\-trade\-in\-drones\-uk\-israel \|title\=The numbers behind the worldwide trade in UAVs \|date\=16 March 2015 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|last1\=Arnett \|first1\=George \|access\-date\=13 December 2016 \|archive\-date\=19 December 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219153019/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers\-behind\-worldwide\-trade\-in\-drones\-uk\-israel \|url\-status\=live }} Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of overall trade – just 11 (2\.5%) of the 439 are armed drones. The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014; among them more than 7000 are [RQ\-11 Raven](/wiki/AeroVironment_RQ-11_Raven "AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven") [miniature UAVs](/wiki/Miniature_UAV "Miniature UAV").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/01/02/pentagon\-plans\-for\-cuts\-to\-drone\-budgets/\|title\=Pentagon Plans for Cuts to Drone Budgets\|work\=DoD Buzz\|access\-date\=17 March 2022\|date\=2014\-01\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108232952/http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/01/02/pentagon\-plans\-for\-cuts\-to\-drone\-budgets/\|archive\-date\=8 January 2015}} Since 2010, Chinese drone companies have begun to export large quantities of drones to the global military market. Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019, the top 12 all purchased their drones from China.{{cite web\|url\=https://chinapower.csis.org/china\-drones\-unmanned\-technology/ \|title\=Is China at the Forefront of Drone Technology? \|website\=Center for Strategic and Internation Studies \|date\=29 May 2018 }} The shift accelerated in the 2020s due to China's advancement in drone technologies and manufacturing, compounded by market demand from the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine") and the [Israel\-Gaza conflict](/wiki/2023_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war "2023 Israel–Hamas war").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3242630/drone\-tech\-gives\-china\-edge\-middle\-east\-arms\-sales\-israel\-gaza\-war\-brings\-risks\-analysts \|title\=Drone tech gives China an edge in Middle East arms sales, but Israel\-Gaza war brings risks: analysts \|website\=South China Morning Post \|date\=25 November 2023 \|author\=Seong Hyeon Choi }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/politics/national\-security/chinese\-americanit\-doesnt\-matter\-israel\-wants\-inexpensive\-drones\-339a1355?mod\=mhp \|title\=Chinese, American—It Doesn't Matter. Israel Wants Inexpensive Drones. \|website\=The Wall Street Journal \|date\=9 November 2023 \|first\=Heather \|last\=Somerville }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2024/04/uk\-eyes\-chinese\-drone\-parts\-ukraine/396211/ \|title\=UK eyes Chinese drone parts for Ukraine \|date\=1 May 2024 \|website\=Defense One \|first\=Sam \|last\=Skove }}{{cite web\|url\=https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/chinas\-military\-advancements\-in\-the\-2010s\-air\-and\-ground/ \|title\=China's Military Advancements in the 2010s: Air and Ground \|website\=The Diplomat \|date\=5 February 2020 \|first\=Rick \|last\=Joe }}
For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of [micro UAV](/wiki/Micro_air_vehicle "Micro air vehicle") flapping\-wing [ornithopters](/wiki/Ornithopter "Ornithopter"), imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down.
[Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle](/wiki/Unmanned_surveillance_and_reconnaissance_aerial_vehicle "Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle") are used for [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance"), [attack](/wiki/Offensive_%28military%29 "Offensive (military)"), [demining](/wiki/Demining "Demining"), and [target practice](/wiki/Target_practice "Target practice").
Following the 2022 [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine") a dramatic increase in UAV development took place with Ukraine creating the [Brave1](/wiki/Brave1 "Brave1") platform to promote rapid development of innovative systems.
### Civil
[thumb\|[Zipline's](/wiki/Zipline_%28drone_delivery_company%29 "Zipline (drone delivery company)") aircraft being launched from a base in Rwanda to deliver blood products](/wiki/File:Zipline_Drone_Launch.jpg "Zipline Drone Launch.jpg")
The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese manufacturer [DJI](/wiki/DJI_%28company%29 "DJI (company)") alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in\-race\-to\-dominate\-drone\-space\-west\-is\-no\-match\-for\-chinas\-dji.html\|title\=China drone maker DJI: Alone atop the unmanned skies\|last\=Bateman\|first\=Joshua\|date\=1 September 2017\|work\=News Ledge\|access\-date\=19 February 2018\|archive\-date\=19 February 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151200/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in\-race\-to\-dominate\-drone\-space\-west\-is\-no\-match\-for\-chinas\-dji.html\|url\-status\=live}} The companies continue to hold over 70% of global market share by 2023, despite under increasing scrutinies and sanctions from the United States.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/08/worlds\-largest\-drone\-maker\-dji\-is\-unfazed\-by\-challenges\-like\-us\-blacklist.html \|title\=World's largest drone maker is unfazed — even if it's blacklisted by the U.S. \|website\=CNBC \|date\=7 February 2023 \|first\=Nessa \|last\= Anwar }} The US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign\-made UAVs.{{Cite news\|last1\=Friedman\|first1\=Lisa\|last2\=McCabe\|first2\=David\|date\=29 January 2020\|title\=Interior Dept. Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears\|language\=en\-US\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior\-chinese\-drones.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129191125/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior\-chinese\-drones.html \|archive\-date\=2020\-01\-29 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=17 November 2020\|issn\=0362\-4331}}{{Cite web\|last\=Miller\|first\=Maggie\|date\=8 October 2020\|title\=DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign\-made drones\|url\=https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269\-justice\-department\-issues\-policy\-banning\-use\-of\-grant\-funds\-for\-certain\|access\-date\=17 November 2020\|website\=\[\[The Hill (newspaper)\|The Hill]]\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=28 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128001142/https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269\-justice\-department\-issues\-policy\-banning\-use\-of\-grant\-funds\-for\-certain\|url\-status\=live}}
DJI is followed by American company [3D Robotics](/wiki/3D_Robotics "3D Robotics"), Chinese company [Yuneec](/wiki/Yuneec_International "Yuneec International"), [Autel Robotics](/wiki/Autel_Robotics "Autel Robotics"), and French company [Parrot](/wiki/Parrot_SA "Parrot SA").{{Cite web\|title \= DJI market share: here's exactly how rapidly it has grown in just a few years\|url \= http://thedronegirl.com/2018/09/18/dji\-market\-share/\|website \= Emberify Blog\| date\=18 September 2018 \|access\-date \= 18 September 2018\|archive\-date \= 24 September 2018\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180924033312/http://thedronegirl.com/2018/09/18/dji\-market\-share/\|url\-status \= live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://consortiq.com/uas\-resources/5\-major\-drone\-manufacturers\-powering\-the\-industry \|title\=5 Major Drone Manufacturers Powering the Industry \|website\=Consortiq \|date\=2021 \|first\=David \|last\=Daly }}
As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs had been registered with the US [FAA](/wiki/FAA "FAA"), of which 42% were categorized as commercial and 58% as recreational.{{Cite web\|title\=UAS by the Numbers\|url\=https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/by\_the\_numbers/\|access\-date\=24 May 2021\|website\=www.faa.gov\|language\=en\-us\|archive\-date\=17 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517144023/https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/by\_the\_numbers/\|url\-status\=live}} 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500\+ and $1000\+ market segments.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newsledge.com/consumer\-drones\-2018\-numbers/\|title\=Consumer Drones By the Numbers in 2018 and Beyond {{!}} News Ledge\|date\=4 April 2017\|work\=News Ledge\|access\-date\=13 October 2018\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=14 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014010203/https://www.newsledge.com/consumer\-drones\-2018\-numbers/\|url\-status\=live}}
The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early\-stage startups have received support and funding from investors, as is the case in the United States, and from government agencies, as is the case in India.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/companies/sounds\-like\-a\-drone/135174/\|title\=Skylark Drones set to raise its first round of funding to boost expansion\|date\=14 September 2015\|access\-date\=28 August 2016\|archive\-date\=14 September 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914170336/http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/companies/sounds\-like\-a\-drone/135174/\|url\-status\=live}} Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.{{Cite news\|title \= States are competing to be the Silicon Valley of drones\|url \= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\-switch/wp/2013/08/19/states\-are\-competing\-to\-be\-the\-silicon\-valley\-of\-drones/\|newspaper \= The Washington Post\|date \= 19 August 2013\|access\-date \= 4 February 2016\|issn \= 0190\-8286\|first \= Andrea\|last \= Peterson\|archive\-date \= 13 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160213121946/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\-switch/wp/2013/08/19/states\-are\-competing\-to\-be\-the\-silicon\-valley\-of\-drones/\|url\-status \= live}} Private entities also provide online and in\-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.{{Cite web\|url\=http://dronebusinessmarketer.com/drone\-training/\|title\=Drone Training Courses – The Complete List\|website\=Drone Business Marketer\|access\-date\=1 December 2016\|archive\-date\=16 November 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116112235/http://dronebusinessmarketer.com/drone\-training/\|url\-status\=live}}
Consumer drones are widely used by police and military organizations worldwide because of the cost\-effective nature of consumer products. Since 2018, the Israeli military have used DJI UAVs for light reconnaissance missions.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.janes.com/article/71456/idf\-buying\-mass\-market\-dji\-drones\|title\=IDF buying mass\-market DJI drones\|website\=Jane's 360\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211053504/http://www.janes.com/article/71456/idf\-buying\-mass\-market\-dji\-drones\|archive\-date\=11 December 2017}}{{Cite news \|last\=Greenwood \|first\=Faine \|date\=2017\-08\-16 \|title\=The U.S. Military Shouldn't Use Commercial Drones \|language\=en\-US \|work\=\[\[Slate (magazine)\|Slate]] \|url\=https://slate.com/technology/2017/08/the\-u\-s\-military\-shouldnt\-use\-commercial\-drones.html \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-02 \|issn\=1091\-2339 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417154848/http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future\_tense/2017/08/the\_u\_s\_military\_shouldn\_t\_use\_commercial\_drones.html \|archive\-date\=17 April 2018 }} DJI drones have been used by Chinese police in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang "Xinjiang") since 2017{{Cite news\|date\=26 March 2020\|title\=DJI Won the Drone Wars, and Now It's Paying the Price\|language\=en\|work\=\[\[Bloomberg News\|Bloomberg]]\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020\-03\-26/dji\-s\-drone\-supremacy\-comes\-at\-a\-price\|access\-date\=18 November 2020\|archive\-date\=19 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119092847/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020\-03\-26/dji\-s\-drone\-supremacy\-comes\-at\-a\-price\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|date\=24 December 2017\|title\=大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴\|url\=https://www.youuav.com/news/detail/201712/19315\.html\|website\=YouUAV.com\|access\-date\=18 November 2020\|archive\-date\=18 December 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075733/https://www.youuav.com/news/detail/201712/19315\.html\|url\-status\=live}} and [American police](/wiki/American_police "American police") departments nationwide since 2018\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://slate.com/technology/2018/06/axon\-and\-dji\-are\-teaming\-up\-to\-make\-surveillance\-drones\-and\-the\-possibilities\-are\-frightening.html\|title\=The Next Frontier of Police Surveillance Is Drones\|date\=2018\-06\-07\|website\=\[\[Slate (magazine)\|Slate]]\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-10\|archive\-date\=2019\-12\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211090916/https://slate.com/technology/2018/06/axon\-and\-dji\-are\-teaming\-up\-to\-make\-surveillance\-drones\-and\-the\-possibilities\-are\-frightening.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.pogo.org/analysis/2018/09/these\-police\-drones\-are\-watching\-you/\|title\=These Police Drones are Watching You\|date\=2018\-09\-25\|newspaper\=\[\[Project On Government Oversight]]\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-10\|archive\-date\=2019\-12\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211163002/https://www.pogo.org/analysis/2018/09/these\-police\-drones\-are\-watching\-you/\|url\-status\=live}} Both Ukraine and Russia used commercial DJI drones extensively during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.eastmojo.com/recent\-top\-news/2022/12/25/ukraine\-has\-an\-unlikely\-ally\-in\-fight\-against\-russia\-dji\-drones/ \|title\=Ukraine has an unlikely ally in fight against Russia: DJI drones \|website\=East Mojo \|date\=25 December 2022 \|first\=Mike \|last\=Sangma \|access\-date\=26 December 2022 \|archive\-date\=20 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220104418/https://www.eastmojo.com/recent\-top\-news/2022/12/25/ukraine\-has\-an\-unlikely\-ally\-in\-fight\-against\-russia\-dji\-drones/ \|url\-status\=live }} These civilian DJI drones were sourced by governments, hobbyists, international donations to Ukraine and Russia to support each side on the battlefield, and were often flown by drone hobbyists recruited by the armed forces. The prevalence of DJI drones was attributable to their market dominance, affordability, high performance, and reliability.{{cite web \|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine\-russia\-war\-drone\-warfare\-china/ \|title\=The Drone War in Ukraine Is Cheap, Deadly, and Made in China \|date\=16 February 2023 \|first\=Faine \|last\=Greenwood \|access\-date\=6 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=26 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926141016/https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine\-russia\-war\-drone\-warfare\-china/ \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Entertainment
{{See also\|Drone art\|Drone racing}}
Drones are also used in nighttime [displays](/wiki/Drone_display "Drone display") for artistic and advertising purposes with the main benefits are that they are safer, quieter and better for the environment than fireworks. They can replace or be an adjunct for fireworks displays to reduce the financial burden of festivals. In addition they can complement fireworks due to the ability for drones to carry them, creating new forms of artwork in the process.{{Cite web\|title\=Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel\|url\=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology\-innovation/aerial\-technology\-light\-show.html\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-28\|website\=Intel\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=23 June 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623231138/https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology\-innovation/aerial\-technology\-light\-show.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-07\-01 \|title\=Fireworks Have a New Competitor: Drones \|work\=The New York Times \|language\=en \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/01/business/dealbook/fourth\-of\-july\-fireworks\-drones.html \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-10 \|last1\=Hirsch \|first1\=Lauren }}{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2023\-05\-01 \|title\=Fireworks and Drones Combine to Create Amazing Long Exposure Images \|url\=https://mossandfog.com/fireworks\-and\-drones\-combine\-to\-create\-amazing\-long\-exposure\-images/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-10 \|website\=Moss and Fog \|language\=en\-US}}
Drones can also be used for racing, either with or without VR functionality.
#### Aerial photography
{{see also\|Drone journalism}}
Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose.{{cite journal \|last1\=Mademlis \|first1\=Ioannis \|last2\=Nikolaidis \|first2\=Nikos \|last3\=Tefas \|first3\=Anastasios \|last4\=Pitas \|first4\=Ioannis \|last5\=Wagner \|first5\=Tilman \|last6\=Messina \|first6\=Alberto \|title\=Autonomous UAV Cinematography: A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot\-Type Taxonomy \|url\=https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10\.1145/3347713 \|journal\=ACM Computing Surveys \|date\=2019 \|volume\=52 \|issue\=5 \|publisher\=Association for Computing Machinery \|doi\=10\.1145/3347713 \|s2cid\=202676119 \|access\-date\=3 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=3 November 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103190017/https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10\.1145/3347713 \|url\-status\=live }} Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. Big drones with professional cine cameras usually have a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people.{{Cite web\|url\=https://newtonnordic.com/aerigon\-cinema\-drone/\|title\=AERIGON cinema drone (UAV) pioneering in film production\|access\-date\=26 August 2021\|archive\-date\=26 August 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826200035/https://newtonnordic.com/aerigon\-cinema\-drone/\|url\-status\=live}} Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or otherwise inaccessible sites.
#### Environmental monitoring
UASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new generation of survey at very\-high or ultra\-high resolution both in space and time. This gives the opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring. This has stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and agricultural ecosystems. Most common applications are:
* Topographic surveys{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ferreira \|first1\=Edgar \|last2\=Chandler \|first2\=Jim \|last3\=Wackrow \|first3\=Rene \|last4\=Shiono \|first4\=Koji \|date\=April 2017 \|title\=Automated extraction of free surface topography using SfM\-MVS photogrammetry \|journal\=Flow Measurement and Instrumentation \|language\=en \|volume\=54 \|pages\=243–249 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2017\.02\.001 \|s2cid\=56307390 \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2017FloMI..54\..243F }} for the production of orthomosaics, digital surface models and 3D models;
* Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring,{{Cite journal \|last1\=Reddy \|first1\=C. Sudhakar \|last2\=Kurian \|first2\=Ayushi \|last3\=Srivastava \|first3\=Gaurav \|last4\=Singhal \|first4\=Jayant \|last5\=Varghese \|first5\=A. O. \|last6\=Padalia \|first6\=Hitendra \|last7\=Ayyappan \|first7\=N. \|last8\=Rajashekar \|first8\=G. \|last9\=Jha \|first9\=C. S. \|last10\=Rao \|first10\=P. V. N. \|date\=January 2021 \|title\=Remote sensing enabled essential biodiversity variables for biodiversity assessment and monitoring: technological advancement and potentials \|url\=http://link.springer.com/10\.1007/s10531\-020\-02073\-8 \|journal\=Biodiversity and Conservation \|language\=en \|volume\=30 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=1–14 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10531\-020\-02073\-8 \|bibcode\=2021BiCon..30\....1R \|s2cid\=254281346 \|issn\=0960\-3115 \|access\-date\=12 January 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214346/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10531\-020\-02073\-8 \|url\-status\=live }} habitat mapping,{{Cite journal \|last1\=Gonçalves \|first1\=João \|last2\=Henriques \|first2\=Renato \|last3\=Alves \|first3\=Paulo \|last4\=Sousa\-Silva \|first4\=Rita \|last5\=Monteiro \|first5\=António T. \|last6\=Lomba \|first6\=Ângela \|last7\=Marcos \|first7\=Bruno \|last8\=Honrado \|first8\=João \|date\=January 2016 \|editor\-last\=Rocchini \|editor\-first\=Duccio \|title\=Evaluating an unmanned aerial vehicle\-based approach for assessing habitat extent and condition in fine\-scale early successional mountain mosaics \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1111/avsc.12204 \|journal\=Applied Vegetation Science \|language\=en \|volume\=19 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=132–146 \|doi\=10\.1111/avsc.12204 \|bibcode\=2016AppVS..19\..132G \|access\-date\=12 January 2023 \|archive\-date\=12 January 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235908/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1111/avsc.12204 \|url\-status\=live }} detection of [invasive alien species](/wiki/Invasive_species "Invasive species"){{cite journal
\| author1 \= Barbizan Sühs, R.
\| author2 \= Ziller, S. R.
\| author3 \= Dechoum, M.
\| year \= 2023
\| title \= Is the use of drones cost\-effective and efficient in detecting invasive alien trees? A case study from a subtropical coastal ecosystem
\| journal \= Biological Invasions
\| volume \= 26
\| issue \= 2
\| pages \= 357–363
\| doi \= 10\.1007/s10530\-023\-03190\-5
\| s2cid \= 265016887
}} and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances;
* Precision agriculture{{Cite journal \|last1\=Zhang \|first1\=Chunhua \|last2\=Kovacs \|first2\=John M. \|date\=December 2012 \|title\=The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: a review \|url\=http://link.springer.com/10\.1007/s11119\-012\-9274\-5 \|journal\=Precision Agriculture \|language\=en \|volume\=13 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=693–712 \|doi\=10\.1007/s11119\-012\-9274\-5 \|bibcode\=2012PrAgr..13\..693Z \|s2cid\=254938502 \|issn\=1385\-2256 \|access\-date\=12 January 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214348/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s11119\-012\-9274\-5 \|url\-status\=live }} which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);
* River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Perks \|first1\=Matthew T. \|last2\=Russell \|first2\=Andrew J. \|last3\=Large \|first3\=Andrew R. G. \|date\=2016\-10\-05 \|title\=Technical Note: Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) \|url\=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ \|journal\=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences \|language\=en \|volume\=20 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=4005–4015 \|doi\=10\.5194/hess\-20\-4005\-2016 \|bibcode\=2016HESS...20\.4005P \|issn\=1607\-7938 \|access\-date\=12 January 2023 \|archive\-date\=12 January 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235910/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ \|url\-status\=live \|doi\-access\=free }}
* Structural integrity of any type of structure whether it be a dam, railway or other dangerous, inaccessible or massive locations for building monitoring.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Zhou \|first1\=Jianguo \|last2\=He \|first2\=Linshu \|last3\=Luo \|first3\=Haitao \|date\=2023\-03\-19 \|title\=Real\-Time Positioning Method for UAVs in Complex Structural Health Monitoring Scenarios \|journal\=Drones \|language\=en \|volume\=7 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=212 \|doi\=10\.3390/drones7030212 \|issn\=2504\-446X \|doi\-access\=free }}
These activities can be completed with different measurements, such as [photogrammetry](/wiki/Photogrammetry "Photogrammetry"), thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, and [normalized difference vegetation index](/wiki/Normalized_difference_vegetation_index "Normalized difference vegetation index") maps.
#### Geological hazards
UAVs have become a widely used tool for studying [geohazards](/wiki/Geohazard "Geohazard") such as [landslides](/wiki/Landslide "Landslide").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Sun \|first1\=Jianwei \|last2\=Yuan \|first2\=Guoqin \|last3\=Song \|first3\=Laiyun \|last4\=Zhang \|first4\=Hongwen \|date\=January 2024 \|title\=Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Landslide Investigation and Monitoring: A Review \|journal\=Drones \|language\=en \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=30 \|doi\=10\.3390/drones8010030 \|doi\-access\=free \|issn\=2504\-446X}} Various sensors, including radar, optical, and thermal, can be mounted on UAVs to monitor different properties. UAVs enable the capture of images of various [landslide](/wiki/Landslide "Landslide") features, such as transverse, radial, and longitudinal cracks, ridges, scarps, and surfaces of rupture, even in inaccessible areas of the sliding mass.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Dai \|first1\=Keren \|last2\=Li \|first2\=Zhiyu \|last3\=Xu \|first3\=Qiang \|last4\=Tomas \|first4\=Roberto \|last5\=Li \|first5\=Tao \|last6\=Jiang \|first6\=Liming \|last7\=Zhang \|first7\=Jianyong \|last8\=Yin \|first8\=Tao \|last9\=Wang \|first9\=Hao \|date\=2023\-07\-01 \|title\=Identification and evaluation of the high mountain upper slope potential landslide based on multi\-source remote sensing: the Aniangzhai landslide case study \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10346\-023\-02044\-4 \|journal\=Landslides \|language\=en \|volume\=20 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1405–1417 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10346\-023\-02044\-4 \|bibcode\=2023Lands..20\.1405D \|issn\=1612\-5118}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Yang \|first1\=Yuchuan \|last2\=Wang \|first2\=Xiaobo \|last3\=Jin \|first3\=Wei \|last4\=Cao \|first4\=Jiayun \|last5\=Cheng \|first5\=Baogen \|last6\=MaosenXiong \|last7\=Zhou \|first7\=Shunwen \|last8\=ChaoZhang \|date\=2019\-10\-01 \|title\=Characteristics analysis of the reservoir landslides base on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) scanning technology at the Maoergai Hydropower Station, Southwest China \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1088/1755\-1315/349/1/012009 \|journal\=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science \|volume\=349 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=012009 \|doi\=10\.1088/1755\-1315/349/1/012009 \|bibcode\=2019E\&ES..349a2009Y \|issn\=1755\-1307\|doi\-access\=free }} Moreover, processing the optical images captured by UAVs also allows for the creation of [point clouds](/wiki/Point_cloud "Point cloud") and 3D models, from which these properties can be derived.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Tomás \|first1\=Roberto \|last2\=Pinheiro \|first2\=Marisa \|last3\=Pinto \|first3\=Pedro \|last4\=Pereira \|first4\=Eduardo \|last5\=Miranda \|first5\=Tiago \|date\=2023\-05\-31 \|title\=Preliminary analysis of the mechanisms, characteristics, and causes of a recent catastrophic structurally controlled rock planar slide in Esposende (northern Portugal) \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1007/s10346\-023\-02082\-y \|journal\=Landslides \|volume\=20 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=1657–1665 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10346\-023\-02082\-y \|bibcode\=2023Lands..20\.1657T \|issn\=1612\-510X\|doi\-access\=free }} Comparing [point clouds](/wiki/Point_cloud "Point cloud") obtained at different times allows for the detection of changes caused by landslide deformation.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Zhou \|first1\=Jiawen \|last2\=Jiang \|first2\=Nan \|last3\=Li \|first3\=Congjiang \|last4\=Li \|first4\=Haibo \|date\=2024\-02\-09 \|title\=A landslide monitoring method using data from unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial laser scanning with insufficient and inaccurate ground control points \|url\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S167477552400043X \|journal\=Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jrmge.2023\.12\.004 \|issn\=1674\-7755\|doi\-access\=free }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Peterman \|first\=V. \|date\=2015\-08\-26 \|title\=Landslide Activity Monitoring with the Help of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle \|url\=https://isprs\-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XL\-1\-W4/215/2015/ \|journal\=The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences \|language\=English \|volume\=XL\-1\-W4 \|pages\=215–218 \|doi\=10\.5194/isprsarchives\-XL\-1\-W4\-215\-2015 \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2015ISPAr.XL1\..215P \|issn\=1682\-1750}}
#### Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies
{{main\|Agricultural drone}}
[thumb\|[Agricultural drone](/wiki/Agricultural_drone "Agricultural drone") on trailer setup](/wiki/File:Drone_crop_fertilizer.jpg "Drone crop fertilizer.jpg")
As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress.{{Cite web\|url\= https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global\-agriculture\-drones\-robots\-market\-101300454\.html\|title\= Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis \& Forecast, 2018\-2028 \- ResearchAndMarkets.com\|website\= finance.yahoo.com\|language\= en\-US\|access\-date\= 23 May 2019\|archive\-date\= 7 July 2019\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190707150807/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global\-agriculture\-drones\-robots\-market\-101300454\.html\|url\-status\= live}} Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agriculture.{{Cite web\|url\= https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa\-farming\-problems\-aided\-with\-drone\-technology/\|title\= Africa Farming Problems Aided With Drone Technology\|date\= 12 March 2018\|website\= Drone Addicts\|language\= en\-US\|access\-date\= 23 May 2019\|archive\-date\= 29 June 2018\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235733/https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa\-farming\-problems\-aided\-with\-drone\-technology/\|url\-status\= dead}} In this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise description of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients, pesticides or seeds over a field.
The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start [backfires](/wiki/Controlled_burn "Controlled burn").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/08/03/488477317/drones\-that\-launch\-flaming\-balls\-are\-being\-tested\-to\-help\-fight\-wildfires\|title\=Drones That Launch Flaming Balls Are Being Tested To Help Fight Wildfires\|website\=NPR.org\|access\-date\=5 April 2018\|archive\-date\=25 April 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425164411/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/08/03/488477317/drones\-that\-launch\-flaming\-balls\-are\-being\-tested\-to\-help\-fight\-wildfires\|url\-status\=live}}
UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds, seals and even wombat burrows.Old JM, Lin S H, Franklin MJM (2019\). Mapping out bare\-nosed wombat (*Vombatus ursinus*) burrows with the use of a drone. BMC Ecology. 19:39\. DOI: 10\.1186/s12898\-019\-0257\-5
#### Law enforcement
{{main\|Use of UAVs in law enforcement}}
[Police](/wiki/Police "Police") can use drones for applications such as [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue") and [traffic monitoring](/wiki/Traffic_monitoring "Traffic monitoring").{{cite book
\| last1 \= Faust
\| first1 \= Daniel R.
\| title \= Police Drones
\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hp9hDwAAQBAJ
\| edition \= 1
\| location \= New York
\| publisher \= The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc
\| date \= 2015
\| isbn \= 9781508145028
\| access\-date \= 20 February 2020
\| archive\-date \= 27 February 2023
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214353/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hp9hDwAAQBAJ
\| url\-status \= live
}}
#### Humanitarian Aid
{{see also\|Delivery drone}}
Drones are increasingly finding their application in humanitarian aid and disaster relief, where they are used for a wide range of applications such as delivering food, medicine and essential items to remote areas or image mapping before and following disasters {{
cite web \|last\=Sindi \& Zarei \|date\=15 September 2023 \|title\=Drones in humanitarian aid – Can they be a game\-changer?\|url\= https://blogs.coventry.ac.uk/researchblog/drones\-in\-humanitarian\-aid\-can\-they\-be\-a\-game\-changer/}}
|
[
"Applications\n------------",
"{{Main\\|List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications}}",
"In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS){{cite web \\|title\\=How Autonomous Drone Flights Will Go Beyond Line of Sight \\|url\\=https://www.nanalyze.com/2019/12/autonomous\\-drone\\-flights/ \\|website\\=Nanalyze \\|date\\=31 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 May 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520194214/https://www.nanalyze.com/2019/12/autonomous\\-drone\\-flights/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance,{{cite web \\|last1\\=McNabb \\|first1\\=Miriam \\|title\\=Drones Get the Lights Back on Faster for Florida Communities \\|url\\=https://dronelife.com/2020/02/28/drones\\-get\\-the\\-lights\\-back\\-on\\-faster\\-for\\-florida\\-communities/ \\|website\\=DRONELIFE \\|date\\=28 February 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312063842/https://dronelife.com/2020/02/28/drones\\-get\\-the\\-lights\\-back\\-on\\-faster\\-for\\-florida\\-communities/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Peck \\|first1\\=Abe \\|title\\=Coronavirus Spurs Percepto's Drone\\-in\\-a\\-Box Surveillance Solution \\|url\\=https://insideunmannedsystems.com/unintended\\-consequences\\-coronavirus\\-spurs\\-perceptos\\-drone\\-in\\-a\\-box\\-surveillance\\-solution/ \\|website\\=Inside Unmanned Systems \\|date\\=19 March 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 March 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324195138/https://insideunmannedsystems.com/unintended\\-consequences\\-coronavirus\\-spurs\\-perceptos\\-drone\\-in\\-a\\-box\\-surveillance\\-solution/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} They can also be used for consumer\\-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by [Amazon Prime Air](/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Air \"Amazon Prime Air\"), and critical deliveries of health supplies.",
"There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs. These include:",
"General [Recreation](/wiki/Recreation \"Recreation\"), [disaster relief](/wiki/Disaster_relief \"Disaster relief\"), [archeology](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\"), conservation of [biodiversity](/wiki/Conservation_biology \"Conservation biology\") and [habitat](/wiki/Habitat_conservation \"Habitat conservation\"),{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Valle \\|first\\=Roberto G. \\|date\\=January 2022 \\|title\\=Rapid drone semi\\-automated counts of wintering Greater Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus roseus ) as a tool for amateur researchers \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1111/ibi.12993 \\|journal\\=Ibis \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=164 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=320–328 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/ibi.12993 \\|s2cid\\=237865267 \\|issn\\=0019\\-1019 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125343/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1111/ibi.12993 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [law enforcement](/wiki/Law_enforcement \"Law enforcement\"), [crime](/wiki/Crime \"Crime\"), and [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism \"Terrorism\"). \nCommercial [Aerial surveillance](/wiki/Surveillance_aircraft \"Surveillance aircraft\"), [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking \"Filmmaking\"), [journalism](/wiki/Journalism \"Journalism\"), [scientific research](/wiki/Scientific_method \"Scientific method\"), [surveying](/wiki/Surveying \"Surveying\"), [cargo transport](/wiki/Freight_transport \"Freight transport\"), [mining](/wiki/Mining \"Mining\"), [manufacturing](/wiki/Manufacturing \"Manufacturing\"), [forestry](/wiki/Forestry \"Forestry\"), [solar farming](/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station \"Photovoltaic power station\"), [thermal energy](/wiki/Thermal_power_station \"Thermal power station\"), [ports](/wiki/Port \"Port\") and [agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture \"Agriculture\").\n### Warfare",
"{{Main\\|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle\\|Drone warfare\\|Loitering munition\\|Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle\\|Miniature UAV\\|Micro air vehicle\\|Target drone}}\n[thumb\\|A [Baykar Bayraktar TB2](/wiki/Baykar_Bayraktar_TB2 \"Baykar Bayraktar TB2\") of the [Ukrainian Air Force](/wiki/Ukrainian_Air_Force \"Ukrainian Air Force\") armed with [MAM\\-L](/wiki/MAM_%28Smart_Micro_Munition%29 \"MAM (Smart Micro Munition)\"); two [ground control stations](/wiki/UAV_ground_control_station \"UAV ground control station\") in the background](/wiki/File:Bayraktar_TB2_of_UAF%2C_2020%2C_09.jpg \"Bayraktar TB2 of UAF, 2020, 09.jpg\")",
"As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-polisci\\-050718\\-032725\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|title\\=Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics?\\|year\\=2020\\|last1\\=Horowitz\\|first1\\=Michael C.\\|journal\\=Annual Review of Political Science\\|volume\\=23\\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=385–400}} The first five countries producing domestic UAV designs are the United States, China, Israel, Iran and Turkey.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/strengthening\\-turkish\\-policy\\-on\\-drone\\-exports\\-pub\\-86183 \\|title\\= Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports \\|publisher\\= Carnegie Endowment for International \\|access\\-date\\= 17 March 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\= 23 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220323025634/https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/strengthening\\-turkish\\-policy\\-on\\-drone\\-exports\\-pub\\-86183 \\|url\\-status\\= live }}{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkeys\\-defense\\-industry\\-targets\\-more\\-than\\-4\\-billion\\-in\\-exports\\-this\\-year\\-official\\-172005 \\|title\\= Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official \\|publisher\\= Hürriyet Daily News \\|date\\= 6 March 2022 \\|access\\-date\\= 17 March 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\= 17 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220317015136/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkeys\\-defense\\-industry\\-targets\\-more\\-than\\-4\\-billion\\-in\\-exports\\-this\\-year\\-official\\-172005 \\|url\\-status\\= live }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.intelligent\\-aerospace.com/unmanned/article/14199662/china\\-military\\-drones\\-uav\\-unmanned\\|title\\=Combat drones in China are coming to a conflict near you\\|website\\=www.intelligent\\-aerospace.com\\|date\\=19 March 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607015056/https://www.intelligent\\-aerospace.com/unmanned/article/14199662/china\\-military\\-drones\\-uav\\-unmanned\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://insideunmannedsystems.com/market\\-military\\-drones\\-will\\-surge/ \\|title\\=Market for Military Drones will Surge\\|date\\=27 October 2016\\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219152237/http://insideunmannedsystems.com/market\\-military\\-drones\\-will\\-surge/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Top military UAV manufactures are including [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics \"General Atomics\"), [Lockheed Martin](/wiki/Lockheed_Martin \"Lockheed Martin\"), [Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman \"Northrop Grumman\"), [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing \"Boeing\"), [Baykar](/wiki/Baykar \"Baykar\"),{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish\\-defence\\-industry\\-grows\\-as\\-akinci\\-ucav\\-signs\\-first\\-export\\-deal\\-53987\\|title\\= Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal\\|publisher\\= TRTWORLD\\|date\\= 23 January 2022\\|access\\-date\\= 17 March 2022\\|archive\\-date\\= 30 January 2022\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220130161059/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish\\-defence\\-industry\\-grows\\-as\\-akinci\\-ucav\\-signs\\-first\\-export\\-deal\\-53987\\|url\\-status\\= live}} [TAI](/wiki/Turkish_Aerospace_Industries \"Turkish Aerospace Industries\"), [IAIO](/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization \"Iran Aviation Industries Organization\"), [CASC](/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology_Corporation \"China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation\") and [CAIG](/wiki/Chengdu_Aircraft_Industry_Group \"Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group\"). China has established and expanded its presence in military UAV market since 2010\\. In the early 2020s, Turkey also established and expanded its presence in the military UAV market.",
"In the early 2010s, Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems, and by the number of drones, Israel exported 60\\.7% (2014\\) of UAVs on the market while the United States exported 23\\.9% (2014\\).{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers\\-behind\\-worldwide\\-trade\\-in\\-drones\\-uk\\-israel \\|title\\=The numbers behind the worldwide trade in UAVs \\|date\\=16 March 2015 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|last1\\=Arnett \\|first1\\=George \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219153019/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers\\-behind\\-worldwide\\-trade\\-in\\-drones\\-uk\\-israel \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of overall trade – just 11 (2\\.5%) of the 439 are armed drones. The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014; among them more than 7000 are [RQ\\-11 Raven](/wiki/AeroVironment_RQ-11_Raven \"AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven\") [miniature UAVs](/wiki/Miniature_UAV \"Miniature UAV\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/01/02/pentagon\\-plans\\-for\\-cuts\\-to\\-drone\\-budgets/\\|title\\=Pentagon Plans for Cuts to Drone Budgets\\|work\\=DoD Buzz\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2022\\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108232952/http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/01/02/pentagon\\-plans\\-for\\-cuts\\-to\\-drone\\-budgets/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2015}} Since 2010, Chinese drone companies have begun to export large quantities of drones to the global military market. Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019, the top 12 all purchased their drones from China.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://chinapower.csis.org/china\\-drones\\-unmanned\\-technology/ \\|title\\=Is China at the Forefront of Drone Technology? \\|website\\=Center for Strategic and Internation Studies \\|date\\=29 May 2018 }} The shift accelerated in the 2020s due to China's advancement in drone technologies and manufacturing, compounded by market demand from the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\") and the [Israel\\-Gaza conflict](/wiki/2023_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war \"2023 Israel–Hamas war\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3242630/drone\\-tech\\-gives\\-china\\-edge\\-middle\\-east\\-arms\\-sales\\-israel\\-gaza\\-war\\-brings\\-risks\\-analysts \\|title\\=Drone tech gives China an edge in Middle East arms sales, but Israel\\-Gaza war brings risks: analysts \\|website\\=South China Morning Post \\|date\\=25 November 2023 \\|author\\=Seong Hyeon Choi }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/politics/national\\-security/chinese\\-americanit\\-doesnt\\-matter\\-israel\\-wants\\-inexpensive\\-drones\\-339a1355?mod\\=mhp \\|title\\=Chinese, American—It Doesn't Matter. Israel Wants Inexpensive Drones. \\|website\\=The Wall Street Journal \\|date\\=9 November 2023 \\|first\\=Heather \\|last\\=Somerville }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2024/04/uk\\-eyes\\-chinese\\-drone\\-parts\\-ukraine/396211/ \\|title\\=UK eyes Chinese drone parts for Ukraine \\|date\\=1 May 2024 \\|website\\=Defense One \\|first\\=Sam \\|last\\=Skove }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/chinas\\-military\\-advancements\\-in\\-the\\-2010s\\-air\\-and\\-ground/ \\|title\\=China's Military Advancements in the 2010s: Air and Ground \\|website\\=The Diplomat \\|date\\=5 February 2020 \\|first\\=Rick \\|last\\=Joe }}",
"For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of [micro UAV](/wiki/Micro_air_vehicle \"Micro air vehicle\") flapping\\-wing [ornithopters](/wiki/Ornithopter \"Ornithopter\"), imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down.",
"[Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle](/wiki/Unmanned_surveillance_and_reconnaissance_aerial_vehicle \"Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle\") are used for [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\"), [attack](/wiki/Offensive_%28military%29 \"Offensive (military)\"), [demining](/wiki/Demining \"Demining\"), and [target practice](/wiki/Target_practice \"Target practice\").",
"Following the 2022 [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\") a dramatic increase in UAV development took place with Ukraine creating the [Brave1](/wiki/Brave1 \"Brave1\") platform to promote rapid development of innovative systems.",
"### Civil",
"[thumb\\|[Zipline's](/wiki/Zipline_%28drone_delivery_company%29 \"Zipline (drone delivery company)\") aircraft being launched from a base in Rwanda to deliver blood products](/wiki/File:Zipline_Drone_Launch.jpg \"Zipline Drone Launch.jpg\")\nThe civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese manufacturer [DJI](/wiki/DJI_%28company%29 \"DJI (company)\") alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in\\-race\\-to\\-dominate\\-drone\\-space\\-west\\-is\\-no\\-match\\-for\\-chinas\\-dji.html\\|title\\=China drone maker DJI: Alone atop the unmanned skies\\|last\\=Bateman\\|first\\=Joshua\\|date\\=1 September 2017\\|work\\=News Ledge\\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151200/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in\\-race\\-to\\-dominate\\-drone\\-space\\-west\\-is\\-no\\-match\\-for\\-chinas\\-dji.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The companies continue to hold over 70% of global market share by 2023, despite under increasing scrutinies and sanctions from the United States.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/08/worlds\\-largest\\-drone\\-maker\\-dji\\-is\\-unfazed\\-by\\-challenges\\-like\\-us\\-blacklist.html \\|title\\=World's largest drone maker is unfazed — even if it's blacklisted by the U.S. \\|website\\=CNBC \\|date\\=7 February 2023 \\|first\\=Nessa \\|last\\= Anwar }} The US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign\\-made UAVs.{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Friedman\\|first1\\=Lisa\\|last2\\=McCabe\\|first2\\=David\\|date\\=29 January 2020\\|title\\=Interior Dept. Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior\\-chinese\\-drones.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129191125/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior\\-chinese\\-drones.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-29 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2020\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Miller\\|first\\=Maggie\\|date\\=8 October 2020\\|title\\=DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign\\-made drones\\|url\\=https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269\\-justice\\-department\\-issues\\-policy\\-banning\\-use\\-of\\-grant\\-funds\\-for\\-certain\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2020\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hill (newspaper)\\|The Hill]]\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128001142/https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269\\-justice\\-department\\-issues\\-policy\\-banning\\-use\\-of\\-grant\\-funds\\-for\\-certain\\|url\\-status\\=live}} \nDJI is followed by American company [3D Robotics](/wiki/3D_Robotics \"3D Robotics\"), Chinese company [Yuneec](/wiki/Yuneec_International \"Yuneec International\"), [Autel Robotics](/wiki/Autel_Robotics \"Autel Robotics\"), and French company [Parrot](/wiki/Parrot_SA \"Parrot SA\").{{Cite web\\|title \\= DJI market share: here's exactly how rapidly it has grown in just a few years\\|url \\= http://thedronegirl.com/2018/09/18/dji\\-market\\-share/\\|website \\= Emberify Blog\\| date\\=18 September 2018 \\|access\\-date \\= 18 September 2018\\|archive\\-date \\= 24 September 2018\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180924033312/http://thedronegirl.com/2018/09/18/dji\\-market\\-share/\\|url\\-status \\= live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://consortiq.com/uas\\-resources/5\\-major\\-drone\\-manufacturers\\-powering\\-the\\-industry \\|title\\=5 Major Drone Manufacturers Powering the Industry \\|website\\=Consortiq \\|date\\=2021 \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Daly }}",
"As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs had been registered with the US [FAA](/wiki/FAA \"FAA\"), of which 42% were categorized as commercial and 58% as recreational.{{Cite web\\|title\\=UAS by the Numbers\\|url\\=https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/by\\_the\\_numbers/\\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2021\\|website\\=www.faa.gov\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517144023/https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/by\\_the\\_numbers/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500\\+ and $1000\\+ market segments.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newsledge.com/consumer\\-drones\\-2018\\-numbers/\\|title\\=Consumer Drones By the Numbers in 2018 and Beyond {{!}} News Ledge\\|date\\=4 April 2017\\|work\\=News Ledge\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=14 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014010203/https://www.newsledge.com/consumer\\-drones\\-2018\\-numbers/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early\\-stage startups have received support and funding from investors, as is the case in the United States, and from government agencies, as is the case in India.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/companies/sounds\\-like\\-a\\-drone/135174/\\|title\\=Skylark Drones set to raise its first round of funding to boost expansion\\|date\\=14 September 2015\\|access\\-date\\=28 August 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914170336/http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/companies/sounds\\-like\\-a\\-drone/135174/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.{{Cite news\\|title \\= States are competing to be the Silicon Valley of drones\\|url \\= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\\-switch/wp/2013/08/19/states\\-are\\-competing\\-to\\-be\\-the\\-silicon\\-valley\\-of\\-drones/\\|newspaper \\= The Washington Post\\|date \\= 19 August 2013\\|access\\-date \\= 4 February 2016\\|issn \\= 0190\\-8286\\|first \\= Andrea\\|last \\= Peterson\\|archive\\-date \\= 13 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160213121946/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\\-switch/wp/2013/08/19/states\\-are\\-competing\\-to\\-be\\-the\\-silicon\\-valley\\-of\\-drones/\\|url\\-status \\= live}} Private entities also provide online and in\\-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://dronebusinessmarketer.com/drone\\-training/\\|title\\=Drone Training Courses – The Complete List\\|website\\=Drone Business Marketer\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116112235/http://dronebusinessmarketer.com/drone\\-training/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Consumer drones are widely used by police and military organizations worldwide because of the cost\\-effective nature of consumer products. Since 2018, the Israeli military have used DJI UAVs for light reconnaissance missions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.janes.com/article/71456/idf\\-buying\\-mass\\-market\\-dji\\-drones\\|title\\=IDF buying mass\\-market DJI drones\\|website\\=Jane's 360\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211053504/http://www.janes.com/article/71456/idf\\-buying\\-mass\\-market\\-dji\\-drones\\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2017}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Greenwood \\|first\\=Faine \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-16 \\|title\\=The U.S. Military Shouldn't Use Commercial Drones \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=\\[\\[Slate (magazine)\\|Slate]] \\|url\\=https://slate.com/technology/2017/08/the\\-u\\-s\\-military\\-shouldnt\\-use\\-commercial\\-drones.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-02 \\|issn\\=1091\\-2339 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417154848/http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future\\_tense/2017/08/the\\_u\\_s\\_military\\_shouldn\\_t\\_use\\_commercial\\_drones.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2018 }} DJI drones have been used by Chinese police in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\") since 2017{{Cite news\\|date\\=26 March 2020\\|title\\=DJI Won the Drone Wars, and Now It's Paying the Price\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News\\|Bloomberg]]\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020\\-03\\-26/dji\\-s\\-drone\\-supremacy\\-comes\\-at\\-a\\-price\\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119092847/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020\\-03\\-26/dji\\-s\\-drone\\-supremacy\\-comes\\-at\\-a\\-price\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=24 December 2017\\|title\\=大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴\\|url\\=https://www.youuav.com/news/detail/201712/19315\\.html\\|website\\=YouUAV.com\\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=18 December 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075733/https://www.youuav.com/news/detail/201712/19315\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and [American police](/wiki/American_police \"American police\") departments nationwide since 2018\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://slate.com/technology/2018/06/axon\\-and\\-dji\\-are\\-teaming\\-up\\-to\\-make\\-surveillance\\-drones\\-and\\-the\\-possibilities\\-are\\-frightening.html\\|title\\=The Next Frontier of Police Surveillance Is Drones\\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-07\\|website\\=\\[\\[Slate (magazine)\\|Slate]]\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-10\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211090916/https://slate.com/technology/2018/06/axon\\-and\\-dji\\-are\\-teaming\\-up\\-to\\-make\\-surveillance\\-drones\\-and\\-the\\-possibilities\\-are\\-frightening.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.pogo.org/analysis/2018/09/these\\-police\\-drones\\-are\\-watching\\-you/\\|title\\=These Police Drones are Watching You\\|date\\=2018\\-09\\-25\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Project On Government Oversight]]\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-10\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211163002/https://www.pogo.org/analysis/2018/09/these\\-police\\-drones\\-are\\-watching\\-you/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Both Ukraine and Russia used commercial DJI drones extensively during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.eastmojo.com/recent\\-top\\-news/2022/12/25/ukraine\\-has\\-an\\-unlikely\\-ally\\-in\\-fight\\-against\\-russia\\-dji\\-drones/ \\|title\\=Ukraine has an unlikely ally in fight against Russia: DJI drones \\|website\\=East Mojo \\|date\\=25 December 2022 \\|first\\=Mike \\|last\\=Sangma \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220104418/https://www.eastmojo.com/recent\\-top\\-news/2022/12/25/ukraine\\-has\\-an\\-unlikely\\-ally\\-in\\-fight\\-against\\-russia\\-dji\\-drones/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} These civilian DJI drones were sourced by governments, hobbyists, international donations to Ukraine and Russia to support each side on the battlefield, and were often flown by drone hobbyists recruited by the armed forces. The prevalence of DJI drones was attributable to their market dominance, affordability, high performance, and reliability.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine\\-russia\\-war\\-drone\\-warfare\\-china/ \\|title\\=The Drone War in Ukraine Is Cheap, Deadly, and Made in China \\|date\\=16 February 2023 \\|first\\=Faine \\|last\\=Greenwood \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926141016/https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine\\-russia\\-war\\-drone\\-warfare\\-china/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Entertainment",
"{{See also\\|Drone art\\|Drone racing}}\nDrones are also used in nighttime [displays](/wiki/Drone_display \"Drone display\") for artistic and advertising purposes with the main benefits are that they are safer, quieter and better for the environment than fireworks. They can replace or be an adjunct for fireworks displays to reduce the financial burden of festivals. In addition they can complement fireworks due to the ability for drones to carry them, creating new forms of artwork in the process.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel\\|url\\=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology\\-innovation/aerial\\-technology\\-light\\-show.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-28\\|website\\=Intel\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623231138/https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology\\-innovation/aerial\\-technology\\-light\\-show.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|title\\=Fireworks Have a New Competitor: Drones \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/01/business/dealbook/fourth\\-of\\-july\\-fireworks\\-drones.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-10 \\|last1\\=Hirsch \\|first1\\=Lauren }}{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-01 \\|title\\=Fireworks and Drones Combine to Create Amazing Long Exposure Images \\|url\\=https://mossandfog.com/fireworks\\-and\\-drones\\-combine\\-to\\-create\\-amazing\\-long\\-exposure\\-images/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-10 \\|website\\=Moss and Fog \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Drones can also be used for racing, either with or without VR functionality.",
"#### Aerial photography",
"{{see also\\|Drone journalism}}\nDrones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mademlis \\|first1\\=Ioannis \\|last2\\=Nikolaidis \\|first2\\=Nikos \\|last3\\=Tefas \\|first3\\=Anastasios \\|last4\\=Pitas \\|first4\\=Ioannis \\|last5\\=Wagner \\|first5\\=Tilman \\|last6\\=Messina \\|first6\\=Alberto \\|title\\=Autonomous UAV Cinematography: A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot\\-Type Taxonomy \\|url\\=https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10\\.1145/3347713 \\|journal\\=ACM Computing Surveys \\|date\\=2019 \\|volume\\=52 \\|issue\\=5 \\|publisher\\=Association for Computing Machinery \\|doi\\=10\\.1145/3347713 \\|s2cid\\=202676119 \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 November 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103190017/https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10\\.1145/3347713 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. Big drones with professional cine cameras usually have a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://newtonnordic.com/aerigon\\-cinema\\-drone/\\|title\\=AERIGON cinema drone (UAV) pioneering in film production\\|access\\-date\\=26 August 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826200035/https://newtonnordic.com/aerigon\\-cinema\\-drone/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or otherwise inaccessible sites.",
"#### Environmental monitoring",
"UASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new generation of survey at very\\-high or ultra\\-high resolution both in space and time. This gives the opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring. This has stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and agricultural ecosystems. Most common applications are:",
"* Topographic surveys{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ferreira \\|first1\\=Edgar \\|last2\\=Chandler \\|first2\\=Jim \\|last3\\=Wackrow \\|first3\\=Rene \\|last4\\=Shiono \\|first4\\=Koji \\|date\\=April 2017 \\|title\\=Automated extraction of free surface topography using SfM\\-MVS photogrammetry \\|journal\\=Flow Measurement and Instrumentation \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=54 \\|pages\\=243–249 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2017\\.02\\.001 \\|s2cid\\=56307390 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2017FloMI..54\\..243F }} for the production of orthomosaics, digital surface models and 3D models;\n* Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring,{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Reddy \\|first1\\=C. Sudhakar \\|last2\\=Kurian \\|first2\\=Ayushi \\|last3\\=Srivastava \\|first3\\=Gaurav \\|last4\\=Singhal \\|first4\\=Jayant \\|last5\\=Varghese \\|first5\\=A. O. \\|last6\\=Padalia \\|first6\\=Hitendra \\|last7\\=Ayyappan \\|first7\\=N. \\|last8\\=Rajashekar \\|first8\\=G. \\|last9\\=Jha \\|first9\\=C. S. \\|last10\\=Rao \\|first10\\=P. V. N. \\|date\\=January 2021 \\|title\\=Remote sensing enabled essential biodiversity variables for biodiversity assessment and monitoring: technological advancement and potentials \\|url\\=http://link.springer.com/10\\.1007/s10531\\-020\\-02073\\-8 \\|journal\\=Biodiversity and Conservation \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=1–14 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10531\\-020\\-02073\\-8 \\|bibcode\\=2021BiCon..30\\....1R \\|s2cid\\=254281346 \\|issn\\=0960\\-3115 \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214346/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10531\\-020\\-02073\\-8 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} habitat mapping,{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Gonçalves \\|first1\\=João \\|last2\\=Henriques \\|first2\\=Renato \\|last3\\=Alves \\|first3\\=Paulo \\|last4\\=Sousa\\-Silva \\|first4\\=Rita \\|last5\\=Monteiro \\|first5\\=António T. \\|last6\\=Lomba \\|first6\\=Ângela \\|last7\\=Marcos \\|first7\\=Bruno \\|last8\\=Honrado \\|first8\\=João \\|date\\=January 2016 \\|editor\\-last\\=Rocchini \\|editor\\-first\\=Duccio \\|title\\=Evaluating an unmanned aerial vehicle\\-based approach for assessing habitat extent and condition in fine\\-scale early successional mountain mosaics \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1111/avsc.12204 \\|journal\\=Applied Vegetation Science \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=132–146 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/avsc.12204 \\|bibcode\\=2016AppVS..19\\..132G \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235908/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1111/avsc.12204 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} detection of [invasive alien species](/wiki/Invasive_species \"Invasive species\"){{cite journal \n \\| author1 \\= Barbizan Sühs, R.\n \\| author2 \\= Ziller, S. R.\n \\| author3 \\= Dechoum, M.\n \\| year \\= 2023\n \\| title \\= Is the use of drones cost\\-effective and efficient in detecting invasive alien trees? A case study from a subtropical coastal ecosystem\n \\| journal \\= Biological Invasions\n \\| volume \\= 26\n \\| issue \\= 2\n \\| pages \\= 357–363\n \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s10530\\-023\\-03190\\-5\n\\| s2cid \\= 265016887\n }} and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances;\n* Precision agriculture{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Zhang \\|first1\\=Chunhua \\|last2\\=Kovacs \\|first2\\=John M. \\|date\\=December 2012 \\|title\\=The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: a review \\|url\\=http://link.springer.com/10\\.1007/s11119\\-012\\-9274\\-5 \\|journal\\=Precision Agriculture \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=693–712 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11119\\-012\\-9274\\-5 \\|bibcode\\=2012PrAgr..13\\..693Z \\|s2cid\\=254938502 \\|issn\\=1385\\-2256 \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214348/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s11119\\-012\\-9274\\-5 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);\n* River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Perks \\|first1\\=Matthew T. \\|last2\\=Russell \\|first2\\=Andrew J. \\|last3\\=Large \\|first3\\=Andrew R. G. \\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-05 \\|title\\=Technical Note: Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) \\|url\\=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ \\|journal\\=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=4005–4015 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/hess\\-20\\-4005\\-2016 \\|bibcode\\=2016HESS...20\\.4005P \\|issn\\=1607\\-7938 \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235910/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* Structural integrity of any type of structure whether it be a dam, railway or other dangerous, inaccessible or massive locations for building monitoring.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Zhou \\|first1\\=Jianguo \\|last2\\=He \\|first2\\=Linshu \\|last3\\=Luo \\|first3\\=Haitao \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\=Real\\-Time Positioning Method for UAVs in Complex Structural Health Monitoring Scenarios \\|journal\\=Drones \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=212 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/drones7030212 \\|issn\\=2504\\-446X \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"These activities can be completed with different measurements, such as [photogrammetry](/wiki/Photogrammetry \"Photogrammetry\"), thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, and [normalized difference vegetation index](/wiki/Normalized_difference_vegetation_index \"Normalized difference vegetation index\") maps.",
"#### Geological hazards",
"UAVs have become a widely used tool for studying [geohazards](/wiki/Geohazard \"Geohazard\") such as [landslides](/wiki/Landslide \"Landslide\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Sun \\|first1\\=Jianwei \\|last2\\=Yuan \\|first2\\=Guoqin \\|last3\\=Song \\|first3\\=Laiyun \\|last4\\=Zhang \\|first4\\=Hongwen \\|date\\=January 2024 \\|title\\=Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Landslide Investigation and Monitoring: A Review \\|journal\\=Drones \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=30 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/drones8010030 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|issn\\=2504\\-446X}} Various sensors, including radar, optical, and thermal, can be mounted on UAVs to monitor different properties. UAVs enable the capture of images of various [landslide](/wiki/Landslide \"Landslide\") features, such as transverse, radial, and longitudinal cracks, ridges, scarps, and surfaces of rupture, even in inaccessible areas of the sliding mass.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Dai \\|first1\\=Keren \\|last2\\=Li \\|first2\\=Zhiyu \\|last3\\=Xu \\|first3\\=Qiang \\|last4\\=Tomas \\|first4\\=Roberto \\|last5\\=Li \\|first5\\=Tao \\|last6\\=Jiang \\|first6\\=Liming \\|last7\\=Zhang \\|first7\\=Jianyong \\|last8\\=Yin \\|first8\\=Tao \\|last9\\=Wang \\|first9\\=Hao \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|title\\=Identification and evaluation of the high mountain upper slope potential landslide based on multi\\-source remote sensing: the Aniangzhai landslide case study \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10346\\-023\\-02044\\-4 \\|journal\\=Landslides \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=1405–1417 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10346\\-023\\-02044\\-4 \\|bibcode\\=2023Lands..20\\.1405D \\|issn\\=1612\\-5118}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Yang \\|first1\\=Yuchuan \\|last2\\=Wang \\|first2\\=Xiaobo \\|last3\\=Jin \\|first3\\=Wei \\|last4\\=Cao \\|first4\\=Jiayun \\|last5\\=Cheng \\|first5\\=Baogen \\|last6\\=MaosenXiong \\|last7\\=Zhou \\|first7\\=Shunwen \\|last8\\=ChaoZhang \\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=Characteristics analysis of the reservoir landslides base on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) scanning technology at the Maoergai Hydropower Station, Southwest China \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1088/1755\\-1315/349/1/012009 \\|journal\\=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science \\|volume\\=349 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=012009 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/1755\\-1315/349/1/012009 \\|bibcode\\=2019E\\&ES..349a2009Y \\|issn\\=1755\\-1307\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Moreover, processing the optical images captured by UAVs also allows for the creation of [point clouds](/wiki/Point_cloud \"Point cloud\") and 3D models, from which these properties can be derived.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Tomás \\|first1\\=Roberto \\|last2\\=Pinheiro \\|first2\\=Marisa \\|last3\\=Pinto \\|first3\\=Pedro \\|last4\\=Pereira \\|first4\\=Eduardo \\|last5\\=Miranda \\|first5\\=Tiago \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-31 \\|title\\=Preliminary analysis of the mechanisms, characteristics, and causes of a recent catastrophic structurally controlled rock planar slide in Esposende (northern Portugal) \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1007/s10346\\-023\\-02082\\-y \\|journal\\=Landslides \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=1657–1665 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10346\\-023\\-02082\\-y \\|bibcode\\=2023Lands..20\\.1657T \\|issn\\=1612\\-510X\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Comparing [point clouds](/wiki/Point_cloud \"Point cloud\") obtained at different times allows for the detection of changes caused by landslide deformation.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Zhou \\|first1\\=Jiawen \\|last2\\=Jiang \\|first2\\=Nan \\|last3\\=Li \\|first3\\=Congjiang \\|last4\\=Li \\|first4\\=Haibo \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-09 \\|title\\=A landslide monitoring method using data from unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial laser scanning with insufficient and inaccurate ground control points \\|url\\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S167477552400043X \\|journal\\=Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jrmge.2023\\.12\\.004 \\|issn\\=1674\\-7755\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Peterman \\|first\\=V. \\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-26 \\|title\\=Landslide Activity Monitoring with the Help of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle \\|url\\=https://isprs\\-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XL\\-1\\-W4/215/2015/ \\|journal\\=The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences \\|language\\=English \\|volume\\=XL\\-1\\-W4 \\|pages\\=215–218 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/isprsarchives\\-XL\\-1\\-W4\\-215\\-2015 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2015ISPAr.XL1\\..215P \\|issn\\=1682\\-1750}}",
"#### Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies",
"{{main\\|Agricultural drone}}\n[thumb\\|[Agricultural drone](/wiki/Agricultural_drone \"Agricultural drone\") on trailer setup](/wiki/File:Drone_crop_fertilizer.jpg \"Drone crop fertilizer.jpg\")\nAs global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress.{{Cite web\\|url\\= https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global\\-agriculture\\-drones\\-robots\\-market\\-101300454\\.html\\|title\\= Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis \\& Forecast, 2018\\-2028 \\- ResearchAndMarkets.com\\|website\\= finance.yahoo.com\\|language\\= en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\= 23 May 2019\\|archive\\-date\\= 7 July 2019\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190707150807/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global\\-agriculture\\-drones\\-robots\\-market\\-101300454\\.html\\|url\\-status\\= live}} Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agriculture.{{Cite web\\|url\\= https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa\\-farming\\-problems\\-aided\\-with\\-drone\\-technology/\\|title\\= Africa Farming Problems Aided With Drone Technology\\|date\\= 12 March 2018\\|website\\= Drone Addicts\\|language\\= en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\= 23 May 2019\\|archive\\-date\\= 29 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235733/https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa\\-farming\\-problems\\-aided\\-with\\-drone\\-technology/\\|url\\-status\\= dead}} In this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise description of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients, pesticides or seeds over a field.",
"The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start [backfires](/wiki/Controlled_burn \"Controlled burn\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/08/03/488477317/drones\\-that\\-launch\\-flaming\\-balls\\-are\\-being\\-tested\\-to\\-help\\-fight\\-wildfires\\|title\\=Drones That Launch Flaming Balls Are Being Tested To Help Fight Wildfires\\|website\\=NPR.org\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425164411/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/08/03/488477317/drones\\-that\\-launch\\-flaming\\-balls\\-are\\-being\\-tested\\-to\\-help\\-fight\\-wildfires\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds, seals and even wombat burrows.Old JM, Lin S H, Franklin MJM (2019\\). Mapping out bare\\-nosed wombat (*Vombatus ursinus*) burrows with the use of a drone. BMC Ecology. 19:39\\. DOI: 10\\.1186/s12898\\-019\\-0257\\-5",
"#### Law enforcement",
"{{main\\|Use of UAVs in law enforcement}}\n[Police](/wiki/Police \"Police\") can use drones for applications such as [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\") and [traffic monitoring](/wiki/Traffic_monitoring \"Traffic monitoring\").{{cite book\n \\| last1 \\= Faust\n \\| first1 \\= Daniel R.\n \\| title \\= Police Drones\n \\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hp9hDwAAQBAJ\n \\| edition \\= 1\n \\| location \\= New York\n \\| publisher \\= The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc\n \\| date \\= 2015\n \\| isbn \\= 9781508145028\n \\| access\\-date \\= 20 February 2020\n \\| archive\\-date \\= 27 February 2023\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214353/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hp9hDwAAQBAJ\n \\| url\\-status \\= live\n }}",
"#### Humanitarian Aid",
"{{see also\\|Delivery drone}}\nDrones are increasingly finding their application in humanitarian aid and disaster relief, where they are used for a wide range of applications such as delivering food, medicine and essential items to remote areas or image mapping before and following disasters {{",
"cite web \\|last\\=Sindi \\& Zarei \\|date\\=15 September 2023 \\|title\\=Drones in humanitarian aid – Can they be a game\\-changer?\\|url\\= https://blogs.coventry.ac.uk/researchblog/drones\\-in\\-humanitarian\\-aid\\-can\\-they\\-be\\-a\\-game\\-changer/}}",
""
] |
Safety and security
-------------------
{{see also\|List of UAV\-related incidents\|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle}}
[thumb\|right\|upright\=0\.9\|US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires](/wiki/File:USDA_Drone_poster.jpg "USDA Drone poster.jpg")
### Threats
#### Nuisance
UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone\-airplane collision occurred in mid\-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada.{{cite news \| last \=Dent \| first \=Steve \| title \=Drone hits a commercial plane for the first time in Canada \| language \=en \| publisher \=Engadget \| date \=16 October 2017 \| url \=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/drone\-hits\-commercial\-plane\-first\-134300420\.html \| access\-date \=16 October 2017 \| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016170044/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/drone\-hits\-commercial\-plane\-first\-134300420\.html \| archive\-date \=16 October 2017 \| df \=dmy\-all }} The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a [hot air balloon](/wiki/Hot_air_balloon "Hot air balloon") occurred on 10 August 2018 in [Driggs, Idaho](/wiki/Driggs%2C_Idaho "Driggs, Idaho"), United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the [National Transportation Safety Board](/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board "National Transportation Safety Board"), stating that "I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations".{{cite news \|last\=Tellman \|first\=Julie \|date\=28 September 2018 \|title\=First\-ever recorded drone\-hot air balloon collision prompts safety conversation \|url\=https://www.postregister.com/news/local/first\-ever\-recorded\-drone\-hot\-air\-balloon\-collision\-prompts\-safety/article\_7cc41c24\-6025\-5aa6\-b6dd\-6d1ea5e85961\.html \|work\=Teton Valley News \|publisher\=Boise Post\-Register \|location\=Boise, Idaho, United States \|access\-date\=3 October 2018 \|archive\-date\=3 October 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220947/https://www.postregister.com/news/local/first\-ever\-recorded\-drone\-hot\-air\-balloon\-collision\-prompts\-safety/article\_7cc41c24\-6025\-5aa6\-b6dd\-6d1ea5e85961\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/01/26/drones\-need\-to\-be\-encouraged\-and\-people\-protected\|title\=Drones need to be encouraged, and people protected\|date\=26 January 2019\|id\={{ProQuest\|2171135630}}\|magazine\=The Economist\|access\-date\=28 June 2020\|archive\-date\=27 June 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627180313/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/01/26/drones\-need\-to\-be\-encouraged\-and\-people\-protected\|url\-status\=live}}
Drones caused [significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018](/wiki/Gatwick_Airport_drone_incident "Gatwick Airport drone incident"), needing the deployment of the British Army.{{cite news \|last1\=Halon \|first1\=Eytan \|title\=Israeli anti\-drone technology brings an end to Gatwick Airport chaos – International news – Jerusalem Post \|url\=https://www.jpost.com/International/Israeli\-anti\-drone\-technology\-brings\-an\-end\-to\-Gatwick\-Airport\-chaos\-575054 \|access\-date\=22 December 2018 \|work\=jpost.com \|date\=21 December 2018 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222131417/https://www.jpost.com/International/Israeli\-anti\-drone\-technology\-brings\-an\-end\-to\-Gatwick\-Airport\-chaos\-575054 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|author\=Matthew Weaver \|author2\=Damien Gayle \|author3\=Patrick Greenfield \|author4\=Frances Perraudin \|title\=Military called in to help with Gatwick drone crisis \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk\-news/2018/dec/19/gatwick\-flights\-halted\-after\-drone\-sighting \|access\-date\=22 December 2018 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|date\=20 December 2018 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222023943/https://www.theguardian.com/uk\-news/2018/dec/19/gatwick\-flights\-halted\-after\-drone\-sighting \|url\-status\=live }}
In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the [Lake Fire](/wiki/Lake_Fire "Lake Fire"){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/07/24/425652212/in\-the\-heat\-of\-the\-moment\-drones\-are\-getting\-in\-the\-way\-of\-firefighters\|title\=In The Heat of the Moment, Drones Are Getting in the Way of Firefighters\|website\=NPR.org\|access\-date\=5 April 2018\|archive\-date\=5 March 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305155859/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/07/24/425652212/in\-the\-heat\-of\-the\-moment\-drones\-are\-getting\-in\-the\-way\-of\-firefighters\|url\-status\=live}} and the [North Fire](/wiki/North_Fire "North Fire").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/18/us/california\-freeway\-fire/index.html\|title\=Drones visit California wildfire, angering firefighters\|author1\=Michael Martinez\|author2\=Paul Vercammen\|author3\=Ben Brumfield\|date\=18 July 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[CNN]]\|access\-date\=22 August 2016\|archive\-date\=8 November 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108102742/http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/18/us/california\-freeway\-fire/index.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/20/us/hobby\-drones\-hinder\-california\-firefighting\-efforts.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721041118/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/20/us/hobby\-drones\-hinder\-california\-firefighting\-efforts.html \|archive\-date\=2015\-07\-21 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Chasing Video With Drones, Hobbyists Imperil California Firefighting Efforts\|first\=Jennifer\|last\=Medina\|work\=The New York Times \|date\=19 July 2015\|via\=NYTimes.com}} In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\-me\-ln\-anti\-drone\-legislation\-20150721\-story.html\|title\=Attack on the drones: Legislation could allow California firefighters to take them down\|first\=Veronica\|last\=Rocha\|date\=21 July 2015\|via\=LA Times\|access\-date\=22 August 2016\|archive\-date\=28 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828153646/http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\-me\-ln\-anti\-drone\-legislation\-20150721\-story.html\|url\-status\=live}} The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.
#### Security vulnerabilities
By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons\-work\-to\-keep\-out\-drug\-smuggling\-drones\|title\=Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug\-Smuggling Drones\|website\=NPR.org\|access\-date\=19 January 2018\|archive\-date\=19 January 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119175506/https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons\-work\-to\-keep\-out\-drug\-smuggling\-drones\|url\-status\=live}}
The interest in UAVs cybersecurity has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009,{{Cite news\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/12/17/drone.video.hacked/\|title\=Iraqi insurgents hacked Predator drone feeds, U.S. official indicates\|website\=CNN.com\|author1\=Mike Mount\|author2\=Elaine Quijano\|access\-date\=6 December 2016\|archive\-date\=5 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305082148/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/12/17/drone.video.hacked/\|url\-status\=live}} where Islamic militants used cheap, off\-the\-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks.{{Cite web\|url\=https://medium.com/@swalters/how\-can\-drones\-be\-hacked\-the\-updated\-list\-of\-vulnerable\-drones\-attack\-tools\-dd2e006d6809\|title\=How Can Drones Be Hacked? The updated list of vulnerable drones \& attack tools\|last\=Walters\|first\=Sander\|date\=29 October 2016\|website\=Medium\|access\-date\=6 December 2016\|archive\-date\=23 July 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003615/https://medium.com/@swalters/how\-can\-drones\-be\-hacked\-the\-updated\-list\-of\-vulnerable\-drones\-attack\-tools\-dd2e006d6809\|url\-status\=live}} At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission "Federal Trade Commission") showed they were able to hack into three different consumer [quadcopters](/wiki/Quadcopter "Quadcopter") and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi\-Fi signal and adding password protection.{{cite news\|last1\=Glaser\|first1\=April\|title\=The U.S. government showed just how easy it is to hack drones made by Parrot, DBPower and Cheerson\|url\=http://www.recode.net/2017/1/4/14062654/drones\-hacking\-security\-ftc\-parrot\-dbpower\-cheerson\|work\=Recode\|access\-date\=6 January 2017\|date\=4 January 2017\|archive\-date\=5 January 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105190345/http://www.recode.net/2017/1/4/14062654/drones\-hacking\-security\-ftc\-parrot\-dbpower\-cheerson\|url\-status\=live}}
#### Aggression
Many UAVs have been loaded with dangerous payloads, and/or crashed into targets. Payloads have included or could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non\-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Counter\-UAV systems (C\-UAS), from detection to electronic warfare to UAVs designed to destroy other UAVs, are in development and being deployed by states to counter this threat.
Such developments have occurred despite the difficulties. As J. Rogers stated in a 2017 interview to A\&T, "There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor".{{Cite news\|url\=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/anti\-drone\-technology\-to\-be\-test\-flown\-on\-uk\-base\-amid\-terror\-fears/\|title\=Anti\-drone technology to be test flown on UK base amid terror fears\|date\=6 March 2017\|access\-date\=9 May 2017\|archive\-date\=7 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507230433/https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/anti\-drone\-technology\-to\-be\-test\-flown\-on\-uk\-base\-amid\-terror\-fears/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Countermeasures
#### Counter unmanned air system
[thumb\|right\|[Italian Army](/wiki/Italian_Army "Italian Army") soldiers of the 17th Anti\-aircraft Artillery Regiment "Sforzesca" with a portable drone jammer in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome")](/wiki/File:Italian_Army_-_17th_Anti-aircraft_Artillery_Regiment_%22Sforzesca%22_troops_with_CPM-Drone_Jammer.jpg "Italian Army - 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment ")
[thumb\|Cannon anti\-drone system](/wiki/File:Cannon_support_of_anti-drone_complex_%22Rat%60h%22_on_the_SBA-70K2_chassis_%28front_view%29.jpg "Cannon support of anti-drone complex ")
{{further\|Electronic warfare}}
The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of [counter unmanned air system](/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare%23Anti-UAV_defences "Anti-aircraft warfare#Anti-UAV defences") (C\-UAS) technologies. Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms.{{cite conference \|last1\=Isaac\-Medina \|first1\=Brian K. S. \|last2\=Poyser \|first2\=Matthew \|last3\=Organisciak \|first3\=Daniel \|last4\=Willcocks \|first4\=Chris G. \|last5\=Breckon \|first5\=Toby P. \|last6\=Shum \|first6\=Hubert P. H. \|title\=Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Visual Detection and Tracking using Deep Neural Networks: A Performance Benchmark \|date\=2021 \|pages\=1223–1232 \|arxiv\=2103\.13933 }} It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re\-identification methods.{{cite conference \|last1\=Organisciak \|first1\=Daniel \|last2\=Poyser \|first2\=Matthew \|last3\=Alsehaim \|first3\=Aishah \|last4\=Hu \|first4\=Shanfeng \|last5\=Isaac\-Medina \|first5\=Brian K. S. \|last6\=Breckon \|first6\=Toby P. \|last7\=Shum \|first7\=Hubert P. H. \|title\=Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications \|chapter\=UAV\-ReID: A Benchmark on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Re\-identification in Video Imagery \|date\=2022 \|pages\=136–146 \|doi\=10\.5220/0010836600003124 \|isbn\=978\-989\-758\-555\-5 \|publisher\=SciTePress \|arxiv\=2104\.06219 }} Commercial systems such as the Aaronia [AARTOS](/wiki/AARTOS "AARTOS") have been installed on major international airports.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv\-online/heathrows\-picks\-new\-c\-uas\-combat\-drone\-disruption/ \|title\=Heathrow picks C\-UAS to combat drone disruption \|access\-date\=13 March 2019 \|archive\-date\=9 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109111036/https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv\-online/heathrows\-picks\-new\-c\-uas\-combat\-drone\-disruption/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter\-uas\-systems\-and\-policies/muscat\-international\-airport\-install\-usd10\-million\-aaronia\-counter\-uas\-system/ \|title\=Muscat International Airport to install USD10 million Aaronia counter\-UAS system \|date\=21 January 2019 \|access\-date\=21 January 2019 \|archive\-date\=9 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109111704/https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter\-uas\-systems\-and\-policies/muscat\-international\-airport\-install\-usd10\-million\-aaronia\-counter\-uas\-system/ \|url\-status\=live }} Once a UAV is detected, it can be countered with kinetic force (missiles, projectiles or another UAV) or by non\-kinetic force (laser, microwaves, communications jamming).{{Cite journal\|url \= https://unidir.org/publication/uncrewed\-aerial\-systems\-primer\|title \= Uncrewed Aerial Systems: A Primer\|date \= 19 October 2022\|website \= United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research\|last1 \= Grand\-Clément\|first1 \= Sarah\|last2 \= Bajon\|first2 \= Theò\|access\-date \= 5 January 2023\|archive\-date \= 5 January 2023\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20230105181006/https://unidir.org/publication/uncrewed\-aerial\-systems\-primer\|url\-status \= bot: unknown}} Anti\-aircraft missile systems such as the [Iron Dome](/wiki/Iron_Dome "Iron Dome") are also being enhanced with C\-UAS technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hartley \|first1\=John \|last2\=Shum \|first2\=Hubert P. H. \|last3\=Ho \|first3\=Edmond S. L. \|last4\=Wang \|first4\=He \|last5\=Ramamoorthy \|first5\=Subramanian \|title\=Formation Control for UAVs Using a Flux Guided Approach \|journal\=Expert Systems with Applications \|date\=2022 \|volume\=205 \|page\=117665 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.eswa.2022\.117665 \|issn\=0957\-4174 \|publisher\=Elsevier \|arxiv\=2103\.09184 \|s2cid\=232240581 }}
### Regulation
{{Main\|Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles}}
Regulatory bodies around the world are developing [unmanned aircraft system traffic management](/wiki/Unmanned_aircraft_system_traffic_management "Unmanned aircraft system traffic management") solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.{{cite web \|title\=What is unmanned traffic management? \|url\=https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what\-is\-unmanned\-traffic\-management\-utm.html \|website\=Airbus \|access\-date\=28 January 2021 \|archive\-date\=8 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208195828/https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what\-is\-unmanned\-traffic\-management\-utm.html \|url\-status\=live }}
The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the [civil aviation authorities](/wiki/Civil_aviation_authority "Civil aviation authority") of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The [International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization "International Civil Aviation Organization") began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.{{cite book \| last1 \=Cary \| first1 \=Leslie \| last2 \=Coyne \| first2 \=James \| title \=2011–2012 UAS Yearbook – UAS: The Global Perspective \| publisher \=Blyenburgh \& Co \| pages \=112–115 \| contribution \=ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 \| url \=http://uvs\-info.com/phocadownload/05\_3a\_2011/P112\-P115\_C\&AI\_ICAO\-Advisory\-Circular.pdf \| access\-date \=26 February 2022 \| archive\-date \=4 March 2016 \| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025432/http://uvs\-info.com/phocadownload/05\_3a\_2011/P112\-P115\_C%26AI\_ICAO\-Advisory\-Circular.pdf }} France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the [FAA](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration "Federal Aviation Administration") and the [EASA](/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency "European Aviation Safety Agency") quickly followed suit.{{Cite web\|last\=Boedecker\|first\=Hendrik\|title\=The 2021 Drone Regulation – What is new? What is planned?\|url\=https://droneii.com/the\-2021\-drone\-regulation\-what\-is\-new\-what\-is\-planned\|access\-date\=17 May 2021\|website\=Drone Industry Insights\|archive\-date\=17 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517121444/https://droneii.com/the\-2021\-drone\-regulation\-what\-is\-new\-what\-is\-planned\|url\-status\=live}} In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250 g or more to participate in [Remote ID](/wiki/Remote_ID "Remote ID"), which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit *[RaceDayQuads v. FAA](/wiki/RaceDayQuads_v._FAA "RaceDayQuads v. FAA")*.{{Cite web\|title\=UAS Remote Identification Overview\|url\=https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting\_started/remote\_id/\|access\-date\=29 May 2021\|website\=www.faa.gov\|language\=en\-us\|archive\-date\=27 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527012153/https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting\_started/remote\_id/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|title\=FAA Legal Battle – Challenging Remote ID\|url\=https://www.racedayquads.com/pages/faa\-legal\-battle\-to\-save\-fpv\|access\-date\=29 May 2021\|website\=RaceDayQuads\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=27 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527012139/https://www.racedayquads.com/pages/faa\-legal\-battle\-to\-save\-fpv\|url\-status\=live}}
#### EU Drone Certification \- Class Identification Label
The implementation of the [Class Identification Label](https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas-class-label/) serves a crucial purpose in the regulation and operation of drones.{{Cite web\|title\=UAS Class Label\|url\=https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas\-class\-label/\|access\-date\=21 February 2023\|website\=www.eudronport.com\|date\=August 2022 \|language\=en\|archive\-date\=5 October 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005144734/https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas\-class\-label/\|url\-status\=live}} The label is a verification mechanism designed to confirm that drones within a specific class meet the rigorous standards set by administrations for design and manufacturing.{{Cite web\|title\=Official Journal of the European Union\|url\=https://eur\-lex.europa.eu/legal\-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri\=CELEX:32019R0945\&from\=EN\#d1e643\-1\-1\|access\-date\=20 February 2023\|website\=www.eur\-lex.europa.eu\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=1 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101082610/https://eur\-lex.europa.eu/legal\-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri\=CELEX:32019R0945\&from\=EN\#d1e643\-1\-1\|url\-status\=live}} These standards are necessary to ensure the safety and reliability of drones in various industries and applications.
By providing this assurance to customers, the Class Identification Label helps to increase confidence in drone technology and encourages wider adoption across industries. This, in turn, contributes to the growth and development of the drone industry and supports the integration of drones into society.
#### Export controls
The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the [Missile Technology Control Regime](/wiki/Missile_Technology_Control_Regime "Missile Technology Control Regime").
|
[
"Safety and security\n-------------------",
"{{see also\\|List of UAV\\-related incidents\\|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires](/wiki/File:USDA_Drone_poster.jpg \"USDA Drone poster.jpg\")",
"### Threats",
"#### Nuisance",
"UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone\\-airplane collision occurred in mid\\-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada.{{cite news \\| last \\=Dent \\| first \\=Steve \\| title \\=Drone hits a commercial plane for the first time in Canada \\| language \\=en \\| publisher \\=Engadget \\| date \\=16 October 2017 \\| url \\=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/drone\\-hits\\-commercial\\-plane\\-first\\-134300420\\.html \\| access\\-date \\=16 October 2017 \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016170044/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/drone\\-hits\\-commercial\\-plane\\-first\\-134300420\\.html \\| archive\\-date \\=16 October 2017 \\| df \\=dmy\\-all }} The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a [hot air balloon](/wiki/Hot_air_balloon \"Hot air balloon\") occurred on 10 August 2018 in [Driggs, Idaho](/wiki/Driggs%2C_Idaho \"Driggs, Idaho\"), United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the [National Transportation Safety Board](/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board \"National Transportation Safety Board\"), stating that \"I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations\".{{cite news \\|last\\=Tellman \\|first\\=Julie \\|date\\=28 September 2018 \\|title\\=First\\-ever recorded drone\\-hot air balloon collision prompts safety conversation \\|url\\=https://www.postregister.com/news/local/first\\-ever\\-recorded\\-drone\\-hot\\-air\\-balloon\\-collision\\-prompts\\-safety/article\\_7cc41c24\\-6025\\-5aa6\\-b6dd\\-6d1ea5e85961\\.html \\|work\\=Teton Valley News \\|publisher\\=Boise Post\\-Register \\|location\\=Boise, Idaho, United States \\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 October 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220947/https://www.postregister.com/news/local/first\\-ever\\-recorded\\-drone\\-hot\\-air\\-balloon\\-collision\\-prompts\\-safety/article\\_7cc41c24\\-6025\\-5aa6\\-b6dd\\-6d1ea5e85961\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/01/26/drones\\-need\\-to\\-be\\-encouraged\\-and\\-people\\-protected\\|title\\=Drones need to be encouraged, and people protected\\|date\\=26 January 2019\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|2171135630}}\\|magazine\\=The Economist\\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627180313/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/01/26/drones\\-need\\-to\\-be\\-encouraged\\-and\\-people\\-protected\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Drones caused [significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018](/wiki/Gatwick_Airport_drone_incident \"Gatwick Airport drone incident\"), needing the deployment of the British Army.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Halon \\|first1\\=Eytan \\|title\\=Israeli anti\\-drone technology brings an end to Gatwick Airport chaos – International news – Jerusalem Post \\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/International/Israeli\\-anti\\-drone\\-technology\\-brings\\-an\\-end\\-to\\-Gatwick\\-Airport\\-chaos\\-575054 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2018 \\|work\\=jpost.com \\|date\\=21 December 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222131417/https://www.jpost.com/International/Israeli\\-anti\\-drone\\-technology\\-brings\\-an\\-end\\-to\\-Gatwick\\-Airport\\-chaos\\-575054 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|author\\=Matthew Weaver \\|author2\\=Damien Gayle \\|author3\\=Patrick Greenfield \\|author4\\=Frances Perraudin \\|title\\=Military called in to help with Gatwick drone crisis \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk\\-news/2018/dec/19/gatwick\\-flights\\-halted\\-after\\-drone\\-sighting \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2018 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|date\\=20 December 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222023943/https://www.theguardian.com/uk\\-news/2018/dec/19/gatwick\\-flights\\-halted\\-after\\-drone\\-sighting \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the [Lake Fire](/wiki/Lake_Fire \"Lake Fire\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/07/24/425652212/in\\-the\\-heat\\-of\\-the\\-moment\\-drones\\-are\\-getting\\-in\\-the\\-way\\-of\\-firefighters\\|title\\=In The Heat of the Moment, Drones Are Getting in the Way of Firefighters\\|website\\=NPR.org\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305155859/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/07/24/425652212/in\\-the\\-heat\\-of\\-the\\-moment\\-drones\\-are\\-getting\\-in\\-the\\-way\\-of\\-firefighters\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and the [North Fire](/wiki/North_Fire \"North Fire\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/18/us/california\\-freeway\\-fire/index.html\\|title\\=Drones visit California wildfire, angering firefighters\\|author1\\=Michael Martinez\\|author2\\=Paul Vercammen\\|author3\\=Ben Brumfield\\|date\\=18 July 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CNN]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108102742/http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/18/us/california\\-freeway\\-fire/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/20/us/hobby\\-drones\\-hinder\\-california\\-firefighting\\-efforts.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721041118/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/20/us/hobby\\-drones\\-hinder\\-california\\-firefighting\\-efforts.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-21 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Chasing Video With Drones, Hobbyists Imperil California Firefighting Efforts\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|last\\=Medina\\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=19 July 2015\\|via\\=NYTimes.com}} In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\\-me\\-ln\\-anti\\-drone\\-legislation\\-20150721\\-story.html\\|title\\=Attack on the drones: Legislation could allow California firefighters to take them down\\|first\\=Veronica\\|last\\=Rocha\\|date\\=21 July 2015\\|via\\=LA Times\\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=28 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828153646/http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\\-me\\-ln\\-anti\\-drone\\-legislation\\-20150721\\-story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.",
"#### Security vulnerabilities",
"By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons\\-work\\-to\\-keep\\-out\\-drug\\-smuggling\\-drones\\|title\\=Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug\\-Smuggling Drones\\|website\\=NPR.org\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=19 January 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119175506/https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons\\-work\\-to\\-keep\\-out\\-drug\\-smuggling\\-drones\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The interest in UAVs cybersecurity has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009,{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/12/17/drone.video.hacked/\\|title\\=Iraqi insurgents hacked Predator drone feeds, U.S. official indicates\\|website\\=CNN.com\\|author1\\=Mike Mount\\|author2\\=Elaine Quijano\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305082148/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/12/17/drone.video.hacked/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} where Islamic militants used cheap, off\\-the\\-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://medium.com/@swalters/how\\-can\\-drones\\-be\\-hacked\\-the\\-updated\\-list\\-of\\-vulnerable\\-drones\\-attack\\-tools\\-dd2e006d6809\\|title\\=How Can Drones Be Hacked? The updated list of vulnerable drones \\& attack tools\\|last\\=Walters\\|first\\=Sander\\|date\\=29 October 2016\\|website\\=Medium\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003615/https://medium.com/@swalters/how\\-can\\-drones\\-be\\-hacked\\-the\\-updated\\-list\\-of\\-vulnerable\\-drones\\-attack\\-tools\\-dd2e006d6809\\|url\\-status\\=live}} At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission \"Federal Trade Commission\") showed they were able to hack into three different consumer [quadcopters](/wiki/Quadcopter \"Quadcopter\") and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi\\-Fi signal and adding password protection.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Glaser\\|first1\\=April\\|title\\=The U.S. government showed just how easy it is to hack drones made by Parrot, DBPower and Cheerson\\|url\\=http://www.recode.net/2017/1/4/14062654/drones\\-hacking\\-security\\-ftc\\-parrot\\-dbpower\\-cheerson\\|work\\=Recode\\|access\\-date\\=6 January 2017\\|date\\=4 January 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=5 January 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105190345/http://www.recode.net/2017/1/4/14062654/drones\\-hacking\\-security\\-ftc\\-parrot\\-dbpower\\-cheerson\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Aggression",
"Many UAVs have been loaded with dangerous payloads, and/or crashed into targets. Payloads have included or could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non\\-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Counter\\-UAV systems (C\\-UAS), from detection to electronic warfare to UAVs designed to destroy other UAVs, are in development and being deployed by states to counter this threat.",
"Such developments have occurred despite the difficulties. As J. Rogers stated in a 2017 interview to A\\&T, \"There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor\".{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/anti\\-drone\\-technology\\-to\\-be\\-test\\-flown\\-on\\-uk\\-base\\-amid\\-terror\\-fears/\\|title\\=Anti\\-drone technology to be test flown on UK base amid terror fears\\|date\\=6 March 2017\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=7 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507230433/https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/anti\\-drone\\-technology\\-to\\-be\\-test\\-flown\\-on\\-uk\\-base\\-amid\\-terror\\-fears/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Countermeasures",
"#### Counter unmanned air system",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Italian Army](/wiki/Italian_Army \"Italian Army\") soldiers of the 17th Anti\\-aircraft Artillery Regiment \"Sforzesca\" with a portable drone jammer in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\")](/wiki/File:Italian_Army_-_17th_Anti-aircraft_Artillery_Regiment_%22Sforzesca%22_troops_with_CPM-Drone_Jammer.jpg \"Italian Army - 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment \")\n[thumb\\|Cannon anti\\-drone system](/wiki/File:Cannon_support_of_anti-drone_complex_%22Rat%60h%22_on_the_SBA-70K2_chassis_%28front_view%29.jpg \"Cannon support of anti-drone complex \")",
"{{further\\|Electronic warfare}}\nThe malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of [counter unmanned air system](/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare%23Anti-UAV_defences \"Anti-aircraft warfare#Anti-UAV defences\") (C\\-UAS) technologies. Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms.{{cite conference \\|last1\\=Isaac\\-Medina \\|first1\\=Brian K. S. \\|last2\\=Poyser \\|first2\\=Matthew \\|last3\\=Organisciak \\|first3\\=Daniel \\|last4\\=Willcocks \\|first4\\=Chris G. \\|last5\\=Breckon \\|first5\\=Toby P. \\|last6\\=Shum \\|first6\\=Hubert P. H. \\|title\\=Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Visual Detection and Tracking using Deep Neural Networks: A Performance Benchmark \\|date\\=2021 \\|pages\\=1223–1232 \\|arxiv\\=2103\\.13933 }} It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re\\-identification methods.{{cite conference \\|last1\\=Organisciak \\|first1\\=Daniel \\|last2\\=Poyser \\|first2\\=Matthew \\|last3\\=Alsehaim \\|first3\\=Aishah \\|last4\\=Hu \\|first4\\=Shanfeng \\|last5\\=Isaac\\-Medina \\|first5\\=Brian K. S. \\|last6\\=Breckon \\|first6\\=Toby P. \\|last7\\=Shum \\|first7\\=Hubert P. H. \\|title\\=Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications \\|chapter\\=UAV\\-ReID: A Benchmark on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Re\\-identification in Video Imagery \\|date\\=2022 \\|pages\\=136–146 \\|doi\\=10\\.5220/0010836600003124 \\|isbn\\=978\\-989\\-758\\-555\\-5 \\|publisher\\=SciTePress \\|arxiv\\=2104\\.06219 }} Commercial systems such as the Aaronia [AARTOS](/wiki/AARTOS \"AARTOS\") have been installed on major international airports.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv\\-online/heathrows\\-picks\\-new\\-c\\-uas\\-combat\\-drone\\-disruption/ \\|title\\=Heathrow picks C\\-UAS to combat drone disruption \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109111036/https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv\\-online/heathrows\\-picks\\-new\\-c\\-uas\\-combat\\-drone\\-disruption/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter\\-uas\\-systems\\-and\\-policies/muscat\\-international\\-airport\\-install\\-usd10\\-million\\-aaronia\\-counter\\-uas\\-system/ \\|title\\=Muscat International Airport to install USD10 million Aaronia counter\\-UAS system \\|date\\=21 January 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109111704/https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter\\-uas\\-systems\\-and\\-policies/muscat\\-international\\-airport\\-install\\-usd10\\-million\\-aaronia\\-counter\\-uas\\-system/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Once a UAV is detected, it can be countered with kinetic force (missiles, projectiles or another UAV) or by non\\-kinetic force (laser, microwaves, communications jamming).{{Cite journal\\|url \\= https://unidir.org/publication/uncrewed\\-aerial\\-systems\\-primer\\|title \\= Uncrewed Aerial Systems: A Primer\\|date \\= 19 October 2022\\|website \\= United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research\\|last1 \\= Grand\\-Clément\\|first1 \\= Sarah\\|last2 \\= Bajon\\|first2 \\= Theò\\|access\\-date \\= 5 January 2023\\|archive\\-date \\= 5 January 2023\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230105181006/https://unidir.org/publication/uncrewed\\-aerial\\-systems\\-primer\\|url\\-status \\= bot: unknown}} Anti\\-aircraft missile systems such as the [Iron Dome](/wiki/Iron_Dome \"Iron Dome\") are also being enhanced with C\\-UAS technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hartley \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Shum \\|first2\\=Hubert P. H. \\|last3\\=Ho \\|first3\\=Edmond S. L. \\|last4\\=Wang \\|first4\\=He \\|last5\\=Ramamoorthy \\|first5\\=Subramanian \\|title\\=Formation Control for UAVs Using a Flux Guided Approach \\|journal\\=Expert Systems with Applications \\|date\\=2022 \\|volume\\=205 \\|page\\=117665 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.eswa.2022\\.117665 \\|issn\\=0957\\-4174 \\|publisher\\=Elsevier \\|arxiv\\=2103\\.09184 \\|s2cid\\=232240581 }}",
"### Regulation",
"{{Main\\|Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles}}\nRegulatory bodies around the world are developing [unmanned aircraft system traffic management](/wiki/Unmanned_aircraft_system_traffic_management \"Unmanned aircraft system traffic management\") solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.{{cite web \\|title\\=What is unmanned traffic management? \\|url\\=https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what\\-is\\-unmanned\\-traffic\\-management\\-utm.html \\|website\\=Airbus \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208195828/https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what\\-is\\-unmanned\\-traffic\\-management\\-utm.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the [civil aviation authorities](/wiki/Civil_aviation_authority \"Civil aviation authority\") of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The [International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization \"International Civil Aviation Organization\") began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.{{cite book \\| last1 \\=Cary \\| first1 \\=Leslie \\| last2 \\=Coyne \\| first2 \\=James \\| title \\=2011–2012 UAS Yearbook – UAS: The Global Perspective \\| publisher \\=Blyenburgh \\& Co \\| pages \\=112–115 \\| contribution \\=ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 \\| url \\=http://uvs\\-info.com/phocadownload/05\\_3a\\_2011/P112\\-P115\\_C\\&AI\\_ICAO\\-Advisory\\-Circular.pdf \\| access\\-date \\=26 February 2022 \\| archive\\-date \\=4 March 2016 \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025432/http://uvs\\-info.com/phocadownload/05\\_3a\\_2011/P112\\-P115\\_C%26AI\\_ICAO\\-Advisory\\-Circular.pdf }} France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the [FAA](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration \"Federal Aviation Administration\") and the [EASA](/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency \"European Aviation Safety Agency\") quickly followed suit.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Boedecker\\|first\\=Hendrik\\|title\\=The 2021 Drone Regulation – What is new? What is planned?\\|url\\=https://droneii.com/the\\-2021\\-drone\\-regulation\\-what\\-is\\-new\\-what\\-is\\-planned\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2021\\|website\\=Drone Industry Insights\\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517121444/https://droneii.com/the\\-2021\\-drone\\-regulation\\-what\\-is\\-new\\-what\\-is\\-planned\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250 g or more to participate in [Remote ID](/wiki/Remote_ID \"Remote ID\"), which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit *[RaceDayQuads v. FAA](/wiki/RaceDayQuads_v._FAA \"RaceDayQuads v. FAA\")*.{{Cite web\\|title\\=UAS Remote Identification Overview\\|url\\=https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting\\_started/remote\\_id/\\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2021\\|website\\=www.faa.gov\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527012153/https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting\\_started/remote\\_id/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=FAA Legal Battle – Challenging Remote ID\\|url\\=https://www.racedayquads.com/pages/faa\\-legal\\-battle\\-to\\-save\\-fpv\\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2021\\|website\\=RaceDayQuads\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527012139/https://www.racedayquads.com/pages/faa\\-legal\\-battle\\-to\\-save\\-fpv\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### EU Drone Certification \\- Class Identification Label",
"The implementation of the [Class Identification Label](https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas-class-label/) serves a crucial purpose in the regulation and operation of drones.{{Cite web\\|title\\=UAS Class Label\\|url\\=https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas\\-class\\-label/\\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2023\\|website\\=www.eudronport.com\\|date\\=August 2022 \\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=5 October 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005144734/https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas\\-class\\-label/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The label is a verification mechanism designed to confirm that drones within a specific class meet the rigorous standards set by administrations for design and manufacturing.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Official Journal of the European Union\\|url\\=https://eur\\-lex.europa.eu/legal\\-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri\\=CELEX:32019R0945\\&from\\=EN\\#d1e643\\-1\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2023\\|website\\=www.eur\\-lex.europa.eu\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=1 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101082610/https://eur\\-lex.europa.eu/legal\\-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri\\=CELEX:32019R0945\\&from\\=EN\\#d1e643\\-1\\-1\\|url\\-status\\=live}} These standards are necessary to ensure the safety and reliability of drones in various industries and applications.",
"By providing this assurance to customers, the Class Identification Label helps to increase confidence in drone technology and encourages wider adoption across industries. This, in turn, contributes to the growth and development of the drone industry and supports the integration of drones into society.",
"#### Export controls",
"The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the [Missile Technology Control Regime](/wiki/Missile_Technology_Control_Regime \"Missile Technology Control Regime\").",
""
] |
Campus life
-----------
Approximately 1050 students of the [University of Alberta](/wiki/University_of_Alberta "University of Alberta") study full\-time at the Augustana Campus.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.augustana.ualberta.ca/aboutus/ \|title\=About UAlberta's Augustana Campus \|publisher\=University of Alberta Augustana Faculty \|access\-date\=2012\-07\-27}} About half of the students live on campus. The Faculty draws from the surrounding area, (especially rural areas throughout Alberta) from the rest of Canada and elsewhere to make up its student population and staff. About 15% of the student body are International students from a variety of countries around the world.
The campus has residency options, including a specific building for freshman students. It is located near the middle of campus to new students still learning the layout of the campus and to facilitate building community with their peers. Freshman students are generally expected to live their first year in residence, with the option of continuing in residency or finding their own off\-campus accommodations after that. Residency ensures a student not only a room but also three meals a day at the dining hall. Typically students in and beyond their second year may choose to reside close to the main area in a set of buildings commonly referred to as "The Ravine", which sports a central common\-area building with cooking and laundry facility known as "The Dish".
The Faculty has three departments: [Fine Arts](/wiki/Fine_art "Fine art") \& [Humanities](/wiki/Humanities "Humanities"), [Science](/wiki/Science "Science"), and [Social Science](/wiki/Social_sciences "Social sciences"). Augustana offers a number of certificates that can be pursued in addition to one's degree, including a *Certificate in* *Community Engagement and Service\-Learning*, a *Certificate in Sustainability*, a *Certificate in Writing Studies* and a psychology *Certificate in* *Community Mental Health.* Augustana students benefit from small class size, proximity to the teaching staff, and "a close knit lively campus community". They also benefit from the fact that Augustana offers only undergraduate courses, which means that they have the opportunity to work as Research Assistants for professors over the summer while still in their undergraduate years. Augustana also offers a unique semester system that includes a three\-week block and enhances opportunities for students to participate in study abroad, community service learning, research projects, and experiential learning opportunities. In the Fall of 2020, Augustana introduced three new interdisciplinary major programs as well as a project\-based core in order to allow students to customize their degree to their own interests while also teaching them the skills needed to excel in any future career path or industry. The interdisciplinary programs are Creativity and Culture ([Visual arts](/wiki/Visual_arts "Visual arts"), [Dramatic arts](/wiki/Dramatic_arts "Dramatic arts"), [English](/wiki/English_language "English language"), [Modern languages](/wiki/Second_language "Second language"), and [Music](/wiki/Music "Music")), Ethics and Global Studies ([History](/wiki/History "History"), [Philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy"), [Political Studies](/wiki/Political_science "Political science"), and [Religious Studies](/wiki/Religious_Studies "Religious Studies")), and Law, Crime, and Justice Studies ([History](/wiki/History "History"), [Political Studies](/wiki/Political_science "Political science"), [Psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology"), and [Sociology](/wiki/Sociology "Sociology")).
Augustana competes predominantly in the [Alberta Colleges Athletic Conference](/wiki/Alberta_Colleges_Athletic_Conference "Alberta Colleges Athletic Conference") and [Canadian Colleges Athletic Association](/wiki/Canadian_Colleges_Athletic_Association "Canadian Colleges Athletic Association") as the Augustana Vikings. Team sports include: [cross country running](/wiki/Cross_country_running "Cross country running"), [basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball"), [volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball "Volleyball"), [curling](/wiki/Curling "Curling"), women's [soccer](/wiki/Soccer "Soccer"), and [hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey"). The [Viking Cup](/wiki/Viking_Cup "Viking Cup") was an annual hockey tournament, hosted by Augustana, which featured teams from North America and Europe; it has since been discontinued.
Augustana holds preview days four times a year, where prospective students are shown a tour of the campus by current students, have a chance to sit in for a class, get help with applying for university, meet professors, and learn about activities the campus provides. Private tours of the campus are also available.
The Augustana Campus Library supports the research needs of approximately 1050 undergraduate liberal arts and sciences students and 75 teaching faculty. It is a wireless hotspot, provides access to over 100 full productivity computer workstations, a variety of student work spaces and group rooms, and the Writing Centre.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.library.ualberta.ca/augustana/ \|title\=Augustana Campus Library}}
|
[
"Campus life\n-----------",
"Approximately 1050 students of the [University of Alberta](/wiki/University_of_Alberta \"University of Alberta\") study full\\-time at the Augustana Campus.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.augustana.ualberta.ca/aboutus/ \\|title\\=About UAlberta's Augustana Campus \\|publisher\\=University of Alberta Augustana Faculty \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-27}} About half of the students live on campus. The Faculty draws from the surrounding area, (especially rural areas throughout Alberta) from the rest of Canada and elsewhere to make up its student population and staff. About 15% of the student body are International students from a variety of countries around the world.",
"The campus has residency options, including a specific building for freshman students. It is located near the middle of campus to new students still learning the layout of the campus and to facilitate building community with their peers. Freshman students are generally expected to live their first year in residence, with the option of continuing in residency or finding their own off\\-campus accommodations after that. Residency ensures a student not only a room but also three meals a day at the dining hall. Typically students in and beyond their second year may choose to reside close to the main area in a set of buildings commonly referred to as \"The Ravine\", which sports a central common\\-area building with cooking and laundry facility known as \"The Dish\".",
"The Faculty has three departments: [Fine Arts](/wiki/Fine_art \"Fine art\") \\& [Humanities](/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\"), [Science](/wiki/Science \"Science\"), and [Social Science](/wiki/Social_sciences \"Social sciences\"). Augustana offers a number of certificates that can be pursued in addition to one's degree, including a *Certificate in* *Community Engagement and Service\\-Learning*, a *Certificate in Sustainability*, a *Certificate in Writing Studies* and a psychology *Certificate in* *Community Mental Health.* Augustana students benefit from small class size, proximity to the teaching staff, and \"a close knit lively campus community\". They also benefit from the fact that Augustana offers only undergraduate courses, which means that they have the opportunity to work as Research Assistants for professors over the summer while still in their undergraduate years. Augustana also offers a unique semester system that includes a three\\-week block and enhances opportunities for students to participate in study abroad, community service learning, research projects, and experiential learning opportunities. In the Fall of 2020, Augustana introduced three new interdisciplinary major programs as well as a project\\-based core in order to allow students to customize their degree to their own interests while also teaching them the skills needed to excel in any future career path or industry. The interdisciplinary programs are Creativity and Culture ([Visual arts](/wiki/Visual_arts \"Visual arts\"), [Dramatic arts](/wiki/Dramatic_arts \"Dramatic arts\"), [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\"), [Modern languages](/wiki/Second_language \"Second language\"), and [Music](/wiki/Music \"Music\")), Ethics and Global Studies ([History](/wiki/History \"History\"), [Philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\"), [Political Studies](/wiki/Political_science \"Political science\"), and [Religious Studies](/wiki/Religious_Studies \"Religious Studies\")), and Law, Crime, and Justice Studies ([History](/wiki/History \"History\"), [Political Studies](/wiki/Political_science \"Political science\"), [Psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\"), and [Sociology](/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\")).",
"Augustana competes predominantly in the [Alberta Colleges Athletic Conference](/wiki/Alberta_Colleges_Athletic_Conference \"Alberta Colleges Athletic Conference\") and [Canadian Colleges Athletic Association](/wiki/Canadian_Colleges_Athletic_Association \"Canadian Colleges Athletic Association\") as the Augustana Vikings. Team sports include: [cross country running](/wiki/Cross_country_running \"Cross country running\"), [basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\"), [volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball \"Volleyball\"), [curling](/wiki/Curling \"Curling\"), women's [soccer](/wiki/Soccer \"Soccer\"), and [hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\"). The [Viking Cup](/wiki/Viking_Cup \"Viking Cup\") was an annual hockey tournament, hosted by Augustana, which featured teams from North America and Europe; it has since been discontinued.",
"Augustana holds preview days four times a year, where prospective students are shown a tour of the campus by current students, have a chance to sit in for a class, get help with applying for university, meet professors, and learn about activities the campus provides. Private tours of the campus are also available.",
"The Augustana Campus Library supports the research needs of approximately 1050 undergraduate liberal arts and sciences students and 75 teaching faculty. It is a wireless hotspot, provides access to over 100 full productivity computer workstations, a variety of student work spaces and group rooms, and the Writing Centre.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.library.ualberta.ca/augustana/ \\|title\\=Augustana Campus Library}}",
""
] |
History
-------
During the 20\-year period between 1873 and 1893, there was a massive programme of public works in New South Wales, particularly in expanding the road and rail networks. During this period and despite strong economic conditions, the respective chief engineers, for roads (William C. Bennett) and for railways (John Whitton), adopted economic construction methods and materials, for example by using local materials where possible. Consequently, an enormous amount of hardwood timber was used for bridge works; mostly timber beam and timber truss bridges.
However, long\-span bridges were required for major river crossings, making timber bridge construction unsuitable at many locations. Metal bridge construction was adopted for larger bridges at major river crossings with metal supplied from England. Whitton adopted the use of wrought iron lattice truss bridges, with twelve such bridges built for the NSW Railways in the late 19th century and 24 wrought iron bridges built for roads.
Many of these bridges (for road and rail) remain extant in NSW, including railway lattice bridges at:
* 1876{{spaced endash}}[Macquarie River bridge](/wiki/Macquarie_River_railway_bridge%2C_Bathurst "Macquarie River railway bridge, Bathurst") at [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Bathurst, New South Wales") (no longer in use, {{circa\|2005}})
* 1881{{spaced endash}}Macquarie River at [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington%2C_New_South_Wales "Wellington, New South Wales")
* 1882{{spaced endash}}[Peel River bridge](/wiki/Peel_River_railway_bridge%2C_Tamworth "Peel River railway bridge, Tamworth") at [Tamworth](/wiki/Tamworth%2C_New_South_Wales "Tamworth, New South Wales")
* 1882{{spaced endash}}[MacDonald River bridge](/wiki/Macdonald_River_railway_bridge%2C_Woolbrook "Macdonald River railway bridge, Woolbrook") at [Woolbrook](/wiki/Woolbrook%2C_New_South_Wales "Woolbrook, New South Wales")
* 1884{{spaced endash}}Murray River bridge at Albury
* 1884{{spaced endash}}[Macquarie River bridge](/wiki/Macquarie_River_railway_bridge%2C_Dubbo "Macquarie River railway bridge, Dubbo") at [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo "Dubbo")
* 1885{{spaced endash}}[Murrumbidgee River bridge](/wiki/Murrumbidgee_River_railway_bridge%2C_Narrandera "Murrumbidgee River railway bridge, Narrandera") at [Narrandera](/wiki/Narrandera "Narrandera")
* 1887{{spaced endash}}[Lachlan River bridge](/wiki/Lachlan_River_railway_bridge%2C_Cowra "Lachlan River railway bridge, Cowra") at [Cowra](/wiki/Cowra "Cowra")
The Albury Murray River Bridge consists of two {{convert\|48\.463\|m\|ft\|0\|adj\=on}} wrought iron lattice girder trusses, a steel opening transom top, and cast iron piers. The cylinders, made by Stockton Forge Co. in the UK and weighed {{convert\|290\|t}}; and the superstructure, made by Westwood Baillie \& Co. and weighed {{convert\|594\|t}} were delivered between 3 April 1883 and 11 June 1883\.
The bridge was part of a series designed by [Sir John Fowler](/wiki/Sir_John_Fowler%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir John Fowler, 1st Baronet") (co\-designer of the World Heritage\-listed [Firth of Forth Bridge](/wiki/Forth_Bridge "Forth Bridge") in Scotland) for Whitton. The bridge was load\-tested on 24 September and put into service on 18 October 1884\. It remains in use today.
The total cost of the bridge was estimated at [A£](/wiki/Australian_pound "Australian pound")32,519\.19\.0, including:
* Cylinders, superstructure: £12,313\.0\.3
* Railway carriage of above: £5,318\.19\.9
* Sinking \& fixing of cylinders: £10,005\.3\.9
* Erecting superstructure: £3,775\.3\.3
* Cost of trial borings: £2,11\.5\.0
* Permanent Way materials on bridge: £103\.3\.7
* Engineer's expenses for supervisor: £793\.3\.5
Few major modifications have been made to the Albury Bridge with the most significant change probably being the opening of a Standard Gauge track linking Albury to [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne") on 12 April 1962, with normal passenger services commencing on 16 April 1962\.
Two former railway lattice bridges (1885 [Georges River](/wiki/Georges_River "Georges River") bridge at [Como](/wiki/Como%2C_New_South_Wales "Como, New South Wales") and 1886 [Parramatta River](/wiki/Parramatta_River "Parramatta River") bridge at [Meadowbank](/wiki/Meadowbank%2C_New_South_Wales "Meadowbank, New South Wales")) were decommissioned for railway use but remain in use as pedestrian walkways /cycle ways. The 1871 wrought iron rail bridge over the [Hunter River](/wiki/Hunter_River_%28New_South_Wales%29 "Hunter River (New South Wales)") at [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen%2C_New_South_Wales "Aberdeen, New South Wales") was replaced by another bridge and demolished and the 1881 rail bridge over the Murrumbidgee River at [Wagga Wagga](/wiki/Wagga_Wagga "Wagga Wagga") was demolished in 2006, and replaced by a concrete structure.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"During the 20\\-year period between 1873 and 1893, there was a massive programme of public works in New South Wales, particularly in expanding the road and rail networks. During this period and despite strong economic conditions, the respective chief engineers, for roads (William C. Bennett) and for railways (John Whitton), adopted economic construction methods and materials, for example by using local materials where possible. Consequently, an enormous amount of hardwood timber was used for bridge works; mostly timber beam and timber truss bridges.",
"However, long\\-span bridges were required for major river crossings, making timber bridge construction unsuitable at many locations. Metal bridge construction was adopted for larger bridges at major river crossings with metal supplied from England. Whitton adopted the use of wrought iron lattice truss bridges, with twelve such bridges built for the NSW Railways in the late 19th century and 24 wrought iron bridges built for roads.",
"Many of these bridges (for road and rail) remain extant in NSW, including railway lattice bridges at:\n* 1876{{spaced endash}}[Macquarie River bridge](/wiki/Macquarie_River_railway_bridge%2C_Bathurst \"Macquarie River railway bridge, Bathurst\") at [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bathurst, New South Wales\") (no longer in use, {{circa\\|2005}})\n* 1881{{spaced endash}}Macquarie River at [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington%2C_New_South_Wales \"Wellington, New South Wales\")\n* 1882{{spaced endash}}[Peel River bridge](/wiki/Peel_River_railway_bridge%2C_Tamworth \"Peel River railway bridge, Tamworth\") at [Tamworth](/wiki/Tamworth%2C_New_South_Wales \"Tamworth, New South Wales\")\n* 1882{{spaced endash}}[MacDonald River bridge](/wiki/Macdonald_River_railway_bridge%2C_Woolbrook \"Macdonald River railway bridge, Woolbrook\") at [Woolbrook](/wiki/Woolbrook%2C_New_South_Wales \"Woolbrook, New South Wales\")\n* 1884{{spaced endash}}Murray River bridge at Albury\n* 1884{{spaced endash}}[Macquarie River bridge](/wiki/Macquarie_River_railway_bridge%2C_Dubbo \"Macquarie River railway bridge, Dubbo\") at [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo \"Dubbo\")\n* 1885{{spaced endash}}[Murrumbidgee River bridge](/wiki/Murrumbidgee_River_railway_bridge%2C_Narrandera \"Murrumbidgee River railway bridge, Narrandera\") at [Narrandera](/wiki/Narrandera \"Narrandera\")\n* 1887{{spaced endash}}[Lachlan River bridge](/wiki/Lachlan_River_railway_bridge%2C_Cowra \"Lachlan River railway bridge, Cowra\") at [Cowra](/wiki/Cowra \"Cowra\")",
"The Albury Murray River Bridge consists of two {{convert\\|48\\.463\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|adj\\=on}} wrought iron lattice girder trusses, a steel opening transom top, and cast iron piers. The cylinders, made by Stockton Forge Co. in the UK and weighed {{convert\\|290\\|t}}; and the superstructure, made by Westwood Baillie \\& Co. and weighed {{convert\\|594\\|t}} were delivered between 3 April 1883 and 11 June 1883\\.",
"The bridge was part of a series designed by [Sir John Fowler](/wiki/Sir_John_Fowler%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir John Fowler, 1st Baronet\") (co\\-designer of the World Heritage\\-listed [Firth of Forth Bridge](/wiki/Forth_Bridge \"Forth Bridge\") in Scotland) for Whitton. The bridge was load\\-tested on 24 September and put into service on 18 October 1884\\. It remains in use today.",
"The total cost of the bridge was estimated at [A£](/wiki/Australian_pound \"Australian pound\")32,519\\.19\\.0, including:\n* Cylinders, superstructure: £12,313\\.0\\.3\n* Railway carriage of above: £5,318\\.19\\.9\n* Sinking \\& fixing of cylinders: £10,005\\.3\\.9\n* Erecting superstructure: £3,775\\.3\\.3\n* Cost of trial borings: £2,11\\.5\\.0\n* Permanent Way materials on bridge: £103\\.3\\.7\n* Engineer's expenses for supervisor: £793\\.3\\.5",
"Few major modifications have been made to the Albury Bridge with the most significant change probably being the opening of a Standard Gauge track linking Albury to [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") on 12 April 1962, with normal passenger services commencing on 16 April 1962\\.",
"Two former railway lattice bridges (1885 [Georges River](/wiki/Georges_River \"Georges River\") bridge at [Como](/wiki/Como%2C_New_South_Wales \"Como, New South Wales\") and 1886 [Parramatta River](/wiki/Parramatta_River \"Parramatta River\") bridge at [Meadowbank](/wiki/Meadowbank%2C_New_South_Wales \"Meadowbank, New South Wales\")) were decommissioned for railway use but remain in use as pedestrian walkways /cycle ways. The 1871 wrought iron rail bridge over the [Hunter River](/wiki/Hunter_River_%28New_South_Wales%29 \"Hunter River (New South Wales)\") at [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen%2C_New_South_Wales \"Aberdeen, New South Wales\") was replaced by another bridge and demolished and the 1881 rail bridge over the Murrumbidgee River at [Wagga Wagga](/wiki/Wagga_Wagga \"Wagga Wagga\") was demolished in 2006, and replaced by a concrete structure.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The Albury Murray River Bridge is a double\-track {{TrackGauge\|impsg\|allk\=on}}, three\-[span](/wiki/Span_%28architecture%29 "Span (architecture)") [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") [lattice](/wiki/Latticework "Latticework") underbridge. It is a two span continuous lattice bridge with overhead transverse frames for stabilising the top flanges. The spans are {{convert\|159\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} to centres of [piers](/wiki/Pier_%28architecture%29 "Pier (architecture)") and the lattice work has six triangulations. The piers are pairs of cast iron cylinders supplied by Stockton Forge Co. from England. It is the only double track lattice bridge in service, the other was at Meadowbank, and is one of the second set of six wrought iron lattice bridges with 4\-triangular lattice. It was also the first of the two\-track lattice bridges constructed on the NSW railway system.
The bridge is one of a series of twelve related bridges, all with {{convert\|48\.5\|m\|ft\|0\|adj\=on}} lattice trusses, built between 1871 and 1887, of which eleven remain. The twelve bridges were in two groups. The first consisted of the Hunter River Bridge at Aberdeen (1871\), the Macquarie River Bridge at Bathurst (1876\), the Murrumbidgee River Bridge at Wagga (1881\), across the Macquarie River at Wellington (1881\), and the single\-span bridges across the Peel River at Tamworth (1882\) and the Macdonald River at Woolbrook (1882\). Comprising the second group were the Macquarie River Bridge at Dubbo (1884\), the Murray River Bridge at Albury (1884\), the Murrumbidgee River Bridge at Narrandera (1885\), the Georges River Bridge at Como (1885\), the Parramatta River Bridge at Ryde (1886\) and the Lachlan River Bridge at Cowra (1887\).
Albury was thus the second of the second group, which introduced various design changes compared with the first six. In particular, the bridge at Albury was the first to carry a double\-track and is the only two\-track bridge of the series to remain in service under railway traffic. From 1884 until 2011, the bridge had one track in {{TrackGauge\|impsg\|allk\=on}}, to comply with New South Wales standard gauge; and the second track in {{TrackGauge\|5 ft 3 in\|allk\=on}}, to complex with [Victorian broad gauge](/wiki/Victorian_broad_gauge "Victorian broad gauge"). In 2011 the Victorian broad gauge track was replaced with standard gauge.
It is also the first to have two spans, the earlier bridges having one, three or four spans. The bridge now carries a double\-track {{TrackGauge\|impsg\|allk\=on}} railway. The original design had transoms on metal stringers with metal cross girders resting on the lower chords. The eastern track has been modified in recent years by inserting a pair of large steel girders beneath the original transoms, with concrete piers replacing the timber piles supports on the southern approaches. A pedestrian walkway has been added on the eastern side. The western track appears to be in its original configuration. The main trusses are through type lattice trusses, continuous over two 48\.5m spans (spans of this length are considerable for a bridge of this type and date). The trusses are of constant depth with six triangulations and are connected together above the tracks by characteristic arched latticed braces. They are supported on twin cast iron cylinder piers.
### Condition
The line remains in use. It was reported as being in satisfactory condition in 2008\. Apart from relatively minor technical works, repairs and strengthening, the Albury bridge is highly intact. One of the tracks is currently closed that the line is being used as a single line.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The Albury Murray River Bridge is a double\\-track {{TrackGauge\\|impsg\\|allk\\=on}}, three\\-[span](/wiki/Span_%28architecture%29 \"Span (architecture)\") [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") [lattice](/wiki/Latticework \"Latticework\") underbridge. It is a two span continuous lattice bridge with overhead transverse frames for stabilising the top flanges. The spans are {{convert\\|159\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} to centres of [piers](/wiki/Pier_%28architecture%29 \"Pier (architecture)\") and the lattice work has six triangulations. The piers are pairs of cast iron cylinders supplied by Stockton Forge Co. from England. It is the only double track lattice bridge in service, the other was at Meadowbank, and is one of the second set of six wrought iron lattice bridges with 4\\-triangular lattice. It was also the first of the two\\-track lattice bridges constructed on the NSW railway system.",
"The bridge is one of a series of twelve related bridges, all with {{convert\\|48\\.5\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|adj\\=on}} lattice trusses, built between 1871 and 1887, of which eleven remain. The twelve bridges were in two groups. The first consisted of the Hunter River Bridge at Aberdeen (1871\\), the Macquarie River Bridge at Bathurst (1876\\), the Murrumbidgee River Bridge at Wagga (1881\\), across the Macquarie River at Wellington (1881\\), and the single\\-span bridges across the Peel River at Tamworth (1882\\) and the Macdonald River at Woolbrook (1882\\). Comprising the second group were the Macquarie River Bridge at Dubbo (1884\\), the Murray River Bridge at Albury (1884\\), the Murrumbidgee River Bridge at Narrandera (1885\\), the Georges River Bridge at Como (1885\\), the Parramatta River Bridge at Ryde (1886\\) and the Lachlan River Bridge at Cowra (1887\\).",
"Albury was thus the second of the second group, which introduced various design changes compared with the first six. In particular, the bridge at Albury was the first to carry a double\\-track and is the only two\\-track bridge of the series to remain in service under railway traffic. From 1884 until 2011, the bridge had one track in {{TrackGauge\\|impsg\\|allk\\=on}}, to comply with New South Wales standard gauge; and the second track in {{TrackGauge\\|5 ft 3 in\\|allk\\=on}}, to complex with [Victorian broad gauge](/wiki/Victorian_broad_gauge \"Victorian broad gauge\"). In 2011 the Victorian broad gauge track was replaced with standard gauge.",
"It is also the first to have two spans, the earlier bridges having one, three or four spans. The bridge now carries a double\\-track {{TrackGauge\\|impsg\\|allk\\=on}} railway. The original design had transoms on metal stringers with metal cross girders resting on the lower chords. The eastern track has been modified in recent years by inserting a pair of large steel girders beneath the original transoms, with concrete piers replacing the timber piles supports on the southern approaches. A pedestrian walkway has been added on the eastern side. The western track appears to be in its original configuration. The main trusses are through type lattice trusses, continuous over two 48\\.5m spans (spans of this length are considerable for a bridge of this type and date). The trusses are of constant depth with six triangulations and are connected together above the tracks by characteristic arched latticed braces. They are supported on twin cast iron cylinder piers.",
"### Condition",
"The line remains in use. It was reported as being in satisfactory condition in 2008\\. Apart from relatively minor technical works, repairs and strengthening, the Albury bridge is highly intact. One of the tracks is currently closed that the line is being used as a single line.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
The wrought iron lattice Albury Murray River underbridge is a major early structure associated with the "father" of the NSW railways, John Whitton, and geographically linked to Albury Railway Precinct, one of the most significant railway sites in the NSW. It is an excellent example of a wrought iron lattice bridge, a design that was used extensively for bridge construction during the first major phase of railway construction in NSW in the late 19th century. It is a historically and aesthetically significant structure and a prominent landmark on the NSW/[Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 "Victoria (Australia)") border.
It is one of only two double track bridges of this design, the other being the wrought iron lattice Parramatta River bridge at Meadowbank (no longer in use for rail traffic) and is still in use, carrying both standard gauge (NSW) and broad gauge (Victorian) railway lines. It is the seventh oldest lattice bridge in the NSW rail system, being constructed in the second phase of wrought iron lattice bridge construction (one of the second set of six such bridges).
Albury rail bridge over Murray River was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**
Twelve wrought iron lattice railway bridges were built in NSW during the boom period for railway construction 1871\-1887, starting at Aberdeen and ending at Cowra. Eight of the bridges survive for rail use, and two have been converted for pedestrian use.
**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**
Associated with Engineer\-in\-Chief of the NSW Railways, the "father" of the NSW railways.
**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**
The wrought iron lattice railway bridge at Albury is an imposing structure.
**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
Every wrought iron lattice railway bridge crossed a major river which made it possible for the railways to make a social and commercial contribution to the districts reached by the railway.
**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
The wrought iron lattice bridge is a technically sound structure and as such is an example of bridge technology in the late colonial period in NSW (late 19th century). Its strength and durability have shown it to have been a very cost\-effective form of bridge construction.
**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**
The Albury Murray River wrought iron lattice bridge is an excellent representative example of a series of similar bridges constructed by the NSW railways in the late 19th century, most of which remain extant.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"The wrought iron lattice Albury Murray River underbridge is a major early structure associated with the \"father\" of the NSW railways, John Whitton, and geographically linked to Albury Railway Precinct, one of the most significant railway sites in the NSW. It is an excellent example of a wrought iron lattice bridge, a design that was used extensively for bridge construction during the first major phase of railway construction in NSW in the late 19th century. It is a historically and aesthetically significant structure and a prominent landmark on the NSW/[Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 \"Victoria (Australia)\") border.",
"It is one of only two double track bridges of this design, the other being the wrought iron lattice Parramatta River bridge at Meadowbank (no longer in use for rail traffic) and is still in use, carrying both standard gauge (NSW) and broad gauge (Victorian) railway lines. It is the seventh oldest lattice bridge in the NSW rail system, being constructed in the second phase of wrought iron lattice bridge construction (one of the second set of six such bridges).",
"Albury rail bridge over Murray River was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**",
"Twelve wrought iron lattice railway bridges were built in NSW during the boom period for railway construction 1871\\-1887, starting at Aberdeen and ending at Cowra. Eight of the bridges survive for rail use, and two have been converted for pedestrian use.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**",
"Associated with Engineer\\-in\\-Chief of the NSW Railways, the \"father\" of the NSW railways.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**",
"The wrought iron lattice railway bridge at Albury is an imposing structure.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"Every wrought iron lattice railway bridge crossed a major river which made it possible for the railways to make a social and commercial contribution to the districts reached by the railway.",
"**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"The wrought iron lattice bridge is a technically sound structure and as such is an example of bridge technology in the late colonial period in NSW (late 19th century). Its strength and durability have shown it to have been a very cost\\-effective form of bridge construction.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**",
"The Albury Murray River wrought iron lattice bridge is an excellent representative example of a series of similar bridges constructed by the NSW railways in the late 19th century, most of which remain extant.",
""
] |
Career
------
Yang played second for the South Korean junior team at the [2016 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2016_World_Junior_Curling_Championships "2016 World Junior Curling Championships"), [skipped](/wiki/Skip_%28curling%29 "Skip (curling)") by [Kim Min\-ji](/wiki/Kim_Min-ji_%28curler%29 "Kim Min-ji (curler)"), where she would win the bronze medal. After finishing the round robin with a 7–2 record, the team lost to Hungary (skipped by [Dorottya Palancsa](/wiki/Dorottya_Palancsa "Dorottya Palancsa")) in the 3 vs. 4 [page playoff](/wiki/Page_playoff "Page playoff") game, but went on to beat the Hungarians in a re\-match in the bronze medal game, after Hungary lost in the semifinal.
The next season, the team began playing on the [World Curling Tour](/wiki/World_Curling_Tour "World Curling Tour"). They won her first tour event by claiming the 2016 [Hub International Crown of Curling](/wiki/Hub_International_Crown_of_Curling "Hub International Crown of Curling").
The team represented Korea at the [2017 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Junior_Curling_Championships "2017 World Junior Curling Championships"), where they posted a 5–4 round robin record, tied with Switzerland for fourth. They would beat the Swiss in a tiebreaker, before losing two straight games against Canada to finish in fourth place. This team represented Korea at the [2018 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Junior_Curling_Championships "2018 World Junior Curling Championships"), where they finished with a 4–5 record, missing the playoffs.
The team began the [2018–19 season](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_curling_season "2018–19 curling season") by winning the [Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic](/wiki/Hokkaido_Bank_Curling_Classic "Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic"). They then went on to win gold at the [2018 Pacific\-Asia Curling Championships](/wiki/2018_Pacific-Asia_Curling_Championships "2018 Pacific-Asia Curling Championships"), earning South Korea a berth at the [2019 World Women's Curling Championship](/wiki/2019_World_Women%27s_Curling_Championship "2019 World Women's Curling Championship").
She and her team participated in all four legs of the [2018–19 Curling World Cup](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup "2018–19 Curling World Cup"). In the [First Leg](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_First_Leg "2018–19 Curling World Cup – First Leg"), they finished with a 1–5 record, placing seventh out of eight teams. At the [Second Leg](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_Second_Leg "2018–19 Curling World Cup – Second Leg"), they made it all the way to the final falling just short to Japan's [Satsuki Fujisawa](/wiki/Satsuki_Fujisawa "Satsuki Fujisawa") 7–6\. The team improved on this performance by winning the [Third Leg](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_Third_Leg "2018–19 Curling World Cup – Third Leg") against Sweden's [Anna Hasselborg](/wiki/Anna_Hasselborg "Anna Hasselborg") rink. In the [Grand Final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_Grand_Final "2018–19 Curling World Cup – Grand Final"), the team finished with a 2–4 record.
Her team, still junior eligible represented Korea at the [2019 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Junior_Curling_Championships "2019 World Junior Curling Championships"). They finished the round robin with a 6–3 record, which was tied with three other teams for the second best record. However, they missed the playoffs due to tiebreaker rules. The following month, the team represented Korea at the [2019 Winter Universiade](/wiki/Curling_at_the_2019_Winter_Universiade "Curling at the 2019 Winter Universiade"). This time their 6–3 record was enough to make the playoffs, where they made it all the way to the final before losing to Sweden. Later that month, the team had yet another international event to play in, the 2019 World Championship. The team was even better on this stage, finishing the round robin with a 9–3 record, in second place. In the playoffs, they lost to Switzerland's [Silvana Tirinzoni](/wiki/Silvana_Tirinzoni "Silvana Tirinzoni") rink in the semifinal, but rebounded to win the bronze medal game against [Seina Nakajima](/wiki/Seina_Nakajima "Seina Nakajima") of Japan. It was the first ever medal won by Korea at the Women's World Championship. The team ended their season with a 1–3 record at the [2019 Champions Cup](/wiki/2019_Champions_Cup "2019 Champions Cup") [Grand Slam of Curling](/wiki/Grand_Slam_of_Curling "Grand Slam of Curling") event.
Team Kim lost the final of the [2019 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2019_Korean_Curling_Championships "2019 Korean Curling Championships") the following season in July 2019 to the [Gim Un\-chi](/wiki/Gim_Un-chi "Gim Un-chi") rink.{{cite AV media\| url\-status \= live\| archive\-url \= https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/OHdXaedk7Dk\| archive\-date \= 2021\-12\-10\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=OHdXaedk7Dk\| title \= 2019 Korean Women's Curling Finals：Kim Minji vs Gim Unchi \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} This meant they would not be the national women's team for the season. The team won the [Tour Challenge Tier 2 event](/wiki/2019_Tour_Challenge "2019 Tour Challenge") after a strong 9–2 win over [Jestyn Murphy](/wiki/Jestyn_Murphy "Jestyn Murphy"). This qualified them for the [Canadian Open](/wiki/2020_Canadian_Open_%28curling%29 "2020 Canadian Open (curling)") in [Yorkton](/wiki/Yorkton "Yorkton"), [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan "Saskatchewan"). There, they defeated higher ranked teams such as three time Scotties champion [Rachel Homan](/wiki/Rachel_Homan "Rachel Homan"), 2013 world champion [Eve Muirhead](/wiki/Eve_Muirhead "Eve Muirhead") and 2020 Scotties champion [Kerri Einarson](/wiki/Kerri_Einarson "Kerri Einarson"). They made it all the way to the final before losing to the [Anna Hasselborg](/wiki/Anna_Hasselborg "Anna Hasselborg") rink in an extra end. They also made it all the way to the final of the [2020 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Junior_Curling_Championships "2020 World Junior Curling Championships"), where they lost to Canada's [Mackenzie Zacharias](/wiki/Mackenzie_Zacharias "Mackenzie Zacharias"). On the [World Curling Tour](/wiki/World_Curling_Tour "World Curling Tour"), they won the [Boundary Ford Curling Classic](/wiki/Boundary_Ford_Curling_Classic "Boundary Ford Curling Classic"), finished fourth at the inaugural [WCT Uiseong International Curling Cup](/wiki/2019_WCT_Uiseong_International_Curling_Cup "2019 WCT Uiseong International Curling Cup"), made the quarterfinals at the [Red Deer Curling Classic](/wiki/Red_Deer_Curling_Classic "Red Deer Curling Classic") and missed the playoffs at the [2019 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic](/wiki/2019_Curlers_Corner_Autumn_Gold_Curling_Classic "2019 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic") and the [2019 Canad Inns Women's Classic](/wiki/2019_Canad_Inns_Women%27s_Classic "2019 Canad Inns Women's Classic").
The Kim rink began the abbreviated [2020–21 season](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_curling_season "2020–21 curling season") at the [2020 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2020_Korean_Curling_Championships "2020 Korean Curling Championships"). There, they qualified for the playoffs with a 5–1 record before losing both of their playoff games to the [Kim Eun\-jung](/wiki/Kim_Eun-jung_%28curler%29 "Kim Eun-jung (curler)") and [Gim Un\-chi](/wiki/Gim_Un-chi "Gim Un-chi") rinks, settling for third.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.curlingzone.com/event.php?eventid\=6807\&eventtypeid\=82\&view\=Playoffs\#1\|title\=2020 Korean National Women's Curling Championship – Playoffs\|website\=CurlingZone\|access\-date\=June 8, 2021}} Later that season, they competed in the only two Grand Slam events of the season, which were played in a "curling bubble" in [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary "Calgary"), [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta"), with no spectators, to avoid the spread of the coronavirus.{{Cite news\|url\=https://thegrandslamofcurling.com/humptys\-champions\-cup\-start\-moved\-to\-thursday/\|title\=Humpty's Champions Cup start moved to Thursday\|publisher\=Grand Slam of Curling\|author\=Jonathan Brazeau\|date\=April 12, 2021\|access\-date\=June 8, 2021}} The team missed the playoffs at both the [2021 Champions Cup](/wiki/2021_Champions_Cup_%28curling%29 "2021 Champions Cup (curling)") and the [2021 Players' Championship](/wiki/2021_Players%27_Championship "2021 Players' Championship").
The [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_curling_season "2021–22 curling season") began in June for Team Kim as they competed in the [2021 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2021_Korean_Curling_Championships "2021 Korean Curling Championships") to decide who would get the chance to represent Korea at the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Curling_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics "Curling at the 2022 Winter Olympics") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"), [China](/wiki/China "China").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQSZEAUDAA8/\|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/CQSZEAUDAA8\|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-26\|url\-access\=registration\|title\=베이징 올림픽 대표를 포함한 2021\-2022 컬링 국가대표를 뽑는 2021 KB금융 한국컬링선수권대회 with 강릉.\|language\=Korean\|publisher\=curling1spoon\|website\=Instagram\|date\=June 19, 2021\|access\-date\=June 16, 2022}}{{cbignore}} In the first of three rounds, the team went a perfect 4–0 in the round robin before losing in the semifinal to the Gim Un\-chi rink. They rebounded with a win over [Kim Ji\-su](/wiki/Kim_Ji-su_%28curler%29 "Kim Ji-su (curler)") in the third place game. In the second round, they went 4–2, however, because Team Kim Eun\-jung won both the first and second rounds, they became the national champions.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQ082klMfdp/\|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/CQ082klMfdp \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-26 \|url\-access\=registration\|title\=여자부 강릉시청 '팀 킴'은 2차전 5승 1패로 우승해 오는 12월 열리는 베이징 올림픽 자격대회에 출전하게 됐습니다. 축하합니다.\|language\=Korean\|publisher\=curling1spoon\|website\=Instagram\|date\=July 2, 2021\|access\-date\=June 16, 2022}}{{cbignore}} Yang later competed in the [2021 Korean Mixed Doubles Curling Championship](/wiki/2021_Korean_Mixed_Doubles_Curling_Championship "2021 Korean Mixed Doubles Curling Championship") with partner [Lee Ki\-bok](/wiki/Lee_Ki-bok "Lee Ki-bok"). They won the bronze medal after losing in the second place match. Through the fall of 2021, skip [Kim Min\-ji](/wiki/Kim_Min-ji_%28curler%29 "Kim Min-ji (curler)") was absent from the team due to winning the Mixed Doubles championship with [Lee Ki\-jeong](/wiki/Lee_Ki-jeong "Lee Ki-jeong").{{Cite news\|url\=http://star.ohmynews.com/NWS\_Web/OhmyStar/at\_pg.aspx?CNTN\_CD\=A0002764291\&CMPT\_CD\=P0010\|title\='19연승' 컬링 믹스더블 국가대표 된 김민지·이기정\|publisher\=\[\[OhmyStar]]\|date\=August 9, 2021\|access\-date\=June 16, 2022}} This moved the team's second [Kim Hye\-rin](/wiki/Kim_Hye-rin_%28curler%29 "Kim Hye-rin (curler)") up to skip with Yang moving from alternate to second.{{Citation\|title\=2021 Masters Program Guide\|publisher\=Grand Slam of Curling}} The team played in two Grand Slam events, the [2021 Masters](/wiki/2021_Masters_%28curling%29 "2021 Masters (curling)") and the [2021 National](/wiki/2021_National "2021 National"), finishing with a 1–3 record at both. They only played in one more event during the season, the [Boundary Ford Curling Classic](/wiki/Boundary_Ford_Curling_Classic "Boundary Ford Curling Classic"), where they lost in the final to Team Gim.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.curlingzone.com/event.php?view\=Main\&eventid\=6681\|title\=2021 Boundary Ford Curling Classic\|website\=CurlingZone\|access\-date\=June 16, 2022}} In March 2022, Kim Min\-ji would move to Gyeonggi Province to join Team Gim, with [Ha Seung\-youn](/wiki/Ha_Seung-youn "Ha Seung-youn") taking over as skip for the Chuncheon City Hall team.
The newly revised Chuncheon City Hall rink were the dark horses entering the [2022 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2022_Korean_Curling_Championships "2022 Korean Curling Championships") behind both Gangneung City Hall's Kim Eun\-jung and Gyeonggi Province's Gim Eun\-ji. Despite this, they finished second in the round robin with a 5–1 record and then beat Gangneung City Hall 7–5 in the semifinal. In the championship game, they won 7–4 over Gyeonggi Province to become the national team for the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_curling_season "2022–23 curling season").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.si.com/curling/news/new\-champions\-in\-korea\|title\=New Champions in Korea\|publisher\=The Curling News\|website\=Sports Illustrated\|date\=June 20, 2022\|access\-date\=July 22, 2023}} On tour, the team did not find early success, with their best results being a fourth place finish at the [2022 Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic](/wiki/2022_Hokkaido_Bank_Curling_Classic "2022 Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic") and a quarterfinal appearance at the [2022 Alberta Curling Series Major](/wiki/2022_Alberta_Curling_Series_Major "2022 Alberta Curling Series Major"). They then turned things around, however, winning the [US Open of Curling](/wiki/US_Open_of_Curling "US Open of Curling") and finishing second at the S3 Group Curling Stadium Series.{{Cite web\|url\=https://curlingzone.com/event.php?view\=Main\&eventid\=7366\|title\=2022 CURVE US Open of Curling – Championships\|website\=CurlingZone\|access\-date\=July 22, 2023}}{{youTube\|m\_nPdqSu8vo\|'''Video''' (full game): 2022 S3 Group Curling Stadium Series – Final – Seungyoun Ha vs Stefania Constantini}} At the [2022 Pan Continental Curling Championships](/wiki/2022_Pan_Continental_Curling_Championships "2022 Pan Continental Curling Championships"), the team led Korea to a 6–2 record, enough to qualify for the playoffs as the fourth seed.{{Cite news\|url\=https://worldcurling.org/2022/11/pccc\-sf\-women/\|title\=Women’s round\-robins draw to a close\|publisher\=World Curling Federation\|date\=November 5, 2022\|access\-date\=July 22, 2023}} They then beat the higher seeded United States in the semifinal to qualify for the final where they faced Japan's [Satsuki Fujisawa](/wiki/Satsuki_Fujisawa "Satsuki Fujisawa"). There, they fell 8–6 to the Japanese in an extra end, settling for silver.{{Cite news\|url\=https://worldcurling.org/2022/11/women\-final\-pccc/\|title\=Japan women claim first Pan Continental title\|publisher\=World Curling Federation\|date\=November 7, 2022\|access\-date\=July 22, 2023}} In the new year, the team represented Korea at the [2023 Winter World University Games](/wiki/Curling_at_the_2023_Winter_World_University_Games "Curling at the 2023 Winter World University Games") where they topped the round robin with an 8–1 record. After beating Great Britain in the semifinal, they lost to China in the championship game, once again taking silver.{{Cite news\|url\=https://worldcurling.org/2023/01/wug\-2023/\|title\=Great Britain men and China women win FISU World University Games\|publisher\=World Curling Federation\|date\=January 22, 2023\|access\-date\=July 22, 2023}} Despite their success at both the Pan Continental Championship and the World University Games, the team could not continue their medal streak at the [2023 World Women's Curling Championship](/wiki/2023_World_Women%27s_Curling_Championship "2023 World Women's Curling Championship"), finishing ninth with a 5–7 record.{{Cite news\|url\=https://worldcurling.org/2023/03/dayseven\-wwc/\|title\=Live Blog: Day seven at the WWCC\|publisher\=World Curling Federation\|date\=March 24, 2023\|access\-date\=July 22, 2023}}
At the [2023 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2023_Korean_Curling_Championships "2023 Korean Curling Championships"), Team Ha could not defend their national title. After starting with six straight wins, the team lost three of their next four games, finishing in third place behind Gyeonggi Province and Gangneung City Hall.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.curlingzone.com/event.php?eventid\=8075\&eventtypeid\=81\&view\=Main\#1\|title\=2023 Korean Curling Championships – Women\|website\=CurlingZone\|access\-date\=April 26, 2024}} Despite losing their spot as the national team, they had a strong start to their tour season, capturing the [2023 Stu Sells Oakville Tankard](/wiki/2023_Stu_Sells_Oakville_Tankard "2023 Stu Sells Oakville Tankard").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/curling/with\-fill\-in\-skips\-team\-rachel\-homan\-defeats\-team\-jennifer\-jones\-to\-win\-saville\-shootout\-1\.2006098\|title\=With fill\-in skips, Homan defeats Jones to win Saville Shootout\|publisher\=TSN\|date\=September 11, 2023\|access\-date\=April 26, 2024}} They also made the playoffs at the [2023 KW Fall Classic](/wiki/2023_KW_Fall_Classic "2023 KW Fall Classic") where they went undefeated until the semifinals before losing to [Krista McCarville](/wiki/Krista_McCarville "Krista McCarville").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/curling/krista\-mccarville\-wins\-with\-new\-teammate\-andrea\-kelly\-while\-silvana\-tirinzoni\-continues\-winning\-ways\-1\.2008698\|title\=McCarville wins with new teammate Kelly while Tirinzoni continues dominance\|publisher\=TSN\|date\=September 17, 2023\|access\-date\=April 26, 2024}} After their first two events, the team struggled to find success, only qualifying in three of their next eight events. This included a semifinal finish at the [Stu Sells 1824 Halifax Classic](/wiki/Stu_Sells_1824_Halifax_Classic "Stu Sells 1824 Halifax Classic") and two quarterfinal losses at the [Prestige Hotels \& Resorts Curling Classic](/wiki/Prestige_Hotels_%26_Resorts_Curling_Classic "Prestige Hotels & Resorts Curling Classic") and the [North Grenville Women's Fall Curling Classic](/wiki/North_Grenville_Women%27s_Fall_Curling_Classic "North Grenville Women's Fall Curling Classic"), both after previously undefeated records.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.curlingzone.com/team.php?teamid\=170857\#schedule\|title\=Team Seungyoun Ha: 2023–24\|website\=CurlingZone\|access\-date\=April 26, 2024}} In November 2023, they again finished third at the Uiseong Korean Cup, not being able to make it past the Gim or Kim rinks. They ended their season at the [2024 New Year Curling in Miyota](/wiki/2024_New_Year_Curling_in_Miyota "2024 New Year Curling in Miyota") event where they missed the playoffs.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Yang played second for the South Korean junior team at the [2016 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2016_World_Junior_Curling_Championships \"2016 World Junior Curling Championships\"), [skipped](/wiki/Skip_%28curling%29 \"Skip (curling)\") by [Kim Min\\-ji](/wiki/Kim_Min-ji_%28curler%29 \"Kim Min-ji (curler)\"), where she would win the bronze medal. After finishing the round robin with a 7–2 record, the team lost to Hungary (skipped by [Dorottya Palancsa](/wiki/Dorottya_Palancsa \"Dorottya Palancsa\")) in the 3 vs. 4 [page playoff](/wiki/Page_playoff \"Page playoff\") game, but went on to beat the Hungarians in a re\\-match in the bronze medal game, after Hungary lost in the semifinal.",
"The next season, the team began playing on the [World Curling Tour](/wiki/World_Curling_Tour \"World Curling Tour\"). They won her first tour event by claiming the 2016 [Hub International Crown of Curling](/wiki/Hub_International_Crown_of_Curling \"Hub International Crown of Curling\").",
"The team represented Korea at the [2017 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Junior_Curling_Championships \"2017 World Junior Curling Championships\"), where they posted a 5–4 round robin record, tied with Switzerland for fourth. They would beat the Swiss in a tiebreaker, before losing two straight games against Canada to finish in fourth place. This team represented Korea at the [2018 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Junior_Curling_Championships \"2018 World Junior Curling Championships\"), where they finished with a 4–5 record, missing the playoffs.",
"The team began the [2018–19 season](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_curling_season \"2018–19 curling season\") by winning the [Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic](/wiki/Hokkaido_Bank_Curling_Classic \"Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic\"). They then went on to win gold at the [2018 Pacific\\-Asia Curling Championships](/wiki/2018_Pacific-Asia_Curling_Championships \"2018 Pacific-Asia Curling Championships\"), earning South Korea a berth at the [2019 World Women's Curling Championship](/wiki/2019_World_Women%27s_Curling_Championship \"2019 World Women's Curling Championship\").",
"She and her team participated in all four legs of the [2018–19 Curling World Cup](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup \"2018–19 Curling World Cup\"). In the [First Leg](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_First_Leg \"2018–19 Curling World Cup – First Leg\"), they finished with a 1–5 record, placing seventh out of eight teams. At the [Second Leg](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_Second_Leg \"2018–19 Curling World Cup – Second Leg\"), they made it all the way to the final falling just short to Japan's [Satsuki Fujisawa](/wiki/Satsuki_Fujisawa \"Satsuki Fujisawa\") 7–6\\. The team improved on this performance by winning the [Third Leg](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_Third_Leg \"2018–19 Curling World Cup – Third Leg\") against Sweden's [Anna Hasselborg](/wiki/Anna_Hasselborg \"Anna Hasselborg\") rink. In the [Grand Final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Curling_World_Cup_%E2%80%93_Grand_Final \"2018–19 Curling World Cup – Grand Final\"), the team finished with a 2–4 record.",
"Her team, still junior eligible represented Korea at the [2019 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Junior_Curling_Championships \"2019 World Junior Curling Championships\"). They finished the round robin with a 6–3 record, which was tied with three other teams for the second best record. However, they missed the playoffs due to tiebreaker rules. The following month, the team represented Korea at the [2019 Winter Universiade](/wiki/Curling_at_the_2019_Winter_Universiade \"Curling at the 2019 Winter Universiade\"). This time their 6–3 record was enough to make the playoffs, where they made it all the way to the final before losing to Sweden. Later that month, the team had yet another international event to play in, the 2019 World Championship. The team was even better on this stage, finishing the round robin with a 9–3 record, in second place. In the playoffs, they lost to Switzerland's [Silvana Tirinzoni](/wiki/Silvana_Tirinzoni \"Silvana Tirinzoni\") rink in the semifinal, but rebounded to win the bronze medal game against [Seina Nakajima](/wiki/Seina_Nakajima \"Seina Nakajima\") of Japan. It was the first ever medal won by Korea at the Women's World Championship. The team ended their season with a 1–3 record at the [2019 Champions Cup](/wiki/2019_Champions_Cup \"2019 Champions Cup\") [Grand Slam of Curling](/wiki/Grand_Slam_of_Curling \"Grand Slam of Curling\") event.",
"Team Kim lost the final of the [2019 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2019_Korean_Curling_Championships \"2019 Korean Curling Championships\") the following season in July 2019 to the [Gim Un\\-chi](/wiki/Gim_Un-chi \"Gim Un-chi\") rink.{{cite AV media\\| url\\-status \\= live\\| archive\\-url \\= https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/OHdXaedk7Dk\\| archive\\-date \\= 2021\\-12\\-10\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=OHdXaedk7Dk\\| title \\= 2019 Korean Women's Curling Finals：Kim Minji vs Gim Unchi \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} This meant they would not be the national women's team for the season. The team won the [Tour Challenge Tier 2 event](/wiki/2019_Tour_Challenge \"2019 Tour Challenge\") after a strong 9–2 win over [Jestyn Murphy](/wiki/Jestyn_Murphy \"Jestyn Murphy\"). This qualified them for the [Canadian Open](/wiki/2020_Canadian_Open_%28curling%29 \"2020 Canadian Open (curling)\") in [Yorkton](/wiki/Yorkton \"Yorkton\"), [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan \"Saskatchewan\"). There, they defeated higher ranked teams such as three time Scotties champion [Rachel Homan](/wiki/Rachel_Homan \"Rachel Homan\"), 2013 world champion [Eve Muirhead](/wiki/Eve_Muirhead \"Eve Muirhead\") and 2020 Scotties champion [Kerri Einarson](/wiki/Kerri_Einarson \"Kerri Einarson\"). They made it all the way to the final before losing to the [Anna Hasselborg](/wiki/Anna_Hasselborg \"Anna Hasselborg\") rink in an extra end. They also made it all the way to the final of the [2020 World Junior Curling Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Junior_Curling_Championships \"2020 World Junior Curling Championships\"), where they lost to Canada's [Mackenzie Zacharias](/wiki/Mackenzie_Zacharias \"Mackenzie Zacharias\"). On the [World Curling Tour](/wiki/World_Curling_Tour \"World Curling Tour\"), they won the [Boundary Ford Curling Classic](/wiki/Boundary_Ford_Curling_Classic \"Boundary Ford Curling Classic\"), finished fourth at the inaugural [WCT Uiseong International Curling Cup](/wiki/2019_WCT_Uiseong_International_Curling_Cup \"2019 WCT Uiseong International Curling Cup\"), made the quarterfinals at the [Red Deer Curling Classic](/wiki/Red_Deer_Curling_Classic \"Red Deer Curling Classic\") and missed the playoffs at the [2019 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic](/wiki/2019_Curlers_Corner_Autumn_Gold_Curling_Classic \"2019 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic\") and the [2019 Canad Inns Women's Classic](/wiki/2019_Canad_Inns_Women%27s_Classic \"2019 Canad Inns Women's Classic\").",
"The Kim rink began the abbreviated [2020–21 season](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_curling_season \"2020–21 curling season\") at the [2020 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2020_Korean_Curling_Championships \"2020 Korean Curling Championships\"). There, they qualified for the playoffs with a 5–1 record before losing both of their playoff games to the [Kim Eun\\-jung](/wiki/Kim_Eun-jung_%28curler%29 \"Kim Eun-jung (curler)\") and [Gim Un\\-chi](/wiki/Gim_Un-chi \"Gim Un-chi\") rinks, settling for third.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.curlingzone.com/event.php?eventid\\=6807\\&eventtypeid\\=82\\&view\\=Playoffs\\#1\\|title\\=2020 Korean National Women's Curling Championship – Playoffs\\|website\\=CurlingZone\\|access\\-date\\=June 8, 2021}} Later that season, they competed in the only two Grand Slam events of the season, which were played in a \"curling bubble\" in [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary \"Calgary\"), [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"), with no spectators, to avoid the spread of the coronavirus.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://thegrandslamofcurling.com/humptys\\-champions\\-cup\\-start\\-moved\\-to\\-thursday/\\|title\\=Humpty's Champions Cup start moved to Thursday\\|publisher\\=Grand Slam of Curling\\|author\\=Jonathan Brazeau\\|date\\=April 12, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=June 8, 2021}} The team missed the playoffs at both the [2021 Champions Cup](/wiki/2021_Champions_Cup_%28curling%29 \"2021 Champions Cup (curling)\") and the [2021 Players' Championship](/wiki/2021_Players%27_Championship \"2021 Players' Championship\").",
"The [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_curling_season \"2021–22 curling season\") began in June for Team Kim as they competed in the [2021 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2021_Korean_Curling_Championships \"2021 Korean Curling Championships\") to decide who would get the chance to represent Korea at the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Curling_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics \"Curling at the 2022 Winter Olympics\") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQSZEAUDAA8/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/CQSZEAUDAA8\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-26\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|title\\=베이징 올림픽 대표를 포함한 2021\\-2022 컬링 국가대표를 뽑는 2021 KB금융 한국컬링선수권대회 with 강릉.\\|language\\=Korean\\|publisher\\=curling1spoon\\|website\\=Instagram\\|date\\=June 19, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2022}}{{cbignore}} In the first of three rounds, the team went a perfect 4–0 in the round robin before losing in the semifinal to the Gim Un\\-chi rink. They rebounded with a win over [Kim Ji\\-su](/wiki/Kim_Ji-su_%28curler%29 \"Kim Ji-su (curler)\") in the third place game. In the second round, they went 4–2, however, because Team Kim Eun\\-jung won both the first and second rounds, they became the national champions.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQ082klMfdp/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/CQ082klMfdp \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-26 \\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|title\\=여자부 강릉시청 '팀 킴'은 2차전 5승 1패로 우승해 오는 12월 열리는 베이징 올림픽 자격대회에 출전하게 됐습니다. 축하합니다.\\|language\\=Korean\\|publisher\\=curling1spoon\\|website\\=Instagram\\|date\\=July 2, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2022}}{{cbignore}} Yang later competed in the [2021 Korean Mixed Doubles Curling Championship](/wiki/2021_Korean_Mixed_Doubles_Curling_Championship \"2021 Korean Mixed Doubles Curling Championship\") with partner [Lee Ki\\-bok](/wiki/Lee_Ki-bok \"Lee Ki-bok\"). They won the bronze medal after losing in the second place match. Through the fall of 2021, skip [Kim Min\\-ji](/wiki/Kim_Min-ji_%28curler%29 \"Kim Min-ji (curler)\") was absent from the team due to winning the Mixed Doubles championship with [Lee Ki\\-jeong](/wiki/Lee_Ki-jeong \"Lee Ki-jeong\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://star.ohmynews.com/NWS\\_Web/OhmyStar/at\\_pg.aspx?CNTN\\_CD\\=A0002764291\\&CMPT\\_CD\\=P0010\\|title\\='19연승' 컬링 믹스더블 국가대표 된 김민지·이기정\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[OhmyStar]]\\|date\\=August 9, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2022}} This moved the team's second [Kim Hye\\-rin](/wiki/Kim_Hye-rin_%28curler%29 \"Kim Hye-rin (curler)\") up to skip with Yang moving from alternate to second.{{Citation\\|title\\=2021 Masters Program Guide\\|publisher\\=Grand Slam of Curling}} The team played in two Grand Slam events, the [2021 Masters](/wiki/2021_Masters_%28curling%29 \"2021 Masters (curling)\") and the [2021 National](/wiki/2021_National \"2021 National\"), finishing with a 1–3 record at both. They only played in one more event during the season, the [Boundary Ford Curling Classic](/wiki/Boundary_Ford_Curling_Classic \"Boundary Ford Curling Classic\"), where they lost in the final to Team Gim.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.curlingzone.com/event.php?view\\=Main\\&eventid\\=6681\\|title\\=2021 Boundary Ford Curling Classic\\|website\\=CurlingZone\\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2022}} In March 2022, Kim Min\\-ji would move to Gyeonggi Province to join Team Gim, with [Ha Seung\\-youn](/wiki/Ha_Seung-youn \"Ha Seung-youn\") taking over as skip for the Chuncheon City Hall team.",
"The newly revised Chuncheon City Hall rink were the dark horses entering the [2022 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2022_Korean_Curling_Championships \"2022 Korean Curling Championships\") behind both Gangneung City Hall's Kim Eun\\-jung and Gyeonggi Province's Gim Eun\\-ji. Despite this, they finished second in the round robin with a 5–1 record and then beat Gangneung City Hall 7–5 in the semifinal. In the championship game, they won 7–4 over Gyeonggi Province to become the national team for the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_curling_season \"2022–23 curling season\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.si.com/curling/news/new\\-champions\\-in\\-korea\\|title\\=New Champions in Korea\\|publisher\\=The Curling News\\|website\\=Sports Illustrated\\|date\\=June 20, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2023}} On tour, the team did not find early success, with their best results being a fourth place finish at the [2022 Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic](/wiki/2022_Hokkaido_Bank_Curling_Classic \"2022 Hokkaido Bank Curling Classic\") and a quarterfinal appearance at the [2022 Alberta Curling Series Major](/wiki/2022_Alberta_Curling_Series_Major \"2022 Alberta Curling Series Major\"). They then turned things around, however, winning the [US Open of Curling](/wiki/US_Open_of_Curling \"US Open of Curling\") and finishing second at the S3 Group Curling Stadium Series.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://curlingzone.com/event.php?view\\=Main\\&eventid\\=7366\\|title\\=2022 CURVE US Open of Curling – Championships\\|website\\=CurlingZone\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2023}}{{youTube\\|m\\_nPdqSu8vo\\|'''Video''' (full game): 2022 S3 Group Curling Stadium Series – Final – Seungyoun Ha vs Stefania Constantini}} At the [2022 Pan Continental Curling Championships](/wiki/2022_Pan_Continental_Curling_Championships \"2022 Pan Continental Curling Championships\"), the team led Korea to a 6–2 record, enough to qualify for the playoffs as the fourth seed.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://worldcurling.org/2022/11/pccc\\-sf\\-women/\\|title\\=Women’s round\\-robins draw to a close\\|publisher\\=World Curling Federation\\|date\\=November 5, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2023}} They then beat the higher seeded United States in the semifinal to qualify for the final where they faced Japan's [Satsuki Fujisawa](/wiki/Satsuki_Fujisawa \"Satsuki Fujisawa\"). There, they fell 8–6 to the Japanese in an extra end, settling for silver.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://worldcurling.org/2022/11/women\\-final\\-pccc/\\|title\\=Japan women claim first Pan Continental title\\|publisher\\=World Curling Federation\\|date\\=November 7, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2023}} In the new year, the team represented Korea at the [2023 Winter World University Games](/wiki/Curling_at_the_2023_Winter_World_University_Games \"Curling at the 2023 Winter World University Games\") where they topped the round robin with an 8–1 record. After beating Great Britain in the semifinal, they lost to China in the championship game, once again taking silver.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://worldcurling.org/2023/01/wug\\-2023/\\|title\\=Great Britain men and China women win FISU World University Games\\|publisher\\=World Curling Federation\\|date\\=January 22, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2023}} Despite their success at both the Pan Continental Championship and the World University Games, the team could not continue their medal streak at the [2023 World Women's Curling Championship](/wiki/2023_World_Women%27s_Curling_Championship \"2023 World Women's Curling Championship\"), finishing ninth with a 5–7 record.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://worldcurling.org/2023/03/dayseven\\-wwc/\\|title\\=Live Blog: Day seven at the WWCC\\|publisher\\=World Curling Federation\\|date\\=March 24, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2023}}",
"At the [2023 Korean Curling Championships](/wiki/2023_Korean_Curling_Championships \"2023 Korean Curling Championships\"), Team Ha could not defend their national title. After starting with six straight wins, the team lost three of their next four games, finishing in third place behind Gyeonggi Province and Gangneung City Hall.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.curlingzone.com/event.php?eventid\\=8075\\&eventtypeid\\=81\\&view\\=Main\\#1\\|title\\=2023 Korean Curling Championships – Women\\|website\\=CurlingZone\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2024}} Despite losing their spot as the national team, they had a strong start to their tour season, capturing the [2023 Stu Sells Oakville Tankard](/wiki/2023_Stu_Sells_Oakville_Tankard \"2023 Stu Sells Oakville Tankard\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/curling/with\\-fill\\-in\\-skips\\-team\\-rachel\\-homan\\-defeats\\-team\\-jennifer\\-jones\\-to\\-win\\-saville\\-shootout\\-1\\.2006098\\|title\\=With fill\\-in skips, Homan defeats Jones to win Saville Shootout\\|publisher\\=TSN\\|date\\=September 11, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2024}} They also made the playoffs at the [2023 KW Fall Classic](/wiki/2023_KW_Fall_Classic \"2023 KW Fall Classic\") where they went undefeated until the semifinals before losing to [Krista McCarville](/wiki/Krista_McCarville \"Krista McCarville\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/curling/krista\\-mccarville\\-wins\\-with\\-new\\-teammate\\-andrea\\-kelly\\-while\\-silvana\\-tirinzoni\\-continues\\-winning\\-ways\\-1\\.2008698\\|title\\=McCarville wins with new teammate Kelly while Tirinzoni continues dominance\\|publisher\\=TSN\\|date\\=September 17, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2024}} After their first two events, the team struggled to find success, only qualifying in three of their next eight events. This included a semifinal finish at the [Stu Sells 1824 Halifax Classic](/wiki/Stu_Sells_1824_Halifax_Classic \"Stu Sells 1824 Halifax Classic\") and two quarterfinal losses at the [Prestige Hotels \\& Resorts Curling Classic](/wiki/Prestige_Hotels_%26_Resorts_Curling_Classic \"Prestige Hotels & Resorts Curling Classic\") and the [North Grenville Women's Fall Curling Classic](/wiki/North_Grenville_Women%27s_Fall_Curling_Classic \"North Grenville Women's Fall Curling Classic\"), both after previously undefeated records.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.curlingzone.com/team.php?teamid\\=170857\\#schedule\\|title\\=Team Seungyoun Ha: 2023–24\\|website\\=CurlingZone\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2024}} In November 2023, they again finished third at the Uiseong Korean Cup, not being able to make it past the Gim or Kim rinks. They ended their season at the [2024 New Year Curling in Miyota](/wiki/2024_New_Year_Curling_in_Miyota \"2024 New Year Curling in Miyota\") event where they missed the playoffs.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Vincent born on 2 November 1739 in Limehouse Street Ward, London, was the fifth surviving son of Giles Vincent, packer and Portugal merchant, by Sarah (Holloway).{{cite DNB \|last\= Norgate \|first\=G. Le G. \|wstitle\=Vincent, William}}
### Theological career
William was admitted at [Westminster School](/wiki/Westminster_School "Westminster School") as a 'town boy' in 1747; he became a king's scholar in 1753, and in 1757 was elected to [Trinity College, Cambridge](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge "Trinity College, Cambridge").{{acad\|id\=VNCT757W\|name\=Vincent, William}} After graduating as [BA](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") in 1761, he returned to Westminster as usher. He became second master in June 1771, and in the same year was made chaplain in ordinary to the [king](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom "George III of the United Kingdom"). He graduated [MA](/wiki/Master_of_Arts_%28Oxbridge_and_Dublin%29 "Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)") in 1764 and DD in 1776, and two years later received the vicarage of Longdon, [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire "Wiltshire"), which, however, he exchanged within six months for the rectory of [All Hallows, Thames Street](/wiki/All-Hallows-the-Great "All-Hallows-the-Great"). In 1784 he became [sub\-almoner](/wiki/Royal_Almonry "Royal Almonry") to the king. He shared the [tory](/wiki/British_Tory_Party "British Tory Party") views of his family, and in 1780 published anonymously a *Letter* in reply to a sermon preached at Cambridge by [Richard Watson](/wiki/Richard_Watson_%28bishop%29 "Richard Watson (bishop)"). A sermon preached by him in 1792 at [St. Margaret's, Westminster](/wiki/St._Margaret%27s%2C_Westminster "St. Margaret's, Westminster"), for the benefit of the [greycoat charity](/wiki/Grey_Coat_Hospital "Grey Coat Hospital"), attracted attention, and when reprinted in the following year by the Patriotic Association against republicans and [levellers](/wiki/Levellers "Levellers"), twenty thousand copies were sold.
### Headmaster of Westminster School
Meanwhile, in 1788, Vincent had been appointed headmaster of Westminster. He held the position for fourteen years, respected alike for both scholarship and character. His swinging pace, sonorous quotations, and especially his loud call of "Eloquere, puer, eloquere" ("Speak out, boy!") dwelt long in the memory of his scholars. His name is perpetuated by his enclosure of part of the nearby Tothill Fields for his old school as a playground, called [Vincent Square](/wiki/Vincent_Square "Vincent Square") after him. As the waste marshlands of the Tuttle or [Tothill](/wiki/Tothill "Tothill") Fields were beginning to be built over, Vincent simply employed a man with a horse to plough a ditch around an area of some eleven acres; his receipt for the fee is in the Abbey archives.{{cn\|date\=April 2016}}
In his adherence to [corporal punishment](/wiki/Corporal_punishment "Corporal punishment") he resembled his predecessor, [Richard Busby](/wiki/Richard_Busby "Richard Busby"); and in 1792 he expelled [Robert Southey](/wiki/Robert_Southey "Robert Southey") for his contributions to an anti\-flogging periodical, *The Flagellant*. The attention he paid to his pupils' religious education rendered him well qualified to answer the attacks of [Thomas Rennell](/wiki/Thomas_Rennell "Thomas Rennell"), [master of the Temple](/wiki/Master_of_the_Temple "Master of the Temple"), and [Thomas Lewis O'Beirne](/wiki/Thomas_Lewis_O%27Beirne "Thomas Lewis O'Beirne"), bishop of Meath, who had charged headmasters with neglecting this branch of their duties. Vincent's *Defence of Public Education*, issued as a reply to the latter in 1801, reached a third edition two years later, and occasioned some controversy. In April 1801 he was nominated by [William Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger"), the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom"), to a canonry of Westminster. When in the following year Pitt's successor, [Henry Addington](/wiki/Henry_Addington%2C_1st_Viscount_Sidmouth "Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth"), offered him the deanery of Westminster "as a public reward for public services", this was understood to refer to his recent publication. He was presented as dean on 3 August 1802, becoming the first dean since the late 17th century not to have held the office in conjunction with that of [Bishop of Rochester](/wiki/Bishop_of_Rochester "Bishop of Rochester").{{cite book \|title\=Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae, 1541–1857: Volume 7: Ely, Norwich, Westminster and Worcester Dioceses \|editor\-first\=J.M. \|editor\-last\=Horn \|place\=London \|publisher\=Institute of Historical Research \|year\=1992 \|isbn\=1871348129 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/fastiecclesiaean0000lene/page/71 71] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/fastiecclesiaean0000lene/page/71 }}
In 1805 Vincent obtained the rectory of St John's, Westminster, and resigned that of All Hallows to his son. In 1807 he exchanged St John's for the rectory of [Islip, Oxfordshire](/wiki/Islip%2C_Oxfordshire "Islip, Oxfordshire"), where he made his country residence. He had been appointed president of [Sion College](/wiki/Sion_College "Sion College") in 1798, and acted as [prolocutor](/wiki/Prolocutor "Prolocutor") of the lower [house of convocation](/wiki/Convocation_of_the_English_Clergy "Convocation of the English Clergy") in 1802, 1806, and 1807\.
The fire which broke out in the roof of the lantern of Westminster Abbey on 9 July 1803 necessitated repairs to the fabric. They were all paid for by the dean and chapter; but in 1805 Vincent addressed a letter to Pitt praying for a national grant for the restoration of the [Henry VII Chapel](/wiki/Henry_VII_Chapel "Henry VII Chapel"). Fourteen annual grants, beginning from 1807, were received, and the work proceeded under the direction of Thomas Gayfere and [Benjamin Wyatt](/wiki/Benjamin_Dean_Wyatt "Benjamin Dean Wyatt"). The restoration was not completed till 1822\. The manner in which it was carried out, especially the interference with the tomb of [Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock%2C_1st_Duke_of_Gloucester "Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester"), to make way for the new Addison monument, was severely criticised in the *[Gentleman's Magazine](/wiki/The_Gentleman%27s_Magazine "The Gentleman's Magazine")* by [John Carter](/wiki/John_Carter_%28architect%29 "John Carter (architect)"), the architect. Vincent replied by the jeux d'esprit *Woodstock's Ghost* and *Addison's Ghost*, satirical verses directed against Carter and [William Capon](/wiki/William_Capon_%28artist%29 "William Capon (artist)"), the scene\-painter.{{cite journal \|title\=Woodstock's Ghost, a New Song \|journal\=Gentleman's Magazine \|volume\=78 \|issue\=2 \|year\=1808 \|pages\=1105–6 \|id\={{ProQuest\|8133752}} }}{{subscription required}}{{cite journal \|title\=Addison's Ghost: a Ballad \|journal\=Gentleman's Magazine \|volume\=79 \|issue\=1 \|year\=1809 \|page\=157 \|id\={{ProQuest\|8201333}} }}{{subscription required}} He also directed the restoration of the great rose or marigold window; and caused the enormous monuments of Captains [Harvey](/wiki/John_Harvey_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "John Harvey (Royal Navy officer)"), [Hutt](/wiki/John_Hutt_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "John Hutt (Royal Navy officer)"), and [Montagu](/wiki/James_Montagu_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "James Montagu (Royal Navy officer)") (killed in [Admiral Howe](/wiki/Richard_Howe%2C_1st_Earl_Howe "Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe")'s victory of the "[Glorious First of June](/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June "Glorious First of June")" 1794\) to be removed from between the pillars of the nave to their present positions. Pitt and [Charles James Fox](/wiki/Charles_James_Fox "Charles James Fox") were buried in the abbey in 1806, and the Duc de Montpensier (brother of Louis\-Philippe) in the [Henry VII Chapel](/wiki/Henry_VII_Chapel "Henry VII Chapel") in the following year. Minute accounts of the repairs executed at the abbey and of the chapter business while he was dean are given in a manuscript notebook of Vincent's, which is still preserved at the deanery. The book also contains an account by him of the 16th and 17th\-century chapter\-books, and an analysis and criticism of [Flete's](/wiki/John_Flete "John Flete") manuscript *Chronicle of the Abbey*.
### Classical scholar
Vincent made his reputation as a classical scholar by the publication of a [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") treatise entitled *De Legione Manlianâ Quæstio ex Livio desumta, et rei militaris Romanæ studiosis proposita*. In this, by means of an ingenious emendation, he reconciled the apparently conflicting statements of [Livy](/wiki/Livy "Livy") and [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius") respecting the legion. [Porson](/wiki/Richard_Porson "Richard Porson") and [Heyne](/wiki/Christian_Gottlob_Heyne "Christian Gottlob Heyne") gave a general assent to his views. Only four copies of the work are said to have been sold. In the next year Vincent published *The Origination of the Greek Verb: an Hypothesis*, followed in 1795 by *The Greek Verb Analysed: an Hypothesis in which the Source and Structure of the Greek Language in general is considered*. He found the reasons for the inflections of the verbs in their derivations from "a simple and very short original verb signifying to do or exist", which being afterwards subjoined to radicals, denoting various actions and modes of being, formed their tenses, modes, and other variations. Vincent had to defend his work against the charges of insufficient research and plagiarism (from a writer in the ‘[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica "Encyclopædia Britannica")'), advanced in the *Hermes Unmasked* of Thomas Gunter Browne. His views did not succeed in holding their ground.
### Geographer
But ancient geography was the subject which Vincent made his chief study. In 1797 he issued his commentary on [Arrian](/wiki/Arrian "Arrian")'s *Voyage of [Nearchus](/wiki/Nearchus "Nearchus")* (contained in the *Indica*), which he terms 'the first event of general importance to mankind in the history of navigation'. Friedrich Schmieder, a later editor of Arrian, translated Vincent's arguments into Latin and subjoined them as a complete answer to the objections of [Dodwell](/wiki/Edward_Dodwell "Edward Dodwell"). Vincent had the assistance of [Alexander Dalrymple](/wiki/Alexander_Dalrymple "Alexander Dalrymple"), hydrographer to the admiralty, who prepared charts, and of [Samuel Horsley](/wiki/Samuel_Horsley "Samuel Horsley"), then dean of Westminster, who furnished two astronomical dissertations. The subject was pursued in *The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea*, which appeared in two parts in 1800 and 1805\. These three commentaries, which occupied Vincent's leisure during eight years, were dedicated to George III. *The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean*, 2 vols., issued in 1807, forms a second edition of the whole work. It was dedicated to [Lord Sidmouth](/wiki/Henry_Addington%2C_1st_Viscount_Sidmouth "Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth"). It contains contributions by Professor Heyne, Dr. Schneider, and [Niebuhr](/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr "Barthold Georg Niebuhr"), as well as by Sir [Gore Ouseley](/wiki/Gore_Ouseley "Gore Ouseley"), [Dr. Burney](/wiki/Charles_Burney "Charles Burney"), and [William Wales](/wiki/William_Wales_%28astronomer%29 "William Wales (astronomer)"). McCulloch termed it a most valuable contribution to the geography of antiquity and the history of commerce. An English translation of the *Voyage of Nearchus* and of the *Periplus* was published separately by Vincent in 1809\.
*Gleanings from the Asiatick Researches of the learned Dr. Vincent*, was privately printed in 1813 by [Joseph Thomas Brown](/wiki/Joseph_Thomas_Brown "Joseph Thomas Brown"). Vincent also contributed notes to [Gibbon's](/wiki/Edward_Gibbon "Edward Gibbon") *Inquiry into the Circumnavigation of Africa*, and to the *Classical Journal* articles on *Ancient Commerce*, *China as known to Classic Authors*, *The Geography of Susiana*, and *Theophilus an African Bishop*. For the first series of the *[British Critic](/wiki/British_Critic "British Critic")*, conducted by his friend [Nares](/wiki/Edward_Nares "Edward Nares"), he wrote several important reviews, and, in connection with the [Troad](/wiki/Troad "Troad") controversy, attacked the views of [Jacob Bryant](/wiki/Jacob_Bryant "Jacob Bryant"), whom he charged with falsifying passages in [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus "Diodorus Siculus"). Vincent was also a frequent contributor to *[The Gentleman's Magazine](/wiki/The_Gentleman%27s_Magazine "The Gentleman's Magazine")*.
### Personal life
In 1771, William Vincent married Hannah Wyatt. They had two sons, William St Andrew Vincent (1772\-1849\), thereafter Rector of Bolney and prebendary of Chichester; and George Giles Vincent (1774\-1859\), who became a solicitor, writer of philosophy, and served Westminster Abbey as Chapter Clerk for 50 years.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.westminster\-abbey.org/abbey\-commemorations/commemorations/william\-vincent\-family\#i13670\|title\=William Vincent \& Family}}
William St Andrew, after the Dean's death, published a book of his sermons, "Sermons on Faith, Doctrines and Public Duties," in 1817, followed by a second volume in 1836\.Trowles, Tony, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, available at [https://doi.org/10\.1093/ref:odnb/28316](https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/28316)
George Giles Vincent paid tribute to him as "one of the best of parents, and best of men... In practice, he was most conscientious in performance of his clerical duties, but he despised both the parade and the affectation of piety."{{Cite book \|last\=Vincent \|first\=George Giles \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=V2cUAAAAQAAJ \|title\=An explanation of morality, and of good and evil, or the laws or rules of human actions generally \|date\=1823 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Vincent born on 2 November 1739 in Limehouse Street Ward, London, was the fifth surviving son of Giles Vincent, packer and Portugal merchant, by Sarah (Holloway).{{cite DNB \\|last\\= Norgate \\|first\\=G. Le G. \\|wstitle\\=Vincent, William}}",
"### Theological career",
"William was admitted at [Westminster School](/wiki/Westminster_School \"Westminster School\") as a 'town boy' in 1747; he became a king's scholar in 1753, and in 1757 was elected to [Trinity College, Cambridge](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge \"Trinity College, Cambridge\").{{acad\\|id\\=VNCT757W\\|name\\=Vincent, William}} After graduating as [BA](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") in 1761, he returned to Westminster as usher. He became second master in June 1771, and in the same year was made chaplain in ordinary to the [king](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George III of the United Kingdom\"). He graduated [MA](/wiki/Master_of_Arts_%28Oxbridge_and_Dublin%29 \"Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)\") in 1764 and DD in 1776, and two years later received the vicarage of Longdon, [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire \"Wiltshire\"), which, however, he exchanged within six months for the rectory of [All Hallows, Thames Street](/wiki/All-Hallows-the-Great \"All-Hallows-the-Great\"). In 1784 he became [sub\\-almoner](/wiki/Royal_Almonry \"Royal Almonry\") to the king. He shared the [tory](/wiki/British_Tory_Party \"British Tory Party\") views of his family, and in 1780 published anonymously a *Letter* in reply to a sermon preached at Cambridge by [Richard Watson](/wiki/Richard_Watson_%28bishop%29 \"Richard Watson (bishop)\"). A sermon preached by him in 1792 at [St. Margaret's, Westminster](/wiki/St._Margaret%27s%2C_Westminster \"St. Margaret's, Westminster\"), for the benefit of the [greycoat charity](/wiki/Grey_Coat_Hospital \"Grey Coat Hospital\"), attracted attention, and when reprinted in the following year by the Patriotic Association against republicans and [levellers](/wiki/Levellers \"Levellers\"), twenty thousand copies were sold.",
"### Headmaster of Westminster School",
"Meanwhile, in 1788, Vincent had been appointed headmaster of Westminster. He held the position for fourteen years, respected alike for both scholarship and character. His swinging pace, sonorous quotations, and especially his loud call of \"Eloquere, puer, eloquere\" (\"Speak out, boy!\") dwelt long in the memory of his scholars. His name is perpetuated by his enclosure of part of the nearby Tothill Fields for his old school as a playground, called [Vincent Square](/wiki/Vincent_Square \"Vincent Square\") after him. As the waste marshlands of the Tuttle or [Tothill](/wiki/Tothill \"Tothill\") Fields were beginning to be built over, Vincent simply employed a man with a horse to plough a ditch around an area of some eleven acres; his receipt for the fee is in the Abbey archives.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2016}}",
"In his adherence to [corporal punishment](/wiki/Corporal_punishment \"Corporal punishment\") he resembled his predecessor, [Richard Busby](/wiki/Richard_Busby \"Richard Busby\"); and in 1792 he expelled [Robert Southey](/wiki/Robert_Southey \"Robert Southey\") for his contributions to an anti\\-flogging periodical, *The Flagellant*. The attention he paid to his pupils' religious education rendered him well qualified to answer the attacks of [Thomas Rennell](/wiki/Thomas_Rennell \"Thomas Rennell\"), [master of the Temple](/wiki/Master_of_the_Temple \"Master of the Temple\"), and [Thomas Lewis O'Beirne](/wiki/Thomas_Lewis_O%27Beirne \"Thomas Lewis O'Beirne\"), bishop of Meath, who had charged headmasters with neglecting this branch of their duties. Vincent's *Defence of Public Education*, issued as a reply to the latter in 1801, reached a third edition two years later, and occasioned some controversy. In April 1801 he was nominated by [William Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger \"William Pitt the Younger\"), the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\"), to a canonry of Westminster. When in the following year Pitt's successor, [Henry Addington](/wiki/Henry_Addington%2C_1st_Viscount_Sidmouth \"Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth\"), offered him the deanery of Westminster \"as a public reward for public services\", this was understood to refer to his recent publication. He was presented as dean on 3 August 1802, becoming the first dean since the late 17th century not to have held the office in conjunction with that of [Bishop of Rochester](/wiki/Bishop_of_Rochester \"Bishop of Rochester\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae, 1541–1857: Volume 7: Ely, Norwich, Westminster and Worcester Dioceses \\|editor\\-first\\=J.M. \\|editor\\-last\\=Horn \\|place\\=London \\|publisher\\=Institute of Historical Research \\|year\\=1992 \\|isbn\\=1871348129 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/fastiecclesiaean0000lene/page/71 71] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/fastiecclesiaean0000lene/page/71 }}",
"In 1805 Vincent obtained the rectory of St John's, Westminster, and resigned that of All Hallows to his son. In 1807 he exchanged St John's for the rectory of [Islip, Oxfordshire](/wiki/Islip%2C_Oxfordshire \"Islip, Oxfordshire\"), where he made his country residence. He had been appointed president of [Sion College](/wiki/Sion_College \"Sion College\") in 1798, and acted as [prolocutor](/wiki/Prolocutor \"Prolocutor\") of the lower [house of convocation](/wiki/Convocation_of_the_English_Clergy \"Convocation of the English Clergy\") in 1802, 1806, and 1807\\.",
"The fire which broke out in the roof of the lantern of Westminster Abbey on 9 July 1803 necessitated repairs to the fabric. They were all paid for by the dean and chapter; but in 1805 Vincent addressed a letter to Pitt praying for a national grant for the restoration of the [Henry VII Chapel](/wiki/Henry_VII_Chapel \"Henry VII Chapel\"). Fourteen annual grants, beginning from 1807, were received, and the work proceeded under the direction of Thomas Gayfere and [Benjamin Wyatt](/wiki/Benjamin_Dean_Wyatt \"Benjamin Dean Wyatt\"). The restoration was not completed till 1822\\. The manner in which it was carried out, especially the interference with the tomb of [Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock%2C_1st_Duke_of_Gloucester \"Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester\"), to make way for the new Addison monument, was severely criticised in the *[Gentleman's Magazine](/wiki/The_Gentleman%27s_Magazine \"The Gentleman's Magazine\")* by [John Carter](/wiki/John_Carter_%28architect%29 \"John Carter (architect)\"), the architect. Vincent replied by the jeux d'esprit *Woodstock's Ghost* and *Addison's Ghost*, satirical verses directed against Carter and [William Capon](/wiki/William_Capon_%28artist%29 \"William Capon (artist)\"), the scene\\-painter.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Woodstock's Ghost, a New Song \\|journal\\=Gentleman's Magazine \\|volume\\=78 \\|issue\\=2 \\|year\\=1808 \\|pages\\=1105–6 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|8133752}} }}{{subscription required}}{{cite journal \\|title\\=Addison's Ghost: a Ballad \\|journal\\=Gentleman's Magazine \\|volume\\=79 \\|issue\\=1 \\|year\\=1809 \\|page\\=157 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|8201333}} }}{{subscription required}} He also directed the restoration of the great rose or marigold window; and caused the enormous monuments of Captains [Harvey](/wiki/John_Harvey_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"John Harvey (Royal Navy officer)\"), [Hutt](/wiki/John_Hutt_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"John Hutt (Royal Navy officer)\"), and [Montagu](/wiki/James_Montagu_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"James Montagu (Royal Navy officer)\") (killed in [Admiral Howe](/wiki/Richard_Howe%2C_1st_Earl_Howe \"Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe\")'s victory of the \"[Glorious First of June](/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June \"Glorious First of June\")\" 1794\\) to be removed from between the pillars of the nave to their present positions. Pitt and [Charles James Fox](/wiki/Charles_James_Fox \"Charles James Fox\") were buried in the abbey in 1806, and the Duc de Montpensier (brother of Louis\\-Philippe) in the [Henry VII Chapel](/wiki/Henry_VII_Chapel \"Henry VII Chapel\") in the following year. Minute accounts of the repairs executed at the abbey and of the chapter business while he was dean are given in a manuscript notebook of Vincent's, which is still preserved at the deanery. The book also contains an account by him of the 16th and 17th\\-century chapter\\-books, and an analysis and criticism of [Flete's](/wiki/John_Flete \"John Flete\") manuscript *Chronicle of the Abbey*.",
"### Classical scholar",
"Vincent made his reputation as a classical scholar by the publication of a [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") treatise entitled *De Legione Manlianâ Quæstio ex Livio desumta, et rei militaris Romanæ studiosis proposita*. In this, by means of an ingenious emendation, he reconciled the apparently conflicting statements of [Livy](/wiki/Livy \"Livy\") and [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\") respecting the legion. [Porson](/wiki/Richard_Porson \"Richard Porson\") and [Heyne](/wiki/Christian_Gottlob_Heyne \"Christian Gottlob Heyne\") gave a general assent to his views. Only four copies of the work are said to have been sold. In the next year Vincent published *The Origination of the Greek Verb: an Hypothesis*, followed in 1795 by *The Greek Verb Analysed: an Hypothesis in which the Source and Structure of the Greek Language in general is considered*. He found the reasons for the inflections of the verbs in their derivations from \"a simple and very short original verb signifying to do or exist\", which being afterwards subjoined to radicals, denoting various actions and modes of being, formed their tenses, modes, and other variations. Vincent had to defend his work against the charges of insufficient research and plagiarism (from a writer in the ‘[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica \"Encyclopædia Britannica\")'), advanced in the *Hermes Unmasked* of Thomas Gunter Browne. His views did not succeed in holding their ground.",
"### Geographer",
"But ancient geography was the subject which Vincent made his chief study. In 1797 he issued his commentary on [Arrian](/wiki/Arrian \"Arrian\")'s *Voyage of [Nearchus](/wiki/Nearchus \"Nearchus\")* (contained in the *Indica*), which he terms 'the first event of general importance to mankind in the history of navigation'. Friedrich Schmieder, a later editor of Arrian, translated Vincent's arguments into Latin and subjoined them as a complete answer to the objections of [Dodwell](/wiki/Edward_Dodwell \"Edward Dodwell\"). Vincent had the assistance of [Alexander Dalrymple](/wiki/Alexander_Dalrymple \"Alexander Dalrymple\"), hydrographer to the admiralty, who prepared charts, and of [Samuel Horsley](/wiki/Samuel_Horsley \"Samuel Horsley\"), then dean of Westminster, who furnished two astronomical dissertations. The subject was pursued in *The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea*, which appeared in two parts in 1800 and 1805\\. These three commentaries, which occupied Vincent's leisure during eight years, were dedicated to George III. *The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean*, 2 vols., issued in 1807, forms a second edition of the whole work. It was dedicated to [Lord Sidmouth](/wiki/Henry_Addington%2C_1st_Viscount_Sidmouth \"Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth\"). It contains contributions by Professor Heyne, Dr. Schneider, and [Niebuhr](/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr \"Barthold Georg Niebuhr\"), as well as by Sir [Gore Ouseley](/wiki/Gore_Ouseley \"Gore Ouseley\"), [Dr. Burney](/wiki/Charles_Burney \"Charles Burney\"), and [William Wales](/wiki/William_Wales_%28astronomer%29 \"William Wales (astronomer)\"). McCulloch termed it a most valuable contribution to the geography of antiquity and the history of commerce. An English translation of the *Voyage of Nearchus* and of the *Periplus* was published separately by Vincent in 1809\\.",
"*Gleanings from the Asiatick Researches of the learned Dr. Vincent*, was privately printed in 1813 by [Joseph Thomas Brown](/wiki/Joseph_Thomas_Brown \"Joseph Thomas Brown\"). Vincent also contributed notes to [Gibbon's](/wiki/Edward_Gibbon \"Edward Gibbon\") *Inquiry into the Circumnavigation of Africa*, and to the *Classical Journal* articles on *Ancient Commerce*, *China as known to Classic Authors*, *The Geography of Susiana*, and *Theophilus an African Bishop*. For the first series of the *[British Critic](/wiki/British_Critic \"British Critic\")*, conducted by his friend [Nares](/wiki/Edward_Nares \"Edward Nares\"), he wrote several important reviews, and, in connection with the [Troad](/wiki/Troad \"Troad\") controversy, attacked the views of [Jacob Bryant](/wiki/Jacob_Bryant \"Jacob Bryant\"), whom he charged with falsifying passages in [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus \"Diodorus Siculus\"). Vincent was also a frequent contributor to *[The Gentleman's Magazine](/wiki/The_Gentleman%27s_Magazine \"The Gentleman's Magazine\")*.",
"### Personal life",
"In 1771, William Vincent married Hannah Wyatt. They had two sons, William St Andrew Vincent (1772\\-1849\\), thereafter Rector of Bolney and prebendary of Chichester; and George Giles Vincent (1774\\-1859\\), who became a solicitor, writer of philosophy, and served Westminster Abbey as Chapter Clerk for 50 years.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.westminster\\-abbey.org/abbey\\-commemorations/commemorations/william\\-vincent\\-family\\#i13670\\|title\\=William Vincent \\& Family}}",
"William St Andrew, after the Dean's death, published a book of his sermons, \"Sermons on Faith, Doctrines and Public Duties,\" in 1817, followed by a second volume in 1836\\.Trowles, Tony, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, available at [https://doi.org/10\\.1093/ref:odnb/28316](https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/28316)",
"George Giles Vincent paid tribute to him as \"one of the best of parents, and best of men... In practice, he was most conscientious in performance of his clerical duties, but he despised both the parade and the affectation of piety.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Vincent \\|first\\=George Giles \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=V2cUAAAAQAAJ \\|title\\=An explanation of morality, and of good and evil, or the laws or rules of human actions generally \\|date\\=1823 \\|language\\=en}}",
"",
"",
""
] |
Plot
----
### 1970 manga (one\-shot)
There are mass murders and catastrophes all over Japan, committed by a masked/caped psychic madman called the Skull Man, and his shapeshifting aide Garo (named after the manga ninja Garo created by [Sanpei Shirato](/wiki/Sanpei_Shirato "Sanpei Shirato")), who can mutate into various powerful monsters. The calamities caused by the Skull Man are investigated by the Tachiki Detective Agency, with the help of a young man named Tatsuo Kagura, the son of a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza "Yakuza") in the Kagura Clan.
Police Chief Tachiki, who heads the Tachiki Detective Agency, suspects that Tatsuo is the Skull Man. Tatsuo, in turn, suspects that the detective is a part of a public conspiracy that has been after him for fifteen years. It turns out that Tatsuo's parents were murdered and he was adopted by the Kagura Clan. For fifteen years, Tatsuo has been hunting for the mastermind, who manipulates all industry, finance and even politics. Tatsuo, the Skull Man, threateningly demands Tachiki that he tell him the name of the mastermind. After muttering the culprit's family name, Chisato, the Skull Man shoots him in the head.
Skull Man and Garo then race to the estate of a reclusive old man named Kogetsu Chisato, who lives with a girl named Maya, who is mute and blind (she is always seen with her eyes closed). Overcome with psychotic rage, Skull Man threatens to kill Chisato, who not only kindly welcomes him, but has been looking forward to his arrival. Maya, however, telepathically persuades him not to kill Chisato, and reveals a shocking secret: Chisato is Skull Man's grandfather and Maya is his younger sister.
Chisato tells his shocked grandson the whole story: his own son, Tatsuo's father, was a scientific genius beyond geniuses. In fact, he was so intelligent and unearthly that he was a mutant, a being of Newmanity (*Shinjinrui* \- similar to that in Ishinomori's later creation, *[Inazuman](/wiki/Inazuman "Inazuman")*). His wife, whom he married and had Tatsuo with, was a mutant as well. The couple conducted bizarre experiments that were capable of destroying humanity. Chisato feared this greatly, so, when Maya was born, he killed his own son and daughter\-in\-law, and sought to kill his grandson Tatsuo, who ended up being rescued and raised by Garo. He could not bring himself to kill Maya, however, and raised her to be his faithful servant. Maya then tells Skull Man that Chisato wanted to bring him back before he could do anything.
Chisato traps himself, Skull Man, Garo and Maya in glass walls, and sets himself and all the others ablaze, sadly stating that "We were born in the wrong era!" Along with his entire "family", Tatsuo dies a tragic, horrible death in the inferno.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"### 1970 manga (one\\-shot)",
"There are mass murders and catastrophes all over Japan, committed by a masked/caped psychic madman called the Skull Man, and his shapeshifting aide Garo (named after the manga ninja Garo created by [Sanpei Shirato](/wiki/Sanpei_Shirato \"Sanpei Shirato\")), who can mutate into various powerful monsters. The calamities caused by the Skull Man are investigated by the Tachiki Detective Agency, with the help of a young man named Tatsuo Kagura, the son of a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza \"Yakuza\") in the Kagura Clan.",
"Police Chief Tachiki, who heads the Tachiki Detective Agency, suspects that Tatsuo is the Skull Man. Tatsuo, in turn, suspects that the detective is a part of a public conspiracy that has been after him for fifteen years. It turns out that Tatsuo's parents were murdered and he was adopted by the Kagura Clan. For fifteen years, Tatsuo has been hunting for the mastermind, who manipulates all industry, finance and even politics. Tatsuo, the Skull Man, threateningly demands Tachiki that he tell him the name of the mastermind. After muttering the culprit's family name, Chisato, the Skull Man shoots him in the head.",
"Skull Man and Garo then race to the estate of a reclusive old man named Kogetsu Chisato, who lives with a girl named Maya, who is mute and blind (she is always seen with her eyes closed). Overcome with psychotic rage, Skull Man threatens to kill Chisato, who not only kindly welcomes him, but has been looking forward to his arrival. Maya, however, telepathically persuades him not to kill Chisato, and reveals a shocking secret: Chisato is Skull Man's grandfather and Maya is his younger sister.",
"Chisato tells his shocked grandson the whole story: his own son, Tatsuo's father, was a scientific genius beyond geniuses. In fact, he was so intelligent and unearthly that he was a mutant, a being of Newmanity (*Shinjinrui* \\- similar to that in Ishinomori's later creation, *[Inazuman](/wiki/Inazuman \"Inazuman\")*). His wife, whom he married and had Tatsuo with, was a mutant as well. The couple conducted bizarre experiments that were capable of destroying humanity. Chisato feared this greatly, so, when Maya was born, he killed his own son and daughter\\-in\\-law, and sought to kill his grandson Tatsuo, who ended up being rescued and raised by Garo. He could not bring himself to kill Maya, however, and raised her to be his faithful servant. Maya then tells Skull Man that Chisato wanted to bring him back before he could do anything.",
"Chisato traps himself, Skull Man, Garo and Maya in glass walls, and sets himself and all the others ablaze, sadly stating that \"We were born in the wrong era!\" Along with his entire \"family\", Tatsuo dies a tragic, horrible death in the inferno.",
""
] |
### 1970 manga (one\-shot)
There are mass murders and catastrophes all over Japan, committed by a masked/caped psychic madman called the Skull Man, and his shapeshifting aide Garo (named after the manga ninja Garo created by [Sanpei Shirato](/wiki/Sanpei_Shirato "Sanpei Shirato")), who can mutate into various powerful monsters. The calamities caused by the Skull Man are investigated by the Tachiki Detective Agency, with the help of a young man named Tatsuo Kagura, the son of a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza "Yakuza") in the Kagura Clan.
Police Chief Tachiki, who heads the Tachiki Detective Agency, suspects that Tatsuo is the Skull Man. Tatsuo, in turn, suspects that the detective is a part of a public conspiracy that has been after him for fifteen years. It turns out that Tatsuo's parents were murdered and he was adopted by the Kagura Clan. For fifteen years, Tatsuo has been hunting for the mastermind, who manipulates all industry, finance and even politics. Tatsuo, the Skull Man, threateningly demands Tachiki that he tell him the name of the mastermind. After muttering the culprit's family name, Chisato, the Skull Man shoots him in the head.
Skull Man and Garo then race to the estate of a reclusive old man named Kogetsu Chisato, who lives with a girl named Maya, who is mute and blind (she is always seen with her eyes closed). Overcome with psychotic rage, Skull Man threatens to kill Chisato, who not only kindly welcomes him, but has been looking forward to his arrival. Maya, however, telepathically persuades him not to kill Chisato, and reveals a shocking secret: Chisato is Skull Man's grandfather and Maya is his younger sister.
Chisato tells his shocked grandson the whole story: his own son, Tatsuo's father, was a scientific genius beyond geniuses. In fact, he was so intelligent and unearthly that he was a mutant, a being of Newmanity (*Shinjinrui* \- similar to that in Ishinomori's later creation, *[Inazuman](/wiki/Inazuman "Inazuman")*). His wife, whom he married and had Tatsuo with, was a mutant as well. The couple conducted bizarre experiments that were capable of destroying humanity. Chisato feared this greatly, so, when Maya was born, he killed his own son and daughter\-in\-law, and sought to kill his grandson Tatsuo, who ended up being rescued and raised by Garo. He could not bring himself to kill Maya, however, and raised her to be his faithful servant. Maya then tells Skull Man that Chisato wanted to bring him back before he could do anything.
Chisato traps himself, Skull Man, Garo and Maya in glass walls, and sets himself and all the others ablaze, sadly stating that "We were born in the wrong era!" Along with his entire "family", Tatsuo dies a tragic, horrible death in the inferno.
|
[
"### 1970 manga (one\\-shot)",
"There are mass murders and catastrophes all over Japan, committed by a masked/caped psychic madman called the Skull Man, and his shapeshifting aide Garo (named after the manga ninja Garo created by [Sanpei Shirato](/wiki/Sanpei_Shirato \"Sanpei Shirato\")), who can mutate into various powerful monsters. The calamities caused by the Skull Man are investigated by the Tachiki Detective Agency, with the help of a young man named Tatsuo Kagura, the son of a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza \"Yakuza\") in the Kagura Clan.",
"Police Chief Tachiki, who heads the Tachiki Detective Agency, suspects that Tatsuo is the Skull Man. Tatsuo, in turn, suspects that the detective is a part of a public conspiracy that has been after him for fifteen years. It turns out that Tatsuo's parents were murdered and he was adopted by the Kagura Clan. For fifteen years, Tatsuo has been hunting for the mastermind, who manipulates all industry, finance and even politics. Tatsuo, the Skull Man, threateningly demands Tachiki that he tell him the name of the mastermind. After muttering the culprit's family name, Chisato, the Skull Man shoots him in the head.",
"Skull Man and Garo then race to the estate of a reclusive old man named Kogetsu Chisato, who lives with a girl named Maya, who is mute and blind (she is always seen with her eyes closed). Overcome with psychotic rage, Skull Man threatens to kill Chisato, who not only kindly welcomes him, but has been looking forward to his arrival. Maya, however, telepathically persuades him not to kill Chisato, and reveals a shocking secret: Chisato is Skull Man's grandfather and Maya is his younger sister.",
"Chisato tells his shocked grandson the whole story: his own son, Tatsuo's father, was a scientific genius beyond geniuses. In fact, he was so intelligent and unearthly that he was a mutant, a being of Newmanity (*Shinjinrui* \\- similar to that in Ishinomori's later creation, *[Inazuman](/wiki/Inazuman \"Inazuman\")*). His wife, whom he married and had Tatsuo with, was a mutant as well. The couple conducted bizarre experiments that were capable of destroying humanity. Chisato feared this greatly, so, when Maya was born, he killed his own son and daughter\\-in\\-law, and sought to kill his grandson Tatsuo, who ended up being rescued and raised by Garo. He could not bring himself to kill Maya, however, and raised her to be his faithful servant. Maya then tells Skull Man that Chisato wanted to bring him back before he could do anything.",
"Chisato traps himself, Skull Man, Garo and Maya in glass walls, and sets himself and all the others ablaze, sadly stating that \"We were born in the wrong era!\" Along with his entire \"family\", Tatsuo dies a tragic, horrible death in the inferno.",
""
] |
Media
-----
### 1970 manga
Although the original *Skull Man* is not yet in printed in the U.S., [Comixology](/wiki/Comixology "Comixology") obtained the license rights to the title and has released an English\-language digital version of the manga in 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2012\-10\-12/comixology\-licenses\-shotaro\-ishinomori\-entire\-manga\-catalog\|title\=Comixology Licenses Shotaro Ishinomori's Entire Manga Catalog\|date\=October 12, 2012\|publisher\=\[\[Anime News Network]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2012}}
### 1998 manga
{{multiple issues\|section\=y\|
{{Expand section\|date\=June 2011}}
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=June 2011}}
}}
{{main\|List of The Skull Man (1998 manga) chapters}}
The 1998 manga is a remake of the original manga. *Skull Man* revolves around Tatsuo Kagura, who early in his life was subjected to several mutating science experiments that ended up giving him amazing powers and skills. Longing revenge for the murder of his parents, he becomes Skull Man, a shadowy crusader who battles The Syndicate and its evil leader Rasputin. The story begins abruptly with a woman who possesses immense psychic powers killing a man, only to then be attacked herself by a man who can shapeshift into a bat, a wolf or an alligator named Garo. Garo is revealed to be Skull Man's childhood protector and present ally in the war against Rasputin and his hordes of evil mutants. Skull Man makes allies, loses comrades and dies in combat with a lethal mutant as in the first book. What follows is a trip into the world of shadows and the evil within all of us.
While based on Ishinomori's original manga story, the 1990s version was put together by well\-known manga artist [Kazuhiko Shimamoto](/wiki/Kazuhiko_Shimamoto "Kazuhiko Shimamoto"), who had been a fan of Ishinomori's work since childhood. Ishinomori contacted Shimamoto towards the end of the former's life, requesting him to work with him on reviving the story of The Skull Man. In accomplishing this, Ishinomori faxed Shimamoto the story premise and plot notes, while Shimamoto put it all together and did the artwork. A few years earlier, Shimamoto worked on a manga adaptation of the movie *[Kamen Rider ZO](/wiki/Kamen_Rider_ZO "Kamen Rider ZO")*, which included a short story about a struggling manga artist who completely idolized a fictional version of Ishinomori.
This manga features a myriad of cameos of other famous Ishinomori heroes, although this is mainly contained in the final pages of the manga's last chapter. They include:
* [Joe Shimamura](/wiki/Joe_Shimamura "Joe Shimamura"): Joe Shimamura/*[Cyborg 009](/wiki/Cyborg_009 "Cyborg 009")* makes his appearance in Chapter 36 and is seen punching out a mugger after rescuing a hostage. During this event, he and Ryuusei, the Skull Man, meet and debate evil and the nature of man over coffee. After the two part company for the evening, they meet again by chance at the docks to stop an illegal deal between corrupt politicians, Ryuusei in his Skull Man garb and Joe in his 00 Cyborg uniform (albeit only seen in a silhouette aside from close\-ups on his face).
* *[Kamen Rider](/wiki/Kamen_Rider "Kamen Rider")*: Detective Hioka, who pursued the Skull Man, was mutated into a Reconstructed Human by the Syndicate. After being rescued by Maria and brought back to Tatsuo/the Skull Man, he then further reconstructed him to be more advanced than the other grasshopper mutants the Syndicate created. In his original mutant form Hioka closely resembles the designs of Kamen Riders ZO and J, and grows his antennas after a battle with Syndicate grunts; his upgraded form is based heavily on the designs of Kamen Rider \#1, [Hongo Takeshi](/wiki/Hongo_Takeshi "Hongo Takeshi"), Hioka's Kamen Rider rides a motorcycle very much like the original Cyclone motorcycle, possesses a scarf around his neck, and his head appears to be a helmet instead of physically mutating into the grasshopper head. However, unlike Kamen Rider \#1, his costume is much closer to a motorcycle jacket and pants than the cloth pants and "armored" tunic that costumed Kamen Rider \#1, and is seen using a laser pistol in his rescue of The Skull Man.
* *Henshin Ninja Arashi*: In the *Skull Man* manga, A young ninja in the city who is almost killed by an apelike Syndicate mutant, who stabs him in the chest with a knife. He is found on the brink of death by the Skull Man, and taken back to his laboratory. As the Skull Man hopes to revive him with cyborg technology, the panels reveal feathers flown over indicating that this man is a descendant of Arashi, it is possible that he received the powers like his ancestor and went along with the Skull Man to fight against evil.
* *[Gorenger](/wiki/Himitsu_Sentai_Gorenger "Himitsu Sentai Gorenger")*: The five members of Himitsu Sentai Gorenger can be seen in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.
* *[Robot Detective](/wiki/Robot_Detective "Robot Detective")*: Robot Detective K, in his civilian clothing, can be seen directly in front of Ki Ranger in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.
* [Inazuman](/wiki/Inazuman "Inazuman"): Inazuman can be seen directly in front of Momo Ranger in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.
* *[Kikaider](/wiki/Kikaider "Kikaider")*: Kikaider can be seen in his android form in front of and between both Robot Detective K and Inazuman in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.
* *[Space Ironmen Kyodain](/wiki/Space_Ironmen_Kyodain "Space Ironmen Kyodain")*: Skyzel and Groundzel can both be seen behind and to the right of Henshin Ninja Arashi in the hero collage at the end of the manga with Sky Zero on the right and Ground Zero on the left.
### Anime
An anime TV series adaptation was broadcast on [Fuji TV](/wiki/Fuji_TV "Fuji TV") stations for three months from April 28, 2007 to July 21, 2007, for a total of 13 episodes. Produced by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Entertainment_Japan "NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan"), Fuji TV, ToyoKasei, [Ishimori Entertainment](/wiki/Ishimori_Productions "Ishimori Productions"), and animated by [Bones](/wiki/Bones_%28studio%29 "Bones (studio)"), the series was directed by [Takeshi Mori](/wiki/Takeshi_Mori_%28director%29 "Takeshi Mori (director)"), with [Yutaka Izubuchi](/wiki/Yutaka_Izubuchi "Yutaka Izubuchi") handling series scripts and designing Skull Man and GRO, Jun Shibata designing the characters, Yoshinori Sayama designing the mechanical elements and [Shirō Sagisu](/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Sagisu "Shirō Sagisu") composing the music. A live\-action "Episode Zero" was shown on April 21, titled "Skullman: Prologue of Darkness," starring Ami Suzuki, *[Kamen Rider Hibiki](/wiki/Kamen_Rider_Hibiki "Kamen Rider Hibiki")* and *[Death Note](/wiki/Death_Note "Death Note")*{{'}}s [Shigeki Hosokawa](/wiki/Shigeki_Hosokawa "Shigeki Hosokawa") and well\-known stuntsman/actor from *[Kagaku Sentai Dynaman](/wiki/Kagaku_Sentai_Dynaman "Kagaku Sentai Dynaman")* and *[Tensou Sentai Goseiger](/wiki/Tensou_Sentai_Goseiger "Tensou Sentai Goseiger")*{{'}}s Makoto Itō. It was also set up to be a pseudo prequel to *[Cyborg 009](/wiki/Cyborg_009 "Cyborg 009")*.
[thumb\|230px\|right\|Logo for the 2007 anime series](/wiki/File:SkullManLogo.jpg "SkullManLogo.jpg")
Unlike the previous *Skull Man*, the story closely focuses on a journalist named Hayato Mikogami who returns to his hometown at Otomo to investigate strange rumors of killings done by a man wearing a skull mask. Tailed tightly by a young photographer, Kiriko Mamiya, the two soon uncover the many strings of connections between the victims, a local pharmaceutical company, a mysterious new religious sect and strange half\-human, half\-animal creatures, which roam the night streets for blood. Many of the characters are taken from Ishinomori's works other than *Skull Man*.
The series opening theme is [TOKIO](/wiki/TOKIO "TOKIO")'s {{nihongo\|"Hikari no Machi"\|ひかりのまち\|\|"City of Light"}} and the ending theme is [Chocolove from AKB48](/wiki/Chocolove_from_AKB48 "Chocolove from AKB48")'s {{nihongo\|"Ashita wa Ashita no Kimi ga Umareru"\|明日は明日の君が生まれる\|\|"A New You Is Born Tomorrow"}}.
#### Characters
{{main\|List of The Skull Man anime characters}}
{{nihongo\|Skull Man\|スカルマン\|Sukaru Man}}
{{Anime voice\|\[\[Hiroshi Tsuchida]]}}
A mysterious man in a skull\-shaped mask making appearances in Ōtomo City and rumored to have been killing numerous victims in the city, especially those roaming at night. He is believed to be the missing Tatsuo Kagura at first, but later in the series, Father Yoshio Kanzaki, a close friend of Hayato's, reveals himself as the true Skull Man and explains that the only people he has been killing are those who are members of a new cult who mutate into monsters. After Yoshio's death, Hayato becomes Skull Man himself and saves Maya from the ritual, for Yoshio's sake. The Skull Man is actually not a person, but an ancient helmet that grants the user supernatural abilities and deadly weapons. At one point, Kiriko's brother Jin dresses up in a fake Skull Man suit and uses it to commit murders, but the real Skull Man shows up later and confronts him.
{{nihongo\|Hayato Mikogami\|御子神 隼人\|Mikogami Hayato}}
{{Anime voice\|\[\[Makoto Yasumura]]}}
Hayato Mikogami once lived in the orphanage in Ōtomo City. After being adopted and raised, he left Ōtomo to move to Tokyo so he can work for a famous newspaper. Years later at 23 years old, he is working for a second rate newspaper and with permission leaves to go back to Ōtomo City to search for the legendary figure, Skull Man who by rumors had recently killed an actress. While on the train trip, he meets a young Kiriko who doesn't have the correct passport to get into the city and he helps her in by presenting a business card of Gōzō. Later, after getting comfortable into his old house, he gets locked outside due to Kiriko's tantrum. Without realizing, he breaks the midnight curfew and witnesses a man who is running away from someone. The man injures Hayato after he tries to help him but the man is killed by the Skull Man. Hayato collapses on scene, pinning him to the murder but is let off due to his ties with Gōzō.
Hayato is a care\-free guy who smokes and is constantly annoyed by Kiriko. Later he develops a close friendship with her. At the end of the series, Hayato takes up the mantle of the Skull Man against the original's warning, mortally wounding himself when he overuses the mask's powers. For reasons unexplained, the white mask turns black in the rising sunlight before a mysterious group, later revealed to be [Black Ghost](/wiki/Cyborg_009 "Cyborg 009"), picks him up and converts him into a cyborg.
#### Episodes
| \# | Title | Directed by | Written by | Original air date |
|
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 0
\| Title \= Skullman: Prologue Of Darkness
\| TranslitTitle \= Sukaru Man \~Yami no joshō\~
\| NativeTitle \= スカルマン〜闇の序章〜
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yūsuke Fujikawa
\| WrittenBy \= Masaaki Sakai
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|4\|21}}
\| ShortSummary \= Live\-action prequel episode.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 1
\| Title \= City of the Dancing Mask
\| TranslitTitle \= Kamen ga odoru machi
\| NativeTitle \= 仮面が踊る街
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Katsumi Terahigashi
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|4\|28}}
\| ShortSummary \= Journalist Hayato Mikogami arrives in his hometown and begins investigating the enigmatic Skull Man. However, he runs into his target sooner than expected.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 2
\| Title \= The Man From the Past
\| TranslitTitle \= Kako kara kita otoko
\| NativeTitle \= 過去からきた男
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasushi Muroya
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|5}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato, temporarily a murder suspect, is released from police custody due to his connections. His further investigations reveal a possible connection between the Skull Man and an arson case ten years ago.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 3
\| Title \= Crimson Rain Falls in the Afternoon
\| TranslitTitle \= Shinku no ame wa gogo ni furu
\| NativeTitle \= 深紅の雨は午後に降る
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Hirokazu Yamada
\| WrittenBy \= \[\[Hiroshi Ōnogi]]
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|12}}
\| ShortSummary \= Yui receives a threatening letter and later becomes the target of blackmail. Kiriko follows Yui and Sayoko to the theater. However, the real target of the Skull Man is Sayoko, who turns out to be a mutant.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 4
\| Title \= The Ghost That Goes For a Stroll
\| TranslitTitle \= Sanpo suru yūrei
\| NativeTitle \= 散歩する幽霊
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= \[\[Shigeru Ueda]]
\| WrittenBy \= Hiroshi Ōnogi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|19}}
\| ShortSummary \= A dead body hung from a railroad bridge makes Hayato investigate the legend of the Phantom Monorail. However, once on board, he becomes the target of the Skull Man.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 5
\| Title \= The False Blind Spot
\| TranslitTitle \= Itsuwari no shikaku
\| NativeTitle \= 偽りの死角
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasushi Muroya
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|26}}
\| ShortSummary \= Usami, the Skull Man impostor, tries to eliminate the original. Meanwhile, Kiriko discovers a person from her past among the Byakureikai members.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 6
\| Title \= Banquet of the Grim Reaper
\| TranslitTitle \= Shinigami\-tachi no utage
\| NativeTitle \= 死神たちの宴
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Katsumi Terahigashi
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|2}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato and Kiriko run across yet another Skull Man killing the town mayor. With other trails getting cold, the two decide to investigate the Byakureikai from the inside.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 7
\| Title \= Master of the Beasts
\| TranslitTitle \= Jinjū tsukai\-shi
\| NativeTitle \= 人獣使い師
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasuhiro Minami
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|9}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato and Kiriko are discovered and kicked out of Byakureikai, but Hayato discovers that one of the disciples there is an old acquaintance of Kiriko and the reason for her entering the town. That person \- Jin \- is masquerading as the Skull Man in order to carry out assassinations for Gōzō Kuroshio.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 8
\| Title \= The Maiden Whispers in the Moonlight
\| TranslitTitle \= Gekkō ni otome wa sasayaku
\| NativeTitle \= 月光に乙女はささやく
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Junichi Yokoyama
\| WrittenBy \= Hiroshi Ōnogi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|16}}
\| ShortSummary \= Kiriko and Hayato, fresh off a lead left by Jin, work together to investigate photographs left by him of the White Bell compound. His legacy draws them deeper into the events surrounding the White Bell cult. Meanwhile, coming out of cathartis, Kiriko runs into Maya again after the previous episodes' developments, Hayato warms up to an old flame by the name of Nami that returns to the village after him, and learns about his old school crush's unfortunate history after he left Otomo.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 9
\| Title \= Blessed Are the Impure
\| TranslitTitle \= Kegareshi mono ni shukufuku o
\| NativeTitle \= 穢れしものに祝福を
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Hirokazu Yamada
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|23}}
\| ShortSummary \= The Police step up patrols in the city in response to the escalating violence and wind up with more victims as a result, due to a monster lurking about. At the same time Nami is having recurring nightmares, driving her to the brink of desperation, while her unknowing admirer Detective Shinjou gets high hopes after being promised a date with her. In the mix of encircling circumstances, Hayato tries to support Nami and is rejected, just as events unfold which change everything for the three of them.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 10
\| Title \= The Circus Laughs at Midnight
\| TranslitTitle \= Sākasu wa mayonaka ni warau
\| NativeTitle \= サーカスは真夜中に嗤う
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Satoshi Nakagawa
\| WrittenBy \= Shingo Takeba
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|30}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato and Kiriko hide out in the woods, since Hayato is now a wanted criminal. The Company has brought in a group of elite mercenaries \- all cyborgs actually \- via the Phantom Monorail, to flush out the Skullman. In the battle between them and the Skull Man and his "Lost Numbers" (two mutants he rescued and who follow him), many of the cyborgs are killed, but the Skull Man is mortally wounded. Hayato follows the blood trails back to the church, and it is finally that his identity is really Father Kanzaki.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 11
\| Title \= Darkness Take My Hand
\| TranslitTitle \= Yami yo, wa ga te o tori tamae
\| NativeTitle \= 闇よ、我が手を取りたまえ
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Keisuke Ōnishi
\| WrittenBy \= Hiroshi Ōnogi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|7\|7}}
\| ShortSummary \= After the battle between the Skull Man and the Cyborgs in the forest subsides, Hayato, Kiriko, and Detective Shinjou descend on Yoshio Kanzaki's church to finally learn the truth about the Skull Man, but they are not alone.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 12
\| Title \= Bloody Eve
\| TranslitTitle \= Chi no seiya
\| NativeTitle \= 血の聖夜
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Katsumi Terahigashi
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|7\|14}}
\| ShortSummary \= Taking up the dying wishes of his close friend, Hayato returns to the city to stop Masaki Kuroshio's evil machinations from unfolding. In the meantime, all hell breaks loose in the city as the fighting mutants and the army are also attacked by the Corporation's mechanical war machines and cyborgs.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 13
\| Title \= Black Fable: All That I Love Leaves Me
\| TranslitTitle \= Kuroi gūwa \~ itoshiki mono wa subete sari yuku
\| NativeTitle \= 黒い寓話～愛しきものは全て去りゆく
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasushi Muroya
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|7\|21}}
\| ShortSummary \= Having succeeded in achieving his objective Masaki Kuroshio announces the birth of a new humanity, and the new Skull Man is the only one who can stop him. But this will cost him everything he has yet to give.
}}
#### Broadcasting
Several television stations and satellite channels in Japan have broadcast the anime series. These include: [Tokai TV](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai_Television_Broadcasting "Tōkai Television Broadcasting"), [Kansai TV](/wiki/Kansai_Telecasting_Corporation "Kansai Telecasting Corporation"), [BS Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") and [Animax](/wiki/Animax "Animax").
In the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), [Hero TV](/wiki/Hero_%28TV_channel%29 "Hero (TV channel)") started its [Tagalog\-dubbed](/wiki/Tagalog_language "Tagalog language") broadcast on November 11, 2012\.[The Skull Man @ herotvforums.com](http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f=21&t=1394) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213123702/http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f\=21\&t\=1394 \|date\=2013\-02\-13 }}
#### DVD release
On July 25, 2007, the full series has been available monthly on [Region 2 DVD](/wiki/Region_2_DVD "Region 2 DVD"), with individual episodes released by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/Geneon_Universal_Entertainment "Geneon Universal Entertainment") in [Japanese\-language](/wiki/Japanese-language "Japanese-language") audio with no subtitles. All DVDs have 7 volumes, and each volume contains two episodes (including only one episode for Volume 1\). In addition, the live\-action special "Skullman: Prologue of Darkness" DVD was released on September 21, 2007\.[スカルマン The Skull Man １～７](http://www.fujitv.co.jp/video/details/anime/skullman.html)[スカルマン DVD](http://www.geneonuniversal.jp/rondorobe/anime/skullman/)[The Skull Man Vol. 1 (Limited Edition)](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNBA-3050)
In [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), it has been distributed on DVD by Selecta Visión from January 24, 2009\. The audio soundtracks include [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language "Japanese language") and [Spanish (Castilian)](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language") with Spanish (Castilian) subtitles which automatically appear. On March 24, 2010, Selecta Visión has re\-released the series as the Integralized Version DVD with the same audio tracks but with newly enhanced features such as the same content from the Japan DVD release, but in 5\.1 quality instead of stereo.[The Skullman DVD @ Selecta Visión](http://www.selecta-vision.com/Home-Entertainment/The-Skullman) All DVDs have 3 Volumes in one disc each (Volumes 1 \& 2 have 4 episodes and Volume 3 has 3 episodes) which are individually available or coming with a collector's [box set](/wiki/Box_set "Box set").
In [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), it was licensed by [Sentai Filmworks](/wiki/Sentai_Filmworks "Sentai Filmworks") and distributed by [Section23 Films](/wiki/Section23_Films "Section23 Films"), who released the complete collection on [Region 1 DVD](/wiki/Region_1_DVD "Region 1 DVD") on February 2, 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press\-release/2009\-12\-04/section23\-films\-announces\-february\-slate\|title\=Section23 Films Announces February Slate\|publisher\=\[\[Anime News Network]]\|date\=2009\-12\-04}} For legal reasons, the original opening, "Hikari no Machi", has been replaced with an instrumental opening and footage from an earlier trailer for the series.
### 2007 manga
The 2007 manga is based on the anime series adaptation of the same year and drawn by the manga artist [Meimu](/wiki/Meimu "Meimu"). Set in an alternate history of Japan, freelance journalist Hayato Mikogami returns to his hometown of Otomo to investigate rumors of a man wearing a skull mask committing murders there. Once in the city, he discovers connections between the victims and a local pharmaceutical company, a new religious sect, and strange half\-human, half\-animal creatures. Along with a young photographer, he decides to find out who the Skull Man really is.
### Audio CD soundtrack
* On July 25, 2007, [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/Geneon_Universal_Entertainment "Geneon Universal Entertainment") released their first original score anime soundtrack album entitled "The Skull Man Original Soundtrack from the TV Anime"[TV Anime The Skull Man Original Soundtrack](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNCA-1140) and on January 25, 2008 the second original soundtrack was also released entitled "The Skull Man Original Soundtrack 2".[The Skull Man Original Soundtrack 2](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNCA-1158) All albums and music are composed by [Shirō Sagisu](/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Sagisu "Shirō Sagisu").
|
[
"Media\n-----",
"### 1970 manga",
"Although the original *Skull Man* is not yet in printed in the U.S., [Comixology](/wiki/Comixology \"Comixology\") obtained the license rights to the title and has released an English\\-language digital version of the manga in 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2012\\-10\\-12/comixology\\-licenses\\-shotaro\\-ishinomori\\-entire\\-manga\\-catalog\\|title\\=Comixology Licenses Shotaro Ishinomori's Entire Manga Catalog\\|date\\=October 12, 2012\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anime News Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2012}}",
"### 1998 manga",
"{{multiple issues\\|section\\=y\\|\n{{Expand section\\|date\\=June 2011}}\n{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=June 2011}}\n}}\n{{main\\|List of The Skull Man (1998 manga) chapters}}",
"The 1998 manga is a remake of the original manga. *Skull Man* revolves around Tatsuo Kagura, who early in his life was subjected to several mutating science experiments that ended up giving him amazing powers and skills. Longing revenge for the murder of his parents, he becomes Skull Man, a shadowy crusader who battles The Syndicate and its evil leader Rasputin. The story begins abruptly with a woman who possesses immense psychic powers killing a man, only to then be attacked herself by a man who can shapeshift into a bat, a wolf or an alligator named Garo. Garo is revealed to be Skull Man's childhood protector and present ally in the war against Rasputin and his hordes of evil mutants. Skull Man makes allies, loses comrades and dies in combat with a lethal mutant as in the first book. What follows is a trip into the world of shadows and the evil within all of us.",
"While based on Ishinomori's original manga story, the 1990s version was put together by well\\-known manga artist [Kazuhiko Shimamoto](/wiki/Kazuhiko_Shimamoto \"Kazuhiko Shimamoto\"), who had been a fan of Ishinomori's work since childhood. Ishinomori contacted Shimamoto towards the end of the former's life, requesting him to work with him on reviving the story of The Skull Man. In accomplishing this, Ishinomori faxed Shimamoto the story premise and plot notes, while Shimamoto put it all together and did the artwork. A few years earlier, Shimamoto worked on a manga adaptation of the movie *[Kamen Rider ZO](/wiki/Kamen_Rider_ZO \"Kamen Rider ZO\")*, which included a short story about a struggling manga artist who completely idolized a fictional version of Ishinomori.",
"This manga features a myriad of cameos of other famous Ishinomori heroes, although this is mainly contained in the final pages of the manga's last chapter. They include:",
"* [Joe Shimamura](/wiki/Joe_Shimamura \"Joe Shimamura\"): Joe Shimamura/*[Cyborg 009](/wiki/Cyborg_009 \"Cyborg 009\")* makes his appearance in Chapter 36 and is seen punching out a mugger after rescuing a hostage. During this event, he and Ryuusei, the Skull Man, meet and debate evil and the nature of man over coffee. After the two part company for the evening, they meet again by chance at the docks to stop an illegal deal between corrupt politicians, Ryuusei in his Skull Man garb and Joe in his 00 Cyborg uniform (albeit only seen in a silhouette aside from close\\-ups on his face).\n* *[Kamen Rider](/wiki/Kamen_Rider \"Kamen Rider\")*: Detective Hioka, who pursued the Skull Man, was mutated into a Reconstructed Human by the Syndicate. After being rescued by Maria and brought back to Tatsuo/the Skull Man, he then further reconstructed him to be more advanced than the other grasshopper mutants the Syndicate created. In his original mutant form Hioka closely resembles the designs of Kamen Riders ZO and J, and grows his antennas after a battle with Syndicate grunts; his upgraded form is based heavily on the designs of Kamen Rider \\#1, [Hongo Takeshi](/wiki/Hongo_Takeshi \"Hongo Takeshi\"), Hioka's Kamen Rider rides a motorcycle very much like the original Cyclone motorcycle, possesses a scarf around his neck, and his head appears to be a helmet instead of physically mutating into the grasshopper head. However, unlike Kamen Rider \\#1, his costume is much closer to a motorcycle jacket and pants than the cloth pants and \"armored\" tunic that costumed Kamen Rider \\#1, and is seen using a laser pistol in his rescue of The Skull Man.\n* *Henshin Ninja Arashi*: In the *Skull Man* manga, A young ninja in the city who is almost killed by an apelike Syndicate mutant, who stabs him in the chest with a knife. He is found on the brink of death by the Skull Man, and taken back to his laboratory. As the Skull Man hopes to revive him with cyborg technology, the panels reveal feathers flown over indicating that this man is a descendant of Arashi, it is possible that he received the powers like his ancestor and went along with the Skull Man to fight against evil.\n* *[Gorenger](/wiki/Himitsu_Sentai_Gorenger \"Himitsu Sentai Gorenger\")*: The five members of Himitsu Sentai Gorenger can be seen in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.\n* *[Robot Detective](/wiki/Robot_Detective \"Robot Detective\")*: Robot Detective K, in his civilian clothing, can be seen directly in front of Ki Ranger in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.\n* [Inazuman](/wiki/Inazuman \"Inazuman\"): Inazuman can be seen directly in front of Momo Ranger in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.\n* *[Kikaider](/wiki/Kikaider \"Kikaider\")*: Kikaider can be seen in his android form in front of and between both Robot Detective K and Inazuman in the hero collage at the end of the manga's final chapter.\n* *[Space Ironmen Kyodain](/wiki/Space_Ironmen_Kyodain \"Space Ironmen Kyodain\")*: Skyzel and Groundzel can both be seen behind and to the right of Henshin Ninja Arashi in the hero collage at the end of the manga with Sky Zero on the right and Ground Zero on the left.",
"### Anime",
"An anime TV series adaptation was broadcast on [Fuji TV](/wiki/Fuji_TV \"Fuji TV\") stations for three months from April 28, 2007 to July 21, 2007, for a total of 13 episodes. Produced by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Entertainment_Japan \"NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan\"), Fuji TV, ToyoKasei, [Ishimori Entertainment](/wiki/Ishimori_Productions \"Ishimori Productions\"), and animated by [Bones](/wiki/Bones_%28studio%29 \"Bones (studio)\"), the series was directed by [Takeshi Mori](/wiki/Takeshi_Mori_%28director%29 \"Takeshi Mori (director)\"), with [Yutaka Izubuchi](/wiki/Yutaka_Izubuchi \"Yutaka Izubuchi\") handling series scripts and designing Skull Man and GRO, Jun Shibata designing the characters, Yoshinori Sayama designing the mechanical elements and [Shirō Sagisu](/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Sagisu \"Shirō Sagisu\") composing the music. A live\\-action \"Episode Zero\" was shown on April 21, titled \"Skullman: Prologue of Darkness,\" starring Ami Suzuki, *[Kamen Rider Hibiki](/wiki/Kamen_Rider_Hibiki \"Kamen Rider Hibiki\")* and *[Death Note](/wiki/Death_Note \"Death Note\")*{{'}}s [Shigeki Hosokawa](/wiki/Shigeki_Hosokawa \"Shigeki Hosokawa\") and well\\-known stuntsman/actor from *[Kagaku Sentai Dynaman](/wiki/Kagaku_Sentai_Dynaman \"Kagaku Sentai Dynaman\")* and *[Tensou Sentai Goseiger](/wiki/Tensou_Sentai_Goseiger \"Tensou Sentai Goseiger\")*{{'}}s Makoto Itō. It was also set up to be a pseudo prequel to *[Cyborg 009](/wiki/Cyborg_009 \"Cyborg 009\")*.\n[thumb\\|230px\\|right\\|Logo for the 2007 anime series](/wiki/File:SkullManLogo.jpg \"SkullManLogo.jpg\")\nUnlike the previous *Skull Man*, the story closely focuses on a journalist named Hayato Mikogami who returns to his hometown at Otomo to investigate strange rumors of killings done by a man wearing a skull mask. Tailed tightly by a young photographer, Kiriko Mamiya, the two soon uncover the many strings of connections between the victims, a local pharmaceutical company, a mysterious new religious sect and strange half\\-human, half\\-animal creatures, which roam the night streets for blood. Many of the characters are taken from Ishinomori's works other than *Skull Man*.",
"The series opening theme is [TOKIO](/wiki/TOKIO \"TOKIO\")'s {{nihongo\\|\"Hikari no Machi\"\\|ひかりのまち\\|\\|\"City of Light\"}} and the ending theme is [Chocolove from AKB48](/wiki/Chocolove_from_AKB48 \"Chocolove from AKB48\")'s {{nihongo\\|\"Ashita wa Ashita no Kimi ga Umareru\"\\|明日は明日の君が生まれる\\|\\|\"A New You Is Born Tomorrow\"}}.",
"#### Characters",
"{{main\\|List of The Skull Man anime characters}}\n{{nihongo\\|Skull Man\\|スカルマン\\|Sukaru Man}}\n{{Anime voice\\|\\[\\[Hiroshi Tsuchida]]}}\nA mysterious man in a skull\\-shaped mask making appearances in Ōtomo City and rumored to have been killing numerous victims in the city, especially those roaming at night. He is believed to be the missing Tatsuo Kagura at first, but later in the series, Father Yoshio Kanzaki, a close friend of Hayato's, reveals himself as the true Skull Man and explains that the only people he has been killing are those who are members of a new cult who mutate into monsters. After Yoshio's death, Hayato becomes Skull Man himself and saves Maya from the ritual, for Yoshio's sake. The Skull Man is actually not a person, but an ancient helmet that grants the user supernatural abilities and deadly weapons. At one point, Kiriko's brother Jin dresses up in a fake Skull Man suit and uses it to commit murders, but the real Skull Man shows up later and confronts him.",
"{{nihongo\\|Hayato Mikogami\\|御子神 隼人\\|Mikogami Hayato}}\n{{Anime voice\\|\\[\\[Makoto Yasumura]]}}\nHayato Mikogami once lived in the orphanage in Ōtomo City. After being adopted and raised, he left Ōtomo to move to Tokyo so he can work for a famous newspaper. Years later at 23 years old, he is working for a second rate newspaper and with permission leaves to go back to Ōtomo City to search for the legendary figure, Skull Man who by rumors had recently killed an actress. While on the train trip, he meets a young Kiriko who doesn't have the correct passport to get into the city and he helps her in by presenting a business card of Gōzō. Later, after getting comfortable into his old house, he gets locked outside due to Kiriko's tantrum. Without realizing, he breaks the midnight curfew and witnesses a man who is running away from someone. The man injures Hayato after he tries to help him but the man is killed by the Skull Man. Hayato collapses on scene, pinning him to the murder but is let off due to his ties with Gōzō.\nHayato is a care\\-free guy who smokes and is constantly annoyed by Kiriko. Later he develops a close friendship with her. At the end of the series, Hayato takes up the mantle of the Skull Man against the original's warning, mortally wounding himself when he overuses the mask's powers. For reasons unexplained, the white mask turns black in the rising sunlight before a mysterious group, later revealed to be [Black Ghost](/wiki/Cyborg_009 \"Cyborg 009\"), picks him up and converts him into a cyborg.\n#### Episodes",
"",
"| \\# | Title | Directed by | Written by | Original air date |\n|\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 0\n\\| Title \\= Skullman: Prologue Of Darkness\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Sukaru Man \\~Yami no joshō\\~\n\\| NativeTitle \\= スカルマン〜闇の序章〜\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yūsuke Fujikawa\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Masaaki Sakai\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|4\\|21}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Live\\-action prequel episode.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 1\n\\| Title \\= City of the Dancing Mask\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kamen ga odoru machi\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 仮面が踊る街\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Katsumi Terahigashi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|4\\|28}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Journalist Hayato Mikogami arrives in his hometown and begins investigating the enigmatic Skull Man. However, he runs into his target sooner than expected.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 2\n\\| Title \\= The Man From the Past\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kako kara kita otoko\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 過去からきた男\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasushi Muroya\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|5}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato, temporarily a murder suspect, is released from police custody due to his connections. His further investigations reveal a possible connection between the Skull Man and an arson case ten years ago.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 3\n\\| Title \\= Crimson Rain Falls in the Afternoon\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Shinku no ame wa gogo ni furu\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 深紅の雨は午後に降る\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Hirokazu Yamada\n\\| WrittenBy \\= \\[\\[Hiroshi Ōnogi]]\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|12}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Yui receives a threatening letter and later becomes the target of blackmail. Kiriko follows Yui and Sayoko to the theater. However, the real target of the Skull Man is Sayoko, who turns out to be a mutant.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 4\n\\| Title \\= The Ghost That Goes For a Stroll\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Sanpo suru yūrei\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 散歩する幽霊\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Shigeru Ueda]]\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Hiroshi Ōnogi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|19}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A dead body hung from a railroad bridge makes Hayato investigate the legend of the Phantom Monorail. However, once on board, he becomes the target of the Skull Man.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 5\n\\| Title \\= The False Blind Spot\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Itsuwari no shikaku\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 偽りの死角\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasushi Muroya\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|26}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Usami, the Skull Man impostor, tries to eliminate the original. Meanwhile, Kiriko discovers a person from her past among the Byakureikai members.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 6\n\\| Title \\= Banquet of the Grim Reaper\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Shinigami\\-tachi no utage\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 死神たちの宴\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Katsumi Terahigashi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|2}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato and Kiriko run across yet another Skull Man killing the town mayor. With other trails getting cold, the two decide to investigate the Byakureikai from the inside.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 7\n\\| Title \\= Master of the Beasts\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Jinjū tsukai\\-shi\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 人獣使い師\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasuhiro Minami\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|9}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato and Kiriko are discovered and kicked out of Byakureikai, but Hayato discovers that one of the disciples there is an old acquaintance of Kiriko and the reason for her entering the town. That person \\- Jin \\- is masquerading as the Skull Man in order to carry out assassinations for Gōzō Kuroshio.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 8\n\\| Title \\= The Maiden Whispers in the Moonlight\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Gekkō ni otome wa sasayaku\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 月光に乙女はささやく\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Junichi Yokoyama\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Hiroshi Ōnogi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|16}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Kiriko and Hayato, fresh off a lead left by Jin, work together to investigate photographs left by him of the White Bell compound. His legacy draws them deeper into the events surrounding the White Bell cult. Meanwhile, coming out of cathartis, Kiriko runs into Maya again after the previous episodes' developments, Hayato warms up to an old flame by the name of Nami that returns to the village after him, and learns about his old school crush's unfortunate history after he left Otomo.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 9\n\\| Title \\= Blessed Are the Impure\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kegareshi mono ni shukufuku o\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 穢れしものに祝福を\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Hirokazu Yamada\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|23}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Police step up patrols in the city in response to the escalating violence and wind up with more victims as a result, due to a monster lurking about. At the same time Nami is having recurring nightmares, driving her to the brink of desperation, while her unknowing admirer Detective Shinjou gets high hopes after being promised a date with her. In the mix of encircling circumstances, Hayato tries to support Nami and is rejected, just as events unfold which change everything for the three of them.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 10\n\\| Title \\= The Circus Laughs at Midnight\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Sākasu wa mayonaka ni warau\n\\| NativeTitle \\= サーカスは真夜中に嗤う\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Satoshi Nakagawa\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Shingo Takeba\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|30}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato and Kiriko hide out in the woods, since Hayato is now a wanted criminal. The Company has brought in a group of elite mercenaries \\- all cyborgs actually \\- via the Phantom Monorail, to flush out the Skullman. In the battle between them and the Skull Man and his \"Lost Numbers\" (two mutants he rescued and who follow him), many of the cyborgs are killed, but the Skull Man is mortally wounded. Hayato follows the blood trails back to the church, and it is finally that his identity is really Father Kanzaki.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 11\n\\| Title \\= Darkness Take My Hand\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Yami yo, wa ga te o tori tamae\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 闇よ、我が手を取りたまえ\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Keisuke Ōnishi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Hiroshi Ōnogi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|7\\|7}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= After the battle between the Skull Man and the Cyborgs in the forest subsides, Hayato, Kiriko, and Detective Shinjou descend on Yoshio Kanzaki's church to finally learn the truth about the Skull Man, but they are not alone.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 12\n\\| Title \\= Bloody Eve\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Chi no seiya\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 血の聖夜\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Katsumi Terahigashi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|7\\|14}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Taking up the dying wishes of his close friend, Hayato returns to the city to stop Masaki Kuroshio's evil machinations from unfolding. In the meantime, all hell breaks loose in the city as the fighting mutants and the army are also attacked by the Corporation's mechanical war machines and cyborgs. \n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 13\n\\| Title \\= Black Fable: All That I Love Leaves Me\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kuroi gūwa \\~ itoshiki mono wa subete sari yuku\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 黒い寓話～愛しきものは全て去りゆく\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasushi Muroya\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|7\\|21}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Having succeeded in achieving his objective Masaki Kuroshio announces the birth of a new humanity, and the new Skull Man is the only one who can stop him. But this will cost him everything he has yet to give. \n}}",
"#### Broadcasting",
"Several television stations and satellite channels in Japan have broadcast the anime series. These include: [Tokai TV](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai_Television_Broadcasting \"Tōkai Television Broadcasting\"), [Kansai TV](/wiki/Kansai_Telecasting_Corporation \"Kansai Telecasting Corporation\"), [BS Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") and [Animax](/wiki/Animax \"Animax\").",
"In the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), [Hero TV](/wiki/Hero_%28TV_channel%29 \"Hero (TV channel)\") started its [Tagalog\\-dubbed](/wiki/Tagalog_language \"Tagalog language\") broadcast on November 11, 2012\\.[The Skull Man @ herotvforums.com](http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f=21&t=1394) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213123702/http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f\\=21\\&t\\=1394 \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-13 }}",
"#### DVD release",
"On July 25, 2007, the full series has been available monthly on [Region 2 DVD](/wiki/Region_2_DVD \"Region 2 DVD\"), with individual episodes released by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/Geneon_Universal_Entertainment \"Geneon Universal Entertainment\") in [Japanese\\-language](/wiki/Japanese-language \"Japanese-language\") audio with no subtitles. All DVDs have 7 volumes, and each volume contains two episodes (including only one episode for Volume 1\\). In addition, the live\\-action special \"Skullman: Prologue of Darkness\" DVD was released on September 21, 2007\\.[スカルマン The Skull Man １～７](http://www.fujitv.co.jp/video/details/anime/skullman.html)[スカルマン DVD](http://www.geneonuniversal.jp/rondorobe/anime/skullman/)[The Skull Man Vol. 1 (Limited Edition)](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNBA-3050)",
"In [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), it has been distributed on DVD by Selecta Visión from January 24, 2009\\. The audio soundtracks include [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\") and [Spanish (Castilian)](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\") with Spanish (Castilian) subtitles which automatically appear. On March 24, 2010, Selecta Visión has re\\-released the series as the Integralized Version DVD with the same audio tracks but with newly enhanced features such as the same content from the Japan DVD release, but in 5\\.1 quality instead of stereo.[The Skullman DVD @ Selecta Visión](http://www.selecta-vision.com/Home-Entertainment/The-Skullman) All DVDs have 3 Volumes in one disc each (Volumes 1 \\& 2 have 4 episodes and Volume 3 has 3 episodes) which are individually available or coming with a collector's [box set](/wiki/Box_set \"Box set\").",
"In [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), it was licensed by [Sentai Filmworks](/wiki/Sentai_Filmworks \"Sentai Filmworks\") and distributed by [Section23 Films](/wiki/Section23_Films \"Section23 Films\"), who released the complete collection on [Region 1 DVD](/wiki/Region_1_DVD \"Region 1 DVD\") on February 2, 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press\\-release/2009\\-12\\-04/section23\\-films\\-announces\\-february\\-slate\\|title\\=Section23 Films Announces February Slate\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anime News Network]]\\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-04}} For legal reasons, the original opening, \"Hikari no Machi\", has been replaced with an instrumental opening and footage from an earlier trailer for the series.",
"### 2007 manga",
"The 2007 manga is based on the anime series adaptation of the same year and drawn by the manga artist [Meimu](/wiki/Meimu \"Meimu\"). Set in an alternate history of Japan, freelance journalist Hayato Mikogami returns to his hometown of Otomo to investigate rumors of a man wearing a skull mask committing murders there. Once in the city, he discovers connections between the victims and a local pharmaceutical company, a new religious sect, and strange half\\-human, half\\-animal creatures. Along with a young photographer, he decides to find out who the Skull Man really is.",
"### Audio CD soundtrack",
"* On July 25, 2007, [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/Geneon_Universal_Entertainment \"Geneon Universal Entertainment\") released their first original score anime soundtrack album entitled \"The Skull Man Original Soundtrack from the TV Anime\"[TV Anime The Skull Man Original Soundtrack](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNCA-1140) and on January 25, 2008 the second original soundtrack was also released entitled \"The Skull Man Original Soundtrack 2\".[The Skull Man Original Soundtrack 2](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNCA-1158) All albums and music are composed by [Shirō Sagisu](/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Sagisu \"Shirō Sagisu\")."
] |
### Anime
An anime TV series adaptation was broadcast on [Fuji TV](/wiki/Fuji_TV "Fuji TV") stations for three months from April 28, 2007 to July 21, 2007, for a total of 13 episodes. Produced by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Entertainment_Japan "NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan"), Fuji TV, ToyoKasei, [Ishimori Entertainment](/wiki/Ishimori_Productions "Ishimori Productions"), and animated by [Bones](/wiki/Bones_%28studio%29 "Bones (studio)"), the series was directed by [Takeshi Mori](/wiki/Takeshi_Mori_%28director%29 "Takeshi Mori (director)"), with [Yutaka Izubuchi](/wiki/Yutaka_Izubuchi "Yutaka Izubuchi") handling series scripts and designing Skull Man and GRO, Jun Shibata designing the characters, Yoshinori Sayama designing the mechanical elements and [Shirō Sagisu](/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Sagisu "Shirō Sagisu") composing the music. A live\-action "Episode Zero" was shown on April 21, titled "Skullman: Prologue of Darkness," starring Ami Suzuki, *[Kamen Rider Hibiki](/wiki/Kamen_Rider_Hibiki "Kamen Rider Hibiki")* and *[Death Note](/wiki/Death_Note "Death Note")*{{'}}s [Shigeki Hosokawa](/wiki/Shigeki_Hosokawa "Shigeki Hosokawa") and well\-known stuntsman/actor from *[Kagaku Sentai Dynaman](/wiki/Kagaku_Sentai_Dynaman "Kagaku Sentai Dynaman")* and *[Tensou Sentai Goseiger](/wiki/Tensou_Sentai_Goseiger "Tensou Sentai Goseiger")*{{'}}s Makoto Itō. It was also set up to be a pseudo prequel to *[Cyborg 009](/wiki/Cyborg_009 "Cyborg 009")*.
[thumb\|230px\|right\|Logo for the 2007 anime series](/wiki/File:SkullManLogo.jpg "SkullManLogo.jpg")
Unlike the previous *Skull Man*, the story closely focuses on a journalist named Hayato Mikogami who returns to his hometown at Otomo to investigate strange rumors of killings done by a man wearing a skull mask. Tailed tightly by a young photographer, Kiriko Mamiya, the two soon uncover the many strings of connections between the victims, a local pharmaceutical company, a mysterious new religious sect and strange half\-human, half\-animal creatures, which roam the night streets for blood. Many of the characters are taken from Ishinomori's works other than *Skull Man*.
The series opening theme is [TOKIO](/wiki/TOKIO "TOKIO")'s {{nihongo\|"Hikari no Machi"\|ひかりのまち\|\|"City of Light"}} and the ending theme is [Chocolove from AKB48](/wiki/Chocolove_from_AKB48 "Chocolove from AKB48")'s {{nihongo\|"Ashita wa Ashita no Kimi ga Umareru"\|明日は明日の君が生まれる\|\|"A New You Is Born Tomorrow"}}.
#### Characters
{{main\|List of The Skull Man anime characters}}
{{nihongo\|Skull Man\|スカルマン\|Sukaru Man}}
{{Anime voice\|\[\[Hiroshi Tsuchida]]}}
A mysterious man in a skull\-shaped mask making appearances in Ōtomo City and rumored to have been killing numerous victims in the city, especially those roaming at night. He is believed to be the missing Tatsuo Kagura at first, but later in the series, Father Yoshio Kanzaki, a close friend of Hayato's, reveals himself as the true Skull Man and explains that the only people he has been killing are those who are members of a new cult who mutate into monsters. After Yoshio's death, Hayato becomes Skull Man himself and saves Maya from the ritual, for Yoshio's sake. The Skull Man is actually not a person, but an ancient helmet that grants the user supernatural abilities and deadly weapons. At one point, Kiriko's brother Jin dresses up in a fake Skull Man suit and uses it to commit murders, but the real Skull Man shows up later and confronts him.
{{nihongo\|Hayato Mikogami\|御子神 隼人\|Mikogami Hayato}}
{{Anime voice\|\[\[Makoto Yasumura]]}}
Hayato Mikogami once lived in the orphanage in Ōtomo City. After being adopted and raised, he left Ōtomo to move to Tokyo so he can work for a famous newspaper. Years later at 23 years old, he is working for a second rate newspaper and with permission leaves to go back to Ōtomo City to search for the legendary figure, Skull Man who by rumors had recently killed an actress. While on the train trip, he meets a young Kiriko who doesn't have the correct passport to get into the city and he helps her in by presenting a business card of Gōzō. Later, after getting comfortable into his old house, he gets locked outside due to Kiriko's tantrum. Without realizing, he breaks the midnight curfew and witnesses a man who is running away from someone. The man injures Hayato after he tries to help him but the man is killed by the Skull Man. Hayato collapses on scene, pinning him to the murder but is let off due to his ties with Gōzō.
Hayato is a care\-free guy who smokes and is constantly annoyed by Kiriko. Later he develops a close friendship with her. At the end of the series, Hayato takes up the mantle of the Skull Man against the original's warning, mortally wounding himself when he overuses the mask's powers. For reasons unexplained, the white mask turns black in the rising sunlight before a mysterious group, later revealed to be [Black Ghost](/wiki/Cyborg_009 "Cyborg 009"), picks him up and converts him into a cyborg.
#### Episodes
| \# | Title | Directed by | Written by | Original air date |
|
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 0
\| Title \= Skullman: Prologue Of Darkness
\| TranslitTitle \= Sukaru Man \~Yami no joshō\~
\| NativeTitle \= スカルマン〜闇の序章〜
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yūsuke Fujikawa
\| WrittenBy \= Masaaki Sakai
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|4\|21}}
\| ShortSummary \= Live\-action prequel episode.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 1
\| Title \= City of the Dancing Mask
\| TranslitTitle \= Kamen ga odoru machi
\| NativeTitle \= 仮面が踊る街
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Katsumi Terahigashi
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|4\|28}}
\| ShortSummary \= Journalist Hayato Mikogami arrives in his hometown and begins investigating the enigmatic Skull Man. However, he runs into his target sooner than expected.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 2
\| Title \= The Man From the Past
\| TranslitTitle \= Kako kara kita otoko
\| NativeTitle \= 過去からきた男
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasushi Muroya
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|5}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato, temporarily a murder suspect, is released from police custody due to his connections. His further investigations reveal a possible connection between the Skull Man and an arson case ten years ago.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 3
\| Title \= Crimson Rain Falls in the Afternoon
\| TranslitTitle \= Shinku no ame wa gogo ni furu
\| NativeTitle \= 深紅の雨は午後に降る
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Hirokazu Yamada
\| WrittenBy \= \[\[Hiroshi Ōnogi]]
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|12}}
\| ShortSummary \= Yui receives a threatening letter and later becomes the target of blackmail. Kiriko follows Yui and Sayoko to the theater. However, the real target of the Skull Man is Sayoko, who turns out to be a mutant.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 4
\| Title \= The Ghost That Goes For a Stroll
\| TranslitTitle \= Sanpo suru yūrei
\| NativeTitle \= 散歩する幽霊
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= \[\[Shigeru Ueda]]
\| WrittenBy \= Hiroshi Ōnogi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|19}}
\| ShortSummary \= A dead body hung from a railroad bridge makes Hayato investigate the legend of the Phantom Monorail. However, once on board, he becomes the target of the Skull Man.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 5
\| Title \= The False Blind Spot
\| TranslitTitle \= Itsuwari no shikaku
\| NativeTitle \= 偽りの死角
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasushi Muroya
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|5\|26}}
\| ShortSummary \= Usami, the Skull Man impostor, tries to eliminate the original. Meanwhile, Kiriko discovers a person from her past among the Byakureikai members.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 6
\| Title \= Banquet of the Grim Reaper
\| TranslitTitle \= Shinigami\-tachi no utage
\| NativeTitle \= 死神たちの宴
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Katsumi Terahigashi
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|2}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato and Kiriko run across yet another Skull Man killing the town mayor. With other trails getting cold, the two decide to investigate the Byakureikai from the inside.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 7
\| Title \= Master of the Beasts
\| TranslitTitle \= Jinjū tsukai\-shi
\| NativeTitle \= 人獣使い師
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasuhiro Minami
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|9}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato and Kiriko are discovered and kicked out of Byakureikai, but Hayato discovers that one of the disciples there is an old acquaintance of Kiriko and the reason for her entering the town. That person \- Jin \- is masquerading as the Skull Man in order to carry out assassinations for Gōzō Kuroshio.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 8
\| Title \= The Maiden Whispers in the Moonlight
\| TranslitTitle \= Gekkō ni otome wa sasayaku
\| NativeTitle \= 月光に乙女はささやく
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Junichi Yokoyama
\| WrittenBy \= Hiroshi Ōnogi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|16}}
\| ShortSummary \= Kiriko and Hayato, fresh off a lead left by Jin, work together to investigate photographs left by him of the White Bell compound. His legacy draws them deeper into the events surrounding the White Bell cult. Meanwhile, coming out of cathartis, Kiriko runs into Maya again after the previous episodes' developments, Hayato warms up to an old flame by the name of Nami that returns to the village after him, and learns about his old school crush's unfortunate history after he left Otomo.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 9
\| Title \= Blessed Are the Impure
\| TranslitTitle \= Kegareshi mono ni shukufuku o
\| NativeTitle \= 穢れしものに祝福を
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Hirokazu Yamada
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|23}}
\| ShortSummary \= The Police step up patrols in the city in response to the escalating violence and wind up with more victims as a result, due to a monster lurking about. At the same time Nami is having recurring nightmares, driving her to the brink of desperation, while her unknowing admirer Detective Shinjou gets high hopes after being promised a date with her. In the mix of encircling circumstances, Hayato tries to support Nami and is rejected, just as events unfold which change everything for the three of them.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 10
\| Title \= The Circus Laughs at Midnight
\| TranslitTitle \= Sākasu wa mayonaka ni warau
\| NativeTitle \= サーカスは真夜中に嗤う
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Satoshi Nakagawa
\| WrittenBy \= Shingo Takeba
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|6\|30}}
\| ShortSummary \= Hayato and Kiriko hide out in the woods, since Hayato is now a wanted criminal. The Company has brought in a group of elite mercenaries \- all cyborgs actually \- via the Phantom Monorail, to flush out the Skullman. In the battle between them and the Skull Man and his "Lost Numbers" (two mutants he rescued and who follow him), many of the cyborgs are killed, but the Skull Man is mortally wounded. Hayato follows the blood trails back to the church, and it is finally that his identity is really Father Kanzaki.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 11
\| Title \= Darkness Take My Hand
\| TranslitTitle \= Yami yo, wa ga te o tori tamae
\| NativeTitle \= 闇よ、我が手を取りたまえ
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Keisuke Ōnishi
\| WrittenBy \= Hiroshi Ōnogi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|7\|7}}
\| ShortSummary \= After the battle between the Skull Man and the Cyborgs in the forest subsides, Hayato, Kiriko, and Detective Shinjou descend on Yoshio Kanzaki's church to finally learn the truth about the Skull Man, but they are not alone.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 12
\| Title \= Bloody Eve
\| TranslitTitle \= Chi no seiya
\| NativeTitle \= 血の聖夜
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Katsumi Terahigashi
\| WrittenBy \= Seishi Minakami
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|7\|14}}
\| ShortSummary \= Taking up the dying wishes of his close friend, Hayato returns to the city to stop Masaki Kuroshio's evil machinations from unfolding. In the meantime, all hell breaks loose in the city as the fighting mutants and the army are also attacked by the Corporation's mechanical war machines and cyborgs.
}}
{{Episode list
\| EpisodeNumber \= 13
\| Title \= Black Fable: All That I Love Leaves Me
\| TranslitTitle \= Kuroi gūwa \~ itoshiki mono wa subete sari yuku
\| NativeTitle \= 黒い寓話～愛しきものは全て去りゆく
\| NativeTitleLangCode \= ja
\| DirectedBy \= Yasushi Muroya
\| WrittenBy \= Yutaka Izubuchi
\| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|2007\|7\|21}}
\| ShortSummary \= Having succeeded in achieving his objective Masaki Kuroshio announces the birth of a new humanity, and the new Skull Man is the only one who can stop him. But this will cost him everything he has yet to give.
}}
#### Broadcasting
Several television stations and satellite channels in Japan have broadcast the anime series. These include: [Tokai TV](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai_Television_Broadcasting "Tōkai Television Broadcasting"), [Kansai TV](/wiki/Kansai_Telecasting_Corporation "Kansai Telecasting Corporation"), [BS Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") and [Animax](/wiki/Animax "Animax").
In the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), [Hero TV](/wiki/Hero_%28TV_channel%29 "Hero (TV channel)") started its [Tagalog\-dubbed](/wiki/Tagalog_language "Tagalog language") broadcast on November 11, 2012\.[The Skull Man @ herotvforums.com](http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f=21&t=1394) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213123702/http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f\=21\&t\=1394 \|date\=2013\-02\-13 }}
#### DVD release
On July 25, 2007, the full series has been available monthly on [Region 2 DVD](/wiki/Region_2_DVD "Region 2 DVD"), with individual episodes released by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/Geneon_Universal_Entertainment "Geneon Universal Entertainment") in [Japanese\-language](/wiki/Japanese-language "Japanese-language") audio with no subtitles. All DVDs have 7 volumes, and each volume contains two episodes (including only one episode for Volume 1\). In addition, the live\-action special "Skullman: Prologue of Darkness" DVD was released on September 21, 2007\.[スカルマン The Skull Man １～７](http://www.fujitv.co.jp/video/details/anime/skullman.html)[スカルマン DVD](http://www.geneonuniversal.jp/rondorobe/anime/skullman/)[The Skull Man Vol. 1 (Limited Edition)](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNBA-3050)
In [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), it has been distributed on DVD by Selecta Visión from January 24, 2009\. The audio soundtracks include [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language "Japanese language") and [Spanish (Castilian)](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language") with Spanish (Castilian) subtitles which automatically appear. On March 24, 2010, Selecta Visión has re\-released the series as the Integralized Version DVD with the same audio tracks but with newly enhanced features such as the same content from the Japan DVD release, but in 5\.1 quality instead of stereo.[The Skullman DVD @ Selecta Visión](http://www.selecta-vision.com/Home-Entertainment/The-Skullman) All DVDs have 3 Volumes in one disc each (Volumes 1 \& 2 have 4 episodes and Volume 3 has 3 episodes) which are individually available or coming with a collector's [box set](/wiki/Box_set "Box set").
In [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), it was licensed by [Sentai Filmworks](/wiki/Sentai_Filmworks "Sentai Filmworks") and distributed by [Section23 Films](/wiki/Section23_Films "Section23 Films"), who released the complete collection on [Region 1 DVD](/wiki/Region_1_DVD "Region 1 DVD") on February 2, 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press\-release/2009\-12\-04/section23\-films\-announces\-february\-slate\|title\=Section23 Films Announces February Slate\|publisher\=\[\[Anime News Network]]\|date\=2009\-12\-04}} For legal reasons, the original opening, "Hikari no Machi", has been replaced with an instrumental opening and footage from an earlier trailer for the series.
|
[
"### Anime",
"An anime TV series adaptation was broadcast on [Fuji TV](/wiki/Fuji_TV \"Fuji TV\") stations for three months from April 28, 2007 to July 21, 2007, for a total of 13 episodes. Produced by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Entertainment_Japan \"NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan\"), Fuji TV, ToyoKasei, [Ishimori Entertainment](/wiki/Ishimori_Productions \"Ishimori Productions\"), and animated by [Bones](/wiki/Bones_%28studio%29 \"Bones (studio)\"), the series was directed by [Takeshi Mori](/wiki/Takeshi_Mori_%28director%29 \"Takeshi Mori (director)\"), with [Yutaka Izubuchi](/wiki/Yutaka_Izubuchi \"Yutaka Izubuchi\") handling series scripts and designing Skull Man and GRO, Jun Shibata designing the characters, Yoshinori Sayama designing the mechanical elements and [Shirō Sagisu](/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Sagisu \"Shirō Sagisu\") composing the music. A live\\-action \"Episode Zero\" was shown on April 21, titled \"Skullman: Prologue of Darkness,\" starring Ami Suzuki, *[Kamen Rider Hibiki](/wiki/Kamen_Rider_Hibiki \"Kamen Rider Hibiki\")* and *[Death Note](/wiki/Death_Note \"Death Note\")*{{'}}s [Shigeki Hosokawa](/wiki/Shigeki_Hosokawa \"Shigeki Hosokawa\") and well\\-known stuntsman/actor from *[Kagaku Sentai Dynaman](/wiki/Kagaku_Sentai_Dynaman \"Kagaku Sentai Dynaman\")* and *[Tensou Sentai Goseiger](/wiki/Tensou_Sentai_Goseiger \"Tensou Sentai Goseiger\")*{{'}}s Makoto Itō. It was also set up to be a pseudo prequel to *[Cyborg 009](/wiki/Cyborg_009 \"Cyborg 009\")*.\n[thumb\\|230px\\|right\\|Logo for the 2007 anime series](/wiki/File:SkullManLogo.jpg \"SkullManLogo.jpg\")\nUnlike the previous *Skull Man*, the story closely focuses on a journalist named Hayato Mikogami who returns to his hometown at Otomo to investigate strange rumors of killings done by a man wearing a skull mask. Tailed tightly by a young photographer, Kiriko Mamiya, the two soon uncover the many strings of connections between the victims, a local pharmaceutical company, a mysterious new religious sect and strange half\\-human, half\\-animal creatures, which roam the night streets for blood. Many of the characters are taken from Ishinomori's works other than *Skull Man*.",
"The series opening theme is [TOKIO](/wiki/TOKIO \"TOKIO\")'s {{nihongo\\|\"Hikari no Machi\"\\|ひかりのまち\\|\\|\"City of Light\"}} and the ending theme is [Chocolove from AKB48](/wiki/Chocolove_from_AKB48 \"Chocolove from AKB48\")'s {{nihongo\\|\"Ashita wa Ashita no Kimi ga Umareru\"\\|明日は明日の君が生まれる\\|\\|\"A New You Is Born Tomorrow\"}}.",
"#### Characters",
"{{main\\|List of The Skull Man anime characters}}\n{{nihongo\\|Skull Man\\|スカルマン\\|Sukaru Man}}\n{{Anime voice\\|\\[\\[Hiroshi Tsuchida]]}}\nA mysterious man in a skull\\-shaped mask making appearances in Ōtomo City and rumored to have been killing numerous victims in the city, especially those roaming at night. He is believed to be the missing Tatsuo Kagura at first, but later in the series, Father Yoshio Kanzaki, a close friend of Hayato's, reveals himself as the true Skull Man and explains that the only people he has been killing are those who are members of a new cult who mutate into monsters. After Yoshio's death, Hayato becomes Skull Man himself and saves Maya from the ritual, for Yoshio's sake. The Skull Man is actually not a person, but an ancient helmet that grants the user supernatural abilities and deadly weapons. At one point, Kiriko's brother Jin dresses up in a fake Skull Man suit and uses it to commit murders, but the real Skull Man shows up later and confronts him.",
"{{nihongo\\|Hayato Mikogami\\|御子神 隼人\\|Mikogami Hayato}}\n{{Anime voice\\|\\[\\[Makoto Yasumura]]}}\nHayato Mikogami once lived in the orphanage in Ōtomo City. After being adopted and raised, he left Ōtomo to move to Tokyo so he can work for a famous newspaper. Years later at 23 years old, he is working for a second rate newspaper and with permission leaves to go back to Ōtomo City to search for the legendary figure, Skull Man who by rumors had recently killed an actress. While on the train trip, he meets a young Kiriko who doesn't have the correct passport to get into the city and he helps her in by presenting a business card of Gōzō. Later, after getting comfortable into his old house, he gets locked outside due to Kiriko's tantrum. Without realizing, he breaks the midnight curfew and witnesses a man who is running away from someone. The man injures Hayato after he tries to help him but the man is killed by the Skull Man. Hayato collapses on scene, pinning him to the murder but is let off due to his ties with Gōzō.\nHayato is a care\\-free guy who smokes and is constantly annoyed by Kiriko. Later he develops a close friendship with her. At the end of the series, Hayato takes up the mantle of the Skull Man against the original's warning, mortally wounding himself when he overuses the mask's powers. For reasons unexplained, the white mask turns black in the rising sunlight before a mysterious group, later revealed to be [Black Ghost](/wiki/Cyborg_009 \"Cyborg 009\"), picks him up and converts him into a cyborg.\n#### Episodes",
"",
"| \\# | Title | Directed by | Written by | Original air date |\n|\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 0\n\\| Title \\= Skullman: Prologue Of Darkness\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Sukaru Man \\~Yami no joshō\\~\n\\| NativeTitle \\= スカルマン〜闇の序章〜\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yūsuke Fujikawa\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Masaaki Sakai\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|4\\|21}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Live\\-action prequel episode.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 1\n\\| Title \\= City of the Dancing Mask\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kamen ga odoru machi\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 仮面が踊る街\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Katsumi Terahigashi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|4\\|28}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Journalist Hayato Mikogami arrives in his hometown and begins investigating the enigmatic Skull Man. However, he runs into his target sooner than expected.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 2\n\\| Title \\= The Man From the Past\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kako kara kita otoko\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 過去からきた男\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasushi Muroya\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|5}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato, temporarily a murder suspect, is released from police custody due to his connections. His further investigations reveal a possible connection between the Skull Man and an arson case ten years ago.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 3\n\\| Title \\= Crimson Rain Falls in the Afternoon\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Shinku no ame wa gogo ni furu\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 深紅の雨は午後に降る\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Hirokazu Yamada\n\\| WrittenBy \\= \\[\\[Hiroshi Ōnogi]]\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|12}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Yui receives a threatening letter and later becomes the target of blackmail. Kiriko follows Yui and Sayoko to the theater. However, the real target of the Skull Man is Sayoko, who turns out to be a mutant.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 4\n\\| Title \\= The Ghost That Goes For a Stroll\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Sanpo suru yūrei\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 散歩する幽霊\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Shigeru Ueda]]\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Hiroshi Ōnogi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|19}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A dead body hung from a railroad bridge makes Hayato investigate the legend of the Phantom Monorail. However, once on board, he becomes the target of the Skull Man.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 5\n\\| Title \\= The False Blind Spot\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Itsuwari no shikaku\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 偽りの死角\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasushi Muroya\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|5\\|26}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Usami, the Skull Man impostor, tries to eliminate the original. Meanwhile, Kiriko discovers a person from her past among the Byakureikai members.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 6\n\\| Title \\= Banquet of the Grim Reaper\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Shinigami\\-tachi no utage\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 死神たちの宴\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Katsumi Terahigashi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|2}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato and Kiriko run across yet another Skull Man killing the town mayor. With other trails getting cold, the two decide to investigate the Byakureikai from the inside.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 7\n\\| Title \\= Master of the Beasts\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Jinjū tsukai\\-shi\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 人獣使い師\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasuhiro Minami\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|9}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato and Kiriko are discovered and kicked out of Byakureikai, but Hayato discovers that one of the disciples there is an old acquaintance of Kiriko and the reason for her entering the town. That person \\- Jin \\- is masquerading as the Skull Man in order to carry out assassinations for Gōzō Kuroshio.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 8\n\\| Title \\= The Maiden Whispers in the Moonlight\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Gekkō ni otome wa sasayaku\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 月光に乙女はささやく\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Junichi Yokoyama\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Hiroshi Ōnogi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|16}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Kiriko and Hayato, fresh off a lead left by Jin, work together to investigate photographs left by him of the White Bell compound. His legacy draws them deeper into the events surrounding the White Bell cult. Meanwhile, coming out of cathartis, Kiriko runs into Maya again after the previous episodes' developments, Hayato warms up to an old flame by the name of Nami that returns to the village after him, and learns about his old school crush's unfortunate history after he left Otomo.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 9\n\\| Title \\= Blessed Are the Impure\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kegareshi mono ni shukufuku o\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 穢れしものに祝福を\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Hirokazu Yamada\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|23}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Police step up patrols in the city in response to the escalating violence and wind up with more victims as a result, due to a monster lurking about. At the same time Nami is having recurring nightmares, driving her to the brink of desperation, while her unknowing admirer Detective Shinjou gets high hopes after being promised a date with her. In the mix of encircling circumstances, Hayato tries to support Nami and is rejected, just as events unfold which change everything for the three of them.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 10\n\\| Title \\= The Circus Laughs at Midnight\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Sākasu wa mayonaka ni warau\n\\| NativeTitle \\= サーカスは真夜中に嗤う\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Satoshi Nakagawa\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Shingo Takeba\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|6\\|30}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hayato and Kiriko hide out in the woods, since Hayato is now a wanted criminal. The Company has brought in a group of elite mercenaries \\- all cyborgs actually \\- via the Phantom Monorail, to flush out the Skullman. In the battle between them and the Skull Man and his \"Lost Numbers\" (two mutants he rescued and who follow him), many of the cyborgs are killed, but the Skull Man is mortally wounded. Hayato follows the blood trails back to the church, and it is finally that his identity is really Father Kanzaki.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 11\n\\| Title \\= Darkness Take My Hand\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Yami yo, wa ga te o tori tamae\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 闇よ、我が手を取りたまえ\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Keisuke Ōnishi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Hiroshi Ōnogi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|7\\|7}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= After the battle between the Skull Man and the Cyborgs in the forest subsides, Hayato, Kiriko, and Detective Shinjou descend on Yoshio Kanzaki's church to finally learn the truth about the Skull Man, but they are not alone.\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 12\n\\| Title \\= Bloody Eve\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Chi no seiya\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 血の聖夜\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Katsumi Terahigashi\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Seishi Minakami\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|7\\|14}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Taking up the dying wishes of his close friend, Hayato returns to the city to stop Masaki Kuroshio's evil machinations from unfolding. In the meantime, all hell breaks loose in the city as the fighting mutants and the army are also attacked by the Corporation's mechanical war machines and cyborgs. \n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 13\n\\| Title \\= Black Fable: All That I Love Leaves Me\n\\| TranslitTitle \\= Kuroi gūwa \\~ itoshiki mono wa subete sari yuku\n\\| NativeTitle \\= 黒い寓話～愛しきものは全て去りゆく\n\\| NativeTitleLangCode \\= ja\n\\| DirectedBy \\= Yasushi Muroya\n\\| WrittenBy \\= Yutaka Izubuchi\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|2007\\|7\\|21}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Having succeeded in achieving his objective Masaki Kuroshio announces the birth of a new humanity, and the new Skull Man is the only one who can stop him. But this will cost him everything he has yet to give. \n}}",
"#### Broadcasting",
"Several television stations and satellite channels in Japan have broadcast the anime series. These include: [Tokai TV](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai_Television_Broadcasting \"Tōkai Television Broadcasting\"), [Kansai TV](/wiki/Kansai_Telecasting_Corporation \"Kansai Telecasting Corporation\"), [BS Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") and [Animax](/wiki/Animax \"Animax\").",
"In the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), [Hero TV](/wiki/Hero_%28TV_channel%29 \"Hero (TV channel)\") started its [Tagalog\\-dubbed](/wiki/Tagalog_language \"Tagalog language\") broadcast on November 11, 2012\\.[The Skull Man @ herotvforums.com](http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f=21&t=1394) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213123702/http://www.herotvforums.com/viewtopic.php?f\\=21\\&t\\=1394 \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-13 }}",
"#### DVD release",
"On July 25, 2007, the full series has been available monthly on [Region 2 DVD](/wiki/Region_2_DVD \"Region 2 DVD\"), with individual episodes released by [Geneon Entertainment](/wiki/Geneon_Universal_Entertainment \"Geneon Universal Entertainment\") in [Japanese\\-language](/wiki/Japanese-language \"Japanese-language\") audio with no subtitles. All DVDs have 7 volumes, and each volume contains two episodes (including only one episode for Volume 1\\). In addition, the live\\-action special \"Skullman: Prologue of Darkness\" DVD was released on September 21, 2007\\.[スカルマン The Skull Man １～７](http://www.fujitv.co.jp/video/details/anime/skullman.html)[スカルマン DVD](http://www.geneonuniversal.jp/rondorobe/anime/skullman/)[The Skull Man Vol. 1 (Limited Edition)](http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=GNBA-3050)",
"In [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), it has been distributed on DVD by Selecta Visión from January 24, 2009\\. The audio soundtracks include [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\") and [Spanish (Castilian)](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\") with Spanish (Castilian) subtitles which automatically appear. On March 24, 2010, Selecta Visión has re\\-released the series as the Integralized Version DVD with the same audio tracks but with newly enhanced features such as the same content from the Japan DVD release, but in 5\\.1 quality instead of stereo.[The Skullman DVD @ Selecta Visión](http://www.selecta-vision.com/Home-Entertainment/The-Skullman) All DVDs have 3 Volumes in one disc each (Volumes 1 \\& 2 have 4 episodes and Volume 3 has 3 episodes) which are individually available or coming with a collector's [box set](/wiki/Box_set \"Box set\").",
"In [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), it was licensed by [Sentai Filmworks](/wiki/Sentai_Filmworks \"Sentai Filmworks\") and distributed by [Section23 Films](/wiki/Section23_Films \"Section23 Films\"), who released the complete collection on [Region 1 DVD](/wiki/Region_1_DVD \"Region 1 DVD\") on February 2, 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press\\-release/2009\\-12\\-04/section23\\-films\\-announces\\-february\\-slate\\|title\\=Section23 Films Announces February Slate\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anime News Network]]\\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-04}} For legal reasons, the original opening, \"Hikari no Machi\", has been replaced with an instrumental opening and footage from an earlier trailer for the series.",
""
] |
Background and training
-----------------------
[thumb\|The main block and façade of the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum") was designed by Robert Smirke.](/wiki/File:British_Museum_from_NE_2.JPG "British Museum from NE 2.JPG")
Smirke was born in London on 1 October 1780, the second son of the portrait painter [Robert Smirke](/wiki/Robert_Smirke_%28painter%29 "Robert Smirke (painter)"); he was one of twelve children.page 73, J. Mordaunt Crook: *The British Museum A Case\-study in Architectural Politics*, 1972, Pelican Books He attended Aspley School, [Aspley Guise](/wiki/Aspley_Guise "Aspley Guise"), Bedfordshire,page 74, J. Mordaunt Crook: *The British Museum A Case\-study in Architectural Politics*, 1972, Pelican Books where he studied [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"), [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek"), French and [drawing](/wiki/Drawing "Drawing"), and was made head boy at the age of 15\. In May 1796, on the recommendation of [George Dance the Younger](/wiki/George_Dance_the_Younger "George Dance the Younger"), Smirke he began his study of [architecture](/wiki/Architecture "Architecture") as a pupil of [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane "John Soane") but left after only a few months in early 1797 due to a personality clash with his teacher.pages 137–8, Gillian Darley, *John Soane An Accidental Romantic*, 1999, Yale University Press He wrote to his father:
> He (Soane) was on Monday morning in one of his amiable Tempers. Everything was slovenly that I was doing. My drawing was slovenly because it was too great a scale, my scale, also, being too long, and he finished saying the whole of it was excessively slovenly, and that I should draw it out again on the back not to waste another sheet about it.page 65, Dorothy Stroud, *Sir John Soane Architect*, 1984, Faber and Faber
In 1796, he also began his studies at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy "Royal Academy"), winning the Silver Medal and the Silver Palette of the [Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures \& Commerce](/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_Encouragement_of_Arts%2C_Manufactures_%26_Commerce "Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce") that year. He was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Academy in 1799 for his design for a *National Museum*. After leaving Soane he depended on [George Dance the Younger](/wiki/George_Dance_the_Younger "George Dance the Younger") and a [surveyor](/wiki/Construction_surveying "Construction surveying") called Thomas Bush for his architectural training.
In 1801, accompanied by his elder brother Richard, he attempted to embark on a [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour "Grand Tour"), but was forced to return to England because [war with France](/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars "French Revolutionary Wars") made it impossible to travel safely without fear of arrest. The short\-lived [Peace of Amiens](/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens "Treaty of Amiens") the following year allowed British travellers to visit France, and Smirke set off again in September 1802 in the company of the artist William Walker, returning early in 1805\. His itinerary and impressions are recorded in a series of letters and journals he wrote, many preserved in the archive of the [RIBA](/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects "Royal Institute of British Architects"), and in the many drawings he made of buildings and locations. In France he visited places such as [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon "Lyon"), [Avignon](/wiki/Avignon "Avignon"), [Nîmes](/wiki/N%C3%AEmes "Nîmes"), [Arles](/wiki/Arles "Arles") and [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"); he was particularly impressed by the various Roman monuments in the south of the country. While in Italy, he passed through [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa"), [Pisa](/wiki/Pisa "Pisa"), [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") and [Siena](/wiki/Siena "Siena") but spent almost two months in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") where he made the decision to visit Greece. Embarking from [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina"), he travelled via the [Ionian Islands](/wiki/Ionian_Islands "Ionian Islands") to [Corinth](/wiki/Corinth "Corinth") and the [Argolid](/wiki/Argolid "Argolid"). Turning south into the [Peloponnese](/wiki/Peloponnese "Peloponnese"), he saw the famous sites of [Messene](/wiki/Messene "Messene"), [Megalopolis](/wiki/Megalopolis%2C_Greece "Megalopolis, Greece"), [Bassai](/wiki/Bassae "Bassae") and [Olympia](/wiki/Olympia%2C_Greece "Olympia, Greece"), before travelling on to [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens") where he spent a month sketching the monuments. From Athens Smirke wrote to his father:
> How can I by description give you any idea of the great pleasure I enjoyed in the sight of these ancient buildings of Athens! How strongly were exemplified in them the grandeur and effect of simplicity in architecture! The Temple of Theseus ([Temple of Hephaestus](/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus "Temple of Hephaestus"))... cannot but arrest the attention of everyone from its appropriate and dignified solemnity of appearance. The temple of Minerva ([Parthenon](/wiki/Parthenon "Parthenon"))... strikes one in the same way with its grandeur and majesty. We were a month there. The impression made upon my mind... had not in that time in the least weakened by being frequently repeated and I could with pleasure spend a much longer time there, while those in Rome (with few exceptions) not only soon grow in some degree uninteresting but have now entirely sunk into disregard and contempt in my mind. All that I could do in Athens was to make some views of them...hoping that they will serve as a memorandum to me of what I think should always be a model.'pages 52–53, J. Mordaunt Crook: *The Greek Revival Neo\-Classical Attitudes in British Architecture 1760–1870*, 1972, John Murray
Following his departure from Athens, Smirke visited other famous ancient sites such as [Thebes](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Greece "Thebes, Greece") and [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi "Delphi").
Smirke's return from Greece was complicated by the resumption of war between Britain and France, and he had to travel via Sicily and Malta to avoid the risk of capture by enemy troops, though this challenge allowed him to visit and draw some of the famous Greek archaeological sites of Sicily. He also managed to revisit Naples (seeing the ruins of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") and [Paestum](/wiki/Paestum "Paestum")) and Rome, as well as other cities, as he travelled up the Italian peninsula towards [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice"), [Padua](/wiki/Padua "Padua"), [Vicenza](/wiki/Vicenza "Vicenza") and [Verona](/wiki/Verona "Verona"). Crossing into [Austrian](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") territory, he visited [Innsbruck](/wiki/Innsbruck "Innsbruck"), [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg "Salzburg"), [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), and [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") before moving on to [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden") and [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), returning to England via [Heligoland](/wiki/Heligoland "Heligoland") in early January 1805\.
His extensive travels through most of the major centres of Europe provided him with an unparalleled insight on ancient, Renaissance and more recent architecture. His poor opinion of many of the more recent buildings he saw, even in Rome and Paris, combined with the overwhelming impact of ancient Greek structures, triggered a significant shift in his architectural tastes. Whereas his earlier designs had been in the conventional French Neo\-Classical idiom of the time, influenced by his mentor [George Dance the Younger](/wiki/George_Dance_the_Younger "George Dance the Younger") and by [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane "John Soane"), most of the classical\-style buildings he designed as a professional architect were firmly rooted in the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture"). Unlike some of his contemporaries he did not visit (modern) Turkey. His knowledge of its ancient buildings, which were crucial to Ionic order widely used in the 1820s, especially the British Museum, was derived from publications such as *Ionian Antiquities* of 1769 by [Richard Chandler](/wiki/Richard_Chandler_%28antiquary%29 "Richard Chandler (antiquary)"), [William Pars](/wiki/William_Pars "William Pars") and [Nicholas Revett](/wiki/Nicholas_Revett "Nicholas Revett").
During his Grand Tour, Smirke made drawings and watercolours of many buildings, including most of the surviving ancient structures in Athens and the [Morea](/wiki/Morea "Morea"). Most however were never published, and few were exhibited in his lifetime, though a considerable number are preserved in the [RIBA](/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects "Royal Institute of British Architects"), the [Paul Mellon Center for British Art](/wiki/Paul_Mellon_Center_for_British_Art "Paul Mellon Center for British Art"), the British Museum, and other collections.
|
[
"Background and training\n-----------------------",
"[thumb\\|The main block and façade of the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\") was designed by Robert Smirke.](/wiki/File:British_Museum_from_NE_2.JPG \"British Museum from NE 2.JPG\")\nSmirke was born in London on 1 October 1780, the second son of the portrait painter [Robert Smirke](/wiki/Robert_Smirke_%28painter%29 \"Robert Smirke (painter)\"); he was one of twelve children.page 73, J. Mordaunt Crook: *The British Museum A Case\\-study in Architectural Politics*, 1972, Pelican Books He attended Aspley School, [Aspley Guise](/wiki/Aspley_Guise \"Aspley Guise\"), Bedfordshire,page 74, J. Mordaunt Crook: *The British Museum A Case\\-study in Architectural Politics*, 1972, Pelican Books where he studied [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"), [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\"), French and [drawing](/wiki/Drawing \"Drawing\"), and was made head boy at the age of 15\\. In May 1796, on the recommendation of [George Dance the Younger](/wiki/George_Dance_the_Younger \"George Dance the Younger\"), Smirke he began his study of [architecture](/wiki/Architecture \"Architecture\") as a pupil of [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane \"John Soane\") but left after only a few months in early 1797 due to a personality clash with his teacher.pages 137–8, Gillian Darley, *John Soane An Accidental Romantic*, 1999, Yale University Press He wrote to his father:",
"> He (Soane) was on Monday morning in one of his amiable Tempers. Everything was slovenly that I was doing. My drawing was slovenly because it was too great a scale, my scale, also, being too long, and he finished saying the whole of it was excessively slovenly, and that I should draw it out again on the back not to waste another sheet about it.page 65, Dorothy Stroud, *Sir John Soane Architect*, 1984, Faber and Faber",
"",
"In 1796, he also began his studies at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy \"Royal Academy\"), winning the Silver Medal and the Silver Palette of the [Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures \\& Commerce](/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_Encouragement_of_Arts%2C_Manufactures_%26_Commerce \"Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce\") that year. He was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Academy in 1799 for his design for a *National Museum*. After leaving Soane he depended on [George Dance the Younger](/wiki/George_Dance_the_Younger \"George Dance the Younger\") and a [surveyor](/wiki/Construction_surveying \"Construction surveying\") called Thomas Bush for his architectural training.",
"In 1801, accompanied by his elder brother Richard, he attempted to embark on a [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour \"Grand Tour\"), but was forced to return to England because [war with France](/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars \"French Revolutionary Wars\") made it impossible to travel safely without fear of arrest. The short\\-lived [Peace of Amiens](/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens \"Treaty of Amiens\") the following year allowed British travellers to visit France, and Smirke set off again in September 1802 in the company of the artist William Walker, returning early in 1805\\. His itinerary and impressions are recorded in a series of letters and journals he wrote, many preserved in the archive of the [RIBA](/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects \"Royal Institute of British Architects\"), and in the many drawings he made of buildings and locations. In France he visited places such as [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\"), [Avignon](/wiki/Avignon \"Avignon\"), [Nîmes](/wiki/N%C3%AEmes \"Nîmes\"), [Arles](/wiki/Arles \"Arles\") and [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"); he was particularly impressed by the various Roman monuments in the south of the country. While in Italy, he passed through [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\"), [Pisa](/wiki/Pisa \"Pisa\"), [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") and [Siena](/wiki/Siena \"Siena\") but spent almost two months in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") where he made the decision to visit Greece. Embarking from [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\"), he travelled via the [Ionian Islands](/wiki/Ionian_Islands \"Ionian Islands\") to [Corinth](/wiki/Corinth \"Corinth\") and the [Argolid](/wiki/Argolid \"Argolid\"). Turning south into the [Peloponnese](/wiki/Peloponnese \"Peloponnese\"), he saw the famous sites of [Messene](/wiki/Messene \"Messene\"), [Megalopolis](/wiki/Megalopolis%2C_Greece \"Megalopolis, Greece\"), [Bassai](/wiki/Bassae \"Bassae\") and [Olympia](/wiki/Olympia%2C_Greece \"Olympia, Greece\"), before travelling on to [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\") where he spent a month sketching the monuments. From Athens Smirke wrote to his father:",
"> How can I by description give you any idea of the great pleasure I enjoyed in the sight of these ancient buildings of Athens! How strongly were exemplified in them the grandeur and effect of simplicity in architecture! The Temple of Theseus ([Temple of Hephaestus](/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus \"Temple of Hephaestus\"))... cannot but arrest the attention of everyone from its appropriate and dignified solemnity of appearance. The temple of Minerva ([Parthenon](/wiki/Parthenon \"Parthenon\"))... strikes one in the same way with its grandeur and majesty. We were a month there. The impression made upon my mind... had not in that time in the least weakened by being frequently repeated and I could with pleasure spend a much longer time there, while those in Rome (with few exceptions) not only soon grow in some degree uninteresting but have now entirely sunk into disregard and contempt in my mind. All that I could do in Athens was to make some views of them...hoping that they will serve as a memorandum to me of what I think should always be a model.'pages 52–53, J. Mordaunt Crook: *The Greek Revival Neo\\-Classical Attitudes in British Architecture 1760–1870*, 1972, John Murray",
"",
"Following his departure from Athens, Smirke visited other famous ancient sites such as [Thebes](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Greece \"Thebes, Greece\") and [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi \"Delphi\").",
"Smirke's return from Greece was complicated by the resumption of war between Britain and France, and he had to travel via Sicily and Malta to avoid the risk of capture by enemy troops, though this challenge allowed him to visit and draw some of the famous Greek archaeological sites of Sicily. He also managed to revisit Naples (seeing the ruins of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") and [Paestum](/wiki/Paestum \"Paestum\")) and Rome, as well as other cities, as he travelled up the Italian peninsula towards [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\"), [Padua](/wiki/Padua \"Padua\"), [Vicenza](/wiki/Vicenza \"Vicenza\") and [Verona](/wiki/Verona \"Verona\"). Crossing into [Austrian](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") territory, he visited [Innsbruck](/wiki/Innsbruck \"Innsbruck\"), [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg \"Salzburg\"), [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), and [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") before moving on to [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\") and [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), returning to England via [Heligoland](/wiki/Heligoland \"Heligoland\") in early January 1805\\.",
"His extensive travels through most of the major centres of Europe provided him with an unparalleled insight on ancient, Renaissance and more recent architecture. His poor opinion of many of the more recent buildings he saw, even in Rome and Paris, combined with the overwhelming impact of ancient Greek structures, triggered a significant shift in his architectural tastes. Whereas his earlier designs had been in the conventional French Neo\\-Classical idiom of the time, influenced by his mentor [George Dance the Younger](/wiki/George_Dance_the_Younger \"George Dance the Younger\") and by [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane \"John Soane\"), most of the classical\\-style buildings he designed as a professional architect were firmly rooted in the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\"). Unlike some of his contemporaries he did not visit (modern) Turkey. His knowledge of its ancient buildings, which were crucial to Ionic order widely used in the 1820s, especially the British Museum, was derived from publications such as *Ionian Antiquities* of 1769 by [Richard Chandler](/wiki/Richard_Chandler_%28antiquary%29 \"Richard Chandler (antiquary)\"), [William Pars](/wiki/William_Pars \"William Pars\") and [Nicholas Revett](/wiki/Nicholas_Revett \"Nicholas Revett\").",
"During his Grand Tour, Smirke made drawings and watercolours of many buildings, including most of the surviving ancient structures in Athens and the [Morea](/wiki/Morea \"Morea\"). Most however were never published, and few were exhibited in his lifetime, though a considerable number are preserved in the [RIBA](/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects \"Royal Institute of British Architects\"), the [Paul Mellon Center for British Art](/wiki/Paul_Mellon_Center_for_British_Art \"Paul Mellon Center for British Art\"), the British Museum, and other collections.",
""
] |
Marine art
----------
In 2003 O’Brien began painting maritime scenes. He specializes in historic scenes from the age of sail. O’Brien does extensive research to ensure that each painting is historically and nautically accurate.{{Cite journal\|date\=Spring 2012\|title\=The Civil War at Sea, A New Exhibition by Patrick O'Brien\|journal\=Sea History Magazine\|pages\=26–29}}
In 2011 The [U. S. Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard "United States Coast Guard") commissioned O’Brien to create three paintings of historic Coast Guard vessels.{{Cite news\|title\=Coast Guard Presents War of 1812 Painting\|date\=December 14, 2012\|work\=The Richmond Times Dispatch}} One of the painting hangs in the main cabin aboard the [USCG EAGLE](/wiki/USCGC_Eagle_%28WIX-327%29 "USCGC Eagle (WIX-327)").
[ExxonMobil](/wiki/ExxonMobil "ExxonMobil") commissioned several paintings depicting newly built supertankers. In 2009 The [Gaylord National Resort](/wiki/Gaylord_National_Resort_%26_Convention_Center "Gaylord National Resort & Convention Center") at [The National Harbor in Maryland](/wiki/National_Harbor%2C_Maryland "National Harbor, Maryland") commissioned two very large maritime paintings for their lobby. The [U. S. Naval Institute](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Institute "United States Naval Institute") has commissioned several paintings for covers of their magazine *Naval History*, including a large painting of The Battle of the Chesapeake.{{Cite journal\|date\=October 2016\|title\=cover images\|journal\=Naval History Magazine}}
### Exhibitions
In 2008 [The Union League Club](/wiki/The_Union_League_Club "The Union League Club") in New York City hosted a solo\-exhibition of O’Brien's work entitled *New York in the Age of Sai*l.
In 2010 The [U. S. Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy "United States Naval Academy") Museum mounted a solo\-exhibition of O’Brien's work featuring twenty\-eight oil paintings. The paintings were loaned by collectors from around the country.
O’Brien has exhibited regularly since 2004 at the annual Mystic International Marine Art Exhibition.{{Cite news\|title\=Calendar\|date\=October 20, 2013\|work\=The New York Times}}
In 2010 at the [Enoch Pratt Free Library](/wiki/Enoch_Pratt_Free_Library "Enoch Pratt Free Library") in Baltimore, MD, mounted an exhibition featuring O’Brien's artwork. The exhibit was called *Space, Sword and Dinosaurs, the Creation of Art for Children’s Books*.Broadcast news segment, WJZ TV in Baltimore, MD, March 16, 2010
In 2017 several pieces of O’Brien's artwork were included in an exhibition of artwork from children's books at [The National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences "National Academy of Sciences") in Washington DC.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts\-culture/new\-exhibition\-explores\-science\-and\-math\-childrens\-book\-illustrations\-180962389/\|title\=A New Exhibition Explores the Science and Math in Children's Book Illustrations\|last\=Fessenden\|first\=Marissa\|date\=March 7, 2017\|website\=Smithsonian.com}}
In 2007 O’Brien had a solo exhibition of his paintings in Portsmouth, VA. The exhibit was entitled *The Civil War at Sea*.
### Awards
In 2012 The [National Maritime Historical Society](/wiki/National_Maritime_Historical_Society "National Maritime Historical Society") awarded O’Brien their *Distinguished Service Award* for his body of artwork.{{Cite journal\|date\=Summer 2012\|title\=Gala Washington Awards Dinner Highlight the Rich Depth of our Maritime Heritage\|journal\=Sea History Magazine\|pages\=8}}
In 2015 O’Brien was awarded the *Schaefer Maritime Heritage Award* at the Mystic International Marine Art Exhibition at the [Mystic Seaport Museum](/wiki/Mystic_Seaport "Mystic Seaport") in Connecticut.
In 2010 the [Mystic Seaport Museum](/wiki/Mystic_Seaport_Museum "Mystic Seaport Museum") awarded O’Brien their *Museum Purchase Award*, which means the museum bought O’Brien's painting for its permanent collection.
|
[
"Marine art\n----------",
"In 2003 O’Brien began painting maritime scenes. He specializes in historic scenes from the age of sail. O’Brien does extensive research to ensure that each painting is historically and nautically accurate.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=Spring 2012\\|title\\=The Civil War at Sea, A New Exhibition by Patrick O'Brien\\|journal\\=Sea History Magazine\\|pages\\=26–29}}",
"In 2011 The [U. S. Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard \"United States Coast Guard\") commissioned O’Brien to create three paintings of historic Coast Guard vessels.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Coast Guard Presents War of 1812 Painting\\|date\\=December 14, 2012\\|work\\=The Richmond Times Dispatch}} One of the painting hangs in the main cabin aboard the [USCG EAGLE](/wiki/USCGC_Eagle_%28WIX-327%29 \"USCGC Eagle (WIX-327)\").",
"[ExxonMobil](/wiki/ExxonMobil \"ExxonMobil\") commissioned several paintings depicting newly built supertankers. In 2009 The [Gaylord National Resort](/wiki/Gaylord_National_Resort_%26_Convention_Center \"Gaylord National Resort & Convention Center\") at [The National Harbor in Maryland](/wiki/National_Harbor%2C_Maryland \"National Harbor, Maryland\") commissioned two very large maritime paintings for their lobby. The [U. S. Naval Institute](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Institute \"United States Naval Institute\") has commissioned several paintings for covers of their magazine *Naval History*, including a large painting of The Battle of the Chesapeake.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=October 2016\\|title\\=cover images\\|journal\\=Naval History Magazine}}",
"### Exhibitions",
"In 2008 [The Union League Club](/wiki/The_Union_League_Club \"The Union League Club\") in New York City hosted a solo\\-exhibition of O’Brien's work entitled *New York in the Age of Sai*l.",
"In 2010 The [U. S. Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy \"United States Naval Academy\") Museum mounted a solo\\-exhibition of O’Brien's work featuring twenty\\-eight oil paintings. The paintings were loaned by collectors from around the country.",
"O’Brien has exhibited regularly since 2004 at the annual Mystic International Marine Art Exhibition.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Calendar\\|date\\=October 20, 2013\\|work\\=The New York Times}}",
"In 2010 at the [Enoch Pratt Free Library](/wiki/Enoch_Pratt_Free_Library \"Enoch Pratt Free Library\") in Baltimore, MD, mounted an exhibition featuring O’Brien's artwork. The exhibit was called *Space, Sword and Dinosaurs, the Creation of Art for Children’s Books*.Broadcast news segment, WJZ TV in Baltimore, MD, March 16, 2010",
"In 2017 several pieces of O’Brien's artwork were included in an exhibition of artwork from children's books at [The National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences \"National Academy of Sciences\") in Washington DC.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts\\-culture/new\\-exhibition\\-explores\\-science\\-and\\-math\\-childrens\\-book\\-illustrations\\-180962389/\\|title\\=A New Exhibition Explores the Science and Math in Children's Book Illustrations\\|last\\=Fessenden\\|first\\=Marissa\\|date\\=March 7, 2017\\|website\\=Smithsonian.com}}",
"In 2007 O’Brien had a solo exhibition of his paintings in Portsmouth, VA. The exhibit was entitled *The Civil War at Sea*.",
"### Awards",
"In 2012 The [National Maritime Historical Society](/wiki/National_Maritime_Historical_Society \"National Maritime Historical Society\") awarded O’Brien their *Distinguished Service Award* for his body of artwork.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=Summer 2012\\|title\\=Gala Washington Awards Dinner Highlight the Rich Depth of our Maritime Heritage\\|journal\\=Sea History Magazine\\|pages\\=8}}",
"In 2015 O’Brien was awarded the *Schaefer Maritime Heritage Award* at the Mystic International Marine Art Exhibition at the [Mystic Seaport Museum](/wiki/Mystic_Seaport \"Mystic Seaport\") in Connecticut.",
"In 2010 the [Mystic Seaport Museum](/wiki/Mystic_Seaport_Museum \"Mystic Seaport Museum\") awarded O’Brien their *Museum Purchase Award*, which means the museum bought O’Brien's painting for its permanent collection.",
""
] |
Footballing career
------------------
### Early career
In 1896, the 20\-year\-old Astorquia returned to Bilbao and brought with him his newly\-founded business knowledge as well as his newly\-founded passion for football,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.lectio.es/tasts/100jugadoresdelAthletic.TAST.pdf \|title\=100 jugadores del Athletic \- Juan Astorquia \|trans\-title\=100 players from Athletic \- Juan Astorquia \|language\=es \|page\=13 \|date\=2 January 2018 \|access\-date\=20 April 2024 }} and like many other Balbainos, he began to play football games in the [Hippodrome of Lamiako](/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Lamiako "Hippodrome of Lamiako"), which at the time was the home of organized football in Biscay.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.marca.com/futbol/athletic/2020/04/27/5ea6f8b9e2704ec8a88b4592\.html \|title\=La historia del Athletic en 10 momentos \|trans\-title\=The history of Athletic in 10 moments \|website\=www.marca.com \|date\=27 April 2020 \|accessdate\=20 July 2022 \|archive\-date\=24 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824181241/https://www.marca.com/futbol/athletic/2020/04/27/5ea6f8b9e2704ec8a88b4592\.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cihefe.es/cuadernosdefutbol/2017/11/la\-campa\-de\-lamiaco/ \|title\=La campa de Lamiaco \|trans\-title\=The Lamiako field \|language\=es \|publisher\=\[\[:es:Centro de Investigaciones de Historia y Estadística del Fútbol Español\|CIHEFE]] \|date\=17 October 2017 \|accessdate\=20 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=30 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030195941/https://www.cihefe.es/cuadernosdefutbol/2017/11/la\-campa\-de\-lamiaco/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.deia.eus/contando\-historias/2021/10/10/mister\-x\-o\-primer\-nombre\-1801468\.html \|title\='Mister X' o el primer nombre que recordar \|trans\-title\='Mister X' or the first name to remember \|language\=es \|website\=www.deia.eus \|date\=10 October 2021 \|accessdate\=18 January 2024 }} At first, he wanted to join the Bilbao FC of [Carlos Castellanos](/wiki/Carlos_Castellanos "Carlos Castellanos"), becoming an important piece when it came to arranging meetings between them and the workers from the [Nervión](/wiki/Nervi%C3%B3n "Nervión") shipyards. For reasons that are unknown, however, Astorquia did not get along with some members of Bilbao FC and left the club, perhaps because he felt annoyed by the massive presence of Britons in its ranks as he wanted to be a member of a club with a majority of local members, or was simply eager to lead a football society by himself where he would have a greater role. Either way, he went on to become the figurehead of a seven\-man committee that founded what would later become Bilbao's first official football club.
A lover of sports, Astorquia was also a fan of gymnastics, joining the *Gimnásio Zamacois* (founded in 1879\), and of cycling, joining the *Bilbao Velocipedista Club* (founded in 1885\).
### Foundation of Athletic
In 1898, Astorquia, together with six fellow Basque football enthusiasts and Lamiako usuals who also belonged to the *Gimnásio Zamacois*,{{efn\|the seven are Juan Astorquia, \[\[Alejandro Acha]], \[\[Luis Márquez (footballer, born 1876\)\|Luis Márquez]], Fernando and Pedro Iraolagoitia, \[\[Enrique Goiri]] and \[\[Eduardo Montejo]].}} decided to open a football practice center in Lamiako. *Gimnásio Zamacois*, the largest sports center in Bilbao at that time, and the *Velocipedista Club*, where Astorquia maintained friendships due to his militancy as a member, inevitably became the main sources of recruitment, and thus, once added a sufficient number of volunteers, he began to arrange and organize matches of the game they loved against the British workers, which were contested on [Sundays](/wiki/Sunday "Sunday") in Lamiako. Unlike Bilbao FC, this group of football pioneers was almost entirely made of players from Biscay, with a mix of newcomers from the world of cycling.
Although it was founded in 1898, it was not until February 1901, in a meeting held at the *Café García*, that Astorquia's group, now larger, began conversations to become an official football club, so a commission made up of Astorquia, Goiri, and [José Maria Barquín](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Maria_Barqu%C3%ADn "José Maria Barquín") was formed to prepare regulations for a football society, which were approved on 11 June. The entity's board was subsequently elected, with Astorquia being appointed the team's captain, while [Alfred Mills](/wiki/Alfred_Mills_%28footballer%29 "Alfred Mills (footballer)"), the only foreigner to be part of the board and also a cyclist, was named the vice\-captain. Since the figure of [coach](/wiki/Manager_%28association_football%29 "Manager (association football)") as we know it today did not exist at the time, it was Astorquia and Mills, as captains of the clubs, who were in charge of making up the line\-ups and dictating the tactics to be followed.
After obtaining the permission of the Civil Government, the club was officially established on 5 September 1901, in the infamous meeting held at *Café García*, in which a group of 33 football pioneers, including Astorquia and his brother, Luis, signed the documents to make it official, and hence *Athletic Club* was born.
### First games and first goals
At the end of 1901, the two most important clubs in the city were Athletic Club and [Bilbao Football Club](/wiki/Bilbao_Football_Club "Bilbao Football Club"), thus developing a rivalry between them, playing several [friendlies](/wiki/Exhibition_game "Exhibition game") at the [Hippodrome of Lamiako](/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Lamiako "Hippodrome of Lamiako"), which the two teams shared since there were hardly any fields in Bilbao.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.aupaathletic.com/118\-anos\-de\-la\-primera\-rivalidad/noticia/14959 \|title\=118 años de la primera rivalidad \|trans\-title\=118 years since the first rivalry \|language\=es \|website\=www.aupaathletic.com \|date\=7 November 2019 \|access\-date\=20 July 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002416/https://www.aupaathletic.com/118\-anos\-de\-la\-primera\-rivalidad/noticia/14959 \|url\-status\=live }} Astorquia was one of the most important figures in what is now regarded as one of the first football rivalries in Spain, one that helped turn football into a mass phenomenon in Bilbao since their duels aroused great expectation.
Astorquia stood out as a great goal scorer, netting three goals in three matches, including the opening goal in a 1–1 draw on 1 December 1901, and then, after missing a match on 15 December due to constipation; and without him, his side lost for the first time (0–2\); he netted a brace on 19 January 1902 to help his side to a 4–2 win, which not only marked Athletic's first victory over Bilbao FC in four matches, but also the first time that a paid match was held in Biscay, since they charged a ticket price of 30 cents of a [peseta](/wiki/Spanish_peseta "Spanish peseta").{{Cite web \|url\=https://memoriasdelfutbolvasco.wordpress.com/2014/03/07/athletic\-club\-contra\-bilbao\-football\-club\-1902/ \|title\=Athletic Club contra Bilbao Football Club (1902\) \|trans\-title\=Athletic Club against Bilbao Football Club (1902\) \|language\=es \|website\=memoriasdelfutbolvasco.wordpress.com \|date\=7 March 2014 \|accessdate\=20 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=16 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016235626/https://memoriasdelfutbolvasco.wordpress.com/2014/03/07/athletic\-club\-contra\-bilbao\-football\-club\-1902/ \|url\-status\=live }}
### Club Bizcaya
In 1902, Astorquia became the club's second president, taking over from [Luis Márquez](/wiki/Luis_M%C3%A1rquez_%28footballer%2C_born_1876%29 "Luis Márquez (footballer, born 1876)"), who had been elected on 11 June 1901\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.athletic\-club.eus/en/presidents \|title\=Presidents \|website\=www.athletic\-club.eus \|access\-date\=18 January 2024 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://hemeroteca\-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD02/PUB/2004/09/10/EMD20040910010MDV.pdf \|title\=Presidents of the Athletic football club \|date\=24 December 2017 \|access\-date\=18 January 2024 }} Under Astorquia's presidency, the two rivals agreed to join the best players of each club to play two games against the [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux "Bordeaux")\-based side Burdigala.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cuadernosdefutbol.com/2009/11/la\-copa\-de\-1902/ \|title\=La Copa de 1902 \|trans\-title\=The 1902 Cup \|language\=es \|publisher\=\[\[:es:Centro de Investigaciones de Historia y Estadística del Fútbol Español\|CIHEFE]] \|date\=17 October 2009 \|access\-date\=20 April 2024 }} This temporary merge became known as [Club Bizcaya](/wiki/Bizcaya_%28football_team%29 "Bizcaya (football team)"), and Astorquia was the only Spanish player in Bizcaya's attacking quintet, with Bilbao FC's English forwards ([Langford](/wiki/George_Langford_%28footballer%29 "George Langford (footballer)"), [Dyer](/wiki/William_Dyer_%28footballer%29 "William Dyer (footballer)"), Butwell and [Evans](/wiki/Walter_Evans_%28Bilbao_footballer%29 "Walter Evans (Bilbao footballer)")) making out the rest.
On 9 March 1902, Astorquia played in the first\-ever line\-up of the Bizcaya team against Burdigala, helping his side to a 0–2 win in [France](/wiki/France "France"), the first time a Bilbao team played on foreign territory, and three weeks later, on 31 March 1902, he was again in Bizcaya's starting XI for the return fixture at home, the first visit by a foreign team to Bilbao. Lamiako had its record attendance on that day and Astorquia rose to the occasion with a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick%23Association_football "Hat-trick#Association football") to help his side to a 7–0 win over the French side.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.athletic\-club.eus/en/teams/athletic\-club/1901\-02/matches/1\_3184 \|title\=Athletic Club VS Burdigala 3/31/1902 \|language\=es \|website\=www.athletic\-club.eus \|accessdate\=18 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118215958/https://www.athletic\-club.eus/en/teams/athletic\-club/1901\-02/matches/1\_3184 \|url\-status\=live }} These two victories made the French newspaper [L'Auto](/wiki/L%27Auto "L'Auto")\-Vélo give Bizcaya the title of "best team in Spain".
### Copa de la Coronacion
[thumb\|250px\|right\|Juanito Astorquia, as always, poses with the ball in 1902\.](/wiki/File:Club_Bizcaya_1902.jpg "Club Bizcaya 1902.jpg")
Together with [Alejandro de la Sota](/wiki/Alejandro_de_la_Sota_%28footballer%29 "Alejandro de la Sota (footballer)"), [Armand Cazeaux](/wiki/Armand_Cazeaux "Armand Cazeaux"), Dyer and Evans, he was part of the Bizcaya team that participated in the [1902 Copa de la Coronacion](/wiki/1902_Copa_de_la_Coronacion "1902 Copa de la Coronacion"), the first national championship disputed in Spain and the forerunner for the [Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey "Copa del Rey").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/c/plantilla.html?temporada\=123\&club\=Club\+Vizcaya \|title\=Squad of Club Vizcaya 1902 Copa de la Coronación \|website\=www.bdfutbol.com \|access\-date\=20 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=24 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024142103/https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/c/plantilla.html?temporada\=123\&club\=Club%20Vizcaya \|url\-status\=live }} Astorquia captained his team in the tournament and he led by example, netting three goals, one in each game he played: the quarter\-finals against [Club Español](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol "RCD Espanyol") (5–1\), in the semifinals against [New Foot\-Ball Club](/wiki/New_Foot-Ball_Club "New Foot-Ball Club") (8–1\), and the opening goal of the [final](/wiki/1902_Copa_de_la_Coronaci%C3%B3n_final "1902 Copa de la Coronación final") in a 2–1 win over [Joan Gamper](/wiki/Joan_Gamper "Joan Gamper")'s [FC Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona "FC Barcelona"), thus contributing decisively in Athletic's very first piece of silverware.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/c/partido.html?id\=123\&l\=Club\+Vizcaya\&v\=FC\+Barcelona\&d\=15%2F05%2F1902 \|title\=Club Vizcaya \- FC Barcelona (2 \- 1\) 15/05/1902 \|website\=www.bdfutbol.com \|access\-date\=20 April 2024 }}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1902\.html \|title\=Spain \- Cup 1902 \|date\=15 September 2000 \|access\-date\=20 July 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002345/https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1902\.html \|url\-status\=live }} According to some sources, Astorquia netted the opening goal of the game against Español, thus being the author of the very first goal in Copa del Rey history, but due to the little statistical rigor that the newspapers had at that time, the exact order of the goals is unknown, and this feat is more often attributed to Español's [Ángel Ponz](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Ponz "Ángel Ponz"), while Athletic's first competitive goal is attributed to either Astorquia or Evans.
Astorquia used Bizcaya's successful campaign at the Copa de la Coronación to convince the newly\-elected president of Bilbao FC [Luis Arana](/wiki/Luis_Arana_%28sailor%29 "Luis Arana (sailor)") of how beneficial and necessary it was to merge the two clubs, and in order to further convince them of the merger, he promised to pass down the torch of the presidency to a Bilbao FC associate, [Enrique Careaga](/wiki/Enrique_Careaga "Enrique Careaga"). Once the negotiations had begun, the sudden death of Castellanos in 1903, at the age of just 22, precipitated the outcome in a few days, concluding the final agreement on 24 March when both presidents signed the merger in which Bilbao FC was dissolved and all of its remaining members and associates were officially absorbed by Athletic, and the side that emerged from the unification was called Athletic Club de Bilbao. Between 1901 and 1903, he was simultaneously Athletic's founder, player, captain (equivalent to coach), and president, performing all four tasks expertly.
### Copa del Rey triumphs
[thumb\|225px\|right\|Juanito Astorquia, as always, poses with the ball in 1903\.](/wiki/File:Athletic_Club_1903.jpg "Athletic Club 1903.jpg")
Still under Astorquia's presidency and captaincy, and together with la Sota, Cazeaux, and Evans, the newly created Athletic team won the first\-ever [Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey "Copa del Rey") in [1903](/wiki/1903_Copa_del_Rey "1903 Copa del Rey"), in which he also contributed decisively, netting a brace in the semifinals against [Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol "RCD Espanyol") (4–0\),{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1903\.html \|title\=Spain \- Cup 1903 \|date\=13 January 2000 \|access\-date\=20 July 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002335/https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1903\.html \|url\-status\=live }} and then in the [final](/wiki/1903_Copa_del_Rey_Final "1903 Copa del Rey Final"), Athletic found themselves 2–0 down to [Madrid FC](/wiki/Real_Madrid_CF "Real Madrid CF") at half\-time, but after a crucial harangue by Astorquia during the break, the Athletic players came out with renewed spirits and managed to pull off a comeback and win the title with a 3–2 victory over the home team in front of 5,000 spectators.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.ondavasca.com/la\-arenga\-de\-juanito\-astorquia\-que\-valio\-una\-copa\-al\-athletic\-en\-1903/ \|title\=La arenga de Juanito Astorquia que valió una Copa al Athletic en 1903 \|trans\-title\=Juanito Astorquia's harangue that won Athletic a Cup in 1903 \|language\=es \|website\=www.ondavasca.com \|access\-date\=20 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=20 November 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120235944/https://www.ondavasca.com/la\-arenga\-de\-juanito\-astorquia\-que\-valio\-una\-copa\-al\-athletic\-en\-1903/ \|url\-status\=live }} Since the figure of coach as we know it today did not exist at the time, Astorquia felt obliged to take a step forward and gathered the players around him in the Biscayan locker room to give them a harangue. Its exact content is unknown since his words or screams were not recorded, but according to the chroniclers of the time it ended with a war cry: *Por el Athletic y por Bilbao* ("For Athletic and for Bilbao"). With two goals in two matches, he was the tournament's joint\-top scorer alongside teammate de la Sota and Madrid's [Armando Giralt](/wiki/Armando_Giralt "Armando Giralt").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.el\-area.com/espanya/subpaginas/copa\_rey.html \|title\=Europa: España: Copa del Rey \|trans\-title\=Europe: Spain: Copa del Rey \|language\=es \|website\=www.el\-area.com \|access\-date\=19 April 2024 }}
[thumb\|225px\|right\|Juanito Astorquia, as always, poses with the ball in 1904\.](/wiki/File:Athletic_Club_1904.jpg "Athletic Club 1904.jpg")
Astorquia was also part of the team that won the [1904 Copa del Rey](/wiki/1904_Copa_del_Rey "1904 Copa del Rey"), which Athletic won without playing a single match since their opponents failed to turn up.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1904\.html \|title\=Spain \- Cup 1904 \|date\=13 January 2000 \|access\-date\=19 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=9 July 2022 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709193843/https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1904\.html \|url\-status\=live }} At the eve of the [final](/wiki/1904_Copa_del_Rey_final "1904 Copa del Rey final") in Madrid, the newly arrived Bilbao players were asked for a few days of extension in order to decide the Madrid champion, but Astorquia did not even flinch, and protected by the battered regulations, the people of Bilbao showed up at eleven in the morning at the [Español de Madrid](/wiki/Club_Espa%C3%B1ol_de_Madrid "Club Español de Madrid") field to play the final and eventually became champions due to the opponent's failure to appear.{{cite web \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919110419/http://www.leyendablanca.galeon.com/tempo04\.htm \|title\=Temporada 1903\-04 \|trans\-title\=1903\-04 season \|language\=es \|website\=www.leyendablanca.galeon.com \|access\-date\=19 April 2024 }} Then they sang the *alirón* and returned home.
Between 1902 and 1904, Astorquia played five competitive matches, scoring five goals (Athletic Bilbao counts the matches played by Bizcaya as its own). Although little is known about his playing style and personality inside the pitch, the few photographs of the Athletic squads provide good hints without the risk of misunderstanding since in almost all of them, he always appears with the ball either in his hands or buried between his legs, and while his teammates pose smiling, clueless or expectant, waiting for the photographer to activate his camera, Astorquia offers an imposing image with a challenging gaze, and likewise, he was the one with the most imposing and best\-kept mustache, with those semicircles that rose from the corner of his lips that gave him an aristocratic look. A simple glance is enough to recognize him as the leader of the team.
|
[
"Footballing career\n------------------",
"### Early career",
"In 1896, the 20\\-year\\-old Astorquia returned to Bilbao and brought with him his newly\\-founded business knowledge as well as his newly\\-founded passion for football,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lectio.es/tasts/100jugadoresdelAthletic.TAST.pdf \\|title\\=100 jugadores del Athletic \\- Juan Astorquia \\|trans\\-title\\=100 players from Athletic \\- Juan Astorquia \\|language\\=es \\|page\\=13 \\|date\\=2 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2024 }} and like many other Balbainos, he began to play football games in the [Hippodrome of Lamiako](/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Lamiako \"Hippodrome of Lamiako\"), which at the time was the home of organized football in Biscay.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.marca.com/futbol/athletic/2020/04/27/5ea6f8b9e2704ec8a88b4592\\.html \\|title\\=La historia del Athletic en 10 momentos \\|trans\\-title\\=The history of Athletic in 10 moments \\|website\\=www.marca.com \\|date\\=27 April 2020 \\|accessdate\\=20 July 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824181241/https://www.marca.com/futbol/athletic/2020/04/27/5ea6f8b9e2704ec8a88b4592\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cihefe.es/cuadernosdefutbol/2017/11/la\\-campa\\-de\\-lamiaco/ \\|title\\=La campa de Lamiaco \\|trans\\-title\\=The Lamiako field \\|language\\=es \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:es:Centro de Investigaciones de Historia y Estadística del Fútbol Español\\|CIHEFE]] \\|date\\=17 October 2017 \\|accessdate\\=20 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030195941/https://www.cihefe.es/cuadernosdefutbol/2017/11/la\\-campa\\-de\\-lamiaco/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.deia.eus/contando\\-historias/2021/10/10/mister\\-x\\-o\\-primer\\-nombre\\-1801468\\.html \\|title\\='Mister X' o el primer nombre que recordar \\|trans\\-title\\='Mister X' or the first name to remember \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.deia.eus \\|date\\=10 October 2021 \\|accessdate\\=18 January 2024 }} At first, he wanted to join the Bilbao FC of [Carlos Castellanos](/wiki/Carlos_Castellanos \"Carlos Castellanos\"), becoming an important piece when it came to arranging meetings between them and the workers from the [Nervión](/wiki/Nervi%C3%B3n \"Nervión\") shipyards. For reasons that are unknown, however, Astorquia did not get along with some members of Bilbao FC and left the club, perhaps because he felt annoyed by the massive presence of Britons in its ranks as he wanted to be a member of a club with a majority of local members, or was simply eager to lead a football society by himself where he would have a greater role. Either way, he went on to become the figurehead of a seven\\-man committee that founded what would later become Bilbao's first official football club.",
"A lover of sports, Astorquia was also a fan of gymnastics, joining the *Gimnásio Zamacois* (founded in 1879\\), and of cycling, joining the *Bilbao Velocipedista Club* (founded in 1885\\).",
"### Foundation of Athletic",
"In 1898, Astorquia, together with six fellow Basque football enthusiasts and Lamiako usuals who also belonged to the *Gimnásio Zamacois*,{{efn\\|the seven are Juan Astorquia, \\[\\[Alejandro Acha]], \\[\\[Luis Márquez (footballer, born 1876\\)\\|Luis Márquez]], Fernando and Pedro Iraolagoitia, \\[\\[Enrique Goiri]] and \\[\\[Eduardo Montejo]].}} decided to open a football practice center in Lamiako. *Gimnásio Zamacois*, the largest sports center in Bilbao at that time, and the *Velocipedista Club*, where Astorquia maintained friendships due to his militancy as a member, inevitably became the main sources of recruitment, and thus, once added a sufficient number of volunteers, he began to arrange and organize matches of the game they loved against the British workers, which were contested on [Sundays](/wiki/Sunday \"Sunday\") in Lamiako. Unlike Bilbao FC, this group of football pioneers was almost entirely made of players from Biscay, with a mix of newcomers from the world of cycling.",
"Although it was founded in 1898, it was not until February 1901, in a meeting held at the *Café García*, that Astorquia's group, now larger, began conversations to become an official football club, so a commission made up of Astorquia, Goiri, and [José Maria Barquín](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Maria_Barqu%C3%ADn \"José Maria Barquín\") was formed to prepare regulations for a football society, which were approved on 11 June. The entity's board was subsequently elected, with Astorquia being appointed the team's captain, while [Alfred Mills](/wiki/Alfred_Mills_%28footballer%29 \"Alfred Mills (footballer)\"), the only foreigner to be part of the board and also a cyclist, was named the vice\\-captain. Since the figure of [coach](/wiki/Manager_%28association_football%29 \"Manager (association football)\") as we know it today did not exist at the time, it was Astorquia and Mills, as captains of the clubs, who were in charge of making up the line\\-ups and dictating the tactics to be followed.",
"After obtaining the permission of the Civil Government, the club was officially established on 5 September 1901, in the infamous meeting held at *Café García*, in which a group of 33 football pioneers, including Astorquia and his brother, Luis, signed the documents to make it official, and hence *Athletic Club* was born.",
"### First games and first goals",
"At the end of 1901, the two most important clubs in the city were Athletic Club and [Bilbao Football Club](/wiki/Bilbao_Football_Club \"Bilbao Football Club\"), thus developing a rivalry between them, playing several [friendlies](/wiki/Exhibition_game \"Exhibition game\") at the [Hippodrome of Lamiako](/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Lamiako \"Hippodrome of Lamiako\"), which the two teams shared since there were hardly any fields in Bilbao.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.aupaathletic.com/118\\-anos\\-de\\-la\\-primera\\-rivalidad/noticia/14959 \\|title\\=118 años de la primera rivalidad \\|trans\\-title\\=118 years since the first rivalry \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.aupaathletic.com \\|date\\=7 November 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002416/https://www.aupaathletic.com/118\\-anos\\-de\\-la\\-primera\\-rivalidad/noticia/14959 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Astorquia was one of the most important figures in what is now regarded as one of the first football rivalries in Spain, one that helped turn football into a mass phenomenon in Bilbao since their duels aroused great expectation.",
"Astorquia stood out as a great goal scorer, netting three goals in three matches, including the opening goal in a 1–1 draw on 1 December 1901, and then, after missing a match on 15 December due to constipation; and without him, his side lost for the first time (0–2\\); he netted a brace on 19 January 1902 to help his side to a 4–2 win, which not only marked Athletic's first victory over Bilbao FC in four matches, but also the first time that a paid match was held in Biscay, since they charged a ticket price of 30 cents of a [peseta](/wiki/Spanish_peseta \"Spanish peseta\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://memoriasdelfutbolvasco.wordpress.com/2014/03/07/athletic\\-club\\-contra\\-bilbao\\-football\\-club\\-1902/ \\|title\\=Athletic Club contra Bilbao Football Club (1902\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=Athletic Club against Bilbao Football Club (1902\\) \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=memoriasdelfutbolvasco.wordpress.com \\|date\\=7 March 2014 \\|accessdate\\=20 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016235626/https://memoriasdelfutbolvasco.wordpress.com/2014/03/07/athletic\\-club\\-contra\\-bilbao\\-football\\-club\\-1902/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Club Bizcaya",
"In 1902, Astorquia became the club's second president, taking over from [Luis Márquez](/wiki/Luis_M%C3%A1rquez_%28footballer%2C_born_1876%29 \"Luis Márquez (footballer, born 1876)\"), who had been elected on 11 June 1901\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.athletic\\-club.eus/en/presidents \\|title\\=Presidents \\|website\\=www.athletic\\-club.eus \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2024 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca\\-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD02/PUB/2004/09/10/EMD20040910010MDV.pdf \\|title\\=Presidents of the Athletic football club \\|date\\=24 December 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2024 }} Under Astorquia's presidency, the two rivals agreed to join the best players of each club to play two games against the [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux \"Bordeaux\")\\-based side Burdigala.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cuadernosdefutbol.com/2009/11/la\\-copa\\-de\\-1902/ \\|title\\=La Copa de 1902 \\|trans\\-title\\=The 1902 Cup \\|language\\=es \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:es:Centro de Investigaciones de Historia y Estadística del Fútbol Español\\|CIHEFE]] \\|date\\=17 October 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2024 }} This temporary merge became known as [Club Bizcaya](/wiki/Bizcaya_%28football_team%29 \"Bizcaya (football team)\"), and Astorquia was the only Spanish player in Bizcaya's attacking quintet, with Bilbao FC's English forwards ([Langford](/wiki/George_Langford_%28footballer%29 \"George Langford (footballer)\"), [Dyer](/wiki/William_Dyer_%28footballer%29 \"William Dyer (footballer)\"), Butwell and [Evans](/wiki/Walter_Evans_%28Bilbao_footballer%29 \"Walter Evans (Bilbao footballer)\")) making out the rest.",
"On 9 March 1902, Astorquia played in the first\\-ever line\\-up of the Bizcaya team against Burdigala, helping his side to a 0–2 win in [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), the first time a Bilbao team played on foreign territory, and three weeks later, on 31 March 1902, he was again in Bizcaya's starting XI for the return fixture at home, the first visit by a foreign team to Bilbao. Lamiako had its record attendance on that day and Astorquia rose to the occasion with a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick%23Association_football \"Hat-trick#Association football\") to help his side to a 7–0 win over the French side.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.athletic\\-club.eus/en/teams/athletic\\-club/1901\\-02/matches/1\\_3184 \\|title\\=Athletic Club VS Burdigala 3/31/1902 \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.athletic\\-club.eus \\|accessdate\\=18 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118215958/https://www.athletic\\-club.eus/en/teams/athletic\\-club/1901\\-02/matches/1\\_3184 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} These two victories made the French newspaper [L'Auto](/wiki/L%27Auto \"L'Auto\")\\-Vélo give Bizcaya the title of \"best team in Spain\".",
"### Copa de la Coronacion",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|Juanito Astorquia, as always, poses with the ball in 1902\\.](/wiki/File:Club_Bizcaya_1902.jpg \"Club Bizcaya 1902.jpg\")\nTogether with [Alejandro de la Sota](/wiki/Alejandro_de_la_Sota_%28footballer%29 \"Alejandro de la Sota (footballer)\"), [Armand Cazeaux](/wiki/Armand_Cazeaux \"Armand Cazeaux\"), Dyer and Evans, he was part of the Bizcaya team that participated in the [1902 Copa de la Coronacion](/wiki/1902_Copa_de_la_Coronacion \"1902 Copa de la Coronacion\"), the first national championship disputed in Spain and the forerunner for the [Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey \"Copa del Rey\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/c/plantilla.html?temporada\\=123\\&club\\=Club\\+Vizcaya \\|title\\=Squad of Club Vizcaya 1902 Copa de la Coronación \\|website\\=www.bdfutbol.com \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024142103/https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/c/plantilla.html?temporada\\=123\\&club\\=Club%20Vizcaya \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Astorquia captained his team in the tournament and he led by example, netting three goals, one in each game he played: the quarter\\-finals against [Club Español](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol \"RCD Espanyol\") (5–1\\), in the semifinals against [New Foot\\-Ball Club](/wiki/New_Foot-Ball_Club \"New Foot-Ball Club\") (8–1\\), and the opening goal of the [final](/wiki/1902_Copa_de_la_Coronaci%C3%B3n_final \"1902 Copa de la Coronación final\") in a 2–1 win over [Joan Gamper](/wiki/Joan_Gamper \"Joan Gamper\")'s [FC Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona \"FC Barcelona\"), thus contributing decisively in Athletic's very first piece of silverware.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/c/partido.html?id\\=123\\&l\\=Club\\+Vizcaya\\&v\\=FC\\+Barcelona\\&d\\=15%2F05%2F1902 \\|title\\=Club Vizcaya \\- FC Barcelona (2 \\- 1\\) 15/05/1902 \\|website\\=www.bdfutbol.com \\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2024 }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1902\\.html \\|title\\=Spain \\- Cup 1902 \\|date\\=15 September 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002345/https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1902\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} According to some sources, Astorquia netted the opening goal of the game against Español, thus being the author of the very first goal in Copa del Rey history, but due to the little statistical rigor that the newspapers had at that time, the exact order of the goals is unknown, and this feat is more often attributed to Español's [Ángel Ponz](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Ponz \"Ángel Ponz\"), while Athletic's first competitive goal is attributed to either Astorquia or Evans.",
"Astorquia used Bizcaya's successful campaign at the Copa de la Coronación to convince the newly\\-elected president of Bilbao FC [Luis Arana](/wiki/Luis_Arana_%28sailor%29 \"Luis Arana (sailor)\") of how beneficial and necessary it was to merge the two clubs, and in order to further convince them of the merger, he promised to pass down the torch of the presidency to a Bilbao FC associate, [Enrique Careaga](/wiki/Enrique_Careaga \"Enrique Careaga\"). Once the negotiations had begun, the sudden death of Castellanos in 1903, at the age of just 22, precipitated the outcome in a few days, concluding the final agreement on 24 March when both presidents signed the merger in which Bilbao FC was dissolved and all of its remaining members and associates were officially absorbed by Athletic, and the side that emerged from the unification was called Athletic Club de Bilbao. Between 1901 and 1903, he was simultaneously Athletic's founder, player, captain (equivalent to coach), and president, performing all four tasks expertly.",
"### Copa del Rey triumphs",
"[thumb\\|225px\\|right\\|Juanito Astorquia, as always, poses with the ball in 1903\\.](/wiki/File:Athletic_Club_1903.jpg \"Athletic Club 1903.jpg\")\nStill under Astorquia's presidency and captaincy, and together with la Sota, Cazeaux, and Evans, the newly created Athletic team won the first\\-ever [Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey \"Copa del Rey\") in [1903](/wiki/1903_Copa_del_Rey \"1903 Copa del Rey\"), in which he also contributed decisively, netting a brace in the semifinals against [Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol \"RCD Espanyol\") (4–0\\),{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1903\\.html \\|title\\=Spain \\- Cup 1903 \\|date\\=13 January 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002335/https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1903\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and then in the [final](/wiki/1903_Copa_del_Rey_Final \"1903 Copa del Rey Final\"), Athletic found themselves 2–0 down to [Madrid FC](/wiki/Real_Madrid_CF \"Real Madrid CF\") at half\\-time, but after a crucial harangue by Astorquia during the break, the Athletic players came out with renewed spirits and managed to pull off a comeback and win the title with a 3–2 victory over the home team in front of 5,000 spectators.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ondavasca.com/la\\-arenga\\-de\\-juanito\\-astorquia\\-que\\-valio\\-una\\-copa\\-al\\-athletic\\-en\\-1903/ \\|title\\=La arenga de Juanito Astorquia que valió una Copa al Athletic en 1903 \\|trans\\-title\\=Juanito Astorquia's harangue that won Athletic a Cup in 1903 \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.ondavasca.com \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 November 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120235944/https://www.ondavasca.com/la\\-arenga\\-de\\-juanito\\-astorquia\\-que\\-valio\\-una\\-copa\\-al\\-athletic\\-en\\-1903/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Since the figure of coach as we know it today did not exist at the time, Astorquia felt obliged to take a step forward and gathered the players around him in the Biscayan locker room to give them a harangue. Its exact content is unknown since his words or screams were not recorded, but according to the chroniclers of the time it ended with a war cry: *Por el Athletic y por Bilbao* (\"For Athletic and for Bilbao\"). With two goals in two matches, he was the tournament's joint\\-top scorer alongside teammate de la Sota and Madrid's [Armando Giralt](/wiki/Armando_Giralt \"Armando Giralt\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.el\\-area.com/espanya/subpaginas/copa\\_rey.html \\|title\\=Europa: España: Copa del Rey \\|trans\\-title\\=Europe: Spain: Copa del Rey \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.el\\-area.com \\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2024 }}",
"[thumb\\|225px\\|right\\|Juanito Astorquia, as always, poses with the ball in 1904\\.](/wiki/File:Athletic_Club_1904.jpg \"Athletic Club 1904.jpg\")\nAstorquia was also part of the team that won the [1904 Copa del Rey](/wiki/1904_Copa_del_Rey \"1904 Copa del Rey\"), which Athletic won without playing a single match since their opponents failed to turn up.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1904\\.html \\|title\\=Spain \\- Cup 1904 \\|date\\=13 January 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709193843/https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/spancup1904\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} At the eve of the [final](/wiki/1904_Copa_del_Rey_final \"1904 Copa del Rey final\") in Madrid, the newly arrived Bilbao players were asked for a few days of extension in order to decide the Madrid champion, but Astorquia did not even flinch, and protected by the battered regulations, the people of Bilbao showed up at eleven in the morning at the [Español de Madrid](/wiki/Club_Espa%C3%B1ol_de_Madrid \"Club Español de Madrid\") field to play the final and eventually became champions due to the opponent's failure to appear.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919110419/http://www.leyendablanca.galeon.com/tempo04\\.htm \\|title\\=Temporada 1903\\-04 \\|trans\\-title\\=1903\\-04 season \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.leyendablanca.galeon.com \\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2024 }} Then they sang the *alirón* and returned home.",
"Between 1902 and 1904, Astorquia played five competitive matches, scoring five goals (Athletic Bilbao counts the matches played by Bizcaya as its own). Although little is known about his playing style and personality inside the pitch, the few photographs of the Athletic squads provide good hints without the risk of misunderstanding since in almost all of them, he always appears with the ball either in his hands or buried between his legs, and while his teammates pose smiling, clueless or expectant, waiting for the photographer to activate his camera, Astorquia offers an imposing image with a challenging gaze, and likewise, he was the one with the most imposing and best\\-kept mustache, with those semicircles that rose from the corner of his lips that gave him an aristocratic look. A simple glance is enough to recognize him as the leader of the team.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins and formation
#### Via Rosa
Born in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas") and raised on an [Indian reservation](/wiki/Indian_reservation "Indian reservation") in northern California, Rosa grew up [touring](/wiki/Concert_tour "Concert tour") with her parents who played in a [reggae](/wiki/Reggae "Reggae") band.{{cite web \|last1\=Barnett \|first1\=Sylvie \|date\=17 February 2020 \|title\=No Need to Dance Alone: Drama Bares Soul on Album 'Dance Without Me' \[Interview] \|url\=https://www.magneticmag.com/2020/02/interview\-drama\-new\-ghostly\-album\-dance\-without\-me\-love\-fate/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Magnetic Magazine}}{{cite web \|author1\=Flaunt Magazine \|date\=22 May 2018 \|title\=Though I Have Laid my Hand to Many a Reflection, I Have Found Nothing Stronger than Necessity: a Conversation with Drama \|url\=https://flaunt.com/content/music/drama \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Flaunt}} Rosa developed an interest in poetry while attending charter school, which she began combining with beats she wrote in her late teenage years. After attending a [culinary school](/wiki/Cooking_school "Cooking school") in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles"), Rosa moved to Chicago in 2010 to be with her grandmother who was battling cancer.{{cite web \|last1\=Galil \|first1\=Leor \|date\=11 October 2018 \|title\=Chicagoans Via Rosa and Na'el Shehade revel in all the queasy feelings of romantic love as Drama \|url\=https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/chicagoans\-via\-rosa\-and\-nael\-shehade\-revel\-in\-all\-the\-queasy\-feelings\-of\-romantic\-love\-as\-drama/Content?oid\=59861068 \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Chicago Reader}} There, she joined hip hop collective THEMPeople and released her own musical projects between 2010 and 2014\.{{cite web \|last1\=Grier \|first1\=Chaka \|date\=3 February 2020 \|title\=Electro\-Soul Group DRAMA Bonded Over A Shared Perfectionism \|url\=https://daily.bandcamp.com/features/electro\-soul\-group\-drama\-bonded\-over\-a\-shared\-perfectionism \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Bandcamp}}
#### Nael Shehade
Shehade, who was born and raised in Chicago, spent his teenage years DJing at clothing shops and [record stores](/wiki/Record_shop "Record shop"), and enjoying the city's [house](/wiki/House_music "House music") and electronic music scenes. He began making his own music in high school (which led to [Bravo](/wiki/Bravo_%28American_TV_network%29 "Bravo (American TV network)") and [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV") [licensing](/wiki/Music_licensing "Music licensing") his music), and although he eventually attended business school to study [arts management](/wiki/Talent_management "Talent management"), he ultimately began collaborating with other artists as a producer. Before forming Drama, Shehade worked on projects with [Chance The Rapper](/wiki/Chance_The_Rapper "Chance The Rapper") (*[Acid Rap](/wiki/Acid_Rap "Acid Rap")*), [Kanye West](/wiki/Kanye_West "Kanye West") [(G.O.O.D. Music's *Cruel Summer* compilation)](/wiki/Cruel_Summer_%28GOOD_Music_album%29 "Cruel Summer (GOOD Music album)"), [Chief Keef](/wiki/Chief_Keef "Chief Keef"), and [Vic Mensa](/wiki/Vic_Mensa "Vic Mensa") among others. Shehade was encouraged to start releasing his own music by artist [Nicolas Jaar](/wiki/Nicolas_Jaar "Nicolas Jaar").
#### Formation of the duo
Before meeting in 2013, Shehade and Rosa had individual careers in the music industry.{{cite web \|last1\=Wang \|first1\=Steffanee \|date\=27 April 2018 \|title\=If you're trying to get over someone, DRAMA's dark pop might help \|url\=https://www.thefader.com/2018/04/27/drama\-majid\-lies\-after\-love \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Fader}} The duo were introduced by vocalist [Jean Deaux](/wiki/Jean_Deaux "Jean Deaux"), who at the time was collaborating with Shehade and was a friend of Rosa. Originally the project was informal, but eventually solidified into a fully formed duo with Shehade producing and writing and Rosa singing and writing.
### 2015–2017: *Gallows* EP
In September 2015, Drama released their debut single "Hopes Up".{{cite web \|last1\=Golden \|first1\=Zara \|date\=8 September 2015 \|title\=DRAMA Emerge With "Hope's Up" \|url\=https://www.thefader.com/2015/09/08/drama\-hopes\-up \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Fader}} The song was one of the first they wrote, later accompanied by a [video](/wiki/Music_video "Music video") in January 2016 directed by fellow Chicago native Christopher Kostrzak.{{cite web \|last1\=Hannafin \|first1\=Julia \|date\=22 January 2016 \|title\=We Like to Turn Up When We're Sad: Meet Drama Duo, and Watch Their New Video for "Hopes Up" \|url\=https://www.vice.com/en\_us/article/rzek73/drama\-duo\-hopes\-up\-video\-premiere \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Noisey – Music by Vice}} Following the release of an additional single "Forever's Gone" in May accompanied by a video directed by Chris Yoder,{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-01\-20 \|title\=DRAMA • "Forever's Gone" \|url\=https://thesedaysmag.com/releases/2016/8/8/drama\-forevers\-gone \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-27 \|website\=These Days \|language\=en\-US}} the duo released their debut *Gallows* [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play") in November 2016\.{{cite web \|last1\=Evans \|first1\=Steph \|date\=22 May 2018 \|title\=DRAMA returns with must\-listen sophomore EP 'Lies After Love' \|url\=https://earmilk.com/2018/05/22/drama\-returns\-with\-must\-listen\-sophomore\-ep\-lies\-after\-love/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Earmilk}}{{cite web \|last1\=Krez \|first1\=Jake \|date\=24 May 2016 \|title\=DRAMA • "Forever's Gone" \|url\=https://thesedaysmag.com/releases/2016/5/23/drama\-forevers\-gone\-single \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=These Days}} Named for [gallows humor](/wiki/Black_comedy "Black comedy"), the release reflects on painful experiences with levity. Throughout 2017, Drama wrote and recorded remixes for the *Gallows Remixes* EP, as well as music for their upcoming *Lies After Love* EP. In March, the band opened for [Sofi Tukker](/wiki/Sofi_Tukker "Sofi Tukker") in Chicago. In the following months, they took stage in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York City. In November, the duo opened for [Jungle](/wiki/Jungle_%28band%29 "Jungle (band)") at Red Bull Sound Select at [Metro Chicago](/wiki/Metro_Chicago "Metro Chicago").{{Cite magazine \|last\=Leight \|first\=Elias \|date\=2017\-08\-30 \|title\=Young Thug, Migos, Lil Yachty Set for Red Bull Sound Select Chicago \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/young\-thug\-migos\-lil\-yachty\-set\-for\-red\-bull\-sound\-select\-chicago\-118076/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-27 \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \|language\=en\-US}} The band would later release a collection of [remixes](/wiki/Remix "Remix") from the EP in January 2018\.{{cite web \|date\=22 January 2018 \|title\=DRAMA Releases 'Gallows' Remix EP \|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwmusic/article/DRAMA\-Releases\-Gallows\-Remix\-EP\-20180122 \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Broadway World Music}}
### 2018: *Lies After Love* EP
Leading with the release of "Majid" in April 2018, the duo independently released their sophomore EP *Lies After Love* to stream through [Hypebeast](/wiki/Hypebeast_%28company%29 "Hypebeast (company)") the following month.{{cite web \|last1\=Michael \|first1\=Marotta \|date\=21 May 2018 \|title\=DRAMA tap into a human emotion on 'Lies After Love' \|url\=https://vanyaland.com/2018/05/21/drama\-tap\-into\-a\-human\-emotion\-on\-lies\-after\-love/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Vanyaland}}{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-05\-18 \|title\=DRAMA Wants to You to Use Their New 'Lies After Love' EP to Get Over Breakups \|url\=https://hypebeast.com/2018/5/drama\-lies\-after\-love\-ep\-stream \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-22 \|website\=Hypebeast}} The EP's title summarizes the lyrical content of its songs, which are about "affirmations and lies one tells themselves to get over a heartbreak" as Rosa explained. The band supported the release with a series of U.S. tour dates on the [US West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States "West Coast of the United States"), which included a performance at Mamby on the Beach [festival](/wiki/Music_festival "Music festival") in June, followed by the Middle East and Europe in the fall. The duo released the single "Ready for Love" in October 2018\. The band also toured with French artist [Jain](/wiki/Jain_%28singer%29 "Jain (singer)") in fall 2018 as support on his North American tour, which included sold out shows in Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York City. Drama ended the year with a tour that included shows in Boston and the East Coast, with a final performance at [Lincoln Hall](/wiki/2424_North_Lincoln_Avenue "2424 North Lincoln Avenue") in Chicago.{{Cite web \|title\=DRAMA Tours \& Concerts (Page 5\) \|url\=https://www.concertarchives.org/bands/drama?page\=5\#concert\-table \|website\=Concert Archives}}
### 2019: Ghostly International
Drama released the single "Dead and Gone" in January 2019\. The band completed their own 15\-date North American headline tour in February 2019\. In June, they released the single "Give No Fucks".
That year, Drama embarked on a tour that included over 20 performances, including a sold\-out show at [The Echo](/wiki/The_Echo_%28venue%29 "The Echo (venue)") in Los Angeles{{cite web \|last1\=Baca \|first1\=Ana \|date\=5 March 2020 \|title\=DRAMA Makes it Shine on a Rainy Day at the Echo \|url\=https://www.grimygoods.com/2020/03/05/drama\-band\-photos\-at\-the\-echo\-los\-angeles/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Grimy Goods}} and a series of shows at [South by Southwest (SXSW)](/wiki/South_by_Southwest "South by Southwest") in April.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Graff \|first\=Gary \|date\=2019\-03\-06 \|title\=Bleachers, Big Boi, Lukas Nelson \& More to Perform at Rachael Ray's SXSW Feedback Festival: Exclusive \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\-news/rachael\-ray\-sxsw\-feedback\-festival\-lineup\-8501294/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-20 \|magazine\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}}
Drama signed with independent label [Ghostly International](/wiki/Ghostly_International "Ghostly International") in September. Shortly after, they performed at a showcase at [Metro Chicago](/wiki/Metro_Chicago "Metro Chicago") for the label's 20th anniversary.{{Cite web \|last\=Long \|first\=Zach \|date\=2019\-09\-18 \|title\=Ghostly 20: Tobacco \+ Shigeto \+ Drama \+ Steve Hauschildt \+ SV4 \|url\=https://www.timeout.com/chicago/music/ghostly\-20\-tobacco\-shigeto\-drama\-steve\-hauschildt\-sv4 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-24 \|website\=Time Out Chicago \|language\=en\-US}} The band released their first pre\-album single "Hold On" with the label that month followed by a tour with [SG Lewis](/wiki/SG_Lewis "SG Lewis") later that fall.{{cite web \|date\=30 September 2019 \|title\=Introducing: Drama\- Ghostly International Sign Chicago Duo\- Hear New Single "Hold On" \|url\=https://circuitsweet.co.uk/2019/09/introducing\-drama\-ghostly\-international\-sign\-chicago\-duo\-hear\-new\-single\-hold\-on/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Circuit Sweet}} In November, they followed up with "Gimme Gimme," and on December 5, they released "Nine One One."{{Cite web \|last\=Murray \|first\=Robin \|date\=2019\-12\-04 \|title\=Listen: DRAMA \- 'Nine One One' \|url\=https://www.clashmusic.com/news/listen\-drama\-nine\-one\-one/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=\[\[Clash Magazine]] \|language\=en\-GB}}
In November, following the releases of "Hold On" and "Gimme Gimme", Drama announced their debut album *Dance Without Me* as well as their 2020 North American, UK, and European headline tour dates slated to begin in February 2020, with sold out shows set for cities such as Los Angeles, Portland, Toronto, Boston, Chicago, Houston, and others. Before releasing the album, the band released "Years" in January 2020 with a video directed by Adam Chitayat.{{cite web \|last1\=Smith \|first1\=Courtney \|date\=17 January 2020 \|title\=New Music To Know This Week: DRAMA Tells No Lies, Orion Sun Falls In Love \& More \|url\=https://www.refinery29\.com/en\-us/2020/01/9230492/new\-music\-january\-17\-2020 \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Refinery29}} The latter track was named "Today's Top Tune" by LA radio station [KCRW](/wiki/KCRW "KCRW") in February.{{cite web \|last1\=Morgenstern \|first1\=Ariana \|date\=25 February 2020 \|title\=Drama: "Years" \|url\=https://www.kcrw.com/music/shows/todays\-top\-tune/drama\-years \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=KCRW}}
### 2020: *Dance Without Me*
Drama released *Dance Without Me* on February 14, 2020 via Ghostly International. The album, hailed as a "powerful ode to heartbreak and the metamorphosis that comes from the spiritual journey to total self\-love and acceptance" continues exploring the themes of love and loss that have pervaded the bands career.{{cite web \|last1\=Roti \|first1\=Jessi \|date\=26 March 2020 \|title\=Drama's new Dance Without Me is for sad\-but\-sexy folks everywhere \|url\=https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/dramas\-new\-dance\-without\-me\-is\-for\-sad\-but\-sexy\-folks\-everywhere/Content?oid\=78802341 \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Chicago Reader}} The band initially embarked on their album promotion by touring various cities in Europe and the U.S., with notable sold\-out shows in London, Paris, Hamburg, Berlin, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Brooklyn, and more. Due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), some of these tour dates had to be canceled.{{cite web \|last1\=Jordan \|first1\=Jerilyn \|date\=11 March 2020 \|title\=Chicago duo Drama will make dance music you can cry to at Detroit's Marble Bar \|url\=https://www.metrotimes.com/city\-slang/archives/2020/03/11/chicago\-duo\-drama\-will\-make\-dance\-music\-you\-can\-cry\-to\-at\-detroits\-marble\-bar \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Detroit Metro Times}} In response to the pandemic, the group transitioned to livestreamed stay\-at\-home concerts starting in April 2020\. These virtual performances gained traction and continued to be a popular choice, with shows carrying on throughout 2021, often selling out.
In April 2020, Drama teamed up with UK electronic duo [Gorgon City](/wiki/Gorgon_City "Gorgon City") to release "Nobody", a single which came to fruition in the studio while Kye Gibbon was spending time in Chicago. The single was accompanied by a video shot in Chicago featuring a street dance interpretation of [West Side Story](/wiki/West_Side_Story "West Side Story") as a tribute to their collaboration.{{cite web \|author1\=Conscious Electronic Staff \|date\=3 April 2020 \|title\=Gorgon City Link with Chicago Soul/Dance Duo Drama on Fluid House Jam, 'Nobody' \[Watch] \|url\=https://consciouselectronic.com/2020/04/03/gorgon\-city\-drama\-nobody\-music\-video/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Conscious Electronic}} In September, Drama revisited *Dance Without Me* by releasing a remix EP also released by Ghostly International, featuring [Poolside (band)](/wiki/Poolside_%28band%29 "Poolside (band)"), [Pional](/wiki/Pional "Pional"), Rezident, and Moglii.{{cite web \|last1\=Jefferson \|first1\=Lauren \|date\=8 September 2020 \|title\=DRAMA's "Nine One One" gets a Poolside ready remix \|url\=https://earmilk.com/2020/09/08/dramas\-nine\-one\-one\-gets\-a\-poolside\-ready\-remix/ \|accessdate\=27 September 2020 \|website\=Earmilk}} They reteamed with Gorgon City for the 2021 single "You've Done Enough."
### 2021: Collaborations and return to in\-person shows
In early January 2021, Drama teamed up with [Poolside](/wiki/Poolside_%28band%29 "Poolside (band)") to release the dancefloor single "I Feel High," which the band described as a song that is "all about that invincible feeling you get when you’re young, and out with your friends." Poolside's Jeffrey Paradise commented "DRAMA took the song, originally embodying Poolside's signature laid\-back vibe, and turned it into an energetic club anthem that ultimately celebrates the euphoric and occasionally carefree essence of life."{{Cite web \|last\=Keith \|first\=James \|title\=Premiere: Poolside And Chicago Duo DRAMA Recall The Invincibility Of Youth On "I Feel High" \|url\=https://www.complex.com/music/a/james\-keith/premiere\-poolside\-i\-feel\-high\-feat\-drama \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=Complex \|language\=en\-us}}
On January 29, 2021, electronic duo [Gorgon City](/wiki/Gorgon_City "Gorgon City") and Drama released the single "You've Done Enough" via [Universal Music](/wiki/Universal_Music "Universal Music"), which peaked at \#70 on the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart") for 9 weeks and would go on to earn a [*BRIT* Certified Silver Award](/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry "British Phonographic Industry") in January 2023\.{{Cite web \|title\=BRIT Certified \|url\=https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit\-certified/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=BPI \|language\=en}}
In May 2021, Drama independently released single "Don't Hold Back," along with a visualizer for the song. This marked the band's first pre\-album release from their upcoming EP, "Don't Wait Up," which was subsequently launched in early 2022\. They explained that the track was about the fear of commitment,{{Cite web \|last\=Lawson \|first\=Brianna \|date\=2021\-05\-27 \|title\=Dance\-duo DRAMA delivers their latest, "Don't Hold Back" \[Video] \|url\=https://earmilk.com/2021/05/27/dance\-duo\-drama\-delivers\-their\-latest\-dont\-hold\-back\-video/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=EARMILK \|language\=en\-US}} and [Zane Lowe](/wiki/Zane_Lowe "Zane Lowe") described it as "heartbreak and bliss". The song was remixed by Tensnake in June.{{Cite web \|last\=findyoursounds \|date\=2021\-06\-27 \|title\=Tensnake Remixes DRAMA's Track 'Don't Hold Back' \|url\=http://findyoursounds.com/tensnake\-remixes\-dramas\-track\-dont\-hold\-back/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=FindYourSounds \|language\=en\-US}} On July 8, Drama released a remix of Brijean's "Hey Boy".{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-07\-08 \|title\=Drama × Briejean \- Hey Boy Remix \|url\=https://www.the360mag.com/drama\-x\-briejean\-hey\-boy\-remix/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=360 MAGAZINE \- GREEN {{!}} DESIGN {{!}} POP {{!}} NEWS \|language\=en\-US}}
On July 31, 2021, Drama made a highly anticipated post\-pandemic appearance and performed at [Lollapalooza](/wiki/Lollapalooza "Lollapalooza") held in their native Chicago.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-07\-09 \|title\=Locals Take Lolla: Chicago Acts Help Reset the Festival {{!}} Newcity Music \|url\=https://music.newcity.com/2021/07/09/locals\-take\-lolla\-chicago\-acts\-help\-re\-set\-the\-festival/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|language\=en\-US}} The band was also part of the "all\-star" lineup of the highly anticipated [Life Is Beautiful Music \& Art Festival](/wiki/Life_Is_Beautiful_Music_%26_Art_Festival "Life Is Beautiful Music & Art Festival") held in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas") in September, a lineup which included [Billie Eilish](/wiki/Billie_Eilish "Billie Eilish"), [Tame Impala](/wiki/Tame_Impala "Tame Impala"), [Glass Animals](/wiki/Glass_Animals "Glass Animals"), and [A$AP Rocky](/wiki/A%24AP_Rocky "A$AP Rocky"). The [Blue Man Group](/wiki/Blue_Man_Group "Blue Man Group") made a surprise appearance and joined the band for a special performance during their set.{{Cite web \|last\=Cruz \|first\=Martha \|date\=2021\-09\-19 \|title\=Blue Man Group surprises Life is Beautiful concertgoers \|url\=https://news3lv.com/news/local/blue\-man\-group\-surprises\-life\-is\-beautiful\-concertgoers \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-24 \|website\=KSNV \|language\=en}} The festival made its comeback after a year off and saw over 180,000 attendees.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-09\-19 \|title\=Life Is Beautiful Day Two: Stand Up for Ludacris \- Off The Strip \|url\=https://www.offthestrip.com/news/life\-is\-beautiful\-las\-vegas\-day\-two/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sheckells \|first\=Melinda \|date\=2021\-09\-21 \|title\=Life Is Beautiful Returns to Las Vegas, Signaling Comeback of Mass Gatherings in City \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/pro/life\-is\-beautiful\-festival\-las\-vegas\-live\-music\-comeback/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-20 \|magazine\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}} In October, the group performed at the Outside Lands Night Show at [Bimbo's 365 Club](/wiki/Bimbo%27s_365_Club "Bimbo's 365 Club") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") leading up to their appearance at the [Outside Lands](/wiki/Outside_Lands_%28festival%29 "Outside Lands (festival)") Festival.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-09\-21 \|title\=Outside Lands Announces 16 Extra Night Shows; Tickets On Sale Friday \|url\=https://sfist.com/2021/09/21/outside\-lands\-night\-shows\-announced/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-24 \|website\=SFist \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010121027/https://sfist.com/2021/09/21/outside\-lands\-night\-shows\-announced/ \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite news \|title\=5 Acts You Won't Want to Miss at Outside Lands this Weekend \|language\=en\-us \|work\=Magnetic Magazine \|url\=https://www.magneticmag.com/2021/10/festival\-preview\-5\-artists\-not\-to\-miss\-at\-outside\-lands\-drama\-mxmtoon\-remi\-wolf/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16}}
In October 2021, Drama teamed up with Australian duo [Flight Facilities](/wiki/Flight_Facilities "Flight Facilities") to release "Move", a single that channeling "the classic sounds of the 1980s Chicago house".{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-10\-11 \|title\=Flight Facilities go old school on 'Move' ft. DRAMA \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/doublej/music\-reads/features/flight\-facilities\-new\-music\-drama\-collab\-move/13579958 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation \|language\=en\-AU}} That same month, the band released their second solo single of the year, "Dark Rain," which they described as a "song for the people who have found each other."{{Cite web \|last\=findyoursounds \|date\=2021\-10\-21 \|title\=DRAMA Releases Second Solo Track of 2021: Dark Rain \|url\=http://findyoursounds.com/drama\-releases\-second\-solo\-track\-of\-2021\-dark\-rain/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=FindYourSounds \|language\=en\-US}} In November, they released the single "First Christmas".
In December 2021, Drama independently released *Gallows (Deluxe)*, a compilation of tracks from *Gallows* presented on a limited run of vinyl records, along with an accompanying digital release that includes two extra bonus tracks – "Missing" and "Sweet Summer."{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-12\-01 \|title\=DRAMA Celebrates 'Gallows' Five Year Anniversary With First\-Ever Limited Vinyl Release \|url\=https://findyoursounds.com/drama\-celebrates\-gallows\-five\-year\-anniversary\-with\-first\-ever\-limited\-vinyl\-release/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-16 \|website\=FindYourSounds \|language\=en\-US}}
### 2022: *Don't Wait Up* \& tour
On February 21, 2022, Drama independently released EP *Don’t Wait Up*,{{Cite web \|last\=findyoursounds \|date\=2022\-02\-21 \|title\=DRAMA Reveals New 'Don't Wait Up' EP \|url\=https://findyoursounds.com/drama\-reveals\-new\-dont\-wait\-up\-ep/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=FindYourSounds \|language\=en\-US}} which follows the instances within a relationship "that keep a person pining, even when it becomes clear the situation is toxic". The track "Hit My Line" was particularly praised, described by *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* as "seductively danceable" and as "nailing the emotional intricacies of an imbalanced relationship."{{Cite magazine \|last\=Legaspi \|first\=Althea \|date\=2022\-03\-09 \|title\=Chicago Duo Drama Make Relationship Anxiety Sound Seductively Danceable on 'Hit My Line' \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-features/drama\-hit\-my\-line\-song\-review\-1318583/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \|language\=en\-US}} The EP saw remixes by Emmaculate, James Curd, [Robin Hannibal](/wiki/Robin_Hannibal "Robin Hannibal"), Vandelux, [Terry Hunter](/wiki/Terry_Hunter "Terry Hunter"), Awsumo, [Tensnake](/wiki/Tensnake "Tensnake"), and Disco Demolition.
In November 2022, Drama collaborated with [Jamila Woods](/wiki/Jamila_Woods "Jamila Woods") on a remix of her single "Boundaries".{{Cite web \|last\=Flores \|first\=Diego \|date\=2022\-11\-08 \|title\=Jamila Woods Shares "Boundaries (Drama Remix)" \|url\=https://ghettoblastermagazine.com/features/jamila\-woods\-shares\-boundaries\-drama\-remix/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=Ghettoblaster Magazine \|language\=en}} On December 9, [Ten City](/wiki/Ten_City "Ten City") released Drama's remix of their single "Love is Love".{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-12\-16 \|title\=\#ListenUp Ten City's Love Is Love, remixed \|url\=https://5mag.net/tracks/listenup/ten\-cty\-love\-is\-love\-drama\-remix/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=5 Magazine \|language\=en\-US}}
Drama's North American tour spanned late February with shows in Texas and [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta") followed by performances in Nashville, New York City, Cleveland, Tallahassee, and Chicago throughout March. In early March, the band was featured in the lineup of the [Okeechobee Music \& Arts Festival](/wiki/Okeechobee_Music_%26_Arts_Festival "Okeechobee Music & Arts Festival") in Florida.{{Cite web \|title\=2022 Lineup – Okeechobee Festival \|url\=https://www.okeechobeefest.com/past\-highlights/2022\-lineup/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=www.okeechobeefest.com \|language\=en\-US}} In April, they traveled to Mexico to perform at the [Tecate Pa'l Norte Festival](/wiki/Pal_Norte "Pal Norte") held in [Monterrey](/wiki/Monterrey "Monterrey") and at the Ceremonia Festival in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City "Mexico City"). In May, the band was part of the rosters of the [Movement Electronic Music Festival](/wiki/Detroit_Electronic_Music_Festival "Detroit Electronic Music Festival") in [Detroit, Michigan](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan "Detroit, Michigan"), and the [Summer Camp Music Festival](/wiki/Summer_Camp_Music_Festival "Summer Camp Music Festival") in [Chillicothe, Illinois](/wiki/Chillicothe%2C_Illinois "Chillicothe, Illinois"). At the end of the month, they took the stage at [Soldier Field](/wiki/Soldier_Field "Soldier Field") in Chicago, opening for [Coldplay](/wiki/Coldplay "Coldplay") as part of the British band's [Music of the Spheres World Tour](/wiki/Music_of_the_Spheres_World_Tour "Music of the Spheres World Tour").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-05\-26 \|title\=Coldplay, H.E.R. Head to Soldier Field Memorial Day Weekend on World Tour \|url\=https://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/coldplay\-h\-e\-r\-head\-to\-soldier\-field\-memorial\-day\-weekend\-on\-world\-tour/2842492/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=NBC Chicago \|language\=en\-US}} In June, Drama made an appearance at [Electric Forest](/wiki/Electric_Forest "Electric Forest") in [Rothbury, Michigan](/wiki/Rothbury%2C_Michigan "Rothbury, Michigan"). Late July marked their performance at the [Hard Summer Music Festival](/wiki/Hard_%28music_festival%29 "Hard (music festival)") in [San Bernardino](/wiki/San_Bernardino%2C_California "San Bernardino, California"),{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-05\-03 \|title\=HARD Summer Music Festival 2022 To Feature Megan Thee Stallion, Gunna, Lil Uzi Vert and More \|url\=https://hypebeast.com/2022/5/hard\-summer\-festival\-2022\-lineup\-megan\-thee\-stallion\-lil\-uzi\-vert\-gunna \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=Hypebeast}} kicking off a series of shows throughout California for the remainder of the year, including a highly praised set at [Portola Music Festival](/wiki/Portola_Music_Festival "Portola Music Festival") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") in late September.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-09\-27 \|title\=Portola Festival 2022: Elite Venue And Talent, But Room For Improvement \|url\=https://uproxx.com/indie/portola\-music\-festival\-san\-francisco\-2022\-review/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=UPROXX \|language\=en\-US}} In November, they opened for [ODESZA](/wiki/Odesza "Odesza") during the duo's "Last Goodbye" tour.{{Cite web \|last\=Staff \|first\=B.\-Sides \|date\=2022\-11\-06 \|title\=PHOTO REVIEW: Odesza – Mountain View, CA 11/05/2022 \|url\=https://www.b\-sides.tv/2022/11/06/photo\-review\-odesza\-mountain\-view\-ca\-11\-05\-2022/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-25 \|website\=B\-Sides \|language\=en\-US}}
### 2023\-present
In January 2023, Tensnake and Drama collaborated on "Rooftop," featured on Tensnake's album *Stimulate*. On March 23, the band released the single "Tighten It Up", which reached the 20th position on *[KCRW](/wiki/KCRW "KCRW")*'s Top 30 Chart.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-04\-18 \|title\=KCRW's Top 30 chart: From wild psychedelics to jazz\-hop \|url\=https://www.kcrw.com/music/shows/music\-special/top\-30\-albums\-april\-10\-16 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=KCRW \|language\=en}}
May saw the release of "Feel The Same". The band also released remixes for "Tighten It Up" and "Feel The Same", along with music videos for both singles.
In July 2023, Drama teamed up with Gorgon City again for the release of the single "Lost \& Found", accompanied by a music video featuring Via Rosa.{{Cite news \|title\=Gorgon City Reveal New Album, Drop Stunning Single, "Lost \& Found" \|language\=en \|work\=EDM \|url\=https://edm.com/music\-releases/gorgon\-city\-announce\-new\-album\-salvation \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17}}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-07\-02 \|title\=Gorgon City share poignant music video for new single 'Lost \& Found' ft DRAMA \|url\=https://findyoursounds.com/gorgon\-city\-share\-poignant\-music\-video\-for\-new\-single\-lost\-found\-ft\-drama/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-20 \|website\=FindYourSounds \|language\=en\-US}} In August, the band released the self\-titled single "DRAMA", paired with a music video following three struggling characters from Chicago. The song was lyrically inspired by the band's live performances and the things they witnessed at their shows, and sets a tone that "embodies groovy runway energy", which Rosa's vocals described as "cheeky and hypnotic", and Shehade's production as "tough, playful, and energizing".{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-08\-31 \|title\=DRAMA Release Energizing Self\-Titled Single Ahead of New EP {{!}} EDM Identity \|url\=https://edmidentity.com/2023/08/31/drama\-till\-we\-die\-announce/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-20 \|website\=edmidentity.com \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Levy \|first\=Danielle \|date\=2023\-08\-31 \|title\=DRAMA Drops Sassy New Single, "DRAMA," Off Upcoming Fall EP \|url\=https://edmmaniac.com/drama\-single\-drama/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-20 \|website\=EDM Maniac \|language\=en\-US}}
In April 2023, Drama performed at several sold\-out shows throughout the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest "Pacific Northwest"), which included stops in [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon") and [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle") and in [Vancouver, Canada](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver"). They performed a highly anticipated set at [Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival](/wiki/Coachella_2023 "Coachella 2023") at the end of the month, alongside headliners such as [Frank Ocean](/wiki/Frank_Ocean "Frank Ocean"), [Gorillaz](/wiki/Gorillaz "Gorillaz"), and [Bad Bunny](/wiki/Bad_Bunny "Bad Bunny").{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-01\-10 \|title\=Coachella 2023 Full Lineup Announced \|url\=https://pitchfork.com/news/coachella\-2023\-full\-lineup\-announced/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=Pitchfork \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite magazine \|last1\=Iasimone \|first1\=Jenny Regan,Ashley \|last2\=Regan \|first2\=Jenny \|last3\=Iasimone \|first3\=Ashley \|date\=2023\-04\-17 \|title\=Coachella 2023 Photos: Performances, Backstage \& More \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/photos/coachella\-2023\-photos\-performances\-backstage\-1235303907/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|magazine\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}} The band also made an appearance at the Do Lab stage. In May, Drama was part of the lineup at the [Lightning in a Bottle Festival](/wiki/Lightning_in_a_Bottle "Lightning in a Bottle") held in [Bakersfield, California](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California "Bakersfield, California").{{Cite web \|last\=Geiger \|first\=Amy \|date\=2023\-01\-19 \|title\=Lightning in a Bottle Festival 2023 lineup: Diplo, Caribou, Phantogram, 070 Shake, TOKiMONSTA, more \|url\=https://www.brooklynvegan.com/lightning\-in\-a\-bottle\-festival\-2023\-lineup\-diplo\-caribou\-phantogram\-070\-shake\-tokimonsta\-more/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=BrooklynVegan \|language\=en\-US}} They also performed at WeHo Pride in early June{{Cite web \|title\=OUTLOUD AT WEHO PRIDE ANNOUNCES FULL ENTERTAINMENT PROGRAM LINEUP FOR WEHO PRIDE WEEKEND CELEBRATION JUNE 2\-4 \|url\=https://www.wehopride.com/news/outloud\-at\-weho\-pride\-announces\-full\-entertainment\-program\-lineup\-for\-weho\-pride\-weekend\-celebration\-june\-2\-4 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=WeHo Pride \- Pride Starts Here! \|language\=en\-US}} and opened for [ODESZA](/wiki/Odesza "Odesza") at [Summerfest](/wiki/Summerfest "Summerfest") in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee "Milwaukee") later in the month.{{Cite web \|title\=Summerfest 2023 in Milwaukee will reveal lineup Thursday, including more than 100 headliners \|url\=https://www.jsonline.com/story/entertainment/festivals/summerfest/2023/03/21/summerfest\-2023\-to\-reveal\-more\-than\-100\-headliners\-thursday/70035215007/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=Journal Sentinel \|language\=en\-US}} On July 23, 2023, Drama performed at the [Capitol Hill Block Party](/wiki/Capitol_Hill_Block_Party "Capitol Hill Block Party") in Seattle,{{Cite web \|title\=Capitol Hill Block Party Announces 2023 Lineup \|url\=https://www.seattlemet.com/arts\-and\-culture/2023/02/capitol\-hill\-block\-party\-lineup\-2023 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-17 \|website\=Seattle Met \|language\=en\-US}} followed by a sold out show on a new venue opening weekend at The Bellwether in Los Angeles, and in San Francisco. Drama also headlined the DJ set at [Northalsted Market Days](/wiki/Northalsted_Market_Days "Northalsted Market Days") in August and a club set at Splash House's 10th Anniversary weekend in [Palm Springs](/wiki/Palm_Springs%2C_California "Palm Springs, California").{{Cite web \|title\=August editions of Splash House EDM music festival to feature ODESZA, Classixx and more \|url\=https://www.desertsun.com/story/life/entertainment/events/2023/06/28/splash\-house\-23\-odesza\-classixx\-to\-perform\-at\-palm\-springs\-festival/70364853007/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-20 \|website\=The Desert Sun \|language\=en\-US}} The band's upcoming Til We Die tour includes performances on the East Coast and in Europe, and includes venues in New York, Boston, London, and Berlin.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins and formation",
"#### Via Rosa",
"Born in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\") and raised on an [Indian reservation](/wiki/Indian_reservation \"Indian reservation\") in northern California, Rosa grew up [touring](/wiki/Concert_tour \"Concert tour\") with her parents who played in a [reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") band.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Barnett \\|first1\\=Sylvie \\|date\\=17 February 2020 \\|title\\=No Need to Dance Alone: Drama Bares Soul on Album 'Dance Without Me' \\[Interview] \\|url\\=https://www.magneticmag.com/2020/02/interview\\-drama\\-new\\-ghostly\\-album\\-dance\\-without\\-me\\-love\\-fate/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Magnetic Magazine}}{{cite web \\|author1\\=Flaunt Magazine \\|date\\=22 May 2018 \\|title\\=Though I Have Laid my Hand to Many a Reflection, I Have Found Nothing Stronger than Necessity: a Conversation with Drama \\|url\\=https://flaunt.com/content/music/drama \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Flaunt}} Rosa developed an interest in poetry while attending charter school, which she began combining with beats she wrote in her late teenage years. After attending a [culinary school](/wiki/Cooking_school \"Cooking school\") in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\"), Rosa moved to Chicago in 2010 to be with her grandmother who was battling cancer.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Galil \\|first1\\=Leor \\|date\\=11 October 2018 \\|title\\=Chicagoans Via Rosa and Na'el Shehade revel in all the queasy feelings of romantic love as Drama \\|url\\=https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/chicagoans\\-via\\-rosa\\-and\\-nael\\-shehade\\-revel\\-in\\-all\\-the\\-queasy\\-feelings\\-of\\-romantic\\-love\\-as\\-drama/Content?oid\\=59861068 \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Chicago Reader}} There, she joined hip hop collective THEMPeople and released her own musical projects between 2010 and 2014\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Grier \\|first1\\=Chaka \\|date\\=3 February 2020 \\|title\\=Electro\\-Soul Group DRAMA Bonded Over A Shared Perfectionism \\|url\\=https://daily.bandcamp.com/features/electro\\-soul\\-group\\-drama\\-bonded\\-over\\-a\\-shared\\-perfectionism \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Bandcamp}}",
"#### Nael Shehade",
"Shehade, who was born and raised in Chicago, spent his teenage years DJing at clothing shops and [record stores](/wiki/Record_shop \"Record shop\"), and enjoying the city's [house](/wiki/House_music \"House music\") and electronic music scenes. He began making his own music in high school (which led to [Bravo](/wiki/Bravo_%28American_TV_network%29 \"Bravo (American TV network)\") and [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\") [licensing](/wiki/Music_licensing \"Music licensing\") his music), and although he eventually attended business school to study [arts management](/wiki/Talent_management \"Talent management\"), he ultimately began collaborating with other artists as a producer. Before forming Drama, Shehade worked on projects with [Chance The Rapper](/wiki/Chance_The_Rapper \"Chance The Rapper\") (*[Acid Rap](/wiki/Acid_Rap \"Acid Rap\")*), [Kanye West](/wiki/Kanye_West \"Kanye West\") [(G.O.O.D. Music's *Cruel Summer* compilation)](/wiki/Cruel_Summer_%28GOOD_Music_album%29 \"Cruel Summer (GOOD Music album)\"), [Chief Keef](/wiki/Chief_Keef \"Chief Keef\"), and [Vic Mensa](/wiki/Vic_Mensa \"Vic Mensa\") among others. Shehade was encouraged to start releasing his own music by artist [Nicolas Jaar](/wiki/Nicolas_Jaar \"Nicolas Jaar\").",
"#### Formation of the duo",
"Before meeting in 2013, Shehade and Rosa had individual careers in the music industry.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Wang \\|first1\\=Steffanee \\|date\\=27 April 2018 \\|title\\=If you're trying to get over someone, DRAMA's dark pop might help \\|url\\=https://www.thefader.com/2018/04/27/drama\\-majid\\-lies\\-after\\-love \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Fader}} The duo were introduced by vocalist [Jean Deaux](/wiki/Jean_Deaux \"Jean Deaux\"), who at the time was collaborating with Shehade and was a friend of Rosa. Originally the project was informal, but eventually solidified into a fully formed duo with Shehade producing and writing and Rosa singing and writing.",
"### 2015–2017: *Gallows* EP",
"In September 2015, Drama released their debut single \"Hopes Up\".{{cite web \\|last1\\=Golden \\|first1\\=Zara \\|date\\=8 September 2015 \\|title\\=DRAMA Emerge With \"Hope's Up\" \\|url\\=https://www.thefader.com/2015/09/08/drama\\-hopes\\-up \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Fader}} The song was one of the first they wrote, later accompanied by a [video](/wiki/Music_video \"Music video\") in January 2016 directed by fellow Chicago native Christopher Kostrzak.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Hannafin \\|first1\\=Julia \\|date\\=22 January 2016 \\|title\\=We Like to Turn Up When We're Sad: Meet Drama Duo, and Watch Their New Video for \"Hopes Up\" \\|url\\=https://www.vice.com/en\\_us/article/rzek73/drama\\-duo\\-hopes\\-up\\-video\\-premiere \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Noisey – Music by Vice}} Following the release of an additional single \"Forever's Gone\" in May accompanied by a video directed by Chris Yoder,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-20 \\|title\\=DRAMA • \"Forever's Gone\" \\|url\\=https://thesedaysmag.com/releases/2016/8/8/drama\\-forevers\\-gone \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-27 \\|website\\=These Days \\|language\\=en\\-US}} the duo released their debut *Gallows* [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\") in November 2016\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Evans \\|first1\\=Steph \\|date\\=22 May 2018 \\|title\\=DRAMA returns with must\\-listen sophomore EP 'Lies After Love' \\|url\\=https://earmilk.com/2018/05/22/drama\\-returns\\-with\\-must\\-listen\\-sophomore\\-ep\\-lies\\-after\\-love/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Earmilk}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Krez \\|first1\\=Jake \\|date\\=24 May 2016 \\|title\\=DRAMA • \"Forever's Gone\" \\|url\\=https://thesedaysmag.com/releases/2016/5/23/drama\\-forevers\\-gone\\-single \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=These Days}} Named for [gallows humor](/wiki/Black_comedy \"Black comedy\"), the release reflects on painful experiences with levity. Throughout 2017, Drama wrote and recorded remixes for the *Gallows Remixes* EP, as well as music for their upcoming *Lies After Love* EP. In March, the band opened for [Sofi Tukker](/wiki/Sofi_Tukker \"Sofi Tukker\") in Chicago. In the following months, they took stage in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York City. In November, the duo opened for [Jungle](/wiki/Jungle_%28band%29 \"Jungle (band)\") at Red Bull Sound Select at [Metro Chicago](/wiki/Metro_Chicago \"Metro Chicago\").{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Leight \\|first\\=Elias \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-30 \\|title\\=Young Thug, Migos, Lil Yachty Set for Red Bull Sound Select Chicago \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/young\\-thug\\-migos\\-lil\\-yachty\\-set\\-for\\-red\\-bull\\-sound\\-select\\-chicago\\-118076/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-27 \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The band would later release a collection of [remixes](/wiki/Remix \"Remix\") from the EP in January 2018\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=22 January 2018 \\|title\\=DRAMA Releases 'Gallows' Remix EP \\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwmusic/article/DRAMA\\-Releases\\-Gallows\\-Remix\\-EP\\-20180122 \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Broadway World Music}}",
"### 2018: *Lies After Love* EP",
"Leading with the release of \"Majid\" in April 2018, the duo independently released their sophomore EP *Lies After Love* to stream through [Hypebeast](/wiki/Hypebeast_%28company%29 \"Hypebeast (company)\") the following month.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Michael \\|first1\\=Marotta \\|date\\=21 May 2018 \\|title\\=DRAMA tap into a human emotion on 'Lies After Love' \\|url\\=https://vanyaland.com/2018/05/21/drama\\-tap\\-into\\-a\\-human\\-emotion\\-on\\-lies\\-after\\-love/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Vanyaland}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-18 \\|title\\=DRAMA Wants to You to Use Their New 'Lies After Love' EP to Get Over Breakups \\|url\\=https://hypebeast.com/2018/5/drama\\-lies\\-after\\-love\\-ep\\-stream \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-22 \\|website\\=Hypebeast}} The EP's title summarizes the lyrical content of its songs, which are about \"affirmations and lies one tells themselves to get over a heartbreak\" as Rosa explained. The band supported the release with a series of U.S. tour dates on the [US West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States \"West Coast of the United States\"), which included a performance at Mamby on the Beach [festival](/wiki/Music_festival \"Music festival\") in June, followed by the Middle East and Europe in the fall. The duo released the single \"Ready for Love\" in October 2018\\. The band also toured with French artist [Jain](/wiki/Jain_%28singer%29 \"Jain (singer)\") in fall 2018 as support on his North American tour, which included sold out shows in Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York City. Drama ended the year with a tour that included shows in Boston and the East Coast, with a final performance at [Lincoln Hall](/wiki/2424_North_Lincoln_Avenue \"2424 North Lincoln Avenue\") in Chicago.{{Cite web \\|title\\=DRAMA Tours \\& Concerts (Page 5\\) \\|url\\=https://www.concertarchives.org/bands/drama?page\\=5\\#concert\\-table \\|website\\=Concert Archives}}",
"### 2019: Ghostly International",
"Drama released the single \"Dead and Gone\" in January 2019\\. The band completed their own 15\\-date North American headline tour in February 2019\\. In June, they released the single \"Give No Fucks\".",
"That year, Drama embarked on a tour that included over 20 performances, including a sold\\-out show at [The Echo](/wiki/The_Echo_%28venue%29 \"The Echo (venue)\") in Los Angeles{{cite web \\|last1\\=Baca \\|first1\\=Ana \\|date\\=5 March 2020 \\|title\\=DRAMA Makes it Shine on a Rainy Day at the Echo \\|url\\=https://www.grimygoods.com/2020/03/05/drama\\-band\\-photos\\-at\\-the\\-echo\\-los\\-angeles/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Grimy Goods}} and a series of shows at [South by Southwest (SXSW)](/wiki/South_by_Southwest \"South by Southwest\") in April.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Graff \\|first\\=Gary \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=Bleachers, Big Boi, Lukas Nelson \\& More to Perform at Rachael Ray's SXSW Feedback Festival: Exclusive \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\\-news/rachael\\-ray\\-sxsw\\-feedback\\-festival\\-lineup\\-8501294/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Drama signed with independent label [Ghostly International](/wiki/Ghostly_International \"Ghostly International\") in September. Shortly after, they performed at a showcase at [Metro Chicago](/wiki/Metro_Chicago \"Metro Chicago\") for the label's 20th anniversary.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Long \\|first\\=Zach \\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-18 \\|title\\=Ghostly 20: Tobacco \\+ Shigeto \\+ Drama \\+ Steve Hauschildt \\+ SV4 \\|url\\=https://www.timeout.com/chicago/music/ghostly\\-20\\-tobacco\\-shigeto\\-drama\\-steve\\-hauschildt\\-sv4 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-24 \\|website\\=Time Out Chicago \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The band released their first pre\\-album single \"Hold On\" with the label that month followed by a tour with [SG Lewis](/wiki/SG_Lewis \"SG Lewis\") later that fall.{{cite web \\|date\\=30 September 2019 \\|title\\=Introducing: Drama\\- Ghostly International Sign Chicago Duo\\- Hear New Single \"Hold On\" \\|url\\=https://circuitsweet.co.uk/2019/09/introducing\\-drama\\-ghostly\\-international\\-sign\\-chicago\\-duo\\-hear\\-new\\-single\\-hold\\-on/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Circuit Sweet}} In November, they followed up with \"Gimme Gimme,\" and on December 5, they released \"Nine One One.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Murray \\|first\\=Robin \\|date\\=2019\\-12\\-04 \\|title\\=Listen: DRAMA \\- 'Nine One One' \\|url\\=https://www.clashmusic.com/news/listen\\-drama\\-nine\\-one\\-one/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Clash Magazine]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"In November, following the releases of \"Hold On\" and \"Gimme Gimme\", Drama announced their debut album *Dance Without Me* as well as their 2020 North American, UK, and European headline tour dates slated to begin in February 2020, with sold out shows set for cities such as Los Angeles, Portland, Toronto, Boston, Chicago, Houston, and others. Before releasing the album, the band released \"Years\" in January 2020 with a video directed by Adam Chitayat.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Smith \\|first1\\=Courtney \\|date\\=17 January 2020 \\|title\\=New Music To Know This Week: DRAMA Tells No Lies, Orion Sun Falls In Love \\& More \\|url\\=https://www.refinery29\\.com/en\\-us/2020/01/9230492/new\\-music\\-january\\-17\\-2020 \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Refinery29}} The latter track was named \"Today's Top Tune\" by LA radio station [KCRW](/wiki/KCRW \"KCRW\") in February.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Morgenstern \\|first1\\=Ariana \\|date\\=25 February 2020 \\|title\\=Drama: \"Years\" \\|url\\=https://www.kcrw.com/music/shows/todays\\-top\\-tune/drama\\-years \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=KCRW}}",
"### 2020: *Dance Without Me*",
"Drama released *Dance Without Me* on February 14, 2020 via Ghostly International. The album, hailed as a \"powerful ode to heartbreak and the metamorphosis that comes from the spiritual journey to total self\\-love and acceptance\" continues exploring the themes of love and loss that have pervaded the bands career.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Roti \\|first1\\=Jessi \\|date\\=26 March 2020 \\|title\\=Drama's new Dance Without Me is for sad\\-but\\-sexy folks everywhere \\|url\\=https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/dramas\\-new\\-dance\\-without\\-me\\-is\\-for\\-sad\\-but\\-sexy\\-folks\\-everywhere/Content?oid\\=78802341 \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Chicago Reader}} The band initially embarked on their album promotion by touring various cities in Europe and the U.S., with notable sold\\-out shows in London, Paris, Hamburg, Berlin, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Brooklyn, and more. Due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), some of these tour dates had to be canceled.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Jordan \\|first1\\=Jerilyn \\|date\\=11 March 2020 \\|title\\=Chicago duo Drama will make dance music you can cry to at Detroit's Marble Bar \\|url\\=https://www.metrotimes.com/city\\-slang/archives/2020/03/11/chicago\\-duo\\-drama\\-will\\-make\\-dance\\-music\\-you\\-can\\-cry\\-to\\-at\\-detroits\\-marble\\-bar \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Detroit Metro Times}} In response to the pandemic, the group transitioned to livestreamed stay\\-at\\-home concerts starting in April 2020\\. These virtual performances gained traction and continued to be a popular choice, with shows carrying on throughout 2021, often selling out.",
"In April 2020, Drama teamed up with UK electronic duo [Gorgon City](/wiki/Gorgon_City \"Gorgon City\") to release \"Nobody\", a single which came to fruition in the studio while Kye Gibbon was spending time in Chicago. The single was accompanied by a video shot in Chicago featuring a street dance interpretation of [West Side Story](/wiki/West_Side_Story \"West Side Story\") as a tribute to their collaboration.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Conscious Electronic Staff \\|date\\=3 April 2020 \\|title\\=Gorgon City Link with Chicago Soul/Dance Duo Drama on Fluid House Jam, 'Nobody' \\[Watch] \\|url\\=https://consciouselectronic.com/2020/04/03/gorgon\\-city\\-drama\\-nobody\\-music\\-video/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Conscious Electronic}} In September, Drama revisited *Dance Without Me* by releasing a remix EP also released by Ghostly International, featuring [Poolside (band)](/wiki/Poolside_%28band%29 \"Poolside (band)\"), [Pional](/wiki/Pional \"Pional\"), Rezident, and Moglii.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Jefferson \\|first1\\=Lauren \\|date\\=8 September 2020 \\|title\\=DRAMA's \"Nine One One\" gets a Poolside ready remix \\|url\\=https://earmilk.com/2020/09/08/dramas\\-nine\\-one\\-one\\-gets\\-a\\-poolside\\-ready\\-remix/ \\|accessdate\\=27 September 2020 \\|website\\=Earmilk}} They reteamed with Gorgon City for the 2021 single \"You've Done Enough.\"",
"### 2021: Collaborations and return to in\\-person shows",
"In early January 2021, Drama teamed up with [Poolside](/wiki/Poolside_%28band%29 \"Poolside (band)\") to release the dancefloor single \"I Feel High,\" which the band described as a song that is \"all about that invincible feeling you get when you’re young, and out with your friends.\" Poolside's Jeffrey Paradise commented \"DRAMA took the song, originally embodying Poolside's signature laid\\-back vibe, and turned it into an energetic club anthem that ultimately celebrates the euphoric and occasionally carefree essence of life.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keith \\|first\\=James \\|title\\=Premiere: Poolside And Chicago Duo DRAMA Recall The Invincibility Of Youth On \"I Feel High\" \\|url\\=https://www.complex.com/music/a/james\\-keith/premiere\\-poolside\\-i\\-feel\\-high\\-feat\\-drama \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=Complex \\|language\\=en\\-us}}",
"On January 29, 2021, electronic duo [Gorgon City](/wiki/Gorgon_City \"Gorgon City\") and Drama released the single \"You've Done Enough\" via [Universal Music](/wiki/Universal_Music \"Universal Music\"), which peaked at \\#70 on the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\") for 9 weeks and would go on to earn a [*BRIT* Certified Silver Award](/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry \"British Phonographic Industry\") in January 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=BRIT Certified \\|url\\=https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit\\-certified/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=BPI \\|language\\=en}}",
"In May 2021, Drama independently released single \"Don't Hold Back,\" along with a visualizer for the song. This marked the band's first pre\\-album release from their upcoming EP, \"Don't Wait Up,\" which was subsequently launched in early 2022\\. They explained that the track was about the fear of commitment,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lawson \\|first\\=Brianna \\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-27 \\|title\\=Dance\\-duo DRAMA delivers their latest, \"Don't Hold Back\" \\[Video] \\|url\\=https://earmilk.com/2021/05/27/dance\\-duo\\-drama\\-delivers\\-their\\-latest\\-dont\\-hold\\-back\\-video/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=EARMILK \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and [Zane Lowe](/wiki/Zane_Lowe \"Zane Lowe\") described it as \"heartbreak and bliss\". The song was remixed by Tensnake in June.{{Cite web \\|last\\=findyoursounds \\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-27 \\|title\\=Tensnake Remixes DRAMA's Track 'Don't Hold Back' \\|url\\=http://findyoursounds.com/tensnake\\-remixes\\-dramas\\-track\\-dont\\-hold\\-back/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=FindYourSounds \\|language\\=en\\-US}} On July 8, Drama released a remix of Brijean's \"Hey Boy\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-08 \\|title\\=Drama × Briejean \\- Hey Boy Remix \\|url\\=https://www.the360mag.com/drama\\-x\\-briejean\\-hey\\-boy\\-remix/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=360 MAGAZINE \\- GREEN {{!}} DESIGN {{!}} POP {{!}} NEWS \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"On July 31, 2021, Drama made a highly anticipated post\\-pandemic appearance and performed at [Lollapalooza](/wiki/Lollapalooza \"Lollapalooza\") held in their native Chicago.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-09 \\|title\\=Locals Take Lolla: Chicago Acts Help Reset the Festival {{!}} Newcity Music \\|url\\=https://music.newcity.com/2021/07/09/locals\\-take\\-lolla\\-chicago\\-acts\\-help\\-re\\-set\\-the\\-festival/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The band was also part of the \"all\\-star\" lineup of the highly anticipated [Life Is Beautiful Music \\& Art Festival](/wiki/Life_Is_Beautiful_Music_%26_Art_Festival \"Life Is Beautiful Music & Art Festival\") held in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\") in September, a lineup which included [Billie Eilish](/wiki/Billie_Eilish \"Billie Eilish\"), [Tame Impala](/wiki/Tame_Impala \"Tame Impala\"), [Glass Animals](/wiki/Glass_Animals \"Glass Animals\"), and [A$AP Rocky](/wiki/A%24AP_Rocky \"A$AP Rocky\"). The [Blue Man Group](/wiki/Blue_Man_Group \"Blue Man Group\") made a surprise appearance and joined the band for a special performance during their set.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cruz \\|first\\=Martha \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-19 \\|title\\=Blue Man Group surprises Life is Beautiful concertgoers \\|url\\=https://news3lv.com/news/local/blue\\-man\\-group\\-surprises\\-life\\-is\\-beautiful\\-concertgoers \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-24 \\|website\\=KSNV \\|language\\=en}} The festival made its comeback after a year off and saw over 180,000 attendees.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-19 \\|title\\=Life Is Beautiful Day Two: Stand Up for Ludacris \\- Off The Strip \\|url\\=https://www.offthestrip.com/news/life\\-is\\-beautiful\\-las\\-vegas\\-day\\-two/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sheckells \\|first\\=Melinda \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-21 \\|title\\=Life Is Beautiful Returns to Las Vegas, Signaling Comeback of Mass Gatherings in City \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/pro/life\\-is\\-beautiful\\-festival\\-las\\-vegas\\-live\\-music\\-comeback/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In October, the group performed at the Outside Lands Night Show at [Bimbo's 365 Club](/wiki/Bimbo%27s_365_Club \"Bimbo's 365 Club\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") leading up to their appearance at the [Outside Lands](/wiki/Outside_Lands_%28festival%29 \"Outside Lands (festival)\") Festival.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-21 \\|title\\=Outside Lands Announces 16 Extra Night Shows; Tickets On Sale Friday \\|url\\=https://sfist.com/2021/09/21/outside\\-lands\\-night\\-shows\\-announced/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-24 \\|website\\=SFist \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010121027/https://sfist.com/2021/09/21/outside\\-lands\\-night\\-shows\\-announced/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite news \\|title\\=5 Acts You Won't Want to Miss at Outside Lands this Weekend \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|work\\=Magnetic Magazine \\|url\\=https://www.magneticmag.com/2021/10/festival\\-preview\\-5\\-artists\\-not\\-to\\-miss\\-at\\-outside\\-lands\\-drama\\-mxmtoon\\-remi\\-wolf/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16}}",
"In October 2021, Drama teamed up with Australian duo [Flight Facilities](/wiki/Flight_Facilities \"Flight Facilities\") to release \"Move\", a single that channeling \"the classic sounds of the 1980s Chicago house\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-11 \\|title\\=Flight Facilities go old school on 'Move' ft. DRAMA \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/doublej/music\\-reads/features/flight\\-facilities\\-new\\-music\\-drama\\-collab\\-move/13579958 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation \\|language\\=en\\-AU}} That same month, the band released their second solo single of the year, \"Dark Rain,\" which they described as a \"song for the people who have found each other.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=findyoursounds \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-21 \\|title\\=DRAMA Releases Second Solo Track of 2021: Dark Rain \\|url\\=http://findyoursounds.com/drama\\-releases\\-second\\-solo\\-track\\-of\\-2021\\-dark\\-rain/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=FindYourSounds \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In November, they released the single \"First Christmas\".",
"In December 2021, Drama independently released *Gallows (Deluxe)*, a compilation of tracks from *Gallows* presented on a limited run of vinyl records, along with an accompanying digital release that includes two extra bonus tracks – \"Missing\" and \"Sweet Summer.\"{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-01 \\|title\\=DRAMA Celebrates 'Gallows' Five Year Anniversary With First\\-Ever Limited Vinyl Release \\|url\\=https://findyoursounds.com/drama\\-celebrates\\-gallows\\-five\\-year\\-anniversary\\-with\\-first\\-ever\\-limited\\-vinyl\\-release/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|website\\=FindYourSounds \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### 2022: *Don't Wait Up* \\& tour",
"On February 21, 2022, Drama independently released EP *Don’t Wait Up*,{{Cite web \\|last\\=findyoursounds \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-21 \\|title\\=DRAMA Reveals New 'Don't Wait Up' EP \\|url\\=https://findyoursounds.com/drama\\-reveals\\-new\\-dont\\-wait\\-up\\-ep/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=FindYourSounds \\|language\\=en\\-US}} which follows the instances within a relationship \"that keep a person pining, even when it becomes clear the situation is toxic\". The track \"Hit My Line\" was particularly praised, described by *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* as \"seductively danceable\" and as \"nailing the emotional intricacies of an imbalanced relationship.\"{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Legaspi \\|first\\=Althea \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-09 \\|title\\=Chicago Duo Drama Make Relationship Anxiety Sound Seductively Danceable on 'Hit My Line' \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-features/drama\\-hit\\-my\\-line\\-song\\-review\\-1318583/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The EP saw remixes by Emmaculate, James Curd, [Robin Hannibal](/wiki/Robin_Hannibal \"Robin Hannibal\"), Vandelux, [Terry Hunter](/wiki/Terry_Hunter \"Terry Hunter\"), Awsumo, [Tensnake](/wiki/Tensnake \"Tensnake\"), and Disco Demolition.",
"In November 2022, Drama collaborated with [Jamila Woods](/wiki/Jamila_Woods \"Jamila Woods\") on a remix of her single \"Boundaries\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Flores \\|first\\=Diego \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-08 \\|title\\=Jamila Woods Shares \"Boundaries (Drama Remix)\" \\|url\\=https://ghettoblastermagazine.com/features/jamila\\-woods\\-shares\\-boundaries\\-drama\\-remix/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=Ghettoblaster Magazine \\|language\\=en}} On December 9, [Ten City](/wiki/Ten_City \"Ten City\") released Drama's remix of their single \"Love is Love\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-16 \\|title\\=\\#ListenUp Ten City's Love Is Love, remixed \\|url\\=https://5mag.net/tracks/listenup/ten\\-cty\\-love\\-is\\-love\\-drama\\-remix/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=5 Magazine \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Drama's North American tour spanned late February with shows in Texas and [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\") followed by performances in Nashville, New York City, Cleveland, Tallahassee, and Chicago throughout March. In early March, the band was featured in the lineup of the [Okeechobee Music \\& Arts Festival](/wiki/Okeechobee_Music_%26_Arts_Festival \"Okeechobee Music & Arts Festival\") in Florida.{{Cite web \\|title\\=2022 Lineup – Okeechobee Festival \\|url\\=https://www.okeechobeefest.com/past\\-highlights/2022\\-lineup/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=www.okeechobeefest.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In April, they traveled to Mexico to perform at the [Tecate Pa'l Norte Festival](/wiki/Pal_Norte \"Pal Norte\") held in [Monterrey](/wiki/Monterrey \"Monterrey\") and at the Ceremonia Festival in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City \"Mexico City\"). In May, the band was part of the rosters of the [Movement Electronic Music Festival](/wiki/Detroit_Electronic_Music_Festival \"Detroit Electronic Music Festival\") in [Detroit, Michigan](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan \"Detroit, Michigan\"), and the [Summer Camp Music Festival](/wiki/Summer_Camp_Music_Festival \"Summer Camp Music Festival\") in [Chillicothe, Illinois](/wiki/Chillicothe%2C_Illinois \"Chillicothe, Illinois\"). At the end of the month, they took the stage at [Soldier Field](/wiki/Soldier_Field \"Soldier Field\") in Chicago, opening for [Coldplay](/wiki/Coldplay \"Coldplay\") as part of the British band's [Music of the Spheres World Tour](/wiki/Music_of_the_Spheres_World_Tour \"Music of the Spheres World Tour\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-26 \\|title\\=Coldplay, H.E.R. Head to Soldier Field Memorial Day Weekend on World Tour \\|url\\=https://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/coldplay\\-h\\-e\\-r\\-head\\-to\\-soldier\\-field\\-memorial\\-day\\-weekend\\-on\\-world\\-tour/2842492/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=NBC Chicago \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In June, Drama made an appearance at [Electric Forest](/wiki/Electric_Forest \"Electric Forest\") in [Rothbury, Michigan](/wiki/Rothbury%2C_Michigan \"Rothbury, Michigan\"). Late July marked their performance at the [Hard Summer Music Festival](/wiki/Hard_%28music_festival%29 \"Hard (music festival)\") in [San Bernardino](/wiki/San_Bernardino%2C_California \"San Bernardino, California\"),{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-03 \\|title\\=HARD Summer Music Festival 2022 To Feature Megan Thee Stallion, Gunna, Lil Uzi Vert and More \\|url\\=https://hypebeast.com/2022/5/hard\\-summer\\-festival\\-2022\\-lineup\\-megan\\-thee\\-stallion\\-lil\\-uzi\\-vert\\-gunna \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=Hypebeast}} kicking off a series of shows throughout California for the remainder of the year, including a highly praised set at [Portola Music Festival](/wiki/Portola_Music_Festival \"Portola Music Festival\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") in late September.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-27 \\|title\\=Portola Festival 2022: Elite Venue And Talent, But Room For Improvement \\|url\\=https://uproxx.com/indie/portola\\-music\\-festival\\-san\\-francisco\\-2022\\-review/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=UPROXX \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In November, they opened for [ODESZA](/wiki/Odesza \"Odesza\") during the duo's \"Last Goodbye\" tour.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Staff \\|first\\=B.\\-Sides \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=PHOTO REVIEW: Odesza – Mountain View, CA 11/05/2022 \\|url\\=https://www.b\\-sides.tv/2022/11/06/photo\\-review\\-odesza\\-mountain\\-view\\-ca\\-11\\-05\\-2022/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-25 \\|website\\=B\\-Sides \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### 2023\\-present",
"In January 2023, Tensnake and Drama collaborated on \"Rooftop,\" featured on Tensnake's album *Stimulate*. On March 23, the band released the single \"Tighten It Up\", which reached the 20th position on *[KCRW](/wiki/KCRW \"KCRW\")*'s Top 30 Chart.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-18 \\|title\\=KCRW's Top 30 chart: From wild psychedelics to jazz\\-hop \\|url\\=https://www.kcrw.com/music/shows/music\\-special/top\\-30\\-albums\\-april\\-10\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=KCRW \\|language\\=en}}",
"May saw the release of \"Feel The Same\". The band also released remixes for \"Tighten It Up\" and \"Feel The Same\", along with music videos for both singles.",
"In July 2023, Drama teamed up with Gorgon City again for the release of the single \"Lost \\& Found\", accompanied by a music video featuring Via Rosa.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Gorgon City Reveal New Album, Drop Stunning Single, \"Lost \\& Found\" \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=EDM \\|url\\=https://edm.com/music\\-releases/gorgon\\-city\\-announce\\-new\\-album\\-salvation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-02 \\|title\\=Gorgon City share poignant music video for new single 'Lost \\& Found' ft DRAMA \\|url\\=https://findyoursounds.com/gorgon\\-city\\-share\\-poignant\\-music\\-video\\-for\\-new\\-single\\-lost\\-found\\-ft\\-drama/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|website\\=FindYourSounds \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In August, the band released the self\\-titled single \"DRAMA\", paired with a music video following three struggling characters from Chicago. The song was lyrically inspired by the band's live performances and the things they witnessed at their shows, and sets a tone that \"embodies groovy runway energy\", which Rosa's vocals described as \"cheeky and hypnotic\", and Shehade's production as \"tough, playful, and energizing\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-31 \\|title\\=DRAMA Release Energizing Self\\-Titled Single Ahead of New EP {{!}} EDM Identity \\|url\\=https://edmidentity.com/2023/08/31/drama\\-till\\-we\\-die\\-announce/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|website\\=edmidentity.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Levy \\|first\\=Danielle \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-31 \\|title\\=DRAMA Drops Sassy New Single, \"DRAMA,\" Off Upcoming Fall EP \\|url\\=https://edmmaniac.com/drama\\-single\\-drama/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|website\\=EDM Maniac \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In April 2023, Drama performed at several sold\\-out shows throughout the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest \"Pacific Northwest\"), which included stops in [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\") and [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") and in [Vancouver, Canada](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\"). They performed a highly anticipated set at [Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival](/wiki/Coachella_2023 \"Coachella 2023\") at the end of the month, alongside headliners such as [Frank Ocean](/wiki/Frank_Ocean \"Frank Ocean\"), [Gorillaz](/wiki/Gorillaz \"Gorillaz\"), and [Bad Bunny](/wiki/Bad_Bunny \"Bad Bunny\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-10 \\|title\\=Coachella 2023 Full Lineup Announced \\|url\\=https://pitchfork.com/news/coachella\\-2023\\-full\\-lineup\\-announced/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=Pitchfork \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite magazine \\|last1\\=Iasimone \\|first1\\=Jenny Regan,Ashley \\|last2\\=Regan \\|first2\\=Jenny \\|last3\\=Iasimone \\|first3\\=Ashley \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-17 \\|title\\=Coachella 2023 Photos: Performances, Backstage \\& More \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/photos/coachella\\-2023\\-photos\\-performances\\-backstage\\-1235303907/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The band also made an appearance at the Do Lab stage. In May, Drama was part of the lineup at the [Lightning in a Bottle Festival](/wiki/Lightning_in_a_Bottle \"Lightning in a Bottle\") held in [Bakersfield, California](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California \"Bakersfield, California\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Geiger \\|first\\=Amy \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-19 \\|title\\=Lightning in a Bottle Festival 2023 lineup: Diplo, Caribou, Phantogram, 070 Shake, TOKiMONSTA, more \\|url\\=https://www.brooklynvegan.com/lightning\\-in\\-a\\-bottle\\-festival\\-2023\\-lineup\\-diplo\\-caribou\\-phantogram\\-070\\-shake\\-tokimonsta\\-more/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=BrooklynVegan \\|language\\=en\\-US}} They also performed at WeHo Pride in early June{{Cite web \\|title\\=OUTLOUD AT WEHO PRIDE ANNOUNCES FULL ENTERTAINMENT PROGRAM LINEUP FOR WEHO PRIDE WEEKEND CELEBRATION JUNE 2\\-4 \\|url\\=https://www.wehopride.com/news/outloud\\-at\\-weho\\-pride\\-announces\\-full\\-entertainment\\-program\\-lineup\\-for\\-weho\\-pride\\-weekend\\-celebration\\-june\\-2\\-4 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=WeHo Pride \\- Pride Starts Here! \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and opened for [ODESZA](/wiki/Odesza \"Odesza\") at [Summerfest](/wiki/Summerfest \"Summerfest\") in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee \"Milwaukee\") later in the month.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Summerfest 2023 in Milwaukee will reveal lineup Thursday, including more than 100 headliners \\|url\\=https://www.jsonline.com/story/entertainment/festivals/summerfest/2023/03/21/summerfest\\-2023\\-to\\-reveal\\-more\\-than\\-100\\-headliners\\-thursday/70035215007/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=Journal Sentinel \\|language\\=en\\-US}} On July 23, 2023, Drama performed at the [Capitol Hill Block Party](/wiki/Capitol_Hill_Block_Party \"Capitol Hill Block Party\") in Seattle,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Capitol Hill Block Party Announces 2023 Lineup \\|url\\=https://www.seattlemet.com/arts\\-and\\-culture/2023/02/capitol\\-hill\\-block\\-party\\-lineup\\-2023 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|website\\=Seattle Met \\|language\\=en\\-US}} followed by a sold out show on a new venue opening weekend at The Bellwether in Los Angeles, and in San Francisco. Drama also headlined the DJ set at [Northalsted Market Days](/wiki/Northalsted_Market_Days \"Northalsted Market Days\") in August and a club set at Splash House's 10th Anniversary weekend in [Palm Springs](/wiki/Palm_Springs%2C_California \"Palm Springs, California\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=August editions of Splash House EDM music festival to feature ODESZA, Classixx and more \\|url\\=https://www.desertsun.com/story/life/entertainment/events/2023/06/28/splash\\-house\\-23\\-odesza\\-classixx\\-to\\-perform\\-at\\-palm\\-springs\\-festival/70364853007/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|website\\=The Desert Sun \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The band's upcoming Til We Die tour includes performances on the East Coast and in Europe, and includes venues in New York, Boston, London, and Berlin.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Ida Estelle Crouch was born c. 1870 in [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Illinois "Chicago, Illinois"), the daughter of two college\-educated schoolteachers.Gary M. Fink (ed.), "Ida Crouch\-Hazlett," *Biographical Dictionary of American Labor.* Revised edition. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984; pp. 167\-1687\. Crouch grew up in [Monmouth, Illinois](/wiki/Monmouth%2C_Illinois "Monmouth, Illinois"), where she attended elementary school, before enrolling in the [Monticello Seminary](/wiki/Monticello_Seminary "Monticello Seminary") of [Godfrey, Illinois](/wiki/Godfrey%2C_Illinois "Godfrey, Illinois"). She was an 1888 graduate of Illinois State Normal School (an institution that would later become [Illinois State University](/wiki/Illinois_State_University "Illinois State University")) at [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Illinois "Bloomington, Illinois") and later did course work at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University"), where she studied economics,Solon DeLeon with Irma C. Hayssen and Grace Poole, *The American Labor Who's Who.* New York: Hanford Press, 1925; pp. 51\-51\. and the [Chicago School of Social Sciences](/wiki/Chicago_School_of_Social_Sciences "Chicago School of Social Sciences") following completion of her training as a teacher at Illinois Normal School.
Crouch was married at a fairly early age to N. Hazlett, who died not long thereafter.John A.H. Keith (ed.), [*Semi\-Centennial History of the Illinois State Normal University, 1857\-1907\.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qGgWAAAAIAAJ&dq=Ida+Crouch+Hazlett&pg=PA288) Bloomington: Illinois State Normal University, 1907; pg. 288\.
After graduation, Crouch\-Hazlett ran for local school board on the ticket of the [Prohibition Party](/wiki/Prohibition_Party "Prohibition Party").[Mari Jo Buhle](/wiki/Mari_Jo_Buhle "Mari Jo Buhle"), *Women and American Socialism, 1870\-1920\.* Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981; pg. 215\. Following that unsuccessful attempt, she held a series of positions as a teacher of [elocution](/wiki/Elocution "Elocution") in [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado"), and [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming"), an occupation that helped her to craft her skills as an [orator](/wiki/Orator "Orator").
In 1894, Crouch\-Hazlett turned to [journalism](/wiki/Journalism "Journalism"), working as a [newspaper reporter](/wiki/Newspaper_reporter "Newspaper reporter"). Crouch\-Hazlett worked for newspapers in Chicago, [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver"), and [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado "Leadville, Colorado"), and [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri "St. Louis, Missouri"). She continued to work as a journalist through 1900\. While in Colorado Crouch\-Hazlett was first exposed to the bitter [class struggle](/wiki/Class_struggle "Class struggle") between [miners](/wiki/Miners "Miners") and mine\-owners, which further shaped her political views.
### Political career
Crouch\-Hazlett's first foray into politics came in 1896, when she was named a national organizer for the [National American Woman Suffrage Association](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association "National American Woman Suffrage Association") (NAWSA). Crouch\-Hazlett was one of the NAWSA's professional organizers who toured the length and breadth of [California](/wiki/California "California") during the unsuccessful 1896 election campaign, joining such stalwarts of the movement as [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony "Susan B. Anthony"), [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt "Carrie Chapman Catt"), and [Anna Howard Shaw](/wiki/Anna_Howard_Shaw "Anna Howard Shaw"). Crouch\-Hazlett continued on the staff of the NAWSA until 1901, touring the country for the organization and conducting public lectures building public support for women's right to vote.
Shortly after the start of the 20th century, Crouch\-Hazlett began to see the fight for [socialism](/wiki/Socialism "Socialism") as a central component of the struggle of women for equal rights and she made advancement of the socialist movement a central part of her political efforts.Buhle, *Women and American Socialism, 1870\-1920,* pg. 241\. She joined the fledgling [Socialist Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America "Socialist Party of America") (SPA) around the time of its formation in 1901 and thereafter became one of its most prominent female voices.
In 1902, Hazlett became the first female candidate for U.S. Congress in the state of Colorado when she ran for the [House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives "U.S. House of Representatives") on the Socialist ticket.
After the 1902 campaign, Hazlett continued without pause taking her oratorial skills on the road on behalf of the Socialist Party as one of its national organizers. Crouch\-Hazlett spent the better part of the next two years, holding public lectures and thereby attempting to help build state and local organizations for the new political party. She remained one of the SPA's touring national organizers through 1904\.
Crouch\-Hazlett was a delegate of the [Socialist Party of Colorado](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Colorado "Socialist Party of Colorado") to the 1904 National Convention of the Socialist Party["Delegates to the 1904 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv04delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/ and a [Socialist Party of Montana](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Montana "Socialist Party of Montana") delegate to the 1908 Convention.["Delegates to the 1908 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv08delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/
Following her time as a Socialist Party traveling lecturer, Crouch\-Hazlett settled down as an organizer for the Socialist Party of Montana, an organization at the time of about 450 dues\-paying members active in 25 "locals."Jerry W. Calvert, *The Gibraltar: Socialism and Labor in Butte, Montana, 1895\-1920\.* Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1988; pg. 30\. Hazlett was named editor of the Socialist Party of Montana's newspaper, *Montana News,* in December 1905\.Montana Historical Society, ["Montana News (Lewistown, Mont.),"](http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/essays/251/) Chronicling America, chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/
One historian has called Crouch\-Hazlett "a most different administrator" of the party newspaper, noting that she preferred to play the role of "roving reporter" and leaving the technical and administrative details of newspaper production to her close political associate, State Secretary [James D. Graham](/wiki/James_D._Graham "James D. Graham"). Her time traversing the massive state of [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana") in this period involved Crouch\-Hazlett closely with the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners "Western Federation of Miners"). Her association in the labor movement also had a certain participatory element, as during the course of her life, Hazlett was herself a member of the [Knights of Labor](/wiki/Knights_of_Labor "Knights of Labor") and the [American Labor Union](/wiki/American_Labor_Union "American Labor Union"), ultimately unsuccessful rivals of the [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor "American Federation of Labor").
Beginning in 1908, the Montana Socialist Party was divided by a bitter factional split, pitting Graham and party editor Crouch\-Hazlett on one side and [Lewis Duncan](/wiki/Lewis_Duncan "Lewis Duncan"), the future Socialist mayor of [Butte](/wiki/Butte%2C_Montana "Butte, Montana"), on the other. Driven by Local Butte, the 1908 State Convention of the Socialist Party of Montana appointed an auditing committee headed by Duncan to closely inspect the organization's books.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 33\. Duncan proclaimed the state party's books to be in "wretched condition" and led Local Butte in organizing a call for the resignation of Graham and Hazlett. While Graham was amenable, Crouch\-Hazlett refused to accede to this demand, so in the spring of 1909 the Duncan\-dominated State Executive Committee expelled both Graham and Hazlett from the party's ranks and formally terminated the organization's connection with the [Lewistown](/wiki/Lewistown%2C_Montana "Lewistown, Montana")\-based *Montana News.*
Graham and Crouch\-Hazlett were accused of the misappropriation of party funds by the Duncan faction, and the matter ended up in the courts. The [Unitarian](/wiki/Unitarianism "Unitarianism") minister Duncan also made morals allegations against Crouch\-Hazlett, charging that she had been "living openly in an adulterous and licentious relationship with a former member of the Lewistown local."
Back of these factional fisticuffs in addition to financial and personal disagreements there lay a policy difference. Local Butte was at this time warmly supportive of [Big Bill Haywood](/wiki/Big_Bill_Haywood "Big Bill Haywood"), [industrial unionism](/wiki/Industrial_unionism "Industrial unionism"), and the syndicalist [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World "Industrial Workers of the World"), going so far as to endorse Haywood as a potential candidate for [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States"), while Crouch\-Hazlett in *Montana News* stressed the historic refusal of the Socialist Party to directly intervene in trade union matters.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 34\.
in 1910, with *Montana News* broken by the factional warfare and party membership down by 45 percent, Crouch\-Hazlett again resumed her role as a professional organizer for the Socialist Party of America. She dedicated the bulk of her time to organizing efforts in the American South from 1914 to 1916\. Crouch\-Hazlett moved to [Brooklyn, New York](/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York "Brooklyn, New York") during the latter part of the decade and ran for [New York State Assembly](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly "New York State Assembly") in the 1st District of [Kings County, New York](/wiki/Kings_County%2C_New_York "Kings County, New York") on the Socialist ticket in 1920\.["Ida Crough (sic.) Hazlett,"](http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/hayworth-heacock.html#202.54.53) Political Graveyard, politicalgraveyard.com/
Crouch\-Hazlett ended her career as an organizer on behalf of the Socialist Party in 1921\. During this final year, Crouch\-Hazlett was at least once [kidnapped](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping") by a band of members of the [American Legion](/wiki/American_Legion "American Legion"), who transported her hundreds of miles before leaving her in a deserted area. This experience did not break Crouch\-Hazlett's commitment, but it did nonetheless coincide with an end to her tenure as a Socialist Party organizer.
Membership in the SPA plummeted during the early part of the 1920s, following its splitinto rival Socialist and Communist organizations at its [1919 Emergency National Convention](/wiki/1919_Emergency_National_Convention "1919 Emergency National Convention"). With dues collections drastically diminished, the party was forced to curtail the number of its paid [functionaries](/wiki/Functionary "Functionary") due to ensuing budgetary difficulties, forcing Hazlett to seek other means of support.
Crouch\-Hazlett visited England, arranging beforehand with British labor activist [Jessie Stephen](/wiki/Jessie_Stephen "Jessie Stephen") to have her letters typed whilst there.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat\=394\-lp\_5\&cid\=1\-20\-1\-14\#1\-20\-1\-14 \| title\=Correspondence re Mrs Ida Crouch\-Hazlett's visit to England. LP/WG/USA/24\-29 \| work\=\[\[The National Archives (United Kingdom)\|The National Archives]] \| date\=16 July 1935 \| accessdate\=December 7, 2012}}
### Death and legacy
In 1925 Crouch\-Hazlett enrolled at [New York University](/wiki/New_York_University "New York University") in an effort to earn a [Doctorate degree](/wiki/PhD "PhD"). She died in May 1941\. Her papers reside among the Social Democratic Party Papers of the [Milwaukee County Historical Society](/wiki/Milwaukee_County_Historical_Society "Milwaukee County Historical Society") in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin "Milwaukee, Wisconsin").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Ida Estelle Crouch was born c. 1870 in [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Illinois \"Chicago, Illinois\"), the daughter of two college\\-educated schoolteachers.Gary M. Fink (ed.), \"Ida Crouch\\-Hazlett,\" *Biographical Dictionary of American Labor.* Revised edition. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984; pp. 167\\-1687\\. Crouch grew up in [Monmouth, Illinois](/wiki/Monmouth%2C_Illinois \"Monmouth, Illinois\"), where she attended elementary school, before enrolling in the [Monticello Seminary](/wiki/Monticello_Seminary \"Monticello Seminary\") of [Godfrey, Illinois](/wiki/Godfrey%2C_Illinois \"Godfrey, Illinois\"). She was an 1888 graduate of Illinois State Normal School (an institution that would later become [Illinois State University](/wiki/Illinois_State_University \"Illinois State University\")) at [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Illinois \"Bloomington, Illinois\") and later did course work at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\"), where she studied economics,Solon DeLeon with Irma C. Hayssen and Grace Poole, *The American Labor Who's Who.* New York: Hanford Press, 1925; pp. 51\\-51\\. and the [Chicago School of Social Sciences](/wiki/Chicago_School_of_Social_Sciences \"Chicago School of Social Sciences\") following completion of her training as a teacher at Illinois Normal School.",
"Crouch was married at a fairly early age to N. Hazlett, who died not long thereafter.John A.H. Keith (ed.), [*Semi\\-Centennial History of the Illinois State Normal University, 1857\\-1907\\.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qGgWAAAAIAAJ&dq=Ida+Crouch+Hazlett&pg=PA288) Bloomington: Illinois State Normal University, 1907; pg. 288\\.",
"After graduation, Crouch\\-Hazlett ran for local school board on the ticket of the [Prohibition Party](/wiki/Prohibition_Party \"Prohibition Party\").[Mari Jo Buhle](/wiki/Mari_Jo_Buhle \"Mari Jo Buhle\"), *Women and American Socialism, 1870\\-1920\\.* Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981; pg. 215\\. Following that unsuccessful attempt, she held a series of positions as a teacher of [elocution](/wiki/Elocution \"Elocution\") in [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), and [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\"), an occupation that helped her to craft her skills as an [orator](/wiki/Orator \"Orator\").",
"In 1894, Crouch\\-Hazlett turned to [journalism](/wiki/Journalism \"Journalism\"), working as a [newspaper reporter](/wiki/Newspaper_reporter \"Newspaper reporter\"). Crouch\\-Hazlett worked for newspapers in Chicago, [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\"), and [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado \"Leadville, Colorado\"), and [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis, Missouri\"). She continued to work as a journalist through 1900\\. While in Colorado Crouch\\-Hazlett was first exposed to the bitter [class struggle](/wiki/Class_struggle \"Class struggle\") between [miners](/wiki/Miners \"Miners\") and mine\\-owners, which further shaped her political views.",
"### Political career",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett's first foray into politics came in 1896, when she was named a national organizer for the [National American Woman Suffrage Association](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association \"National American Woman Suffrage Association\") (NAWSA). Crouch\\-Hazlett was one of the NAWSA's professional organizers who toured the length and breadth of [California](/wiki/California \"California\") during the unsuccessful 1896 election campaign, joining such stalwarts of the movement as [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony \"Susan B. Anthony\"), [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt \"Carrie Chapman Catt\"), and [Anna Howard Shaw](/wiki/Anna_Howard_Shaw \"Anna Howard Shaw\"). Crouch\\-Hazlett continued on the staff of the NAWSA until 1901, touring the country for the organization and conducting public lectures building public support for women's right to vote.",
"Shortly after the start of the 20th century, Crouch\\-Hazlett began to see the fight for [socialism](/wiki/Socialism \"Socialism\") as a central component of the struggle of women for equal rights and she made advancement of the socialist movement a central part of her political efforts.Buhle, *Women and American Socialism, 1870\\-1920,* pg. 241\\. She joined the fledgling [Socialist Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America \"Socialist Party of America\") (SPA) around the time of its formation in 1901 and thereafter became one of its most prominent female voices.",
"In 1902, Hazlett became the first female candidate for U.S. Congress in the state of Colorado when she ran for the [House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives \"U.S. House of Representatives\") on the Socialist ticket.",
"After the 1902 campaign, Hazlett continued without pause taking her oratorial skills on the road on behalf of the Socialist Party as one of its national organizers. Crouch\\-Hazlett spent the better part of the next two years, holding public lectures and thereby attempting to help build state and local organizations for the new political party. She remained one of the SPA's touring national organizers through 1904\\.",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett was a delegate of the [Socialist Party of Colorado](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Colorado \"Socialist Party of Colorado\") to the 1904 National Convention of the Socialist Party[\"Delegates to the 1904 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,\"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv04delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/ and a [Socialist Party of Montana](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Montana \"Socialist Party of Montana\") delegate to the 1908 Convention.[\"Delegates to the 1908 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,\"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv08delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/",
"Following her time as a Socialist Party traveling lecturer, Crouch\\-Hazlett settled down as an organizer for the Socialist Party of Montana, an organization at the time of about 450 dues\\-paying members active in 25 \"locals.\"Jerry W. Calvert, *The Gibraltar: Socialism and Labor in Butte, Montana, 1895\\-1920\\.* Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1988; pg. 30\\. Hazlett was named editor of the Socialist Party of Montana's newspaper, *Montana News,* in December 1905\\.Montana Historical Society, [\"Montana News (Lewistown, Mont.),\"](http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/essays/251/) Chronicling America, chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/",
"One historian has called Crouch\\-Hazlett \"a most different administrator\" of the party newspaper, noting that she preferred to play the role of \"roving reporter\" and leaving the technical and administrative details of newspaper production to her close political associate, State Secretary [James D. Graham](/wiki/James_D._Graham \"James D. Graham\"). Her time traversing the massive state of [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\") in this period involved Crouch\\-Hazlett closely with the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners \"Western Federation of Miners\"). Her association in the labor movement also had a certain participatory element, as during the course of her life, Hazlett was herself a member of the [Knights of Labor](/wiki/Knights_of_Labor \"Knights of Labor\") and the [American Labor Union](/wiki/American_Labor_Union \"American Labor Union\"), ultimately unsuccessful rivals of the [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor \"American Federation of Labor\").",
"Beginning in 1908, the Montana Socialist Party was divided by a bitter factional split, pitting Graham and party editor Crouch\\-Hazlett on one side and [Lewis Duncan](/wiki/Lewis_Duncan \"Lewis Duncan\"), the future Socialist mayor of [Butte](/wiki/Butte%2C_Montana \"Butte, Montana\"), on the other. Driven by Local Butte, the 1908 State Convention of the Socialist Party of Montana appointed an auditing committee headed by Duncan to closely inspect the organization's books.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 33\\. Duncan proclaimed the state party's books to be in \"wretched condition\" and led Local Butte in organizing a call for the resignation of Graham and Hazlett. While Graham was amenable, Crouch\\-Hazlett refused to accede to this demand, so in the spring of 1909 the Duncan\\-dominated State Executive Committee expelled both Graham and Hazlett from the party's ranks and formally terminated the organization's connection with the [Lewistown](/wiki/Lewistown%2C_Montana \"Lewistown, Montana\")\\-based *Montana News.*",
"Graham and Crouch\\-Hazlett were accused of the misappropriation of party funds by the Duncan faction, and the matter ended up in the courts. The [Unitarian](/wiki/Unitarianism \"Unitarianism\") minister Duncan also made morals allegations against Crouch\\-Hazlett, charging that she had been \"living openly in an adulterous and licentious relationship with a former member of the Lewistown local.\"",
"Back of these factional fisticuffs in addition to financial and personal disagreements there lay a policy difference. Local Butte was at this time warmly supportive of [Big Bill Haywood](/wiki/Big_Bill_Haywood \"Big Bill Haywood\"), [industrial unionism](/wiki/Industrial_unionism \"Industrial unionism\"), and the syndicalist [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World \"Industrial Workers of the World\"), going so far as to endorse Haywood as a potential candidate for [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\"), while Crouch\\-Hazlett in *Montana News* stressed the historic refusal of the Socialist Party to directly intervene in trade union matters.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 34\\.",
"in 1910, with *Montana News* broken by the factional warfare and party membership down by 45 percent, Crouch\\-Hazlett again resumed her role as a professional organizer for the Socialist Party of America. She dedicated the bulk of her time to organizing efforts in the American South from 1914 to 1916\\. Crouch\\-Hazlett moved to [Brooklyn, New York](/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York \"Brooklyn, New York\") during the latter part of the decade and ran for [New York State Assembly](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly \"New York State Assembly\") in the 1st District of [Kings County, New York](/wiki/Kings_County%2C_New_York \"Kings County, New York\") on the Socialist ticket in 1920\\.[\"Ida Crough (sic.) Hazlett,\"](http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/hayworth-heacock.html#202.54.53) Political Graveyard, politicalgraveyard.com/",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett ended her career as an organizer on behalf of the Socialist Party in 1921\\. During this final year, Crouch\\-Hazlett was at least once [kidnapped](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\") by a band of members of the [American Legion](/wiki/American_Legion \"American Legion\"), who transported her hundreds of miles before leaving her in a deserted area. This experience did not break Crouch\\-Hazlett's commitment, but it did nonetheless coincide with an end to her tenure as a Socialist Party organizer.",
"Membership in the SPA plummeted during the early part of the 1920s, following its splitinto rival Socialist and Communist organizations at its [1919 Emergency National Convention](/wiki/1919_Emergency_National_Convention \"1919 Emergency National Convention\"). With dues collections drastically diminished, the party was forced to curtail the number of its paid [functionaries](/wiki/Functionary \"Functionary\") due to ensuing budgetary difficulties, forcing Hazlett to seek other means of support.",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett visited England, arranging beforehand with British labor activist [Jessie Stephen](/wiki/Jessie_Stephen \"Jessie Stephen\") to have her letters typed whilst there.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat\\=394\\-lp\\_5\\&cid\\=1\\-20\\-1\\-14\\#1\\-20\\-1\\-14 \\| title\\=Correspondence re Mrs Ida Crouch\\-Hazlett's visit to England. LP/WG/USA/24\\-29 \\| work\\=\\[\\[The National Archives (United Kingdom)\\|The National Archives]] \\| date\\=16 July 1935 \\| accessdate\\=December 7, 2012}}",
"### Death and legacy",
"In 1925 Crouch\\-Hazlett enrolled at [New York University](/wiki/New_York_University \"New York University\") in an effort to earn a [Doctorate degree](/wiki/PhD \"PhD\"). She died in May 1941\\. Her papers reside among the Social Democratic Party Papers of the [Milwaukee County Historical Society](/wiki/Milwaukee_County_Historical_Society \"Milwaukee County Historical Society\") in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin \"Milwaukee, Wisconsin\").",
""
] |
### Political career
Crouch\-Hazlett's first foray into politics came in 1896, when she was named a national organizer for the [National American Woman Suffrage Association](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association "National American Woman Suffrage Association") (NAWSA). Crouch\-Hazlett was one of the NAWSA's professional organizers who toured the length and breadth of [California](/wiki/California "California") during the unsuccessful 1896 election campaign, joining such stalwarts of the movement as [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony "Susan B. Anthony"), [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt "Carrie Chapman Catt"), and [Anna Howard Shaw](/wiki/Anna_Howard_Shaw "Anna Howard Shaw"). Crouch\-Hazlett continued on the staff of the NAWSA until 1901, touring the country for the organization and conducting public lectures building public support for women's right to vote.
Shortly after the start of the 20th century, Crouch\-Hazlett began to see the fight for [socialism](/wiki/Socialism "Socialism") as a central component of the struggle of women for equal rights and she made advancement of the socialist movement a central part of her political efforts.Buhle, *Women and American Socialism, 1870\-1920,* pg. 241\. She joined the fledgling [Socialist Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America "Socialist Party of America") (SPA) around the time of its formation in 1901 and thereafter became one of its most prominent female voices.
In 1902, Hazlett became the first female candidate for U.S. Congress in the state of Colorado when she ran for the [House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives "U.S. House of Representatives") on the Socialist ticket.
After the 1902 campaign, Hazlett continued without pause taking her oratorial skills on the road on behalf of the Socialist Party as one of its national organizers. Crouch\-Hazlett spent the better part of the next two years, holding public lectures and thereby attempting to help build state and local organizations for the new political party. She remained one of the SPA's touring national organizers through 1904\.
Crouch\-Hazlett was a delegate of the [Socialist Party of Colorado](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Colorado "Socialist Party of Colorado") to the 1904 National Convention of the Socialist Party["Delegates to the 1904 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv04delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/ and a [Socialist Party of Montana](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Montana "Socialist Party of Montana") delegate to the 1908 Convention.["Delegates to the 1908 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv08delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/
Following her time as a Socialist Party traveling lecturer, Crouch\-Hazlett settled down as an organizer for the Socialist Party of Montana, an organization at the time of about 450 dues\-paying members active in 25 "locals."Jerry W. Calvert, *The Gibraltar: Socialism and Labor in Butte, Montana, 1895\-1920\.* Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1988; pg. 30\. Hazlett was named editor of the Socialist Party of Montana's newspaper, *Montana News,* in December 1905\.Montana Historical Society, ["Montana News (Lewistown, Mont.),"](http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/essays/251/) Chronicling America, chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/
One historian has called Crouch\-Hazlett "a most different administrator" of the party newspaper, noting that she preferred to play the role of "roving reporter" and leaving the technical and administrative details of newspaper production to her close political associate, State Secretary [James D. Graham](/wiki/James_D._Graham "James D. Graham"). Her time traversing the massive state of [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana") in this period involved Crouch\-Hazlett closely with the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners "Western Federation of Miners"). Her association in the labor movement also had a certain participatory element, as during the course of her life, Hazlett was herself a member of the [Knights of Labor](/wiki/Knights_of_Labor "Knights of Labor") and the [American Labor Union](/wiki/American_Labor_Union "American Labor Union"), ultimately unsuccessful rivals of the [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor "American Federation of Labor").
Beginning in 1908, the Montana Socialist Party was divided by a bitter factional split, pitting Graham and party editor Crouch\-Hazlett on one side and [Lewis Duncan](/wiki/Lewis_Duncan "Lewis Duncan"), the future Socialist mayor of [Butte](/wiki/Butte%2C_Montana "Butte, Montana"), on the other. Driven by Local Butte, the 1908 State Convention of the Socialist Party of Montana appointed an auditing committee headed by Duncan to closely inspect the organization's books.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 33\. Duncan proclaimed the state party's books to be in "wretched condition" and led Local Butte in organizing a call for the resignation of Graham and Hazlett. While Graham was amenable, Crouch\-Hazlett refused to accede to this demand, so in the spring of 1909 the Duncan\-dominated State Executive Committee expelled both Graham and Hazlett from the party's ranks and formally terminated the organization's connection with the [Lewistown](/wiki/Lewistown%2C_Montana "Lewistown, Montana")\-based *Montana News.*
Graham and Crouch\-Hazlett were accused of the misappropriation of party funds by the Duncan faction, and the matter ended up in the courts. The [Unitarian](/wiki/Unitarianism "Unitarianism") minister Duncan also made morals allegations against Crouch\-Hazlett, charging that she had been "living openly in an adulterous and licentious relationship with a former member of the Lewistown local."
Back of these factional fisticuffs in addition to financial and personal disagreements there lay a policy difference. Local Butte was at this time warmly supportive of [Big Bill Haywood](/wiki/Big_Bill_Haywood "Big Bill Haywood"), [industrial unionism](/wiki/Industrial_unionism "Industrial unionism"), and the syndicalist [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World "Industrial Workers of the World"), going so far as to endorse Haywood as a potential candidate for [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States"), while Crouch\-Hazlett in *Montana News* stressed the historic refusal of the Socialist Party to directly intervene in trade union matters.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 34\.
in 1910, with *Montana News* broken by the factional warfare and party membership down by 45 percent, Crouch\-Hazlett again resumed her role as a professional organizer for the Socialist Party of America. She dedicated the bulk of her time to organizing efforts in the American South from 1914 to 1916\. Crouch\-Hazlett moved to [Brooklyn, New York](/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York "Brooklyn, New York") during the latter part of the decade and ran for [New York State Assembly](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly "New York State Assembly") in the 1st District of [Kings County, New York](/wiki/Kings_County%2C_New_York "Kings County, New York") on the Socialist ticket in 1920\.["Ida Crough (sic.) Hazlett,"](http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/hayworth-heacock.html#202.54.53) Political Graveyard, politicalgraveyard.com/
Crouch\-Hazlett ended her career as an organizer on behalf of the Socialist Party in 1921\. During this final year, Crouch\-Hazlett was at least once [kidnapped](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping") by a band of members of the [American Legion](/wiki/American_Legion "American Legion"), who transported her hundreds of miles before leaving her in a deserted area. This experience did not break Crouch\-Hazlett's commitment, but it did nonetheless coincide with an end to her tenure as a Socialist Party organizer.
Membership in the SPA plummeted during the early part of the 1920s, following its splitinto rival Socialist and Communist organizations at its [1919 Emergency National Convention](/wiki/1919_Emergency_National_Convention "1919 Emergency National Convention"). With dues collections drastically diminished, the party was forced to curtail the number of its paid [functionaries](/wiki/Functionary "Functionary") due to ensuing budgetary difficulties, forcing Hazlett to seek other means of support.
Crouch\-Hazlett visited England, arranging beforehand with British labor activist [Jessie Stephen](/wiki/Jessie_Stephen "Jessie Stephen") to have her letters typed whilst there.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat\=394\-lp\_5\&cid\=1\-20\-1\-14\#1\-20\-1\-14 \| title\=Correspondence re Mrs Ida Crouch\-Hazlett's visit to England. LP/WG/USA/24\-29 \| work\=\[\[The National Archives (United Kingdom)\|The National Archives]] \| date\=16 July 1935 \| accessdate\=December 7, 2012}}
|
[
"### Political career",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett's first foray into politics came in 1896, when she was named a national organizer for the [National American Woman Suffrage Association](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association \"National American Woman Suffrage Association\") (NAWSA). Crouch\\-Hazlett was one of the NAWSA's professional organizers who toured the length and breadth of [California](/wiki/California \"California\") during the unsuccessful 1896 election campaign, joining such stalwarts of the movement as [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony \"Susan B. Anthony\"), [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt \"Carrie Chapman Catt\"), and [Anna Howard Shaw](/wiki/Anna_Howard_Shaw \"Anna Howard Shaw\"). Crouch\\-Hazlett continued on the staff of the NAWSA until 1901, touring the country for the organization and conducting public lectures building public support for women's right to vote.",
"Shortly after the start of the 20th century, Crouch\\-Hazlett began to see the fight for [socialism](/wiki/Socialism \"Socialism\") as a central component of the struggle of women for equal rights and she made advancement of the socialist movement a central part of her political efforts.Buhle, *Women and American Socialism, 1870\\-1920,* pg. 241\\. She joined the fledgling [Socialist Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America \"Socialist Party of America\") (SPA) around the time of its formation in 1901 and thereafter became one of its most prominent female voices.",
"In 1902, Hazlett became the first female candidate for U.S. Congress in the state of Colorado when she ran for the [House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives \"U.S. House of Representatives\") on the Socialist ticket.",
"After the 1902 campaign, Hazlett continued without pause taking her oratorial skills on the road on behalf of the Socialist Party as one of its national organizers. Crouch\\-Hazlett spent the better part of the next two years, holding public lectures and thereby attempting to help build state and local organizations for the new political party. She remained one of the SPA's touring national organizers through 1904\\.",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett was a delegate of the [Socialist Party of Colorado](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Colorado \"Socialist Party of Colorado\") to the 1904 National Convention of the Socialist Party[\"Delegates to the 1904 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,\"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv04delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/ and a [Socialist Party of Montana](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Montana \"Socialist Party of Montana\") delegate to the 1908 Convention.[\"Delegates to the 1908 Convention of the Socialist Party of America,\"](http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/spa-conv08delegates.html) Early American Marxism website, www.marxisthistory.org/",
"Following her time as a Socialist Party traveling lecturer, Crouch\\-Hazlett settled down as an organizer for the Socialist Party of Montana, an organization at the time of about 450 dues\\-paying members active in 25 \"locals.\"Jerry W. Calvert, *The Gibraltar: Socialism and Labor in Butte, Montana, 1895\\-1920\\.* Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1988; pg. 30\\. Hazlett was named editor of the Socialist Party of Montana's newspaper, *Montana News,* in December 1905\\.Montana Historical Society, [\"Montana News (Lewistown, Mont.),\"](http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/essays/251/) Chronicling America, chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/",
"One historian has called Crouch\\-Hazlett \"a most different administrator\" of the party newspaper, noting that she preferred to play the role of \"roving reporter\" and leaving the technical and administrative details of newspaper production to her close political associate, State Secretary [James D. Graham](/wiki/James_D._Graham \"James D. Graham\"). Her time traversing the massive state of [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\") in this period involved Crouch\\-Hazlett closely with the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners \"Western Federation of Miners\"). Her association in the labor movement also had a certain participatory element, as during the course of her life, Hazlett was herself a member of the [Knights of Labor](/wiki/Knights_of_Labor \"Knights of Labor\") and the [American Labor Union](/wiki/American_Labor_Union \"American Labor Union\"), ultimately unsuccessful rivals of the [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor \"American Federation of Labor\").",
"Beginning in 1908, the Montana Socialist Party was divided by a bitter factional split, pitting Graham and party editor Crouch\\-Hazlett on one side and [Lewis Duncan](/wiki/Lewis_Duncan \"Lewis Duncan\"), the future Socialist mayor of [Butte](/wiki/Butte%2C_Montana \"Butte, Montana\"), on the other. Driven by Local Butte, the 1908 State Convention of the Socialist Party of Montana appointed an auditing committee headed by Duncan to closely inspect the organization's books.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 33\\. Duncan proclaimed the state party's books to be in \"wretched condition\" and led Local Butte in organizing a call for the resignation of Graham and Hazlett. While Graham was amenable, Crouch\\-Hazlett refused to accede to this demand, so in the spring of 1909 the Duncan\\-dominated State Executive Committee expelled both Graham and Hazlett from the party's ranks and formally terminated the organization's connection with the [Lewistown](/wiki/Lewistown%2C_Montana \"Lewistown, Montana\")\\-based *Montana News.*",
"Graham and Crouch\\-Hazlett were accused of the misappropriation of party funds by the Duncan faction, and the matter ended up in the courts. The [Unitarian](/wiki/Unitarianism \"Unitarianism\") minister Duncan also made morals allegations against Crouch\\-Hazlett, charging that she had been \"living openly in an adulterous and licentious relationship with a former member of the Lewistown local.\"",
"Back of these factional fisticuffs in addition to financial and personal disagreements there lay a policy difference. Local Butte was at this time warmly supportive of [Big Bill Haywood](/wiki/Big_Bill_Haywood \"Big Bill Haywood\"), [industrial unionism](/wiki/Industrial_unionism \"Industrial unionism\"), and the syndicalist [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World \"Industrial Workers of the World\"), going so far as to endorse Haywood as a potential candidate for [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\"), while Crouch\\-Hazlett in *Montana News* stressed the historic refusal of the Socialist Party to directly intervene in trade union matters.Calvert, *The Gibraltar,* pg. 34\\.",
"in 1910, with *Montana News* broken by the factional warfare and party membership down by 45 percent, Crouch\\-Hazlett again resumed her role as a professional organizer for the Socialist Party of America. She dedicated the bulk of her time to organizing efforts in the American South from 1914 to 1916\\. Crouch\\-Hazlett moved to [Brooklyn, New York](/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York \"Brooklyn, New York\") during the latter part of the decade and ran for [New York State Assembly](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly \"New York State Assembly\") in the 1st District of [Kings County, New York](/wiki/Kings_County%2C_New_York \"Kings County, New York\") on the Socialist ticket in 1920\\.[\"Ida Crough (sic.) Hazlett,\"](http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/hayworth-heacock.html#202.54.53) Political Graveyard, politicalgraveyard.com/",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett ended her career as an organizer on behalf of the Socialist Party in 1921\\. During this final year, Crouch\\-Hazlett was at least once [kidnapped](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\") by a band of members of the [American Legion](/wiki/American_Legion \"American Legion\"), who transported her hundreds of miles before leaving her in a deserted area. This experience did not break Crouch\\-Hazlett's commitment, but it did nonetheless coincide with an end to her tenure as a Socialist Party organizer.",
"Membership in the SPA plummeted during the early part of the 1920s, following its splitinto rival Socialist and Communist organizations at its [1919 Emergency National Convention](/wiki/1919_Emergency_National_Convention \"1919 Emergency National Convention\"). With dues collections drastically diminished, the party was forced to curtail the number of its paid [functionaries](/wiki/Functionary \"Functionary\") due to ensuing budgetary difficulties, forcing Hazlett to seek other means of support.",
"Crouch\\-Hazlett visited England, arranging beforehand with British labor activist [Jessie Stephen](/wiki/Jessie_Stephen \"Jessie Stephen\") to have her letters typed whilst there.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat\\=394\\-lp\\_5\\&cid\\=1\\-20\\-1\\-14\\#1\\-20\\-1\\-14 \\| title\\=Correspondence re Mrs Ida Crouch\\-Hazlett's visit to England. LP/WG/USA/24\\-29 \\| work\\=\\[\\[The National Archives (United Kingdom)\\|The National Archives]] \\| date\\=16 July 1935 \\| accessdate\\=December 7, 2012}}",
""
] |
Racing career
-------------
### Moonshine
Like many early NASCAR drivers, Flock's career began by delivering illegal [moonshine](/wiki/Moonshine "Moonshine"). He started delivering on his bicycle as a teenager. He used his car to deliver moonshine as he got older. "I used to deliberately seek out the sheriff and get him to chase me," he later recalled. "It was fun, and besides we could send to California to get special parts to modify our cars, and the sheriff couldn't afford to do that."{{cite web\|last\=Hickok\|first\=Ralph\|title\=Flock, "Fonty" (Truman Fontell)\|url\=http://www.hickoksports.com/biograph/flockfonty.shtml\|publisher\=hickoksports.com\|access\-date\=24 April 2012\|date\=February 18, 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130103215722/http://www.hickoksports.com/biograph/flockfonty.shtml\|archive\-date\=3 January 2013}}
### Early career
Flock won a 100\-mile race at [Lakewood Speedway](/wiki/Lakewood_Speedway "Lakewood Speedway") Park in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta"), in 1940\. He raced on dirt tracks in Georgia.
He qualified in the pole position for the July 27, 1941, race at the [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course "Daytona Beach Road Course") beside [Roy Hall](/wiki/Roy_Hall_%28racing_driver%29 "Roy Hall (racing driver)"). Flock took the early lead before he and Hall got together in the south turn. Flock rolled and landed upside down in bushes. The seatbelt broke during the rolling, and Flock was tossed around. He was rushed by ambulance to the hospital, having suffered a crushed chest, broken pelvis, head and back injuries, and severe shock.
### World War II
Flock was in the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") Air Corps for four years during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").{{cite book \|last1\=Freedman \|first1\=Lew \|title\=Encyclopedia of Stock Car Racing \|date\=2013 \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|isbn\=9780313387104 \|page\=225 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JbABCwhdfhAC\&pg\=PA225}}
### NASCAR career
His brother convinced car owner Ed Schenck to put Flock in his car at the first race at the [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway "North Wilkesboro Speedway") on May 5, 1947\. Flock won the pole and his [heat race](/wiki/Dirt_track_racing%23Heat_races "Dirt track racing#Heat races"). He won the 30\-lap feature after not racing in {{frac\|4\|1\|2}} years. He took over his brother Bob's ride later in the season after Bob broke his back. He won seven of 47 races that season, and beat [Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples "Ed Samples") and [Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron "Red Byron") to win the [National Championship Stock Car Circuit](/wiki/NASCAR%23Founding "NASCAR#Founding") championship.
He won eleven features and won the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") National Modified championship in 1949\. He raced in six of eight Strictly Stock (later [Grand National Series](/wiki/Grand_National_Series "Grand National Series")) events and finished fifth in the points.
He raced his first full\-time season in the Grand National series in 1951\. He had eight wins, 22 Top\-10s, and 13 poles to finish second in the points. He won the 100\-mile Grand National Stock Car race at Bainbridge Speedway, Solon, Ohio, on July 9, 1951\.*Motor Sports World*, Vol.1, No.4, Los Angeles, California, July 13, 1951, Page 1\.
He had two wins, 17 Top\-10s, and seven poles in 1952\. He finished fourth in the points.
He was leading by more than a minute at the 1953 [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course "Daytona Beach Road Course") race but ran out of gas taking the white flag at the start of the final lap. Flock's teammate pushed his car into the pits. [Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Blair (racing driver)") passed to win the race in a 1953 Oldsmobile. Flock finished second by 26 seconds. He had four wins, 17 Top\-10 finishes, and three poles to finish fourth in the final points.
He opened an insurance agency in 1954, racing part\-time after that.
Flock raced 31 of 45 events in 1955\. He had three wins, 14 Top\-10s, and six poles. He finished eleventh in the points.
He had his final win in 1956 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway "Charlotte Speedway").
In 1957, he raced at the Daytona Beach Road Course. [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") had been gravely injured in a 1956 race held at the Cleveland County Fairgrounds in [Shelby, North Carolina](/wiki/Shelby%2C_North_Carolina "Shelby, North Carolina"), so he asked Flock to drive the car in the [1957](/wiki/1957_Southern_500 "1957 Southern 500") [Southern 500](/wiki/Southern_500 "Southern 500"). Flock accepted. He spun and was smashed by [Bobby Myers](/wiki/Bobby_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 "Bobby Myers (racing driver)") and [Paul Goldsmith](/wiki/Paul_Goldsmith "Paul Goldsmith") on lap 27, injuring all, and killing Myers. From the hospital bed, Flock announced his retirement.{{cite news\|title\=Fonty Flock quits racing after a brush with death\|newspaper\=\[\[The Post and Courier\|The News and Courier]]\|date\=September 3, 1957\|location\=Charleston, South Carolina\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} He died on July 15, 1972, after a lengthy illness.{{cite news\|title\=Fonty Flock dies in Atlanta\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=8JMjAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=H5oFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3716%2C3430454\|newspaper\=\[\[Reading Eagle]]\|date\=July 16, 1972\|agency\=Associated Press}}
|
[
"Racing career\n-------------",
"### Moonshine",
"Like many early NASCAR drivers, Flock's career began by delivering illegal [moonshine](/wiki/Moonshine \"Moonshine\"). He started delivering on his bicycle as a teenager. He used his car to deliver moonshine as he got older. \"I used to deliberately seek out the sheriff and get him to chase me,\" he later recalled. \"It was fun, and besides we could send to California to get special parts to modify our cars, and the sheriff couldn't afford to do that.\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Hickok\\|first\\=Ralph\\|title\\=Flock, \"Fonty\" (Truman Fontell)\\|url\\=http://www.hickoksports.com/biograph/flockfonty.shtml\\|publisher\\=hickoksports.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2012\\|date\\=February 18, 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130103215722/http://www.hickoksports.com/biograph/flockfonty.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2013}}",
"### Early career",
"Flock won a 100\\-mile race at [Lakewood Speedway](/wiki/Lakewood_Speedway \"Lakewood Speedway\") Park in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\"), in 1940\\. He raced on dirt tracks in Georgia.",
"He qualified in the pole position for the July 27, 1941, race at the [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course \"Daytona Beach Road Course\") beside [Roy Hall](/wiki/Roy_Hall_%28racing_driver%29 \"Roy Hall (racing driver)\"). Flock took the early lead before he and Hall got together in the south turn. Flock rolled and landed upside down in bushes. The seatbelt broke during the rolling, and Flock was tossed around. He was rushed by ambulance to the hospital, having suffered a crushed chest, broken pelvis, head and back injuries, and severe shock.",
"### World War II",
"Flock was in the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") Air Corps for four years during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Freedman \\|first1\\=Lew \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Stock Car Racing \\|date\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|isbn\\=9780313387104 \\|page\\=225 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JbABCwhdfhAC\\&pg\\=PA225}}",
"### NASCAR career",
"His brother convinced car owner Ed Schenck to put Flock in his car at the first race at the [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway \"North Wilkesboro Speedway\") on May 5, 1947\\. Flock won the pole and his [heat race](/wiki/Dirt_track_racing%23Heat_races \"Dirt track racing#Heat races\"). He won the 30\\-lap feature after not racing in {{frac\\|4\\|1\\|2}} years. He took over his brother Bob's ride later in the season after Bob broke his back. He won seven of 47 races that season, and beat [Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples \"Ed Samples\") and [Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron \"Red Byron\") to win the [National Championship Stock Car Circuit](/wiki/NASCAR%23Founding \"NASCAR#Founding\") championship.",
"He won eleven features and won the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") National Modified championship in 1949\\. He raced in six of eight Strictly Stock (later [Grand National Series](/wiki/Grand_National_Series \"Grand National Series\")) events and finished fifth in the points.",
"He raced his first full\\-time season in the Grand National series in 1951\\. He had eight wins, 22 Top\\-10s, and 13 poles to finish second in the points. He won the 100\\-mile Grand National Stock Car race at Bainbridge Speedway, Solon, Ohio, on July 9, 1951\\.*Motor Sports World*, Vol.1, No.4, Los Angeles, California, July 13, 1951, Page 1\\.",
"He had two wins, 17 Top\\-10s, and seven poles in 1952\\. He finished fourth in the points.",
"He was leading by more than a minute at the 1953 [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course \"Daytona Beach Road Course\") race but ran out of gas taking the white flag at the start of the final lap. Flock's teammate pushed his car into the pits. [Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Blair (racing driver)\") passed to win the race in a 1953 Oldsmobile. Flock finished second by 26 seconds. He had four wins, 17 Top\\-10 finishes, and three poles to finish fourth in the final points.",
"He opened an insurance agency in 1954, racing part\\-time after that.",
"Flock raced 31 of 45 events in 1955\\. He had three wins, 14 Top\\-10s, and six poles. He finished eleventh in the points.",
"He had his final win in 1956 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway \"Charlotte Speedway\").",
"In 1957, he raced at the Daytona Beach Road Course. [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") had been gravely injured in a 1956 race held at the Cleveland County Fairgrounds in [Shelby, North Carolina](/wiki/Shelby%2C_North_Carolina \"Shelby, North Carolina\"), so he asked Flock to drive the car in the [1957](/wiki/1957_Southern_500 \"1957 Southern 500\") [Southern 500](/wiki/Southern_500 \"Southern 500\"). Flock accepted. He spun and was smashed by [Bobby Myers](/wiki/Bobby_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bobby Myers (racing driver)\") and [Paul Goldsmith](/wiki/Paul_Goldsmith \"Paul Goldsmith\") on lap 27, injuring all, and killing Myers. From the hospital bed, Flock announced his retirement.{{cite news\\|title\\=Fonty Flock quits racing after a brush with death\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Post and Courier\\|The News and Courier]]\\|date\\=September 3, 1957\\|location\\=Charleston, South Carolina\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} He died on July 15, 1972, after a lengthy illness.{{cite news\\|title\\=Fonty Flock dies in Atlanta\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=8JMjAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=H5oFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3716%2C3430454\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Reading Eagle]]\\|date\\=July 16, 1972\\|agency\\=Associated Press}}",
""
] |
### NASCAR career
His brother convinced car owner Ed Schenck to put Flock in his car at the first race at the [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway "North Wilkesboro Speedway") on May 5, 1947\. Flock won the pole and his [heat race](/wiki/Dirt_track_racing%23Heat_races "Dirt track racing#Heat races"). He won the 30\-lap feature after not racing in {{frac\|4\|1\|2}} years. He took over his brother Bob's ride later in the season after Bob broke his back. He won seven of 47 races that season, and beat [Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples "Ed Samples") and [Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron "Red Byron") to win the [National Championship Stock Car Circuit](/wiki/NASCAR%23Founding "NASCAR#Founding") championship.
He won eleven features and won the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") National Modified championship in 1949\. He raced in six of eight Strictly Stock (later [Grand National Series](/wiki/Grand_National_Series "Grand National Series")) events and finished fifth in the points.
He raced his first full\-time season in the Grand National series in 1951\. He had eight wins, 22 Top\-10s, and 13 poles to finish second in the points. He won the 100\-mile Grand National Stock Car race at Bainbridge Speedway, Solon, Ohio, on July 9, 1951\.*Motor Sports World*, Vol.1, No.4, Los Angeles, California, July 13, 1951, Page 1\.
He had two wins, 17 Top\-10s, and seven poles in 1952\. He finished fourth in the points.
He was leading by more than a minute at the 1953 [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course "Daytona Beach Road Course") race but ran out of gas taking the white flag at the start of the final lap. Flock's teammate pushed his car into the pits. [Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Blair (racing driver)") passed to win the race in a 1953 Oldsmobile. Flock finished second by 26 seconds. He had four wins, 17 Top\-10 finishes, and three poles to finish fourth in the final points.
He opened an insurance agency in 1954, racing part\-time after that.
Flock raced 31 of 45 events in 1955\. He had three wins, 14 Top\-10s, and six poles. He finished eleventh in the points.
He had his final win in 1956 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway "Charlotte Speedway").
In 1957, he raced at the Daytona Beach Road Course. [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") had been gravely injured in a 1956 race held at the Cleveland County Fairgrounds in [Shelby, North Carolina](/wiki/Shelby%2C_North_Carolina "Shelby, North Carolina"), so he asked Flock to drive the car in the [1957](/wiki/1957_Southern_500 "1957 Southern 500") [Southern 500](/wiki/Southern_500 "Southern 500"). Flock accepted. He spun and was smashed by [Bobby Myers](/wiki/Bobby_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 "Bobby Myers (racing driver)") and [Paul Goldsmith](/wiki/Paul_Goldsmith "Paul Goldsmith") on lap 27, injuring all, and killing Myers. From the hospital bed, Flock announced his retirement.{{cite news\|title\=Fonty Flock quits racing after a brush with death\|newspaper\=\[\[The Post and Courier\|The News and Courier]]\|date\=September 3, 1957\|location\=Charleston, South Carolina\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} He died on July 15, 1972, after a lengthy illness.{{cite news\|title\=Fonty Flock dies in Atlanta\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=8JMjAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=H5oFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3716%2C3430454\|newspaper\=\[\[Reading Eagle]]\|date\=July 16, 1972\|agency\=Associated Press}}
|
[
"### NASCAR career",
"His brother convinced car owner Ed Schenck to put Flock in his car at the first race at the [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway \"North Wilkesboro Speedway\") on May 5, 1947\\. Flock won the pole and his [heat race](/wiki/Dirt_track_racing%23Heat_races \"Dirt track racing#Heat races\"). He won the 30\\-lap feature after not racing in {{frac\\|4\\|1\\|2}} years. He took over his brother Bob's ride later in the season after Bob broke his back. He won seven of 47 races that season, and beat [Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples \"Ed Samples\") and [Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron \"Red Byron\") to win the [National Championship Stock Car Circuit](/wiki/NASCAR%23Founding \"NASCAR#Founding\") championship.",
"He won eleven features and won the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") National Modified championship in 1949\\. He raced in six of eight Strictly Stock (later [Grand National Series](/wiki/Grand_National_Series \"Grand National Series\")) events and finished fifth in the points.",
"He raced his first full\\-time season in the Grand National series in 1951\\. He had eight wins, 22 Top\\-10s, and 13 poles to finish second in the points. He won the 100\\-mile Grand National Stock Car race at Bainbridge Speedway, Solon, Ohio, on July 9, 1951\\.*Motor Sports World*, Vol.1, No.4, Los Angeles, California, July 13, 1951, Page 1\\.",
"He had two wins, 17 Top\\-10s, and seven poles in 1952\\. He finished fourth in the points.",
"He was leading by more than a minute at the 1953 [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course \"Daytona Beach Road Course\") race but ran out of gas taking the white flag at the start of the final lap. Flock's teammate pushed his car into the pits. [Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Blair (racing driver)\") passed to win the race in a 1953 Oldsmobile. Flock finished second by 26 seconds. He had four wins, 17 Top\\-10 finishes, and three poles to finish fourth in the final points.",
"He opened an insurance agency in 1954, racing part\\-time after that.",
"Flock raced 31 of 45 events in 1955\\. He had three wins, 14 Top\\-10s, and six poles. He finished eleventh in the points.",
"He had his final win in 1956 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway \"Charlotte Speedway\").",
"In 1957, he raced at the Daytona Beach Road Course. [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") had been gravely injured in a 1956 race held at the Cleveland County Fairgrounds in [Shelby, North Carolina](/wiki/Shelby%2C_North_Carolina \"Shelby, North Carolina\"), so he asked Flock to drive the car in the [1957](/wiki/1957_Southern_500 \"1957 Southern 500\") [Southern 500](/wiki/Southern_500 \"Southern 500\"). Flock accepted. He spun and was smashed by [Bobby Myers](/wiki/Bobby_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bobby Myers (racing driver)\") and [Paul Goldsmith](/wiki/Paul_Goldsmith \"Paul Goldsmith\") on lap 27, injuring all, and killing Myers. From the hospital bed, Flock announced his retirement.{{cite news\\|title\\=Fonty Flock quits racing after a brush with death\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Post and Courier\\|The News and Courier]]\\|date\\=September 3, 1957\\|location\\=Charleston, South Carolina\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} He died on July 15, 1972, after a lengthy illness.{{cite news\\|title\\=Fonty Flock dies in Atlanta\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=8JMjAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=H5oFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3716%2C3430454\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Reading Eagle]]\\|date\\=July 16, 1972\\|agency\\=Associated Press}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Beginning – Monetary reform
In 1879, Bernhard Wesseler from [Darup](/wiki/Nottuln "Nottuln") purchased a building with surrounding land in the [heath](/wiki/Heath "Heath") of Kümper near Altenberge. He became a farmer and opened a smithy. It was expanded for the first time in 1909\. Wesselers son Heinrich joined the company in 1911 or 1912,This remains unclear. Some sources claim 1911, (Landwirtschaftliches Wochenblatt Westfalen/Lippe No. 33\. 16 August 1990\. [Page 33](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1990-Wochenblatt.pdf)), (Franz Sundorf: Wesseler\-Chronik. 2016\. [Page 60](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/Anlagen_gesamt_v02.pdf)), while others claim 1912\. (1936 Schlepperbau begonnen – in Westfälische Nachrichten, 1966; [page 1](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1966-WN-Heinrich-Wesseler.pdf)), (100 Jahre Wesseler Landtechnik, 1979; [page 86](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/Anlagen_gesamt_v02.pdf)) and started repairing and selling agricultural machines.*[1936 Schlepperbau begonnen](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1966-WN-Heinrich-Wesseler.pdf)* – in Westfälische Nachrichten, 1966 Until 1936, the company [Schmitz](/wiki/Schmitz_Cargobull "Schmitz Cargobull") was the most important competitor. In the same year, Wesseler bought all the agricultural machine parts from Schmitz; Schmitz has been focussing on manufacturing trailers since then. 12 employees worked for Wesseler in 1936, the first tractor prototype was built in the same year. It had a [ladder frame](/wiki/Ladder_frame "Ladder frame") and a [hopper\-cooled](/wiki/Hopper_cooling "Hopper cooling") engine. This prototype was improved and Wesseler showed it to the public in 1938\. No more than 20 tractors of this type were produced until 1940\.*[Wesseler: Schlepper aus Altenberge](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1990-Wochenblatt.pdf)* – in Landwirtschaftliches Wochenblatt Westfalen/Lippe No. 33\. 16 August 1990\. Page 33 Today, no pre\-war Wesseler tractors exist anymore. Before the Second World War, Wesseler was still a company specialised in smithy tasks rather than a tractor manufacturer, so that a new forge was built in 1939\.
During the Second World War, some Wesseler employees were conscripted, the tractor production was halted. Wesseler also used [forced labour](/wiki/Unfree_labour "Unfree labour"), two polish workers had to work in the plant. In the early war years, the company mainly repaired bicycles. Caused by the war, neither fuel nor production material was available, so that old military trucks and [wood gas motors](/wiki/Wood_gas_generator "Wood gas generator") had to be used to produce new tractors in the first post war years. The regular tractor production using the frameless block construction method began after the [monetary reform](/wiki/Monetary_reform "Monetary reform") in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") in 1948\. At this time, Wesseler had 10 employees.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2022}}
### Economical upswing during the tractor demand period
The economical upswing of Wesseler began with the monetary reform. Wesseler gained profit from the huge tractor demand in Germany in the 1950s. The sons of Heinrich Wesseler, Ludger and Paul already worked for the company back then. At first it was planned to turn Wesseler into a [Fahr](/wiki/Deutz-Fahr "Deutz-Fahr") dealer, due to Fahr supply problems, Wesseler also sold tractors of other brands such as Normag and [Schlüter](/wiki/Anton_Schl%C3%BCter_M%C3%BCnchen "Anton Schlüter München"). Wesseler also sold their own tractors. Later, Wesseler became an important [Claas](/wiki/Claas "Claas") dealer and focused on producing their own tractors. In 1952, a tractor workshop was built, it was increased in size in 1959\. However, Wesseler still manufactured other goods such as tableware. A BP [petrol station](/wiki/Petrol_station "Petrol station") was a part of the Wesseler plant.
An important occurrence was the DLG\-show 1949 in [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt "Frankfurt"), where the first [MWM](/wiki/MWM_GmbH "MWM GmbH") diesel engine was bought. Before the tractors were fitted with MWM engines, Wesseler used Deutz engines, which had a bad durability due to bad lubrication oil quality. MWM engines could also use the bad lubrication oil, they became the standard diesel engines of Wesseler tractors; starting in 1953, Wesseler offered every tractor type with a water\-cooled and an air\-cooled MWM engine of the same power output. Prometheus gearboxes were used first, later, Wesseler switched to [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen "ZF Friedrichshafen") gearboxes. Those used to be progressive in the 1950s as well as the direct injection MWM diesel engines.
Soon, Wesseler became an exhibitor at several fairs in Germany. A Wesseler dealer network was established, the main distribution areas were the regions around [Münster in Westfalen](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster "Münster") and [Oldenburg](/wiki/Oldenburg_Land "Oldenburg Land"), the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") and [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg"). For the Dutch market, Wesseler tractors got an orange painting and the brand name *Feldmeister*. Primarily, 20 PS tractors were sold in the Netherlands. 800 *Feldmeister* were sold until 1967\. The Belgian market demanded more powerful tractors. In the viniculture regions [Eifel](/wiki/Eifel "Eifel") and [Mosel](/wiki/Mosel_%28wine_region%29 "Mosel (wine region)") some one\-cylinder narrow gauge models with up to 15 PS were sold, some tractors even made it to [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse "Hesse") and [France](/wiki/France "France").
### Zenith and fall
In 1958, Wesseler had 60 employees which worked in a two\-shift\-system. This number soon reached 80 and in 1960, Wesseler had 120 employees. Most employees were from Altenberge and the surrounding areas, some also came from the Netherlands and Belgium. In the early 1950s, some employees built houses next to the Wesseler plant, Wesseler themselves also built houses there for their employees in 1962\. When Wesseler was at the economical zenith in the second half of the 1950s, one tractor left the plant per day. At first, Wesseler kept up with trends such as the equipment carrier tractor but they did not invest in new production machines for the plant. This led to an expensive production which could not compete with the inexpensive production of other tractor manufacturers. Wessler had to register as insolvent, the production was stopped in 1966, when Wesseler had 70 employees. The last tractor, a WL 222 was sold in June 1967\. During three decades, 3600 tractors had been produced which makes Wesseler the fourth\-largest tractor manufacturer of NRW.
Before the registration of insolvency, Wesseler already tried to change the concept of the company in late 1965\. Paul Wesseler wanted to stop the tractor production and form Wesseler into a Fiat dealer. This happened in 1967, when Wesseler became the H. Wesseler KG.*2000 Fiatagri Traktoren verkauft* – in Eilbote, 22/1987\. 28 May 1987\. The company soon became important for the region again as a Fiat dealer, a new tractor workshop was built in 1973, and expanded in 1982\. Wesseler was the second\-largest Fiat dealer in Germany. At the end of the 1980s, Wesseler had to face major problems: A huge and expensive spares store and too many employees. In February 1988, Wesseler had to register als insolvent again. So far, 2000 Fiat tractors had been sold. After the suspension of the insolvency proceedings, a newly founded agricultural machine company rented the Wesseler plant in 1995\.[Agrartechnik Altenberge – Unternehmensentwicklung](http://www.agrartechnik-altenberge.de/unternehmen/entwicklung/index.html) It moved to a new building in 2003\. Since 2004, the tractor museum of Altenberge has been renting the Wesseler plant, which has been an LWL memorial since 2010\. The Wesseler factory was sold by the owner family to a private investor in 2017\. The association then had to liquidate the museum inventory. The association has now rented the former forge and exhibited some Wesseler tractors.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Beginning – Monetary reform",
"In 1879, Bernhard Wesseler from [Darup](/wiki/Nottuln \"Nottuln\") purchased a building with surrounding land in the [heath](/wiki/Heath \"Heath\") of Kümper near Altenberge. He became a farmer and opened a smithy. It was expanded for the first time in 1909\\. Wesselers son Heinrich joined the company in 1911 or 1912,This remains unclear. Some sources claim 1911, (Landwirtschaftliches Wochenblatt Westfalen/Lippe No. 33\\. 16 August 1990\\. [Page 33](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1990-Wochenblatt.pdf)), (Franz Sundorf: Wesseler\\-Chronik. 2016\\. [Page 60](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/Anlagen_gesamt_v02.pdf)), while others claim 1912\\. (1936 Schlepperbau begonnen – in Westfälische Nachrichten, 1966; [page 1](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1966-WN-Heinrich-Wesseler.pdf)), (100 Jahre Wesseler Landtechnik, 1979; [page 86](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/Anlagen_gesamt_v02.pdf)) and started repairing and selling agricultural machines.*[1936 Schlepperbau begonnen](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1966-WN-Heinrich-Wesseler.pdf)* – in Westfälische Nachrichten, 1966 Until 1936, the company [Schmitz](/wiki/Schmitz_Cargobull \"Schmitz Cargobull\") was the most important competitor. In the same year, Wesseler bought all the agricultural machine parts from Schmitz; Schmitz has been focussing on manufacturing trailers since then. 12 employees worked for Wesseler in 1936, the first tractor prototype was built in the same year. It had a [ladder frame](/wiki/Ladder_frame \"Ladder frame\") and a [hopper\\-cooled](/wiki/Hopper_cooling \"Hopper cooling\") engine. This prototype was improved and Wesseler showed it to the public in 1938\\. No more than 20 tractors of this type were produced until 1940\\.*[Wesseler: Schlepper aus Altenberge](http://wesseler-club.joesterweb.de/files/1990-Wochenblatt.pdf)* – in Landwirtschaftliches Wochenblatt Westfalen/Lippe No. 33\\. 16 August 1990\\. Page 33 Today, no pre\\-war Wesseler tractors exist anymore. Before the Second World War, Wesseler was still a company specialised in smithy tasks rather than a tractor manufacturer, so that a new forge was built in 1939\\.",
"During the Second World War, some Wesseler employees were conscripted, the tractor production was halted. Wesseler also used [forced labour](/wiki/Unfree_labour \"Unfree labour\"), two polish workers had to work in the plant. In the early war years, the company mainly repaired bicycles. Caused by the war, neither fuel nor production material was available, so that old military trucks and [wood gas motors](/wiki/Wood_gas_generator \"Wood gas generator\") had to be used to produce new tractors in the first post war years. The regular tractor production using the frameless block construction method began after the [monetary reform](/wiki/Monetary_reform \"Monetary reform\") in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\") in 1948\\. At this time, Wesseler had 10 employees.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2022}}",
"### Economical upswing during the tractor demand period",
"The economical upswing of Wesseler began with the monetary reform. Wesseler gained profit from the huge tractor demand in Germany in the 1950s. The sons of Heinrich Wesseler, Ludger and Paul already worked for the company back then. At first it was planned to turn Wesseler into a [Fahr](/wiki/Deutz-Fahr \"Deutz-Fahr\") dealer, due to Fahr supply problems, Wesseler also sold tractors of other brands such as Normag and [Schlüter](/wiki/Anton_Schl%C3%BCter_M%C3%BCnchen \"Anton Schlüter München\"). Wesseler also sold their own tractors. Later, Wesseler became an important [Claas](/wiki/Claas \"Claas\") dealer and focused on producing their own tractors. In 1952, a tractor workshop was built, it was increased in size in 1959\\. However, Wesseler still manufactured other goods such as tableware. A BP [petrol station](/wiki/Petrol_station \"Petrol station\") was a part of the Wesseler plant.",
"An important occurrence was the DLG\\-show 1949 in [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt \"Frankfurt\"), where the first [MWM](/wiki/MWM_GmbH \"MWM GmbH\") diesel engine was bought. Before the tractors were fitted with MWM engines, Wesseler used Deutz engines, which had a bad durability due to bad lubrication oil quality. MWM engines could also use the bad lubrication oil, they became the standard diesel engines of Wesseler tractors; starting in 1953, Wesseler offered every tractor type with a water\\-cooled and an air\\-cooled MWM engine of the same power output. Prometheus gearboxes were used first, later, Wesseler switched to [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen \"ZF Friedrichshafen\") gearboxes. Those used to be progressive in the 1950s as well as the direct injection MWM diesel engines.",
"Soon, Wesseler became an exhibitor at several fairs in Germany. A Wesseler dealer network was established, the main distribution areas were the regions around [Münster in Westfalen](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster \"Münster\") and [Oldenburg](/wiki/Oldenburg_Land \"Oldenburg Land\"), the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\") and [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\"). For the Dutch market, Wesseler tractors got an orange painting and the brand name *Feldmeister*. Primarily, 20 PS tractors were sold in the Netherlands. 800 *Feldmeister* were sold until 1967\\. The Belgian market demanded more powerful tractors. In the viniculture regions [Eifel](/wiki/Eifel \"Eifel\") and [Mosel](/wiki/Mosel_%28wine_region%29 \"Mosel (wine region)\") some one\\-cylinder narrow gauge models with up to 15 PS were sold, some tractors even made it to [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse \"Hesse\") and [France](/wiki/France \"France\").",
"### Zenith and fall",
"In 1958, Wesseler had 60 employees which worked in a two\\-shift\\-system. This number soon reached 80 and in 1960, Wesseler had 120 employees. Most employees were from Altenberge and the surrounding areas, some also came from the Netherlands and Belgium. In the early 1950s, some employees built houses next to the Wesseler plant, Wesseler themselves also built houses there for their employees in 1962\\. When Wesseler was at the economical zenith in the second half of the 1950s, one tractor left the plant per day. At first, Wesseler kept up with trends such as the equipment carrier tractor but they did not invest in new production machines for the plant. This led to an expensive production which could not compete with the inexpensive production of other tractor manufacturers. Wessler had to register as insolvent, the production was stopped in 1966, when Wesseler had 70 employees. The last tractor, a WL 222 was sold in June 1967\\. During three decades, 3600 tractors had been produced which makes Wesseler the fourth\\-largest tractor manufacturer of NRW.",
"Before the registration of insolvency, Wesseler already tried to change the concept of the company in late 1965\\. Paul Wesseler wanted to stop the tractor production and form Wesseler into a Fiat dealer. This happened in 1967, when Wesseler became the H. Wesseler KG.*2000 Fiatagri Traktoren verkauft* – in Eilbote, 22/1987\\. 28 May 1987\\. The company soon became important for the region again as a Fiat dealer, a new tractor workshop was built in 1973, and expanded in 1982\\. Wesseler was the second\\-largest Fiat dealer in Germany. At the end of the 1980s, Wesseler had to face major problems: A huge and expensive spares store and too many employees. In February 1988, Wesseler had to register als insolvent again. So far, 2000 Fiat tractors had been sold. After the suspension of the insolvency proceedings, a newly founded agricultural machine company rented the Wesseler plant in 1995\\.[Agrartechnik Altenberge – Unternehmensentwicklung](http://www.agrartechnik-altenberge.de/unternehmen/entwicklung/index.html) It moved to a new building in 2003\\. Since 2004, the tractor museum of Altenberge has been renting the Wesseler plant, which has been an LWL memorial since 2010\\. The Wesseler factory was sold by the owner family to a private investor in 2017\\. The association then had to liquidate the museum inventory. The association has now rented the former forge and exhibited some Wesseler tractors.",
""
] |
Weimar Republic years
---------------------
[thumb\|[Karl\-Liebknecht\-Haus](/wiki/Karl-Liebknecht-Haus "Karl-Liebknecht-Haus"), the KPD's headquarters from 1926 to 1933\. The *[Antifaschistische Aktion](/wiki/Antifaschistische_Aktion "Antifaschistische Aktion")* ([abbr.](/wiki/Abbr. "Abbr.") "Antifa") logo can be seen prominently displayed on the front of the building.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P046279%2C_Berlin%2C_Liebknecht-Haus_am_B%C3%BClowplatz.jpg "Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P046279, Berlin, Liebknecht-Haus am Bülowplatz.jpg")
Through the 1920s, the KPD was racked by internal conflict between radical and moderate factions, partly reflecting the power struggles between [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin") and [Grigory Zinoviev](/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev "Grigory Zinoviev") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow").{{citation needed\|date\=April 2022}} Germany was seen as being of central importance to the struggle for socialism, and the failure of the German revolution was a major setback. Eventually Levi was expelled in 1921 by the [Comintern](/wiki/Comintern "Comintern") for "indiscipline". Further leadership changes took place in the 1920s. Supporters of the [Left](/wiki/Left_Opposition "Left Opposition") or [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition "Right Opposition") to the [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinism "Stalinism")\-controlled Comintern leadership were expelled; of these, [Heinrich Brandler](/wiki/Heinrich_Brandler "Heinrich Brandler"), August Thalheimer and [Paul Frölich](/wiki/Paul_Fr%C3%B6lich "Paul Frölich") set up a splinter [Communist Party Opposition](/wiki/Communist_Party_Opposition "Communist Party Opposition") in 1928\.
The leadership of the German Communist party had requested that Moscow send [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky "Leon Trotsky") to Germany to direct the [1923 insurrection](/wiki/German_October "German October"). However, this proposal was rejected by the Politburo which was controlled by Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev who decided to send a commission of lower\-ranking Russian Communist party members.{{cite book \|last1\=Rogovin \|first1\=Vadim Zakharovich \|title\=Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years \|date\=2021 \|publisher\=Mehring Books \|isbn\=978\-1\-893638\-97\-6 \|page\=272 \|language\=en}}
During the years of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic "Weimar Republic"), the KPD was the largest communist party in Europe and seen as the "leading party" of the [communist movement](/wiki/History_of_communism "History of communism") outside of the Soviet Union.Ralf Hoffrogge / Norman LaPorte (eds.): *Weimar Communism as Mass Movement 1918–1933*, London: Lawrence \& Wishart, p. 2 The party abandoned the goal of immediate revolution, and from 1924 onwards contested [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 "Reichstag (Weimar Republic)") elections, with some success.
### Fischer and Thälmann leaderships and the united front
[thumb\|left\|KPD in [Essen](/wiki/Essen "Essen"), 1925](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14686-0026%2C_Essen%2C_Reichspr%C3%A4sidentenwahl%2C_KPD-Wahlwerbung.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14686-0026, Essen, Reichspräsidentenwahl, KPD-Wahlwerbung.jpg")
A new KPD leadership more favorable to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") was elected in 1923\.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2022}} The party's left around [Ruth Fischer](/wiki/Ruth_Fischer "Ruth Fischer"), [Arkadi Maslow](/wiki/Arkadi_Maslow "Arkadi Maslow") and [Werner Scholem](/wiki/Werner_Scholem "Werner Scholem") took leadership of the KPD in 1924; [Ernst Thälmann](/wiki/Ernst_Th%C3%A4lmann "Ernst Thälmann") was allied to this faction and became a member of the politburo and was appointed
KPD vice\-chairman in January 1924\. Stalin engineered the Fischer leadership's removal in August 1925, and installed Thälmann as party chairman.{{cite web \| last\=Bois \| first\=Marcel \| title\=A Son of His Class \| website\=Jacobin \| date\=17 June 2012 \| url\=https://jacobinmag.com/2016/08/ernst\-thalmann\-east\-germany\-stalin\-nazis \| access\-date\=4 January 2022}}
[alt\=A crowd of civilians are standing in the foreground watching armed soldiers in the middle\-ground marching alongside the street. Buildings of downtown Dresden can be seen in the background.\|thumb\|*[Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr")* soldiers marching toward the federal parliament in [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden"), Saxony, to [depose](/wiki/Reichsexekution "Reichsexekution") the state government led by a KPD\-SPD coalition.](/wiki/File:Reichsexekution-Sachsen-1923-Reichswehrkompanie-auf-dem-Weg-zum-Landtagsgebaeu.jpg "Reichsexekution-Sachsen-1923-Reichswehrkompanie-auf-dem-Weg-zum-Landtagsgebaeu.jpg")
From 1923 to 1928, the KPD broadly followed the [united front](/wiki/United_front "United front") policy developed in the early 1920s of working with other working class and socialist parties to contest elections, pursue social struggles and fight the rising right\-wing militias.{{cite book \| last\=Peterson \| first\=Larry \| title\=German Communism, Workers' Protest, and Labor Unions \| chapter\=The United Front \| publisher\=Springer Netherlands \| publication\-place\=Dordrecht \| year\=1993 \| isbn\=978\-94\-010\-4718\-0 \| doi\=10\.1007/978\-94\-011\-1644\-2\_12 \| pages\=399–428}}{{cite journal \| last\=Gaido \| first\=Daniel \| title\=Paul Levi and the Origins of the United\-Front Policy in the Communist International \| journal\=Historical Materialism \| publisher\=Brill \| volume\=25 \| issue\=1 \| date\=3 April 2017 \| issn\=1465\-4466 \| doi\=10\.1163/1569206x\-12341515 \| pages\=131–174\| hdl\=11086/548552 \| url\=https://philarchive.org/rec/GAIPLA \| hdl\-access\=free }}{{cite book \| last\=Fowkes \| first\=Ben \| title\=Communism in Germany under the Weimar republic \| publisher\=Macmillan \| publication\-place\=London \| year\=1984 \| isbn\=978\-0\-333\-27271\-8 \| oclc\=10553402 }}{{cite journal \| last\=Bois \| first\=Marcel \| title\='March Separately, But Strike Together!' The Communist Party's United\-Front Policy in the Weimar Republic \| journal\=Historical Materialism \| publisher\=Brill \| date\=30 April 2020 \| volume\=28 \| issue\=3 \| issn\=1465\-4466 \| doi\=10\.1163/1569206x\-00001281 \| pages\=138–165\| s2cid\=219055035 }} For example, in October 1923 the KPD formed a coalition government with the SPD in the states of [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia"). However, the *[Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr")* legally overthrew these governments by force, through a constitutional process called *[Reichsexekution](/wiki/Reichsexekution "Reichsexekution")*.Michael Stolleis, *A History of Public Law in Germany, 1914–1945* (Oxford University Press, 2004\), p. 99\.{{Cite web \|last\=Sturm \|first\=Reinhard \|title\=Kampf um die Republik 1919 \- 1923 \|url\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus\-zweiter\-weltkrieg/dossier\-nationalsozialismus/39531/kampf\-um\-die\-republik\-1919\-1923/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-24 \|website\=bpb.de \|date\=23 December 2011 \|language\=de \|trans\-quote\=Other than Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia have had legitimate governments. On the other hand, the "proletarian hundreds" opposed the Versailles treaty. Further, Ebert and Stresemann saw communists in state offices as intolerable. So the Reichspresident ordered the Reichsexekution on 29th October 1923\.}} In 1926 the KPD worked with the SPD on a referendum to expropriate the German nobility, together mobilising 14\.4 million voters.
The party's first paramilitary wing was the *[Roter Frontkämpferbund](/wiki/Roter_Frontk%C3%A4mpferbund "Roter Frontkämpferbund")* (Alliance of Red Front Fighters), which was founded in 1924 but banned by the governing Social Democrats in 1929\.{{cite book \|last\= Stephan\|first\= Pieroth\|year\= 1994 \|title\=Parteien und Presse in Rheinland\-Pfalz 1945–1971: ein Beitrag zur Mediengeschichte unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Mainzer SPD\-Zeitung 'Die Freiheit' \|publisher\= v. Hase \& Koehler Verlag \|page\= 96 \|isbn\= 9783775813266 }}
By 1927, the party had 130,000 members, of whom 40,000 had been members in 1920\. From 1928 onwards (after Stalin reinstated Thälmann as KPD leader against the majority of the KPD central committee in the wake of an embezzlement scandal involving Thälmann's ally [John Wittorf](/wiki/John_Wittorf "John Wittorf")LaPorte, N. (Ed.), \& Morgan, K. (2008\). '[Kings among their subjects'? Ernst Thälmann, Harry Pollitt and the leadership cult as Stalinization](https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/173653807/LaPorte_Morgan_Kings_among_their_subjects_Ernst_Th_lmann_Harry_Pollitt_and_the_leadership_cult_as_stalinization_in_LaPorte_Morgan_and_Worley_eds_Bolshevism_Stalinism_and_the_Comintern_.pdf). In N. LaPorte, K. Morgan, \& M. Worley (Eds.), *Bolshevism, Stalinism and the Comintern: Perspectives on Stalinization*, 1917–53 (pp. 124–145\). Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. [https://doi.org/10\.1057/9780230227583\_7](https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230227583_7)
), the party followed the Comintern line and received funding from the Comintern.{{cite web \| last\=Winner \| first\=David \| title\=How the left enabled fascism \| website\=New Statesman \| date\=3 October 2018 \| url\=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2018/10/how\-left\-enabled\-fascism \| access\-date\=4 January 2022\|quote\=By the late 1920s, though, the KPD had largely purged itself of Spartacists and become a Stalinist party. Thälmann took his instructions from Stalin and his hatred of the SPD was essentially ideological.}} Under Thälmann's leadership, the party was closely aligned with the Soviet leadership headed by [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin"); Thälmann has been described as "the driving force behind Stalinization in the mid to late 1920s" and "Stalin’s right hand in Germany". After winning control from his former leftist allies, he expelled the party's [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition "Right Opposition") around [Heinrich Brandler](/wiki/Heinrich_Brandler "Heinrich Brandler").
### The Third Period and "social fascism"
After the [1928 Reichstag election](/wiki/1928_German_federal_election "1928 German federal election"), the KPD with 54 seats remained one of the largest and most politically potent Communist parties in Europe. Led now by Thälmann, who supported a close alignment with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International") (Comintern). At the time, the Comintern held the position that [social democracy](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy") was [social fascism](/wiki/Social_fascism "Social fascism") and that it frustrated rather than helped the [proletariat](/wiki/Proletariat "Proletariat"). As a result, the KPD under Thälmann had a hostile, confrontational attitude toward the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) as defenders of the capitalist status quo.{{Sfn\|Bowlby\|1986\|p\=138}} Their perception was reinforced by the explicit [anti\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-communism "Anti-communism") views of numerous SPD politicians in the German and [Prussian](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia "Free State of Prussia") governments, including Chancellor [Hermann Müller](/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_%28politician%2C_born_1876%29 "Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)"), Interior Minister [Carl Severing](/wiki/Carl_Severing "Carl Severing"), [Prussian Minister President](/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia "Minister President of Prussia") [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun "Otto Braun"), Prussian Interior Minister [Albert Grzesinski](/wiki/Albert_Grzesinski "Albert Grzesinski") and [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police "Berlin Police") chief Karl Zörgiebel.{{Sfn\|Rosenhaft\|1983\|p\=32}}
In the lead\-up to the 1929 celebration of [International Workers' Day](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day "International Workers' Day"), SPD Minister Grzesinski threatened to ban the KPD and its organizations if they acted in defiance of a ban on public gatherings in Berlin ordered by the city's police chief [Karl Zörgiebel](/wiki/Karl_Z%C3%B6rgiebel "Karl Zörgiebel") of the SPD. The attempted banning galvanized the KPD, who responded by exhorting workers to defy the ban and organize peacefully, but to be prepared to strike on May 2 "if Zörgiebel dares to spill workers' blood". The KPD proceeded with [May Day](/wiki/May_Day "May Day") marches in Berlin.
The [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police "Berlin Police") responded with an immediate, harsh, and disproportionate crackdown. Often without regard to whether the persons involved were demonstrators or bystanders, they forcibly and violently dispersed the crowds that formed. As the day progressed, street battles developed between the protestors and the police, who used firearms and armoured cars. The violence lasted until the afternoon of 3 May, mostly in the working\-class neighbourhoods of [Wedding](/wiki/Wedding_%28Berlin%29 "Wedding (Berlin)") and [Neukölln](/wiki/Neuk%C3%B6lln "Neukölln").
An estimated 33 civilians, none of whom were involved with the KPD, were killed, 200 injured, and over a thousand people taken into police custody, many of whom were also not involved in the initial KPD rallies.{{sfn\|Bowlby\|1986\|pp\=149–150}} Only 66 of those arrested were charged and 44 convicted.
The events of [Blutmai](/wiki/Blutmai "Blutmai") deepened the split between the SPD and KPD, the two major left\-wing parties of the Weimar Republic, making a united stand against the growing strength of far\-right parties more difficult.
Tensions soured, the KPD in turn began aligning with the Comintern's [ultra\-left](/wiki/Ultra-left "Ultra-left") [Third Period](/wiki/Third_Period "Third Period"), under the slogan "Class against class", the KPD turned to viewing the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) as its main adversary.{{cite book \| last\=Grenville \| first\=Anthony \| title\=German Writers and Politics 1918–39 \| chapter\=From Social Fascism to Popular Front: KPD Policy as Reflected in the Works of Friedrich Wolf, Anna Seghers and Willi Bredel, 1928–1938 \| publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan UK \| publication\-place\=London \| year\=1992 \| isbn\=978\-1\-349\-11817\-5 \| doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-349\-11815\-1\_7 \| pages\=89–102}}{{cite journal \| last\=Lemmons \| first\=Russel \| title\="Germany's Eternal Son:" the Genesis of the Ernst Thälmann Myth, 1930–1950 \| journal\=German Studies Review \| publisher\=German Studies Association, The Johns Hopkins University Press \| volume\=32 \| issue\=2 \| year\=2009 \| issn\=0149\-7952 \| jstor\=40574804 \| pages\=343–356 \| url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574804 \| access\-date\=4 January 2022\|quote\=By 1932, Thälmann's image had become a vital component of the KPD's antifascism narrative. According to this version of events only the communists stood against the forces of German fascism. The Socialists (SPD), who supported the right\-wing Hindenburg in the 1932 elections, were ultimately "social fascists", and no better than the Nazis}} The term social fascism was introduced to the German Communist Party shortly after the [Hamburg Uprising](/wiki/Hamburg_Uprising "Hamburg Uprising") of 1923 and gradually became ever more influential in the party; by 1929 it was being propagated as a theory.{{cite journal \|last1\=Haro \|first1\=Lea \|date\=2011 \|title\=Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party \|journal\=\[\[Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory]] \|volume\=39 \|issue\=4 \|pages\= 563–582 \|doi\= 10\.1080/03017605\.2011\.621248 \|s2cid\=146848013 }} The KPD regarded itself as "the only anti\-fascist party" in Germany and held that all other parties in the Weimar Republic were "fascist". The Nazis achieved an electoral breakthrough in the [1930 Reichstag election](/wiki/1930_Reichstag_election "1930 Reichstag election").
By the early 1930s, the political situation in [Weimar Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany "Weimar Germany") was extremely unstable after the onset of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). The Depression effectively destroyed the remaining legitimacy of the pro\-democratic parties \- such as the Social Democrats, the State Party, and the German People's Party \- in favor of the anti\-democratic parties.{{cite book\|last\=Evans\|first\=Richard\|title\=The Coming of the Third Reich\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Penguin \|isbn\=978\-0141009759}}{{cite book \|last1\=Fippel \|first1\=Günter\|year\= 2003 \|title\=Antifaschisten in "antifaschistischer" Gewalt: mittel\- und ostdeutsche Schicksale in den Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur (1945 bis 1961\)\|publisher\= A. Peter \|page\= 21 \|isbn\= 9783935881128 }} They also followed an increasingly nationalist course, trying to appeal to nationalist\-leaning workers.{{cite web\|title\=Ernst Thälmann: Nationale und soziale Befreiung (1930\)\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/deutsch/referenz/thaelmann/1930/08/natsozbef.htm\|access\-date\=27 December 2021\|website\=www.marxists.org}}
In 1931, the party reported a membership of 200,000\.{{cite book \|last1\=Scarrow \|first1\=Susan \|title\=Beyond Party Members: Changing Approaches to Partisan Mobilization \|date\=27 November 2014 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=9780191748332 \|page\=59 \|edition\=1 \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/book/9675 \|access\-date\=15 June 2023}}
The KPD leadership initially first criticised but then supported the [1931 Prussian Landtag referendum](/wiki/1931_Prussian_Landtag_referendum "1931 Prussian Landtag referendum"), an unsuccessful attempt launched by the far\-right [Stahlhelm](/wiki/Der_Stahlhelm%2C_Bund_der_Frontsoldaten "Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten") to bring down the social democrat state government of Prussia by means of a plebiscite; the KPD referred to some within the SA as "working people's comrades" during this campaign.Rob Sewell, *Germany: From Revolution to Counter\-Revolution*, Fortress Books (1988\), {{ISBN\|1\-870958\-04\-7}}, [Chapter 7](http://www.marxist.com/germany/chapter7.html). "In August 1931, to capitalise on their growing popularity, the Nazi Party launched a referendum to overthrow the Social Democratic government of Prussia. At first the KPD correctly attacked it. Then, three weeks before the vote, under orders from Stalin's Comintern, they joined forces with the fascists to bring down the main enemy, the Social Democrats. They changed the name of the plebiscite to a 'Red Referendum' and referred to the fascists and the members of the SA as 'working people's comrades'!"
[thumb\|upright\|KPD election poster, 1932\. The caption at the bottom reads: "An end to this system!"](/wiki/File:Schluss_mit_diesem_System_-_Wahlplakat_der_KPD%2C_1932.jpg "Schluss mit diesem System - Wahlplakat der KPD, 1932.jpg")
The KPD maintained a solid electoral performance, usually polling more than 10% of the vote. It gained 100 deputies in the [November 1932 elections](/wiki/November_1932_German_federal_election "November 1932 German federal election"), getting 16% of the vote and coming third. In the [presidential election of the same year](/wiki/1932_German_presidential_election "1932 German presidential election"), its candidate Thälmann took 13\.2% of the vote, compared to Hitler's 30\.1%. In this period, while also opposed to the Nazis, the KPD regarded the Nazi Party as a less sophisticated and thus less dangerous fascist party than the SPD, and KPD leader Ernst Thälmann declared that "some Nazi trees must not be allowed to overshadow a forest \[of social democrats]".{{cite journal \|last1\=Coppi \|first1\=Hans \|author\-link1\=Hans Coppi Jr. \|year\=1998 \|title\=Die nationalsozialistischen Bäume im sozialdemokratischen Wald: Die KPD im antifaschistischen Zweifrontenkrieg (Teil 2\) \|trans\-title\=The national socialist trees in the social democratic forest: The KPD in the anti\-fascist two\-front war (Part 2\) \|journal\=Utopie Kreativ \|volume\=97–98\|pages\=7–17 }}
Critics of the KPD accused it of having pursued a sectarian policy. For example, the Social Democratic Party criticized the KPD's thesis of "social fascism", and both [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky "Leon Trotsky") from the [Comintern](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International")'s [Left Opposition](/wiki/Left_Opposition "Left Opposition") and [August Thalheimer](/wiki/August_Thalheimer "August Thalheimer") of the [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition "Right Opposition") continued to argue for a united front.Marcel Bois, "[Hitler wasn't inevitable](https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/11/nuremberg-trials-hitler-goebbels-himmler-german-communist-social-democrats/)", *Jacobin* 25 November 2015 Critics believed that the KPD's sectarianism scuttled any possibility of a united front with the SPD against the rising power of the [National Socialists](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism").
Thälmann claimed that the right\-wing leadership of the SPD rejected and actively worked against the KPD's efforts to form a united front against fascism.{{cite web\|title\=Texte zum Klassenkampf/ Ernst Thälmann: Wie schaffen wir die rote Einheitsfront?\|url\=http://www.marxistische\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\|access\-date\=27 December 2021\|archive\-date\=15 July 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715202206/http://www.marxistische\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\|url\-status\=bot: unknown}} The party itself, however, continued to publicly clash with the SPD and the [General German Trade Union Federation](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation "General German Trade Union Federation") well into 1932\.
A brawl between Nazi and KPD lawmakers in the [Landtag of Prussia](/wiki/Landtag_of_Prussia "Landtag of Prussia") led to the creation of Antifa – short [Antifaschistische Aktion](/wiki/Antifaschistische_Aktion "Antifaschistische Aktion"),{{cite web\|url\=http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\_AA\_web.pdf\|title\=80 Jahre Antifaschistische Aktion\|last\=Langer\|first\=Bernd\|publisher\=Verein zur Förderung Antifaschistischer Kultur\|access\-date\=25 June 2019\|archive\-date\=27 April 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427052730/http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\_AA\_web.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} which the party itself described as a "red united [front](/wiki/Communist_front "Communist front") under the leadership of the only anti\-fascist party, the KPD". Thälmann, however, reiterated that there was still a ‘principal fight’ to be led against the SPD and that there would be no ‘unity at all costs’.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dorpalen \|first1\=Andreas \|title\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \|journal\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \|date\=1983 \|volume\=1 \|page\=97 \|url\=https://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\_1\_4\_dorpalen.pdf \|access\-date\=28 November 2023 \|publisher\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \|location\=Munich \|issn\=0042\-5702}}
After [Franz von Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen "Franz von Papen")'s government [carried out a coup d'état](/wiki/Preu%C3%9Fenschlag "Preußenschlag") in [Prussia](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia "Free State of Prussia"), the KPD issued a call for all workers to support a general strike under its own leadership, which only resulted in limited local action. The statement was added with a short call on the [GGTUF](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation "General German Trade Union Federation"), the SPD and the [General Federation of Free Employees](/wiki/General_Federation_of_Free_Employees "General Federation of Free Employees") to join in, but the KPD's belief that social democrats would have to be 'coerced by the masses' meant that their leaders were never approached directly. The KPD tried the same tactic again after [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") was appointed as chancellor but was widely ignored by other organisations and individual workers this time as well.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dorpalen \|first1\=Andreas \|title\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \|journal\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \|date\=1983 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=97–98 \|url\=https://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\_1\_4\_dorpalen.pdf \|access\-date\=28 November 2023 \|publisher\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \|location\=Munich \|issn\=0042\-5702}}
|
[
"Weimar Republic years\n---------------------",
"[thumb\\|[Karl\\-Liebknecht\\-Haus](/wiki/Karl-Liebknecht-Haus \"Karl-Liebknecht-Haus\"), the KPD's headquarters from 1926 to 1933\\. The *[Antifaschistische Aktion](/wiki/Antifaschistische_Aktion \"Antifaschistische Aktion\")* ([abbr.](/wiki/Abbr. \"Abbr.\") \"Antifa\") logo can be seen prominently displayed on the front of the building.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P046279%2C_Berlin%2C_Liebknecht-Haus_am_B%C3%BClowplatz.jpg \"Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P046279, Berlin, Liebknecht-Haus am Bülowplatz.jpg\")",
"Through the 1920s, the KPD was racked by internal conflict between radical and moderate factions, partly reflecting the power struggles between [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\") and [Grigory Zinoviev](/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev \"Grigory Zinoviev\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2022}} Germany was seen as being of central importance to the struggle for socialism, and the failure of the German revolution was a major setback. Eventually Levi was expelled in 1921 by the [Comintern](/wiki/Comintern \"Comintern\") for \"indiscipline\". Further leadership changes took place in the 1920s. Supporters of the [Left](/wiki/Left_Opposition \"Left Opposition\") or [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition \"Right Opposition\") to the [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinism \"Stalinism\")\\-controlled Comintern leadership were expelled; of these, [Heinrich Brandler](/wiki/Heinrich_Brandler \"Heinrich Brandler\"), August Thalheimer and [Paul Frölich](/wiki/Paul_Fr%C3%B6lich \"Paul Frölich\") set up a splinter [Communist Party Opposition](/wiki/Communist_Party_Opposition \"Communist Party Opposition\") in 1928\\.",
"The leadership of the German Communist party had requested that Moscow send [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky \"Leon Trotsky\") to Germany to direct the [1923 insurrection](/wiki/German_October \"German October\"). However, this proposal was rejected by the Politburo which was controlled by Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev who decided to send a commission of lower\\-ranking Russian Communist party members.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Rogovin \\|first1\\=Vadim Zakharovich \\|title\\=Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years \\|date\\=2021 \\|publisher\\=Mehring Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-893638\\-97\\-6 \\|page\\=272 \\|language\\=en}}",
"During the years of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic \"Weimar Republic\"), the KPD was the largest communist party in Europe and seen as the \"leading party\" of the [communist movement](/wiki/History_of_communism \"History of communism\") outside of the Soviet Union.Ralf Hoffrogge / Norman LaPorte (eds.): *Weimar Communism as Mass Movement 1918–1933*, London: Lawrence \\& Wishart, p. 2 The party abandoned the goal of immediate revolution, and from 1924 onwards contested [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 \"Reichstag (Weimar Republic)\") elections, with some success.",
"### Fischer and Thälmann leaderships and the united front",
"[thumb\\|left\\|KPD in [Essen](/wiki/Essen \"Essen\"), 1925](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14686-0026%2C_Essen%2C_Reichspr%C3%A4sidentenwahl%2C_KPD-Wahlwerbung.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14686-0026, Essen, Reichspräsidentenwahl, KPD-Wahlwerbung.jpg\")",
"A new KPD leadership more favorable to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") was elected in 1923\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2022}} The party's left around [Ruth Fischer](/wiki/Ruth_Fischer \"Ruth Fischer\"), [Arkadi Maslow](/wiki/Arkadi_Maslow \"Arkadi Maslow\") and [Werner Scholem](/wiki/Werner_Scholem \"Werner Scholem\") took leadership of the KPD in 1924; [Ernst Thälmann](/wiki/Ernst_Th%C3%A4lmann \"Ernst Thälmann\") was allied to this faction and became a member of the politburo and was appointed\nKPD vice\\-chairman in January 1924\\. Stalin engineered the Fischer leadership's removal in August 1925, and installed Thälmann as party chairman.{{cite web \\| last\\=Bois \\| first\\=Marcel \\| title\\=A Son of His Class \\| website\\=Jacobin \\| date\\=17 June 2012 \\| url\\=https://jacobinmag.com/2016/08/ernst\\-thalmann\\-east\\-germany\\-stalin\\-nazis \\| access\\-date\\=4 January 2022}}",
"[alt\\=A crowd of civilians are standing in the foreground watching armed soldiers in the middle\\-ground marching alongside the street. Buildings of downtown Dresden can be seen in the background.\\|thumb\\|*[Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\")* soldiers marching toward the federal parliament in [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\"), Saxony, to [depose](/wiki/Reichsexekution \"Reichsexekution\") the state government led by a KPD\\-SPD coalition.](/wiki/File:Reichsexekution-Sachsen-1923-Reichswehrkompanie-auf-dem-Weg-zum-Landtagsgebaeu.jpg \"Reichsexekution-Sachsen-1923-Reichswehrkompanie-auf-dem-Weg-zum-Landtagsgebaeu.jpg\")",
"From 1923 to 1928, the KPD broadly followed the [united front](/wiki/United_front \"United front\") policy developed in the early 1920s of working with other working class and socialist parties to contest elections, pursue social struggles and fight the rising right\\-wing militias.{{cite book \\| last\\=Peterson \\| first\\=Larry \\| title\\=German Communism, Workers' Protest, and Labor Unions \\| chapter\\=The United Front \\| publisher\\=Springer Netherlands \\| publication\\-place\\=Dordrecht \\| year\\=1993 \\| isbn\\=978\\-94\\-010\\-4718\\-0 \\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-94\\-011\\-1644\\-2\\_12 \\| pages\\=399–428}}{{cite journal \\| last\\=Gaido \\| first\\=Daniel \\| title\\=Paul Levi and the Origins of the United\\-Front Policy in the Communist International \\| journal\\=Historical Materialism \\| publisher\\=Brill \\| volume\\=25 \\| issue\\=1 \\| date\\=3 April 2017 \\| issn\\=1465\\-4466 \\| doi\\=10\\.1163/1569206x\\-12341515 \\| pages\\=131–174\\| hdl\\=11086/548552 \\| url\\=https://philarchive.org/rec/GAIPLA \\| hdl\\-access\\=free }}{{cite book \\| last\\=Fowkes \\| first\\=Ben \\| title\\=Communism in Germany under the Weimar republic \\| publisher\\=Macmillan \\| publication\\-place\\=London \\| year\\=1984 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-333\\-27271\\-8 \\| oclc\\=10553402 }}{{cite journal \\| last\\=Bois \\| first\\=Marcel \\| title\\='March Separately, But Strike Together!' The Communist Party's United\\-Front Policy in the Weimar Republic \\| journal\\=Historical Materialism \\| publisher\\=Brill \\| date\\=30 April 2020 \\| volume\\=28 \\| issue\\=3 \\| issn\\=1465\\-4466 \\| doi\\=10\\.1163/1569206x\\-00001281 \\| pages\\=138–165\\| s2cid\\=219055035 }} For example, in October 1923 the KPD formed a coalition government with the SPD in the states of [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\"). However, the *[Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\")* legally overthrew these governments by force, through a constitutional process called *[Reichsexekution](/wiki/Reichsexekution \"Reichsexekution\")*.Michael Stolleis, *A History of Public Law in Germany, 1914–1945* (Oxford University Press, 2004\\), p. 99\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sturm \\|first\\=Reinhard \\|title\\=Kampf um die Republik 1919 \\- 1923 \\|url\\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus\\-zweiter\\-weltkrieg/dossier\\-nationalsozialismus/39531/kampf\\-um\\-die\\-republik\\-1919\\-1923/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-24 \\|website\\=bpb.de \\|date\\=23 December 2011 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-quote\\=Other than Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia have had legitimate governments. On the other hand, the \"proletarian hundreds\" opposed the Versailles treaty. Further, Ebert and Stresemann saw communists in state offices as intolerable. So the Reichspresident ordered the Reichsexekution on 29th October 1923\\.}} In 1926 the KPD worked with the SPD on a referendum to expropriate the German nobility, together mobilising 14\\.4 million voters.",
"The party's first paramilitary wing was the *[Roter Frontkämpferbund](/wiki/Roter_Frontk%C3%A4mpferbund \"Roter Frontkämpferbund\")* (Alliance of Red Front Fighters), which was founded in 1924 but banned by the governing Social Democrats in 1929\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= Stephan\\|first\\= Pieroth\\|year\\= 1994 \\|title\\=Parteien und Presse in Rheinland\\-Pfalz 1945–1971: ein Beitrag zur Mediengeschichte unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Mainzer SPD\\-Zeitung 'Die Freiheit' \\|publisher\\= v. Hase \\& Koehler Verlag \\|page\\= 96 \\|isbn\\= 9783775813266 }}",
"By 1927, the party had 130,000 members, of whom 40,000 had been members in 1920\\. From 1928 onwards (after Stalin reinstated Thälmann as KPD leader against the majority of the KPD central committee in the wake of an embezzlement scandal involving Thälmann's ally [John Wittorf](/wiki/John_Wittorf \"John Wittorf\")LaPorte, N. (Ed.), \\& Morgan, K. (2008\\). '[Kings among their subjects'? Ernst Thälmann, Harry Pollitt and the leadership cult as Stalinization](https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/173653807/LaPorte_Morgan_Kings_among_their_subjects_Ernst_Th_lmann_Harry_Pollitt_and_the_leadership_cult_as_stalinization_in_LaPorte_Morgan_and_Worley_eds_Bolshevism_Stalinism_and_the_Comintern_.pdf). In N. LaPorte, K. Morgan, \\& M. Worley (Eds.), *Bolshevism, Stalinism and the Comintern: Perspectives on Stalinization*, 1917–53 (pp. 124–145\\). Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. [https://doi.org/10\\.1057/9780230227583\\_7](https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230227583_7)\n), the party followed the Comintern line and received funding from the Comintern.{{cite web \\| last\\=Winner \\| first\\=David \\| title\\=How the left enabled fascism \\| website\\=New Statesman \\| date\\=3 October 2018 \\| url\\=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2018/10/how\\-left\\-enabled\\-fascism \\| access\\-date\\=4 January 2022\\|quote\\=By the late 1920s, though, the KPD had largely purged itself of Spartacists and become a Stalinist party. Thälmann took his instructions from Stalin and his hatred of the SPD was essentially ideological.}} Under Thälmann's leadership, the party was closely aligned with the Soviet leadership headed by [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\"); Thälmann has been described as \"the driving force behind Stalinization in the mid to late 1920s\" and \"Stalin’s right hand in Germany\". After winning control from his former leftist allies, he expelled the party's [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition \"Right Opposition\") around [Heinrich Brandler](/wiki/Heinrich_Brandler \"Heinrich Brandler\").",
"### The Third Period and \"social fascism\"",
"After the [1928 Reichstag election](/wiki/1928_German_federal_election \"1928 German federal election\"), the KPD with 54 seats remained one of the largest and most politically potent Communist parties in Europe. Led now by Thälmann, who supported a close alignment with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\") (Comintern). At the time, the Comintern held the position that [social democracy](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") was [social fascism](/wiki/Social_fascism \"Social fascism\") and that it frustrated rather than helped the [proletariat](/wiki/Proletariat \"Proletariat\"). As a result, the KPD under Thälmann had a hostile, confrontational attitude toward the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) as defenders of the capitalist status quo.{{Sfn\\|Bowlby\\|1986\\|p\\=138}} Their perception was reinforced by the explicit [anti\\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-communism \"Anti-communism\") views of numerous SPD politicians in the German and [Prussian](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia \"Free State of Prussia\") governments, including Chancellor [Hermann Müller](/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_%28politician%2C_born_1876%29 \"Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)\"), Interior Minister [Carl Severing](/wiki/Carl_Severing \"Carl Severing\"), [Prussian Minister President](/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia \"Minister President of Prussia\") [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun \"Otto Braun\"), Prussian Interior Minister [Albert Grzesinski](/wiki/Albert_Grzesinski \"Albert Grzesinski\") and [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police \"Berlin Police\") chief Karl Zörgiebel.{{Sfn\\|Rosenhaft\\|1983\\|p\\=32}}",
"In the lead\\-up to the 1929 celebration of [International Workers' Day](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day \"International Workers' Day\"), SPD Minister Grzesinski threatened to ban the KPD and its organizations if they acted in defiance of a ban on public gatherings in Berlin ordered by the city's police chief [Karl Zörgiebel](/wiki/Karl_Z%C3%B6rgiebel \"Karl Zörgiebel\") of the SPD. The attempted banning galvanized the KPD, who responded by exhorting workers to defy the ban and organize peacefully, but to be prepared to strike on May 2 \"if Zörgiebel dares to spill workers' blood\". The KPD proceeded with [May Day](/wiki/May_Day \"May Day\") marches in Berlin.",
"The [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police \"Berlin Police\") responded with an immediate, harsh, and disproportionate crackdown. Often without regard to whether the persons involved were demonstrators or bystanders, they forcibly and violently dispersed the crowds that formed. As the day progressed, street battles developed between the protestors and the police, who used firearms and armoured cars. The violence lasted until the afternoon of 3 May, mostly in the working\\-class neighbourhoods of [Wedding](/wiki/Wedding_%28Berlin%29 \"Wedding (Berlin)\") and [Neukölln](/wiki/Neuk%C3%B6lln \"Neukölln\").",
"An estimated 33 civilians, none of whom were involved with the KPD, were killed, 200 injured, and over a thousand people taken into police custody, many of whom were also not involved in the initial KPD rallies.{{sfn\\|Bowlby\\|1986\\|pp\\=149–150}} Only 66 of those arrested were charged and 44 convicted.",
"The events of [Blutmai](/wiki/Blutmai \"Blutmai\") deepened the split between the SPD and KPD, the two major left\\-wing parties of the Weimar Republic, making a united stand against the growing strength of far\\-right parties more difficult.",
"Tensions soured, the KPD in turn began aligning with the Comintern's [ultra\\-left](/wiki/Ultra-left \"Ultra-left\") [Third Period](/wiki/Third_Period \"Third Period\"), under the slogan \"Class against class\", the KPD turned to viewing the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) as its main adversary.{{cite book \\| last\\=Grenville \\| first\\=Anthony \\| title\\=German Writers and Politics 1918–39 \\| chapter\\=From Social Fascism to Popular Front: KPD Policy as Reflected in the Works of Friedrich Wolf, Anna Seghers and Willi Bredel, 1928–1938 \\| publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan UK \\| publication\\-place\\=London \\| year\\=1992 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-349\\-11817\\-5 \\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-349\\-11815\\-1\\_7 \\| pages\\=89–102}}{{cite journal \\| last\\=Lemmons \\| first\\=Russel \\| title\\=\"Germany's Eternal Son:\" the Genesis of the Ernst Thälmann Myth, 1930–1950 \\| journal\\=German Studies Review \\| publisher\\=German Studies Association, The Johns Hopkins University Press \\| volume\\=32 \\| issue\\=2 \\| year\\=2009 \\| issn\\=0149\\-7952 \\| jstor\\=40574804 \\| pages\\=343–356 \\| url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574804 \\| access\\-date\\=4 January 2022\\|quote\\=By 1932, Thälmann's image had become a vital component of the KPD's antifascism narrative. According to this version of events only the communists stood against the forces of German fascism. The Socialists (SPD), who supported the right\\-wing Hindenburg in the 1932 elections, were ultimately \"social fascists\", and no better than the Nazis}} The term social fascism was introduced to the German Communist Party shortly after the [Hamburg Uprising](/wiki/Hamburg_Uprising \"Hamburg Uprising\") of 1923 and gradually became ever more influential in the party; by 1929 it was being propagated as a theory.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Haro \\|first1\\=Lea \\|date\\=2011 \\|title\\=Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory]] \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\= 563–582 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1080/03017605\\.2011\\.621248 \\|s2cid\\=146848013 }} The KPD regarded itself as \"the only anti\\-fascist party\" in Germany and held that all other parties in the Weimar Republic were \"fascist\". The Nazis achieved an electoral breakthrough in the [1930 Reichstag election](/wiki/1930_Reichstag_election \"1930 Reichstag election\").",
"By the early 1930s, the political situation in [Weimar Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany \"Weimar Germany\") was extremely unstable after the onset of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). The Depression effectively destroyed the remaining legitimacy of the pro\\-democratic parties \\- such as the Social Democrats, the State Party, and the German People's Party \\- in favor of the anti\\-democratic parties.{{cite book\\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=Richard\\|title\\=The Coming of the Third Reich\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Penguin \\|isbn\\=978\\-0141009759}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Fippel \\|first1\\=Günter\\|year\\= 2003 \\|title\\=Antifaschisten in \"antifaschistischer\" Gewalt: mittel\\- und ostdeutsche Schicksale in den Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur (1945 bis 1961\\)\\|publisher\\= A. Peter \\|page\\= 21 \\|isbn\\= 9783935881128 }} They also followed an increasingly nationalist course, trying to appeal to nationalist\\-leaning workers.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ernst Thälmann: Nationale und soziale Befreiung (1930\\)\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/deutsch/referenz/thaelmann/1930/08/natsozbef.htm\\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021\\|website\\=www.marxists.org}}",
"In 1931, the party reported a membership of 200,000\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Scarrow \\|first1\\=Susan \\|title\\=Beyond Party Members: Changing Approaches to Partisan Mobilization \\|date\\=27 November 2014 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=9780191748332 \\|page\\=59 \\|edition\\=1 \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/book/9675 \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023}}",
"The KPD leadership initially first criticised but then supported the [1931 Prussian Landtag referendum](/wiki/1931_Prussian_Landtag_referendum \"1931 Prussian Landtag referendum\"), an unsuccessful attempt launched by the far\\-right [Stahlhelm](/wiki/Der_Stahlhelm%2C_Bund_der_Frontsoldaten \"Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten\") to bring down the social democrat state government of Prussia by means of a plebiscite; the KPD referred to some within the SA as \"working people's comrades\" during this campaign.Rob Sewell, *Germany: From Revolution to Counter\\-Revolution*, Fortress Books (1988\\), {{ISBN\\|1\\-870958\\-04\\-7}}, [Chapter 7](http://www.marxist.com/germany/chapter7.html). \"In August 1931, to capitalise on their growing popularity, the Nazi Party launched a referendum to overthrow the Social Democratic government of Prussia. At first the KPD correctly attacked it. Then, three weeks before the vote, under orders from Stalin's Comintern, they joined forces with the fascists to bring down the main enemy, the Social Democrats. They changed the name of the plebiscite to a 'Red Referendum' and referred to the fascists and the members of the SA as 'working people's comrades'!\"",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|KPD election poster, 1932\\. The caption at the bottom reads: \"An end to this system!\"](/wiki/File:Schluss_mit_diesem_System_-_Wahlplakat_der_KPD%2C_1932.jpg \"Schluss mit diesem System - Wahlplakat der KPD, 1932.jpg\")",
"The KPD maintained a solid electoral performance, usually polling more than 10% of the vote. It gained 100 deputies in the [November 1932 elections](/wiki/November_1932_German_federal_election \"November 1932 German federal election\"), getting 16% of the vote and coming third. In the [presidential election of the same year](/wiki/1932_German_presidential_election \"1932 German presidential election\"), its candidate Thälmann took 13\\.2% of the vote, compared to Hitler's 30\\.1%. In this period, while also opposed to the Nazis, the KPD regarded the Nazi Party as a less sophisticated and thus less dangerous fascist party than the SPD, and KPD leader Ernst Thälmann declared that \"some Nazi trees must not be allowed to overshadow a forest \\[of social democrats]\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Coppi \\|first1\\=Hans \\|author\\-link1\\=Hans Coppi Jr. \\|year\\=1998 \\|title\\=Die nationalsozialistischen Bäume im sozialdemokratischen Wald: Die KPD im antifaschistischen Zweifrontenkrieg (Teil 2\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=The national socialist trees in the social democratic forest: The KPD in the anti\\-fascist two\\-front war (Part 2\\) \\|journal\\=Utopie Kreativ \\|volume\\=97–98\\|pages\\=7–17 }}",
"Critics of the KPD accused it of having pursued a sectarian policy. For example, the Social Democratic Party criticized the KPD's thesis of \"social fascism\", and both [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky \"Leon Trotsky\") from the [Comintern](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\")'s [Left Opposition](/wiki/Left_Opposition \"Left Opposition\") and [August Thalheimer](/wiki/August_Thalheimer \"August Thalheimer\") of the [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition \"Right Opposition\") continued to argue for a united front.Marcel Bois, \"[Hitler wasn't inevitable](https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/11/nuremberg-trials-hitler-goebbels-himmler-german-communist-social-democrats/)\", *Jacobin* 25 November 2015 Critics believed that the KPD's sectarianism scuttled any possibility of a united front with the SPD against the rising power of the [National Socialists](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\").",
"Thälmann claimed that the right\\-wing leadership of the SPD rejected and actively worked against the KPD's efforts to form a united front against fascism.{{cite web\\|title\\=Texte zum Klassenkampf/ Ernst Thälmann: Wie schaffen wir die rote Einheitsfront?\\|url\\=http://www.marxistische\\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715202206/http://www.marxistische\\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown}} The party itself, however, continued to publicly clash with the SPD and the [General German Trade Union Federation](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation \"General German Trade Union Federation\") well into 1932\\.",
"A brawl between Nazi and KPD lawmakers in the [Landtag of Prussia](/wiki/Landtag_of_Prussia \"Landtag of Prussia\") led to the creation of Antifa – short [Antifaschistische Aktion](/wiki/Antifaschistische_Aktion \"Antifaschistische Aktion\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\\_AA\\_web.pdf\\|title\\=80 Jahre Antifaschistische Aktion\\|last\\=Langer\\|first\\=Bernd\\|publisher\\=Verein zur Förderung Antifaschistischer Kultur\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427052730/http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\\_AA\\_web.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} which the party itself described as a \"red united [front](/wiki/Communist_front \"Communist front\") under the leadership of the only anti\\-fascist party, the KPD\". Thälmann, however, reiterated that there was still a ‘principal fight’ to be led against the SPD and that there would be no ‘unity at all costs’.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dorpalen \\|first1\\=Andreas \\|title\\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \\|journal\\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \\|date\\=1983 \\|volume\\=1 \\|page\\=97 \\|url\\=https://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\\_1\\_4\\_dorpalen.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2023 \\|publisher\\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \\|location\\=Munich \\|issn\\=0042\\-5702}}",
"After [Franz von Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen \"Franz von Papen\")'s government [carried out a coup d'état](/wiki/Preu%C3%9Fenschlag \"Preußenschlag\") in [Prussia](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia \"Free State of Prussia\"), the KPD issued a call for all workers to support a general strike under its own leadership, which only resulted in limited local action. The statement was added with a short call on the [GGTUF](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation \"General German Trade Union Federation\"), the SPD and the [General Federation of Free Employees](/wiki/General_Federation_of_Free_Employees \"General Federation of Free Employees\") to join in, but the KPD's belief that social democrats would have to be 'coerced by the masses' meant that their leaders were never approached directly. The KPD tried the same tactic again after [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") was appointed as chancellor but was widely ignored by other organisations and individual workers this time as well.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dorpalen \\|first1\\=Andreas \\|title\\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \\|journal\\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \\|date\\=1983 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=97–98 \\|url\\=https://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\\_1\\_4\\_dorpalen.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2023 \\|publisher\\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \\|location\\=Munich \\|issn\\=0042\\-5702}}",
""
] |
### The Third Period and "social fascism"
After the [1928 Reichstag election](/wiki/1928_German_federal_election "1928 German federal election"), the KPD with 54 seats remained one of the largest and most politically potent Communist parties in Europe. Led now by Thälmann, who supported a close alignment with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International") (Comintern). At the time, the Comintern held the position that [social democracy](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy") was [social fascism](/wiki/Social_fascism "Social fascism") and that it frustrated rather than helped the [proletariat](/wiki/Proletariat "Proletariat"). As a result, the KPD under Thälmann had a hostile, confrontational attitude toward the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) as defenders of the capitalist status quo.{{Sfn\|Bowlby\|1986\|p\=138}} Their perception was reinforced by the explicit [anti\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-communism "Anti-communism") views of numerous SPD politicians in the German and [Prussian](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia "Free State of Prussia") governments, including Chancellor [Hermann Müller](/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_%28politician%2C_born_1876%29 "Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)"), Interior Minister [Carl Severing](/wiki/Carl_Severing "Carl Severing"), [Prussian Minister President](/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia "Minister President of Prussia") [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun "Otto Braun"), Prussian Interior Minister [Albert Grzesinski](/wiki/Albert_Grzesinski "Albert Grzesinski") and [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police "Berlin Police") chief Karl Zörgiebel.{{Sfn\|Rosenhaft\|1983\|p\=32}}
In the lead\-up to the 1929 celebration of [International Workers' Day](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day "International Workers' Day"), SPD Minister Grzesinski threatened to ban the KPD and its organizations if they acted in defiance of a ban on public gatherings in Berlin ordered by the city's police chief [Karl Zörgiebel](/wiki/Karl_Z%C3%B6rgiebel "Karl Zörgiebel") of the SPD. The attempted banning galvanized the KPD, who responded by exhorting workers to defy the ban and organize peacefully, but to be prepared to strike on May 2 "if Zörgiebel dares to spill workers' blood". The KPD proceeded with [May Day](/wiki/May_Day "May Day") marches in Berlin.
The [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police "Berlin Police") responded with an immediate, harsh, and disproportionate crackdown. Often without regard to whether the persons involved were demonstrators or bystanders, they forcibly and violently dispersed the crowds that formed. As the day progressed, street battles developed between the protestors and the police, who used firearms and armoured cars. The violence lasted until the afternoon of 3 May, mostly in the working\-class neighbourhoods of [Wedding](/wiki/Wedding_%28Berlin%29 "Wedding (Berlin)") and [Neukölln](/wiki/Neuk%C3%B6lln "Neukölln").
An estimated 33 civilians, none of whom were involved with the KPD, were killed, 200 injured, and over a thousand people taken into police custody, many of whom were also not involved in the initial KPD rallies.{{sfn\|Bowlby\|1986\|pp\=149–150}} Only 66 of those arrested were charged and 44 convicted.
The events of [Blutmai](/wiki/Blutmai "Blutmai") deepened the split between the SPD and KPD, the two major left\-wing parties of the Weimar Republic, making a united stand against the growing strength of far\-right parties more difficult.
Tensions soured, the KPD in turn began aligning with the Comintern's [ultra\-left](/wiki/Ultra-left "Ultra-left") [Third Period](/wiki/Third_Period "Third Period"), under the slogan "Class against class", the KPD turned to viewing the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) as its main adversary.{{cite book \| last\=Grenville \| first\=Anthony \| title\=German Writers and Politics 1918–39 \| chapter\=From Social Fascism to Popular Front: KPD Policy as Reflected in the Works of Friedrich Wolf, Anna Seghers and Willi Bredel, 1928–1938 \| publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan UK \| publication\-place\=London \| year\=1992 \| isbn\=978\-1\-349\-11817\-5 \| doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-349\-11815\-1\_7 \| pages\=89–102}}{{cite journal \| last\=Lemmons \| first\=Russel \| title\="Germany's Eternal Son:" the Genesis of the Ernst Thälmann Myth, 1930–1950 \| journal\=German Studies Review \| publisher\=German Studies Association, The Johns Hopkins University Press \| volume\=32 \| issue\=2 \| year\=2009 \| issn\=0149\-7952 \| jstor\=40574804 \| pages\=343–356 \| url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574804 \| access\-date\=4 January 2022\|quote\=By 1932, Thälmann's image had become a vital component of the KPD's antifascism narrative. According to this version of events only the communists stood against the forces of German fascism. The Socialists (SPD), who supported the right\-wing Hindenburg in the 1932 elections, were ultimately "social fascists", and no better than the Nazis}} The term social fascism was introduced to the German Communist Party shortly after the [Hamburg Uprising](/wiki/Hamburg_Uprising "Hamburg Uprising") of 1923 and gradually became ever more influential in the party; by 1929 it was being propagated as a theory.{{cite journal \|last1\=Haro \|first1\=Lea \|date\=2011 \|title\=Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party \|journal\=\[\[Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory]] \|volume\=39 \|issue\=4 \|pages\= 563–582 \|doi\= 10\.1080/03017605\.2011\.621248 \|s2cid\=146848013 }} The KPD regarded itself as "the only anti\-fascist party" in Germany and held that all other parties in the Weimar Republic were "fascist". The Nazis achieved an electoral breakthrough in the [1930 Reichstag election](/wiki/1930_Reichstag_election "1930 Reichstag election").
By the early 1930s, the political situation in [Weimar Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany "Weimar Germany") was extremely unstable after the onset of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). The Depression effectively destroyed the remaining legitimacy of the pro\-democratic parties \- such as the Social Democrats, the State Party, and the German People's Party \- in favor of the anti\-democratic parties.{{cite book\|last\=Evans\|first\=Richard\|title\=The Coming of the Third Reich\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Penguin \|isbn\=978\-0141009759}}{{cite book \|last1\=Fippel \|first1\=Günter\|year\= 2003 \|title\=Antifaschisten in "antifaschistischer" Gewalt: mittel\- und ostdeutsche Schicksale in den Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur (1945 bis 1961\)\|publisher\= A. Peter \|page\= 21 \|isbn\= 9783935881128 }} They also followed an increasingly nationalist course, trying to appeal to nationalist\-leaning workers.{{cite web\|title\=Ernst Thälmann: Nationale und soziale Befreiung (1930\)\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/deutsch/referenz/thaelmann/1930/08/natsozbef.htm\|access\-date\=27 December 2021\|website\=www.marxists.org}}
In 1931, the party reported a membership of 200,000\.{{cite book \|last1\=Scarrow \|first1\=Susan \|title\=Beyond Party Members: Changing Approaches to Partisan Mobilization \|date\=27 November 2014 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=9780191748332 \|page\=59 \|edition\=1 \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/book/9675 \|access\-date\=15 June 2023}}
The KPD leadership initially first criticised but then supported the [1931 Prussian Landtag referendum](/wiki/1931_Prussian_Landtag_referendum "1931 Prussian Landtag referendum"), an unsuccessful attempt launched by the far\-right [Stahlhelm](/wiki/Der_Stahlhelm%2C_Bund_der_Frontsoldaten "Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten") to bring down the social democrat state government of Prussia by means of a plebiscite; the KPD referred to some within the SA as "working people's comrades" during this campaign.Rob Sewell, *Germany: From Revolution to Counter\-Revolution*, Fortress Books (1988\), {{ISBN\|1\-870958\-04\-7}}, [Chapter 7](http://www.marxist.com/germany/chapter7.html). "In August 1931, to capitalise on their growing popularity, the Nazi Party launched a referendum to overthrow the Social Democratic government of Prussia. At first the KPD correctly attacked it. Then, three weeks before the vote, under orders from Stalin's Comintern, they joined forces with the fascists to bring down the main enemy, the Social Democrats. They changed the name of the plebiscite to a 'Red Referendum' and referred to the fascists and the members of the SA as 'working people's comrades'!"
[thumb\|upright\|KPD election poster, 1932\. The caption at the bottom reads: "An end to this system!"](/wiki/File:Schluss_mit_diesem_System_-_Wahlplakat_der_KPD%2C_1932.jpg "Schluss mit diesem System - Wahlplakat der KPD, 1932.jpg")
The KPD maintained a solid electoral performance, usually polling more than 10% of the vote. It gained 100 deputies in the [November 1932 elections](/wiki/November_1932_German_federal_election "November 1932 German federal election"), getting 16% of the vote and coming third. In the [presidential election of the same year](/wiki/1932_German_presidential_election "1932 German presidential election"), its candidate Thälmann took 13\.2% of the vote, compared to Hitler's 30\.1%. In this period, while also opposed to the Nazis, the KPD regarded the Nazi Party as a less sophisticated and thus less dangerous fascist party than the SPD, and KPD leader Ernst Thälmann declared that "some Nazi trees must not be allowed to overshadow a forest \[of social democrats]".{{cite journal \|last1\=Coppi \|first1\=Hans \|author\-link1\=Hans Coppi Jr. \|year\=1998 \|title\=Die nationalsozialistischen Bäume im sozialdemokratischen Wald: Die KPD im antifaschistischen Zweifrontenkrieg (Teil 2\) \|trans\-title\=The national socialist trees in the social democratic forest: The KPD in the anti\-fascist two\-front war (Part 2\) \|journal\=Utopie Kreativ \|volume\=97–98\|pages\=7–17 }}
Critics of the KPD accused it of having pursued a sectarian policy. For example, the Social Democratic Party criticized the KPD's thesis of "social fascism", and both [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky "Leon Trotsky") from the [Comintern](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International")'s [Left Opposition](/wiki/Left_Opposition "Left Opposition") and [August Thalheimer](/wiki/August_Thalheimer "August Thalheimer") of the [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition "Right Opposition") continued to argue for a united front.Marcel Bois, "[Hitler wasn't inevitable](https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/11/nuremberg-trials-hitler-goebbels-himmler-german-communist-social-democrats/)", *Jacobin* 25 November 2015 Critics believed that the KPD's sectarianism scuttled any possibility of a united front with the SPD against the rising power of the [National Socialists](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism").
Thälmann claimed that the right\-wing leadership of the SPD rejected and actively worked against the KPD's efforts to form a united front against fascism.{{cite web\|title\=Texte zum Klassenkampf/ Ernst Thälmann: Wie schaffen wir die rote Einheitsfront?\|url\=http://www.marxistische\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\|access\-date\=27 December 2021\|archive\-date\=15 July 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715202206/http://www.marxistische\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\|url\-status\=bot: unknown}} The party itself, however, continued to publicly clash with the SPD and the [General German Trade Union Federation](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation "General German Trade Union Federation") well into 1932\.
A brawl between Nazi and KPD lawmakers in the [Landtag of Prussia](/wiki/Landtag_of_Prussia "Landtag of Prussia") led to the creation of Antifa – short [Antifaschistische Aktion](/wiki/Antifaschistische_Aktion "Antifaschistische Aktion"),{{cite web\|url\=http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\_AA\_web.pdf\|title\=80 Jahre Antifaschistische Aktion\|last\=Langer\|first\=Bernd\|publisher\=Verein zur Förderung Antifaschistischer Kultur\|access\-date\=25 June 2019\|archive\-date\=27 April 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427052730/http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\_AA\_web.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} which the party itself described as a "red united [front](/wiki/Communist_front "Communist front") under the leadership of the only anti\-fascist party, the KPD". Thälmann, however, reiterated that there was still a ‘principal fight’ to be led against the SPD and that there would be no ‘unity at all costs’.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dorpalen \|first1\=Andreas \|title\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \|journal\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \|date\=1983 \|volume\=1 \|page\=97 \|url\=https://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\_1\_4\_dorpalen.pdf \|access\-date\=28 November 2023 \|publisher\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \|location\=Munich \|issn\=0042\-5702}}
After [Franz von Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen "Franz von Papen")'s government [carried out a coup d'état](/wiki/Preu%C3%9Fenschlag "Preußenschlag") in [Prussia](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia "Free State of Prussia"), the KPD issued a call for all workers to support a general strike under its own leadership, which only resulted in limited local action. The statement was added with a short call on the [GGTUF](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation "General German Trade Union Federation"), the SPD and the [General Federation of Free Employees](/wiki/General_Federation_of_Free_Employees "General Federation of Free Employees") to join in, but the KPD's belief that social democrats would have to be 'coerced by the masses' meant that their leaders were never approached directly. The KPD tried the same tactic again after [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") was appointed as chancellor but was widely ignored by other organisations and individual workers this time as well.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dorpalen \|first1\=Andreas \|title\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \|journal\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \|date\=1983 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=97–98 \|url\=https://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\_1\_4\_dorpalen.pdf \|access\-date\=28 November 2023 \|publisher\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \|location\=Munich \|issn\=0042\-5702}}
|
[
"### The Third Period and \"social fascism\"",
"After the [1928 Reichstag election](/wiki/1928_German_federal_election \"1928 German federal election\"), the KPD with 54 seats remained one of the largest and most politically potent Communist parties in Europe. Led now by Thälmann, who supported a close alignment with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\") (Comintern). At the time, the Comintern held the position that [social democracy](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") was [social fascism](/wiki/Social_fascism \"Social fascism\") and that it frustrated rather than helped the [proletariat](/wiki/Proletariat \"Proletariat\"). As a result, the KPD under Thälmann had a hostile, confrontational attitude toward the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) as defenders of the capitalist status quo.{{Sfn\\|Bowlby\\|1986\\|p\\=138}} Their perception was reinforced by the explicit [anti\\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-communism \"Anti-communism\") views of numerous SPD politicians in the German and [Prussian](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia \"Free State of Prussia\") governments, including Chancellor [Hermann Müller](/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_%28politician%2C_born_1876%29 \"Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)\"), Interior Minister [Carl Severing](/wiki/Carl_Severing \"Carl Severing\"), [Prussian Minister President](/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia \"Minister President of Prussia\") [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun \"Otto Braun\"), Prussian Interior Minister [Albert Grzesinski](/wiki/Albert_Grzesinski \"Albert Grzesinski\") and [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police \"Berlin Police\") chief Karl Zörgiebel.{{Sfn\\|Rosenhaft\\|1983\\|p\\=32}}",
"In the lead\\-up to the 1929 celebration of [International Workers' Day](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day \"International Workers' Day\"), SPD Minister Grzesinski threatened to ban the KPD and its organizations if they acted in defiance of a ban on public gatherings in Berlin ordered by the city's police chief [Karl Zörgiebel](/wiki/Karl_Z%C3%B6rgiebel \"Karl Zörgiebel\") of the SPD. The attempted banning galvanized the KPD, who responded by exhorting workers to defy the ban and organize peacefully, but to be prepared to strike on May 2 \"if Zörgiebel dares to spill workers' blood\". The KPD proceeded with [May Day](/wiki/May_Day \"May Day\") marches in Berlin.",
"The [Berlin Police](/wiki/Berlin_Police \"Berlin Police\") responded with an immediate, harsh, and disproportionate crackdown. Often without regard to whether the persons involved were demonstrators or bystanders, they forcibly and violently dispersed the crowds that formed. As the day progressed, street battles developed between the protestors and the police, who used firearms and armoured cars. The violence lasted until the afternoon of 3 May, mostly in the working\\-class neighbourhoods of [Wedding](/wiki/Wedding_%28Berlin%29 \"Wedding (Berlin)\") and [Neukölln](/wiki/Neuk%C3%B6lln \"Neukölln\").",
"An estimated 33 civilians, none of whom were involved with the KPD, were killed, 200 injured, and over a thousand people taken into police custody, many of whom were also not involved in the initial KPD rallies.{{sfn\\|Bowlby\\|1986\\|pp\\=149–150}} Only 66 of those arrested were charged and 44 convicted.",
"The events of [Blutmai](/wiki/Blutmai \"Blutmai\") deepened the split between the SPD and KPD, the two major left\\-wing parties of the Weimar Republic, making a united stand against the growing strength of far\\-right parties more difficult.",
"Tensions soured, the KPD in turn began aligning with the Comintern's [ultra\\-left](/wiki/Ultra-left \"Ultra-left\") [Third Period](/wiki/Third_Period \"Third Period\"), under the slogan \"Class against class\", the KPD turned to viewing the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) as its main adversary.{{cite book \\| last\\=Grenville \\| first\\=Anthony \\| title\\=German Writers and Politics 1918–39 \\| chapter\\=From Social Fascism to Popular Front: KPD Policy as Reflected in the Works of Friedrich Wolf, Anna Seghers and Willi Bredel, 1928–1938 \\| publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan UK \\| publication\\-place\\=London \\| year\\=1992 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-349\\-11817\\-5 \\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-349\\-11815\\-1\\_7 \\| pages\\=89–102}}{{cite journal \\| last\\=Lemmons \\| first\\=Russel \\| title\\=\"Germany's Eternal Son:\" the Genesis of the Ernst Thälmann Myth, 1930–1950 \\| journal\\=German Studies Review \\| publisher\\=German Studies Association, The Johns Hopkins University Press \\| volume\\=32 \\| issue\\=2 \\| year\\=2009 \\| issn\\=0149\\-7952 \\| jstor\\=40574804 \\| pages\\=343–356 \\| url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574804 \\| access\\-date\\=4 January 2022\\|quote\\=By 1932, Thälmann's image had become a vital component of the KPD's antifascism narrative. According to this version of events only the communists stood against the forces of German fascism. The Socialists (SPD), who supported the right\\-wing Hindenburg in the 1932 elections, were ultimately \"social fascists\", and no better than the Nazis}} The term social fascism was introduced to the German Communist Party shortly after the [Hamburg Uprising](/wiki/Hamburg_Uprising \"Hamburg Uprising\") of 1923 and gradually became ever more influential in the party; by 1929 it was being propagated as a theory.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Haro \\|first1\\=Lea \\|date\\=2011 \\|title\\=Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory]] \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\= 563–582 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1080/03017605\\.2011\\.621248 \\|s2cid\\=146848013 }} The KPD regarded itself as \"the only anti\\-fascist party\" in Germany and held that all other parties in the Weimar Republic were \"fascist\". The Nazis achieved an electoral breakthrough in the [1930 Reichstag election](/wiki/1930_Reichstag_election \"1930 Reichstag election\").",
"By the early 1930s, the political situation in [Weimar Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany \"Weimar Germany\") was extremely unstable after the onset of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). The Depression effectively destroyed the remaining legitimacy of the pro\\-democratic parties \\- such as the Social Democrats, the State Party, and the German People's Party \\- in favor of the anti\\-democratic parties.{{cite book\\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=Richard\\|title\\=The Coming of the Third Reich\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Penguin \\|isbn\\=978\\-0141009759}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Fippel \\|first1\\=Günter\\|year\\= 2003 \\|title\\=Antifaschisten in \"antifaschistischer\" Gewalt: mittel\\- und ostdeutsche Schicksale in den Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur (1945 bis 1961\\)\\|publisher\\= A. Peter \\|page\\= 21 \\|isbn\\= 9783935881128 }} They also followed an increasingly nationalist course, trying to appeal to nationalist\\-leaning workers.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ernst Thälmann: Nationale und soziale Befreiung (1930\\)\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/deutsch/referenz/thaelmann/1930/08/natsozbef.htm\\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021\\|website\\=www.marxists.org}}",
"In 1931, the party reported a membership of 200,000\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Scarrow \\|first1\\=Susan \\|title\\=Beyond Party Members: Changing Approaches to Partisan Mobilization \\|date\\=27 November 2014 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=9780191748332 \\|page\\=59 \\|edition\\=1 \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/book/9675 \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023}}",
"The KPD leadership initially first criticised but then supported the [1931 Prussian Landtag referendum](/wiki/1931_Prussian_Landtag_referendum \"1931 Prussian Landtag referendum\"), an unsuccessful attempt launched by the far\\-right [Stahlhelm](/wiki/Der_Stahlhelm%2C_Bund_der_Frontsoldaten \"Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten\") to bring down the social democrat state government of Prussia by means of a plebiscite; the KPD referred to some within the SA as \"working people's comrades\" during this campaign.Rob Sewell, *Germany: From Revolution to Counter\\-Revolution*, Fortress Books (1988\\), {{ISBN\\|1\\-870958\\-04\\-7}}, [Chapter 7](http://www.marxist.com/germany/chapter7.html). \"In August 1931, to capitalise on their growing popularity, the Nazi Party launched a referendum to overthrow the Social Democratic government of Prussia. At first the KPD correctly attacked it. Then, three weeks before the vote, under orders from Stalin's Comintern, they joined forces with the fascists to bring down the main enemy, the Social Democrats. They changed the name of the plebiscite to a 'Red Referendum' and referred to the fascists and the members of the SA as 'working people's comrades'!\"",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|KPD election poster, 1932\\. The caption at the bottom reads: \"An end to this system!\"](/wiki/File:Schluss_mit_diesem_System_-_Wahlplakat_der_KPD%2C_1932.jpg \"Schluss mit diesem System - Wahlplakat der KPD, 1932.jpg\")",
"The KPD maintained a solid electoral performance, usually polling more than 10% of the vote. It gained 100 deputies in the [November 1932 elections](/wiki/November_1932_German_federal_election \"November 1932 German federal election\"), getting 16% of the vote and coming third. In the [presidential election of the same year](/wiki/1932_German_presidential_election \"1932 German presidential election\"), its candidate Thälmann took 13\\.2% of the vote, compared to Hitler's 30\\.1%. In this period, while also opposed to the Nazis, the KPD regarded the Nazi Party as a less sophisticated and thus less dangerous fascist party than the SPD, and KPD leader Ernst Thälmann declared that \"some Nazi trees must not be allowed to overshadow a forest \\[of social democrats]\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Coppi \\|first1\\=Hans \\|author\\-link1\\=Hans Coppi Jr. \\|year\\=1998 \\|title\\=Die nationalsozialistischen Bäume im sozialdemokratischen Wald: Die KPD im antifaschistischen Zweifrontenkrieg (Teil 2\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=The national socialist trees in the social democratic forest: The KPD in the anti\\-fascist two\\-front war (Part 2\\) \\|journal\\=Utopie Kreativ \\|volume\\=97–98\\|pages\\=7–17 }}",
"Critics of the KPD accused it of having pursued a sectarian policy. For example, the Social Democratic Party criticized the KPD's thesis of \"social fascism\", and both [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky \"Leon Trotsky\") from the [Comintern](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\")'s [Left Opposition](/wiki/Left_Opposition \"Left Opposition\") and [August Thalheimer](/wiki/August_Thalheimer \"August Thalheimer\") of the [Right Opposition](/wiki/Right_Opposition \"Right Opposition\") continued to argue for a united front.Marcel Bois, \"[Hitler wasn't inevitable](https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/11/nuremberg-trials-hitler-goebbels-himmler-german-communist-social-democrats/)\", *Jacobin* 25 November 2015 Critics believed that the KPD's sectarianism scuttled any possibility of a united front with the SPD against the rising power of the [National Socialists](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\").",
"Thälmann claimed that the right\\-wing leadership of the SPD rejected and actively worked against the KPD's efforts to form a united front against fascism.{{cite web\\|title\\=Texte zum Klassenkampf/ Ernst Thälmann: Wie schaffen wir die rote Einheitsfront?\\|url\\=http://www.marxistische\\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715202206/http://www.marxistische\\-bibliothek.de/fragenvonspd.html\\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown}} The party itself, however, continued to publicly clash with the SPD and the [General German Trade Union Federation](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation \"General German Trade Union Federation\") well into 1932\\.",
"A brawl between Nazi and KPD lawmakers in the [Landtag of Prussia](/wiki/Landtag_of_Prussia \"Landtag of Prussia\") led to the creation of Antifa – short [Antifaschistische Aktion](/wiki/Antifaschistische_Aktion \"Antifaschistische Aktion\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\\_AA\\_web.pdf\\|title\\=80 Jahre Antifaschistische Aktion\\|last\\=Langer\\|first\\=Bernd\\|publisher\\=Verein zur Förderung Antifaschistischer Kultur\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427052730/http://antifaeu.blogsport.de/images/80J\\_AA\\_web.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} which the party itself described as a \"red united [front](/wiki/Communist_front \"Communist front\") under the leadership of the only anti\\-fascist party, the KPD\". Thälmann, however, reiterated that there was still a ‘principal fight’ to be led against the SPD and that there would be no ‘unity at all costs’.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dorpalen \\|first1\\=Andreas \\|title\\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \\|journal\\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \\|date\\=1983 \\|volume\\=1 \\|page\\=97 \\|url\\=https://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\\_1\\_4\\_dorpalen.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2023 \\|publisher\\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \\|location\\=Munich \\|issn\\=0042\\-5702}}",
"After [Franz von Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen \"Franz von Papen\")'s government [carried out a coup d'état](/wiki/Preu%C3%9Fenschlag \"Preußenschlag\") in [Prussia](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia \"Free State of Prussia\"), the KPD issued a call for all workers to support a general strike under its own leadership, which only resulted in limited local action. The statement was added with a short call on the [GGTUF](/wiki/General_German_Trade_Union_Federation \"General German Trade Union Federation\"), the SPD and the [General Federation of Free Employees](/wiki/General_Federation_of_Free_Employees \"General Federation of Free Employees\") to join in, but the KPD's belief that social democrats would have to be 'coerced by the masses' meant that their leaders were never approached directly. The KPD tried the same tactic again after [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") was appointed as chancellor but was widely ignored by other organisations and individual workers this time as well.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dorpalen \\|first1\\=Andreas \\|title\\=SPD und KPD in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik \\|journal\\=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte \\|date\\=1983 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=97–98 \\|url\\=https://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1983\\_1\\_4\\_dorpalen.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2023 \\|publisher\\=Institut für Zeitgeschichte \\|location\\=Munich \\|issn\\=0042\\-5702}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Oda was born in [Kaita](/wiki/Kaita%2C_Hiroshima "Kaita, Hiroshima"), [Hiroshima Prefecture](/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture "Hiroshima Prefecture"). At the age of 17, he set a new Japanese record for the [triple jump](/wiki/Triple_jump "Triple jump") at the [1923 Far Eastern Championship Games](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1923_Far_Eastern_Championship_Games "Athletics at the 1923 Far Eastern Championship Games") held in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka "Osaka"), and also won the [long jump](/wiki/Long_jump "Long jump") and [high jump](/wiki/High_jump "High jump") events.[Far Eastern Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/fec.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 18 December 2014\. He was selected as a member of the Japanese Olympic team for the [1924 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1924_Summer_Olympics "1924 Summer Olympics") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), participating in all three events. However, he failed to reach the semifinals in the [long jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_long_jump "Athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's long jump") and [high jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_high_jump "Athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's high jump"), and placed sixth in the [triple jump competition](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_triple_jump "Athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's triple jump").
On his return to Japan, he enrolled at [Waseda University](/wiki/Waseda_University "Waseda University"), but returned to compete in the [1928 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1928_Summer_Olympics "1928 Summer Olympics") in [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam"). Although he again did not reach the semifinals in the [long jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_long_jump "Athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics – Men's long jump") and [high jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_high_jump "Athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics – Men's high jump"), he won the [triple jump event](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_triple_jump "Athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics – Men's triple jump") with a result of 15\.21 meters, becoming the first Japanese athlete to win an Olympic gold medal.
In 1931, Oda graduated from Waseda University and was employed by the [Asahi Shimbun](/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun "Asahi Shimbun") newspaper. On 27 October of the same year, he established a new [world record](/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_athletics "List of world records in athletics") for the triple jump of 15\.58 meters. Oda served as coach and captain of the Japanese athletics team at the [1932 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics "1932 Summer Olympics") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles").
Upon retirement from competitive athletics, he focused his efforts on sports administration, becoming a member of the [Japanese Olympic Committee](/wiki/Japanese_Olympic_Committee "Japanese Olympic Committee") in 1948 and later taking part in the [IAAF](/wiki/IAAF "IAAF")'s technical committee. He also served as coach for the Japanese athletics team at the [1952 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1952_Summer_Olympics "1952 Summer Olympics") at [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki "Helsinki") and the [1954 Asian Games](/wiki/1954_Asian_Games "1954 Asian Games") in [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"). During the [1964 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics "1964 Summer Olympics") in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), the Olympic flag was raised to a height of exactly 15\.21 meters, to pay respect to Oda's achievement 36 years earlier.
Oda field, a 400\-meter running track in Yoyogi built for the 1964 Olympics, was named after Oda.Shibuya City Hall [Shibuya City Office / Public Facilities](http://www.city.shibuya.tokyo.jp/eng/public_facilities.html) Retrieved on 21 October 2013 His sporting achievements were recognized with the creation of the [Mikio Oda Memorial International Amateur Athletic Game](/wiki/Mikio_Oda_Memorial_International_Amateur_Athletic_Game "Mikio Oda Memorial International Amateur Athletic Game"), an annual [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field "Track and field") competition that has been held since 1967\.
He became a professor at Waseda University from 1965\. In 1976, Oda was awarded the [Olympic Order](/wiki/Olympic_Order "Olympic Order"), the highest award of the Olympic Movement. In 1988, Oda was honored by the government as a [Person of Cultural Merit](/wiki/Person_of_Cultural_Merit "Person of Cultural Merit"), and in 1989, he was named honorary chairman of the [Japan Association of Athletics Federations](/wiki/Japan_Association_of_Athletics_Federations "Japan Association of Athletics Federations"). In the final years of his life, Oda moved from his home at [Aburatsubo](/wiki/Aburatsubo "Aburatsubo") in [Yokosuka, Kanagawa](/wiki/Yokosuka%2C_Kanagawa "Yokosuka, Kanagawa") to a nursing home in Kugenuma (Fujisawa, Kanagawa). His grave is at the Buddhist temple of [Tokei\-ji](/wiki/Tokei-ji "Tokei-ji") in [Kamakura](/wiki/Kamakura%2C_Kanagawa "Kamakura, Kanagawa").
In 2000, Oda was posthumously chosen as the best Asian male athlete of the century by a panel of track and field experts.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Oda was born in [Kaita](/wiki/Kaita%2C_Hiroshima \"Kaita, Hiroshima\"), [Hiroshima Prefecture](/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture \"Hiroshima Prefecture\"). At the age of 17, he set a new Japanese record for the [triple jump](/wiki/Triple_jump \"Triple jump\") at the [1923 Far Eastern Championship Games](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1923_Far_Eastern_Championship_Games \"Athletics at the 1923 Far Eastern Championship Games\") held in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka \"Osaka\"), and also won the [long jump](/wiki/Long_jump \"Long jump\") and [high jump](/wiki/High_jump \"High jump\") events.[Far Eastern Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/fec.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 18 December 2014\\. He was selected as a member of the Japanese Olympic team for the [1924 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1924_Summer_Olympics \"1924 Summer Olympics\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), participating in all three events. However, he failed to reach the semifinals in the [long jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_long_jump \"Athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's long jump\") and [high jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_high_jump \"Athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's high jump\"), and placed sixth in the [triple jump competition](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_triple_jump \"Athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's triple jump\").",
"On his return to Japan, he enrolled at [Waseda University](/wiki/Waseda_University \"Waseda University\"), but returned to compete in the [1928 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1928_Summer_Olympics \"1928 Summer Olympics\") in [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\"). Although he again did not reach the semifinals in the [long jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_long_jump \"Athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics – Men's long jump\") and [high jump](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_high_jump \"Athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics – Men's high jump\"), he won the [triple jump event](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_triple_jump \"Athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics – Men's triple jump\") with a result of 15\\.21 meters, becoming the first Japanese athlete to win an Olympic gold medal.",
"In 1931, Oda graduated from Waseda University and was employed by the [Asahi Shimbun](/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun \"Asahi Shimbun\") newspaper. On 27 October of the same year, he established a new [world record](/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_athletics \"List of world records in athletics\") for the triple jump of 15\\.58 meters. Oda served as coach and captain of the Japanese athletics team at the [1932 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics \"1932 Summer Olympics\") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\").",
"Upon retirement from competitive athletics, he focused his efforts on sports administration, becoming a member of the [Japanese Olympic Committee](/wiki/Japanese_Olympic_Committee \"Japanese Olympic Committee\") in 1948 and later taking part in the [IAAF](/wiki/IAAF \"IAAF\")'s technical committee. He also served as coach for the Japanese athletics team at the [1952 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1952_Summer_Olympics \"1952 Summer Olympics\") at [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki \"Helsinki\") and the [1954 Asian Games](/wiki/1954_Asian_Games \"1954 Asian Games\") in [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"). During the [1964 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics \"1964 Summer Olympics\") in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), the Olympic flag was raised to a height of exactly 15\\.21 meters, to pay respect to Oda's achievement 36 years earlier.",
"Oda field, a 400\\-meter running track in Yoyogi built for the 1964 Olympics, was named after Oda.Shibuya City Hall [Shibuya City Office / Public Facilities](http://www.city.shibuya.tokyo.jp/eng/public_facilities.html) Retrieved on 21 October 2013 His sporting achievements were recognized with the creation of the [Mikio Oda Memorial International Amateur Athletic Game](/wiki/Mikio_Oda_Memorial_International_Amateur_Athletic_Game \"Mikio Oda Memorial International Amateur Athletic Game\"), an annual [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field \"Track and field\") competition that has been held since 1967\\.",
"He became a professor at Waseda University from 1965\\. In 1976, Oda was awarded the [Olympic Order](/wiki/Olympic_Order \"Olympic Order\"), the highest award of the Olympic Movement. In 1988, Oda was honored by the government as a [Person of Cultural Merit](/wiki/Person_of_Cultural_Merit \"Person of Cultural Merit\"), and in 1989, he was named honorary chairman of the [Japan Association of Athletics Federations](/wiki/Japan_Association_of_Athletics_Federations \"Japan Association of Athletics Federations\"). In the final years of his life, Oda moved from his home at [Aburatsubo](/wiki/Aburatsubo \"Aburatsubo\") in [Yokosuka, Kanagawa](/wiki/Yokosuka%2C_Kanagawa \"Yokosuka, Kanagawa\") to a nursing home in Kugenuma (Fujisawa, Kanagawa). His grave is at the Buddhist temple of [Tokei\\-ji](/wiki/Tokei-ji \"Tokei-ji\") in [Kamakura](/wiki/Kamakura%2C_Kanagawa \"Kamakura, Kanagawa\").",
"In 2000, Oda was posthumously chosen as the best Asian male athlete of the century by a panel of track and field experts.",
""
] |
Life
----
He was born in [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar "Weimar"), the eldest son of [Johann Ernst II, Duke of Saxe\-Weimar](/wiki/Johann_Ernst_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar "Johann Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar") and [Princess Christine Elisabeth of Schleswig\-Holstein\-Sonderburg](/wiki/Princess_Christine_Elisabeth_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg "Princess Christine Elisabeth of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg").
When his father died in 1683, he succeeded him as duke; however, he was compelled to rule jointly with his younger brother [Johann Ernst III](/wiki/Johann_Ernst_III%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar "Johann Ernst III, Duke of Saxe-Weimar").
Because John Ernest III was [alcoholic](/wiki/Alcoholic "Alcoholic"), William Ernest took full control of the government of the duchy and permitted John Ernest the nominal title of co\-duke (*Mitherr*) until his death in 1707\. After the death of his brother he made John Ernest's son, Ernest August I, co\-duke, but with no real power.
Six months after the death of his father (2 November 1683\), William Ernest married in [Eisenach](/wiki/Eisenach "Eisenach") with [Charlotte Marie](/wiki/Charlotte_Marie_of_Saxe-Jena "Charlotte Marie of Saxe-Jena"), his cousin and eldest surviving daughter of his uncle [Bernhard II, Duke of Saxe\-Jena](/wiki/Bernhard_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Jena "Bernhard II, Duke of Saxe-Jena"), in order to secure the family lands. At that time, the guardian of Charlotte and his younger brother, the duke Johann William of Saxe\-Jena, was the duke John George I of Saxe\-Eisenach, their only surviving uncle. When he died in 1686, the guardianship of the duke of Saxe\-Jena was taken by William Ernest, his cousin and brother\-in\-law.
[left\|thumb\| William Ernest, Duke of Saxe\-Weimar](/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Ernst%2C_Herzog_von_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach.jpg "Wilhelm Ernst, Herzog von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach.jpg")
William Ernest was a strict [Lutheran](/wiki/Martin_Luther "Martin Luther") and commanded that only men who could read and comment on Lutheran theological writings be admitted to his armed forces. The composer [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach") worked for the duke from 1708, first as organist, then as *Konzertmeister* (leader of the orchestra) in Weimar. When [Johann Samuel Drese](/wiki/Johann_Samuel_Drese "Johann Samuel Drese") died in 1716, Bach solicited his post of *Kapellmeister* (head of the court musical establishment), but William Ernest appointed Drese's incompetent son for the post instead; furious, Bach solicited his dismissal from the Duke's service. Annoyed at Bach's impertinence, William Ernest had Bach jailed for four weeks in a fortress before he accepted his dismissal.
On 23 August 1690, William Ernest and Charlotte Marie were divorced after seven years of childless and extremely unhappy union. Two months later, on 4 November, duke [John William of Saxe\-Jena](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Jena "Johann Wilhelm, Duke of Saxe-Jena") (Charlotte Marie's brother), died without heirs, and Wilhelm Ernst took possession of part of his duchy after a treaty was signed with the Saxe\-Eisenach branch of his family.
William Ernest never remarried and died at Weimar without heirs; his nephew Ernest August I became his successor.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"He was born in [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar \"Weimar\"), the eldest son of [Johann Ernst II, Duke of Saxe\\-Weimar](/wiki/Johann_Ernst_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar \"Johann Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar\") and [Princess Christine Elisabeth of Schleswig\\-Holstein\\-Sonderburg](/wiki/Princess_Christine_Elisabeth_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg \"Princess Christine Elisabeth of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg\").",
"When his father died in 1683, he succeeded him as duke; however, he was compelled to rule jointly with his younger brother [Johann Ernst III](/wiki/Johann_Ernst_III%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar \"Johann Ernst III, Duke of Saxe-Weimar\").",
"Because John Ernest III was [alcoholic](/wiki/Alcoholic \"Alcoholic\"), William Ernest took full control of the government of the duchy and permitted John Ernest the nominal title of co\\-duke (*Mitherr*) until his death in 1707\\. After the death of his brother he made John Ernest's son, Ernest August I, co\\-duke, but with no real power.",
"Six months after the death of his father (2 November 1683\\), William Ernest married in [Eisenach](/wiki/Eisenach \"Eisenach\") with [Charlotte Marie](/wiki/Charlotte_Marie_of_Saxe-Jena \"Charlotte Marie of Saxe-Jena\"), his cousin and eldest surviving daughter of his uncle [Bernhard II, Duke of Saxe\\-Jena](/wiki/Bernhard_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Jena \"Bernhard II, Duke of Saxe-Jena\"), in order to secure the family lands. At that time, the guardian of Charlotte and his younger brother, the duke Johann William of Saxe\\-Jena, was the duke John George I of Saxe\\-Eisenach, their only surviving uncle. When he died in 1686, the guardianship of the duke of Saxe\\-Jena was taken by William Ernest, his cousin and brother\\-in\\-law.",
"[left\\|thumb\\| William Ernest, Duke of Saxe\\-Weimar](/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Ernst%2C_Herzog_von_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach.jpg \"Wilhelm Ernst, Herzog von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach.jpg\")\nWilliam Ernest was a strict [Lutheran](/wiki/Martin_Luther \"Martin Luther\") and commanded that only men who could read and comment on Lutheran theological writings be admitted to his armed forces. The composer [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\") worked for the duke from 1708, first as organist, then as *Konzertmeister* (leader of the orchestra) in Weimar. When [Johann Samuel Drese](/wiki/Johann_Samuel_Drese \"Johann Samuel Drese\") died in 1716, Bach solicited his post of *Kapellmeister* (head of the court musical establishment), but William Ernest appointed Drese's incompetent son for the post instead; furious, Bach solicited his dismissal from the Duke's service. Annoyed at Bach's impertinence, William Ernest had Bach jailed for four weeks in a fortress before he accepted his dismissal.",
"On 23 August 1690, William Ernest and Charlotte Marie were divorced after seven years of childless and extremely unhappy union. Two months later, on 4 November, duke [John William of Saxe\\-Jena](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Jena \"Johann Wilhelm, Duke of Saxe-Jena\") (Charlotte Marie's brother), died without heirs, and Wilhelm Ernst took possession of part of his duchy after a treaty was signed with the Saxe\\-Eisenach branch of his family.",
"William Ernest never remarried and died at Weimar without heirs; his nephew Ernest August I became his successor.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
### Early life and career: 1947–1996
[thumb\|left\|Holman with his father, 1949](/wiki/File:1.Jeffrey_with_his_Dad_1949_%28cropped%29.jpg "1.Jeffrey with his Dad 1949 (cropped).jpg")
Holman was born in [London](/wiki/London "London") in 1947, and in 1950 moved to New Zealand with his family.{{cite web \|title\=Holman, Jeffrey \|url\=https://www.read\-nz.org/writer/holman\-jeffrey/ \|website\=Read NZ Te Pou Muramura \|access\-date\=21 November 2021}} His father had served in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") on aircraft carriers in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and later suffered from drinking and gambling problems, related to the [PTSD](/wiki/PTSD "PTSD") he suffered as a veteran.{{cite journal \|last1\=Watson White \|first1\=Helen \|title\=On the Kamikaze Trail \|journal\=Landfall Review Online \|date\=1 February 2014 \|url\=https://landfallreview.com/on\-the\-kamikaze\-trail/ \|access\-date\=23 November 2021}}{{cite news \|last1\=Holman \|first1\=Jeffrey Paparoa \|title\=Dick Scott, RIP: The Pākehā of Parihaka Part 2 \|url\=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/dick\-scott\-rip\-the\-pakeha\-of\-parihaka\-part\-2 \|access\-date\=1 December 2021 \|work\=Newsroom \|date\=1 February 2020}} On Holman's mother's side, he is a great\-nephew of the naval historian, [Hector Charles Bywater](/wiki/Hector_Charles_Bywater "Hector Charles Bywater"). The family moved frequently due to Holman's father's unsettled lifestyle and two terms of imprisonment due to embezzlement committed to support his gambling addiction. Notable places in Holman's childhood included [Devonport](/wiki/Devonport%2C_New_Zealand "Devonport, New Zealand") in Auckland and [Blackball](/wiki/Blackball%2C_New_Zealand "Blackball, New Zealand"), a small town on the West Coast of the South Island.{{cite web \|title\=Jeffrey Paparoa Holman \|url\=https://www.anzliterature.com/member/jeffrey\-paparoa\-holman/ \|website\=Academy of New Zealand Literature \|access\-date\=23 November 2021}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Reid \|first1\=Nicholas \|title\=Finding the way back \|journal\=New Zealand Review of Books \|date\=Winter 2019 \|issue\=126 \|url\=https://nzbooks.org.nz/2019/non\-fiction/finding\-the\-way\-back\-nicholas\-reid/ \|access\-date\=24 November 2021}}{{cite book \|last1\=Holman \|first1\=Jeffrey Paparoa \|title\=Now When It Rains: a writer's memoir \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=Steele Roberts \|location\=Petone \|isbn\=978\-0\-947493\-77\-6 \|pages\=23, 44}} He later wrote of his experiences growing up in Blackball in the poetry collection *The Late Great Blackball Bridge Sonnets* (2004\).{{cite web \|last1\=Nathan \|first1\=Simon \|title\=Blackball books \|url\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/21002/blackball\-books \|website\=Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand \|access\-date\=23 November 2021}}
His first published poem, "Night" (1963\), was dedicated to his English teacher (and, later, lifelong friend and mentor) [Peter Hooper](/wiki/Peter_Hooper_%28writer%29 "Peter Hooper (writer)").{{cite web \|last1\=Rapatahana \|first1\=Vaughan \|title\=Idiosyncratic Man O'War: A review of Blood Ties \|url\=https://pantograph\-punch.com/posts/blood\-ties \|website\=The Pantograph Punch \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|date\=17 April 2017}}{{cite news \|last1\=Wyatt \|first1\=Hamesh \|title\=Wootton at her playful, energetic best \|url\=https://www.odt.co.nz/entertainment/books/wootton\-her\-playful\-energetic\-best \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=Otago Daily Times \|date\=27 March 2017}} After dropping out of high school in 1965 he attended university briefly, but did not graduate.{{cite news \|last1\=Fletcher \|first1\=Jack \|title\=In your prime: How Jeffrey Holman embraced student life at age 50 \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/98639710/in\-your\-prime\-how\-jeffrey\-holman\-embraced\-student\-life\-at\-age\-50 \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=Stuff.co.nz \|date\=7 November 2017}}{{sfn\|Holman\|2018\|p\=50}} During his career, Holman worked in a number of working class jobs including as a sawmill worker, a sheep\-shearer in both Australia and New Zealand, a farmhand, a forestry worker, a rubbish man and a delivery driver.{{cite news \|last1\=Peka \|first1\=June \|title\=No time; to stop \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1030417131 \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=The Press \|date\=28 July 2012 \|page\=6\|id\={{ProQuest\|1030417131}} }} He returned to university in the early 1970s, but again did not graduate.{{sfn\|Holman\|2018\|p\=137–148}}
His first poetry collection, *Strange Children*, was published in the shared volume *Two Poets* (1974\) in a collaboration with American poet [David Walker](/wiki/David_Walker_%28poet%29 "David Walker (poet)"). He subsequently worked as a psychiatric social worker at [Seaview Hospital](/wiki/Seaview_Asylum "Seaview Asylum") in [Hokitika](/wiki/Hokitika "Hokitika").{{sfn\|Holman\|2018\|pp\=149–151}} Holman has said that his Christian faith (often expressed in his work) was revived, in profound spiritual experiences, after the death of his partner Lee in a road accident near Otira in the winter of 1978\.{{sfn\|Holman\|2018\|pp\=170–171}}{{cite news \|last1\=Holman \|first1\=Jeffrey Paparoa \|title\=Jeffrey is on LSD. Jeffrey is mourning his wife \|url\=https://thespinoff.co.nz/books/19\-11\-2018/jeffrey\-is\-on\-lsd\-jeffrey\-is\-mourning\-his\-wife \|access\-date\=4 December 2021 \|work\=The Spinoff \|date\=19 November 2018a}}{{cite news \|last1\=Else \|first1\=Chris \|title\=In Pursuit of Something He Is Never Sure He Deserves \|url\=https://landfallreview.com/in\-pursuit\-of\-something\-he\-is\-never\-sure\-he\-deserves/ \|access\-date\=24 November 2021 \|work\=Landfall Review Online \|date\=1 May 2019}}
In 1987 Holman moved to London with his family, and worked for a time as a residential social worker followed by work as a bookseller. He adopted his middle name Paparoa while living in London in the mid\-1990s, in tribute to the [Paparoa Range](/wiki/Paparoa_Range "Paparoa Range").{{cite news \|last1\=Matthews \|first1\=Philip \|title\=Uncovering another New Zealand \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/314950917 \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=The Press \|date\=13 March 2010 \|page\=C12\|id\={{ProQuest\|314950917}} }} While in England, he read *Ask That Mountain: The Story of Parihaka* by historian [Dick Scott](/wiki/Dick_Scott_%28historian%29 "Dick Scott (historian)"), and decided to return to New Zealand and learn more about Māori culture. This experience led to his enrolment in Māori language classes, [kapa haka](/wiki/Kapa_haka "Kapa haka") group membership, and the study of [New Zealand's colonial history](/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand "History of New Zealand").
### Return to university: 1997–2010
Holman returned to university for the third time in the late 1990s and completed a Bachelor of Arts with honours in English and Māori studies at the [University of Canterbury](/wiki/University_of_Canterbury "University of Canterbury").{{cite news \|last1\=O'Callaghan \|first1\=Jody \|title\=University of Canterbury sees silver lining in retiree students \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/76214606/university\-of\-canterbury\-sees\-silver\-lining\-in\-retiree\-students \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=Stuff.co.nz \|date\=26 January 2016}} He studied [te reo Māori](/wiki/Te_reo_M%C4%81ori "Te reo Māori") (the Māori language) as part of his degree, which he said was something he "had wanted to do for a long time". He has spoken publicly about the importance to his life and writing of learning the language.{{cite news \|last1\=Holman \|first1\=Jeffrey Paparoa \|title\=Language lessons broaden horizons \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/opinion/perspective/7027419/Language\-lessons\-broaden\-horizons \|access\-date\=24 November 2021 \|work\=The Press \|date\=1 June 2012}}
Since his 1998 poetry collection *Flood Damage*, Holman has published a number of poetry collections. The title poem of his 2002 poetry collection, *As Big as a Father*, received the 1997 Whitireia Prize.{{cite journal \|last1\=Bramwell \|first1\=Murray \|title\=Jewels and binoculars \|journal\=New Zealand Review of Books \|date\=Summer 2017 \|issue\=120 \|url\=https://nzbooks.org.nz/2017/literature/jewels\-and\-binoculars\-murray\-bramwell/ \|access\-date\=24 November 2021}} It was also shortlisted for the [Poetry Prize](/wiki/Mary_and_Peter_Biggs_Award_for_Poetry "Mary and Peter Biggs Award for Poetry") at the [Montana New Zealand Book Awards](/wiki/Montana_New_Zealand_Book_Awards "Montana New Zealand Book Awards") in 2003\. The award's judges said his poems "are redolent of senses of the South Island's West Coast: arms wide spread, wind, seas, ruggedness".{{cite news \|title\=Ode to our poets \|url\=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/ode\-to\-our\-poets/7W5C6BZOWSDJBCI5CNG6W2S5JM/ \|access\-date\=24 November 2021 \|work\=The New Zealand Herald \|date\=2 July 2003}} His poetry has been included in anthologies such as *Essential New Zealand Poems* (2001\), *Big Sky* (2002\), *Land Very Fertile* (2008\) and *Poetry New Zealand Yearbook 2021*, and in magazines like the *[New Zealand Listener](/wiki/New_Zealand_Listener "New Zealand Listener")* and [*Landfall*](/wiki/Landfall_%28journal%29 "Landfall (journal)").{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Slaughter \|editor1\-first\=Tracey \|title\=Poetry New Zealand Yearbook 2021 \|date\=2021 \|publisher\=Massey University Press \|location\=Auckland, New Zealand \|isbn\=9780995135420}}{{cite news \|last1\=Sharp \|first1\=Iain \|title\=Poetry in motion \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/313974850 \|access\-date\=24 November 2021 \|work\=Sunday Star\-Times \|date\=3 June 2001 \|page\=F2\|id\={{ProQuest\|313974850}} }}
In *The Long Forgetting: Post\-colonial literary culture in New Zealand*, academic Patrick Evans said of Holman's 2004 collection *The Late Great Blackball Bridge Sonnets*:{{cite book \|last1\=Evans \|first1\=Patrick \|title\=The Long Forgetting: post\-colonial literary culture in New Zealand \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=Canterbury University Press \|location\=Christchurch, N.Z. \|isbn\=978\-1\-877257\-69\-8 \|page\=200}}
{{blockquote\|Here, the lost world of West Coast coalmining is evoked in terms of ancestry, genealogy, kēhua, the spirit and above all as a tūrangawaewae \[a place to stand], to produce an effect unimaginable through any other means: in this volume, Holman comes closer than any other Pākehā writer alive today to give meaning to the concept of 'becoming Māori'.}}
In 2007, Holman completed his PhD in Māori studies. His thesis *Best of both world: Elsdon Best and the metamorphosis of Maori spirituality. Te painga rawa o ngā ao rua: Te Peehi me te putanga ke o te wairua Māori,* examined the works of the ethnographer [Elsdon Best](/wiki/Elsdon_Best "Elsdon Best").{{cite journal \|last1\=Holman \|first1\=Jeffrey Paparoa \|title\=Poem Notes / Poet Notes \|journal\=MAI Review \|date\=2011 \|volume\=3 \|url\=http://www.review.mai.ac.nz/mrindex/MR/article/download/449/449\-3367\-1\-PB.pdf \|access\-date\=23 November 2021}} {{cite thesis \|last\=Holman \|first\=Jeffrey \|year\=2007 \|type\=Doctoral thesis \|title\=Best of both world: Elsdon Best and the metamorphosis of Maori spirituality. Te painga rawa o nga ao rua: Te Peehi me te putanga ke o te wairua Maori. \|publisher\=UC Research Repository, University of Canterbury \|hdl\=10092/939 \|doi\=10\.26021/3711 \|url\=https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/939}} the same year he won the [CLNZ Writers' Award](/wiki/CLNZ_Writers%27_Award "CLNZ Writers' Award"), together with [Martin Edmond](/wiki/Martin_Edmond "Martin Edmond"), and received {{NZ$}}35,000 towards a non\-fiction work. His subsequent work, *Best of Both Worlds: The Story of Elsdon Best and Tutakangahau*, which grew out of his PhD thesis, was published in 2010\.{{cite web \|title\=Contrasting projects for new writer in residence \|url\=https://www.waikato.ac.nz/news\-opinion/media/2010/contrasting\-projects\-for\-new\-writer\-in\-residence \|website\=University of Waikato \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|date\=4 November 2010}} In 2011 the work was shortlisted for the Ernest\-Scott History prize in Australia.
### Later career: 2011–present
After completing his PhD, Holman lectured part\-time in English at the University of Canterbury and tutored at the Writers' Institute at [Hagley Community College](/wiki/Hagley_Community_College "Hagley Community College"). He was also the lifelong learning coordinator at the University of Canterbury. In 2011 he was the writer in residence at the [University of Waikato](/wiki/University_of_Waikato "University of Waikato").{{cite news \|title\=Jeffrey Paparoa Holman: kamikazes and quakes \|url\=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/saturday/audio/2488698/jeffrey\-paparoa\-holman\-kamikazes\-and\-quakes \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=Radio New Zealand \|date\=7 May 2011}}{{cite news \|last1\=Stanley \|first1\=Ben \|title\=It'll be shear poetry taking up residence \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/waikato\-times/news/4324417/It\-ll\-be\-shear\-poetry\-taking\-up\-residence \|access\-date\=5 January 2022 \|work\=Waikato Times \|date\=9 November 2010}} In 2012, [Creative New Zealand](/wiki/Creative_New_Zealand "Creative New Zealand") awarded him with a three\-month residency at the [University of Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa "University of Iowa").{{cite web \|title\=Poet Awarded Iowa Residency \|url\=https://www.creativenz.govt.nz/news/poet\-awarded\-iowa\-residency \|website\=Creative New Zealand \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|date\=23 May 2012}} He wrote the Māori fiction section of *[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand](/wiki/Te_Ara:The_Encyclopedia_of_New_Zealand "The Encyclopedia of New Zealand")*, published online in October 2014\.{{cite web \|last1\=Holman \|first1\=Jeffrey Paparoa \|title\=Māori fiction – ngā tuhinga paki \|url\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/maori\-fiction\-nga\-tuhinga\-paki \|website\=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|date\=22 October 2014}} In 2014 Holman was awarded a [Goethe\-Institut](/wiki/Goethe-Institut "Goethe-Institut") scholarship to study in Germany.
In his 2013 work, *The Lost Pilot*, Holman wrote about his father's experiences in World War II facing a Japanese *[kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze")* attack and of his own later experiences travelling to Japan and meeting family members of the pilots who had died in the strike on {{HMS\|Illustrious\|87\|6}} in 1945\. Helen Watson White, writing for *[Landfall](/wiki/Landfall_%28journal%29 "Landfall (journal)")*, described it as "the book of a poet and scholar who adds spiritual illumination to a largely hidden subject". Mike Crean for *[The Dominion Post](/wiki/The_Dominion_Post_%28Wellington%29 "The Dominion Post (Wellington)")* characterised the book as "part autobiography, part biography, part social analysis of the Japanese at war, part travelogue", and described Holman's writing as "brutal and beautiful, powerful and emotional".{{cite news \|last1\=Crean \|first1\=Mike \|title\=Lost and found \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1357099436 \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=Dominion Post \|date\=1 June 2013 \|page\=40\|id\={{ProQuest\|1357099436}} }}
In 2017, the collection *Blood Ties* was published, containing new and selected poems written by Holman over the previous five decades. Reviewer Siobhan Harvey for *[The New Zealand Herald](/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald "The New Zealand Herald")* described Holman as a "classic New Zealand author" and the collection as being a "luscious, long\-overdue medley collecting the best of his poems".{{cite news \|last1\=Harvey \|first1\=Siobhan \|title\=poetry \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1884953131 \|access\-date\=23 November 2021 \|work\=The New Zealand Herald \|date\=8 April 2017 \|page\=E15\|id\={{ProQuest\|1884953131}} }} Murray Bramwell for the *New Zealand Review of Books* noted Holman "comes from the working world, and his poems affirm a sense of social justice and remembered hardship". He concluded that the book "is a richly rewarding collection in its range, its assured (and reassuring) voice and the deft vividness of its language". In the same review, Bramwell also discussed Holman's *Dylan Junkie*, a collection published the same year in tribute to the music of [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"), noting that there were "undoubtedly excellent stand\-alone poems here, but *Dylan Junkie* is also inextricably connected to its host texts".
Holman's memoir, *Now When it Rains*, was published in 2018\. [Chris Else](/wiki/Chris_Else "Chris Else") for *Landfall* noted the "rudderless course" of Holman's early life, followed by "academic success, a discovery of Māoritanga{{nbsp}}... and publication and acclaim as a poet, a historian and a memoirist". He commented that the story "is enlivened throughout by Holman's eye for detail, his observations of the people he meets and his frank, often\-ironic appraisal of his own weaknesses". Else suggested, however, that there was an absence of women in Holman's story, noting "if Holman's aim is to explore the process by which he became a writer, his relationships with the women he spent his adult life with can't be irrelevant". Nicholas Reid in the *New Zealand Review of Books* noted that the portrait of Holman's father in this book was "a little less positive than it was in his earlier memoir *The Lost Pilot* (2013\), in which he allowed us to see why his father had become the way he was", and concluded the book was "a very readable and sincere autobiography by a man who has experienced a lot and has been able to put his heart into getting it down on paper".
In 2021 Holman's collection *After Hours Trading \& The Flying Squad* was published. [Paula Green](/wiki/Paula_Green_%28poet%29 "Paula Green (poet)") described it as a book of two parts: "The first section retrieves invisible South Island histories while the second pays homage to wide ranging loves, other poets, friends, pressing concerns." Praising Holman's subject matter and use of language, she concluded that the collection "will echo and nourish as we move through uncertain days".{{cite web \|last1\=Green \|first1\=Paula \|title\=Review: After Hours Trading \& The Flying Squad \|url\=https://www.ketebooks.co.nz/all\-book\-reviews/review\-after\-hours\-trading\-the\-flying\-squad\-poetry\-epl7k\-8fhyx \|website\=Kete Books \|access\-date\=25 January 2022}} Critic [Steve Braunias](/wiki/Steve_Braunias "Steve Braunias") named it as one of the five best collections of poetry published in New Zealand in 2021\.{{cite news \|last1\=Braunias \|first1\=Steve \|title\=The best\-selling books at Xmas \|url\=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/the\-best\-selling\-books\-at\-xmas \|access\-date\=25 January 2022 \|work\=Newsroom \|date\=10 December 2021}}
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"### Early life and career: 1947–1996",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Holman with his father, 1949](/wiki/File:1.Jeffrey_with_his_Dad_1949_%28cropped%29.jpg \"1.Jeffrey with his Dad 1949 (cropped).jpg\")\nHolman was born in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 1947, and in 1950 moved to New Zealand with his family.{{cite web \\|title\\=Holman, Jeffrey \\|url\\=https://www.read\\-nz.org/writer/holman\\-jeffrey/ \\|website\\=Read NZ Te Pou Muramura \\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2021}} His father had served in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") on aircraft carriers in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and later suffered from drinking and gambling problems, related to the [PTSD](/wiki/PTSD \"PTSD\") he suffered as a veteran.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Watson White \\|first1\\=Helen \\|title\\=On the Kamikaze Trail \\|journal\\=Landfall Review Online \\|date\\=1 February 2014 \\|url\\=https://landfallreview.com/on\\-the\\-kamikaze\\-trail/ \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Holman \\|first1\\=Jeffrey Paparoa \\|title\\=Dick Scott, RIP: The Pākehā of Parihaka Part 2 \\|url\\=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/dick\\-scott\\-rip\\-the\\-pakeha\\-of\\-parihaka\\-part\\-2 \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2021 \\|work\\=Newsroom \\|date\\=1 February 2020}} On Holman's mother's side, he is a great\\-nephew of the naval historian, [Hector Charles Bywater](/wiki/Hector_Charles_Bywater \"Hector Charles Bywater\"). The family moved frequently due to Holman's father's unsettled lifestyle and two terms of imprisonment due to embezzlement committed to support his gambling addiction. Notable places in Holman's childhood included [Devonport](/wiki/Devonport%2C_New_Zealand \"Devonport, New Zealand\") in Auckland and [Blackball](/wiki/Blackball%2C_New_Zealand \"Blackball, New Zealand\"), a small town on the West Coast of the South Island.{{cite web \\|title\\=Jeffrey Paparoa Holman \\|url\\=https://www.anzliterature.com/member/jeffrey\\-paparoa\\-holman/ \\|website\\=Academy of New Zealand Literature \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Reid \\|first1\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=Finding the way back \\|journal\\=New Zealand Review of Books \\|date\\=Winter 2019 \\|issue\\=126 \\|url\\=https://nzbooks.org.nz/2019/non\\-fiction/finding\\-the\\-way\\-back\\-nicholas\\-reid/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2021}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Holman \\|first1\\=Jeffrey Paparoa \\|title\\=Now When It Rains: a writer's memoir \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=Steele Roberts \\|location\\=Petone \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-947493\\-77\\-6 \\|pages\\=23, 44}} He later wrote of his experiences growing up in Blackball in the poetry collection *The Late Great Blackball Bridge Sonnets* (2004\\).{{cite web \\|last1\\=Nathan \\|first1\\=Simon \\|title\\=Blackball books \\|url\\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/21002/blackball\\-books \\|website\\=Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021}}",
"His first published poem, \"Night\" (1963\\), was dedicated to his English teacher (and, later, lifelong friend and mentor) [Peter Hooper](/wiki/Peter_Hooper_%28writer%29 \"Peter Hooper (writer)\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Rapatahana \\|first1\\=Vaughan \\|title\\=Idiosyncratic Man O'War: A review of Blood Ties \\|url\\=https://pantograph\\-punch.com/posts/blood\\-ties \\|website\\=The Pantograph Punch \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|date\\=17 April 2017}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wyatt \\|first1\\=Hamesh \\|title\\=Wootton at her playful, energetic best \\|url\\=https://www.odt.co.nz/entertainment/books/wootton\\-her\\-playful\\-energetic\\-best \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=Otago Daily Times \\|date\\=27 March 2017}} After dropping out of high school in 1965 he attended university briefly, but did not graduate.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Fletcher \\|first1\\=Jack \\|title\\=In your prime: How Jeffrey Holman embraced student life at age 50 \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/98639710/in\\-your\\-prime\\-how\\-jeffrey\\-holman\\-embraced\\-student\\-life\\-at\\-age\\-50 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=Stuff.co.nz \\|date\\=7 November 2017}}{{sfn\\|Holman\\|2018\\|p\\=50}} During his career, Holman worked in a number of working class jobs including as a sawmill worker, a sheep\\-shearer in both Australia and New Zealand, a farmhand, a forestry worker, a rubbish man and a delivery driver.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Peka \\|first1\\=June \\|title\\=No time; to stop \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1030417131 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=The Press \\|date\\=28 July 2012 \\|page\\=6\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1030417131}} }} He returned to university in the early 1970s, but again did not graduate.{{sfn\\|Holman\\|2018\\|p\\=137–148}}",
"His first poetry collection, *Strange Children*, was published in the shared volume *Two Poets* (1974\\) in a collaboration with American poet [David Walker](/wiki/David_Walker_%28poet%29 \"David Walker (poet)\"). He subsequently worked as a psychiatric social worker at [Seaview Hospital](/wiki/Seaview_Asylum \"Seaview Asylum\") in [Hokitika](/wiki/Hokitika \"Hokitika\").{{sfn\\|Holman\\|2018\\|pp\\=149–151}} Holman has said that his Christian faith (often expressed in his work) was revived, in profound spiritual experiences, after the death of his partner Lee in a road accident near Otira in the winter of 1978\\.{{sfn\\|Holman\\|2018\\|pp\\=170–171}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Holman \\|first1\\=Jeffrey Paparoa \\|title\\=Jeffrey is on LSD. Jeffrey is mourning his wife \\|url\\=https://thespinoff.co.nz/books/19\\-11\\-2018/jeffrey\\-is\\-on\\-lsd\\-jeffrey\\-is\\-mourning\\-his\\-wife \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2021 \\|work\\=The Spinoff \\|date\\=19 November 2018a}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Else \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=In Pursuit of Something He Is Never Sure He Deserves \\|url\\=https://landfallreview.com/in\\-pursuit\\-of\\-something\\-he\\-is\\-never\\-sure\\-he\\-deserves/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2021 \\|work\\=Landfall Review Online \\|date\\=1 May 2019}}",
"In 1987 Holman moved to London with his family, and worked for a time as a residential social worker followed by work as a bookseller. He adopted his middle name Paparoa while living in London in the mid\\-1990s, in tribute to the [Paparoa Range](/wiki/Paparoa_Range \"Paparoa Range\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Matthews \\|first1\\=Philip \\|title\\=Uncovering another New Zealand \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/314950917 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=The Press \\|date\\=13 March 2010 \\|page\\=C12\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|314950917}} }} While in England, he read *Ask That Mountain: The Story of Parihaka* by historian [Dick Scott](/wiki/Dick_Scott_%28historian%29 \"Dick Scott (historian)\"), and decided to return to New Zealand and learn more about Māori culture. This experience led to his enrolment in Māori language classes, [kapa haka](/wiki/Kapa_haka \"Kapa haka\") group membership, and the study of [New Zealand's colonial history](/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand \"History of New Zealand\").",
"### Return to university: 1997–2010",
"Holman returned to university for the third time in the late 1990s and completed a Bachelor of Arts with honours in English and Māori studies at the [University of Canterbury](/wiki/University_of_Canterbury \"University of Canterbury\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=O'Callaghan \\|first1\\=Jody \\|title\\=University of Canterbury sees silver lining in retiree students \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/76214606/university\\-of\\-canterbury\\-sees\\-silver\\-lining\\-in\\-retiree\\-students \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=Stuff.co.nz \\|date\\=26 January 2016}} He studied [te reo Māori](/wiki/Te_reo_M%C4%81ori \"Te reo Māori\") (the Māori language) as part of his degree, which he said was something he \"had wanted to do for a long time\". He has spoken publicly about the importance to his life and writing of learning the language.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Holman \\|first1\\=Jeffrey Paparoa \\|title\\=Language lessons broaden horizons \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/opinion/perspective/7027419/Language\\-lessons\\-broaden\\-horizons \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2021 \\|work\\=The Press \\|date\\=1 June 2012}}",
"Since his 1998 poetry collection *Flood Damage*, Holman has published a number of poetry collections. The title poem of his 2002 poetry collection, *As Big as a Father*, received the 1997 Whitireia Prize.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bramwell \\|first1\\=Murray \\|title\\=Jewels and binoculars \\|journal\\=New Zealand Review of Books \\|date\\=Summer 2017 \\|issue\\=120 \\|url\\=https://nzbooks.org.nz/2017/literature/jewels\\-and\\-binoculars\\-murray\\-bramwell/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2021}} It was also shortlisted for the [Poetry Prize](/wiki/Mary_and_Peter_Biggs_Award_for_Poetry \"Mary and Peter Biggs Award for Poetry\") at the [Montana New Zealand Book Awards](/wiki/Montana_New_Zealand_Book_Awards \"Montana New Zealand Book Awards\") in 2003\\. The award's judges said his poems \"are redolent of senses of the South Island's West Coast: arms wide spread, wind, seas, ruggedness\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Ode to our poets \\|url\\=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/ode\\-to\\-our\\-poets/7W5C6BZOWSDJBCI5CNG6W2S5JM/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2021 \\|work\\=The New Zealand Herald \\|date\\=2 July 2003}} His poetry has been included in anthologies such as *Essential New Zealand Poems* (2001\\), *Big Sky* (2002\\), *Land Very Fertile* (2008\\) and *Poetry New Zealand Yearbook 2021*, and in magazines like the *[New Zealand Listener](/wiki/New_Zealand_Listener \"New Zealand Listener\")* and [*Landfall*](/wiki/Landfall_%28journal%29 \"Landfall (journal)\").{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Slaughter \\|editor1\\-first\\=Tracey \\|title\\=Poetry New Zealand Yearbook 2021 \\|date\\=2021 \\|publisher\\=Massey University Press \\|location\\=Auckland, New Zealand \\|isbn\\=9780995135420}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sharp \\|first1\\=Iain \\|title\\=Poetry in motion \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/313974850 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2021 \\|work\\=Sunday Star\\-Times \\|date\\=3 June 2001 \\|page\\=F2\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|313974850}} }}",
"In *The Long Forgetting: Post\\-colonial literary culture in New Zealand*, academic Patrick Evans said of Holman's 2004 collection *The Late Great Blackball Bridge Sonnets*:{{cite book \\|last1\\=Evans \\|first1\\=Patrick \\|title\\=The Long Forgetting: post\\-colonial literary culture in New Zealand \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Canterbury University Press \\|location\\=Christchurch, N.Z. \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-877257\\-69\\-8 \\|page\\=200}}",
"{{blockquote\\|Here, the lost world of West Coast coalmining is evoked in terms of ancestry, genealogy, kēhua, the spirit and above all as a tūrangawaewae \\[a place to stand], to produce an effect unimaginable through any other means: in this volume, Holman comes closer than any other Pākehā writer alive today to give meaning to the concept of 'becoming Māori'.}}",
"In 2007, Holman completed his PhD in Māori studies. His thesis *Best of both world: Elsdon Best and the metamorphosis of Maori spirituality. Te painga rawa o ngā ao rua: Te Peehi me te putanga ke o te wairua Māori,* examined the works of the ethnographer [Elsdon Best](/wiki/Elsdon_Best \"Elsdon Best\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Holman \\|first1\\=Jeffrey Paparoa \\|title\\=Poem Notes / Poet Notes \\|journal\\=MAI Review \\|date\\=2011 \\|volume\\=3 \\|url\\=http://www.review.mai.ac.nz/mrindex/MR/article/download/449/449\\-3367\\-1\\-PB.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021}} {{cite thesis \\|last\\=Holman \\|first\\=Jeffrey \\|year\\=2007 \\|type\\=Doctoral thesis \\|title\\=Best of both world: Elsdon Best and the metamorphosis of Maori spirituality. Te painga rawa o nga ao rua: Te Peehi me te putanga ke o te wairua Maori. \\|publisher\\=UC Research Repository, University of Canterbury \\|hdl\\=10092/939 \\|doi\\=10\\.26021/3711 \\|url\\=https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/939}} the same year he won the [CLNZ Writers' Award](/wiki/CLNZ_Writers%27_Award \"CLNZ Writers' Award\"), together with [Martin Edmond](/wiki/Martin_Edmond \"Martin Edmond\"), and received {{NZ$}}35,000 towards a non\\-fiction work. His subsequent work, *Best of Both Worlds: The Story of Elsdon Best and Tutakangahau*, which grew out of his PhD thesis, was published in 2010\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Contrasting projects for new writer in residence \\|url\\=https://www.waikato.ac.nz/news\\-opinion/media/2010/contrasting\\-projects\\-for\\-new\\-writer\\-in\\-residence \\|website\\=University of Waikato \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|date\\=4 November 2010}} In 2011 the work was shortlisted for the Ernest\\-Scott History prize in Australia.",
"### Later career: 2011–present",
"After completing his PhD, Holman lectured part\\-time in English at the University of Canterbury and tutored at the Writers' Institute at [Hagley Community College](/wiki/Hagley_Community_College \"Hagley Community College\"). He was also the lifelong learning coordinator at the University of Canterbury. In 2011 he was the writer in residence at the [University of Waikato](/wiki/University_of_Waikato \"University of Waikato\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Jeffrey Paparoa Holman: kamikazes and quakes \\|url\\=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/saturday/audio/2488698/jeffrey\\-paparoa\\-holman\\-kamikazes\\-and\\-quakes \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=Radio New Zealand \\|date\\=7 May 2011}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Stanley \\|first1\\=Ben \\|title\\=It'll be shear poetry taking up residence \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/waikato\\-times/news/4324417/It\\-ll\\-be\\-shear\\-poetry\\-taking\\-up\\-residence \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2022 \\|work\\=Waikato Times \\|date\\=9 November 2010}} In 2012, [Creative New Zealand](/wiki/Creative_New_Zealand \"Creative New Zealand\") awarded him with a three\\-month residency at the [University of Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa \"University of Iowa\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Poet Awarded Iowa Residency \\|url\\=https://www.creativenz.govt.nz/news/poet\\-awarded\\-iowa\\-residency \\|website\\=Creative New Zealand \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|date\\=23 May 2012}} He wrote the Māori fiction section of *[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand](/wiki/Te_Ara:The_Encyclopedia_of_New_Zealand \"The Encyclopedia of New Zealand\")*, published online in October 2014\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Holman \\|first1\\=Jeffrey Paparoa \\|title\\=Māori fiction – ngā tuhinga paki \\|url\\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/maori\\-fiction\\-nga\\-tuhinga\\-paki \\|website\\=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|date\\=22 October 2014}} In 2014 Holman was awarded a [Goethe\\-Institut](/wiki/Goethe-Institut \"Goethe-Institut\") scholarship to study in Germany.",
"In his 2013 work, *The Lost Pilot*, Holman wrote about his father's experiences in World War II facing a Japanese *[kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\")* attack and of his own later experiences travelling to Japan and meeting family members of the pilots who had died in the strike on {{HMS\\|Illustrious\\|87\\|6}} in 1945\\. Helen Watson White, writing for *[Landfall](/wiki/Landfall_%28journal%29 \"Landfall (journal)\")*, described it as \"the book of a poet and scholar who adds spiritual illumination to a largely hidden subject\". Mike Crean for *[The Dominion Post](/wiki/The_Dominion_Post_%28Wellington%29 \"The Dominion Post (Wellington)\")* characterised the book as \"part autobiography, part biography, part social analysis of the Japanese at war, part travelogue\", and described Holman's writing as \"brutal and beautiful, powerful and emotional\".{{cite news \\|last1\\=Crean \\|first1\\=Mike \\|title\\=Lost and found \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1357099436 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=Dominion Post \\|date\\=1 June 2013 \\|page\\=40\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1357099436}} }}",
"In 2017, the collection *Blood Ties* was published, containing new and selected poems written by Holman over the previous five decades. Reviewer Siobhan Harvey for *[The New Zealand Herald](/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald \"The New Zealand Herald\")* described Holman as a \"classic New Zealand author\" and the collection as being a \"luscious, long\\-overdue medley collecting the best of his poems\".{{cite news \\|last1\\=Harvey \\|first1\\=Siobhan \\|title\\=poetry \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1884953131 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2021 \\|work\\=The New Zealand Herald \\|date\\=8 April 2017 \\|page\\=E15\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1884953131}} }} Murray Bramwell for the *New Zealand Review of Books* noted Holman \"comes from the working world, and his poems affirm a sense of social justice and remembered hardship\". He concluded that the book \"is a richly rewarding collection in its range, its assured (and reassuring) voice and the deft vividness of its language\". In the same review, Bramwell also discussed Holman's *Dylan Junkie*, a collection published the same year in tribute to the music of [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"), noting that there were \"undoubtedly excellent stand\\-alone poems here, but *Dylan Junkie* is also inextricably connected to its host texts\".",
"Holman's memoir, *Now When it Rains*, was published in 2018\\. [Chris Else](/wiki/Chris_Else \"Chris Else\") for *Landfall* noted the \"rudderless course\" of Holman's early life, followed by \"academic success, a discovery of Māoritanga{{nbsp}}... and publication and acclaim as a poet, a historian and a memoirist\". He commented that the story \"is enlivened throughout by Holman's eye for detail, his observations of the people he meets and his frank, often\\-ironic appraisal of his own weaknesses\". Else suggested, however, that there was an absence of women in Holman's story, noting \"if Holman's aim is to explore the process by which he became a writer, his relationships with the women he spent his adult life with can't be irrelevant\". Nicholas Reid in the *New Zealand Review of Books* noted that the portrait of Holman's father in this book was \"a little less positive than it was in his earlier memoir *The Lost Pilot* (2013\\), in which he allowed us to see why his father had become the way he was\", and concluded the book was \"a very readable and sincere autobiography by a man who has experienced a lot and has been able to put his heart into getting it down on paper\".",
"In 2021 Holman's collection *After Hours Trading \\& The Flying Squad* was published. [Paula Green](/wiki/Paula_Green_%28poet%29 \"Paula Green (poet)\") described it as a book of two parts: \"The first section retrieves invisible South Island histories while the second pays homage to wide ranging loves, other poets, friends, pressing concerns.\" Praising Holman's subject matter and use of language, she concluded that the collection \"will echo and nourish as we move through uncertain days\".{{cite web \\|last1\\=Green \\|first1\\=Paula \\|title\\=Review: After Hours Trading \\& The Flying Squad \\|url\\=https://www.ketebooks.co.nz/all\\-book\\-reviews/review\\-after\\-hours\\-trading\\-the\\-flying\\-squad\\-poetry\\-epl7k\\-8fhyx \\|website\\=Kete Books \\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2022}} Critic [Steve Braunias](/wiki/Steve_Braunias \"Steve Braunias\") named it as one of the five best collections of poetry published in New Zealand in 2021\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Braunias \\|first1\\=Steve \\|title\\=The best\\-selling books at Xmas \\|url\\=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/the\\-best\\-selling\\-books\\-at\\-xmas \\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2022 \\|work\\=Newsroom \\|date\\=10 December 2021}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Frischman developed an interest in magic as a child after seeing an ad in *[Boys' Life](/wiki/Boys%27_Life "Boys' Life")* magazine. Before Frischman's television breakthrough, he often worked as a magician in the [Los Angeles area](/wiki/Los_Angeles_area "Los Angeles area") under the pseudonym "The Great Houdanny" (in reference to [Harry Houdini](/wiki/Harry_Houdini "Harry Houdini")) performing at, amongst other things, children's birthday parties and charity events. He brought his brand of comedy to his magic shows and was a popular hire in the mid\-1980s.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}}
Frischman performed at several comedy clubs in New York City, including the [Comic Strip](/wiki/Comic_Strip_Live "Comic Strip Live"), [Catch a Rising Star](/wiki/Catch_a_Rising_Star_%28comedy_clubs%29 "Catch a Rising Star (comedy clubs)") and [Dangerfield's](/wiki/Dangerfield%27s "Dangerfield's"), before moving to Los Angeles.
### Early television career
He was first noticed in a March 17, 1982, episode of the [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") television series *[The Facts of Life](/wiki/The_Facts_of_Life_%28TV_series%29 "The Facts of Life (TV series)")*. In the episode, titled "Kids Can Be Cruel" Frischman played [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") student "Carl 'Rocky' Price" who was picked on by his peers because of his [acne](/wiki/Acne_vulgaris "Acne vulgaris") and nerd\-like personality. The students in the episode referred to Frischman's character as "Pizzaface", because of his pronounced acne blemishes and scars. In the episode the character [Natalie Green](/wiki/Natalie_Green "Natalie Green"), played by actress [Mindy Cohn](/wiki/Mindy_Cohn "Mindy Cohn"), gets angry at her roommate [Blair Warner](/wiki/Blair_Warner "Blair Warner") ([Lisa Whelchel](/wiki/Lisa_Whelchel "Lisa Whelchel")) and sets her up with Frischman's character "Rocky" as a cruel joke.
In [1983](/wiki/1983_in_film "1983 in film"), Frischman appeared in the comedy film *[Get Crazy](/wiki/Get_Crazy "Get Crazy")* as Joey, a typically nerdy (and virginal) [stagehand](/wiki/Stagehand "Stagehand") who ultimately gets the girl. Also in 1983, he starred in the "Things your Parents Used to Say" sequence in *[Good\-bye, Cruel World](/wiki/Good-bye%2C_Cruel_World "Good-bye, Cruel World")*.
Frischman appeared in both these projects alongside his sometime roommate, comedian [Andrew J. Lederer](/wiki/Andrew_J._Lederer "Andrew J. Lederer"), who played smaller roles.
Frischman and Lederer also appeared together as two of the "Schlongini Singers" in the [Andrew "Dice" Clay](/wiki/Andrew_%22Dice%22_Clay "Andrew ") horror comedy, *Wacko* and (with Adam Small and Felice Seiler) in the comedy group, *The Ding Dongs*.
### *Head of the Class*
Frischman's first co\-starring role was that of [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan")\-based high school student Arvid Engen on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company")\-TV's late 1980s/early 1990s series *[Head of the Class](/wiki/Head_of_the_Class "Head of the Class")*. Though playing a teenager, Frischman was 27 as the series started, and 32 when it concluded.
Arvid was a bespectacled geek who was an early connoisseur of computer culture as well as a budding [scientist](/wiki/Scientist "Scientist"). Arvid and his classmates were considered possible [geniuses](/wiki/Genius "Genius") and were placed in the "I.H.P. Individualized Honors Program" for advanced and gifted students.
On December 20, 1986, Frischman and the cast of *Head of the Class* were the celebrity guests on the [urban music](/wiki/Urban_contemporary "Urban contemporary") series *[Soul Train](/wiki/Soul_Train "Soul Train")*. On July 15, 1987, Frischman appeared as that evening's guest on NBC\-TV's talk show *[Late Night with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Night_with_David_Letterman "Late Night with David Letterman")*.
### *Kenan \& Kel*
Frischman's second co\-starring role was the character of Chris Potter in the 1990s [Nickelodeon](/wiki/Nickelodeon "Nickelodeon") TV series *[Kenan \& Kel](/wiki/Kenan_%26_Kel "Kenan & Kel")*, a spin\-off of Nickelodeon's *[All That](/wiki/All_That "All That")* starring [Kenan Thompson](/wiki/Kenan_Thompson "Kenan Thompson") and [Kel Mitchell](/wiki/Kel_Mitchell "Kel Mitchell"). Once again Frischman played a socially awkward nerd, this time as Chris Potter, Kenan's boss at Rigby's, a small [grocery store](/wiki/Grocery_store "Grocery store").
Chris often informs customers and other guests that he has a radio in his car in an attempt to make conversation. One of Chris' [anxieties](/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety") was a recurring dream that he was being chased by a giant [bunny](/wiki/Bunny "Bunny").
### Cameos
Frischman made a short appearance on the 1990s series *[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld "Seinfeld")*. In episode 93, titled "[The Mom \& Pop Store](/wiki/The_Mom_%26_Pop_Store "The Mom & Pop Store")" (which originally aired on November 17, 1994, on U.S. television network [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC")), Frischman plays a man who phones [Jerry Seinfeld](/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld "Jerry Seinfeld") to tell the [comedian](/wiki/Comedian "Comedian") that he has found his stolen [sneaker](/wiki/Sneaker_%28footwear%29 "Sneaker (footwear)") collection at a [yard sale](/wiki/Yard_sale "Yard sale") in [Parsippany, New Jersey](/wiki/Parsippany%2C_New_Jersey "Parsippany, New Jersey") (located just north of the town Frischman grew up in); Frischman asked to change the name of the place in the script from Parsippany to his hometown of Whippany, but Seinfeld declined, saying "No, 'Whippany' doesn't sound like the name of a real town."
On October 24, 2005, Frischman was a celebrity panelist on *[I Love the '80s 3\-D](/wiki/I_Love_the_%2780s_3-D "I Love the '80s 3-D")*, a [television program](/wiki/Television_program "Television program") on [VH1](/wiki/VH1 "VH1").
### Playwriting
Frischman wrote and starred in the play *About Faith*, produced by Beverly Hills Playhouse. He played a Jewish stockbroker who falls in love with a Catholic girl. It was renamed *Sex, Faith and Jason Wexler*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.backstage.com/magazine/article/faith\-14710/\|title\=ABOUT FAITH}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://smdp.com/2016/03/10/love\-in\-the\-age\-of\-religious\-diversity/\|title\=Love in the age of religious diversity\|first\=Cynthia\|last\=Citron\|date\=March 10, 2016\|website\=Santa Monica Daily Press}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Frischman developed an interest in magic as a child after seeing an ad in *[Boys' Life](/wiki/Boys%27_Life \"Boys' Life\")* magazine. Before Frischman's television breakthrough, he often worked as a magician in the [Los Angeles area](/wiki/Los_Angeles_area \"Los Angeles area\") under the pseudonym \"The Great Houdanny\" (in reference to [Harry Houdini](/wiki/Harry_Houdini \"Harry Houdini\")) performing at, amongst other things, children's birthday parties and charity events. He brought his brand of comedy to his magic shows and was a popular hire in the mid\\-1980s.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}}",
"Frischman performed at several comedy clubs in New York City, including the [Comic Strip](/wiki/Comic_Strip_Live \"Comic Strip Live\"), [Catch a Rising Star](/wiki/Catch_a_Rising_Star_%28comedy_clubs%29 \"Catch a Rising Star (comedy clubs)\") and [Dangerfield's](/wiki/Dangerfield%27s \"Dangerfield's\"), before moving to Los Angeles.",
"### Early television career",
"He was first noticed in a March 17, 1982, episode of the [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") television series *[The Facts of Life](/wiki/The_Facts_of_Life_%28TV_series%29 \"The Facts of Life (TV series)\")*. In the episode, titled \"Kids Can Be Cruel\" Frischman played [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") student \"Carl 'Rocky' Price\" who was picked on by his peers because of his [acne](/wiki/Acne_vulgaris \"Acne vulgaris\") and nerd\\-like personality. The students in the episode referred to Frischman's character as \"Pizzaface\", because of his pronounced acne blemishes and scars. In the episode the character [Natalie Green](/wiki/Natalie_Green \"Natalie Green\"), played by actress [Mindy Cohn](/wiki/Mindy_Cohn \"Mindy Cohn\"), gets angry at her roommate [Blair Warner](/wiki/Blair_Warner \"Blair Warner\") ([Lisa Whelchel](/wiki/Lisa_Whelchel \"Lisa Whelchel\")) and sets her up with Frischman's character \"Rocky\" as a cruel joke.",
"In [1983](/wiki/1983_in_film \"1983 in film\"), Frischman appeared in the comedy film *[Get Crazy](/wiki/Get_Crazy \"Get Crazy\")* as Joey, a typically nerdy (and virginal) [stagehand](/wiki/Stagehand \"Stagehand\") who ultimately gets the girl. Also in 1983, he starred in the \"Things your Parents Used to Say\" sequence in *[Good\\-bye, Cruel World](/wiki/Good-bye%2C_Cruel_World \"Good-bye, Cruel World\")*.",
"Frischman appeared in both these projects alongside his sometime roommate, comedian [Andrew J. Lederer](/wiki/Andrew_J._Lederer \"Andrew J. Lederer\"), who played smaller roles.\nFrischman and Lederer also appeared together as two of the \"Schlongini Singers\" in the [Andrew \"Dice\" Clay](/wiki/Andrew_%22Dice%22_Clay \"Andrew \") horror comedy, *Wacko* and (with Adam Small and Felice Seiler) in the comedy group, *The Ding Dongs*.",
"### *Head of the Class*",
"Frischman's first co\\-starring role was that of [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\")\\-based high school student Arvid Engen on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\")\\-TV's late 1980s/early 1990s series *[Head of the Class](/wiki/Head_of_the_Class \"Head of the Class\")*. Though playing a teenager, Frischman was 27 as the series started, and 32 when it concluded.",
"Arvid was a bespectacled geek who was an early connoisseur of computer culture as well as a budding [scientist](/wiki/Scientist \"Scientist\"). Arvid and his classmates were considered possible [geniuses](/wiki/Genius \"Genius\") and were placed in the \"I.H.P. Individualized Honors Program\" for advanced and gifted students.",
"On December 20, 1986, Frischman and the cast of *Head of the Class* were the celebrity guests on the [urban music](/wiki/Urban_contemporary \"Urban contemporary\") series *[Soul Train](/wiki/Soul_Train \"Soul Train\")*. On July 15, 1987, Frischman appeared as that evening's guest on NBC\\-TV's talk show *[Late Night with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Night_with_David_Letterman \"Late Night with David Letterman\")*.",
"### *Kenan \\& Kel*",
"Frischman's second co\\-starring role was the character of Chris Potter in the 1990s [Nickelodeon](/wiki/Nickelodeon \"Nickelodeon\") TV series *[Kenan \\& Kel](/wiki/Kenan_%26_Kel \"Kenan & Kel\")*, a spin\\-off of Nickelodeon's *[All That](/wiki/All_That \"All That\")* starring [Kenan Thompson](/wiki/Kenan_Thompson \"Kenan Thompson\") and [Kel Mitchell](/wiki/Kel_Mitchell \"Kel Mitchell\"). Once again Frischman played a socially awkward nerd, this time as Chris Potter, Kenan's boss at Rigby's, a small [grocery store](/wiki/Grocery_store \"Grocery store\").",
"Chris often informs customers and other guests that he has a radio in his car in an attempt to make conversation. One of Chris' [anxieties](/wiki/Anxiety \"Anxiety\") was a recurring dream that he was being chased by a giant [bunny](/wiki/Bunny \"Bunny\").",
"### Cameos",
"Frischman made a short appearance on the 1990s series *[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld \"Seinfeld\")*. In episode 93, titled \"[The Mom \\& Pop Store](/wiki/The_Mom_%26_Pop_Store \"The Mom & Pop Store\")\" (which originally aired on November 17, 1994, on U.S. television network [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\")), Frischman plays a man who phones [Jerry Seinfeld](/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld \"Jerry Seinfeld\") to tell the [comedian](/wiki/Comedian \"Comedian\") that he has found his stolen [sneaker](/wiki/Sneaker_%28footwear%29 \"Sneaker (footwear)\") collection at a [yard sale](/wiki/Yard_sale \"Yard sale\") in [Parsippany, New Jersey](/wiki/Parsippany%2C_New_Jersey \"Parsippany, New Jersey\") (located just north of the town Frischman grew up in); Frischman asked to change the name of the place in the script from Parsippany to his hometown of Whippany, but Seinfeld declined, saying \"No, 'Whippany' doesn't sound like the name of a real town.\"",
"On October 24, 2005, Frischman was a celebrity panelist on *[I Love the '80s 3\\-D](/wiki/I_Love_the_%2780s_3-D \"I Love the '80s 3-D\")*, a [television program](/wiki/Television_program \"Television program\") on [VH1](/wiki/VH1 \"VH1\").",
"### Playwriting",
"Frischman wrote and starred in the play *About Faith*, produced by Beverly Hills Playhouse. He played a Jewish stockbroker who falls in love with a Catholic girl. It was renamed *Sex, Faith and Jason Wexler*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.backstage.com/magazine/article/faith\\-14710/\\|title\\=ABOUT FAITH}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://smdp.com/2016/03/10/love\\-in\\-the\\-age\\-of\\-religious\\-diversity/\\|title\\=Love in the age of religious diversity\\|first\\=Cynthia\\|last\\=Citron\\|date\\=March 10, 2016\\|website\\=Santa Monica Daily Press}}",
""
] |
Life and work
-------------
Born in [Lancaster, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Massachusetts "Lancaster, Massachusetts"), Burbank grew up on a farm and received only a high school education in Lancaster County Academy. The thirteenth of fifteen children,Luther's father, Samuel Walton, had nine children with wife Hannah Ball, two children with wife Mary Ann Rugg and four children with wife Olive Ross. In addition the first birth with Olive did not survive a day, so is not counted among the fifteen. he enjoyed the plants in his mother's large garden. His father died when he was 18 years old,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.altiusdirectory.com/Society/luther\-burbank.html\|title\=Luther Burbank, Biography\|access\-date\=December 17, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330172312/http://www.altiusdirectory.com/Society/luther\-burbank.html\|archive\-date\=March 30, 2019\|url\-status\=dead}} and Burbank used his inheritance to buy a 17\-acre (69,000 m2) plot of land near [Lunenburg](/wiki/Lunenburg%2C_Massachusetts "Lunenburg, Massachusetts") center. There, he developed the Burbank potato. Burbank sold the rights to the Burbank potato for [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")150 (${{formatprice\|{{Inflation\|US\|150\|1875}}}} in {{Inflation\-year\|US}} dollars{{inflation\-fn\|US}}) and used the money to travel to [Santa Rosa, California](/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California "Santa Rosa, California"), in 1875\. Later, a natural vegetative [sport](/wiki/Sport_%28botany%29 "Sport (botany)") (that is, an aberrant growth that can be reproduced reliably in cultivation) of Burbank potato with russetted skin was selected and named [Russet Burbank potato](/wiki/Russet_Burbank_potato "Russet Burbank potato"). Today, the Russet Burbank potato is the most widely cultivated potato in the United States. The potato is popular because it doesn't expire as easily as other types of potatoes.{{cite web\|url\=https://app.studiesweekly.com/online/publications\|title\=Luther Burbank, California Studies Weekly\|access\-date\=May 26, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://app.studiesweekly.com/online/publications/127820/units/128059/articles/154771\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2021}} A large percentage of [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s "McDonald's") [french fries](/wiki/French_fries "French fries") are made from this [cultivar](/wiki/Cultivar "Cultivar").
[thumb\|Photograph by [Gabriel Moulin](/wiki/Gabriel_Moulin "Gabriel Moulin")](/wiki/File:Picture_of_Luther_Burbank.jpg "Picture of Luther Burbank.jpg")
In Santa Rosa, Burbank purchased a {{convert\|4\|acre\|m2\|adj\=on}} plot of land, and established a [greenhouse](/wiki/Greenhouse "Greenhouse"), [nursery](/wiki/Nursery_%28horticulture%29 "Nursery (horticulture)"), and experimental fields that he used to conduct [crossbreeding](/wiki/Crossbreeding "Crossbreeding") experiments on plants, inspired by [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin "Charles Darwin")'s *[The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication](/wiki/The_Variation_of_Animals_and_Plants_Under_Domestication "The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication")*. (This site is now open to the public as a city park, [Luther Burbank Home and Gardens](/wiki/Luther_Burbank_Home_and_Gardens "Luther Burbank Home and Gardens").) Later he purchased an {{convert\|18\|acre\|adj\=on}} plot of land in the nearby town of [Sebastopol](/wiki/Sebastopol%2C_California "Sebastopol, California"), called [Gold Ridge Farm](/wiki/Gold_Ridge_Farm "Gold Ridge Farm").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wschs\-grf.pon.net/bef.htm\|title\=Gold Ridge Luther Burbank's Experiment Farm\|access\-date\=March 14, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821034433/http://www.wschs\-grf.pon.net/bef.htm\|archive\-date\=August 21, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}}
Burbank became known through his plant catalogs, the most famous being 1893's "New Creations in Fruits and Flowers," and through the word of mouth of satisfied customers, as well as press reports that kept him in the news throughout the first decade of the century.
In that same year, [Stark Bro's Nurseries \& Orchards Co.](/wiki/Stark_Brothers_Nurseries_and_Orchards "Stark Brothers Nurseries and Orchards") discovered the 'Delicious' apple,{{Cite book\|title\=200 Years and Growing: The Story of Stark Bro's Nurseries \& Orchards Co.\|last\=Zotta\|first\=LeAnn\|publisher\=IngramSpark\|year\=2015}} an elongated fruit with five bumps on the calyx end. The oddly\-shaped apple attracted the attention of Burbank, a famed grafter and budder of trees, plants and flowers. He called the new 'Delicious' variety "the finest\-flavored apple in all the world."{{Cite journal\|last\=Stark\|first\=Clarence\|date\=1913\|title\=Stark Delicious: The World's Best Apple\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/CAT31294322/CAT31294322\_djvu.txt\|journal\=Stark Bro's Nurseries \& Orchards Catalog\|access\-date\=May 18, 2016}} It was also in 1893 that the Starks began their storied cooperation with Luther Burbank and his fantastic new varieties of fruits.
Among those with the foresight to recognize the possibilities of Burbank's work was Clarence McDowell Stark, who went to California and sought Burbank out. After talking to him in Santa Rosa and seeing the results of his experiments, Clarence was convinced that Burbank was right, and his professorial critics were wrong. To Clarence's great dismay, he saw that Luther Burbank was operating a small seed and nursery business in an attempt to finance his experiments and provide himself a living. It was clear that he would never be able to realize his potential under these meager circumstances.
Clarence said to Burbank: "I don't think you will ever make a real success in the nursery business because your heart is not in it. But if you will carry forward the type of hybridizing you are doing, I think you will go very far in your chosen field. To demonstrate our sincere belief in your work, our company will give you $9,000 if you will let me pick three of these new fruits you have shown me."
Burbank often credited the Stark family with making his work profitable. In return, he later joined with Thomas Edison to support Paul Stark Sr. in his fight to get patent legislation passed for plant breeders.{{Cite journal\|last\=Janick\|first\=Jules\|date\=February 2015\|title\=Luther Burbank: Plant Breeding Artist, Horticulturist, and Legend\|url\=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/burbank\-ashs\-2015\.pdf\|journal\=HortScience\|access\-date\=May 18, 2016}} Along with Clarence's $9,000 worth of help, Luther also had something of a fan club — The Luther Burbank Society.{{cite web\| url\=http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/broadsides\_bdsca10056/\|title\= Luther Burbank Society roster\|date\=1912\|website\=Duke University Libraries \- Digital Collections\|publisher\=Luther Burbank Society\| access\-date\= May 18, 2016}} The group took it upon themselves to publish his discoveries and manage his business affairs, affording him some additional means by which to live.
From 1904 through 1909, Burbank received several grants from the Carnegie Institution to support his ongoing research on hybridization. He was supported by the practical\-minded Andrew Carnegie himself, over those of his advisers who objected that Burbank was not "scientific" in his methods.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2\-3468300282\.html\|title\=Luther Burbank\|encyclopedia\=encyclopedia.com}}
[alt\=Luther Burbank gravesite\|thumb\|Paul Stark Sr. pays his respects at Luther Burbank's gravesite](/wiki/File:Paul_Stark_Sr._pays_his_respects_at_Luther_Burbank%27s_gravesite.jpg "Paul Stark Sr. pays his respects at Luther Burbank's gravesite.jpg")
Gastrointestinal complications and violent hiccups weakened Luther in the last two weeks before his death, which was ultimately caused by heart failure. At his bedside were Elizabeth (his wife) and his sister when he died on April 11, 1926\. The famous botanist was buried in an unmarked grave, under a giant Cedar of Lebanon at the Luther Burbank Home and Gardens in Santa Rosa, California. The tree in the photo no longer stands.
As Burbank's life drew to a close, the question arose as to who would carry on his work, and naturally there were many interested in doing so. Before his death in April 1926, Luther Burbank spoke quietly to his wife, and said:
"If anything happens to me, you will have to dispose of the business and the work, because you can't go on with it. There aren't a dozen organizations in the world that are equipped to go forward with it; of them all, there is really only one I think of that could make the most of it."
He named Stark Bro's Nurseries \& Orchards Co. to carry on the work. Considerable argument has been spent upon whether the plants were technically willed to Stark Bro's; they were not. He left everything to Elizabeth: money, personal property, real estate, dozens of municipal utility bonds — and the plants and precious seeds. Elizabeth had first approached both Stanford and Berkeley to have either or both universities take over the experimental farm, but sold to Stark when those proffers didn't materialize. Mrs. Burbank entered into an agreement with Stark Bro's on August 23, 1927, to take the material they wanted from Burbank's properties. The contract included ownership of the business name and all of the customer information. A September 6, 1927, contract provided exclusive rights to sell uncompleted experiments with fruits at Sebastopol (except the Royal and Paradox) for 10 years. Stark Bro's had right of renewal. Tax receipts indicate payments of $27,000 to Mrs. Burbank. Exciting new kinds of fruits and flowers Burbank had developed (but never marketed) included 120 types of plums, 18 peaches, 28 apples, 500 hybrid roses, 30 cherries, 34 pears, 52 gladioli and many more. Stark Bro's subsequently introduced many of these varieties of their catalog.
[thumb\|Clay Stark Logan (l) accepting induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame on behalf of Luther Burbank (1986\).](/wiki/File:1986-Clay-accepting-NIHF-award.jpg "1986-Clay-accepting-NIHF-award.jpg")
Until 1931, the Experiment Farm fell into some disrepair, so Stark Bro's sent emissaries to retrieve the most promising fruit, nut and ornamental shrubs, and in 1931 sold the flowers, vegetables and seeds to Burpee Seed Co. J. B. Keil came from Stark Bro's to coordinate the efforts and worked there from 1931 to 1934\. Over the following years, Elizabeth worked with the Stark brothers to patent 16 Burbank fruits and flowers. The patents name Luther Burbank, deceased, as "inventor" by Elizabeth Waters Burbank, executrix of his estate. In 1935, Stark ended the agreement with Mrs. Burbank (or vice versa).
Mrs. Burbank then dispersed the majority of the gardens for subdivision. She sold the remaining property (excluding the house and greenhouse) to the Santa Rosa Junior College for use as a training ground. This lasted until 1954 (J. B. Keil stayed on as the caretaker). Twenty years later, the City took over ownership of the property (which it retains today as a free public showplace). The gardens include a thornless rose, spineless cactus, rainbow corn, a hybrid mulberry tree (which Luther hoped would spark an American silk industry) and his red combustion plant (*[Euonymus alatus](/wiki/Euonymus_alatus "Euonymus alatus")*).
### Burbank cultivars
[thumb\|right\|Burbank tending young spineless cactus plants c 1890](/wiki/File:Burbank_Cactus.gif "Burbank Cactus.gif")
[thumb\|Shasta daisy](/wiki/File:ShastaDaisies7-14-05.jpg "ShastaDaisies7-14-05.jpg")
[thumb\|Russet Burbank potatoes](/wiki/File:Potatoes.jpg "Potatoes.jpg")
[thumb\|New Creations in Fruits and Flowers cover](/wiki/File:Burbank_FruitFlower_c1893.jpg "Burbank FruitFlower c1893.jpg")
[thumb\|Burbank plums](/wiki/File:Burbank_satsuma_plum.jpg "Burbank satsuma plum.jpg")
[thumb\|Forms of leaves and fruits quality correlations. After issue 1914\.](/wiki/File:Burbank_leaf_fruit.jpg "Burbank leaf fruit.jpg")
Burbank created hundreds of new varieties of fruits (plum, pear, prune, peach, blackberry, raspberry); potato, tomato; ornamental flowers and other plants. He introduced over 800 new plants, including flowers, grains, grasses, vegetables, cacti, and fruits.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thehenryford.org/explore/stories\-of\-innovation/what\-if/luther\-burbank/\|title\= What If a Potato Could Change Agriculture \|publisher\= The Henry Ford\|website\= thehenryford.org\|language\=en\|access\-date\=June 11, 2019}}
Fruits
* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - {{columns\-list\|colwidth\=12em\|
\*113 \[\[plum]]s and \[\[prune (fruit)\|prunes]]
\*69 \[\[nut (fruit)\|nuts]]
\*35 fruiting \[\[cactus]]
\*16 \[\[blackberry\|blackberries]]
\*13 \[\[raspberry\|raspberries]]
\*11 \[\[quince]]s
\*11 \[\[plumcot]]s
\*10 \[\[cherry\|cherries]]
\*10 \[\[strawberry\|strawberries]]
\*10 \[\[apple]]s
\*8 \[\[peach]]es
\*6 \[\[chestnut]]s
\*5 \[\[nectarine]]s
\*4 \[\[grape]]s
\*4 \[\[pear]]s
\*3 \[\[walnut]]s
\*2 \[\[ficus\|fig]]s
\*1 \[\[almond]]
}}
Grains, grasses, forage
* 9 types
Vegetables
* 26 types{{Citation needed\|date\=January 2009}}
Ornamentals
* 91 types{{Citation needed\|date\=January 2009}}
On paper his method seems simple, but in practice it was extremely difficult. Most of the time, he would grow 10,000 or more plants of one variety, from which he selected as many as 50 seedlings or as few as one. From the selected plant or plants, he grew another 10,000 seedlings, continuing selective process until he produced the results he wanted.{{Cite book\|last\=Whitman\|first\=John\|title\=The Psychic Power of Plants \|date\=1974\-12\-03\|publisher\=New American Library \|isbn\=0451062531 }} When he started his work, chestnut trees took 25 years to bear fruit. From his efforts, chestnut trees{{cite web\| url\= https://calisphere.org/item/1c816752984d091cc0ba2704cfd2df14/ \|title\= Image: Chestnut tree\| website\= calisphere.org\| publisher\= \| date\= \| access\-date\= October 7, 2022}} produced fruit after three years. A white blackberry so clear that one could see the seeds inside, a juicy and large plum which is still considered one of the finest in the world, a spineless cactus,{{cite web\| url\= http://www.lutherburbank.org/about\-us/specialty\-gardens/spineless\-cactus \| title\= Spineless Cactus \| website\= lutherburbank.org\| publisher\= Luther Burbank Home \& Gardens \| date\= \| access\-date\= October 7, 2022}} and a calla lily with fragrant odor {{Cite journal\| last1\= Anderson\| first1\= Neil O.\|last2\=Olsen\|first2\=Richard T.\|date\=2015\-02\-01\|title\=A Vast Array of Beauty: The Accomplishments of the Father of American Ornamental Breeding, Luther Burbank \|url\= https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/50/2/article\-p161\.xml\|journal\=HortScience\|language\=en\-US\|volume\=50\|issue\=2\|pages\=161–188\|doi\=10\.21273/HORTSCI.50\.2\.161\|issn\=0018\-5345\|doi\-access\=free}} were among his many creations.
### Publications
Burbank was criticized by scientists of his day because he did not keep the kind of careful records that are the norm in scientific research and because he was mainly interested in creating useful or targeted cultivars rather than in the [basic research](/wiki/Basic_research "Basic research") of understanding their biology or the mechanisms by which his artificial selection schemes achieved their results. [Purdue University](/wiki/Purdue_University "Purdue University") professor Jules Janick, writing in the 2004 *[World Book Encyclopedia](/wiki/World_Book_Encyclopedia "World Book Encyclopedia")*, says: "Burbank cannot be considered a scientist in the academic sense."
Although Burbank may not have been a scientist by the standards of his peers, his lack of record keeping reflected the difficulties of developing and distributing cultivars in the era in which he lived. His innovations were revolutionary, and in a time when there was no way to legally protect one's inventions, Burbank may have been cautious with the successes he decided to document. Additionally, his records may not have been coherent (to the chagrin of modern scholars) because he felt his time was better valued in the garden, not writing each trial and error down in his record book.Smith, Jane S. "Faster, Better, Sweeter." The Garden of Invention: Luther Burbank and the Business of Breeding Plants. New York: Penguin, 2009\. N. pag. Print.
In 1893, Burbank published a descriptive catalog of some of his best varieties, entitled *New Creations in Fruits and Flowers*.
In 1907, Burbank published an "essay on childrearing", called *The Training of the Human Plant*. In it, he advocated improved treatment of children, cultural homogenization and replacement in education, and management of reproduction and development in both a [eugenic](/wiki/Eugenics "Eugenics") and [euthenic](/wiki/Euthenics "Euthenics") manner, though he does not directly reference either. His support for eugenic methods is couched in his horticultural methodology and he makes direct analogies between the two, comparing the population of the [United States](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America") to a massive outcrossing experiment: {{Blockquote
\|text\=We are more crossed than any other nation in the history of the world, and here we meet the same results that are always seen in a much\-crossed race of plants: all the worst as well as all the best qualities of each are brought out in their fullest intensities. When all the necessary crossing has been done, then comes the elimination, the work of refining, until we shall get an ultimate product that should be the finest race ever.{{Cite book\|title\=The Training of the Human Plant\|last\=Burbank\|first\=Luther\|date\=1907\|publisher\=The Century Company, The de Vinne Press\|location\=New York, N.Y.\|oclc\=1393659\|url\=http://reader.library.cornell.edu/docviewer/digital?id\=hearth4765397}}
\|author\=Luther Burbank
\|source\=''The Training of the Human Plant'', 1907, page 11\.
}}
During his career, Burbank wrote and co\-wrote several books on his methods and results, including his eight\-volume *How Plants Are Trained to Work for Man* (1921\), *Harvest of the Years* (with [Wilbur Hall](/wiki/Wilbur_Hall_%28botanist%29 "Wilbur Hall (botanist)"), 1927\), *Partner of Nature* (1939\), and the 12\-volume [*Luther Burbank: His Methods and Discoveries and Their Practical Application*](/wiki/Luther_Burbank:His_Methods_and_Discoveries%2C_Their_Practical_Application "His Methods and Discoveries, Their Practical Application").
### Methodology
Burbank experimented with a variety of techniques such as grafting, hybridization, and cross\-breeding.
#### Intraspecific breeding
Intraspecific [hybridization](/wiki/Interspecific_hybrids "Interspecific hybrids") within a plant species was demonstrated by [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin "Charles Darwin") and [Gregor Mendel](/wiki/Gregor_Mendel "Gregor Mendel") and was further developed by [geneticists](/wiki/Geneticist "Geneticist") and plant breeders.
In 1908, [George Harrison Shull](/wiki/George_Harrison_Shull "George Harrison Shull") described [heterosis](/wiki/Heterosis "Heterosis"), also known as hybrid vigor. Heterosis describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. [Maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize") was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.
By the 1920s, [statistical](/wiki/Statistics "Statistics") methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933, another important breeding technique, [cytoplasmic male sterility](/wiki/Cytoplasmic_male_sterility "Cytoplasmic male sterility") (CMS), developed in maize, was described by [Marcus Morton Rhoades](/wiki/Marcus_Morton_Rhoades "Marcus Morton Rhoades"). CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile [pollen](/wiki/Pollen "Pollen"). This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor\-intensive [detasseling](/wiki/Detasseling "Detasseling").
These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). The [Green Revolution](/wiki/Green_Revolution "Green Revolution") increased crop production in the developing world in the [1960s](/wiki/1960s "1960s").
### Eugenics
Along with breeding plants, Burbank believed human beings should be selectively bred, and he was active in the [American eugenics movement](/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States "Eugenics in the United States") and wrote in publications of the [American Breeders' Association](/wiki/American_Genetic_Association "American Genetic Association") as an honorary member.{{cite journal \|last1\=Stansfield \|first1\=William D. \|title\=Luther Burbank: Honorary Member of the American Breeders' Association \|journal\=Journal of Heredity \|date\=March 2006 \|volume\=97 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=95–99 \|doi\=10\.1093/jhered/esj015\|pmid\=16489147 \|doi\-access\=free }} He was also elected to the ABA's Committee on Eugenics in 1906\. As a [eugenicist](/wiki/Eugenics "Eugenics"), he promoted genetic discrimination.{{Cite book\|title\=The unfit : a history of a bad idea\|last\=Carlson, Elof Axel.\|date\=2001\|publisher\=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press\|isbn\=0879696583\|location\=Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.\|oclc\=46959597}} In Burbank's book, *The Training Of The Human Plant* he wrote: {{Blockquote
\|text\=I have constantly been impressed with the similarity between the organization and development of plant and human life. … I have come to find in the crossing of species and in selection, wisely directed, a great and powerful instrument for the transformation of the vegetable kingdom along lines that lead constantly upward. The crossing of species is to me paramount. Upon it, wisely directed and accompanied by a rigid selection of the best and as rigid an exclusion of the poorest, rests the hope of all progress. The mere crossing of species, unaccompanied by selection, wise supervision, intelligent care, and the utmost patience, is not likely to result in marked good, and may result in vast harm.
\|author\=Luther Burbank
\|source\=''The Training Of The Human Plant'', 1907, page 3\.
}} This belief in the benefit of crossing human "species" and his staunch support for [Lamarckian inheritance](/wiki/Lamarckism "Lamarckism") put him somewhat at odds with mainstream eugenic views of the time, which were in the majority strongly anti\-miscegenation. His [Lamarckian](/wiki/Lamarckism "Lamarckism") belief in the inheritance of acquired characteristics informed his support for population improvement primarily by managing the environment of children over many generations, which aligned him also with the [euthenics movement](/wiki/Euthenics "Euthenics"). He believed that environment played a crucial role in the development of children: {{Blockquote
\|text\=Heredity is simply the sum of all the effects of all the environments of all past generations on the responsive, ever\-moving life forces. There is no doubt that if a child with a vicious temper be placed in an environment of peace and quiet the temper will change. Put a boy born of gentle white parents among Indians and he will grow up like an Indian. Let the child born of criminal parents have a setting of morality, integrity, and love, and the chances are that he will not grow into a criminal, but into an upright man.
\|author\=Luther Burbank
\|source\=''The Training Of The Human Plant'', 1907, page 68\.
}}
|
[
"Life and work\n-------------",
"Born in [Lancaster, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Massachusetts \"Lancaster, Massachusetts\"), Burbank grew up on a farm and received only a high school education in Lancaster County Academy. The thirteenth of fifteen children,Luther's father, Samuel Walton, had nine children with wife Hannah Ball, two children with wife Mary Ann Rugg and four children with wife Olive Ross. In addition the first birth with Olive did not survive a day, so is not counted among the fifteen. he enjoyed the plants in his mother's large garden. His father died when he was 18 years old,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.altiusdirectory.com/Society/luther\\-burbank.html\\|title\\=Luther Burbank, Biography\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330172312/http://www.altiusdirectory.com/Society/luther\\-burbank.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 30, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and Burbank used his inheritance to buy a 17\\-acre (69,000 m2) plot of land near [Lunenburg](/wiki/Lunenburg%2C_Massachusetts \"Lunenburg, Massachusetts\") center. There, he developed the Burbank potato. Burbank sold the rights to the Burbank potato for [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")150 (${{formatprice\\|{{Inflation\\|US\\|150\\|1875}}}} in {{Inflation\\-year\\|US}} dollars{{inflation\\-fn\\|US}}) and used the money to travel to [Santa Rosa, California](/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California \"Santa Rosa, California\"), in 1875\\. Later, a natural vegetative [sport](/wiki/Sport_%28botany%29 \"Sport (botany)\") (that is, an aberrant growth that can be reproduced reliably in cultivation) of Burbank potato with russetted skin was selected and named [Russet Burbank potato](/wiki/Russet_Burbank_potato \"Russet Burbank potato\"). Today, the Russet Burbank potato is the most widely cultivated potato in the United States. The potato is popular because it doesn't expire as easily as other types of potatoes.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://app.studiesweekly.com/online/publications\\|title\\=Luther Burbank, California Studies Weekly\\|access\\-date\\=May 26, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://app.studiesweekly.com/online/publications/127820/units/128059/articles/154771\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2021}} A large percentage of [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s \"McDonald's\") [french fries](/wiki/French_fries \"French fries\") are made from this [cultivar](/wiki/Cultivar \"Cultivar\").",
"[thumb\\|Photograph by [Gabriel Moulin](/wiki/Gabriel_Moulin \"Gabriel Moulin\")](/wiki/File:Picture_of_Luther_Burbank.jpg \"Picture of Luther Burbank.jpg\")\nIn Santa Rosa, Burbank purchased a {{convert\\|4\\|acre\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} plot of land, and established a [greenhouse](/wiki/Greenhouse \"Greenhouse\"), [nursery](/wiki/Nursery_%28horticulture%29 \"Nursery (horticulture)\"), and experimental fields that he used to conduct [crossbreeding](/wiki/Crossbreeding \"Crossbreeding\") experiments on plants, inspired by [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\")'s *[The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication](/wiki/The_Variation_of_Animals_and_Plants_Under_Domestication \"The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication\")*. (This site is now open to the public as a city park, [Luther Burbank Home and Gardens](/wiki/Luther_Burbank_Home_and_Gardens \"Luther Burbank Home and Gardens\").) Later he purchased an {{convert\\|18\\|acre\\|adj\\=on}} plot of land in the nearby town of [Sebastopol](/wiki/Sebastopol%2C_California \"Sebastopol, California\"), called [Gold Ridge Farm](/wiki/Gold_Ridge_Farm \"Gold Ridge Farm\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wschs\\-grf.pon.net/bef.htm\\|title\\=Gold Ridge Luther Burbank's Experiment Farm\\|access\\-date\\=March 14, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821034433/http://www.wschs\\-grf.pon.net/bef.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Burbank became known through his plant catalogs, the most famous being 1893's \"New Creations in Fruits and Flowers,\" and through the word of mouth of satisfied customers, as well as press reports that kept him in the news throughout the first decade of the century.",
"In that same year, [Stark Bro's Nurseries \\& Orchards Co.](/wiki/Stark_Brothers_Nurseries_and_Orchards \"Stark Brothers Nurseries and Orchards\") discovered the 'Delicious' apple,{{Cite book\\|title\\=200 Years and Growing: The Story of Stark Bro's Nurseries \\& Orchards Co.\\|last\\=Zotta\\|first\\=LeAnn\\|publisher\\=IngramSpark\\|year\\=2015}} an elongated fruit with five bumps on the calyx end. The oddly\\-shaped apple attracted the attention of Burbank, a famed grafter and budder of trees, plants and flowers. He called the new 'Delicious' variety \"the finest\\-flavored apple in all the world.\"{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Stark\\|first\\=Clarence\\|date\\=1913\\|title\\=Stark Delicious: The World's Best Apple\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/CAT31294322/CAT31294322\\_djvu.txt\\|journal\\=Stark Bro's Nurseries \\& Orchards Catalog\\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2016}} It was also in 1893 that the Starks began their storied cooperation with Luther Burbank and his fantastic new varieties of fruits.",
"Among those with the foresight to recognize the possibilities of Burbank's work was Clarence McDowell Stark, who went to California and sought Burbank out. After talking to him in Santa Rosa and seeing the results of his experiments, Clarence was convinced that Burbank was right, and his professorial critics were wrong. To Clarence's great dismay, he saw that Luther Burbank was operating a small seed and nursery business in an attempt to finance his experiments and provide himself a living. It was clear that he would never be able to realize his potential under these meager circumstances.",
"Clarence said to Burbank: \"I don't think you will ever make a real success in the nursery business because your heart is not in it. But if you will carry forward the type of hybridizing you are doing, I think you will go very far in your chosen field. To demonstrate our sincere belief in your work, our company will give you $9,000 if you will let me pick three of these new fruits you have shown me.\"",
"Burbank often credited the Stark family with making his work profitable. In return, he later joined with Thomas Edison to support Paul Stark Sr. in his fight to get patent legislation passed for plant breeders.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Janick\\|first\\=Jules\\|date\\=February 2015\\|title\\=Luther Burbank: Plant Breeding Artist, Horticulturist, and Legend\\|url\\=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/burbank\\-ashs\\-2015\\.pdf\\|journal\\=HortScience\\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2016}} Along with Clarence's $9,000 worth of help, Luther also had something of a fan club — The Luther Burbank Society.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/broadsides\\_bdsca10056/\\|title\\= Luther Burbank Society roster\\|date\\=1912\\|website\\=Duke University Libraries \\- Digital Collections\\|publisher\\=Luther Burbank Society\\| access\\-date\\= May 18, 2016}} The group took it upon themselves to publish his discoveries and manage his business affairs, affording him some additional means by which to live.",
"From 1904 through 1909, Burbank received several grants from the Carnegie Institution to support his ongoing research on hybridization. He was supported by the practical\\-minded Andrew Carnegie himself, over those of his advisers who objected that Burbank was not \"scientific\" in his methods.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2\\-3468300282\\.html\\|title\\=Luther Burbank\\|encyclopedia\\=encyclopedia.com}}\n[alt\\=Luther Burbank gravesite\\|thumb\\|Paul Stark Sr. pays his respects at Luther Burbank's gravesite](/wiki/File:Paul_Stark_Sr._pays_his_respects_at_Luther_Burbank%27s_gravesite.jpg \"Paul Stark Sr. pays his respects at Luther Burbank's gravesite.jpg\")",
"Gastrointestinal complications and violent hiccups weakened Luther in the last two weeks before his death, which was ultimately caused by heart failure. At his bedside were Elizabeth (his wife) and his sister when he died on April 11, 1926\\. The famous botanist was buried in an unmarked grave, under a giant Cedar of Lebanon at the Luther Burbank Home and Gardens in Santa Rosa, California. The tree in the photo no longer stands.",
"As Burbank's life drew to a close, the question arose as to who would carry on his work, and naturally there were many interested in doing so. Before his death in April 1926, Luther Burbank spoke quietly to his wife, and said:",
"\"If anything happens to me, you will have to dispose of the business and the work, because you can't go on with it. There aren't a dozen organizations in the world that are equipped to go forward with it; of them all, there is really only one I think of that could make the most of it.\"",
"He named Stark Bro's Nurseries \\& Orchards Co. to carry on the work. Considerable argument has been spent upon whether the plants were technically willed to Stark Bro's; they were not. He left everything to Elizabeth: money, personal property, real estate, dozens of municipal utility bonds — and the plants and precious seeds. Elizabeth had first approached both Stanford and Berkeley to have either or both universities take over the experimental farm, but sold to Stark when those proffers didn't materialize. Mrs. Burbank entered into an agreement with Stark Bro's on August 23, 1927, to take the material they wanted from Burbank's properties. The contract included ownership of the business name and all of the customer information. A September 6, 1927, contract provided exclusive rights to sell uncompleted experiments with fruits at Sebastopol (except the Royal and Paradox) for 10 years. Stark Bro's had right of renewal. Tax receipts indicate payments of $27,000 to Mrs. Burbank. Exciting new kinds of fruits and flowers Burbank had developed (but never marketed) included 120 types of plums, 18 peaches, 28 apples, 500 hybrid roses, 30 cherries, 34 pears, 52 gladioli and many more. Stark Bro's subsequently introduced many of these varieties of their catalog.\n[thumb\\|Clay Stark Logan (l) accepting induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame on behalf of Luther Burbank (1986\\).](/wiki/File:1986-Clay-accepting-NIHF-award.jpg \"1986-Clay-accepting-NIHF-award.jpg\")\nUntil 1931, the Experiment Farm fell into some disrepair, so Stark Bro's sent emissaries to retrieve the most promising fruit, nut and ornamental shrubs, and in 1931 sold the flowers, vegetables and seeds to Burpee Seed Co. J. B. Keil came from Stark Bro's to coordinate the efforts and worked there from 1931 to 1934\\. Over the following years, Elizabeth worked with the Stark brothers to patent 16 Burbank fruits and flowers. The patents name Luther Burbank, deceased, as \"inventor\" by Elizabeth Waters Burbank, executrix of his estate. In 1935, Stark ended the agreement with Mrs. Burbank (or vice versa).",
"Mrs. Burbank then dispersed the majority of the gardens for subdivision. She sold the remaining property (excluding the house and greenhouse) to the Santa Rosa Junior College for use as a training ground. This lasted until 1954 (J. B. Keil stayed on as the caretaker). Twenty years later, the City took over ownership of the property (which it retains today as a free public showplace). The gardens include a thornless rose, spineless cactus, rainbow corn, a hybrid mulberry tree (which Luther hoped would spark an American silk industry) and his red combustion plant (*[Euonymus alatus](/wiki/Euonymus_alatus \"Euonymus alatus\")*).",
"### Burbank cultivars",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Burbank tending young spineless cactus plants c 1890](/wiki/File:Burbank_Cactus.gif \"Burbank Cactus.gif\")\n[thumb\\|Shasta daisy](/wiki/File:ShastaDaisies7-14-05.jpg \"ShastaDaisies7-14-05.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Russet Burbank potatoes](/wiki/File:Potatoes.jpg \"Potatoes.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|New Creations in Fruits and Flowers cover](/wiki/File:Burbank_FruitFlower_c1893.jpg \"Burbank FruitFlower c1893.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Burbank plums](/wiki/File:Burbank_satsuma_plum.jpg \"Burbank satsuma plum.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Forms of leaves and fruits quality correlations. After issue 1914\\.](/wiki/File:Burbank_leaf_fruit.jpg \"Burbank leaf fruit.jpg\")",
"Burbank created hundreds of new varieties of fruits (plum, pear, prune, peach, blackberry, raspberry); potato, tomato; ornamental flowers and other plants. He introduced over 800 new plants, including flowers, grains, grasses, vegetables, cacti, and fruits.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thehenryford.org/explore/stories\\-of\\-innovation/what\\-if/luther\\-burbank/\\|title\\= What If a Potato Could Change Agriculture \\|publisher\\= The Henry Ford\\|website\\= thehenryford.org\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2019}}",
"Fruits\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - {{columns\\-list\\|colwidth\\=12em\\|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*113 \\[\\[plum]]s and \\[\\[prune (fruit)\\|prunes]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*69 \\[\\[nut (fruit)\\|nuts]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*35 fruiting \\[\\[cactus]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*16 \\[\\[blackberry\\|blackberries]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*13 \\[\\[raspberry\\|raspberries]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*11 \\[\\[quince]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*11 \\[\\[plumcot]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*10 \\[\\[cherry\\|cherries]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*10 \\[\\[strawberry\\|strawberries]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*10 \\[\\[apple]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*8 \\[\\[peach]]es\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*6 \\[\\[chestnut]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*5 \\[\\[nectarine]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*4 \\[\\[grape]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*4 \\[\\[pear]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*3 \\[\\[walnut]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*2 \\[\\[ficus\\|fig]]s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*1 \\[\\[almond]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}",
"Grains, grasses, forage\n* 9 types",
"Vegetables\n* 26 types{{Citation needed\\|date\\=January 2009}}",
"Ornamentals\n* 91 types{{Citation needed\\|date\\=January 2009}}",
"On paper his method seems simple, but in practice it was extremely difficult. Most of the time, he would grow 10,000 or more plants of one variety, from which he selected as many as 50 seedlings or as few as one. From the selected plant or plants, he grew another 10,000 seedlings, continuing selective process until he produced the results he wanted.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Whitman\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=The Psychic Power of Plants \\|date\\=1974\\-12\\-03\\|publisher\\=New American Library \\|isbn\\=0451062531 }} When he started his work, chestnut trees took 25 years to bear fruit. From his efforts, chestnut trees{{cite web\\| url\\= https://calisphere.org/item/1c816752984d091cc0ba2704cfd2df14/ \\|title\\= Image: Chestnut tree\\| website\\= calisphere.org\\| publisher\\= \\| date\\= \\| access\\-date\\= October 7, 2022}} produced fruit after three years. A white blackberry so clear that one could see the seeds inside, a juicy and large plum which is still considered one of the finest in the world, a spineless cactus,{{cite web\\| url\\= http://www.lutherburbank.org/about\\-us/specialty\\-gardens/spineless\\-cactus \\| title\\= Spineless Cactus \\| website\\= lutherburbank.org\\| publisher\\= Luther Burbank Home \\& Gardens \\| date\\= \\| access\\-date\\= October 7, 2022}} and a calla lily with fragrant odor {{Cite journal\\| last1\\= Anderson\\| first1\\= Neil O.\\|last2\\=Olsen\\|first2\\=Richard T.\\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-01\\|title\\=A Vast Array of Beauty: The Accomplishments of the Father of American Ornamental Breeding, Luther Burbank \\|url\\= https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/50/2/article\\-p161\\.xml\\|journal\\=HortScience\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|volume\\=50\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=161–188\\|doi\\=10\\.21273/HORTSCI.50\\.2\\.161\\|issn\\=0018\\-5345\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} were among his many creations.",
"### Publications",
"Burbank was criticized by scientists of his day because he did not keep the kind of careful records that are the norm in scientific research and because he was mainly interested in creating useful or targeted cultivars rather than in the [basic research](/wiki/Basic_research \"Basic research\") of understanding their biology or the mechanisms by which his artificial selection schemes achieved their results. [Purdue University](/wiki/Purdue_University \"Purdue University\") professor Jules Janick, writing in the 2004 *[World Book Encyclopedia](/wiki/World_Book_Encyclopedia \"World Book Encyclopedia\")*, says: \"Burbank cannot be considered a scientist in the academic sense.\"",
"Although Burbank may not have been a scientist by the standards of his peers, his lack of record keeping reflected the difficulties of developing and distributing cultivars in the era in which he lived. His innovations were revolutionary, and in a time when there was no way to legally protect one's inventions, Burbank may have been cautious with the successes he decided to document. Additionally, his records may not have been coherent (to the chagrin of modern scholars) because he felt his time was better valued in the garden, not writing each trial and error down in his record book.Smith, Jane S. \"Faster, Better, Sweeter.\" The Garden of Invention: Luther Burbank and the Business of Breeding Plants. New York: Penguin, 2009\\. N. pag. Print.",
"In 1893, Burbank published a descriptive catalog of some of his best varieties, entitled *New Creations in Fruits and Flowers*.",
"In 1907, Burbank published an \"essay on childrearing\", called *The Training of the Human Plant*. In it, he advocated improved treatment of children, cultural homogenization and replacement in education, and management of reproduction and development in both a [eugenic](/wiki/Eugenics \"Eugenics\") and [euthenic](/wiki/Euthenics \"Euthenics\") manner, though he does not directly reference either. His support for eugenic methods is couched in his horticultural methodology and he makes direct analogies between the two, comparing the population of the [United States](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\") to a massive outcrossing experiment: {{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=We are more crossed than any other nation in the history of the world, and here we meet the same results that are always seen in a much\\-crossed race of plants: all the worst as well as all the best qualities of each are brought out in their fullest intensities. When all the necessary crossing has been done, then comes the elimination, the work of refining, until we shall get an ultimate product that should be the finest race ever.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Training of the Human Plant\\|last\\=Burbank\\|first\\=Luther\\|date\\=1907\\|publisher\\=The Century Company, The de Vinne Press\\|location\\=New York, N.Y.\\|oclc\\=1393659\\|url\\=http://reader.library.cornell.edu/docviewer/digital?id\\=hearth4765397}}\n\\|author\\=Luther Burbank\n\\|source\\=''The Training of the Human Plant'', 1907, page 11\\.\n}}",
"During his career, Burbank wrote and co\\-wrote several books on his methods and results, including his eight\\-volume *How Plants Are Trained to Work for Man* (1921\\), *Harvest of the Years* (with [Wilbur Hall](/wiki/Wilbur_Hall_%28botanist%29 \"Wilbur Hall (botanist)\"), 1927\\), *Partner of Nature* (1939\\), and the 12\\-volume [*Luther Burbank: His Methods and Discoveries and Their Practical Application*](/wiki/Luther_Burbank:His_Methods_and_Discoveries%2C_Their_Practical_Application \"His Methods and Discoveries, Their Practical Application\").",
"### Methodology",
"Burbank experimented with a variety of techniques such as grafting, hybridization, and cross\\-breeding.",
"#### Intraspecific breeding",
"Intraspecific [hybridization](/wiki/Interspecific_hybrids \"Interspecific hybrids\") within a plant species was demonstrated by [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\") and [Gregor Mendel](/wiki/Gregor_Mendel \"Gregor Mendel\") and was further developed by [geneticists](/wiki/Geneticist \"Geneticist\") and plant breeders.",
"In 1908, [George Harrison Shull](/wiki/George_Harrison_Shull \"George Harrison Shull\") described [heterosis](/wiki/Heterosis \"Heterosis\"), also known as hybrid vigor. Heterosis describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. [Maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.",
"By the 1920s, [statistical](/wiki/Statistics \"Statistics\") methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933, another important breeding technique, [cytoplasmic male sterility](/wiki/Cytoplasmic_male_sterility \"Cytoplasmic male sterility\") (CMS), developed in maize, was described by [Marcus Morton Rhoades](/wiki/Marcus_Morton_Rhoades \"Marcus Morton Rhoades\"). CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile [pollen](/wiki/Pollen \"Pollen\"). This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor\\-intensive [detasseling](/wiki/Detasseling \"Detasseling\").",
"These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The [Green Revolution](/wiki/Green_Revolution \"Green Revolution\") increased crop production in the developing world in the [1960s](/wiki/1960s \"1960s\").",
"### Eugenics",
"Along with breeding plants, Burbank believed human beings should be selectively bred, and he was active in the [American eugenics movement](/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States \"Eugenics in the United States\") and wrote in publications of the [American Breeders' Association](/wiki/American_Genetic_Association \"American Genetic Association\") as an honorary member.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Stansfield \\|first1\\=William D. \\|title\\=Luther Burbank: Honorary Member of the American Breeders' Association \\|journal\\=Journal of Heredity \\|date\\=March 2006 \\|volume\\=97 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=95–99 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/jhered/esj015\\|pmid\\=16489147 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} He was also elected to the ABA's Committee on Eugenics in 1906\\. As a [eugenicist](/wiki/Eugenics \"Eugenics\"), he promoted genetic discrimination.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The unfit : a history of a bad idea\\|last\\=Carlson, Elof Axel.\\|date\\=2001\\|publisher\\=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press\\|isbn\\=0879696583\\|location\\=Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.\\|oclc\\=46959597}} In Burbank's book, *The Training Of The Human Plant* he wrote: {{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=I have constantly been impressed with the similarity between the organization and development of plant and human life. … I have come to find in the crossing of species and in selection, wisely directed, a great and powerful instrument for the transformation of the vegetable kingdom along lines that lead constantly upward. The crossing of species is to me paramount. Upon it, wisely directed and accompanied by a rigid selection of the best and as rigid an exclusion of the poorest, rests the hope of all progress. The mere crossing of species, unaccompanied by selection, wise supervision, intelligent care, and the utmost patience, is not likely to result in marked good, and may result in vast harm.\n\\|author\\=Luther Burbank\n\\|source\\=''The Training Of The Human Plant'', 1907, page 3\\.\n}} This belief in the benefit of crossing human \"species\" and his staunch support for [Lamarckian inheritance](/wiki/Lamarckism \"Lamarckism\") put him somewhat at odds with mainstream eugenic views of the time, which were in the majority strongly anti\\-miscegenation. His [Lamarckian](/wiki/Lamarckism \"Lamarckism\") belief in the inheritance of acquired characteristics informed his support for population improvement primarily by managing the environment of children over many generations, which aligned him also with the [euthenics movement](/wiki/Euthenics \"Euthenics\"). He believed that environment played a crucial role in the development of children: {{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=Heredity is simply the sum of all the effects of all the environments of all past generations on the responsive, ever\\-moving life forces. There is no doubt that if a child with a vicious temper be placed in an environment of peace and quiet the temper will change. Put a boy born of gentle white parents among Indians and he will grow up like an Indian. Let the child born of criminal parents have a setting of morality, integrity, and love, and the chances are that he will not grow into a criminal, but into an upright man.\n\\|author\\=Luther Burbank\n\\|source\\=''The Training Of The Human Plant'', 1907, page 68\\.\n}}",
""
] |
### Methodology
Burbank experimented with a variety of techniques such as grafting, hybridization, and cross\-breeding.
#### Intraspecific breeding
Intraspecific [hybridization](/wiki/Interspecific_hybrids "Interspecific hybrids") within a plant species was demonstrated by [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin "Charles Darwin") and [Gregor Mendel](/wiki/Gregor_Mendel "Gregor Mendel") and was further developed by [geneticists](/wiki/Geneticist "Geneticist") and plant breeders.
In 1908, [George Harrison Shull](/wiki/George_Harrison_Shull "George Harrison Shull") described [heterosis](/wiki/Heterosis "Heterosis"), also known as hybrid vigor. Heterosis describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. [Maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize") was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.
By the 1920s, [statistical](/wiki/Statistics "Statistics") methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933, another important breeding technique, [cytoplasmic male sterility](/wiki/Cytoplasmic_male_sterility "Cytoplasmic male sterility") (CMS), developed in maize, was described by [Marcus Morton Rhoades](/wiki/Marcus_Morton_Rhoades "Marcus Morton Rhoades"). CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile [pollen](/wiki/Pollen "Pollen"). This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor\-intensive [detasseling](/wiki/Detasseling "Detasseling").
These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). The [Green Revolution](/wiki/Green_Revolution "Green Revolution") increased crop production in the developing world in the [1960s](/wiki/1960s "1960s").
|
[
"### Methodology",
"Burbank experimented with a variety of techniques such as grafting, hybridization, and cross\\-breeding.",
"#### Intraspecific breeding",
"Intraspecific [hybridization](/wiki/Interspecific_hybrids \"Interspecific hybrids\") within a plant species was demonstrated by [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\") and [Gregor Mendel](/wiki/Gregor_Mendel \"Gregor Mendel\") and was further developed by [geneticists](/wiki/Geneticist \"Geneticist\") and plant breeders.",
"In 1908, [George Harrison Shull](/wiki/George_Harrison_Shull \"George Harrison Shull\") described [heterosis](/wiki/Heterosis \"Heterosis\"), also known as hybrid vigor. Heterosis describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. [Maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.",
"By the 1920s, [statistical](/wiki/Statistics \"Statistics\") methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933, another important breeding technique, [cytoplasmic male sterility](/wiki/Cytoplasmic_male_sterility \"Cytoplasmic male sterility\") (CMS), developed in maize, was described by [Marcus Morton Rhoades](/wiki/Marcus_Morton_Rhoades \"Marcus Morton Rhoades\"). CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile [pollen](/wiki/Pollen \"Pollen\"). This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor\\-intensive [detasseling](/wiki/Detasseling \"Detasseling\").",
"These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The [Green Revolution](/wiki/Green_Revolution \"Green Revolution\") increased crop production in the developing world in the [1960s](/wiki/1960s \"1960s\").",
""
] |
Post\-war
---------
In 1816, Kilborn married Elizabeth Baldwin. He lived in Brockville, later settling at [Kilmarnock](/wiki/Kilmarnock%2C_Ontario "Kilmarnock, Ontario"). He remained in the militia, being appointed an Ensign in the **1st Battalion, Leeds Militia** in 1818, and subsequently Captain in the **4th Battalion, Leeds Militia** in 1830\.
Kilborn represented Leeds in the [Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Upper_Canada "Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada") from 1828 to 1830 as a Reformer alongside [William Buell Jr.](/wiki/William_Buell_Jr. "William Buell Jr.") He was named a [justice of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace "Justice of the peace") for the [Johnstown District](/wiki/Johnstown_District%2C_Upper_Canada "Johnstown District, Upper Canada") in 1833, and owned a lumber business in Kilmarnock supplying the government with wood for the [Rideau Canal](/wiki/Rideau_Canal "Rideau Canal"). In the mid\-1830s, Kilborn moved to [Newboro](/wiki/Rideau_Lakes%23Newboro "Rideau Lakes#Newboro") in North Crosby township and was a prominent local merchant.
During the [Rebellion of 1838](/wiki/Rebellions_of_1837%E2%80%931838 "Rebellions of 1837–1838"), he commanded a company of the **2nd Battalion, Leeds Militia** at Gananoque for six months. He was appointed a Major in the **2nd Leeds Militia** in 1841, and Lieutenant\-Colonel commanding the **8th Battalion, Leeds Militia** in 1846\. The 8th Leeds Militia may have been based in North Crosby Township.
In 1852, he was named postmaster at Brockville and served as associate judge of assize at Brockville from 1853 to 1855\. He eventually returned to Newboro where he worked as a merchant and gained local prominence. Part of his 1832 home remains as the Stirling Lodge in Newboro and the local store "Kilborn's on the Rideau" bears his name.
John Kilborn died in [Newboro](/wiki/Rideau_Lakes%23Newboro "Rideau Lakes#Newboro") on March 25, 1888\.
|
[
"Post\\-war\n---------",
"In 1816, Kilborn married Elizabeth Baldwin. He lived in Brockville, later settling at [Kilmarnock](/wiki/Kilmarnock%2C_Ontario \"Kilmarnock, Ontario\"). He remained in the militia, being appointed an Ensign in the **1st Battalion, Leeds Militia** in 1818, and subsequently Captain in the **4th Battalion, Leeds Militia** in 1830\\.",
"Kilborn represented Leeds in the [Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Upper_Canada \"Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada\") from 1828 to 1830 as a Reformer alongside [William Buell Jr.](/wiki/William_Buell_Jr. \"William Buell Jr.\") He was named a [justice of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace \"Justice of the peace\") for the [Johnstown District](/wiki/Johnstown_District%2C_Upper_Canada \"Johnstown District, Upper Canada\") in 1833, and owned a lumber business in Kilmarnock supplying the government with wood for the [Rideau Canal](/wiki/Rideau_Canal \"Rideau Canal\"). In the mid\\-1830s, Kilborn moved to [Newboro](/wiki/Rideau_Lakes%23Newboro \"Rideau Lakes#Newboro\") in North Crosby township and was a prominent local merchant.",
"During the [Rebellion of 1838](/wiki/Rebellions_of_1837%E2%80%931838 \"Rebellions of 1837–1838\"), he commanded a company of the **2nd Battalion, Leeds Militia** at Gananoque for six months. He was appointed a Major in the **2nd Leeds Militia** in 1841, and Lieutenant\\-Colonel commanding the **8th Battalion, Leeds Militia** in 1846\\. The 8th Leeds Militia may have been based in North Crosby Township.",
"In 1852, he was named postmaster at Brockville and served as associate judge of assize at Brockville from 1853 to 1855\\. He eventually returned to Newboro where he worked as a merchant and gained local prominence. Part of his 1832 home remains as the Stirling Lodge in Newboro and the local store \"Kilborn's on the Rideau\" bears his name.",
"John Kilborn died in [Newboro](/wiki/Rideau_Lakes%23Newboro \"Rideau Lakes#Newboro\") on March 25, 1888\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Set in New York City spanning several months, Greg has just moved in with his girlfriend Molly. During their first night after unpacking, they go out for drinks and a meal at a local bar, called The Four\-Faced Liar. There, they meet Trip, his girlfriend Chloe (Liz Osborn), and his lesbian friend Bridget. Molly and Bridget bond as they discuss *[Wuthering Heights](/wiki/Wuthering_Heights "Wuthering Heights")* and relationships. Molly tells Bridget that she has everything in common with her boyfriend, but Greg lacks passion. Bridget tells Molly that she doesn't have a girlfriend because no one can hold her interest for long enough to bother. Bridget is roommates with Trip, and they always wake at the same time every morning and they both brush their teeth together in front of the bathroom mirror.
Trip and Greg bond over beers and smoking joints on the roof of Trip's apartment building. Trip shows concern with Greg over Molly spending more and more time with Bridget, and he reminds Greg that Bridget is a lesbian. Greg tells Trip that he is getting worked up for nothing.
Around Halloween, Trip annoys Chloe by skipping a ballet performance to watch sports. Chloe takes Bridget in Trip's place to watch the show. However, Trip wins Chloe back with a candlelit apology, her favorite dessert, and a self\-deprecating dance.
After coming home from the holidays early, Chloe catches Trip having sex with a random girl and she leaves him. That same night, Greg drunkenly tries to force an uninterested Molly into sex. She leaves him to stay with Bridget until he apologizes, which he does the next day.
At a New Year's Eve party at the bar, Molly laments to Bridget that she has never been thrown up against a wall and kissed. In the restroom, Bridget does just that when she follows Molly in, and the pair has breathless sex for the first time. Afterward, Molly and Bridget appear shocked by their own actions; Bridget asks Molly to come home with her, but Molly rejects her. Molly heads out to be with Greg. Later that night, Molly follows Bridget home after putting Greg to bed and starts a secret affair with Bridget. A montage is shown as Molly's bond with Bridget grows during the next several weeks. One morning, Chloe enters Bridget's room to gather some stuff and finds naked Molly in bed with her. Chloe expresses her disapproval and disappointment with Molly and her infidelity. Trip briefly enters the room but quickly left in shock. And after finding out what went on between Molly and Bridget, he reports it to Greg, who takes the news calmly and forgives his girlfriend because "she's worth it." Molly then breaks off her romance with Bridget and announces that she is marrying Greg.
A few days later at Molly's birthday party at the bar, Trip attempts to woo Chloe back, while Bridget shows up and presents her case to Molly with a simple, "I like you." Greg sees Bridget outside the bar and he confronts her by asking how she pleases Molly in bed better than he. The angry and jealous Greg finally loses his temper and throws Bridget up against a car over her presence at the party. When Chloe and Molly realize that both Greg and Bridget are missing, they all run outside where Trip pulls Greg off of Bridget who wanders off while Chloe follows and tries to comfort her.
Molly ends her engagement with Greg, who moves out and back to his hometown.
Molly then visits Bridget to report Greg leaving her, and both women lie in bed side by side, staring at the ceiling. The camera pans in to a tight shot of them together. Bridget turns to Molly and says “you keep me completely interested.” She then questions the look on Molly's face, and Molly responds, “It means I love you.” “Oh,” Bridget responds. Both women turn to face the ceiling. Molly breaths out and says, “So.” Bridget says, “So.”
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Set in New York City spanning several months, Greg has just moved in with his girlfriend Molly. During their first night after unpacking, they go out for drinks and a meal at a local bar, called The Four\\-Faced Liar. There, they meet Trip, his girlfriend Chloe (Liz Osborn), and his lesbian friend Bridget. Molly and Bridget bond as they discuss *[Wuthering Heights](/wiki/Wuthering_Heights \"Wuthering Heights\")* and relationships. Molly tells Bridget that she has everything in common with her boyfriend, but Greg lacks passion. Bridget tells Molly that she doesn't have a girlfriend because no one can hold her interest for long enough to bother. Bridget is roommates with Trip, and they always wake at the same time every morning and they both brush their teeth together in front of the bathroom mirror.",
"Trip and Greg bond over beers and smoking joints on the roof of Trip's apartment building. Trip shows concern with Greg over Molly spending more and more time with Bridget, and he reminds Greg that Bridget is a lesbian. Greg tells Trip that he is getting worked up for nothing.",
"Around Halloween, Trip annoys Chloe by skipping a ballet performance to watch sports. Chloe takes Bridget in Trip's place to watch the show. However, Trip wins Chloe back with a candlelit apology, her favorite dessert, and a self\\-deprecating dance.",
"After coming home from the holidays early, Chloe catches Trip having sex with a random girl and she leaves him. That same night, Greg drunkenly tries to force an uninterested Molly into sex. She leaves him to stay with Bridget until he apologizes, which he does the next day.",
"At a New Year's Eve party at the bar, Molly laments to Bridget that she has never been thrown up against a wall and kissed. In the restroom, Bridget does just that when she follows Molly in, and the pair has breathless sex for the first time. Afterward, Molly and Bridget appear shocked by their own actions; Bridget asks Molly to come home with her, but Molly rejects her. Molly heads out to be with Greg. Later that night, Molly follows Bridget home after putting Greg to bed and starts a secret affair with Bridget. A montage is shown as Molly's bond with Bridget grows during the next several weeks. One morning, Chloe enters Bridget's room to gather some stuff and finds naked Molly in bed with her. Chloe expresses her disapproval and disappointment with Molly and her infidelity. Trip briefly enters the room but quickly left in shock. And after finding out what went on between Molly and Bridget, he reports it to Greg, who takes the news calmly and forgives his girlfriend because \"she's worth it.\" Molly then breaks off her romance with Bridget and announces that she is marrying Greg.",
"A few days later at Molly's birthday party at the bar, Trip attempts to woo Chloe back, while Bridget shows up and presents her case to Molly with a simple, \"I like you.\" Greg sees Bridget outside the bar and he confronts her by asking how she pleases Molly in bed better than he. The angry and jealous Greg finally loses his temper and throws Bridget up against a car over her presence at the party. When Chloe and Molly realize that both Greg and Bridget are missing, they all run outside where Trip pulls Greg off of Bridget who wanders off while Chloe follows and tries to comfort her.",
"Molly ends her engagement with Greg, who moves out and back to his hometown.",
"Molly then visits Bridget to report Greg leaving her, and both women lie in bed side by side, staring at the ceiling. The camera pans in to a tight shot of them together. Bridget turns to Molly and says “you keep me completely interested.” She then questions the look on Molly's face, and Molly responds, “It means I love you.” “Oh,” Bridget responds. Both women turn to face the ceiling. Molly breaths out and says, “So.” Bridget says, “So.”",
""
] |
Design and development
----------------------
The O\-145 was produced in three major versions, the O\-145\-A rated at {{convert\|55\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}, the \-B rated at {{convert\|65\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}, and \-C rated at {{convert\|75\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}. The "B" model was the major production model, with the "A" and "C" produced in much smaller quantities.
All models of the series had the same bore, stroke, and displacement, additional horsepower being generated by increasing compression ratio and maximum rpm. All use a Stromberg NA\-S2 or NA\-S2A or Marvel MA\-2 or MA\-2\-A carburetor. The [dual ignition](/wiki/Dual_ignition "Dual ignition") versions use two [Scintilla](/wiki/Scintilla_magneto "Scintilla magneto") SF\-4L, SN4LN\-20 or \-21, Superior SMA\-4 or Edison\-Splitdorf RMA\-4 [magnetos](/wiki/Ignition_magneto "Ignition magneto").
The original O\-145\-A produced {{convert\|55\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2300 rpm, weighed {{convert\|165\.5\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}, and featured single ignition. In an attempt to compete with the [Continental A\-65](/wiki/Continental_O-170 "Continental O-170"), Lycoming boosted the rpm and power output to {{convert\|65\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2550 rpm, and finally {{convert\|75\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3100 rpm. The O\-145 had a hard time competing with the same horsepower Continentals due to its smaller displacement, which resulted in a steeper torque curve.
The GO\-145 is a geared model, introduced in 1938, that uses a 27:17 reduction ratio (1\.59:1\) gearbox to produce {{convert\|75\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3200 crankshaft rpm, giving 2013 propeller rpm. The engine employs a gearbox bolted to the front of the engine and the resulting engine weighs {{convert\|193\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} without starter or generator. The GO\-145 suffered from a poor reputation for reliability, because pilots mis\-handled the engine, running it at too low a cruising rpm and causing gearbox wear as a result.{{cite web\|url \= http://www.avtoday.com/rw/products/engines/1280\.html\|title \= Lycoming Engines\|access\-date \= 2008\-12\-21\|last \= Rotor \& Wing\|date \= January 2005\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090414014158/http://avtoday.com/rw/products/engines/1280\.html\|archive\-date \= 2009\-04\-14\|url\-status \= dead}}
The series' [type certificate](/wiki/Type_certificate "Type certificate") expired on 2 November 1950 and no O\-145\-B1 or \-C1 or GO\-145\-C1s engines produced after 1 August 1941 and O\-145\-B2, \-B3 or \-C2, or GO\-145\-C2 or \-C3s produced after 24 August 1949 are eligible for certification. The single ignition O\-145\-A series, O\-145\-B1, and \-C1 are not covered by the original type certificate.
Lycoming ended production of the O\-145 and replaced it with the [O\-235](/wiki/Lycoming_O-235 "Lycoming O-235") series.
|
[
"Design and development\n----------------------",
"The O\\-145 was produced in three major versions, the O\\-145\\-A rated at {{convert\\|55\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, the \\-B rated at {{convert\\|65\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, and \\-C rated at {{convert\\|75\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. The \"B\" model was the major production model, with the \"A\" and \"C\" produced in much smaller quantities.",
"All models of the series had the same bore, stroke, and displacement, additional horsepower being generated by increasing compression ratio and maximum rpm. All use a Stromberg NA\\-S2 or NA\\-S2A or Marvel MA\\-2 or MA\\-2\\-A carburetor. The [dual ignition](/wiki/Dual_ignition \"Dual ignition\") versions use two [Scintilla](/wiki/Scintilla_magneto \"Scintilla magneto\") SF\\-4L, SN4LN\\-20 or \\-21, Superior SMA\\-4 or Edison\\-Splitdorf RMA\\-4 [magnetos](/wiki/Ignition_magneto \"Ignition magneto\").",
"The original O\\-145\\-A produced {{convert\\|55\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2300 rpm, weighed {{convert\\|165\\.5\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, and featured single ignition. In an attempt to compete with the [Continental A\\-65](/wiki/Continental_O-170 \"Continental O-170\"), Lycoming boosted the rpm and power output to {{convert\\|65\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2550 rpm, and finally {{convert\\|75\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3100 rpm. The O\\-145 had a hard time competing with the same horsepower Continentals due to its smaller displacement, which resulted in a steeper torque curve.",
"The GO\\-145 is a geared model, introduced in 1938, that uses a 27:17 reduction ratio (1\\.59:1\\) gearbox to produce {{convert\\|75\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3200 crankshaft rpm, giving 2013 propeller rpm. The engine employs a gearbox bolted to the front of the engine and the resulting engine weighs {{convert\\|193\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} without starter or generator. The GO\\-145 suffered from a poor reputation for reliability, because pilots mis\\-handled the engine, running it at too low a cruising rpm and causing gearbox wear as a result.{{cite web\\|url \\= http://www.avtoday.com/rw/products/engines/1280\\.html\\|title \\= Lycoming Engines\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-12\\-21\\|last \\= Rotor \\& Wing\\|date \\= January 2005\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090414014158/http://avtoday.com/rw/products/engines/1280\\.html\\|archive\\-date \\= 2009\\-04\\-14\\|url\\-status \\= dead}}",
"The series' [type certificate](/wiki/Type_certificate \"Type certificate\") expired on 2 November 1950 and no O\\-145\\-B1 or \\-C1 or GO\\-145\\-C1s engines produced after 1 August 1941 and O\\-145\\-B2, \\-B3 or \\-C2, or GO\\-145\\-C2 or \\-C3s produced after 24 August 1949 are eligible for certification. The single ignition O\\-145\\-A series, O\\-145\\-B1, and \\-C1 are not covered by the original type certificate.",
"Lycoming ended production of the O\\-145 and replaced it with the [O\\-235](/wiki/Lycoming_O-235 \"Lycoming O-235\") series.",
""
] |
Life
----
Born in [Gijang\-gun](/wiki/Gijang-gun "Gijang-gun"), [Dongrae](/wiki/Dongrae "Dongrae") on 17 November 1888, Choe graduated from [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang") Missionary School ({{lang\-ko\|평양신학교\|label\=none}}) in 1926, and became a priest for Dongraeeup Church.
In 1933, he moved to Namhaeeup Church, and in 1937 became a President of [Gyeongsangnam\-do](/wiki/Gyeongsangnam-do "Gyeongsangnam-do") Presbyterian Conference ({{lang\-ko\|경상남도노회장\|label\=none}}).
Starting from October 1938, Choe refused to participate in worship of the Japanese Emperor, which was required by law in the 1930s (see [Christianity in Korea](/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea "Christianity in Korea"): Korean nationalism). He then initiated the movement of antagonism towards [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") [Shinto Shrine](/wiki/Shinto_Shrine "Shinto Shrine") worship by focusing on [Namhae](/wiki/Namhaedo "Namhaedo") area.
As the movement of antagonism towards Japanese [Shinto Shrine](/wiki/Shinto_Shrine "Shinto Shrine") worship was prohibited by the Japanese colonial power during that time, Choe was eventually arrested and remanded in [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang") prison along with other anti\-Japanese Shrine worship activists.
While still imprisoned, Choe succumbed on 6 May 1945 to the lasting effects he had endured while being tortured. In 1991, the [government of South Korea](/wiki/Government_of_South_Korea "Government of South Korea") conferred the [Order of Merit for National Foundation](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_for_National_Foundation "Order of Merit for National Foundation") on Choe Sang\-rim.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Born in [Gijang\\-gun](/wiki/Gijang-gun \"Gijang-gun\"), [Dongrae](/wiki/Dongrae \"Dongrae\") on 17 November 1888, Choe graduated from [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\") Missionary School ({{lang\\-ko\\|평양신학교\\|label\\=none}}) in 1926, and became a priest for Dongraeeup Church.",
"In 1933, he moved to Namhaeeup Church, and in 1937 became a President of [Gyeongsangnam\\-do](/wiki/Gyeongsangnam-do \"Gyeongsangnam-do\") Presbyterian Conference ({{lang\\-ko\\|경상남도노회장\\|label\\=none}}).",
"Starting from October 1938, Choe refused to participate in worship of the Japanese Emperor, which was required by law in the 1930s (see [Christianity in Korea](/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea \"Christianity in Korea\"): Korean nationalism). He then initiated the movement of antagonism towards [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") [Shinto Shrine](/wiki/Shinto_Shrine \"Shinto Shrine\") worship by focusing on [Namhae](/wiki/Namhaedo \"Namhaedo\") area.",
"As the movement of antagonism towards Japanese [Shinto Shrine](/wiki/Shinto_Shrine \"Shinto Shrine\") worship was prohibited by the Japanese colonial power during that time, Choe was eventually arrested and remanded in [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\") prison along with other anti\\-Japanese Shrine worship activists.",
"While still imprisoned, Choe succumbed on 6 May 1945 to the lasting effects he had endured while being tortured. In 1991, the [government of South Korea](/wiki/Government_of_South_Korea \"Government of South Korea\") conferred the [Order of Merit for National Foundation](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_for_National_Foundation \"Order of Merit for National Foundation\") on Choe Sang\\-rim.",
""
] |
Critical analysis
-----------------
Science fiction has been described as a useful tool for examining society attitudes to and conceptions of gender;Attebery, p. 1 this is particularly true of literature, more so than for other media. The conventions of speculative fiction genres encourage writers to explore the subject of biological sex and present alternative models for societies and characters with different beliefs about gender.Attebery, p. 4\. Extrapolation of an initial speculative premise can as easily start from an idea about marriage customs or chromosomes as a technological change. In spite of this potential, SF has been said to present only ideas about sex and gender that are fashionable or controversial in the present day, which it then projects into a future or fantasy setting.
Science fiction in particular has traditionally been a puritanical genre orientated toward a male readership,[Clute, John](/wiki/John_Clute "John Clute") \& [Nicholls, Peter](/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_%28writer%29 "Peter Nicholls (writer)"),*[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction")*, "Sex" p. 1088, 2nd Ed., (1999\), Orbit, Great Britain, {{ISBN\|1\-85723\-897\-4}} and has been described as being by men for men, or sometimes for boys.[Clute, John](/wiki/John_Clute "John Clute") \& [Nicholls, Peter](/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_%28writer%29 "Peter Nicholls (writer)"),*[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction")*, [Lisa Tuttle](/wiki/Lisa_Tuttle "Lisa Tuttle"), "Women as portrayed in Science Fiction" p. 1343, 2nd Ed., (1999\), Orbit, Great Britain, {{ISBN\|1\-85723\-897\-4}} Most of the stereotypical tropes of science fiction, such as [aliens](/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life "Extraterrestrial life"), [robots](/wiki/Robots "Robots") or [superpowers](/wiki/Superpower_%28ability%29 "Superpower (ability)") can be employed in such a way as to be metaphors for gender.Attebery, p. 5\.
Fantasy has been perceived as more accepting of women compared to science fiction or horror (and offering more roles than [historical fiction](/wiki/Historical_fiction "Historical fiction") or [romance](/wiki/Romance_novel "Romance novel")), yet seldom attempts to question or subvert the bias toward male superiority.[Clute, John](/wiki/John_Clute "John Clute") \& [John Grant](/wiki/John_Grant_%28author%29 "John Grant (author)"),*[The Encyclopedia of Fantasy](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy "The Encyclopedia of Fantasy")*, "Gender" p. 393, 1st Ed., (1997\), Orbit, Great Britain, {{ISBN\|1\-85723\-368\-9}} Science fiction's tendency to look to the future and imagine different societies gives it the potential to examine gender roles and preconceptions, whereas the use of archetypes and quasi\-historical settings in fantasy has often included patriarchy.
### Portrayal of women
{{See also\|Women in speculative fiction}}
[thumb\|*The Princess and the Dragon*, [Paolo Uccello](/wiki/Paolo_Uccello "Paolo Uccello"), c. 1470, a classic image of a damsel in distress.](/wiki/File:Paolo_Uccello_050.jpg "Paolo Uccello 050.jpg")
The portrayal of women, in the speculative genres, has varied widely throughout the genres' history. Some writers and artists have challenged their society's gender norms in producing their work; others have not. Among those who have challenged conventional understandings and portrayals of gender and sexuality, there have been of course significant variations. The common perception of the role of female characters in SF works has long been dominated by one of two stereotypes: a woman who is evil ([villainess](/wiki/Villainess "Villainess")) or one who is helpless ([damsel in distress](/wiki/Damsel_in_distress "Damsel in distress")). These characters are usually physically attractive and provocatively dressed, often in [scanty armor](/wiki/Gender_representation_in_video_games%23Women_in_scanty_armor "Gender representation in video games#Women in scanty armor"),{{cite news\|last\=Griner\|first\=David\|title\=Will the Fantasy Genre Ever Grow Up and Ditch the Chainmail Bikini? Industry bulletin's cover sets off firestorm\|url\=http://www.adweek.com/adfreak/will\-fantasy\-genre\-ever\-grow\-and\-ditch\-chainmail\-bikini\-150004\|access\-date\=7 June 2013\|newspaper\=\[\[Adweek]]\|date\=4 June 2013}} and require redemption and validation by a male [hero](/wiki/Hero "Hero").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sevenglobal.org/index.php/culture/57\-global/315\-a\-brief\-herstory\-of\-feminism\-and\-speculative\-fiction.html \|title\=A brief herstory of feminism and speculative fiction \|publisher\=Sevenglobal.org \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-10 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203235954/http://www.sevenglobal.org/index.php/culture/57\-global/315\-a\-brief\-herstory\-of\-feminism\-and\-speculative\-fiction.html \|archive\-date\=February 3, 2009 }} As more contemporary Speculative fiction emerges, new gender roles and a way of viewing feminine\-identified beings appear with it. Viewers are seeing [femininity](/wiki/Femininity "Femininity") in a new light as more female authors and fans come into the speculative fiction world. There have been female characters in forms of strong woman warriors, or even as a main character who can think for herself.Hatcher, Melissa McCrory. "Finding Woman's Role in The Lord of the Rings." Mythlore: A Journal of J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature, vol. 25, no. 3\-4, 2007, pp. 43–54\. Examples of these gender rules being broken can be seen in many texts such as “[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings "The Lord of the Rings")” by [J.R.R. Tolkien](/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien "J.R.R. Tolkien") and even “[The Man in the High Castle](/wiki/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle "The Man in the High Castle")” by [Philip K. Dick](/wiki/Philip_K._Dick "Philip K. Dick"). As more and more readers and fans of science fiction become female identified, the portrayal of female characters changes just as speculative fiction changes.Bainbridge, William. “Women in Science Fiction.” Sex Roles, vol. 8, no. 10, 1982, pp. 1081–1093\.
The first critical work focusing on women in SF was *Symposium: Women in Science Fiction* (1975\), edited by Jeffrey D. Smith,{{cite book \|title\= Symposium: Women in Science Fiction\|last\= Smith\|first\= Jeffrey D.\|year\= 1975\|publisher\= Fantasmicon Press}} and other influential works include *Future Females:A Critical Anthology* (1981\) edited by [Marleen S. Barr](/wiki/Marleen_S._Barr "Marleen S. Barr").{{cite book \|title\= Future Females: A Critical Anthology\|last\= Barr\|first\= Marleen S.\|year\= 1981\|publisher\= Bowling Green Popular Press}}{{cite journal\|url\=http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/review\_essays/freedman81\.htm \|title\=Science Fiction and the Triumph of Feminism \|last\=Freedman \|first\=Carl \|author\-link\=Carl Freedman (writer) \|journal\=\[\[Science Fiction Studies]] \|publisher\=DePauw University \|volume\=27 \|issue\=2 \|date\=July 2000 \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-14}}
### Robots and cyborgs and the portrayal of women
{{Main article\|Android (robot)\|Gynoid}}
A gynoid is a [robot](/wiki/Robot "Robot") designed to look like a human female, as compared to an [android](/wiki/Android_%28robot%29 "Android (robot)") modeled after a male (or genderless) human. Gynoids are "irresistibly linked" to men's lust, and are mainly designed as sex\-objects, having no use beyond "pleasing men's violent sexual desires".Melzer, Patricia *Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought*, p.204 University of Texas Press, 2006, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-292\-71307\-9}}. A long tradition exists in fiction of men attempting to create the stereotypical "perfect woman".Melzer, Patricia *Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought*, p. 202 University of Texas Press, 2006, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-292\-71307\-9}}. Examples include the [Greek myth](/wiki/Greek_myth "Greek myth") of [Pygmalion](/wiki/Pygmalion_%28mythology%29 "Pygmalion (mythology)"), and the female robot Maria in [Fritz Lang](/wiki/Fritz_Lang "Fritz Lang")'s [Metropolis](/wiki/Metropolis_%281927_film%29 "Metropolis (1927 film)") as well as the classic 1970s film The Stepford Wives. Female cyborgs have been similarly used in fiction, in which natural bodies are modified to become objects of fantasy. Fiction about gynoids or female cyborgs reinforce "essentialist ideas of feminity".{{cite book\|title\=SciFi in the mind's eye: reading science through science fiction\|last\=Grebowicz\|first\=Margret\|author2\=L. Timmel Duchamp\|author3\=Nicola Griffith\|author4\=Terry Bisson\|publisher\=Open Court\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-0\-8126\-9630\-1\|page\=xviii}}
### Portrayal of men
Many male protagonists of science fiction are reflections of a single heroic archetype, often having scientific vocations or interests, and being "cool, rational, competent", "remarkably sexless", interchangeable, and bland.Kuhn, Annette (1990\). *Alien Zone: Cultural Theory and Contemporary Science Fiction Cinema*. Verso.Kuhn, p. 107 [Annette Kuhn](/wiki/Annette_Kuhn "Annette Kuhn") posits that these asexual characters are attempts to gain independence from women and mother figures, and that this and their unfailing mechanical prowess is what gives them fans.Kuhn, p. 108 The "super\-male" and [boy genius](/wiki/Boy_genius "Boy genius") are also common stereotypes frequently embodied by male characters.Kuhn, p. 25Kuhn, p. 28
While fetishised objects are feminine, gender studies conclude this and masculinity, within literature, stems from sociological concepts. According to [Jonathan Rutherford](/wiki/Jonathan_Rutherford "Jonathan Rutherford"), masculinity’s complex nature has been oversimplified and made out to be more comprehensible than that of femininity.Hobbs, Alex (2013\). "Masculinity Studies and Literature". *Literature Compass*. **10** (4\): 383–395\. [doi](/wiki/Doi_%28identifier%29 "Doi (identifier)"):10\.1111/lic3\.12057\. [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_%28identifier%29 "ISSN (identifier)") 1741\-4113\. As such, the concept of hegemonic masculinity was a point of examination. Better known as the universal definition of today’s perception of masculinity, [hegemonic masculinity](/wiki/Hegemonic_masculinity "Hegemonic masculinity") suggests that there is a spectrum of masculinity as the concept stems from [post\-structuralism](/wiki/Post-structuralism "Post-structuralism"). Although masculinity tends to be defined under a singular trope of what a male protagonist should be, the majority of men do not encourage this notion. In this same fashion, the majority of men that do make an effort to reform gender roles in a multitude of societies, from neoliberal to militaristic.
Critics argue that much of science fiction fetishizes masculinity, and that incorporation of technology into science fiction provides a metaphor for imagined futuristic masculinity. Examples are the use of "hypermasculine cyborgs and console\-cowboys". Such technologies are desirable as they reaffirm the readers' masculinity and protect against feminisation.The Fetishization of Masculinity in Science Fiction: The Cyborg and the Console Cowboy, Amanda Fernbach, *Science Fiction Studies*, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jul., 2000\), p. 234 This fetishisation of masculinity via technology in science fiction differs from typical fetishisation in other genres, in which the fetishised object is always feminine.
The book *Spreading Misandry* argues that science fiction is often used to make unfounded political claims about gender, and attempt to blame men for all of society's ills.{{cite book \|title\= Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture\|last\= Nathanson\|first\= Paul \|author2\=Katherine K. Young\|year\= 2001\|publisher\=McGill\-Queen's Press \|page\=108 \|isbn\=978\-0\-7735\-2272\-5}}
### Portrayal of transgender people
{{Original research section\|date\=December 2017}}
While the ability to shift gender is common in Speculative and Science fiction, there is very little representation of transgender human characters, and they are used as little more than a plot device for the author.SFS Symposium: Sexuality in Science Fiction, *Science Fiction Studies* (2009\) **36** (3\): 385\-403 Male authors use the ability to change gender either speculate about medical technology or to act out an ideal of femininity. Female authors use shifting gender to discuss the condition of being woman identified. Both create trans\-identified characters as caricatures of women, rather than full humans. This is beginning to shift as more trans and queer identified authors are writing within the Sci\-Fi/Speculative Fiction/Fantasy genres.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.cheryl\-morgan.com/?page\_id\=9294\|title\=Changing Images of Trans People in Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature\|date\=2010\-08\-16\|work\=Cheryl's Mewsings\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-06\|language\=en\-US}}{{Self\-published source\|date\=December 2017}}
### Single\-gender worlds: utopias and dystopias
{{Main article\|Single\-gender worlds}}
{{See also\|Utopian and dystopian fiction}}
Single\-gender worlds or single\-sex societies have long been one of the primary ways to explore implications of gender and gender differences. In speculative fiction, female\-only worlds have been imagined to come about by the action of disease that wipes out men, along with the development of technological or mystical methods that allow female [parthenogenic](/wiki/Parthenogenic "Parthenogenic") [reproduction](/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction"). The resulting society is often shown to be [utopian](/wiki/Utopian "Utopian") by feminist writers. Many influential feminist utopias of this sort were written in the 1970s;Attebery, p. 13\.\<ref name\=erotic1189\>Gaétan Brulotte \& John Phillips,*Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature', "Science Fiction and Fantasy", p.1189, CRC Press, 2006, {{ISBN\|1\-57958\-441\-1}}\</ref\> the most often studied examples include Joanna Russ's* The Female Man*, [Suzy McKee Charnas](/wiki/Suzy_McKee_Charnas "Suzy McKee Charnas")'s* [Walk to the End of the World](/wiki/Walk_to_the_End_of_the_World "Walk to the End of the World") *and* [Motherlines](/wiki/Motherlines "Motherlines")*, and [Marge Piercy](/wiki/Marge_Piercy "Marge Piercy")'s* [Woman on the Edge of Time](/wiki/Woman_on_the_Edge_of_Time "Woman on the Edge of Time")*.Bartter, p.101 Utopias imagined by male authors have generally included equality between sexes, rather than separation. Such worlds have been portrayed most often by lesbian or feminist authors; their use of female\-only worlds allows the exploration of female independence and freedom from [patriarchy](/wiki/Patriarchy "Patriarchy"). The societies may not necessarily be lesbian, or sexual at all—a famous early sexless example being* [Herland](/wiki/Herland_%28novel%29 "Herland (novel)") *(1915\) by [Charlotte Perkins Gilman](/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman "Charlotte Perkins Gilman"). Men\-only societies are much less common; one example is Athos in* [Ethan of Athos](/wiki/Ethan_of_Athos "Ethan of Athos") *(1986\) by [Lois McMaster Bujold](/wiki/Lois_McMaster_Bujold "Lois McMaster Bujold"). [Joanna Russ](/wiki/Joanna_Russ "Joanna Russ") suggests men\-only societies are not commonly imagined, because men do not feel oppressed, and therefore imagining a world free of women does not imply an increase in freedom and is not as attractive.Romaine, p. 329*
Utopias have been used to explore the ramification of gender being either a societal construct, or a hard\-wired imperative.{{cite book\|title\= Women's studies encyclopedia\|last\= Tierney\|first\= Helen\|year\= 1999\|publisher\= Greenwood Publishing Group\|page\= 1442\|isbn\= 978\-0\-313\-31073\-7\|url\= https://archive.org/details/womensstudiesenc0001unse\|url\-access\= registration}} In [Mary Gentle](/wiki/Mary_Gentle "Mary Gentle")'s [Golden Witchbreed](/wiki/Golden_Witchbreed "Golden Witchbreed")*, gender is not chosen until maturity, and gender has no bearing on social roles. In contrast, [Doris Lessing](/wiki/Doris_Lessing "Doris Lessing")'s* [The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five](/wiki/The_Marriages_Between_Zones_Three%2C_Four_and_Five "The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five") *(1980\) suggests that men's and women's values are inherent to the sexes and cannot be changed, making a compromise between them essential.* [Sultana's Dream](/wiki/Sultana%27s_Dream "Sultana's Dream") *(1905\) by [*Begum Rokheya Sakhawat Hossain*](/wiki/Begum_Rokeya "Begum Rokeya"), a writer and early Muslim feminist, is a story of Ladyland \- a universe where women overrule aggressive men. In* My Own Utopia *(1961\) by [Elizabeth Mann\-Borgese](/wiki/Elizabeth_Mann-Borgese "Elizabeth Mann-Borgese"), gender exists but is dependent upon age rather than sex—genderless children mature into women, some of whom eventually become men. Charlene Ball writes in* Women's Studies Encyclopedia *that use of speculative fiction to explore gender roles in future societies has been more common in the United States compared to Europe and elsewhere.*
Literature
----------
[thumb\|right\|200px\|A 1911 illustration from [Camille Flammarion](/wiki/Camille_Flammarion "Camille Flammarion")'s *[La fin du monde](/wiki/La_fin_du_monde "La fin du monde")*. It depicts a fictional future society in which all women are beautiful and have lovely voices.](/wiki/File:Science_fiction_women.jpg "Science fiction women.jpg")
{{Quote box\|width\=25%\|align\=right\|quote\=\[...] science fiction and fantasy pulp magazines were directed mainly at boys\[...]. Female characters were only occasionally included in science fiction pulp stories; the male protagonists' lengthy explanations to the women with limited knowledge revealed the plots
\|source\=Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo, "Preface" in ''Uranian worlds''.Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo ''Uranian Worlds: A Guide to Alternative Sexuality in Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror'', "Preface" p. viii G K Hall: 1983 {{ISBN\|0\-8161\-8573\-5}}
}}
Eric Leif Davin, for instance, documented almost 1,000 stories published in science fiction magazines by over 200 female\-identified authors between 1926 and 1960\.Eric Leif Davin, *Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926\-1965*.
### Proto SF
In the early twentieth century, some women writers rebelled against the novels in which valiant men rescued weak women or fought against humourless, authoritarian female regimes. [Charlotte Perkins Gilman](/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman "Charlotte Perkins Gilman") wrote [Herland](/wiki/Herland_%28novel%29 "Herland (novel)")*, an important early feminist utopia,{{cite book\|title\= Women's studies encyclopedia\|last\= Tierney\|first\= Helen\|year\= 1999\|publisher\= Greenwood Publishing Group\|page\= 1443\|isbn\= 978\-0\-313\-31073\-7\|url\= https://archive.org/details/womensstudiesenc0001unse\|url\-access\= registration}} and [Virginia Woolf](/wiki/Virginia_Woolf "Virginia Woolf") wrote* [Orlando](/wiki/Orlando_%28novel%29 "Orlando (novel)")*. Both Perkins and Woolf identified strongly with the [first wave feminism](/wiki/First_wave_feminism "First wave feminism") of the period, and its call for equal rights and suffrage for women.*
To that end, the driving force behind the call for gender equality originates from men's perception of women.Alcoff, L. (1988\). Cultural feminism versus post\-structuralism: The identity crisis in feminist theory. *Signs, 13*(3\), 405\. Retrieved from {{ProQuest\|1300116377}} The deviated value of women to the devaluation of feminine characteristics, these keen characteristics of misogyny characterized the fear and hatred that men had towards women. In this same vein, men's inability to hold agency over the opposite sex incurred a feeling of insignificance within themselves during a more primitive time.
Over the years, gender politics have explored the nuances and differences between gender roles to the point in which gender identity loses its significance. As such dropping gender discrimination has presented itself to be a huge step in the right direction for women’s suffrage and universal gender rights.
### The Pulp Era and the Golden Age (1920–1950s)
SF portrayals of future societies remained broadly patriarchal, and female characters continued to be gender stereotyped and relegated to standardised roles that supported the male protagonists. Early feminist SF visions of all\-women utopias were inverted by pulp writers to tell cautionary tales about the "sex war", in which brave men had to rescue society from joyless and dictatorial women, usually to the satisfaction of both sexes. [John W. Campbell](/wiki/John_W._Campbell "John W. Campbell")'s [Astounding Science Fiction](/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction "Astounding Science Fiction") *was unusual in its covers not depicting men with ray guns and women with large breasts.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Pontin \|first\=Mark Williams \|date\=November–December 2008 \|title\=The Alien Novelist \|url\=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/411039/the\-alien\-novelist/ \|magazine\=MIT Technology Review \|language\=en}} William Knoles wrote in his 1960* [Playboy](/wiki/Playboy_%28magazine%29 "Playboy (magazine)") *article on the era, "Girls of the Slime God", that{{Cite book \|title\=Girls for the Slime God \|last\=Knoles \|first\=William \|publisher\=Obscura Press \|year\=1997 \|isbn\=0\-9659569\-0\-3 \|editor\-last\=Resnick \|editor\-first\=Mike \|location\=Ames, IA \|language\=en \|orig\-year\=1960}}*
{{blockquote\|A quivering bosom was no novel sight for a thirties s\-f hero. Space Girls expressed most of their emotions through their pectoral muscle. Bosoms swayed, trembled, heaved, shivered, danced or pouted according to their owners' moods. In fact, if a hero in those days had been a little more observant and had carried a tape measure, he could have saved himself a lot of trouble. When he opened an air lock and a gorgeous stowaway fell out, uniform ripping, it usually took him five or six pages to find out whether she was a Venusian spy or not, whereas the reader knew at once. If her torn uniform revealed pouting young breasts, she was OK—probably someone's kid sister. If she had eager, straining breasts, she was the heroine. But a girl with proud, arrogant breasts was definitely a spy—while a ripe, full bosom meant she was a Pirate Queen and all hell would soon break loose.}}
[Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov "Isaac Asimov") disagreed, stating in 1969 that "until 1960 there was no branch of literature anywhere (except perhaps for the children's stories in Sunday school bulletins) as puritanical as science fiction", and that Knoles had to get his quotes from one "[1938\-39 magazine](/wiki/Marvel_Science_Stories "Marvel Science Stories")" which, Asimov said, published "spicy" stories for its "few readers" before "a deserved death".{{Cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/nightfallotherst00asim\#page/306/mode/2up\|title\=Nightfall, and other stories\|last\=Asimov\|first\=Isaac\|date\=1969\|publisher\=Doubleday\|pages\=307}} [Floyd C. Gale](/wiki/Floyd_C._Gale "Floyd C. Gale") in his 1962 review of [Stranger in a Strange Land](/wiki/Stranger_in_a_Strange_Land "Stranger in a Strange Land") *said that until recently "science\-fictional characters owned no sexual organs".{{Cite magazine
\|last\=Gale
\|first\=Floyd C.
\|date\=June 1962
\|title\=Galaxy's 5 Star Shelf
\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy\_v20n05\_1962\-06\#page/n191/mode/2up
\|magazine\=Galaxy Science Fiction
\|pages\=191–194
}}*
In the 1940s, post\-WWII, female writers like Judith Merril and Leigh Brackett emerged, reclaiming female characters and carving out respect in their own right. [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore "C. L. Moore") is an example of a woman successfully writing pulp speculative fiction tales under a genderless pen\-name. Her story "No Woman Born" (1944\),{{Ref label\|Note1\|b\|b}} in which a female character's mind is transferred into a powerful robot body with feminine attributes is an early example of a work that challenged gender stereotypes of its day by combining femininity with power. Brian Attebery suggest that if the robot had appeared male, the gender would have been unremarkable or even invisible to readers, as masculine figures could be expected to be powerful.
During the pulp era, unfavorable presentations of matriarchal societies, even [dystopias](/wiki/Dystopia "Dystopia") were common.{{cite book \|title\= Decoding Gender in Science Fiction\|url\= https://archive.org/details/decodinggendersc00atte\|url\-access\= limited\|last\= Attebery\|first\= Brian\|author\-link\= Brian Attebery\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/decodinggendersc00atte/page/n22 13] \|year\= 2002\|publisher\= Routledge\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-93950\-8}} In [John Wyndham](/wiki/John_Wyndham "John Wyndham")'s [Consider Her Ways](/wiki/Consider_Her_Ways "Consider Her Ways") *(1956\), for example, male rule is described as repressive to women, but freedom from patriarchy was achieved through an authoritarian female\-only society modelled on [ants](/wiki/Ant "Ant") society.Larbalestier, "Mama Come Home; Parodies of the Sex\-War" p.72*
The 1930s saw the beginnings of fantasy as a distinct publishing genre. Reacting against the hard, scientific, dehumanizing trends of contemporary science fiction, this new branch of SF drew on mythological and historical traditions and Romantic literature, including [Greek](/wiki/Greek_mythology "Greek mythology") and [Roman](/wiki/Roman_mythology "Roman mythology") mythologies, [Norse sagas](/wiki/Norse_sagas "Norse sagas"), the [Arabian Nights](/wiki/Arabian_Nights "Arabian Nights") *and Adventure stories such as [Alexandre Dumas](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas "Alexandre Dumas")’* [Three Musketeers](/wiki/Three_Musketeers "Three Musketeers")*. The conventions brought with them a tendency toward patriarchy and cast women in restrictive roles defined as early as in the plays of Euripides. These roles included that of the "helper\-maiden" or of "reproductive demon".*
The 1930s also saw the advent of the [sword and sorcery](/wiki/Sword_and_sorcery "Sword and sorcery") subgenre of pulp tales, which brought overt sexualisation to the representation of women in fantasy. Although physically more capable, female characters frequently continued to act as helpers to the male leads, but were now depicted as extremely attractive and very briefly clothed. The first female lead character of a sword and sorcery story was [Jirel of Joiry](/wiki/Jirel_of_Joiry "Jirel of Joiry"), created by C. L. Moore and first appearing in "Black God's Kiss" ([Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales "Weird Tales")*, volume 24, number 4, October 1934\).*
### New Wave (1960\-1970s)
Whereas the 1940s and 50s have been called the Golden Age of science fiction in general, the 1960s and 1970s are regarded as the most important and influential periods in the study of gender in speculative fiction.
This creative period saw the appearance of many influential novels by female authors, including [Ursula K. Le Guin](/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin "Ursula K. Le Guin")'s [The Left Hand of Darkness](/wiki/The_Left_Hand_of_Darkness "The Left Hand of Darkness") *(1969\), described as the book with which SF "lost its innocence on matters of sex and gender", and* [The Dispossessed](/wiki/The_Dispossessed "The Dispossessed") *(1974\); [Joanna Russ](/wiki/Joanna_Russ "Joanna Russ")'s most important works, particularly* [The Female Man](/wiki/The_Female_Man "The Female Man") *(1975\), regarded by many as the central work of women's SF; and* [The Two of Them](/wiki/The_Two_of_Them_%28novel%29 "The Two of Them (novel)") *(1978\); [Anne McCaffrey](/wiki/Anne_McCaffrey "Anne McCaffrey")'s prescient cyborg novel,* [The Ship Who Sang](/wiki/The_Ship_Who_Sang "The Ship Who Sang") *(1969\); [Vonda McIntyre](/wiki/Vonda_McIntyre "Vonda McIntyre")'s two most influential novels,* [The Exile Waiting](/wiki/The_Exile_Waiting "The Exile Waiting") *(1975\) and* [Dreamsnake](/wiki/Dreamsnake "Dreamsnake") *(1978\); [Marge Piercy](/wiki/Marge_Piercy "Marge Piercy")’s* [Woman on the Edge of Time](/wiki/Woman_on_the_Edge_of_Time "Woman on the Edge of Time") *(1976\), the most important contribution to feminist SF by an author known mainly for realistic work; and several novels by [Octavia Butler](/wiki/Octavia_Butler "Octavia Butler"), especially* [Kindred](/wiki/Kindred_%28novel%29 "Kindred (novel)") *(1979\) and* [Wild Seed](/wiki/Wild_Seed_%28novel%29 "Wild Seed (novel)") *(1980\), which have been described as groundbreaking, and established an African\-American female voice in SF.*
Important short stories included many by [James Tiptree Jr.](/wiki/James_Tiptree_Jr. "James Tiptree Jr.") (a male pseudonym used by Alice Sheldon),{{cite book \|title\= Alien plots: female subjectivity and the divine in the light of James Tiptree's "A momentary taste of being"\|url\= https://archive.org/details/trent\_0116405817622\|url\-access\= registration\|last\= Van der Spek\|first\= Inez \|year\= 2000\|publisher\=Liverpool University Press \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/trent\_0116405817622/page/7 7]–8 \|isbn\=978\-0\-85323\-814\-0}} for instance [The Women Men Don't See](/wiki/The_Women_Men_Don%27t_See "The Women Men Don't See") *(1973\),* [The Girl Who Was Plugged In](/wiki/The_Girl_Who_Was_Plugged_In "The Girl Who Was Plugged In") *(1973\), and* [The Screwfly Solution](/wiki/The_Screwfly_Solution "The Screwfly Solution") *(1977\).{{Ref label\|Note1\|c\|c}}Freedman*
These works coincided with the beginnings of application of feminist theory to SF,. creating a self\-consciously [feminist science fiction](/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction "Feminist science fiction"). Feminist SF has been distinguished from earlier feminist utopian fiction by its greater attention to characterisation and inclusion of gender equality.Bartter, p.102
Male writers also began to approach depiction of gender in new ways, with [Samuel R. Delany](/wiki/Samuel_R._Delany "Samuel R. Delany") establishing himself as the most radical voice among male SF figures for representations of alternative sexualities and gender\-models in a series of major works, most importantly (with respect to gender), in [Triton](/wiki/Triton_%28novel%29 "Triton (novel)") *(1976\). [Gary Westfahl](/wiki/Gary_Westfahl "Gary Westfahl") points out that "Heinlein is a problematic case for feminists; on the one hand, his works often feature strong female characters and vigorous statements that women are equal to or even superior to men; but these characters and statements often reflect hopelessly stereotypical attitudes about typical female attributes. It is disconcerting, for example, that in* [Expanded Universe](/wiki/Expanded_Universe_%28Heinlein%29 "Expanded Universe (Heinlein)") *Heinlein calls for a society where all lawyers and politicians are women, essentially on the grounds that they possess a mysterious feminine practicality that men cannot duplicate."Gary Westfahl, 'Superladies in Waiting: How the Female Hero Almost Emerges in Science Fiction', *Foundation*, vol. 58, 1993, pp. 42\-62\.*
### Modern SF (1980–2000s)
By the 1980s the intersection of feminism and SF was already a major factor in the production of the literature itself.
Authors such as [Nicola Griffith](/wiki/Nicola_Griffith "Nicola Griffith") and [Sheri S. Tepper](/wiki/Sheri_S._Tepper "Sheri S. Tepper") frequently write on gender\-related themes. Tepper's work has been described as "the definition of feminist science fiction", and her treatment of gender has varied from early optimistic science fantasies, in which women were equally as capable as men, to more pessimistic works, including [The Gate to Women's Country](/wiki/The_Gate_to_Women%27s_Country "The Gate to Women's Country")*, in which men are the cause of war and pollution and true equality can only be achieved by transcending humanity altogether.Bartter, pp.103\-4*
The [Hugo](/wiki/Hugo_Award "Hugo Award"), [Nebula](/wiki/Nebula_Award "Nebula Award") and [Arthur C. Clarke Award](/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke_Award "Arthur C. Clarke Award") winning [Ancillary Justice](/wiki/Ancillary_Justice "Ancillary Justice") *by [Ann Leckie](/wiki/Ann_Leckie "Ann Leckie") (2013\) portrays a society where gender is an unimportant detail in people's lives. It refers to most characters as female, unless they're talking in a different language than the dominant one. This leaves the gender of most characters unclear.*
The September 2017 anthology, [Meanwhile, Elsewhere](/wiki/Meanwhile%2C_Elsewhere "Meanwhile, Elsewhere")*, is a collection of short stories written by [transgender](/wiki/Transgender "Transgender") authors about transgender characters. The anthology includes [Jeanne Thornton](/wiki/Jeanne_Thornton "Jeanne Thornton")'s "Angels Are Here To Help Us", which explores access to technology, money and privilege, and [Ryka Aoki](/wiki/Ryka_Aoki "Ryka Aoki")'s "The Gift", about a young trans girl coming out in a world where being trans is completely accepted. The book was edited by Cat Fitzpatrick and [Casey Plett](/wiki/Casey_Plett "Casey Plett") and was published by Topside Press.{{Cite web\|url\=http://topsidepress.com/\|title\=The Post\-Reality Expeditionist's Supply Store\|website\=The Post\-Reality Expeditionist's Supply Store\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-06}}{{Dead link\|date\=May 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bitchmedia.org/article/meanwhile\-elsewhere\-book\-review\|title\="Meanwhile, Elsewhere" Envisions a New World for Trans Readers\|work\=Bitch Media\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-06\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=2017\-12\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207085553/https://www.bitchmedia.org/article/meanwhile\-elsewhere\-book\-review\|url\-status\=dead}}*
Comics
------
[thumb\|Cover of *Planet comics* \#53](/wiki/File:Planet_Comics_53.jpg "Planet Comics 53.jpg")
{{See also\|Portrayal of women in American comics{{!}}Women in comics}}
There was a time when more girls read comics than boys,{{When\|date\=January 2014}} but these comics were generally [realist](/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29 "Realism (arts)"), with a focus on romance and crime stories.[Robbins, Trina](/wiki/Trina_Robbins "Trina Robbins"). *From Girls to Grrrlz: A History of Women's Comics from Teens to Zines* (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999\), p. 7; {{ISBN\|0\-7567\-8120\-5}} However, for most of their existence, comic books audiences have been assumed to be mostly male. The female characters and superheroes were targeted towards this male demographic, rather than towards women readers.Wright, p. 250 Although many female superheroes were created, very few starred in their own series or achieved stand\-alone success. It has been debated whether the lack of female readership was due to male writers being uncomfortable with writing about or for women, or whether the comic book industry is male dominated due to the lack of intrinsic interest of women in comics.
The first known female superhero is writer\-artist [Fletcher Hanks](/wiki/Fletcher_Hanks "Fletcher Hanks")'s minor character [Fantomah](/wiki/Fantomah "Fantomah"),[Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Fantomah](http://www.toonopedia.com/fantomah.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20240525211258/https://www.webcitation.org/66moryli6?url\=http://www.toonopedia.com/fantomah.htm \|date\=2024\-05\-25 }} an ageless, [ancient Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull\-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in 1940 in [Fiction Houses](/wiki/Fiction_House "Fiction House") Jungle Comics*.*
In the early 1940s the DC line was dominated by superpowered male characters such as the [Green Lantern](/wiki/Green_Lantern "Green Lantern"), [Batman](/wiki/Batman "Batman"), and its flagship character, [Superman](/wiki/Superman "Superman"). The first widely recognizable female superhero is [Wonder Woman](/wiki/Wonder_Woman "Wonder Woman"), created by [William Moulton Marston](/wiki/William_Moulton_Marston "William Moulton Marston") for [All\-American Publications](/wiki/All-American_Publications "All-American Publications"), one of three companies that would merge to form [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics").'[Who Was Wonder Woman?](http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2001/fall/wonderwoman/) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104060542/http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2001/fall/wonderwoman/ \|date\=January 4, 2007 }} Marston intended the character to be a strong female role\-model for girls, with "all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman."Les Daniels, *Wonder Woman: The Complete History,* (DC Comics, 2000\), pp. 28\-30\.
In this manner, the gender inclination of Wonder Woman has been a case of concern ever since her conception. In light of this, [Wertham](/wiki/Fredric_Wertham "Fredric Wertham") identified female leads in comic books to exhibit a stark contrast to female norms within the mid\-century.Tilley, Carol L. (2018\-10\-02\). "A regressive formula of perversity: Wertham and the women of comics". *Journal of Lesbian Studies*. **22** (4\): 354–372\. [doi](/wiki/Doi_%28identifier%29 "Doi (identifier)"):10\.1080/10894160\.2018\.1450001\. [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_%28identifier%29 "ISSN (identifier)") 1089\-4160\. [PMID](/wiki/PMID_%28identifier%29 "PMID (identifier)") 29694275\. Subsequently, female characters in comic books were perceived as frightening by readers. In turn, this archetype of female character was often referred to as “[molls](/wiki/Moll_%28slang%29 "Moll (slang)")”. These moll characters occasionally exhibited libertine and criminal tendencies whilst demonstrating feminine agency in a fantastical setting that’s otherwise idealized by women in the society during the comic's time of publication.
Film and television
-------------------
### Film
[thumb\|[Maila Nurmi](/wiki/Maila_Nurmi "Maila Nurmi") as Vampira in *[Plan 9 from Outer Space](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Outer_Space "Plan 9 from Outer Space")*](/wiki/File:PlanNine_07.jpg "PlanNine 07.jpg")
Female characters in early science fiction films such as [Barbarella](/wiki/Barbarella_%28film%29 "Barbarella (film)") *(1968\) were often portrayed as simple sex kittens.{{cite book\|title\= Tough girls: women warriors and wonder women in popular culture\|last\= Inness\|first\= Sherrie A.\|year\= 1998\|publisher\= Published by University of Pennsylvania Press\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/102 102]\|isbn\= 978\-0\-8122\-3466\-4\|url\= https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/102}}*
Professor Sherrie Inness has said that the portrayals of tough women in later science fiction embody women's fantasies of empowerment,{{cite book\|title\= Tough girls: women warriors and wonder women in popular culture\|last\= Inness\|first\= Sherrie A.\|year\= 1998\|publisher\= Published by University of Pennsylvania Press\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/23 23]\|isbn\= 978\-0\-8122\-3466\-4\|url\= https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/23}} such as the characters of Sharrow in the [Iain M. Banks](/wiki/Iain_M._Banks "Iain M. Banks")' novel [Against a Dark Background](/wiki/Against_a_Dark_Background "Against a Dark Background") *(1993\) or Alex in the film* [Nemesis 2](/wiki/Nemesis_2:Nebula "Nebula")*, who both physically overpower male attackers.{{cite book\|title\= Tough girls: women warriors and wonder women in popular culture\|last\= Inness\|first\= Sherrie A.\|year\= 1998\|publisher\= Published by University of Pennsylvania Press\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/25 25]\|isbn\= 978\-0\-8122\-3466\-4\|url\= https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/25}}*
Another example would be [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics") portrayal of [Catwoman](/wiki/Catwoman "Catwoman"), a character represents the ideal fantasy of an empowering female character. Although the character's seductive nature is polarizing to some, Catwoman serves as a way for women to ‘realize’ the power and authority that the female audience desires in their lives.Madrid, Mike. *The Supergirls: Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines (Revised and Updated)*. Exterminating Angel Press, 2016\. Though the domineering DC character has settled itself as the queen of hearts among female comic book readers, her skin tight jumpsuit nods at her appearance being a feast for eyes among male audiences. To that end, Catwoman doesn’t fail to play a driving force of feminist ideals in comic book literature.
### Television
Early television depicted women primarily as idealized "perfect housewives" or (often [black](/wiki/Black_%28race%29 "Black (race)")) domestic workers.Helford, p. 1 By the mid\-1960s and 1970s, cultural mores had relaxed, and sexual objectification of women became more commonplace. This period also saw diversification in women's roles, with blurring between the roles of middle\-class housewife and working mother and the representations of women of different age, race, class, sexual orientation. The appearance of strong female characters, such as in [Charlie's Angels](/wiki/Charlie%27s_Angels "Charlie's Angels")*, remained limited by associations of power with male approval.Helford, p. 2*
The 1960s and 70s also saw the beginnings of SF and fantasy elements being incorporated into television programming.
Popular early SF programming in the 1960s reconciled the use of SF tropes that empowered women with stereotypes of women's social domains and femininity. This was seen in popular series such as [I Dream of Jeannie](/wiki/I_Dream_of_Jeannie "I Dream of Jeannie") *and* [Bewitched](/wiki/Bewitched "Bewitched")*, both of which have female protagonists with magical abilities.* Bewitched'*s Samantha is a witch who chooses to use her abilities as a home\-maker, and her husband prefers that she limits such displays of power as much as possible, particularly when they could challenge his ego. Most of her uses of magic were to save her husband appearing foolish in front of his peers or undoing interference from her more empowered and feminist mother, Endora. In contrast, the titular character of* I Dream of Jeannie *was inept in her house\-wifely duties and was more likely to use her magic when she felt it appropriate. However, this was always in the service of her "Master", who demanded her nature as a [genie](/wiki/Genie "Genie") be kept secret. Jeannie's subservience and skimpy clothing also identified her primarily as a sex object.Helford, p. 3 Both programs showed women gaining more power and prominence through the metaphor of magic, but that this power was limited by women's willingness to obey male authority.*
The 1960s also saw the first speculative presentations of women outside the realm of domestic life. [Star Trek](/wiki/Star_Trek "Star Trek")'*s [Lt. Uhura](/wiki/Nyota_Uhura "Nyota Uhura") is a famous early example of a woman space explorer, and her race made her a role\-model for black women in particular. Her inclusion in the series is credited with bringing more women into science fiction fandom. The character [was seen](/wiki/Uhura%23Role_model "Uhura#Role model") as a success of the feminist and [civil rights movements](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") of the era, representing the ideal of racial equality and women's ability to find meaningful employment outside of marriage and family. However, her role never rose beyond that of futuristic [receptionist](/wiki/Receptionist "Receptionist"), and her uniform and prominent but generally silent placement in the background of scenes made her the series primary eye candy.*
SF series of the 1970s followed in a similar vein, with speculative elements used to physically empower women, while society required that they pretend to be typical and non\-threatening. Examples include [The Bionic Woman](/wiki/The_Bionic_Woman "The Bionic Woman") *and the television adaption of* [Wonder Woman](/wiki/Wonder_Woman_%28TV_series%29 "Wonder Woman (TV series)")*.*
Notes
-----
{{note label\|Note1\|a\|a}} SF is used throughout as an abbreviation for speculative fiction, for convenience. Science fiction and slash fiction are written in full when referred to specifically.
{{note label\|Note1\|b\|b}} Collected in [Two\-Handed Engine: The Selected Stories of Henry Kuttner and C. L. Moore](/wiki/Two-Handed_Engine:The_Selected_Stories_of_Henry_Kuttner_and_C._L._Moore "The Selected Stories of Henry Kuttner and C. L. Moore") *{{note label\|Note1\|c\|c}} Collected in* [Her Smoke Rose Up Forever](/wiki/Her_Smoke_Rose_Up_Forever "Her Smoke Rose Up Forever")''.
|
[
"Critical analysis\n-----------------",
"Science fiction has been described as a useful tool for examining society attitudes to and conceptions of gender;Attebery, p. 1 this is particularly true of literature, more so than for other media. The conventions of speculative fiction genres encourage writers to explore the subject of biological sex and present alternative models for societies and characters with different beliefs about gender.Attebery, p. 4\\. Extrapolation of an initial speculative premise can as easily start from an idea about marriage customs or chromosomes as a technological change. In spite of this potential, SF has been said to present only ideas about sex and gender that are fashionable or controversial in the present day, which it then projects into a future or fantasy setting.",
"Science fiction in particular has traditionally been a puritanical genre orientated toward a male readership,[Clute, John](/wiki/John_Clute \"John Clute\") \\& [Nicholls, Peter](/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_%28writer%29 \"Peter Nicholls (writer)\"),*[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction \"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\")*, \"Sex\" p. 1088, 2nd Ed., (1999\\), Orbit, Great Britain, {{ISBN\\|1\\-85723\\-897\\-4}} and has been described as being by men for men, or sometimes for boys.[Clute, John](/wiki/John_Clute \"John Clute\") \\& [Nicholls, Peter](/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_%28writer%29 \"Peter Nicholls (writer)\"),*[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction \"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\")*, [Lisa Tuttle](/wiki/Lisa_Tuttle \"Lisa Tuttle\"), \"Women as portrayed in Science Fiction\" p. 1343, 2nd Ed., (1999\\), Orbit, Great Britain, {{ISBN\\|1\\-85723\\-897\\-4}} Most of the stereotypical tropes of science fiction, such as [aliens](/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life \"Extraterrestrial life\"), [robots](/wiki/Robots \"Robots\") or [superpowers](/wiki/Superpower_%28ability%29 \"Superpower (ability)\") can be employed in such a way as to be metaphors for gender.Attebery, p. 5\\.",
"Fantasy has been perceived as more accepting of women compared to science fiction or horror (and offering more roles than [historical fiction](/wiki/Historical_fiction \"Historical fiction\") or [romance](/wiki/Romance_novel \"Romance novel\")), yet seldom attempts to question or subvert the bias toward male superiority.[Clute, John](/wiki/John_Clute \"John Clute\") \\& [John Grant](/wiki/John_Grant_%28author%29 \"John Grant (author)\"),*[The Encyclopedia of Fantasy](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy \"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy\")*, \"Gender\" p. 393, 1st Ed., (1997\\), Orbit, Great Britain, {{ISBN\\|1\\-85723\\-368\\-9}} Science fiction's tendency to look to the future and imagine different societies gives it the potential to examine gender roles and preconceptions, whereas the use of archetypes and quasi\\-historical settings in fantasy has often included patriarchy.",
"### Portrayal of women",
"{{See also\\|Women in speculative fiction}}\n[thumb\\|*The Princess and the Dragon*, [Paolo Uccello](/wiki/Paolo_Uccello \"Paolo Uccello\"), c. 1470, a classic image of a damsel in distress.](/wiki/File:Paolo_Uccello_050.jpg \"Paolo Uccello 050.jpg\")\nThe portrayal of women, in the speculative genres, has varied widely throughout the genres' history. Some writers and artists have challenged their society's gender norms in producing their work; others have not. Among those who have challenged conventional understandings and portrayals of gender and sexuality, there have been of course significant variations. The common perception of the role of female characters in SF works has long been dominated by one of two stereotypes: a woman who is evil ([villainess](/wiki/Villainess \"Villainess\")) or one who is helpless ([damsel in distress](/wiki/Damsel_in_distress \"Damsel in distress\")). These characters are usually physically attractive and provocatively dressed, often in [scanty armor](/wiki/Gender_representation_in_video_games%23Women_in_scanty_armor \"Gender representation in video games#Women in scanty armor\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Griner\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Will the Fantasy Genre Ever Grow Up and Ditch the Chainmail Bikini? Industry bulletin's cover sets off firestorm\\|url\\=http://www.adweek.com/adfreak/will\\-fantasy\\-genre\\-ever\\-grow\\-and\\-ditch\\-chainmail\\-bikini\\-150004\\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2013\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adweek]]\\|date\\=4 June 2013}} and require redemption and validation by a male [hero](/wiki/Hero \"Hero\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sevenglobal.org/index.php/culture/57\\-global/315\\-a\\-brief\\-herstory\\-of\\-feminism\\-and\\-speculative\\-fiction.html \\|title\\=A brief herstory of feminism and speculative fiction \\|publisher\\=Sevenglobal.org \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203235954/http://www.sevenglobal.org/index.php/culture/57\\-global/315\\-a\\-brief\\-herstory\\-of\\-feminism\\-and\\-speculative\\-fiction.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 3, 2009 }} As more contemporary Speculative fiction emerges, new gender roles and a way of viewing feminine\\-identified beings appear with it. Viewers are seeing [femininity](/wiki/Femininity \"Femininity\") in a new light as more female authors and fans come into the speculative fiction world. There have been female characters in forms of strong woman warriors, or even as a main character who can think for herself.Hatcher, Melissa McCrory. \"Finding Woman's Role in The Lord of the Rings.\" Mythlore: A Journal of J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature, vol. 25, no. 3\\-4, 2007, pp. 43–54\\. Examples of these gender rules being broken can be seen in many texts such as “[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings \"The Lord of the Rings\")” by [J.R.R. Tolkien](/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien \"J.R.R. Tolkien\") and even “[The Man in the High Castle](/wiki/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle \"The Man in the High Castle\")” by [Philip K. Dick](/wiki/Philip_K._Dick \"Philip K. Dick\"). As more and more readers and fans of science fiction become female identified, the portrayal of female characters changes just as speculative fiction changes.Bainbridge, William. “Women in Science Fiction.” Sex Roles, vol. 8, no. 10, 1982, pp. 1081–1093\\.",
"The first critical work focusing on women in SF was *Symposium: Women in Science Fiction* (1975\\), edited by Jeffrey D. Smith,{{cite book \\|title\\= Symposium: Women in Science Fiction\\|last\\= Smith\\|first\\= Jeffrey D.\\|year\\= 1975\\|publisher\\= Fantasmicon Press}} and other influential works include *Future Females:A Critical Anthology* (1981\\) edited by [Marleen S. Barr](/wiki/Marleen_S._Barr \"Marleen S. Barr\").{{cite book \\|title\\= Future Females: A Critical Anthology\\|last\\= Barr\\|first\\= Marleen S.\\|year\\= 1981\\|publisher\\= Bowling Green Popular Press}}{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/review\\_essays/freedman81\\.htm \\|title\\=Science Fiction and the Triumph of Feminism \\|last\\=Freedman \\|first\\=Carl \\|author\\-link\\=Carl Freedman (writer) \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Science Fiction Studies]] \\|publisher\\=DePauw University \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=2 \\|date\\=July 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-14}}",
"### Robots and cyborgs and the portrayal of women",
"{{Main article\\|Android (robot)\\|Gynoid}}\nA gynoid is a [robot](/wiki/Robot \"Robot\") designed to look like a human female, as compared to an [android](/wiki/Android_%28robot%29 \"Android (robot)\") modeled after a male (or genderless) human. Gynoids are \"irresistibly linked\" to men's lust, and are mainly designed as sex\\-objects, having no use beyond \"pleasing men's violent sexual desires\".Melzer, Patricia *Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought*, p.204 University of Texas Press, 2006, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-292\\-71307\\-9}}. A long tradition exists in fiction of men attempting to create the stereotypical \"perfect woman\".Melzer, Patricia *Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought*, p. 202 University of Texas Press, 2006, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-292\\-71307\\-9}}. Examples include the [Greek myth](/wiki/Greek_myth \"Greek myth\") of [Pygmalion](/wiki/Pygmalion_%28mythology%29 \"Pygmalion (mythology)\"), and the female robot Maria in [Fritz Lang](/wiki/Fritz_Lang \"Fritz Lang\")'s [Metropolis](/wiki/Metropolis_%281927_film%29 \"Metropolis (1927 film)\") as well as the classic 1970s film The Stepford Wives. Female cyborgs have been similarly used in fiction, in which natural bodies are modified to become objects of fantasy. Fiction about gynoids or female cyborgs reinforce \"essentialist ideas of feminity\".{{cite book\\|title\\=SciFi in the mind's eye: reading science through science fiction\\|last\\=Grebowicz\\|first\\=Margret\\|author2\\=L. Timmel Duchamp\\|author3\\=Nicola Griffith\\|author4\\=Terry Bisson\\|publisher\\=Open Court\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8126\\-9630\\-1\\|page\\=xviii}}",
"### Portrayal of men",
"Many male protagonists of science fiction are reflections of a single heroic archetype, often having scientific vocations or interests, and being \"cool, rational, competent\", \"remarkably sexless\", interchangeable, and bland.Kuhn, Annette (1990\\). *Alien Zone: Cultural Theory and Contemporary Science Fiction Cinema*. Verso.Kuhn, p. 107 [Annette Kuhn](/wiki/Annette_Kuhn \"Annette Kuhn\") posits that these asexual characters are attempts to gain independence from women and mother figures, and that this and their unfailing mechanical prowess is what gives them fans.Kuhn, p. 108 The \"super\\-male\" and [boy genius](/wiki/Boy_genius \"Boy genius\") are also common stereotypes frequently embodied by male characters.Kuhn, p. 25Kuhn, p. 28",
"While fetishised objects are feminine, gender studies conclude this and masculinity, within literature, stems from sociological concepts. According to [Jonathan Rutherford](/wiki/Jonathan_Rutherford \"Jonathan Rutherford\"), masculinity’s complex nature has been oversimplified and made out to be more comprehensible than that of femininity.Hobbs, Alex (2013\\). \"Masculinity Studies and Literature\". *Literature Compass*. **10** (4\\): 383–395\\. [doi](/wiki/Doi_%28identifier%29 \"Doi (identifier)\"):10\\.1111/lic3\\.12057\\. [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_%28identifier%29 \"ISSN (identifier)\") 1741\\-4113\\. As such, the concept of hegemonic masculinity was a point of examination. Better known as the universal definition of today’s perception of masculinity, [hegemonic masculinity](/wiki/Hegemonic_masculinity \"Hegemonic masculinity\") suggests that there is a spectrum of masculinity as the concept stems from [post\\-structuralism](/wiki/Post-structuralism \"Post-structuralism\"). Although masculinity tends to be defined under a singular trope of what a male protagonist should be, the majority of men do not encourage this notion. In this same fashion, the majority of men that do make an effort to reform gender roles in a multitude of societies, from neoliberal to militaristic.",
"Critics argue that much of science fiction fetishizes masculinity, and that incorporation of technology into science fiction provides a metaphor for imagined futuristic masculinity. Examples are the use of \"hypermasculine cyborgs and console\\-cowboys\". Such technologies are desirable as they reaffirm the readers' masculinity and protect against feminisation.The Fetishization of Masculinity in Science Fiction: The Cyborg and the Console Cowboy, Amanda Fernbach, *Science Fiction Studies*, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jul., 2000\\), p. 234 This fetishisation of masculinity via technology in science fiction differs from typical fetishisation in other genres, in which the fetishised object is always feminine.",
"The book *Spreading Misandry* argues that science fiction is often used to make unfounded political claims about gender, and attempt to blame men for all of society's ills.{{cite book \\|title\\= Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture\\|last\\= Nathanson\\|first\\= Paul \\|author2\\=Katherine K. Young\\|year\\= 2001\\|publisher\\=McGill\\-Queen's Press \\|page\\=108 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7735\\-2272\\-5}}",
"### Portrayal of transgender people",
"{{Original research section\\|date\\=December 2017}}",
"While the ability to shift gender is common in Speculative and Science fiction, there is very little representation of transgender human characters, and they are used as little more than a plot device for the author.SFS Symposium: Sexuality in Science Fiction, *Science Fiction Studies* (2009\\) **36** (3\\): 385\\-403 Male authors use the ability to change gender either speculate about medical technology or to act out an ideal of femininity. Female authors use shifting gender to discuss the condition of being woman identified. Both create trans\\-identified characters as caricatures of women, rather than full humans. This is beginning to shift as more trans and queer identified authors are writing within the Sci\\-Fi/Speculative Fiction/Fantasy genres.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cheryl\\-morgan.com/?page\\_id\\=9294\\|title\\=Changing Images of Trans People in Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-16\\|work\\=Cheryl's Mewsings\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-06\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Self\\-published source\\|date\\=December 2017}}",
"### Single\\-gender worlds: utopias and dystopias",
"{{Main article\\|Single\\-gender worlds}}\n{{See also\\|Utopian and dystopian fiction}}\nSingle\\-gender worlds or single\\-sex societies have long been one of the primary ways to explore implications of gender and gender differences. In speculative fiction, female\\-only worlds have been imagined to come about by the action of disease that wipes out men, along with the development of technological or mystical methods that allow female [parthenogenic](/wiki/Parthenogenic \"Parthenogenic\") [reproduction](/wiki/Reproduction \"Reproduction\"). The resulting society is often shown to be [utopian](/wiki/Utopian \"Utopian\") by feminist writers. Many influential feminist utopias of this sort were written in the 1970s;Attebery, p. 13\\.\\<ref name\\=erotic1189\\>Gaétan Brulotte \\& John Phillips,*Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature', \"Science Fiction and Fantasy\", p.1189, CRC Press, 2006, {{ISBN\\|1\\-57958\\-441\\-1}}\\</ref\\> the most often studied examples include Joanna Russ's* The Female Man*, [Suzy McKee Charnas](/wiki/Suzy_McKee_Charnas \"Suzy McKee Charnas\")'s* [Walk to the End of the World](/wiki/Walk_to_the_End_of_the_World \"Walk to the End of the World\") *and* [Motherlines](/wiki/Motherlines \"Motherlines\")*, and [Marge Piercy](/wiki/Marge_Piercy \"Marge Piercy\")'s* [Woman on the Edge of Time](/wiki/Woman_on_the_Edge_of_Time \"Woman on the Edge of Time\")*.Bartter, p.101 Utopias imagined by male authors have generally included equality between sexes, rather than separation. Such worlds have been portrayed most often by lesbian or feminist authors; their use of female\\-only worlds allows the exploration of female independence and freedom from [patriarchy](/wiki/Patriarchy \"Patriarchy\"). The societies may not necessarily be lesbian, or sexual at all—a famous early sexless example being* [Herland](/wiki/Herland_%28novel%29 \"Herland (novel)\") *(1915\\) by [Charlotte Perkins Gilman](/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman \"Charlotte Perkins Gilman\"). Men\\-only societies are much less common; one example is Athos in* [Ethan of Athos](/wiki/Ethan_of_Athos \"Ethan of Athos\") *(1986\\) by [Lois McMaster Bujold](/wiki/Lois_McMaster_Bujold \"Lois McMaster Bujold\"). [Joanna Russ](/wiki/Joanna_Russ \"Joanna Russ\") suggests men\\-only societies are not commonly imagined, because men do not feel oppressed, and therefore imagining a world free of women does not imply an increase in freedom and is not as attractive.Romaine, p. 329*",
"Utopias have been used to explore the ramification of gender being either a societal construct, or a hard\\-wired imperative.{{cite book\\|title\\= Women's studies encyclopedia\\|last\\= Tierney\\|first\\= Helen\\|year\\= 1999\\|publisher\\= Greenwood Publishing Group\\|page\\= 1442\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-313\\-31073\\-7\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/womensstudiesenc0001unse\\|url\\-access\\= registration}} In [Mary Gentle](/wiki/Mary_Gentle \"Mary Gentle\")'s [Golden Witchbreed](/wiki/Golden_Witchbreed \"Golden Witchbreed\")*, gender is not chosen until maturity, and gender has no bearing on social roles. In contrast, [Doris Lessing](/wiki/Doris_Lessing \"Doris Lessing\")'s* [The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five](/wiki/The_Marriages_Between_Zones_Three%2C_Four_and_Five \"The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five\") *(1980\\) suggests that men's and women's values are inherent to the sexes and cannot be changed, making a compromise between them essential.* [Sultana's Dream](/wiki/Sultana%27s_Dream \"Sultana's Dream\") *(1905\\) by [*Begum Rokheya Sakhawat Hossain*](/wiki/Begum_Rokeya \"Begum Rokeya\"), a writer and early Muslim feminist, is a story of Ladyland \\- a universe where women overrule aggressive men. In* My Own Utopia *(1961\\) by [Elizabeth Mann\\-Borgese](/wiki/Elizabeth_Mann-Borgese \"Elizabeth Mann-Borgese\"), gender exists but is dependent upon age rather than sex—genderless children mature into women, some of whom eventually become men. Charlene Ball writes in* Women's Studies Encyclopedia *that use of speculative fiction to explore gender roles in future societies has been more common in the United States compared to Europe and elsewhere.*",
"Literature\n----------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|A 1911 illustration from [Camille Flammarion](/wiki/Camille_Flammarion \"Camille Flammarion\")'s *[La fin du monde](/wiki/La_fin_du_monde \"La fin du monde\")*. It depicts a fictional future society in which all women are beautiful and have lovely voices.](/wiki/File:Science_fiction_women.jpg \"Science fiction women.jpg\")\n{{Quote box\\|width\\=25%\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=\\[...] science fiction and fantasy pulp magazines were directed mainly at boys\\[...]. Female characters were only occasionally included in science fiction pulp stories; the male protagonists' lengthy explanations to the women with limited knowledge revealed the plots\n\\|source\\=Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo, \"Preface\" in ''Uranian worlds''.Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo ''Uranian Worlds: A Guide to Alternative Sexuality in Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror'', \"Preface\" p. viii G K Hall: 1983 {{ISBN\\|0\\-8161\\-8573\\-5}}\n}}\nEric Leif Davin, for instance, documented almost 1,000 stories published in science fiction magazines by over 200 female\\-identified authors between 1926 and 1960\\.Eric Leif Davin, *Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926\\-1965*.\n### Proto SF",
"In the early twentieth century, some women writers rebelled against the novels in which valiant men rescued weak women or fought against humourless, authoritarian female regimes. [Charlotte Perkins Gilman](/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman \"Charlotte Perkins Gilman\") wrote [Herland](/wiki/Herland_%28novel%29 \"Herland (novel)\")*, an important early feminist utopia,{{cite book\\|title\\= Women's studies encyclopedia\\|last\\= Tierney\\|first\\= Helen\\|year\\= 1999\\|publisher\\= Greenwood Publishing Group\\|page\\= 1443\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-313\\-31073\\-7\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/womensstudiesenc0001unse\\|url\\-access\\= registration}} and [Virginia Woolf](/wiki/Virginia_Woolf \"Virginia Woolf\") wrote* [Orlando](/wiki/Orlando_%28novel%29 \"Orlando (novel)\")*. Both Perkins and Woolf identified strongly with the [first wave feminism](/wiki/First_wave_feminism \"First wave feminism\") of the period, and its call for equal rights and suffrage for women.*",
"To that end, the driving force behind the call for gender equality originates from men's perception of women.Alcoff, L. (1988\\). Cultural feminism versus post\\-structuralism: The identity crisis in feminist theory. *Signs, 13*(3\\), 405\\. Retrieved from {{ProQuest\\|1300116377}} The deviated value of women to the devaluation of feminine characteristics, these keen characteristics of misogyny characterized the fear and hatred that men had towards women. In this same vein, men's inability to hold agency over the opposite sex incurred a feeling of insignificance within themselves during a more primitive time. \nOver the years, gender politics have explored the nuances and differences between gender roles to the point in which gender identity loses its significance. As such dropping gender discrimination has presented itself to be a huge step in the right direction for women’s suffrage and universal gender rights. \n### The Pulp Era and the Golden Age (1920–1950s)",
"SF portrayals of future societies remained broadly patriarchal, and female characters continued to be gender stereotyped and relegated to standardised roles that supported the male protagonists. Early feminist SF visions of all\\-women utopias were inverted by pulp writers to tell cautionary tales about the \"sex war\", in which brave men had to rescue society from joyless and dictatorial women, usually to the satisfaction of both sexes. [John W. Campbell](/wiki/John_W._Campbell \"John W. Campbell\")'s [Astounding Science Fiction](/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction \"Astounding Science Fiction\") *was unusual in its covers not depicting men with ray guns and women with large breasts.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Pontin \\|first\\=Mark Williams \\|date\\=November–December 2008 \\|title\\=The Alien Novelist \\|url\\=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/411039/the\\-alien\\-novelist/ \\|magazine\\=MIT Technology Review \\|language\\=en}} William Knoles wrote in his 1960* [Playboy](/wiki/Playboy_%28magazine%29 \"Playboy (magazine)\") *article on the era, \"Girls of the Slime God\", that{{Cite book \\|title\\=Girls for the Slime God \\|last\\=Knoles \\|first\\=William \\|publisher\\=Obscura Press \\|year\\=1997 \\|isbn\\=0\\-9659569\\-0\\-3 \\|editor\\-last\\=Resnick \\|editor\\-first\\=Mike \\|location\\=Ames, IA \\|language\\=en \\|orig\\-year\\=1960}}*",
"{{blockquote\\|A quivering bosom was no novel sight for a thirties s\\-f hero. Space Girls expressed most of their emotions through their pectoral muscle. Bosoms swayed, trembled, heaved, shivered, danced or pouted according to their owners' moods. In fact, if a hero in those days had been a little more observant and had carried a tape measure, he could have saved himself a lot of trouble. When he opened an air lock and a gorgeous stowaway fell out, uniform ripping, it usually took him five or six pages to find out whether she was a Venusian spy or not, whereas the reader knew at once. If her torn uniform revealed pouting young breasts, she was OK—probably someone's kid sister. If she had eager, straining breasts, she was the heroine. But a girl with proud, arrogant breasts was definitely a spy—while a ripe, full bosom meant she was a Pirate Queen and all hell would soon break loose.}}\n[Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov \"Isaac Asimov\") disagreed, stating in 1969 that \"until 1960 there was no branch of literature anywhere (except perhaps for the children's stories in Sunday school bulletins) as puritanical as science fiction\", and that Knoles had to get his quotes from one \"[1938\\-39 magazine](/wiki/Marvel_Science_Stories \"Marvel Science Stories\")\" which, Asimov said, published \"spicy\" stories for its \"few readers\" before \"a deserved death\".{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/nightfallotherst00asim\\#page/306/mode/2up\\|title\\=Nightfall, and other stories\\|last\\=Asimov\\|first\\=Isaac\\|date\\=1969\\|publisher\\=Doubleday\\|pages\\=307}} [Floyd C. Gale](/wiki/Floyd_C._Gale \"Floyd C. Gale\") in his 1962 review of [Stranger in a Strange Land](/wiki/Stranger_in_a_Strange_Land \"Stranger in a Strange Land\") *said that until recently \"science\\-fictional characters owned no sexual organs\".{{Cite magazine\n \\|last\\=Gale\n \\|first\\=Floyd C.\n \\|date\\=June 1962\n \\|title\\=Galaxy's 5 Star Shelf\n \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy\\_v20n05\\_1962\\-06\\#page/n191/mode/2up \n \\|magazine\\=Galaxy Science Fiction\n \\|pages\\=191–194\n}}*",
"In the 1940s, post\\-WWII, female writers like Judith Merril and Leigh Brackett emerged, reclaiming female characters and carving out respect in their own right. [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore \"C. L. Moore\") is an example of a woman successfully writing pulp speculative fiction tales under a genderless pen\\-name. Her story \"No Woman Born\" (1944\\),{{Ref label\\|Note1\\|b\\|b}} in which a female character's mind is transferred into a powerful robot body with feminine attributes is an early example of a work that challenged gender stereotypes of its day by combining femininity with power. Brian Attebery suggest that if the robot had appeared male, the gender would have been unremarkable or even invisible to readers, as masculine figures could be expected to be powerful.\nDuring the pulp era, unfavorable presentations of matriarchal societies, even [dystopias](/wiki/Dystopia \"Dystopia\") were common.{{cite book \\|title\\= Decoding Gender in Science Fiction\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/decodinggendersc00atte\\|url\\-access\\= limited\\|last\\= Attebery\\|first\\= Brian\\|author\\-link\\= Brian Attebery\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/decodinggendersc00atte/page/n22 13] \\|year\\= 2002\\|publisher\\= Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-93950\\-8}} In [John Wyndham](/wiki/John_Wyndham \"John Wyndham\")'s [Consider Her Ways](/wiki/Consider_Her_Ways \"Consider Her Ways\") *(1956\\), for example, male rule is described as repressive to women, but freedom from patriarchy was achieved through an authoritarian female\\-only society modelled on [ants](/wiki/Ant \"Ant\") society.Larbalestier, \"Mama Come Home; Parodies of the Sex\\-War\" p.72*",
"The 1930s saw the beginnings of fantasy as a distinct publishing genre. Reacting against the hard, scientific, dehumanizing trends of contemporary science fiction, this new branch of SF drew on mythological and historical traditions and Romantic literature, including [Greek](/wiki/Greek_mythology \"Greek mythology\") and [Roman](/wiki/Roman_mythology \"Roman mythology\") mythologies, [Norse sagas](/wiki/Norse_sagas \"Norse sagas\"), the [Arabian Nights](/wiki/Arabian_Nights \"Arabian Nights\") *and Adventure stories such as [Alexandre Dumas](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas \"Alexandre Dumas\")’* [Three Musketeers](/wiki/Three_Musketeers \"Three Musketeers\")*. The conventions brought with them a tendency toward patriarchy and cast women in restrictive roles defined as early as in the plays of Euripides. These roles included that of the \"helper\\-maiden\" or of \"reproductive demon\".*",
"The 1930s also saw the advent of the [sword and sorcery](/wiki/Sword_and_sorcery \"Sword and sorcery\") subgenre of pulp tales, which brought overt sexualisation to the representation of women in fantasy. Although physically more capable, female characters frequently continued to act as helpers to the male leads, but were now depicted as extremely attractive and very briefly clothed. The first female lead character of a sword and sorcery story was [Jirel of Joiry](/wiki/Jirel_of_Joiry \"Jirel of Joiry\"), created by C. L. Moore and first appearing in \"Black God's Kiss\" ([Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales \"Weird Tales\")*, volume 24, number 4, October 1934\\).*",
"### New Wave (1960\\-1970s)",
"Whereas the 1940s and 50s have been called the Golden Age of science fiction in general, the 1960s and 1970s are regarded as the most important and influential periods in the study of gender in speculative fiction.\nThis creative period saw the appearance of many influential novels by female authors, including [Ursula K. Le Guin](/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin \"Ursula K. Le Guin\")'s [The Left Hand of Darkness](/wiki/The_Left_Hand_of_Darkness \"The Left Hand of Darkness\") *(1969\\), described as the book with which SF \"lost its innocence on matters of sex and gender\", and* [The Dispossessed](/wiki/The_Dispossessed \"The Dispossessed\") *(1974\\); [Joanna Russ](/wiki/Joanna_Russ \"Joanna Russ\")'s most important works, particularly* [The Female Man](/wiki/The_Female_Man \"The Female Man\") *(1975\\), regarded by many as the central work of women's SF; and* [The Two of Them](/wiki/The_Two_of_Them_%28novel%29 \"The Two of Them (novel)\") *(1978\\); [Anne McCaffrey](/wiki/Anne_McCaffrey \"Anne McCaffrey\")'s prescient cyborg novel,* [The Ship Who Sang](/wiki/The_Ship_Who_Sang \"The Ship Who Sang\") *(1969\\); [Vonda McIntyre](/wiki/Vonda_McIntyre \"Vonda McIntyre\")'s two most influential novels,* [The Exile Waiting](/wiki/The_Exile_Waiting \"The Exile Waiting\") *(1975\\) and* [Dreamsnake](/wiki/Dreamsnake \"Dreamsnake\") *(1978\\); [Marge Piercy](/wiki/Marge_Piercy \"Marge Piercy\")’s* [Woman on the Edge of Time](/wiki/Woman_on_the_Edge_of_Time \"Woman on the Edge of Time\") *(1976\\), the most important contribution to feminist SF by an author known mainly for realistic work; and several novels by [Octavia Butler](/wiki/Octavia_Butler \"Octavia Butler\"), especially* [Kindred](/wiki/Kindred_%28novel%29 \"Kindred (novel)\") *(1979\\) and* [Wild Seed](/wiki/Wild_Seed_%28novel%29 \"Wild Seed (novel)\") *(1980\\), which have been described as groundbreaking, and established an African\\-American female voice in SF.*",
"Important short stories included many by [James Tiptree Jr.](/wiki/James_Tiptree_Jr. \"James Tiptree Jr.\") (a male pseudonym used by Alice Sheldon),{{cite book \\|title\\= Alien plots: female subjectivity and the divine in the light of James Tiptree's \"A momentary taste of being\"\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/trent\\_0116405817622\\|url\\-access\\= registration\\|last\\= Van der Spek\\|first\\= Inez \\|year\\= 2000\\|publisher\\=Liverpool University Press \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/trent\\_0116405817622/page/7 7]–8 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85323\\-814\\-0}} for instance [The Women Men Don't See](/wiki/The_Women_Men_Don%27t_See \"The Women Men Don't See\") *(1973\\),* [The Girl Who Was Plugged In](/wiki/The_Girl_Who_Was_Plugged_In \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\") *(1973\\), and* [The Screwfly Solution](/wiki/The_Screwfly_Solution \"The Screwfly Solution\") *(1977\\).{{Ref label\\|Note1\\|c\\|c}}Freedman*",
"These works coincided with the beginnings of application of feminist theory to SF,. creating a self\\-consciously [feminist science fiction](/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction \"Feminist science fiction\"). Feminist SF has been distinguished from earlier feminist utopian fiction by its greater attention to characterisation and inclusion of gender equality.Bartter, p.102\nMale writers also began to approach depiction of gender in new ways, with [Samuel R. Delany](/wiki/Samuel_R._Delany \"Samuel R. Delany\") establishing himself as the most radical voice among male SF figures for representations of alternative sexualities and gender\\-models in a series of major works, most importantly (with respect to gender), in [Triton](/wiki/Triton_%28novel%29 \"Triton (novel)\") *(1976\\). [Gary Westfahl](/wiki/Gary_Westfahl \"Gary Westfahl\") points out that \"Heinlein is a problematic case for feminists; on the one hand, his works often feature strong female characters and vigorous statements that women are equal to or even superior to men; but these characters and statements often reflect hopelessly stereotypical attitudes about typical female attributes. It is disconcerting, for example, that in* [Expanded Universe](/wiki/Expanded_Universe_%28Heinlein%29 \"Expanded Universe (Heinlein)\") *Heinlein calls for a society where all lawyers and politicians are women, essentially on the grounds that they possess a mysterious feminine practicality that men cannot duplicate.\"Gary Westfahl, 'Superladies in Waiting: How the Female Hero Almost Emerges in Science Fiction', *Foundation*, vol. 58, 1993, pp. 42\\-62\\.*",
"### Modern SF (1980–2000s)",
"By the 1980s the intersection of feminism and SF was already a major factor in the production of the literature itself.\nAuthors such as [Nicola Griffith](/wiki/Nicola_Griffith \"Nicola Griffith\") and [Sheri S. Tepper](/wiki/Sheri_S._Tepper \"Sheri S. Tepper\") frequently write on gender\\-related themes. Tepper's work has been described as \"the definition of feminist science fiction\", and her treatment of gender has varied from early optimistic science fantasies, in which women were equally as capable as men, to more pessimistic works, including [The Gate to Women's Country](/wiki/The_Gate_to_Women%27s_Country \"The Gate to Women's Country\")*, in which men are the cause of war and pollution and true equality can only be achieved by transcending humanity altogether.Bartter, pp.103\\-4*",
"The [Hugo](/wiki/Hugo_Award \"Hugo Award\"), [Nebula](/wiki/Nebula_Award \"Nebula Award\") and [Arthur C. Clarke Award](/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke_Award \"Arthur C. Clarke Award\") winning [Ancillary Justice](/wiki/Ancillary_Justice \"Ancillary Justice\") *by [Ann Leckie](/wiki/Ann_Leckie \"Ann Leckie\") (2013\\) portrays a society where gender is an unimportant detail in people's lives. It refers to most characters as female, unless they're talking in a different language than the dominant one. This leaves the gender of most characters unclear.*",
"The September 2017 anthology, [Meanwhile, Elsewhere](/wiki/Meanwhile%2C_Elsewhere \"Meanwhile, Elsewhere\")*, is a collection of short stories written by [transgender](/wiki/Transgender \"Transgender\") authors about transgender characters. The anthology includes [Jeanne Thornton](/wiki/Jeanne_Thornton \"Jeanne Thornton\")'s \"Angels Are Here To Help Us\", which explores access to technology, money and privilege, and [Ryka Aoki](/wiki/Ryka_Aoki \"Ryka Aoki\")'s \"The Gift\", about a young trans girl coming out in a world where being trans is completely accepted. The book was edited by Cat Fitzpatrick and [Casey Plett](/wiki/Casey_Plett \"Casey Plett\") and was published by Topside Press.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://topsidepress.com/\\|title\\=The Post\\-Reality Expeditionist's Supply Store\\|website\\=The Post\\-Reality Expeditionist's Supply Store\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-06}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=May 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bitchmedia.org/article/meanwhile\\-elsewhere\\-book\\-review\\|title\\=\"Meanwhile, Elsewhere\" Envisions a New World for Trans Readers\\|work\\=Bitch Media\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-06\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207085553/https://www.bitchmedia.org/article/meanwhile\\-elsewhere\\-book\\-review\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}*",
"Comics\n------",
"[thumb\\|Cover of *Planet comics* \\#53](/wiki/File:Planet_Comics_53.jpg \"Planet Comics 53.jpg\")\n{{See also\\|Portrayal of women in American comics{{!}}Women in comics}}\nThere was a time when more girls read comics than boys,{{When\\|date\\=January 2014}} but these comics were generally [realist](/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29 \"Realism (arts)\"), with a focus on romance and crime stories.[Robbins, Trina](/wiki/Trina_Robbins \"Trina Robbins\"). *From Girls to Grrrlz: A History of Women's Comics from Teens to Zines* (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999\\), p. 7; {{ISBN\\|0\\-7567\\-8120\\-5}} However, for most of their existence, comic books audiences have been assumed to be mostly male. The female characters and superheroes were targeted towards this male demographic, rather than towards women readers.Wright, p. 250 Although many female superheroes were created, very few starred in their own series or achieved stand\\-alone success. It has been debated whether the lack of female readership was due to male writers being uncomfortable with writing about or for women, or whether the comic book industry is male dominated due to the lack of intrinsic interest of women in comics.\nThe first known female superhero is writer\\-artist [Fletcher Hanks](/wiki/Fletcher_Hanks \"Fletcher Hanks\")'s minor character [Fantomah](/wiki/Fantomah \"Fantomah\"),[Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Fantomah](http://www.toonopedia.com/fantomah.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20240525211258/https://www.webcitation.org/66moryli6?url\\=http://www.toonopedia.com/fantomah.htm \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 }} an ageless, [ancient Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull\\-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in 1940 in [Fiction Houses](/wiki/Fiction_House \"Fiction House\") Jungle Comics*.*",
"In the early 1940s the DC line was dominated by superpowered male characters such as the [Green Lantern](/wiki/Green_Lantern \"Green Lantern\"), [Batman](/wiki/Batman \"Batman\"), and its flagship character, [Superman](/wiki/Superman \"Superman\"). The first widely recognizable female superhero is [Wonder Woman](/wiki/Wonder_Woman \"Wonder Woman\"), created by [William Moulton Marston](/wiki/William_Moulton_Marston \"William Moulton Marston\") for [All\\-American Publications](/wiki/All-American_Publications \"All-American Publications\"), one of three companies that would merge to form [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\").'[Who Was Wonder Woman?](http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2001/fall/wonderwoman/) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104060542/http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2001/fall/wonderwoman/ \\|date\\=January 4, 2007 }} Marston intended the character to be a strong female role\\-model for girls, with \"all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman.\"Les Daniels, *Wonder Woman: The Complete History,* (DC Comics, 2000\\), pp. 28\\-30\\.\nIn this manner, the gender inclination of Wonder Woman has been a case of concern ever since her conception. In light of this, [Wertham](/wiki/Fredric_Wertham \"Fredric Wertham\") identified female leads in comic books to exhibit a stark contrast to female norms within the mid\\-century.Tilley, Carol L. (2018\\-10\\-02\\). \"A regressive formula of perversity: Wertham and the women of comics\". *Journal of Lesbian Studies*. **22** (4\\): 354–372\\. [doi](/wiki/Doi_%28identifier%29 \"Doi (identifier)\"):10\\.1080/10894160\\.2018\\.1450001\\. [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_%28identifier%29 \"ISSN (identifier)\") 1089\\-4160\\. [PMID](/wiki/PMID_%28identifier%29 \"PMID (identifier)\") 29694275\\. Subsequently, female characters in comic books were perceived as frightening by readers. In turn, this archetype of female character was often referred to as “[molls](/wiki/Moll_%28slang%29 \"Moll (slang)\")”. These moll characters occasionally exhibited libertine and criminal tendencies whilst demonstrating feminine agency in a fantastical setting that’s otherwise idealized by women in the society during the comic's time of publication.\nFilm and television\n-------------------",
"### Film",
"[thumb\\|[Maila Nurmi](/wiki/Maila_Nurmi \"Maila Nurmi\") as Vampira in *[Plan 9 from Outer Space](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Outer_Space \"Plan 9 from Outer Space\")*](/wiki/File:PlanNine_07.jpg \"PlanNine 07.jpg\")\nFemale characters in early science fiction films such as [Barbarella](/wiki/Barbarella_%28film%29 \"Barbarella (film)\") *(1968\\) were often portrayed as simple sex kittens.{{cite book\\|title\\= Tough girls: women warriors and wonder women in popular culture\\|last\\= Inness\\|first\\= Sherrie A.\\|year\\= 1998\\|publisher\\= Published by University of Pennsylvania Press\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/102 102]\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-8122\\-3466\\-4\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/102}}*",
"Professor Sherrie Inness has said that the portrayals of tough women in later science fiction embody women's fantasies of empowerment,{{cite book\\|title\\= Tough girls: women warriors and wonder women in popular culture\\|last\\= Inness\\|first\\= Sherrie A.\\|year\\= 1998\\|publisher\\= Published by University of Pennsylvania Press\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/23 23]\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-8122\\-3466\\-4\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/23}} such as the characters of Sharrow in the [Iain M. Banks](/wiki/Iain_M._Banks \"Iain M. Banks\")' novel [Against a Dark Background](/wiki/Against_a_Dark_Background \"Against a Dark Background\") *(1993\\) or Alex in the film* [Nemesis 2](/wiki/Nemesis_2:Nebula \"Nebula\")*, who both physically overpower male attackers.{{cite book\\|title\\= Tough girls: women warriors and wonder women in popular culture\\|last\\= Inness\\|first\\= Sherrie A.\\|year\\= 1998\\|publisher\\= Published by University of Pennsylvania Press\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/25 25]\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-8122\\-3466\\-4\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/toughgirlswomenw00inne/page/25}}*",
"Another example would be [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\") portrayal of [Catwoman](/wiki/Catwoman \"Catwoman\"), a character represents the ideal fantasy of an empowering female character. Although the character's seductive nature is polarizing to some, Catwoman serves as a way for women to ‘realize’ the power and authority that the female audience desires in their lives.Madrid, Mike. *The Supergirls: Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines (Revised and Updated)*. Exterminating Angel Press, 2016\\. Though the domineering DC character has settled itself as the queen of hearts among female comic book readers, her skin tight jumpsuit nods at her appearance being a feast for eyes among male audiences. To that end, Catwoman doesn’t fail to play a driving force of feminist ideals in comic book literature.\n### Television",
"Early television depicted women primarily as idealized \"perfect housewives\" or (often [black](/wiki/Black_%28race%29 \"Black (race)\")) domestic workers.Helford, p. 1 By the mid\\-1960s and 1970s, cultural mores had relaxed, and sexual objectification of women became more commonplace. This period also saw diversification in women's roles, with blurring between the roles of middle\\-class housewife and working mother and the representations of women of different age, race, class, sexual orientation. The appearance of strong female characters, such as in [Charlie's Angels](/wiki/Charlie%27s_Angels \"Charlie's Angels\")*, remained limited by associations of power with male approval.Helford, p. 2*",
"The 1960s and 70s also saw the beginnings of SF and fantasy elements being incorporated into television programming.\nPopular early SF programming in the 1960s reconciled the use of SF tropes that empowered women with stereotypes of women's social domains and femininity. This was seen in popular series such as [I Dream of Jeannie](/wiki/I_Dream_of_Jeannie \"I Dream of Jeannie\") *and* [Bewitched](/wiki/Bewitched \"Bewitched\")*, both of which have female protagonists with magical abilities.* Bewitched'*s Samantha is a witch who chooses to use her abilities as a home\\-maker, and her husband prefers that she limits such displays of power as much as possible, particularly when they could challenge his ego. Most of her uses of magic were to save her husband appearing foolish in front of his peers or undoing interference from her more empowered and feminist mother, Endora. In contrast, the titular character of* I Dream of Jeannie *was inept in her house\\-wifely duties and was more likely to use her magic when she felt it appropriate. However, this was always in the service of her \"Master\", who demanded her nature as a [genie](/wiki/Genie \"Genie\") be kept secret. Jeannie's subservience and skimpy clothing also identified her primarily as a sex object.Helford, p. 3 Both programs showed women gaining more power and prominence through the metaphor of magic, but that this power was limited by women's willingness to obey male authority.*",
"The 1960s also saw the first speculative presentations of women outside the realm of domestic life. [Star Trek](/wiki/Star_Trek \"Star Trek\")'*s [Lt. Uhura](/wiki/Nyota_Uhura \"Nyota Uhura\") is a famous early example of a woman space explorer, and her race made her a role\\-model for black women in particular. Her inclusion in the series is credited with bringing more women into science fiction fandom. The character [was seen](/wiki/Uhura%23Role_model \"Uhura#Role model\") as a success of the feminist and [civil rights movements](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") of the era, representing the ideal of racial equality and women's ability to find meaningful employment outside of marriage and family. However, her role never rose beyond that of futuristic [receptionist](/wiki/Receptionist \"Receptionist\"), and her uniform and prominent but generally silent placement in the background of scenes made her the series primary eye candy.*",
"SF series of the 1970s followed in a similar vein, with speculative elements used to physically empower women, while society required that they pretend to be typical and non\\-threatening. Examples include [The Bionic Woman](/wiki/The_Bionic_Woman \"The Bionic Woman\") *and the television adaption of* [Wonder Woman](/wiki/Wonder_Woman_%28TV_series%29 \"Wonder Woman (TV series)\")*.*",
"Notes\n-----",
"{{note label\\|Note1\\|a\\|a}} SF is used throughout as an abbreviation for speculative fiction, for convenience. Science fiction and slash fiction are written in full when referred to specifically.",
"{{note label\\|Note1\\|b\\|b}} Collected in [Two\\-Handed Engine: The Selected Stories of Henry Kuttner and C. L. Moore](/wiki/Two-Handed_Engine:The_Selected_Stories_of_Henry_Kuttner_and_C._L._Moore \"The Selected Stories of Henry Kuttner and C. L. Moore\") *{{note label\\|Note1\\|c\\|c}} Collected in* [Her Smoke Rose Up Forever](/wiki/Her_Smoke_Rose_Up_Forever \"Her Smoke Rose Up Forever\")''.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The film is set in a rural U.S. state. Former [Marine](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") Kyle Snowden wakes up from a battlefield flashback nightmare. Snowden left the military after a frightening incident and works in [Child Protective Services](/wiki/Child_Protective_Services "Child Protective Services"). He now lives with his young daughter, Angel, after his wife left them both.
A rogue group of mercenaries plans to attack [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Congressman "United States Congressman") Sam Nelson. The leader of the group, Eagan Raize, hates the Congressman. Eagan's father, Luther, was Nelson’s business partner and was sent to jail for eighteen years in a fraud case. Eagan believes that Nelson ruined his father’s life to take over the business. Sam Nelson is Kyle’s stepfather.
After an accidental shooting on the battlefield, Kyle Snowden's remorse was heavy and his sanity deteriorated. Following that incident, in which he unintentionally shot and killed his partner, he was unable to pick up a gun again.
Eagan attacks Nelson's store by planting a bomb while Kyle, Angel, and many others are in the store, taking them hostage. Kyle is reluctantly required to take up arms again. Eagan had planned to destroy Nelson and set an example for the town, but he ends up stealing money from the store and taking Sunshine at gunpoint because he is infatuated with her. After the murder of Kyle’s companion, Clove from Child Protective Services, a Spanish boy, Manny, becomes Kyle’s responsibility. Overcoming his fear, Kyle raids the store and saves the day.
Nelson tries to convince the police that it was a planned robbery and not an act of terrorism, planned in order to claim insurance money. However, his efforts are futile, when Mikki steals Nelson's money for herself and Sunshine. Kyle plans to request temporary custody of Manny from the court. Kyle and Nelson make peace at the end.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The film is set in a rural U.S. state. Former [Marine](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") Kyle Snowden wakes up from a battlefield flashback nightmare. Snowden left the military after a frightening incident and works in [Child Protective Services](/wiki/Child_Protective_Services \"Child Protective Services\"). He now lives with his young daughter, Angel, after his wife left them both.",
"A rogue group of mercenaries plans to attack [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Congressman \"United States Congressman\") Sam Nelson. The leader of the group, Eagan Raize, hates the Congressman. Eagan's father, Luther, was Nelson’s business partner and was sent to jail for eighteen years in a fraud case. Eagan believes that Nelson ruined his father’s life to take over the business. Sam Nelson is Kyle’s stepfather.",
"After an accidental shooting on the battlefield, Kyle Snowden's remorse was heavy and his sanity deteriorated. Following that incident, in which he unintentionally shot and killed his partner, he was unable to pick up a gun again.",
"Eagan attacks Nelson's store by planting a bomb while Kyle, Angel, and many others are in the store, taking them hostage. Kyle is reluctantly required to take up arms again. Eagan had planned to destroy Nelson and set an example for the town, but he ends up stealing money from the store and taking Sunshine at gunpoint because he is infatuated with her. After the murder of Kyle’s companion, Clove from Child Protective Services, a Spanish boy, Manny, becomes Kyle’s responsibility. Overcoming his fear, Kyle raids the store and saves the day.",
"Nelson tries to convince the police that it was a planned robbery and not an act of terrorism, planned in order to claim insurance money. However, his efforts are futile, when Mikki steals Nelson's money for herself and Sunshine. Kyle plans to request temporary custody of Manny from the court. Kyle and Nelson make peace at the end.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Ashford Town (Middlesex)
Wellard was born in [Hammersmith](/wiki/Hammersmith "Hammersmith"), [London](/wiki/London "London"). He came through the ranks of the [Ashford Town (Middlesex)](/wiki/Ashford_Town_%28Middlesex%29_F.C. "Ashford Town (Middlesex) F.C.") and made his debut for the Tangerines against [Stourport Swifts](/wiki/Stourport_Swifts_F.C. "Stourport Swifts F.C.") on 8 January 2005, as a late sub for Anthony Eggington.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.ashfordtownmiddlesexfc.com/content/view/693/44/ \|title\=No Bones \|date\=29 July 2011 \|accessdate\=29 July 2011}} He went on to make 190 first team appearances for Ashford Town including scoring the winning goal in the 2009 [Surrey Senior Cup](/wiki/Surrey_Senior_Cup "Surrey Senior Cup") final.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.ashfordtownmiddlesexfc.com/content/view/643/35/ \|title\=Tangerines dig deep to win Surrey Senior Cup \|date\=29 July 2011 \|accessdate\=29 July 2011}} During his time at the club Wellard was also groundsman at Short Lane. In the summer of 2008, [AFC Wimbledon](/wiki/AFC_Wimbledon "AFC Wimbledon") had a transfer bid rejected which was described as 'derisory' by the Ashford board.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.fulhamchronicle.co.uk/london\-sport/london\-football/2009/05/20/wellard\-set\-for\-wimbledon\-talks\-113489\-23674151/ \|title\=Wellard set for Wimbledon Talks \|date\=20 May 2009 \|accessdate\=29 July 2011}} However, the Dons second bid the following summer was more successful for an undisclosed fee plus add\-ons.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.nonleaguedaily.com/news/index.php?newsmode\=FULL\&nid\=58844 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004022033/http://www.nonleaguedaily.com/news/index.php?newsmode\=FULL\&nid\=58844 \|url\-status\=usurped \|archive\-date\=4 October 2012 \|title\=DONS FINALLY GET THEIR MAN \|date\=26 August 2009 \|accessdate\=29 July 2011}} At the time of the transfer, Wellard was one of only three players to have ever commanded a transfer fee at Ashford, with the others being [Dannie Bulman](/wiki/Dannie_Bulman "Dannie Bulman") and Richard Butler.
### AFC Wimbledon
Wellard became a regular in the [AFC Wimbledon](/wiki/AFC_Wimbledon "AFC Wimbledon") side and made 43 appearances in his first season for the Dons as they didn't quite make the [Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference "Football Conference") play\-offs.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.afcwimbledon.co.uk/players.php?Psection\_id\=3\&Psub\_section\_id\=3\&apps\=1\&player\_id\=1690\&squad\=1\&position\=Midfielder \|title\=Player Profile – Ricky Wellard \|date\=1 August 2011 \|accessdate\=1 August 2011}} His second season at the club saw him move down the pecking order in central midfield in January after the arrival of [James Mulley](/wiki/James_Mulley "James Mulley"). In February 2011, Wellard was sent on loan to fellow Conference side Cambridge United on a month\-long loan.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.stainesnews.co.uk/surrey\-sport/afcwimbledon/2011/02/11/dons\-midfielder\-ricky\-wellard\-joins\-cambridge\-united\-on\-loan\-86289\-28158417/ \|title\=Dons midfielder Ricky Wellard joins Cambridge United on loan \|date\=11 February 2011 \|accessdate\=1 August 2011}} However, he was recalled early from his loan by [Terry Brown](/wiki/Terry_Brown_%28football_manager%29 "Terry Brown (football manager)") due to an injury crisis at the [Kingsmeadow Stadium](/wiki/Kingsmeadow_Stadium "Kingsmeadow Stadium").{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.stainesnews.co.uk/surrey\-sport/afcwimbledon/2011/02/11/dons\-midfielder\-ricky\-wellard\-joins\-cambridge\-united\-on\-loan\-86289\-28158417/ \|title\=Dons boss explains Ricky Wellard decision \|date\=22 March 2011 \|accessdate\=1 August 2011}} He regained his place in the Dons' first team and eventually played in the 2011 Conference Play\-off final win over [Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. "Luton Town F.C."), which saw the Dons gain a place in the [Football League](/wiki/Football_League "Football League").{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2011/may/21/afc\-wimbledon\-luton\-town\-play\-off\-final \|title\=AFC Wimbledon beat Luton on penalties to reach the Football League \|date\=21 May 2011 \|accessdate\=1 August 2011 \|location\=London \|work\=The Guardian \|first\=Sachin \|last\=Nakrani}} In May 2012, Wellard was released from the club due to the expiry of his contract.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.london24\.com/sport/jamie\_stuart\_chris\_bush\_fraser\_franks\_gareth\_gwillim\_brett\_johnson\_reece\_jones\_ricky\_wellard\_kieran\_djililali\_and\_jack\_turner\_have\_all\_left\_the\_club\_afc\_wimbledon\_release\_transfer\_news\_1\_1372051 \|title\=AFC Wimbledon release nine players \|date\=8 May 2012 \|accessdate\=9 May 2012 \|location\=London \|work\=London 24 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528095909/http://www.london24\.com/sport/jamie\_stuart\_chris\_bush\_fraser\_franks\_gareth\_gwillim\_brett\_johnson\_reece\_jones\_ricky\_wellard\_kieran\_djililali\_and\_jack\_turner\_have\_all\_left\_the\_club\_afc\_wimbledon\_release\_transfer\_news\_1\_1372051 \|archivedate\=28 May 2012 }}
### Cambridge United
Wellard signed a two\-year contract with The U's on 18 May 2012{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.cambridge\-united.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10423\~2776333,00\.html \|title\=Jez collars Wellard \|date\=18 May 2012 \|accessdate\=18 May 2012}} following his release from AFC Wimbledon earlier in the month. U's boss [Jez George](/wiki/Jez_George "Jez George") was quick to snap up the midfielder early in the summer transfer window in a deal which saw the Londoner return to the [Abbey Stadium](/wiki/Abbey_Stadium "Abbey Stadium") on a permanent basis following a popular loan spell back in February 2011\.
In November 2012, he joined [Conference South](/wiki/Conference_South "Conference South") side [Salisbury City](/wiki/Salisbury_City_F.C. "Salisbury City F.C.") on a one\-month loan deal.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.bluesqfootball.com/story/0,20970,8956\_8265822,00\.html \|title\=Whites swoop for Wellard \|date\=21 November 2012 \|accessdate\=28 November 2012}}
### Salisbury City
After a successful loan spell at Salisbury, he returned permanently, signing a contract until the end of the 2013–14 season. He featured in the squad regularly, and scored a vital free kick in the Conference South play\-off final against [Dover Athletic](/wiki/Dover_Athletic_F.C. "Dover Athletic F.C.").
### Sutton United
He signed for Sutton United in July 2014, and made his debut against Winchester City in a pre\-season friendly.
### Welling United
In May 2015, he signed for [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 "National League (division)") side [Welling United](/wiki/Welling_United_F.C. "Welling United F.C.") on a free transfer.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/32930030 \|title\=Ricky Wellard: Welling sign ex\-AFC Wimbledon midfielder \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=29 May 2015 \|accessdate\=4 August 2015}}
### Wealdstone
In 2016, he signed for [Wealdstone](/wiki/Wealdstone_F.C. "Wealdstone F.C."). He left the club in May 2018\.
### Bedfont
On 25 December 2019, Wellard moved to [Bedfont Sports](/wiki/Bedfont_Sports_F.C. "Bedfont Sports F.C.").[WELCOME RICKY WELLARD](https://www.pitchero.com/clubs/bedfontsportsfc/news/welcome-ricky-wellard-2497899.html), pitchero.com, 24 December 2019
### Farnham Town
In July 2023, Wellard joined [Combined Counties Football League](/wiki/Combined_Counties_Football_League "Combined Counties Football League") Premier Division South club [Farnham Town](/wiki/Farnham_Town_F.C. "Farnham Town F.C."). {{cite tweet\|number\=1682130826509578242\|title\=✍️ 𝐖𝐄𝐋𝐋𝐀𝐑𝐃 𝐒𝐈𝐆𝐍𝐒 Farnham Town are pleased to announce the signing of midfielder Ricky Wellard for the 23/24 season! @wellard\_8 has had a storied career in football, playing in the Football League with AFC Wimbledon and has amassed over 190 appearances with Step 1 clubs during his time with the Dons, Cambridge United, Salisbury City and Welling United. Having also played under @Johno1006 \& @Jimmy\_Hibburt at Bedfont Sports, Ricky will be in the squad this Saturday to play @TheCurfews at The Memorial Ground as our pre\-season rumbles on. 💪\|user\=FarnhamTownFC\|author\-link\=Farnham Town F.C.\|date\=20 July 2023\|accessdate\=25 March 2024}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Ashford Town (Middlesex)",
"Wellard was born in [Hammersmith](/wiki/Hammersmith \"Hammersmith\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). He came through the ranks of the [Ashford Town (Middlesex)](/wiki/Ashford_Town_%28Middlesex%29_F.C. \"Ashford Town (Middlesex) F.C.\") and made his debut for the Tangerines against [Stourport Swifts](/wiki/Stourport_Swifts_F.C. \"Stourport Swifts F.C.\") on 8 January 2005, as a late sub for Anthony Eggington.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.ashfordtownmiddlesexfc.com/content/view/693/44/ \\|title\\=No Bones \\|date\\=29 July 2011 \\|accessdate\\=29 July 2011}} He went on to make 190 first team appearances for Ashford Town including scoring the winning goal in the 2009 [Surrey Senior Cup](/wiki/Surrey_Senior_Cup \"Surrey Senior Cup\") final.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.ashfordtownmiddlesexfc.com/content/view/643/35/ \\|title\\=Tangerines dig deep to win Surrey Senior Cup \\|date\\=29 July 2011 \\|accessdate\\=29 July 2011}} During his time at the club Wellard was also groundsman at Short Lane. In the summer of 2008, [AFC Wimbledon](/wiki/AFC_Wimbledon \"AFC Wimbledon\") had a transfer bid rejected which was described as 'derisory' by the Ashford board.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.fulhamchronicle.co.uk/london\\-sport/london\\-football/2009/05/20/wellard\\-set\\-for\\-wimbledon\\-talks\\-113489\\-23674151/ \\|title\\=Wellard set for Wimbledon Talks \\|date\\=20 May 2009 \\|accessdate\\=29 July 2011}} However, the Dons second bid the following summer was more successful for an undisclosed fee plus add\\-ons.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.nonleaguedaily.com/news/index.php?newsmode\\=FULL\\&nid\\=58844 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004022033/http://www.nonleaguedaily.com/news/index.php?newsmode\\=FULL\\&nid\\=58844 \\|url\\-status\\=usurped \\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2012 \\|title\\=DONS FINALLY GET THEIR MAN \\|date\\=26 August 2009 \\|accessdate\\=29 July 2011}} At the time of the transfer, Wellard was one of only three players to have ever commanded a transfer fee at Ashford, with the others being [Dannie Bulman](/wiki/Dannie_Bulman \"Dannie Bulman\") and Richard Butler.",
"### AFC Wimbledon",
"Wellard became a regular in the [AFC Wimbledon](/wiki/AFC_Wimbledon \"AFC Wimbledon\") side and made 43 appearances in his first season for the Dons as they didn't quite make the [Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference \"Football Conference\") play\\-offs.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.afcwimbledon.co.uk/players.php?Psection\\_id\\=3\\&Psub\\_section\\_id\\=3\\&apps\\=1\\&player\\_id\\=1690\\&squad\\=1\\&position\\=Midfielder \\|title\\=Player Profile – Ricky Wellard \\|date\\=1 August 2011 \\|accessdate\\=1 August 2011}} His second season at the club saw him move down the pecking order in central midfield in January after the arrival of [James Mulley](/wiki/James_Mulley \"James Mulley\"). In February 2011, Wellard was sent on loan to fellow Conference side Cambridge United on a month\\-long loan.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.stainesnews.co.uk/surrey\\-sport/afcwimbledon/2011/02/11/dons\\-midfielder\\-ricky\\-wellard\\-joins\\-cambridge\\-united\\-on\\-loan\\-86289\\-28158417/ \\|title\\=Dons midfielder Ricky Wellard joins Cambridge United on loan \\|date\\=11 February 2011 \\|accessdate\\=1 August 2011}} However, he was recalled early from his loan by [Terry Brown](/wiki/Terry_Brown_%28football_manager%29 \"Terry Brown (football manager)\") due to an injury crisis at the [Kingsmeadow Stadium](/wiki/Kingsmeadow_Stadium \"Kingsmeadow Stadium\").{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.stainesnews.co.uk/surrey\\-sport/afcwimbledon/2011/02/11/dons\\-midfielder\\-ricky\\-wellard\\-joins\\-cambridge\\-united\\-on\\-loan\\-86289\\-28158417/ \\|title\\=Dons boss explains Ricky Wellard decision \\|date\\=22 March 2011 \\|accessdate\\=1 August 2011}} He regained his place in the Dons' first team and eventually played in the 2011 Conference Play\\-off final win over [Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. \"Luton Town F.C.\"), which saw the Dons gain a place in the [Football League](/wiki/Football_League \"Football League\").{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2011/may/21/afc\\-wimbledon\\-luton\\-town\\-play\\-off\\-final \\|title\\=AFC Wimbledon beat Luton on penalties to reach the Football League \\|date\\=21 May 2011 \\|accessdate\\=1 August 2011 \\|location\\=London \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|first\\=Sachin \\|last\\=Nakrani}} In May 2012, Wellard was released from the club due to the expiry of his contract.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.london24\\.com/sport/jamie\\_stuart\\_chris\\_bush\\_fraser\\_franks\\_gareth\\_gwillim\\_brett\\_johnson\\_reece\\_jones\\_ricky\\_wellard\\_kieran\\_djililali\\_and\\_jack\\_turner\\_have\\_all\\_left\\_the\\_club\\_afc\\_wimbledon\\_release\\_transfer\\_news\\_1\\_1372051 \\|title\\=AFC Wimbledon release nine players \\|date\\=8 May 2012 \\|accessdate\\=9 May 2012 \\|location\\=London \\|work\\=London 24 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528095909/http://www.london24\\.com/sport/jamie\\_stuart\\_chris\\_bush\\_fraser\\_franks\\_gareth\\_gwillim\\_brett\\_johnson\\_reece\\_jones\\_ricky\\_wellard\\_kieran\\_djililali\\_and\\_jack\\_turner\\_have\\_all\\_left\\_the\\_club\\_afc\\_wimbledon\\_release\\_transfer\\_news\\_1\\_1372051 \\|archivedate\\=28 May 2012 }}",
"### Cambridge United",
"Wellard signed a two\\-year contract with The U's on 18 May 2012{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cambridge\\-united.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10423\\~2776333,00\\.html \\|title\\=Jez collars Wellard \\|date\\=18 May 2012 \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2012}} following his release from AFC Wimbledon earlier in the month. U's boss [Jez George](/wiki/Jez_George \"Jez George\") was quick to snap up the midfielder early in the summer transfer window in a deal which saw the Londoner return to the [Abbey Stadium](/wiki/Abbey_Stadium \"Abbey Stadium\") on a permanent basis following a popular loan spell back in February 2011\\.",
"In November 2012, he joined [Conference South](/wiki/Conference_South \"Conference South\") side [Salisbury City](/wiki/Salisbury_City_F.C. \"Salisbury City F.C.\") on a one\\-month loan deal.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.bluesqfootball.com/story/0,20970,8956\\_8265822,00\\.html \\|title\\=Whites swoop for Wellard \\|date\\=21 November 2012 \\|accessdate\\=28 November 2012}}",
"### Salisbury City",
"After a successful loan spell at Salisbury, he returned permanently, signing a contract until the end of the 2013–14 season. He featured in the squad regularly, and scored a vital free kick in the Conference South play\\-off final against [Dover Athletic](/wiki/Dover_Athletic_F.C. \"Dover Athletic F.C.\").",
"### Sutton United",
"He signed for Sutton United in July 2014, and made his debut against Winchester City in a pre\\-season friendly.",
"### Welling United",
"In May 2015, he signed for [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 \"National League (division)\") side [Welling United](/wiki/Welling_United_F.C. \"Welling United F.C.\") on a free transfer.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/32930030 \\|title\\=Ricky Wellard: Welling sign ex\\-AFC Wimbledon midfielder \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=29 May 2015 \\|accessdate\\=4 August 2015}}",
"### Wealdstone",
"In 2016, he signed for [Wealdstone](/wiki/Wealdstone_F.C. \"Wealdstone F.C.\"). He left the club in May 2018\\.",
"### Bedfont",
"On 25 December 2019, Wellard moved to [Bedfont Sports](/wiki/Bedfont_Sports_F.C. \"Bedfont Sports F.C.\").[WELCOME RICKY WELLARD](https://www.pitchero.com/clubs/bedfontsportsfc/news/welcome-ricky-wellard-2497899.html), pitchero.com, 24 December 2019",
"### Farnham Town",
"In July 2023, Wellard joined [Combined Counties Football League](/wiki/Combined_Counties_Football_League \"Combined Counties Football League\") Premier Division South club [Farnham Town](/wiki/Farnham_Town_F.C. \"Farnham Town F.C.\"). {{cite tweet\\|number\\=1682130826509578242\\|title\\=✍️ 𝐖𝐄𝐋𝐋𝐀𝐑𝐃 𝐒𝐈𝐆𝐍𝐒 Farnham Town are pleased to announce the signing of midfielder Ricky Wellard for the 23/24 season! @wellard\\_8 has had a storied career in football, playing in the Football League with AFC Wimbledon and has amassed over 190 appearances with Step 1 clubs during his time with the Dons, Cambridge United, Salisbury City and Welling United. Having also played under @Johno1006 \\& @Jimmy\\_Hibburt at Bedfont Sports, Ricky will be in the squad this Saturday to play @TheCurfews at The Memorial Ground as our pre\\-season rumbles on. 💪\\|user\\=FarnhamTownFC\\|author\\-link\\=Farnham Town F.C.\\|date\\=20 July 2023\\|accessdate\\=25 March 2024}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early beginnings
HSH Nordbank was created as a result of a merger between **Hamburgische Landesbank** and **Landesbank Schleswig\-Holstein** on June 2, 2003\. In the course of the merger HSH was transformed into a [joint\-stock company](/wiki/Joint-stock_company "Joint-stock company") ([Aktiengesellschaft](/wiki/Aktiengesellschaft "Aktiengesellschaft")) and thereby formally privatised, i.e. the bank is not anymore governed by public law.[Subject: NN 71/2005 – Capital increase HSH Nordbank AG, Germany](http://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases/200360/200360_605493_21_1.pdf) [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission"). In 2003, the bank had a balance sheet total of 172 billion euros and employed 4,500 people.
In 2006, HSH Nordbank pledged to seek an unprecedented stock market listing, edging out its chief executive Alexander Stuhlmann to prepare the way.Ivar Simensen (August 16, 2006\), [HSH edges out chief to make way for IPO](https://www.ft.com/content/9f006850-2d4d-11db-851d-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. Shortly after, [WestLB](/wiki/WestLB "WestLB") agreed to sell its 26\.6 per cent stake in HSH Nordbank to a consortium of five institutional investors,Meike Schreiber and Ivar Simensen (August 31, 2006\), [International banks share in HSH stake](https://www.ft.com/content/4329bfc8-3922-11db-a21d-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. led by [J.C. Flowers \& Co.](/wiki/J.C._Flowers_%26_Co. "J.C. Flowers & Co."), for 1\.25 billion euros.Ivar Simensen (August 30, 2006\), [Private equity buys stake in HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/32cf8624-384d-11db-ae2c-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. Flowers had competed with three investors – [Cerberus Capital Management](/wiki/Cerberus_Capital_Management "Cerberus Capital Management"), [Hellman \& Friedman](/wiki/Hellman_%26_Friedman "Hellman & Friedman"), and Corsair Capital – for the stake.Meike Schreiber, Tim Bartz and Sven Clausen (August 3, 2006\), [Flowers plots Europe initiative](https://www.ft.com/content/07e9239a-2324-11db-848d-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. The investment marked the first part\-privatisation of a LandesbankIvar Simensen (August 30, 2006\), [Private equity buys stake in HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/32cf8624-384d-11db-ae2c-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. and its experience was being closely watched as an indicator of how difficult it would be for others to prise open the state\-controlled sector.James Wilson (May 20, 2008\), [Flowers to inject €300m into HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/0395c51c-2694-11dd-9c95-000077b07658) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. By 2008, J.C. Flowers injected about 300 million euros of fresh equity, in spite of the bank’s failure to have an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering "Initial public offering") that year.James Wilson (May 20, 2008\), [Flowers to inject €300m into HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/0395c51c-2694-11dd-9c95-000077b07658) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
### Financial crisis of 2007–2010
Similarly to peers such as [NORD/LB](/wiki/Norddeutsche_Landesbank "Norddeutsche Landesbank"), [Commerzbank](/wiki/Commerzbank "Commerzbank"), [Deutsche Hypothekenbank](/wiki/Deutsche_Hypothekenbank "Deutsche Hypothekenbank") and [KfW](/wiki/KfW "KfW"), HSH Nordbank buckled under excessive risk\-taking prior to the [financial crisis of 2007\-2010](/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007-2010 "Financial crisis of 2007-2010"), when it had sought to expand beyond its roots as a regional lender to companies and savings banks into global capital markets.Nicholas Brautlecht, Nicholas Comfort and Steven Arons (January 26, 2017\), [China Not Europe May Salvage HSH as German Bank Looks East](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-26/germany-s-troubled-hsh-looks-east-as-europe-shuns-bank-sale) *[Bloomberg News](/wiki/Bloomberg_News "Bloomberg News")*.Jack Ewing (December 4, 2012\), [Global Shipping Industry’s Troubles Are Threat for Biggest German Banks](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/05/business/global/the-next-crisis-for-german-banks-isnt-greece-its-shipping.html) *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")*. It had done so in anticipation of the expiry of a rule that allowed for generous refinancing of German state\-backed banks.Klaus Lauer (April 25, 2018\), [HSH to post pretax loss of more than 400 mln euros – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/hsh-to-post-pretax-loss-of-more-than-400-mln-euros-sources-idUSL8N1S27BL) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. With the beginning of the crisis, HSH had to report losses on their credit investment portfolio. In September 2008 HSH Nordbank announced further writedowns. As a direct consequence the CEO Hans Berger stepped down and in the following weeks HSH announced extensive restructuring.{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\_release\_detail\_24965\.jsp\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712225958/http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\_release\_detail\_24965\.jsp\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=12 July 2011\|title\=Chief Executive Officer Hans Berger resigns\|date\=10 September 2008\|publisher\=HSH Nordbank\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-09}} Branches in Copenhagen and Hong Kong were reduced to representations and new business was focused on the core region in northern Germany.
In December 2008, HSH Nordbank was granted to issue up to 30 billion euros guaranteed notes under the German [SoFFin](/wiki/SoFFin "SoFFin") program. One requirement that was imposed on HSH was to raise the capital ratio to at least 8%. On January 20, 2009, 3 billion euros 3 year guaranteed notes were issued.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\_garantie\_brd/fitch\_confirm.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230128/http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\_garantie\_brd/fitch\_confirm.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=12 July 2011\|title\=Fitch rates HSH Nordbak AG's guaranteed issue 'AAA'\|date\=14 January 2009\|publisher\=Fitch Ratings\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-09}} On February 24, 2009, HSH received new capital of EUR 3 billion and credit guarantees of 10 billion euros by the two main shareholders, the states of Hamburg and Schleswig\-Holstein.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/0,1518,609632,00\.html\|title\=Germany's HSH Nordbank Saved from Collapse\|date\=24 February 2009\|work\=Spiegel Online\|publisher\=SPIEGELnet GmbH\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-09}} The other shareholders, JC Flowers and the Savings Banks Association of Schleswig\-Holstein, did not participate in the capital infusion. Together with this increase of its core\-capital, HSH announced further restructuring. It planned to spin off non\-strategic activities and the [toxic asset](/wiki/Toxic_asset "Toxic asset") portfolio into a—yet to be created—[Bad Bank](/wiki/Bad_Bank "Bad Bank").
In 2008, HSH Nordbank filed a claim with the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court "New York Supreme Court") against [UBS](/wiki/UBS "UBS") over losses it says it suffered on a $500 million portfolio of [collateralized debt obligations](/wiki/Collateralized_debt_obligation "Collateralized debt obligation") linked to the [U.S. mortgage market](/wiki/Mortgage_industry_of_the_United_States "Mortgage industry of the United States").Richard Barley (February 26, 2008\), [HSH says filed CDO suit against UBS](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-ubs/hsh-says-filed-cdo-suit-against-ubs-idUKL2646305320080226) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. By 2012, the court found that HSH should have been able to conduct its own due diligence and dismissed the fraud claim, a decision that lawyers interpreted as having broader implications for investors seeking damages for losses incurred in the financial crisis.Tom Braithwaite and Shahien Nasiripour (March 28, 2012\), [New York court rejects claim against UBS](https://www.ft.com/content/8900ccdc-785d-11e1-bffc-00144feab49a) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
On April 9, 2009, president of supervisory board [Wolfgang Peiner](/wiki/Wolfgang_Peiner "Wolfgang Peiner") appointed [Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer](/wiki/Freshfields_Bruckhaus_Deringer "Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer") to investigate recent management decisions of the [Vorstand](/wiki/Vorstand "Vorstand").{{cite news\|title\=HSH Nordbank: Überprüfung der Vorstände angeordnet\|url\=http://www1\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\.html\|work\=\[\[Norddeutscher Rundfunk\|NDR]]\|date\=9 April 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412064701/http://www1\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\.html\|archive\-date\=12 April 2009}} On April 17, 2009, the supervisory board of HSH Nordbank relieved Frank Roth, member of the management board of his duties and started pressing criminal charges against him. The bank claims that Roth leaked strictly confidential information to outside parties.{{cite web\|title\=HSH Nordbank to press criminal charges against Management Board member Frank Roth\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\_release\_detail\_315410\.jsp\|publisher\=HSH Nordbank\|date\=17 April 2009\|access\-date\=4 June 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120904072853/http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\_release\_detail\_315410\.jsp\|archive\-date\=4 September 2012}}
In May 2009 [Standard \& Poor’s](/wiki/Standard_%26_Poor%E2%80%99s "Standard & Poor’s") downgraded HSH to BBB\+.
On October 13, 2009, *[Norddeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Norddeutscher_Rundfunk "Norddeutscher Rundfunk")* reported on a questionable CDO deal codenamed "Omega 55" between HSH Nordbank and [BNP Paribas](/wiki/BNP_Paribas "BNP Paribas") in late 2007, that eventually cost HSH Nordbank 500 million euros. Parts of that deal were not disclosed to the German [Federal Financial Supervisory Authority](/wiki/Federal_Financial_Supervisory_Authority "Federal Financial Supervisory Authority") (BaFin).{{Citation \|last1\=Hornung \|first1\=Peter \|last2\=Webermann \|first2\=Jürgen \|date\=October 13, 2009 \|title\=HSH\-Chef genehmigte offenbar verlustreiches Geschäft \|work\=NDR Info \|url\=http://www.ndr.de/wirtschaft/hshnordbank328\.html }}. Omega 55 was a hybrid CDO which exposed HSH Nordbank to the risks of default of other financial institutions including the now bankrupt [Lehman Brothers](/wiki/Lehman_Brothers "Lehman Brothers") and [Washington Mutual](/wiki/Washington_Mutual "Washington Mutual"). However, also included in the deal were several billion euros of risk tied to HSH Nordbank's own assets. It is alleged that he inclusion of this last element allowed HSH Nordbank to move several billions of risky assets off its balance sheet at year end and avoid costly capital reserves which BaFin would require the bank to post. The assets were repurchased several weeks later after auditors had closed the books of the bank for the year.
In 2012 the Hamburg Public Prosecutors filed charges against six former HSH Nordbank Directors, including the former CEO Dirk Jens Nonnenmacher, in relation to the Omega 55 transaction. The indictment ran to over 600 pages long. They were accused of breach of trust and accounting fraud. The charges were dismissed in 2014\. However, that acquittal was overturned by the Federal Court of Justice in October 2016 and a new trial scheduled before the Hamburg District Court.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/Milliarden\-fuer\-die\-HSH\-Trauerspiel\-in\-fuenf\-Akten,hshnordbank1134\.html\|title\=Milliarden für die HSH: Trauerspiel in fünf Akten\|last\=NDR\|website\=www.ndr.de\|language\=de\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}} In June 2019, five of the ex\-directors settled the charges against them via the "payment of money". The ex\-directors had to make individual payments of between 500 thousand and 1\.6 million euros to settle the charges.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/article225954591/Neuer\-HSH\-Prozess\-Ex\-Chefs\-kaufen\-sich\-frei.html\|title\=Neuer HSH\-Prozess: Ex\-Chefs kaufen sich frei\|last\=Mittelacher\|first\=Bettina\|date\=2019\-06\-06\|website\=www.abendblatt.de\|language\=de\-DE\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}
In 2009, HSH Nordbank had a balance sheet of 174\.5 billion euros and reported a loss of 678 million euros.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\.pdf?\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126002423/http://hsh\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=26 November 2010\|title\=Annual Report as of 31 December 2009\|date\=15 April 2010\|publisher\=HSH Nordbank\|access\-date\=2010\-04\-15}}
In 2010, HSH Nordbank was again caught up in scandal. Its CEO, Jens Nonnenmacher, and its General Counsel, Wolfgang Gossman, were accused of planting child pornography on the office computer of the then Head of its New York Branch. The child pornography was planted in order to give the bank an excuse to fire the branch head.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.businessinsider.com/details\-on\-the\-wild\-allegations\-of\-spying\-and\-porn\-evidence\-planting\-at\-a\-german\-bank\-2010\-9\|title\=Details On The Wild Allegations Of Spying And Porn Evidence Planting At A German Bank\|website\=Business Insider\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}} United States prosecutors originally moved against the branch head but rescinded the allegations when certain evidence did not hold up.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/business/hamburg\-bank\-scandal\-ex\-government\-spokesman\-spread\-child\-porn\-investigation\-rumors\-a\-720264\.html\|title\=Hamburg Bank Scandal: Ex\-Government Spokesman Spread Child Porn Investigation Rumors\|last1\=Dahlkamp\|first1\=Jürgen\|date\=2010\-10\-01\|work\=Spiegel Online\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29\|last2\=Latsch\|first2\=Gunther\|last3\=Schmitt\|first3\=Jörg}} The bank settled this scandal through a reported settlement of 7 million US dollars after the bank's supervisory board hired law firm WilmerHale to conduct an investigation. The management board of the bank also issued an apology to the former branch head in 2011\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/wronged\-german\-bank\-manager\-it\-s\-as\-if\-i\-were\-paralyzed\-a\-752465\.html\|title\=Wronged German Bank Manager: 'It's As If I Were Paralyzed'\|date\=2011\-03\-23\|work\=Spiegel Online\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}
### Restructuring and Cum\-Ex Scandal 2013–2018
The [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission"), HSH Nordbank and its owners negotiated for years over a plan to restore the bank to health and avoid future state aid.Andreas Kröner and Maria Sheahan (January 23, 2017\), [HSH Nordbank invites indicative bids from potential buyers](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-sale-idUSL5N1FD3SS) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. In September 2011, all sides reached a settlement with the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission"), ending state aid proceedings in return for tough limits on the size of the bank’s balance sheet and a one\-off financial penalty of 500 million euros.James Wilson (September 20, 2011\), [HSH Nordbank overhaul spells end of state aid](https://www.ft.com/content/db1a2100-e387-11e0-8f47-00144feabdc0) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. Under the settlement, the bank was to pull out of asset\-backed aviation finance and to limit property finance to its home market by 2014\. It also included plans to reduce its staff from 3,300 to 2,100\.James Wilson (September 20, 2011\), [HSH Nordbank overhaul spells end of state aid](https://www.ft.com/content/db1a2100-e387-11e0-8f47-00144feabdc0) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. For 2013, the bank presented its worst set of results since 2008, with an annual net loss close to 800 million euros.Alice Ross (April 8, 2014\), [HSH Nordbank poised for worst results since 2008](https://www.ft.com/content/c4a73f66-bc01-11e3-a31c-00144feabdc0) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
In 2015, Minister\-President [Torsten Albig](/wiki/Torsten_Albig "Torsten Albig") of [Schleswig\-Holstein](/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein "Schleswig-Holstein") and [First Mayor of Hamburg](/wiki/First_Mayor_of_Hamburg "First Mayor of Hamburg") [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz "Olaf Scholz") negotiated a [restructuring deal](/wiki/Debt_restructuring "Debt restructuring") with the European Commission that allowed HSH Nordbank to offload 6\.2 billion euros in troubled assets – mainly non\-performing ship loans – onto its government majority owners and avoid being shut down, saving around 2,500 jobs.Arno Schuetze and Foo Yun Chee (May 27, 2015\), [HSH Nordbank strikes rescue deal with EU](http://in.reuters.com/article/eu-hsh-nordbank-restructuring-idINL8N12J2SX20151019) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212225826/https://in.reuters.com/article/eu\-hsh\-nordbank\-restructuring\-idINL8N12J2SX20151019 \|date\=2020\-02\-12 }} *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. The agreement stipulated that if no private\-sector buyer emerged by 2018, HSH Nordbank had to be wound down.Olaf Storbeck (October 24, 2017\), [Clock ticking on the future of state\-owned HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/9c25b5ac-b597-11e7-aa26-bb002965bce8) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
The European Commission approved a bailout in March 2016 and HSH asked investment bank [UBS](/wiki/UBS "UBS") to find buyers for the loans which were extended to shipping and aircraft companies and for real estate and renewable energy projects.Arno Schuetze (June 8, 2016\), [HSH Nordbank plans to sell $3\.7 bln in bad loans under bailout programme \-sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hshnordbank-asset-sales-idUSL8N19022K) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. In an initial deal, [Macquarie Bank](/wiki/Macquarie_Bank "Macquarie Bank") and [Merrill Lynch](/wiki/Merrill_Lynch "Merrill Lynch") bought 800 million euros in aviation loans and 540 million euros in real estate credits, respectively.Nicholas Brautlecht, Nicholas Comfort and Steven Arons (January 26, 2017\), [China Not Europe May Salvage HSH as German Bank Looks East](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-26/germany-s-troubled-hsh-looks-east-as-europe-shuns-bank-sale) *[Bloomberg News](/wiki/Bloomberg_News "Bloomberg News")*.
In 2013, HSH announced that it was taking provisions of 127 million euros in relation to illegal securities transactions, cum\-ex dividend trades, after the findings of an investigatory report by the law firm Clifford Chance.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hcob\-bank.de/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/press\-release\-4180928/\|title\=HSH Nordbank recognises provision for cum\-ex\-transactions in the years 2008–2011\|last\=AG\|first\=Hamburg Commercial Bank\|website\=Hamburg Commercial Bank AG\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/cum\-ex\-hsh\-nordbank\-1\.4560132\|title\=Die vergebliche Warnung des Herrn B.\|last1\=Hamburg\|first1\=Klaus Ott\|date\=2019\-08\-12\|work\=sueddeutsche.de\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-12\|last2\=Frankfurt\|first2\=Jan Willmroth\|language\=de\|issn\=0174\-4917}} HSH's involvement in cum\-ex dividend trades were to follow the bank throughout the years up to 2017{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g\=e44d6ce1\-e36c\-4c9b\-a171\-a225b68cf8e2\|title\=Cum\-Ex trading scandal in Germany – A huge challenge for financial institutions and the insurance industry {{!}} Lexology\|website\=www.lexology.com\|date\=7 February 2017 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/today/finance/tax\-avoidance\-commerzbank\-defends\-ex\-dividend\-tax\-exemptions/23543152\.html\|title\=Tax Avoidance: Commerzbank Defends Ex\-Dividend Tax Exemptions\|website\=www.handelsblatt.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}
### Privatization, Lawsuits and the Return of the Cum\-Ex Scandal 2018–2019
In mid\-2016, the bank’s owners hired [Citigroup](/wiki/Citigroup "Citigroup") to organize the process to privatize HSH Nordbank under [European state\-aid rules](/wiki/State_aid_%28European_Union%29 "State aid (European Union)") by the end of February 2018\. Over the course of 2017, [Apollo Global Management](/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management "Apollo Global Management") of the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States")Alexander Hübner (April 2, 2017\), [HNA, Apollo Global among bidders vying for HSH Nordbank: sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-nordbank-privatisation-idUSKBN17502O) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. as well as [Anbang Insurance Group](/wiki/Anbang_Insurance_Group "Anbang Insurance Group"),Tom Sims (May 9, 2017\), [German regulator welcomes Chinese interest in nation's banks](https://www.reuters.com/article/bafin-regulation-china-idUSL8N1IB2EU) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*.[HNA Group](/wiki/HNA_Group "HNA Group") and [ICBC](/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Bank_of_China "Industrial and Commercial Bank of China")Arno Schuetze and Jan Schwartz (February 27, 2017\), [HSH Nordbank attracts handful of potential bidders – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-sale-idUSL5N1GC4X6) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. of [China](/wiki/China "China") were considered as interested buyers but ultimately did not submit a bid for the bank.Maria Sheahan (May 10, 2017\), [HNA won't submit bid for Germany's HSH Nordbank: Handelsblatt](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-nordbank-privatisation-hna-idUSKBN18610G) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. By the end of the year, bids were submitted by Apollo, Socrates and a consortium of private equity groups [Cerberus Capital Management](/wiki/Cerberus_Capital_Management "Cerberus Capital Management") and [J.C. Flowers](/wiki/J.C._Flowers "J.C. Flowers").Arno Schuetze, Klaus Lauer and Jonathan Saul (November 29, 2017\), [Three rivals vie to buy Germany's HSH Nordbank](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/update-1-three-rivals-vie-to-buy-germanys-hsh-nordbank-idUSL8N1NZ3I2) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*.
In February 2018, the state governments of Schleswig\-Holstein and Hamburg – at the time led by [Daniel Günther](/wiki/Daniel_G%C3%BCnther "Daniel Günther") and [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz "Olaf Scholz") – agreed to sell their shares for an estimated 1 billion euros to a group of private equity investors led by Cerberus and JC Flowers. Other funds involved were [GoldenTree Asset Management](/wiki/GoldenTree_Asset_Management "GoldenTree Asset Management") and [Centaurus](/wiki/John_D._Arnold "John D. Arnold").Christopher Spink (March 1, 2018\), [HSH Nordbank bondholders fear privatisation measures](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisat/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisation-measures-idUSL8N1QJ6JG) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. In addition, Austrian bank [BAWAG](/wiki/BAWAG "BAWAG") also contributed. The transaction also saw the bank’s non\-performing loan portfolio, principally shipping\-related, sold to a special purpose vehicle set up by Cerberus, JC Flowers, GoldenTree and Centaurus at a price below its current book value.Klaus Lauer (February 26, 2018\), [HSH Nordbank sale in separate private equity vehicles: sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-nordbank-sale/hsh-nordbank-sale-in-separate-private-equity-vehicles-sources-idUSKCN1GA1Z8) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*.Christopher Spink (March 1, 2018\), [HSH Nordbank bondholders fear privatisation measures](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisat/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisation-measures-idUSL8N1QJ6JG) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. The sale of shares is subject to the approval of the European Commission and the [European Central Bank](/wiki/European_Central_Bank "European Central Bank"). After its privatization, HSH Nordbank will also have to leave the [deposit insurance scheme](/wiki/Deposit_insurance "Deposit insurance") of Germany’s publicly owned banks and join the private sector plan.Olaf Storbeck (February 28, 2018\), [HSH Nordbank to be sold to US private equity consortium](https://www.ft.com/content/1fe7440c-1c84-11e8-aaca-4574d7dabfb6) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
Hamburg and Schleswig\-Holstein later said that total losses they incurred in their HSH investment would range from 10\.8 billion to a maximum of 14 billion euros.Klaus Lauer (April 25, 2018\), [HSH to post pretax loss of more than 400 mln euros – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/hsh-to-post-pretax-loss-of-more-than-400-mln-euros-sources-idUSL8N1S27BL) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*.
In January 2019 a group of 18 bond investors sued HSH Nordbank for 1\.4 billion euros, accusing the bank of improperly lowering the book value of its Tier [One](/wiki/Tier_1_capital "Tier 1 capital") capital instruments via accounting actions the bank took prior to and during the 2018 sales process.{{Cite news \|last\=Storbeck \|first\=Olaf \|date\=7 January 2019 \|title\=HSH Nordbank sued by bondholders for €1\.4bn \|language\=en\-GB \|website\=Financial Times \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/ec8f27a4\-1274\-11e9\-a581\-4ff78404524e \|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.penews.com/articles/hsh\-nordbank\-bondholders\-sue\-for\-e1\-4\-billion\-20190108\|title\=HSH Nordbank Bondholders Sue for €1\.4 Billion\|last\=Scurria\|first\=Andrew\|website\=www.penews.com\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}} Earlier, in relation to that same lawsuit, the investor group had filed a [1782 discovery request](/wiki/Section_1782_Discovery "Section 1782 Discovery") in the United States Court system asking to be allowed to serve subpoenas on the bank's new owners; Cerberus, JC Flowers and Goldentree Asset Management. The 1782 request seeks information related to the NPL portfolio sale and share sale. In their initial motion, plaintiffs stated "The inside nature of the NPL Portfolio Sale, and the decision to sell HSH and the NPL Portfolio (at a deep discount to book value) to virtually the same investor consortium, strongly suggest severe irregularities in both the Bank Sale and the NPL Portfolio Sale transactions." The Court granted the request at the end of 2018\. The decision is currently under appeal.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-hsh\-privatisation\-lawsuit\-idUSKBN1K11MO\|title\=HSH bondholders seek U.S. help in lawsuit over privatization\|date\=2018\-07\-11\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7343375/4/in\-re\-application\-of\-hansain\-vest\-hanseatische\-investment\-gmbh\-in\-respect/\|title\=Memorandum of Law in Support of Motion – \#4 in In re Application of HANSAIN VEST Hanseatische Investment\-GmbH in respect of the Fund Aramea Rendite Plus Trinity Investments Designated Activity Company (S.D.N.Y., 1:18\-mc\-00310\) – CourtListener.com\|website\=CourtListener\|language\=en\-us\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7343375/1/in\-re\-application\-of\-hansain\-vest\-hanseatische\-investment\-gmbh\-in\-respect/\|title\=Discovery – \#1 in In re Application of HANSAIN VEST Hanseatische Investment\-GmbH in respect of the Fund Aramea Rendite Plus Trinity Investments Designated Activity Company (S.D.N.Y., 1:18\-mc\-00310\) – CourtListener.com\|website\=CourtListener\|language\=en\-us\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-30}} On October 4, 2019, the court lifted the stay that had been placed over the production of documents in the 1782 case. The plaintiffs are free to begin discovery even while the 1782 case is under appeal{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7343375/67/in\-re\-application\-of\-hansain\-vest\-hanseatische\-investment\-gmbh\-in\-respect/\|title\=Memorandum \& Opinion – \#67 in In re Application of HANSAIN VEST Hanseatische Investment\-GmbH in respect of the Fund Aramea Rendite Plus Trinity Investments Designated Activity Company (S.D.N.Y., 1:18\-mc\-00310\) – CourtListener.com\|website\=CourtListener\|language\=en\-us\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-07}} This lawsuit is in addition to earlier lawsuits filed by the insurance companies Talanx, Huk\-Coburg and Baloise in May 2018 over the same issues. Those lawsuits seeks damages of over euro 285 million.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bocquel\-news.de/Huk\-Coburg\-Talanx\-und\-Baloise\-ziehen\-vor\-Gericht.37599\.php\|title\=Huk\-Coburg, Talanx und Baloise ziehen vor Gericht – bocquell\-news.de\|website\=www.bocquel\-news.de\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.juve.de/nachrichten/verfahren/2019/03/streit\-um\-stille\-einlagen\-hsh\-nachfolgerin\-wehrt\-sich\-mit\-white\-case\-gegen\-klagen\|title\=Streit um stille Einlagen: HSH\-Nachfolgerin wehrt sich mit White \& Case gegen Klagen « JUVE\|last\=www.juve.de\|first\=JUVE\-\|date\=20 March 2019 \|language\=de\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-31}} In December 2019, HCOB settled with the group of bondholders that had sued it in January 2019\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://comfi.lessentiel.lu/i\_actualite.html?id\=906031\|title\=Webdisclosure iframe\|website\=comfi.lessentiel.lu\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-27}}
In September 2019, the Cum\-Ex scandal returned in force for the German Banking industry as an ex\-British banker, who had been charged with fraud in relation to the schemes, agreed to testify and explain the inner working and participants in these transactions in the Bonn District Court.{{Cite news\|url\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-germany\-trading\-trial\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905061542/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-germany\-trading\-trial\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=September 5, 2019\|title\=Banker to reveal workings of trading scheme in German fraud trial,...\|date\=2019\-09\-04\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-19\|language\=en}} On his first day of testimony the banker only referred to as Martin S. went into detail on how the transactions worked to defraud the German Treasury by making it appear that one set of stock securities had more than one owner. These multiple owners would all then file for tax refund reimbursements related to the dividends received from the underlying stock. Martin then went on to name the biggest players in the scandal of who he was aware. He named Hypo\-Vereinsbank, Commerzbank, HSH Nordbank, WestLB and Deutsche Bank as those players.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/cum\-ex\-banken\-steuern\-1\.4605795\|title\=Der Cum\-Ex\-Jongleur packt aus\|last\=Wischmeyer\|first\=Nils\|website\=Süddeutsche.de\|date\=18 September 2019 \|language\=de\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-19}} The trial of Martin S. " is the first in a wider investigation aimed at recovering billions from banks who profited from a scheme, described by finance minister Olaf Scholz, as a ‘scandal’ which Germany estimates cost it more than 5 billion euros."{{Cite news\|url\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-germany\-trading\-trial\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905061542/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-germany\-trading\-trial\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=September 5, 2019\|title\=Banker to reveal workings of trading scheme in German fraud trial,...\|date\=2019\-09\-04\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-19\|language\=en}} On 14 October 2019, Handlesblatt Online reported for the first time that Hamburg Commercial Bank's current CEO, Stephan Ermisch,may have personal exposure for restitution that may need to be paid back to the German Government in relation to cum\-ex trading. His exposure owes to the fact that Ermisch had oversight of the departments at Hypo\-Vereinsbank (his previous employer) which engaged in cum\-ex trading and the bank is now seeking compensation from three ex\-committee members in an amount of 110mm euros. There is a chance that these ex\-committee members, in turn, will make a claim against Ermisch.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/finanzen/banken\-versicherungen/cum\-ex/cum\-ex\-steuerskandal\-staatsanwaltschaft\-ermittelt\-gegen\-ehemalige\-hsh\-nordbank/25103566\.html\|title\=Cum\-Ex: Steuerskandal: Staatsanwaltschaft ermittelt gegen ehemalige HSH Nordbank\|website\=www.handelsblatt.com\|language\=de\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-14}} The article also claims that at the time HSH's own misdeeds in relation to cum\-ex trading came to light, the Hanseatic state government showed no zeal to actually investigate the bank at that time. However, currently the Cum\-ex scandal is being actively pursued by prosecutors in the city of Cologne who are showing much more zeal in pursuing banks that engaged in the illegal stock maneuvers. It was further reported by many German newspapers that the Cologne Prosecutors Office now has over 400 individuals in its investigative sights, including two former HSH Nordbank managers. The investigation also has many financial institutions as targets, including HCOB. Spokespeople for HCOB say that they consider the matter resolved via their previous payments of 127mm euro. However, it is unclear whether the Cologne Prosecutors Office will again be investigating HCOB in relation to its participation in the scandal and whether more charges and penalties might be forthcoming. The articles now estimate the scandal cost the German Treasury approximately 12 billion euros.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.manager\-magazin.de/unternehmen/banken/hsh\-nordbank\-ermittlungen\-gegen\-ex\-manager\-wegen\-cum\-ex\-a\-1291620\.html\|title\=HSH\-Nordbank: Ermittlungen gegen Ex\-Manager wegen Cum\-Ex\|website\=manager magazin\|date\=15 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-15}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early beginnings",
"HSH Nordbank was created as a result of a merger between **Hamburgische Landesbank** and **Landesbank Schleswig\\-Holstein** on June 2, 2003\\. In the course of the merger HSH was transformed into a [joint\\-stock company](/wiki/Joint-stock_company \"Joint-stock company\") ([Aktiengesellschaft](/wiki/Aktiengesellschaft \"Aktiengesellschaft\")) and thereby formally privatised, i.e. the bank is not anymore governed by public law.[Subject: NN 71/2005 – Capital increase HSH Nordbank AG, Germany](http://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases/200360/200360_605493_21_1.pdf) [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\"). In 2003, the bank had a balance sheet total of 172 billion euros and employed 4,500 people.",
"In 2006, HSH Nordbank pledged to seek an unprecedented stock market listing, edging out its chief executive Alexander Stuhlmann to prepare the way.Ivar Simensen (August 16, 2006\\), [HSH edges out chief to make way for IPO](https://www.ft.com/content/9f006850-2d4d-11db-851d-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. Shortly after, [WestLB](/wiki/WestLB \"WestLB\") agreed to sell its 26\\.6 per cent stake in HSH Nordbank to a consortium of five institutional investors,Meike Schreiber and Ivar Simensen (August 31, 2006\\), [International banks share in HSH stake](https://www.ft.com/content/4329bfc8-3922-11db-a21d-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. led by [J.C. Flowers \\& Co.](/wiki/J.C._Flowers_%26_Co. \"J.C. Flowers & Co.\"), for 1\\.25 billion euros.Ivar Simensen (August 30, 2006\\), [Private equity buys stake in HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/32cf8624-384d-11db-ae2c-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. Flowers had competed with three investors – [Cerberus Capital Management](/wiki/Cerberus_Capital_Management \"Cerberus Capital Management\"), [Hellman \\& Friedman](/wiki/Hellman_%26_Friedman \"Hellman & Friedman\"), and Corsair Capital – for the stake.Meike Schreiber, Tim Bartz and Sven Clausen (August 3, 2006\\), [Flowers plots Europe initiative](https://www.ft.com/content/07e9239a-2324-11db-848d-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. The investment marked the first part\\-privatisation of a LandesbankIvar Simensen (August 30, 2006\\), [Private equity buys stake in HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/32cf8624-384d-11db-ae2c-0000779e2340) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. and its experience was being closely watched as an indicator of how difficult it would be for others to prise open the state\\-controlled sector.James Wilson (May 20, 2008\\), [Flowers to inject €300m into HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/0395c51c-2694-11dd-9c95-000077b07658) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. By 2008, J.C. Flowers injected about 300 million euros of fresh equity, in spite of the bank’s failure to have an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering \"Initial public offering\") that year.James Wilson (May 20, 2008\\), [Flowers to inject €300m into HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/0395c51c-2694-11dd-9c95-000077b07658) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"### Financial crisis of 2007–2010",
"Similarly to peers such as [NORD/LB](/wiki/Norddeutsche_Landesbank \"Norddeutsche Landesbank\"), [Commerzbank](/wiki/Commerzbank \"Commerzbank\"), [Deutsche Hypothekenbank](/wiki/Deutsche_Hypothekenbank \"Deutsche Hypothekenbank\") and [KfW](/wiki/KfW \"KfW\"), HSH Nordbank buckled under excessive risk\\-taking prior to the [financial crisis of 2007\\-2010](/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007-2010 \"Financial crisis of 2007-2010\"), when it had sought to expand beyond its roots as a regional lender to companies and savings banks into global capital markets.Nicholas Brautlecht, Nicholas Comfort and Steven Arons (January 26, 2017\\), [China Not Europe May Salvage HSH as German Bank Looks East](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-26/germany-s-troubled-hsh-looks-east-as-europe-shuns-bank-sale) *[Bloomberg News](/wiki/Bloomberg_News \"Bloomberg News\")*.Jack Ewing (December 4, 2012\\), [Global Shipping Industry’s Troubles Are Threat for Biggest German Banks](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/05/business/global/the-next-crisis-for-german-banks-isnt-greece-its-shipping.html) *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")*. It had done so in anticipation of the expiry of a rule that allowed for generous refinancing of German state\\-backed banks.Klaus Lauer (April 25, 2018\\), [HSH to post pretax loss of more than 400 mln euros – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/hsh-to-post-pretax-loss-of-more-than-400-mln-euros-sources-idUSL8N1S27BL) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. With the beginning of the crisis, HSH had to report losses on their credit investment portfolio. In September 2008 HSH Nordbank announced further writedowns. As a direct consequence the CEO Hans Berger stepped down and in the following weeks HSH announced extensive restructuring.{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\\_release\\_detail\\_24965\\.jsp\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712225958/http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\\_release\\_detail\\_24965\\.jsp\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2011\\|title\\=Chief Executive Officer Hans Berger resigns\\|date\\=10 September 2008\\|publisher\\=HSH Nordbank\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-09}} Branches in Copenhagen and Hong Kong were reduced to representations and new business was focused on the core region in northern Germany.",
"In December 2008, HSH Nordbank was granted to issue up to 30 billion euros guaranteed notes under the German [SoFFin](/wiki/SoFFin \"SoFFin\") program. One requirement that was imposed on HSH was to raise the capital ratio to at least 8%. On January 20, 2009, 3 billion euros 3 year guaranteed notes were issued.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\\_garantie\\_brd/fitch\\_confirm.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230128/http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\\_garantie\\_brd/fitch\\_confirm.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2011\\|title\\=Fitch rates HSH Nordbak AG's guaranteed issue 'AAA'\\|date\\=14 January 2009\\|publisher\\=Fitch Ratings\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-09}} On February 24, 2009, HSH received new capital of EUR 3 billion and credit guarantees of 10 billion euros by the two main shareholders, the states of Hamburg and Schleswig\\-Holstein.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/0,1518,609632,00\\.html\\|title\\=Germany's HSH Nordbank Saved from Collapse\\|date\\=24 February 2009\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|publisher\\=SPIEGELnet GmbH\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-09}} The other shareholders, JC Flowers and the Savings Banks Association of Schleswig\\-Holstein, did not participate in the capital infusion. Together with this increase of its core\\-capital, HSH announced further restructuring. It planned to spin off non\\-strategic activities and the [toxic asset](/wiki/Toxic_asset \"Toxic asset\") portfolio into a—yet to be created—[Bad Bank](/wiki/Bad_Bank \"Bad Bank\").",
"In 2008, HSH Nordbank filed a claim with the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court \"New York Supreme Court\") against [UBS](/wiki/UBS \"UBS\") over losses it says it suffered on a $500 million portfolio of [collateralized debt obligations](/wiki/Collateralized_debt_obligation \"Collateralized debt obligation\") linked to the [U.S. mortgage market](/wiki/Mortgage_industry_of_the_United_States \"Mortgage industry of the United States\").Richard Barley (February 26, 2008\\), [HSH says filed CDO suit against UBS](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-ubs/hsh-says-filed-cdo-suit-against-ubs-idUKL2646305320080226) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. By 2012, the court found that HSH should have been able to conduct its own due diligence and dismissed the fraud claim, a decision that lawyers interpreted as having broader implications for investors seeking damages for losses incurred in the financial crisis.Tom Braithwaite and Shahien Nasiripour (March 28, 2012\\), [New York court rejects claim against UBS](https://www.ft.com/content/8900ccdc-785d-11e1-bffc-00144feab49a) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"On April 9, 2009, president of supervisory board [Wolfgang Peiner](/wiki/Wolfgang_Peiner \"Wolfgang Peiner\") appointed [Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer](/wiki/Freshfields_Bruckhaus_Deringer \"Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer\") to investigate recent management decisions of the [Vorstand](/wiki/Vorstand \"Vorstand\").{{cite news\\|title\\=HSH Nordbank: Überprüfung der Vorstände angeordnet\\|url\\=http://www1\\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\\.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[Norddeutscher Rundfunk\\|NDR]]\\|date\\=9 April 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412064701/http://www1\\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2009}} On April 17, 2009, the supervisory board of HSH Nordbank relieved Frank Roth, member of the management board of his duties and started pressing criminal charges against him. The bank claims that Roth leaked strictly confidential information to outside parties.{{cite web\\|title\\=HSH Nordbank to press criminal charges against Management Board member Frank Roth\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\\_release\\_detail\\_315410\\.jsp\\|publisher\\=HSH Nordbank\\|date\\=17 April 2009\\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120904072853/http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\\_release\\_detail\\_315410\\.jsp\\|archive\\-date\\=4 September 2012}}",
"In May 2009 [Standard \\& Poor’s](/wiki/Standard_%26_Poor%E2%80%99s \"Standard & Poor’s\") downgraded HSH to BBB\\+.",
"On October 13, 2009, *[Norddeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Norddeutscher_Rundfunk \"Norddeutscher Rundfunk\")* reported on a questionable CDO deal codenamed \"Omega 55\" between HSH Nordbank and [BNP Paribas](/wiki/BNP_Paribas \"BNP Paribas\") in late 2007, that eventually cost HSH Nordbank 500 million euros. Parts of that deal were not disclosed to the German [Federal Financial Supervisory Authority](/wiki/Federal_Financial_Supervisory_Authority \"Federal Financial Supervisory Authority\") (BaFin).{{Citation \\|last1\\=Hornung \\|first1\\=Peter \\|last2\\=Webermann \\|first2\\=Jürgen \\|date\\=October 13, 2009 \\|title\\=HSH\\-Chef genehmigte offenbar verlustreiches Geschäft \\|work\\=NDR Info \\|url\\=http://www.ndr.de/wirtschaft/hshnordbank328\\.html }}. Omega 55 was a hybrid CDO which exposed HSH Nordbank to the risks of default of other financial institutions including the now bankrupt [Lehman Brothers](/wiki/Lehman_Brothers \"Lehman Brothers\") and [Washington Mutual](/wiki/Washington_Mutual \"Washington Mutual\"). However, also included in the deal were several billion euros of risk tied to HSH Nordbank's own assets. It is alleged that he inclusion of this last element allowed HSH Nordbank to move several billions of risky assets off its balance sheet at year end and avoid costly capital reserves which BaFin would require the bank to post. The assets were repurchased several weeks later after auditors had closed the books of the bank for the year.",
"In 2012 the Hamburg Public Prosecutors filed charges against six former HSH Nordbank Directors, including the former CEO Dirk Jens Nonnenmacher, in relation to the Omega 55 transaction. The indictment ran to over 600 pages long. They were accused of breach of trust and accounting fraud. The charges were dismissed in 2014\\. However, that acquittal was overturned by the Federal Court of Justice in October 2016 and a new trial scheduled before the Hamburg District Court.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/Milliarden\\-fuer\\-die\\-HSH\\-Trauerspiel\\-in\\-fuenf\\-Akten,hshnordbank1134\\.html\\|title\\=Milliarden für die HSH: Trauerspiel in fünf Akten\\|last\\=NDR\\|website\\=www.ndr.de\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}} In June 2019, five of the ex\\-directors settled the charges against them via the \"payment of money\". The ex\\-directors had to make individual payments of between 500 thousand and 1\\.6 million euros to settle the charges.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/article225954591/Neuer\\-HSH\\-Prozess\\-Ex\\-Chefs\\-kaufen\\-sich\\-frei.html\\|title\\=Neuer HSH\\-Prozess: Ex\\-Chefs kaufen sich frei\\|last\\=Mittelacher\\|first\\=Bettina\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-06\\|website\\=www.abendblatt.de\\|language\\=de\\-DE\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}",
"In 2009, HSH Nordbank had a balance sheet of 174\\.5 billion euros and reported a loss of 678 million euros.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\\.pdf?\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126002423/http://hsh\\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=26 November 2010\\|title\\=Annual Report as of 31 December 2009\\|date\\=15 April 2010\\|publisher\\=HSH Nordbank\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-04\\-15}}",
"In 2010, HSH Nordbank was again caught up in scandal. Its CEO, Jens Nonnenmacher, and its General Counsel, Wolfgang Gossman, were accused of planting child pornography on the office computer of the then Head of its New York Branch. The child pornography was planted in order to give the bank an excuse to fire the branch head.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.businessinsider.com/details\\-on\\-the\\-wild\\-allegations\\-of\\-spying\\-and\\-porn\\-evidence\\-planting\\-at\\-a\\-german\\-bank\\-2010\\-9\\|title\\=Details On The Wild Allegations Of Spying And Porn Evidence Planting At A German Bank\\|website\\=Business Insider\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}} United States prosecutors originally moved against the branch head but rescinded the allegations when certain evidence did not hold up.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/business/hamburg\\-bank\\-scandal\\-ex\\-government\\-spokesman\\-spread\\-child\\-porn\\-investigation\\-rumors\\-a\\-720264\\.html\\|title\\=Hamburg Bank Scandal: Ex\\-Government Spokesman Spread Child Porn Investigation Rumors\\|last1\\=Dahlkamp\\|first1\\=Jürgen\\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-01\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29\\|last2\\=Latsch\\|first2\\=Gunther\\|last3\\=Schmitt\\|first3\\=Jörg}} The bank settled this scandal through a reported settlement of 7 million US dollars after the bank's supervisory board hired law firm WilmerHale to conduct an investigation. The management board of the bank also issued an apology to the former branch head in 2011\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/wronged\\-german\\-bank\\-manager\\-it\\-s\\-as\\-if\\-i\\-were\\-paralyzed\\-a\\-752465\\.html\\|title\\=Wronged German Bank Manager: 'It's As If I Were Paralyzed'\\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-23\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}",
"### Restructuring and Cum\\-Ex Scandal 2013–2018",
"The [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\"), HSH Nordbank and its owners negotiated for years over a plan to restore the bank to health and avoid future state aid.Andreas Kröner and Maria Sheahan (January 23, 2017\\), [HSH Nordbank invites indicative bids from potential buyers](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-sale-idUSL5N1FD3SS) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. In September 2011, all sides reached a settlement with the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\"), ending state aid proceedings in return for tough limits on the size of the bank’s balance sheet and a one\\-off financial penalty of 500 million euros.James Wilson (September 20, 2011\\), [HSH Nordbank overhaul spells end of state aid](https://www.ft.com/content/db1a2100-e387-11e0-8f47-00144feabdc0) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. Under the settlement, the bank was to pull out of asset\\-backed aviation finance and to limit property finance to its home market by 2014\\. It also included plans to reduce its staff from 3,300 to 2,100\\.James Wilson (September 20, 2011\\), [HSH Nordbank overhaul spells end of state aid](https://www.ft.com/content/db1a2100-e387-11e0-8f47-00144feabdc0) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*. For 2013, the bank presented its worst set of results since 2008, with an annual net loss close to 800 million euros.Alice Ross (April 8, 2014\\), [HSH Nordbank poised for worst results since 2008](https://www.ft.com/content/c4a73f66-bc01-11e3-a31c-00144feabdc0) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"In 2015, Minister\\-President [Torsten Albig](/wiki/Torsten_Albig \"Torsten Albig\") of [Schleswig\\-Holstein](/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein \"Schleswig-Holstein\") and [First Mayor of Hamburg](/wiki/First_Mayor_of_Hamburg \"First Mayor of Hamburg\") [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz \"Olaf Scholz\") negotiated a [restructuring deal](/wiki/Debt_restructuring \"Debt restructuring\") with the European Commission that allowed HSH Nordbank to offload 6\\.2 billion euros in troubled assets – mainly non\\-performing ship loans – onto its government majority owners and avoid being shut down, saving around 2,500 jobs.Arno Schuetze and Foo Yun Chee (May 27, 2015\\), [HSH Nordbank strikes rescue deal with EU](http://in.reuters.com/article/eu-hsh-nordbank-restructuring-idINL8N12J2SX20151019) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212225826/https://in.reuters.com/article/eu\\-hsh\\-nordbank\\-restructuring\\-idINL8N12J2SX20151019 \\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-12 }} *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. The agreement stipulated that if no private\\-sector buyer emerged by 2018, HSH Nordbank had to be wound down.Olaf Storbeck (October 24, 2017\\), [Clock ticking on the future of state\\-owned HSH Nordbank](https://www.ft.com/content/9c25b5ac-b597-11e7-aa26-bb002965bce8) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"The European Commission approved a bailout in March 2016 and HSH asked investment bank [UBS](/wiki/UBS \"UBS\") to find buyers for the loans which were extended to shipping and aircraft companies and for real estate and renewable energy projects.Arno Schuetze (June 8, 2016\\), [HSH Nordbank plans to sell $3\\.7 bln in bad loans under bailout programme \\-sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hshnordbank-asset-sales-idUSL8N19022K) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. In an initial deal, [Macquarie Bank](/wiki/Macquarie_Bank \"Macquarie Bank\") and [Merrill Lynch](/wiki/Merrill_Lynch \"Merrill Lynch\") bought 800 million euros in aviation loans and 540 million euros in real estate credits, respectively.Nicholas Brautlecht, Nicholas Comfort and Steven Arons (January 26, 2017\\), [China Not Europe May Salvage HSH as German Bank Looks East](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-26/germany-s-troubled-hsh-looks-east-as-europe-shuns-bank-sale) *[Bloomberg News](/wiki/Bloomberg_News \"Bloomberg News\")*.",
"In 2013, HSH announced that it was taking provisions of 127 million euros in relation to illegal securities transactions, cum\\-ex dividend trades, after the findings of an investigatory report by the law firm Clifford Chance.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hcob\\-bank.de/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/press\\-release\\-4180928/\\|title\\=HSH Nordbank recognises provision for cum\\-ex\\-transactions in the years 2008–2011\\|last\\=AG\\|first\\=Hamburg Commercial Bank\\|website\\=Hamburg Commercial Bank AG\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/cum\\-ex\\-hsh\\-nordbank\\-1\\.4560132\\|title\\=Die vergebliche Warnung des Herrn B.\\|last1\\=Hamburg\\|first1\\=Klaus Ott\\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-12\\|work\\=sueddeutsche.de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-12\\|last2\\=Frankfurt\\|first2\\=Jan Willmroth\\|language\\=de\\|issn\\=0174\\-4917}} HSH's involvement in cum\\-ex dividend trades were to follow the bank throughout the years up to 2017{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g\\=e44d6ce1\\-e36c\\-4c9b\\-a171\\-a225b68cf8e2\\|title\\=Cum\\-Ex trading scandal in Germany – A huge challenge for financial institutions and the insurance industry {{!}} Lexology\\|website\\=www.lexology.com\\|date\\=7 February 2017 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/today/finance/tax\\-avoidance\\-commerzbank\\-defends\\-ex\\-dividend\\-tax\\-exemptions/23543152\\.html\\|title\\=Tax Avoidance: Commerzbank Defends Ex\\-Dividend Tax Exemptions\\|website\\=www.handelsblatt.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}",
"### Privatization, Lawsuits and the Return of the Cum\\-Ex Scandal 2018–2019",
"In mid\\-2016, the bank’s owners hired [Citigroup](/wiki/Citigroup \"Citigroup\") to organize the process to privatize HSH Nordbank under [European state\\-aid rules](/wiki/State_aid_%28European_Union%29 \"State aid (European Union)\") by the end of February 2018\\. Over the course of 2017, [Apollo Global Management](/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management \"Apollo Global Management\") of the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\")Alexander Hübner (April 2, 2017\\), [HNA, Apollo Global among bidders vying for HSH Nordbank: sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-nordbank-privatisation-idUSKBN17502O) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. as well as [Anbang Insurance Group](/wiki/Anbang_Insurance_Group \"Anbang Insurance Group\"),Tom Sims (May 9, 2017\\), [German regulator welcomes Chinese interest in nation's banks](https://www.reuters.com/article/bafin-regulation-china-idUSL8N1IB2EU) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*.[HNA Group](/wiki/HNA_Group \"HNA Group\") and [ICBC](/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Bank_of_China \"Industrial and Commercial Bank of China\")Arno Schuetze and Jan Schwartz (February 27, 2017\\), [HSH Nordbank attracts handful of potential bidders – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-sale-idUSL5N1GC4X6) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. of [China](/wiki/China \"China\") were considered as interested buyers but ultimately did not submit a bid for the bank.Maria Sheahan (May 10, 2017\\), [HNA won't submit bid for Germany's HSH Nordbank: Handelsblatt](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-nordbank-privatisation-hna-idUSKBN18610G) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. By the end of the year, bids were submitted by Apollo, Socrates and a consortium of private equity groups [Cerberus Capital Management](/wiki/Cerberus_Capital_Management \"Cerberus Capital Management\") and [J.C. Flowers](/wiki/J.C._Flowers \"J.C. Flowers\").Arno Schuetze, Klaus Lauer and Jonathan Saul (November 29, 2017\\), [Three rivals vie to buy Germany's HSH Nordbank](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/update-1-three-rivals-vie-to-buy-germanys-hsh-nordbank-idUSL8N1NZ3I2) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*.",
"In February 2018, the state governments of Schleswig\\-Holstein and Hamburg – at the time led by [Daniel Günther](/wiki/Daniel_G%C3%BCnther \"Daniel Günther\") and [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz \"Olaf Scholz\") – agreed to sell their shares for an estimated 1 billion euros to a group of private equity investors led by Cerberus and JC Flowers. Other funds involved were [GoldenTree Asset Management](/wiki/GoldenTree_Asset_Management \"GoldenTree Asset Management\") and [Centaurus](/wiki/John_D._Arnold \"John D. Arnold\").Christopher Spink (March 1, 2018\\), [HSH Nordbank bondholders fear privatisation measures](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisat/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisation-measures-idUSL8N1QJ6JG) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. In addition, Austrian bank [BAWAG](/wiki/BAWAG \"BAWAG\") also contributed. The transaction also saw the bank’s non\\-performing loan portfolio, principally shipping\\-related, sold to a special purpose vehicle set up by Cerberus, JC Flowers, GoldenTree and Centaurus at a price below its current book value.Klaus Lauer (February 26, 2018\\), [HSH Nordbank sale in separate private equity vehicles: sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-nordbank-sale/hsh-nordbank-sale-in-separate-private-equity-vehicles-sources-idUSKCN1GA1Z8) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*.Christopher Spink (March 1, 2018\\), [HSH Nordbank bondholders fear privatisation measures](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisat/hsh-nordbank-bondholders-fear-privatisation-measures-idUSL8N1QJ6JG) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. The sale of shares is subject to the approval of the European Commission and the [European Central Bank](/wiki/European_Central_Bank \"European Central Bank\"). After its privatization, HSH Nordbank will also have to leave the [deposit insurance scheme](/wiki/Deposit_insurance \"Deposit insurance\") of Germany’s publicly owned banks and join the private sector plan.Olaf Storbeck (February 28, 2018\\), [HSH Nordbank to be sold to US private equity consortium](https://www.ft.com/content/1fe7440c-1c84-11e8-aaca-4574d7dabfb6) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"Hamburg and Schleswig\\-Holstein later said that total losses they incurred in their HSH investment would range from 10\\.8 billion to a maximum of 14 billion euros.Klaus Lauer (April 25, 2018\\), [HSH to post pretax loss of more than 400 mln euros – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/hsh-to-post-pretax-loss-of-more-than-400-mln-euros-sources-idUSL8N1S27BL) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*.",
"In January 2019 a group of 18 bond investors sued HSH Nordbank for 1\\.4 billion euros, accusing the bank of improperly lowering the book value of its Tier [One](/wiki/Tier_1_capital \"Tier 1 capital\") capital instruments via accounting actions the bank took prior to and during the 2018 sales process.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Storbeck \\|first\\=Olaf \\|date\\=7 January 2019 \\|title\\=HSH Nordbank sued by bondholders for €1\\.4bn \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|website\\=Financial Times \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/ec8f27a4\\-1274\\-11e9\\-a581\\-4ff78404524e \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.penews.com/articles/hsh\\-nordbank\\-bondholders\\-sue\\-for\\-e1\\-4\\-billion\\-20190108\\|title\\=HSH Nordbank Bondholders Sue for €1\\.4 Billion\\|last\\=Scurria\\|first\\=Andrew\\|website\\=www.penews.com\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}} Earlier, in relation to that same lawsuit, the investor group had filed a [1782 discovery request](/wiki/Section_1782_Discovery \"Section 1782 Discovery\") in the United States Court system asking to be allowed to serve subpoenas on the bank's new owners; Cerberus, JC Flowers and Goldentree Asset Management. The 1782 request seeks information related to the NPL portfolio sale and share sale. In their initial motion, plaintiffs stated \"The inside nature of the NPL Portfolio Sale, and the decision to sell HSH and the NPL Portfolio (at a deep discount to book value) to virtually the same investor consortium, strongly suggest severe irregularities in both the Bank Sale and the NPL Portfolio Sale transactions.\" The Court granted the request at the end of 2018\\. The decision is currently under appeal.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-hsh\\-privatisation\\-lawsuit\\-idUSKBN1K11MO\\|title\\=HSH bondholders seek U.S. help in lawsuit over privatization\\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-11\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7343375/4/in\\-re\\-application\\-of\\-hansain\\-vest\\-hanseatische\\-investment\\-gmbh\\-in\\-respect/\\|title\\=Memorandum of Law in Support of Motion – \\#4 in In re Application of HANSAIN VEST Hanseatische Investment\\-GmbH in respect of the Fund Aramea Rendite Plus Trinity Investments Designated Activity Company (S.D.N.Y., 1:18\\-mc\\-00310\\) – CourtListener.com\\|website\\=CourtListener\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7343375/1/in\\-re\\-application\\-of\\-hansain\\-vest\\-hanseatische\\-investment\\-gmbh\\-in\\-respect/\\|title\\=Discovery – \\#1 in In re Application of HANSAIN VEST Hanseatische Investment\\-GmbH in respect of the Fund Aramea Rendite Plus Trinity Investments Designated Activity Company (S.D.N.Y., 1:18\\-mc\\-00310\\) – CourtListener.com\\|website\\=CourtListener\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-30}} On October 4, 2019, the court lifted the stay that had been placed over the production of documents in the 1782 case. The plaintiffs are free to begin discovery even while the 1782 case is under appeal{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7343375/67/in\\-re\\-application\\-of\\-hansain\\-vest\\-hanseatische\\-investment\\-gmbh\\-in\\-respect/\\|title\\=Memorandum \\& Opinion – \\#67 in In re Application of HANSAIN VEST Hanseatische Investment\\-GmbH in respect of the Fund Aramea Rendite Plus Trinity Investments Designated Activity Company (S.D.N.Y., 1:18\\-mc\\-00310\\) – CourtListener.com\\|website\\=CourtListener\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-07}} This lawsuit is in addition to earlier lawsuits filed by the insurance companies Talanx, Huk\\-Coburg and Baloise in May 2018 over the same issues. Those lawsuits seeks damages of over euro 285 million.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bocquel\\-news.de/Huk\\-Coburg\\-Talanx\\-und\\-Baloise\\-ziehen\\-vor\\-Gericht.37599\\.php\\|title\\=Huk\\-Coburg, Talanx und Baloise ziehen vor Gericht – bocquell\\-news.de\\|website\\=www.bocquel\\-news.de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.juve.de/nachrichten/verfahren/2019/03/streit\\-um\\-stille\\-einlagen\\-hsh\\-nachfolgerin\\-wehrt\\-sich\\-mit\\-white\\-case\\-gegen\\-klagen\\|title\\=Streit um stille Einlagen: HSH\\-Nachfolgerin wehrt sich mit White \\& Case gegen Klagen « JUVE\\|last\\=www.juve.de\\|first\\=JUVE\\-\\|date\\=20 March 2019 \\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-31}} In December 2019, HCOB settled with the group of bondholders that had sued it in January 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://comfi.lessentiel.lu/i\\_actualite.html?id\\=906031\\|title\\=Webdisclosure iframe\\|website\\=comfi.lessentiel.lu\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-27}}",
"In September 2019, the Cum\\-Ex scandal returned in force for the German Banking industry as an ex\\-British banker, who had been charged with fraud in relation to the schemes, agreed to testify and explain the inner working and participants in these transactions in the Bonn District Court.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-germany\\-trading\\-trial\\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905061542/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-germany\\-trading\\-trial\\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=September 5, 2019\\|title\\=Banker to reveal workings of trading scheme in German fraud trial,...\\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-04\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-19\\|language\\=en}} On his first day of testimony the banker only referred to as Martin S. went into detail on how the transactions worked to defraud the German Treasury by making it appear that one set of stock securities had more than one owner. These multiple owners would all then file for tax refund reimbursements related to the dividends received from the underlying stock. Martin then went on to name the biggest players in the scandal of who he was aware. He named Hypo\\-Vereinsbank, Commerzbank, HSH Nordbank, WestLB and Deutsche Bank as those players.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/cum\\-ex\\-banken\\-steuern\\-1\\.4605795\\|title\\=Der Cum\\-Ex\\-Jongleur packt aus\\|last\\=Wischmeyer\\|first\\=Nils\\|website\\=Süddeutsche.de\\|date\\=18 September 2019 \\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-19}} The trial of Martin S. \" is the first in a wider investigation aimed at recovering billions from banks who profited from a scheme, described by finance minister Olaf Scholz, as a ‘scandal’ which Germany estimates cost it more than 5 billion euros.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-germany\\-trading\\-trial\\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905061542/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-germany\\-trading\\-trial\\-idUKKCN1VP2AH\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=September 5, 2019\\|title\\=Banker to reveal workings of trading scheme in German fraud trial,...\\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-04\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-19\\|language\\=en}} On 14 October 2019, Handlesblatt Online reported for the first time that Hamburg Commercial Bank's current CEO, Stephan Ermisch,may have personal exposure for restitution that may need to be paid back to the German Government in relation to cum\\-ex trading. His exposure owes to the fact that Ermisch had oversight of the departments at Hypo\\-Vereinsbank (his previous employer) which engaged in cum\\-ex trading and the bank is now seeking compensation from three ex\\-committee members in an amount of 110mm euros. There is a chance that these ex\\-committee members, in turn, will make a claim against Ermisch.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/finanzen/banken\\-versicherungen/cum\\-ex/cum\\-ex\\-steuerskandal\\-staatsanwaltschaft\\-ermittelt\\-gegen\\-ehemalige\\-hsh\\-nordbank/25103566\\.html\\|title\\=Cum\\-Ex: Steuerskandal: Staatsanwaltschaft ermittelt gegen ehemalige HSH Nordbank\\|website\\=www.handelsblatt.com\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-14}} The article also claims that at the time HSH's own misdeeds in relation to cum\\-ex trading came to light, the Hanseatic state government showed no zeal to actually investigate the bank at that time. However, currently the Cum\\-ex scandal is being actively pursued by prosecutors in the city of Cologne who are showing much more zeal in pursuing banks that engaged in the illegal stock maneuvers. It was further reported by many German newspapers that the Cologne Prosecutors Office now has over 400 individuals in its investigative sights, including two former HSH Nordbank managers. The investigation also has many financial institutions as targets, including HCOB. Spokespeople for HCOB say that they consider the matter resolved via their previous payments of 127mm euro. However, it is unclear whether the Cologne Prosecutors Office will again be investigating HCOB in relation to its participation in the scandal and whether more charges and penalties might be forthcoming. The articles now estimate the scandal cost the German Treasury approximately 12 billion euros.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.manager\\-magazin.de/unternehmen/banken/hsh\\-nordbank\\-ermittlungen\\-gegen\\-ex\\-manager\\-wegen\\-cum\\-ex\\-a\\-1291620\\.html\\|title\\=HSH\\-Nordbank: Ermittlungen gegen Ex\\-Manager wegen Cum\\-Ex\\|website\\=manager magazin\\|date\\=15 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-15}}",
""
] |
### Financial crisis of 2007–2010
Similarly to peers such as [NORD/LB](/wiki/Norddeutsche_Landesbank "Norddeutsche Landesbank"), [Commerzbank](/wiki/Commerzbank "Commerzbank"), [Deutsche Hypothekenbank](/wiki/Deutsche_Hypothekenbank "Deutsche Hypothekenbank") and [KfW](/wiki/KfW "KfW"), HSH Nordbank buckled under excessive risk\-taking prior to the [financial crisis of 2007\-2010](/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007-2010 "Financial crisis of 2007-2010"), when it had sought to expand beyond its roots as a regional lender to companies and savings banks into global capital markets.Nicholas Brautlecht, Nicholas Comfort and Steven Arons (January 26, 2017\), [China Not Europe May Salvage HSH as German Bank Looks East](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-26/germany-s-troubled-hsh-looks-east-as-europe-shuns-bank-sale) *[Bloomberg News](/wiki/Bloomberg_News "Bloomberg News")*.Jack Ewing (December 4, 2012\), [Global Shipping Industry’s Troubles Are Threat for Biggest German Banks](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/05/business/global/the-next-crisis-for-german-banks-isnt-greece-its-shipping.html) *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")*. It had done so in anticipation of the expiry of a rule that allowed for generous refinancing of German state\-backed banks.Klaus Lauer (April 25, 2018\), [HSH to post pretax loss of more than 400 mln euros – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/hsh-to-post-pretax-loss-of-more-than-400-mln-euros-sources-idUSL8N1S27BL) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. With the beginning of the crisis, HSH had to report losses on their credit investment portfolio. In September 2008 HSH Nordbank announced further writedowns. As a direct consequence the CEO Hans Berger stepped down and in the following weeks HSH announced extensive restructuring.{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\_release\_detail\_24965\.jsp\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712225958/http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\_release\_detail\_24965\.jsp\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=12 July 2011\|title\=Chief Executive Officer Hans Berger resigns\|date\=10 September 2008\|publisher\=HSH Nordbank\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-09}} Branches in Copenhagen and Hong Kong were reduced to representations and new business was focused on the core region in northern Germany.
In December 2008, HSH Nordbank was granted to issue up to 30 billion euros guaranteed notes under the German [SoFFin](/wiki/SoFFin "SoFFin") program. One requirement that was imposed on HSH was to raise the capital ratio to at least 8%. On January 20, 2009, 3 billion euros 3 year guaranteed notes were issued.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\_garantie\_brd/fitch\_confirm.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230128/http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\_garantie\_brd/fitch\_confirm.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=12 July 2011\|title\=Fitch rates HSH Nordbak AG's guaranteed issue 'AAA'\|date\=14 January 2009\|publisher\=Fitch Ratings\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-09}} On February 24, 2009, HSH received new capital of EUR 3 billion and credit guarantees of 10 billion euros by the two main shareholders, the states of Hamburg and Schleswig\-Holstein.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/0,1518,609632,00\.html\|title\=Germany's HSH Nordbank Saved from Collapse\|date\=24 February 2009\|work\=Spiegel Online\|publisher\=SPIEGELnet GmbH\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-09}} The other shareholders, JC Flowers and the Savings Banks Association of Schleswig\-Holstein, did not participate in the capital infusion. Together with this increase of its core\-capital, HSH announced further restructuring. It planned to spin off non\-strategic activities and the [toxic asset](/wiki/Toxic_asset "Toxic asset") portfolio into a—yet to be created—[Bad Bank](/wiki/Bad_Bank "Bad Bank").
In 2008, HSH Nordbank filed a claim with the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court "New York Supreme Court") against [UBS](/wiki/UBS "UBS") over losses it says it suffered on a $500 million portfolio of [collateralized debt obligations](/wiki/Collateralized_debt_obligation "Collateralized debt obligation") linked to the [U.S. mortgage market](/wiki/Mortgage_industry_of_the_United_States "Mortgage industry of the United States").Richard Barley (February 26, 2008\), [HSH says filed CDO suit against UBS](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-ubs/hsh-says-filed-cdo-suit-against-ubs-idUKL2646305320080226) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. By 2012, the court found that HSH should have been able to conduct its own due diligence and dismissed the fraud claim, a decision that lawyers interpreted as having broader implications for investors seeking damages for losses incurred in the financial crisis.Tom Braithwaite and Shahien Nasiripour (March 28, 2012\), [New York court rejects claim against UBS](https://www.ft.com/content/8900ccdc-785d-11e1-bffc-00144feab49a) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
On April 9, 2009, president of supervisory board [Wolfgang Peiner](/wiki/Wolfgang_Peiner "Wolfgang Peiner") appointed [Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer](/wiki/Freshfields_Bruckhaus_Deringer "Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer") to investigate recent management decisions of the [Vorstand](/wiki/Vorstand "Vorstand").{{cite news\|title\=HSH Nordbank: Überprüfung der Vorstände angeordnet\|url\=http://www1\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\.html\|work\=\[\[Norddeutscher Rundfunk\|NDR]]\|date\=9 April 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412064701/http://www1\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\.html\|archive\-date\=12 April 2009}} On April 17, 2009, the supervisory board of HSH Nordbank relieved Frank Roth, member of the management board of his duties and started pressing criminal charges against him. The bank claims that Roth leaked strictly confidential information to outside parties.{{cite web\|title\=HSH Nordbank to press criminal charges against Management Board member Frank Roth\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\_release\_detail\_315410\.jsp\|publisher\=HSH Nordbank\|date\=17 April 2009\|access\-date\=4 June 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120904072853/http://www.hsh\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\_release\_detail\_315410\.jsp\|archive\-date\=4 September 2012}}
In May 2009 [Standard \& Poor’s](/wiki/Standard_%26_Poor%E2%80%99s "Standard & Poor’s") downgraded HSH to BBB\+.
On October 13, 2009, *[Norddeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Norddeutscher_Rundfunk "Norddeutscher Rundfunk")* reported on a questionable CDO deal codenamed "Omega 55" between HSH Nordbank and [BNP Paribas](/wiki/BNP_Paribas "BNP Paribas") in late 2007, that eventually cost HSH Nordbank 500 million euros. Parts of that deal were not disclosed to the German [Federal Financial Supervisory Authority](/wiki/Federal_Financial_Supervisory_Authority "Federal Financial Supervisory Authority") (BaFin).{{Citation \|last1\=Hornung \|first1\=Peter \|last2\=Webermann \|first2\=Jürgen \|date\=October 13, 2009 \|title\=HSH\-Chef genehmigte offenbar verlustreiches Geschäft \|work\=NDR Info \|url\=http://www.ndr.de/wirtschaft/hshnordbank328\.html }}. Omega 55 was a hybrid CDO which exposed HSH Nordbank to the risks of default of other financial institutions including the now bankrupt [Lehman Brothers](/wiki/Lehman_Brothers "Lehman Brothers") and [Washington Mutual](/wiki/Washington_Mutual "Washington Mutual"). However, also included in the deal were several billion euros of risk tied to HSH Nordbank's own assets. It is alleged that he inclusion of this last element allowed HSH Nordbank to move several billions of risky assets off its balance sheet at year end and avoid costly capital reserves which BaFin would require the bank to post. The assets were repurchased several weeks later after auditors had closed the books of the bank for the year.
In 2012 the Hamburg Public Prosecutors filed charges against six former HSH Nordbank Directors, including the former CEO Dirk Jens Nonnenmacher, in relation to the Omega 55 transaction. The indictment ran to over 600 pages long. They were accused of breach of trust and accounting fraud. The charges were dismissed in 2014\. However, that acquittal was overturned by the Federal Court of Justice in October 2016 and a new trial scheduled before the Hamburg District Court.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/Milliarden\-fuer\-die\-HSH\-Trauerspiel\-in\-fuenf\-Akten,hshnordbank1134\.html\|title\=Milliarden für die HSH: Trauerspiel in fünf Akten\|last\=NDR\|website\=www.ndr.de\|language\=de\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}} In June 2019, five of the ex\-directors settled the charges against them via the "payment of money". The ex\-directors had to make individual payments of between 500 thousand and 1\.6 million euros to settle the charges.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/article225954591/Neuer\-HSH\-Prozess\-Ex\-Chefs\-kaufen\-sich\-frei.html\|title\=Neuer HSH\-Prozess: Ex\-Chefs kaufen sich frei\|last\=Mittelacher\|first\=Bettina\|date\=2019\-06\-06\|website\=www.abendblatt.de\|language\=de\-DE\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}
In 2009, HSH Nordbank had a balance sheet of 174\.5 billion euros and reported a loss of 678 million euros.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hsh\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\.pdf?\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126002423/http://hsh\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=26 November 2010\|title\=Annual Report as of 31 December 2009\|date\=15 April 2010\|publisher\=HSH Nordbank\|access\-date\=2010\-04\-15}}
In 2010, HSH Nordbank was again caught up in scandal. Its CEO, Jens Nonnenmacher, and its General Counsel, Wolfgang Gossman, were accused of planting child pornography on the office computer of the then Head of its New York Branch. The child pornography was planted in order to give the bank an excuse to fire the branch head.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.businessinsider.com/details\-on\-the\-wild\-allegations\-of\-spying\-and\-porn\-evidence\-planting\-at\-a\-german\-bank\-2010\-9\|title\=Details On The Wild Allegations Of Spying And Porn Evidence Planting At A German Bank\|website\=Business Insider\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}} United States prosecutors originally moved against the branch head but rescinded the allegations when certain evidence did not hold up.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/business/hamburg\-bank\-scandal\-ex\-government\-spokesman\-spread\-child\-porn\-investigation\-rumors\-a\-720264\.html\|title\=Hamburg Bank Scandal: Ex\-Government Spokesman Spread Child Porn Investigation Rumors\|last1\=Dahlkamp\|first1\=Jürgen\|date\=2010\-10\-01\|work\=Spiegel Online\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29\|last2\=Latsch\|first2\=Gunther\|last3\=Schmitt\|first3\=Jörg}} The bank settled this scandal through a reported settlement of 7 million US dollars after the bank's supervisory board hired law firm WilmerHale to conduct an investigation. The management board of the bank also issued an apology to the former branch head in 2011\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/wronged\-german\-bank\-manager\-it\-s\-as\-if\-i\-were\-paralyzed\-a\-752465\.html\|title\=Wronged German Bank Manager: 'It's As If I Were Paralyzed'\|date\=2011\-03\-23\|work\=Spiegel Online\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-29}}
|
[
"### Financial crisis of 2007–2010",
"Similarly to peers such as [NORD/LB](/wiki/Norddeutsche_Landesbank \"Norddeutsche Landesbank\"), [Commerzbank](/wiki/Commerzbank \"Commerzbank\"), [Deutsche Hypothekenbank](/wiki/Deutsche_Hypothekenbank \"Deutsche Hypothekenbank\") and [KfW](/wiki/KfW \"KfW\"), HSH Nordbank buckled under excessive risk\\-taking prior to the [financial crisis of 2007\\-2010](/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007-2010 \"Financial crisis of 2007-2010\"), when it had sought to expand beyond its roots as a regional lender to companies and savings banks into global capital markets.Nicholas Brautlecht, Nicholas Comfort and Steven Arons (January 26, 2017\\), [China Not Europe May Salvage HSH as German Bank Looks East](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-26/germany-s-troubled-hsh-looks-east-as-europe-shuns-bank-sale) *[Bloomberg News](/wiki/Bloomberg_News \"Bloomberg News\")*.Jack Ewing (December 4, 2012\\), [Global Shipping Industry’s Troubles Are Threat for Biggest German Banks](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/05/business/global/the-next-crisis-for-german-banks-isnt-greece-its-shipping.html) *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")*. It had done so in anticipation of the expiry of a rule that allowed for generous refinancing of German state\\-backed banks.Klaus Lauer (April 25, 2018\\), [HSH to post pretax loss of more than 400 mln euros – sources](https://www.reuters.com/article/hsh-nordbank-results/hsh-to-post-pretax-loss-of-more-than-400-mln-euros-sources-idUSL8N1S27BL) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. With the beginning of the crisis, HSH had to report losses on their credit investment portfolio. In September 2008 HSH Nordbank announced further writedowns. As a direct consequence the CEO Hans Berger stepped down and in the following weeks HSH announced extensive restructuring.{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\\_release\\_detail\\_24965\\.jsp\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712225958/http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2008/press\\_release\\_detail\\_24965\\.jsp\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2011\\|title\\=Chief Executive Officer Hans Berger resigns\\|date\\=10 September 2008\\|publisher\\=HSH Nordbank\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-09}} Branches in Copenhagen and Hong Kong were reduced to representations and new business was focused on the core region in northern Germany.",
"In December 2008, HSH Nordbank was granted to issue up to 30 billion euros guaranteed notes under the German [SoFFin](/wiki/SoFFin \"SoFFin\") program. One requirement that was imposed on HSH was to raise the capital ratio to at least 8%. On January 20, 2009, 3 billion euros 3 year guaranteed notes were issued.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\\_garantie\\_brd/fitch\\_confirm.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230128/http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/media/pdf/investorrelations/funding/anleihen\\_garantie\\_brd/fitch\\_confirm.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2011\\|title\\=Fitch rates HSH Nordbak AG's guaranteed issue 'AAA'\\|date\\=14 January 2009\\|publisher\\=Fitch Ratings\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-09}} On February 24, 2009, HSH received new capital of EUR 3 billion and credit guarantees of 10 billion euros by the two main shareholders, the states of Hamburg and Schleswig\\-Holstein.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/0,1518,609632,00\\.html\\|title\\=Germany's HSH Nordbank Saved from Collapse\\|date\\=24 February 2009\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|publisher\\=SPIEGELnet GmbH\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-09}} The other shareholders, JC Flowers and the Savings Banks Association of Schleswig\\-Holstein, did not participate in the capital infusion. Together with this increase of its core\\-capital, HSH announced further restructuring. It planned to spin off non\\-strategic activities and the [toxic asset](/wiki/Toxic_asset \"Toxic asset\") portfolio into a—yet to be created—[Bad Bank](/wiki/Bad_Bank \"Bad Bank\").",
"In 2008, HSH Nordbank filed a claim with the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court \"New York Supreme Court\") against [UBS](/wiki/UBS \"UBS\") over losses it says it suffered on a $500 million portfolio of [collateralized debt obligations](/wiki/Collateralized_debt_obligation \"Collateralized debt obligation\") linked to the [U.S. mortgage market](/wiki/Mortgage_industry_of_the_United_States \"Mortgage industry of the United States\").Richard Barley (February 26, 2008\\), [HSH says filed CDO suit against UBS](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsh-ubs/hsh-says-filed-cdo-suit-against-ubs-idUKL2646305320080226) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. By 2012, the court found that HSH should have been able to conduct its own due diligence and dismissed the fraud claim, a decision that lawyers interpreted as having broader implications for investors seeking damages for losses incurred in the financial crisis.Tom Braithwaite and Shahien Nasiripour (March 28, 2012\\), [New York court rejects claim against UBS](https://www.ft.com/content/8900ccdc-785d-11e1-bffc-00144feab49a) *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"On April 9, 2009, president of supervisory board [Wolfgang Peiner](/wiki/Wolfgang_Peiner \"Wolfgang Peiner\") appointed [Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer](/wiki/Freshfields_Bruckhaus_Deringer \"Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer\") to investigate recent management decisions of the [Vorstand](/wiki/Vorstand \"Vorstand\").{{cite news\\|title\\=HSH Nordbank: Überprüfung der Vorstände angeordnet\\|url\\=http://www1\\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\\.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[Norddeutscher Rundfunk\\|NDR]]\\|date\\=9 April 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412064701/http://www1\\.ndr.de/nachrichten/hshnordbank194\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2009}} On April 17, 2009, the supervisory board of HSH Nordbank relieved Frank Roth, member of the management board of his duties and started pressing criminal charges against him. The bank claims that Roth leaked strictly confidential information to outside parties.{{cite web\\|title\\=HSH Nordbank to press criminal charges against Management Board member Frank Roth\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\\_release\\_detail\\_315410\\.jsp\\|publisher\\=HSH Nordbank\\|date\\=17 April 2009\\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120904072853/http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.com/en/presse/pressemitteilungen/2009/press\\_release\\_detail\\_315410\\.jsp\\|archive\\-date\\=4 September 2012}}",
"In May 2009 [Standard \\& Poor’s](/wiki/Standard_%26_Poor%E2%80%99s \"Standard & Poor’s\") downgraded HSH to BBB\\+.",
"On October 13, 2009, *[Norddeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Norddeutscher_Rundfunk \"Norddeutscher Rundfunk\")* reported on a questionable CDO deal codenamed \"Omega 55\" between HSH Nordbank and [BNP Paribas](/wiki/BNP_Paribas \"BNP Paribas\") in late 2007, that eventually cost HSH Nordbank 500 million euros. Parts of that deal were not disclosed to the German [Federal Financial Supervisory Authority](/wiki/Federal_Financial_Supervisory_Authority \"Federal Financial Supervisory Authority\") (BaFin).{{Citation \\|last1\\=Hornung \\|first1\\=Peter \\|last2\\=Webermann \\|first2\\=Jürgen \\|date\\=October 13, 2009 \\|title\\=HSH\\-Chef genehmigte offenbar verlustreiches Geschäft \\|work\\=NDR Info \\|url\\=http://www.ndr.de/wirtschaft/hshnordbank328\\.html }}. Omega 55 was a hybrid CDO which exposed HSH Nordbank to the risks of default of other financial institutions including the now bankrupt [Lehman Brothers](/wiki/Lehman_Brothers \"Lehman Brothers\") and [Washington Mutual](/wiki/Washington_Mutual \"Washington Mutual\"). However, also included in the deal were several billion euros of risk tied to HSH Nordbank's own assets. It is alleged that he inclusion of this last element allowed HSH Nordbank to move several billions of risky assets off its balance sheet at year end and avoid costly capital reserves which BaFin would require the bank to post. The assets were repurchased several weeks later after auditors had closed the books of the bank for the year.",
"In 2012 the Hamburg Public Prosecutors filed charges against six former HSH Nordbank Directors, including the former CEO Dirk Jens Nonnenmacher, in relation to the Omega 55 transaction. The indictment ran to over 600 pages long. They were accused of breach of trust and accounting fraud. The charges were dismissed in 2014\\. However, that acquittal was overturned by the Federal Court of Justice in October 2016 and a new trial scheduled before the Hamburg District Court.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/Milliarden\\-fuer\\-die\\-HSH\\-Trauerspiel\\-in\\-fuenf\\-Akten,hshnordbank1134\\.html\\|title\\=Milliarden für die HSH: Trauerspiel in fünf Akten\\|last\\=NDR\\|website\\=www.ndr.de\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}} In June 2019, five of the ex\\-directors settled the charges against them via the \"payment of money\". The ex\\-directors had to make individual payments of between 500 thousand and 1\\.6 million euros to settle the charges.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/article225954591/Neuer\\-HSH\\-Prozess\\-Ex\\-Chefs\\-kaufen\\-sich\\-frei.html\\|title\\=Neuer HSH\\-Prozess: Ex\\-Chefs kaufen sich frei\\|last\\=Mittelacher\\|first\\=Bettina\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-06\\|website\\=www.abendblatt.de\\|language\\=de\\-DE\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}",
"In 2009, HSH Nordbank had a balance sheet of 174\\.5 billion euros and reported a loss of 678 million euros.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hsh\\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\\.pdf?\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126002423/http://hsh\\-nordbank.de/media/de/pdf/investorrelations/geschaeftsber/2009\\_1/gb2009/konzernfinanzbericht2009\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=26 November 2010\\|title\\=Annual Report as of 31 December 2009\\|date\\=15 April 2010\\|publisher\\=HSH Nordbank\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-04\\-15}}",
"In 2010, HSH Nordbank was again caught up in scandal. Its CEO, Jens Nonnenmacher, and its General Counsel, Wolfgang Gossman, were accused of planting child pornography on the office computer of the then Head of its New York Branch. The child pornography was planted in order to give the bank an excuse to fire the branch head.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.businessinsider.com/details\\-on\\-the\\-wild\\-allegations\\-of\\-spying\\-and\\-porn\\-evidence\\-planting\\-at\\-a\\-german\\-bank\\-2010\\-9\\|title\\=Details On The Wild Allegations Of Spying And Porn Evidence Planting At A German Bank\\|website\\=Business Insider\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}} United States prosecutors originally moved against the branch head but rescinded the allegations when certain evidence did not hold up.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/business/hamburg\\-bank\\-scandal\\-ex\\-government\\-spokesman\\-spread\\-child\\-porn\\-investigation\\-rumors\\-a\\-720264\\.html\\|title\\=Hamburg Bank Scandal: Ex\\-Government Spokesman Spread Child Porn Investigation Rumors\\|last1\\=Dahlkamp\\|first1\\=Jürgen\\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-01\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29\\|last2\\=Latsch\\|first2\\=Gunther\\|last3\\=Schmitt\\|first3\\=Jörg}} The bank settled this scandal through a reported settlement of 7 million US dollars after the bank's supervisory board hired law firm WilmerHale to conduct an investigation. The management board of the bank also issued an apology to the former branch head in 2011\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/wronged\\-german\\-bank\\-manager\\-it\\-s\\-as\\-if\\-i\\-were\\-paralyzed\\-a\\-752465\\.html\\|title\\=Wronged German Bank Manager: 'It's As If I Were Paralyzed'\\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-23\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-29}}",
""
] |
Theory of multiculturalism
--------------------------
To make sense of the results from these studies, Smolicz developed a theory of [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism "Multiculturalism"). This held that the central, most important parts of [ethnic minority](/wiki/Ethnic_minority "Ethnic minority") cultures \- what he termed the group's core values \- were held in balance with the key values of Australian society as a whole. These latter values, which could be envisaged as overarching all groups in society, related to areas of life which those living in Australia needed to know, if they were to be free to participate in mainstream public life, rather than disadvantaged or marginalised.
Such overarching values included democratic ideals, rights and responsibilities; English as the common language of the nation and the political, legal and economic patterns which applied to all [citizens](/wiki/Citizen "Citizen") and residents. In balance with these commonalities was the recognition that a wide range of [cultural diversity](/wiki/Cultural_diversity "Cultural diversity") could exist in other areas of life, such as home languages, [religious beliefs](/wiki/Religious_belief "Religious belief") and practices, patterns of family life, [music](/wiki/Music "Music"), [art](/wiki/Art "Art") and [architecture](/wiki/Architecture "Architecture"), [food](/wiki/Food "Food") and festivities, [sports](/wiki/Sport "Sport") and leisure pursuits. Ethnic communities could maintain their core values in these areas for the well\-being of their individual members, the vitality of their community life and for sharing with other interested Australians, without denying their commitment to the nation of Australia. This sort of cultural interaction within and among individuals from both mainstream and minority ethnic backgrounds would provide the basis for Australia to become an ongoing and dynamic multicultural nation. These ideas are most fully developed in Smolicz's 1979 book, *Culture and Education in a Plural Society*, and the 1999 book, *J. J. Smolicz on Education and Culture*.
The main thrust of Smolicz's research findings and theory can be seen most clearly in the area of languages. All the different studies revealed that many immigrant parents wished to maintain their own language in the home \- alongside the use of English in [public domains](/wiki/Public_domain "Public domain"), as the common language of the nation. They wanted their children to be competent in English and to have literacy skills in the home language as well. And many of the children shared these aspirations. Through the 1960s and early 1970s, however, the school curriculum did not allow these invaluable linguistic resources in other languages to be developed for the enrichment of the individual children and their families, as well as the benefit of Australian society. English was the taken for granted language of instruction throughout education, while until the late 1960s the only other languages taught in schools were [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek"), [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"), [French](/wiki/French_language "French language") and [German](/wiki/German_language "German language"). Furthermore, the study of these was restricted to students in the upper IQ range of secondary schools. The one exception to this was the mother tongue teaching being provided by community\-based ethnic schools, without any public recognition or support.
The conclusion which Smolicz reached was that the achievement of a dynamic and lasting multicultural Australia hinged on the teaching of languages to all students, as an integral part of the curriculum from the beginning of primary schooling. There were, however, two sides to this which needed to be considered. The first was the right of students whose home language was other than English to be able to study the language of their home \- their [mother tongue](/wiki/Mother_tongue "Mother tongue") \- somewhere in the school system, or in some recognised structure complementary to it. For most ethnic communities, the maintenance of their language was essential if the group's cultural life was to remain vibrant and able to be shared with others. Without the language, the group's culture tended to disintegrate into residues, as members assimilated more and more into the culture of the mainstream group.
The other side was the importance of all students whose home language was English being able to study a language other than their own throughout their years at school. Learning another language had been shown to encourage the sort of positive attitude to other cultures which was needed for mainstream support of multicultural policies. It was also important to ensure that those whose mother tongue was English were not denied the sorts of cognitive, linguistic, cultural and occupational advantages of [bilingualism](/wiki/Bilingualism "Bilingualism"), advantages which those of minority ethnic background enjoyed wherever they had been able to maintain their mother tongue.
|
[
"Theory of multiculturalism\n--------------------------",
"To make sense of the results from these studies, Smolicz developed a theory of [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism \"Multiculturalism\"). This held that the central, most important parts of [ethnic minority](/wiki/Ethnic_minority \"Ethnic minority\") cultures \\- what he termed the group's core values \\- were held in balance with the key values of Australian society as a whole. These latter values, which could be envisaged as overarching all groups in society, related to areas of life which those living in Australia needed to know, if they were to be free to participate in mainstream public life, rather than disadvantaged or marginalised.",
"Such overarching values included democratic ideals, rights and responsibilities; English as the common language of the nation and the political, legal and economic patterns which applied to all [citizens](/wiki/Citizen \"Citizen\") and residents. In balance with these commonalities was the recognition that a wide range of [cultural diversity](/wiki/Cultural_diversity \"Cultural diversity\") could exist in other areas of life, such as home languages, [religious beliefs](/wiki/Religious_belief \"Religious belief\") and practices, patterns of family life, [music](/wiki/Music \"Music\"), [art](/wiki/Art \"Art\") and [architecture](/wiki/Architecture \"Architecture\"), [food](/wiki/Food \"Food\") and festivities, [sports](/wiki/Sport \"Sport\") and leisure pursuits. Ethnic communities could maintain their core values in these areas for the well\\-being of their individual members, the vitality of their community life and for sharing with other interested Australians, without denying their commitment to the nation of Australia. This sort of cultural interaction within and among individuals from both mainstream and minority ethnic backgrounds would provide the basis for Australia to become an ongoing and dynamic multicultural nation. These ideas are most fully developed in Smolicz's 1979 book, *Culture and Education in a Plural Society*, and the 1999 book, *J. J. Smolicz on Education and Culture*.",
"The main thrust of Smolicz's research findings and theory can be seen most clearly in the area of languages. All the different studies revealed that many immigrant parents wished to maintain their own language in the home \\- alongside the use of English in [public domains](/wiki/Public_domain \"Public domain\"), as the common language of the nation. They wanted their children to be competent in English and to have literacy skills in the home language as well. And many of the children shared these aspirations. Through the 1960s and early 1970s, however, the school curriculum did not allow these invaluable linguistic resources in other languages to be developed for the enrichment of the individual children and their families, as well as the benefit of Australian society. English was the taken for granted language of instruction throughout education, while until the late 1960s the only other languages taught in schools were [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\"), [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"), [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") and [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\"). Furthermore, the study of these was restricted to students in the upper IQ range of secondary schools. The one exception to this was the mother tongue teaching being provided by community\\-based ethnic schools, without any public recognition or support.",
"The conclusion which Smolicz reached was that the achievement of a dynamic and lasting multicultural Australia hinged on the teaching of languages to all students, as an integral part of the curriculum from the beginning of primary schooling. There were, however, two sides to this which needed to be considered. The first was the right of students whose home language was other than English to be able to study the language of their home \\- their [mother tongue](/wiki/Mother_tongue \"Mother tongue\") \\- somewhere in the school system, or in some recognised structure complementary to it. For most ethnic communities, the maintenance of their language was essential if the group's cultural life was to remain vibrant and able to be shared with others. Without the language, the group's culture tended to disintegrate into residues, as members assimilated more and more into the culture of the mainstream group.",
"The other side was the importance of all students whose home language was English being able to study a language other than their own throughout their years at school. Learning another language had been shown to encourage the sort of positive attitude to other cultures which was needed for mainstream support of multicultural policies. It was also important to ensure that those whose mother tongue was English were not denied the sorts of cognitive, linguistic, cultural and occupational advantages of [bilingualism](/wiki/Bilingualism \"Bilingualism\"), advantages which those of minority ethnic background enjoyed wherever they had been able to maintain their mother tongue.",
""
] |
Description of the procedure
----------------------------
Let a binary operation ' · ' be defined in a finite set *A* by a Cayley table. Choosing some element *a* in *A*, two new binary operations are defined in *A* as follows:
*x* \\star *y* \= *x* ⋅ ( *a* ⋅ *y* )
*x* \\circ *y* \= ( *x* ⋅ *a* ) ⋅ *y*
The Cayley tables of these operations are constructed and compared. If the tables coincide then *x* · ( *a* · *y* ) \= ( *x* · *a* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y*. This is repeated for every element of the set *A*.
The example below illustrates a further simplification in the procedure for the construction and comparison of the Cayley tables of the operations ' \\star ' and ' \\circ '.
It is not even necessary to construct the Cayley tables of ' \\star ' and ' \\circ ' for *all* elements of *A*. It is enough to compare Cayley tables of ' \\star ' and ' \\circ ' corresponding to the elements in a proper generating subset of *A*.
When the operation ' . ' is [commutative](/wiki/Commutative_property "Commutative property"), then x \\star y \= y \\circ x. As a result, only part of each Cayley table must be computed, because x \\star x \= x \\circ x always holds, and x \\star y \= x \\circ y implies y \\star x \= y \\circ x.
When there is an [identity element](/wiki/Identity_element "Identity element") e, it does not need to be included in the Cayley tables because x \\star y \= x \\circ y always holds if at least one of x and y are equal to e.
|
[
"Description of the procedure\n----------------------------",
"Let a binary operation ' · ' be defined in a finite set *A* by a Cayley table. Choosing some element *a* in *A*, two new binary operations are defined in *A* as follows:\n*x* \\\\star *y* \\= *x* ⋅ ( *a* ⋅ *y* )\n*x* \\\\circ *y* \\= ( *x* ⋅ *a* ) ⋅ *y*\nThe Cayley tables of these operations are constructed and compared. If the tables coincide then *x* · ( *a* · *y* ) \\= ( *x* · *a* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y*. This is repeated for every element of the set *A*.",
"The example below illustrates a further simplification in the procedure for the construction and comparison of the Cayley tables of the operations ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ '.",
"It is not even necessary to construct the Cayley tables of ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ ' for *all* elements of *A*. It is enough to compare Cayley tables of ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ ' corresponding to the elements in a proper generating subset of *A*.",
"When the operation ' . ' is [commutative](/wiki/Commutative_property \"Commutative property\"), then x \\\\star y \\= y \\\\circ x. As a result, only part of each Cayley table must be computed, because x \\\\star x \\= x \\\\circ x always holds, and x \\\\star y \\= x \\\\circ y implies y \\\\star x \\= y \\\\circ x.",
"When there is an [identity element](/wiki/Identity_element \"Identity element\") e, it does not need to be included in the Cayley tables because x \\\\star y \\= x \\\\circ y always holds if at least one of x and y are equal to e.",
""
] |
Example
-------
Consider the binary operation ' · ' in the set *A* \= { *a*, *b*, *c*, *d*, *e* } defined by the following Cayley table (Table 1\):
| \+Table 1 |
| --- |
| · | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
The set { *c*, *e* } is a generating set for the set *A* under the binary operation defined by the above table, for, *a* \= *e* · *e*, *b* \= *c* · *c*, *d* \= *c* · *e*. Thus it is enough to verify that the binary operations ' \\star ' and ' \\circ ' corresponding to *c* coincide and also that the binary operations ' \\star ' and ' \\circ ' corresponding to *e* coincide.
To verify that the binary operations ' \\star ' and ' \\circ ' corresponding to *c* coincide, choose the row in Table 1 corresponding to the element ***c*** :
| \+Table 2 |
| --- |
| · | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| ***c*** | *a*
*c*
*b*
*d*
*d*
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
This row is copied as the header row of a new table (Table 3\):
| \+Table 3 |
| --- |
| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
Under the header ***a*** copy the corresponding column in Table 1, under the header ***b*** copy the corresponding column in Table 1, etc., and construct Table 4\.
| \+Table 4 |
| --- |
| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
The column headers of Table 4 are now deleted to get Table 5:
| \+Table 5 |
| --- |
| | | | | | |
| | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
The Cayley table of the binary operation ' \\star ' corresponding to the element *c* is given by Table 6\.
| \+Table 6 |
| --- |
| \\star (c) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| ***c*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
Next choose the ***c*** column of Table 1:
| \+Table 7 |
| --- |
| · | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a*
*d* |
*d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c*
*d* |
*d* |
| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b*
*d* |
*d* |
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d*
*a* |
*a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e*
*a* |
*a* |
Copy this column to the index column to get Table 8:
| \+Table 8 |
| --- |
| | | | | | |
| ***a***
|
|
|
|
|
| ***c***
|
|
|
|
|
| ***b***
|
|
|
|
|
| ***d***
|
|
|
|
|
| ***e***
|
|
|
|
|
Against the index entry ***a*** in Table 8 copy the corresponding row in Table 1, against the index entry ***b*** copy the corresponding row in Table 1, etc., and construct Table 9\.
| \+Table 9 |
| --- |
| | | | | | |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
The index entries in the first column of Table 9 are now deleted to get Table 10:
| \+Table 10 |
| --- |
| | | | | | |
| | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
The Cayley table of the binary operation ' \\circ ' corresponding to the element *c* is given by Table 11\.
| \+Table 11 |
| --- |
| \\circ(c) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| ***c*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
One can verify that the entries in the various cells in Table 6 agrees with the entries in the corresponding cells of Table 11\. This shows that *x* · ( *c* · *y* ) \= ( *x* · *c* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y* in *A*. If there were some discrepancy then it would not be true that *x* · ( *c* · *y* ) \= ( *x* · *c* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y* in *A*.
That *x* · ( *e* · *y* ) \= ( *x* · *e* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y* in *A* can be verified in a similar way by constructing the following tables (Table 12 and Table 13\):
| \+Table 12 |
| --- |
| \\star(*e*) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a***
*d* |
*d* |
*d* |
*a* |
*a* |
| ***b***
*d* |
*d* |
*d* |
*a* |
*a* |
| ***c***
*d* |
*d* |
*d* |
*a* |
*a* |
| ***d***
*a* |
*a* |
*a* |
*d* |
*d* |
| ***e***
*a* |
*a* |
*a* |
*d* |
*d* |
| \+Table 13 |
| --- |
| \\circ(*e*) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |
| ***a***
*d* |
*d* |
*d* |
*a* |
*a* |
| ***b***
*d* |
*d* |
*d* |
*a* |
*a* |
| ***c***
*d* |
*d* |
*d* |
*a* |
*a* |
| ***d***
*a* |
*a* |
*a* |
*d* |
*d* |
| ***e***
*a* |
*a* |
*a* |
*d* |
*d* |
### A further simplification
It is not necessary to construct the Cayley tables (Table 6 and table 11\) of the binary operations ' \\star ' and ' \\circ '. It is enough to copy the column corresponding to the header ***c*** in Table 1 to the index column in Table 5 and form the following table (Table 14\) and verify that the ***a*** \-row of Table 14 is identical with the ***a*** \-row of Table 1, the ***b*** \-row of Table 14 is identical with the ***b*** \-row of Table 1, etc. This is to be repeated *mutatis mutandis* for all the elements of the generating set of *A*.
| \+Table 14 |
| --- |
| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |
| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |
| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |
| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |
| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |
|
[
"Example\n-------",
"Consider the binary operation ' · ' in the set *A* \\= { *a*, *b*, *c*, *d*, *e* } defined by the following Cayley table (Table 1\\):",
"",
"| \\+Table 1 |\n| --- |\n| · | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"The set { *c*, *e* } is a generating set for the set *A* under the binary operation defined by the above table, for, *a* \\= *e* · *e*, *b* \\= *c* · *c*, *d* \\= *c* · *e*. Thus it is enough to verify that the binary operations ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ ' corresponding to *c* coincide and also that the binary operations ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ ' corresponding to *e* coincide.",
"To verify that the binary operations ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ ' corresponding to *c* coincide, choose the row in Table 1 corresponding to the element ***c*** :",
"",
"| \\+Table 2 |\n| --- |\n| · | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a*",
"*c*",
"*b*",
"*d*",
"*d*",
"| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"This row is copied as the header row of a new table (Table 3\\):",
"",
"| \\+Table 3 |\n| --- |\n| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |",
"Under the header ***a*** copy the corresponding column in Table 1, under the header ***b*** copy the corresponding column in Table 1, etc., and construct Table 4\\.",
"",
"| \\+Table 4 |\n| --- |\n| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"The column headers of Table 4 are now deleted to get Table 5:",
"",
"| \\+Table 5 |\n| --- |\n| | | | | | |\n| | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"The Cayley table of the binary operation ' \\\\star ' corresponding to the element *c* is given by Table 6\\.",
"",
"| \\+Table 6 |\n| --- |\n| \\\\star (c) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"Next choose the ***c*** column of Table 1:",
"",
"| \\+Table 7 |\n| --- |\n| · | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a*",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c*",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b*",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d*",
"*a* |\n *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e*",
"*a* |\n *a* |",
"Copy this column to the index column to get Table 8:",
"",
"| \\+Table 8 |\n| --- |\n| | | | | | |\n| ***a***",
"|\n |\n |\n |\n |\n| ***c***",
"|\n |\n |\n |\n |\n| ***b***",
"|\n |\n |\n |\n |\n| ***d***",
"|\n |\n |\n |\n |\n| ***e***",
"|\n |\n |\n |\n |",
"Against the index entry ***a*** in Table 8 copy the corresponding row in Table 1, against the index entry ***b*** copy the corresponding row in Table 1, etc., and construct Table 9\\.",
"",
"| \\+Table 9 |\n| --- |\n| | | | | | |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"The index entries in the first column of Table 9 are now deleted to get Table 10:",
"",
"| \\+Table 10 |\n| --- |\n| | | | | | |\n| | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"The Cayley table of the binary operation ' \\\\circ ' corresponding to the element *c* is given by Table 11\\.",
"",
"| \\+Table 11 |\n| --- |\n| \\\\circ(c) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
"One can verify that the entries in the various cells in Table 6 agrees with the entries in the corresponding cells of Table 11\\. This shows that *x* · ( *c* · *y* ) \\= ( *x* · *c* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y* in *A*. If there were some discrepancy then it would not be true that *x* · ( *c* · *y* ) \\= ( *x* · *c* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y* in *A*.",
"That *x* · ( *e* · *y* ) \\= ( *x* · *e* ) · *y* for all *x* and *y* in *A* can be verified in a similar way by constructing the following tables (Table 12 and Table 13\\):",
"",
"| \\+Table 12 |\n| --- |\n| \\\\star(*e*) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a***",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n| ***b***",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n| ***c***",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n| ***d***",
"*a* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n| ***e***",
"*a* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n *d* |\n *d* |",
"",
"| \\+Table 13 |\n| --- |\n| \\\\circ(*e*) | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *e* |\n| ***a***",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n| ***b***",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n| ***c***",
"*d* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n| ***d***",
"*a* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n *d* |\n *d* |\n| ***e***",
"*a* |\n *a* |\n *a* |\n *d* |\n *d* |",
"### A further simplification",
"It is not necessary to construct the Cayley tables (Table 6 and table 11\\) of the binary operations ' \\\\star ' and ' \\\\circ '. It is enough to copy the column corresponding to the header ***c*** in Table 1 to the index column in Table 5 and form the following table (Table 14\\) and verify that the ***a*** \\-row of Table 14 is identical with the ***a*** \\-row of Table 1, the ***b*** \\-row of Table 14 is identical with the ***b*** \\-row of Table 1, etc. This is to be repeated *mutatis mutandis* for all the elements of the generating set of *A*.",
"",
"| \\+Table 14 |\n| --- |\n| | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***a*** | *a* | *a* | *a* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***c*** | *a* | *c* | *b* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***b*** | *a* | *b* | *c* | *d* | *d* |\n| ***d*** | *d* | *d* | *d* | *a* | *a* |\n| ***e*** | *d* | *e* | *e* | *a* | *a* |",
""
] |
Storylines
----------
Molly is introduced as the daughter of local baker, [Diggory Compton](/wiki/Diggory_Compton "Diggory Compton") ([Eric Potts](/wiki/Eric_Potts "Eric Potts")).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/soaps/a23933/molly\-helps\-out\-maria.html\|date\=5 September 2005\|title\=Molly helps out Maria\|work\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|access\-date\=29 October 2008}} When she first arrives, it becomes clear that she was a victim of [bullying](/wiki/Bullying "Bullying") at school, particularly by [Fiz Brown](/wiki/Fiz_Brown "Fiz Brown") ([Jennie McAlpine](/wiki/Jennie_McAlpine "Jennie McAlpine")). Molly starts to work for Fiz's boyfriend [Kirk Sutherland](/wiki/Kirk_Sutherland "Kirk Sutherland") ([Andrew Whyment](/wiki/Andrew_Whyment "Andrew Whyment")), whom she flirts with to get revenge on Fiz and wind her up.
After briefly working in her father's shop and at Kirk's kennels, Molly then starts working for [Dev Alahan](/wiki/Dev_Alahan "Dev Alahan") ([Jimmi Harkishin](/wiki/Jimmi_Harkishin "Jimmi Harkishin")) at his corner shop. Molly begins dating [Tyrone Dobbs](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs "Tyrone Dobbs") ([Alan Halsall](/wiki/Alan_Halsall "Alan Halsall")) and lives with him and his foster parents [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Duckworth "Jack Duckworth") ([Bill Tarmey](/wiki/Bill_Tarmey "Bill Tarmey")) and [Vera Duckworth](/wiki/Vera_Duckworth "Vera Duckworth") ([Liz Dawn](/wiki/Liz_Dawn "Liz Dawn")). Molly forms a close bond and friendship with Vera and asks her for advice about her relationship with Tyrone. Molly is devastated when Vera dies in January 2008\.
After Vera's death, Molly and Tyrone buy the Duckworths' house and live there with Jack, and also keep Jack and Vera's grandson [Paul Clayton](/wiki/Paul_Clayton_%28Coronation_Street%29 "Paul Clayton (Coronation Street)") ([Tom Hudson](/wiki/Tom_Hudson_%28English_actor%29 "Tom Hudson (English actor)")) in as lodger until he leaves in May 2008\.
In May 2008, Molly makes her mark on the Duckworths' house by removing the stone cladding that Vera had put on the front of the house in 1989\. Jack agrees with this move but Tyrone is not happy as he sees the cladding as a memory of Vera. Eventually as the builders proceed to remove the cladding they inform Molly that the job would be much more expensive as the cladding is ruining the brick work as it is removed. The cheapest option was for the cladding to remain on the house and Molly agrees, much to Tyrone's delight.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/soaps/a80244/veras\-stone\-cladding\-is\-to\-be\-removed.html\|title\=Vera's stone cladding is to be removed\|date\=20 November 2007\|work\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|access\-date\=29 October 2008}}
In July 2008, Tyrone is advised by Jack to propose marriage to Molly at an upmarket restaurant. Tyrone chooses not to propose at that moment. Molly later plans a surprise proposal to Tyrone and the two get engaged, with the help of Molly's aunt [Pam Hobsworth](/wiki/Pam_Hobsworth "Pam Hobsworth") ([Kate Anthony](/wiki/Kate_Anthony "Kate Anthony")), who arrives in Weatherfield around the same time.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/article.html?in\_article\_id\=179194∈\_page\_id\=7∈\_a\_source\=\|title\=Tyrone's scrambled proposal\|publisher\=\[\[Metro (Associated Metro Limited)\|Metro]]\|date\=17 June 2008\|access\-date\=29 October 2008}}
In August 2008, Tyrone decides that Molly should meet his mother [Jackie](/wiki/Jackie_Dobbs "Jackie Dobbs") ([Margi Clarke](/wiki/Margi_Clarke "Margi Clarke")). Everything goes to plan, until Molly and Tyrone discover that Jackie is £1,000 in debt to an old friend of Tyrone's father and needs the money to pay this off, much to Molly's despair. The couple use their wedding savings to pay the man off. This puts their plans on hold for Molly to afford her dream wedding dress.
[thumb\|left\|Molly and [Tyrone](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs "Tyrone Dobbs") marry (2009\)](/wiki/File:Mollyswedding.jpg "Mollyswedding.jpg")
In December 2008, Molly becomes suspicious of Tyrone's behaviour. He has secretly been selling illegal merchandise with Pam, to help pay for their wedding. Molly mistakenly thinks that Tyrone is having an affair with [Minnie Chandra](/wiki/List_of_minor_Coronation_Street_characters_%282008%29%23Minnie_Chandra "List of minor Coronation Street characters (2008)#Minnie Chandra") ([Poppy Jhakra](/wiki/Poppy_Jhakra "Poppy Jhakra")), after she spots the pair flirting, when in reality Minnie was buying perfume and T\-shirts from Tyrone. When Tyrone confesses that he has been selling illegal stock with Pam, Molly is furious and leaves him, saying that she can no longer trust him. She later forgives him, and the couple get married on 12 January 2009\.
In mid 2009, Molly strikes up a friendship with Tyrone's workmate, [Kevin Webster](/wiki/Kevin_Webster "Kevin Webster") ([Michael Le Vell](/wiki/Michael_Le_Vell "Michael Le Vell")). The pair, along with [Jason Grimshaw](/wiki/Jason_Grimshaw "Jason Grimshaw") ([Ryan Thomas](/wiki/Ryan_Thomas "Ryan Thomas")), train together for the local fun run. Although Kevin jealously accuses Jason of sleeping with Molly, Molly laughs it off and they remain friends. Kevin is the only person to support Molly at the local fun run and, the same night, Kevin looks longingly at photos of Molly at the fun run on his mobile phone. In June 2009, Molly confronts Kevin to why he is acting so strangely around her; Kevin reluctantly admits that he is in love with her. Molly slaps him and leaves, but outside the garage she smiles to herself.
They later begin an affair which is nearly exposed at Kevin's wife, [Sally Webster](/wiki/Sally_Webster "Sally Webster")'s ([Sally Dynevor](/wiki/Sally_Dynevor "Sally Dynevor")) 42nd birthday party in July 2009\. Molly smooths things over between the couple, ends her affair with Kevin and goes on holiday with Tyrone. When she returns in August 2009 she does the fun run again with Kevin and they celebrate by having sex at a nearby hotel. Some weeks later Pam spots Molly kissing Kevin. When Pam confronts Molly about her affair, Molly declares that she is in love with Kevin. Pam disapproves and gives her an ultimatum: Confess to Tyrone or end her relationship with Kevin. As a result, Molly pretends to end her affair with Kevin. In a conversation with Tyrone about Kevin and Sally's marriage, she discovers that she is not the only liaison of Kevin's as Tyrone mentions that he has had previous affairs in the past, which she feels insulted by.
Molly and Kevin soon confess their love for each other, and pledge to leave their respective spouses and start a new life together. Sally had a secret of her own \- she had [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"). On Christmas Day, just as Kevin is about to tell Sally that he is leaving her, she breaks the news of her illness. Kevin then hurries over to the Dobbs' house, on the pretense of needing stuffing for the turkey, after seeing Molly sitting Tyrone down. When Tyrone leaves the house to go to the Rovers, Kevin tells Molly about Sally's breast cancer. Selfishly, Molly tearfully says how unfair it was, not for Sally, but for them. Kevin gets angry and tells her that their relationship is over, as she was the least of his worries, and that he would support Sally through her illness. Molly reveals her heartbreak and ends her Christmas crying. On New Eve's Eve, she dolls herself up to make Kevin jealous. Her appearance catches a lot of attention and Kevin is disgusted when Molly accuses him of lying about Sally's cancer. Molly is later seething when she sees Kevin and Sally welcome in the New Year.
In January 2010, Molly promises to be a better wife to Tyrone on their first wedding anniversary. On the second anniversary of Vera's death, Molly tells Tyrone that she is leaving him because she no longer loves him, and he begs her to stay. She denies that she has been seeing someone else and moves into the flat above Dev's shop. In March 2010, Molly is shocked to discover that she is four months pregnant, with the possibilities that the father is Kevin or Tyrone. When she informs Kevin of her pregnancy, he refuses to have anything to do with her and he coldly burns the baby scan picture in front of her. With nowhere left to turn, she tells Tyrone about the pregnancy and they reconcile and agree to give their marriage another chance. In April, Molly and Tyrone find out Molly is expecting a baby boy. Kevin is furious and demands Molly has an abortion and to pass it off as a miscarriage.
In April 2010, Tyrone asks Kevin to check up on his car. Whilst fixing it, Kevin is distracted by his daughter [Sophie](/wiki/Sophie_Webster "Sophie Webster") ([Brooke Vincent](/wiki/Brooke_Vincent "Brooke Vincent")) who is upset. Thinking that the car is ready, Tyrone takes it and drives through the countryside with Molly to tell her father Diggory the news about her pregnancy. Kevin realises that the car is missing before he has finished his work on the brakes and frantically calls Molly and Tyrone. Molly tells Tyrone not to answer as she wants to have a peaceful trip. Tyrone loses control of the car when the brakes fail and it leaves the road and somersaults into a field. Molly and Tyrone are both left unconscious. As Tyrone regains consciousness he finds Molly, still unconscious, next to him. Tyrone flags down a passing motorist who calls 999 and Kevin arrives after following an ambulance to the scene. Kevin and Tyrone both watch as Molly is cut from the wreckage. She is rushed to hospital where she has a scan whilst she is still unconscious and the doctors discover there is still a heartbeat from the baby. Tyrone is told, as long as Molly's life is in the balance, so is the baby's. Tyrone is horrified of the condition of his wife and the unborn child and turns to Kevin for support.{{cite web\|url\=http://programmes.stv.tv/coronation\-street/previews/168403\-coronation\-street\-preview\-thursday\-april\-22\-830pm\|date\=13 April 2010\|title\=Coronation Street preview \- Thursday April 22, 8\.30pm\|work\=\[\[STV (TV network)\|STV]]\|access\-date\=17 April 2010}} When she regains consciousness Molly asks Pam, who is visiting her, what happened and she reveals that Kevin did not fix the brakes. Kevin feels guilty and arrives at the hospital. Molly accuses him of trying to kill her and the baby. Kevin apologises but a furious Molly tells him to save his story for the police.{{cite web\|url\=http://programmes.stv.tv/coronation\-street/previews/168404\-coronation\-street\-preview\-friday\-april\-23\-730pm/\|date\=13 April 2010\|title\=Coronation Street preview \- Friday April 23, 7\.30pm\|work\=\[\[STV (TV network)\|STV]]\|access\-date\=17 April 2010}} Kevin panics but with Tyrone by Molly's side she changes her mind about her decision. Kevin returns to the hospital to thank Molly but says she did it for Tyrone, not him. Molly tries to persuade Tyrone to move away from Weatherfield for a fresh start as she does not think it is fair for him or the baby to be around Kevin.{{cite web\|url\=http://programmes.stv.tv/coronation\-street/previews/168406\-coronation\-street\-preview\-friday\-april\-23\-830pm//\|date\=13 April 2010\|title\=Coronation Street preview \- Friday April 23, 8\.30pm\|work\=\[\[STV (TV network)\|STV]]\|access\-date\=17 April 2010}}
In July 2010, Molly is thrilled when her neighbour [Eileen Grimshaw](/wiki/Eileen_Grimshaw "Eileen Grimshaw") ([Sue Cleaver](/wiki/Sue_Cleaver "Sue Cleaver")) expresses an interest in buying their house, much to Tyrone's despair. Whilst Eileen and [Owen Armstrong](/wiki/Owen_Armstrong "Owen Armstrong") ([Ian Puleston\-Davies](/wiki/Ian_Puleston-Davies "Ian Puleston-Davies")) are examining the house, Molly has a health scare and nearly collapses. At the hospital the doctors tell her that her collapse was caused by stress. Molly changes her mind about moving and remains in Weatherfield.
On 6 September 2010, Molly gives birth to her son, [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Webster_%28Coronation_Street%29 "Jack Webster (Coronation Street)"). She suddenly goes into labour in her home and it is left to Sally to deliver the baby as Tyrone is out on a breakdown call\-out.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/soaps/s3/coronation\-street/spoilers/a266700/molly\-faces\-labour\-with\-the\-websters.html\|date\=30 August 2010\|title\=Molly faces labour with the Websters\|work\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|access\-date\=5 October 2010}} After Kevin agrees to godparenting Jack with Sally, Molly is furious and tells Kevin that she wants him to play no part in Jack's life. Kevin then asks Molly for a DNA test to prove he is the father, but she refuses, believing Tyrone is Jack's father. Kevin steals Jack's dummy in the Rovers following his christening and sends it away for testing. On 5 November 2010, Kevin receives the DNA test results, proving that he is the father. He shows the results to Molly and she is distraught and furious with Kevin for going behind her back.
Not long afterward at Jack's wake, Molly tells Kevin that she is still in love with him. Kevin tells her that he loves Sally and wants to be with her. Realising that Kevin no longer has feelings for her, Molly is heartbroken.
On 6 December 2010, Molly leaves Tyrone, telling him that he is not Jack's father, but she does not tell him who the father is despite his demands to know. She sets out to leave with Jack, intending to go and stay at her father's. She goes to the corner shop to say goodbye to her former employer, [Sunita Alahan](/wiki/Sunita_Alahan "Sunita Alahan") ([Shobna Gulati](/wiki/Shobna_Gulati "Shobna Gulati")). Kevin comes into the shop to buy some milk and says goodbye to Molly and Jack after she tells him that he will never see his son again. Shortly after Kevin leaves the shop, there is an explosion in 'The Joinery' bar which throws Molly and Jack to the floor. A tram derails and crashes into the shop, burying Molly and Jack in rubble. She tries to comfort him and loses consciousness. She comes round when firefighters arrive, and Jack is removed from the wreckage and taken to hospital. Molly is trapped under a beam and has to be released by [heavy lifting gear](/wiki/Lifting_gear "Lifting gear") and cutting equipment. Sally enters the wreckage and sits by Molly's side to comfort her and keep her conscious. Molly's condition deteriorates and, when she realises that she is dying, she confesses her affair with Kevin and apologises to Sally, saying that Kevin chose Sally because she was beautiful inside and out and that he loved Sally and their daughters more than herself and Jack. Explaining that Kevin is Jack's father, Molly asks Sally to look after him and says that Jack is the only thing from the affair she does not regret. After Molly admits this, Sally lets go of her hand. As Molly pleads for Sally to stay, her hand goes limp and she dies, shocking and devastating Sally. Shortly afterward, Tyrone returns from the hospital and is devastated when Sally emerges from the rubble and informs him of Molly's death.
|
[
"Storylines\n----------",
"Molly is introduced as the daughter of local baker, [Diggory Compton](/wiki/Diggory_Compton \"Diggory Compton\") ([Eric Potts](/wiki/Eric_Potts \"Eric Potts\")).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/soaps/a23933/molly\\-helps\\-out\\-maria.html\\|date\\=5 September 2005\\|title\\=Molly helps out Maria\\|work\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2008}} When she first arrives, it becomes clear that she was a victim of [bullying](/wiki/Bullying \"Bullying\") at school, particularly by [Fiz Brown](/wiki/Fiz_Brown \"Fiz Brown\") ([Jennie McAlpine](/wiki/Jennie_McAlpine \"Jennie McAlpine\")). Molly starts to work for Fiz's boyfriend [Kirk Sutherland](/wiki/Kirk_Sutherland \"Kirk Sutherland\") ([Andrew Whyment](/wiki/Andrew_Whyment \"Andrew Whyment\")), whom she flirts with to get revenge on Fiz and wind her up.",
"After briefly working in her father's shop and at Kirk's kennels, Molly then starts working for [Dev Alahan](/wiki/Dev_Alahan \"Dev Alahan\") ([Jimmi Harkishin](/wiki/Jimmi_Harkishin \"Jimmi Harkishin\")) at his corner shop. Molly begins dating [Tyrone Dobbs](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs \"Tyrone Dobbs\") ([Alan Halsall](/wiki/Alan_Halsall \"Alan Halsall\")) and lives with him and his foster parents [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Duckworth \"Jack Duckworth\") ([Bill Tarmey](/wiki/Bill_Tarmey \"Bill Tarmey\")) and [Vera Duckworth](/wiki/Vera_Duckworth \"Vera Duckworth\") ([Liz Dawn](/wiki/Liz_Dawn \"Liz Dawn\")). Molly forms a close bond and friendship with Vera and asks her for advice about her relationship with Tyrone. Molly is devastated when Vera dies in January 2008\\.",
"After Vera's death, Molly and Tyrone buy the Duckworths' house and live there with Jack, and also keep Jack and Vera's grandson [Paul Clayton](/wiki/Paul_Clayton_%28Coronation_Street%29 \"Paul Clayton (Coronation Street)\") ([Tom Hudson](/wiki/Tom_Hudson_%28English_actor%29 \"Tom Hudson (English actor)\")) in as lodger until he leaves in May 2008\\.",
"In May 2008, Molly makes her mark on the Duckworths' house by removing the stone cladding that Vera had put on the front of the house in 1989\\. Jack agrees with this move but Tyrone is not happy as he sees the cladding as a memory of Vera. Eventually as the builders proceed to remove the cladding they inform Molly that the job would be much more expensive as the cladding is ruining the brick work as it is removed. The cheapest option was for the cladding to remain on the house and Molly agrees, much to Tyrone's delight.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/soaps/a80244/veras\\-stone\\-cladding\\-is\\-to\\-be\\-removed.html\\|title\\=Vera's stone cladding is to be removed\\|date\\=20 November 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2008}}",
"In July 2008, Tyrone is advised by Jack to propose marriage to Molly at an upmarket restaurant. Tyrone chooses not to propose at that moment. Molly later plans a surprise proposal to Tyrone and the two get engaged, with the help of Molly's aunt [Pam Hobsworth](/wiki/Pam_Hobsworth \"Pam Hobsworth\") ([Kate Anthony](/wiki/Kate_Anthony \"Kate Anthony\")), who arrives in Weatherfield around the same time.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/article.html?in\\_article\\_id\\=179194∈\\_page\\_id\\=7∈\\_a\\_source\\=\\|title\\=Tyrone's scrambled proposal\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Metro (Associated Metro Limited)\\|Metro]]\\|date\\=17 June 2008\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2008}}",
"In August 2008, Tyrone decides that Molly should meet his mother [Jackie](/wiki/Jackie_Dobbs \"Jackie Dobbs\") ([Margi Clarke](/wiki/Margi_Clarke \"Margi Clarke\")). Everything goes to plan, until Molly and Tyrone discover that Jackie is £1,000 in debt to an old friend of Tyrone's father and needs the money to pay this off, much to Molly's despair. The couple use their wedding savings to pay the man off. This puts their plans on hold for Molly to afford her dream wedding dress.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Molly and [Tyrone](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs \"Tyrone Dobbs\") marry (2009\\)](/wiki/File:Mollyswedding.jpg \"Mollyswedding.jpg\")\nIn December 2008, Molly becomes suspicious of Tyrone's behaviour. He has secretly been selling illegal merchandise with Pam, to help pay for their wedding. Molly mistakenly thinks that Tyrone is having an affair with [Minnie Chandra](/wiki/List_of_minor_Coronation_Street_characters_%282008%29%23Minnie_Chandra \"List of minor Coronation Street characters (2008)#Minnie Chandra\") ([Poppy Jhakra](/wiki/Poppy_Jhakra \"Poppy Jhakra\")), after she spots the pair flirting, when in reality Minnie was buying perfume and T\\-shirts from Tyrone. When Tyrone confesses that he has been selling illegal stock with Pam, Molly is furious and leaves him, saying that she can no longer trust him. She later forgives him, and the couple get married on 12 January 2009\\.",
"In mid 2009, Molly strikes up a friendship with Tyrone's workmate, [Kevin Webster](/wiki/Kevin_Webster \"Kevin Webster\") ([Michael Le Vell](/wiki/Michael_Le_Vell \"Michael Le Vell\")). The pair, along with [Jason Grimshaw](/wiki/Jason_Grimshaw \"Jason Grimshaw\") ([Ryan Thomas](/wiki/Ryan_Thomas \"Ryan Thomas\")), train together for the local fun run. Although Kevin jealously accuses Jason of sleeping with Molly, Molly laughs it off and they remain friends. Kevin is the only person to support Molly at the local fun run and, the same night, Kevin looks longingly at photos of Molly at the fun run on his mobile phone. In June 2009, Molly confronts Kevin to why he is acting so strangely around her; Kevin reluctantly admits that he is in love with her. Molly slaps him and leaves, but outside the garage she smiles to herself.",
"They later begin an affair which is nearly exposed at Kevin's wife, [Sally Webster](/wiki/Sally_Webster \"Sally Webster\")'s ([Sally Dynevor](/wiki/Sally_Dynevor \"Sally Dynevor\")) 42nd birthday party in July 2009\\. Molly smooths things over between the couple, ends her affair with Kevin and goes on holiday with Tyrone. When she returns in August 2009 she does the fun run again with Kevin and they celebrate by having sex at a nearby hotel. Some weeks later Pam spots Molly kissing Kevin. When Pam confronts Molly about her affair, Molly declares that she is in love with Kevin. Pam disapproves and gives her an ultimatum: Confess to Tyrone or end her relationship with Kevin. As a result, Molly pretends to end her affair with Kevin. In a conversation with Tyrone about Kevin and Sally's marriage, she discovers that she is not the only liaison of Kevin's as Tyrone mentions that he has had previous affairs in the past, which she feels insulted by.",
"Molly and Kevin soon confess their love for each other, and pledge to leave their respective spouses and start a new life together. Sally had a secret of her own \\- she had [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"). On Christmas Day, just as Kevin is about to tell Sally that he is leaving her, she breaks the news of her illness. Kevin then hurries over to the Dobbs' house, on the pretense of needing stuffing for the turkey, after seeing Molly sitting Tyrone down. When Tyrone leaves the house to go to the Rovers, Kevin tells Molly about Sally's breast cancer. Selfishly, Molly tearfully says how unfair it was, not for Sally, but for them. Kevin gets angry and tells her that their relationship is over, as she was the least of his worries, and that he would support Sally through her illness. Molly reveals her heartbreak and ends her Christmas crying. On New Eve's Eve, she dolls herself up to make Kevin jealous. Her appearance catches a lot of attention and Kevin is disgusted when Molly accuses him of lying about Sally's cancer. Molly is later seething when she sees Kevin and Sally welcome in the New Year.",
"In January 2010, Molly promises to be a better wife to Tyrone on their first wedding anniversary. On the second anniversary of Vera's death, Molly tells Tyrone that she is leaving him because she no longer loves him, and he begs her to stay. She denies that she has been seeing someone else and moves into the flat above Dev's shop. In March 2010, Molly is shocked to discover that she is four months pregnant, with the possibilities that the father is Kevin or Tyrone. When she informs Kevin of her pregnancy, he refuses to have anything to do with her and he coldly burns the baby scan picture in front of her. With nowhere left to turn, she tells Tyrone about the pregnancy and they reconcile and agree to give their marriage another chance. In April, Molly and Tyrone find out Molly is expecting a baby boy. Kevin is furious and demands Molly has an abortion and to pass it off as a miscarriage.",
"In April 2010, Tyrone asks Kevin to check up on his car. Whilst fixing it, Kevin is distracted by his daughter [Sophie](/wiki/Sophie_Webster \"Sophie Webster\") ([Brooke Vincent](/wiki/Brooke_Vincent \"Brooke Vincent\")) who is upset. Thinking that the car is ready, Tyrone takes it and drives through the countryside with Molly to tell her father Diggory the news about her pregnancy. Kevin realises that the car is missing before he has finished his work on the brakes and frantically calls Molly and Tyrone. Molly tells Tyrone not to answer as she wants to have a peaceful trip. Tyrone loses control of the car when the brakes fail and it leaves the road and somersaults into a field. Molly and Tyrone are both left unconscious. As Tyrone regains consciousness he finds Molly, still unconscious, next to him. Tyrone flags down a passing motorist who calls 999 and Kevin arrives after following an ambulance to the scene. Kevin and Tyrone both watch as Molly is cut from the wreckage. She is rushed to hospital where she has a scan whilst she is still unconscious and the doctors discover there is still a heartbeat from the baby. Tyrone is told, as long as Molly's life is in the balance, so is the baby's. Tyrone is horrified of the condition of his wife and the unborn child and turns to Kevin for support.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://programmes.stv.tv/coronation\\-street/previews/168403\\-coronation\\-street\\-preview\\-thursday\\-april\\-22\\-830pm\\|date\\=13 April 2010\\|title\\=Coronation Street preview \\- Thursday April 22, 8\\.30pm\\|work\\=\\[\\[STV (TV network)\\|STV]]\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2010}} When she regains consciousness Molly asks Pam, who is visiting her, what happened and she reveals that Kevin did not fix the brakes. Kevin feels guilty and arrives at the hospital. Molly accuses him of trying to kill her and the baby. Kevin apologises but a furious Molly tells him to save his story for the police.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://programmes.stv.tv/coronation\\-street/previews/168404\\-coronation\\-street\\-preview\\-friday\\-april\\-23\\-730pm/\\|date\\=13 April 2010\\|title\\=Coronation Street preview \\- Friday April 23, 7\\.30pm\\|work\\=\\[\\[STV (TV network)\\|STV]]\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2010}} Kevin panics but with Tyrone by Molly's side she changes her mind about her decision. Kevin returns to the hospital to thank Molly but says she did it for Tyrone, not him. Molly tries to persuade Tyrone to move away from Weatherfield for a fresh start as she does not think it is fair for him or the baby to be around Kevin.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://programmes.stv.tv/coronation\\-street/previews/168406\\-coronation\\-street\\-preview\\-friday\\-april\\-23\\-830pm//\\|date\\=13 April 2010\\|title\\=Coronation Street preview \\- Friday April 23, 8\\.30pm\\|work\\=\\[\\[STV (TV network)\\|STV]]\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2010}}",
"In July 2010, Molly is thrilled when her neighbour [Eileen Grimshaw](/wiki/Eileen_Grimshaw \"Eileen Grimshaw\") ([Sue Cleaver](/wiki/Sue_Cleaver \"Sue Cleaver\")) expresses an interest in buying their house, much to Tyrone's despair. Whilst Eileen and [Owen Armstrong](/wiki/Owen_Armstrong \"Owen Armstrong\") ([Ian Puleston\\-Davies](/wiki/Ian_Puleston-Davies \"Ian Puleston-Davies\")) are examining the house, Molly has a health scare and nearly collapses. At the hospital the doctors tell her that her collapse was caused by stress. Molly changes her mind about moving and remains in Weatherfield.",
"On 6 September 2010, Molly gives birth to her son, [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Webster_%28Coronation_Street%29 \"Jack Webster (Coronation Street)\"). She suddenly goes into labour in her home and it is left to Sally to deliver the baby as Tyrone is out on a breakdown call\\-out.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/soaps/s3/coronation\\-street/spoilers/a266700/molly\\-faces\\-labour\\-with\\-the\\-websters.html\\|date\\=30 August 2010\\|title\\=Molly faces labour with the Websters\\|work\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2010}} After Kevin agrees to godparenting Jack with Sally, Molly is furious and tells Kevin that she wants him to play no part in Jack's life. Kevin then asks Molly for a DNA test to prove he is the father, but she refuses, believing Tyrone is Jack's father. Kevin steals Jack's dummy in the Rovers following his christening and sends it away for testing. On 5 November 2010, Kevin receives the DNA test results, proving that he is the father. He shows the results to Molly and she is distraught and furious with Kevin for going behind her back.",
"Not long afterward at Jack's wake, Molly tells Kevin that she is still in love with him. Kevin tells her that he loves Sally and wants to be with her. Realising that Kevin no longer has feelings for her, Molly is heartbroken.",
"On 6 December 2010, Molly leaves Tyrone, telling him that he is not Jack's father, but she does not tell him who the father is despite his demands to know. She sets out to leave with Jack, intending to go and stay at her father's. She goes to the corner shop to say goodbye to her former employer, [Sunita Alahan](/wiki/Sunita_Alahan \"Sunita Alahan\") ([Shobna Gulati](/wiki/Shobna_Gulati \"Shobna Gulati\")). Kevin comes into the shop to buy some milk and says goodbye to Molly and Jack after she tells him that he will never see his son again. Shortly after Kevin leaves the shop, there is an explosion in 'The Joinery' bar which throws Molly and Jack to the floor. A tram derails and crashes into the shop, burying Molly and Jack in rubble. She tries to comfort him and loses consciousness. She comes round when firefighters arrive, and Jack is removed from the wreckage and taken to hospital. Molly is trapped under a beam and has to be released by [heavy lifting gear](/wiki/Lifting_gear \"Lifting gear\") and cutting equipment. Sally enters the wreckage and sits by Molly's side to comfort her and keep her conscious. Molly's condition deteriorates and, when she realises that she is dying, she confesses her affair with Kevin and apologises to Sally, saying that Kevin chose Sally because she was beautiful inside and out and that he loved Sally and their daughters more than herself and Jack. Explaining that Kevin is Jack's father, Molly asks Sally to look after him and says that Jack is the only thing from the affair she does not regret. After Molly admits this, Sally lets go of her hand. As Molly pleads for Sally to stay, her hand goes limp and she dies, shocking and devastating Sally. Shortly afterward, Tyrone returns from the hospital and is devastated when Sally emerges from the rubble and informs him of Molly's death.",
""
] |
Causes
------
### Influx of gold and silver
From an economic viewpoint the discovery of new [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver") and [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold") deposits as well as the [productivity](/wiki/Productivity "Productivity") increase in the silver mining industry perpetuated the price revolution. When precious metals entered Spain, this influx drove up the Spanish price level and caused a balance of payments deficit. This deficit occurred on account of Spanish demand for foreign products exceeding exports to foreign markets. The deficit was financed by the metals that entered these foreign countries and in turn increased their money supply and drove up their price levels.
The increased importation of [specie](/wiki/Commodity_money "Commodity money") to Spain started in Central Europe around the beginning of the sixteenth century. According to Michael North (1994\) central European silver output doubled between 1470 and 1520, and increased even more in the 1520s with the new mine of [Joachimsthal](/wiki/J%C3%A1chymov "Jáchymov"). Also during this time the Spanish and Portuguese brought a large amount of gold from the New World to Europe. Starting in the 1540s a growing amount of silver was shipped to Europe from [Zacatecas](/wiki/Zacatecas_City "Zacatecas City"), [Guanajuato](/wiki/Guanajuato_City "Guanajuato City") and [Taxco](/wiki/Taxco "Taxco") mines in Mexico and the [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí") mountain in Peru. The production of the [Potosí mine](/wiki/Cerro_Rico "Cerro Rico") increased greatly in the 1560s after [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 "Mercury (element)") deposits had been discovered in the Andes, as mercury was necessary to process the silver. Based on the records of Earl J. Hamilton (1934\), the total imports of specie from the Americas during the 16th century amounted to around 210 million pesos, with 160 million of these pesos being imported in the second half of the 16th century.{{cite book \|last\=Hamilton \|first\=Earl J. \|title\=American treasure and the price revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 \|publisher\=New York: Octagon Books \|date\=1934}} The total amount of silver imported added up to about 3,915 metric tons of silver. However these numbers underestimate the total amount imported to Spain because Hamilton only counted imports recorded by the official [Casa de Contratación](/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n "Casa de Contratación") in Seville, not including the specie shipped directly to [Cadiz](/wiki/Cadiz "Cadiz") by the [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company "Dutch East India Company") and [British East India Companies](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company").Kindleberger, Charles Poor. *Economic and Financial Crises and Transformations in Sixteenth\-century Europe*. Princeton, N.J.: International Finance Section, Department of Economics, Princeton University, 1998\. The influx of these precious metals and the resulting money supply shocks help explain the price increase in Spain during the 16th century.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2015}}
### European silver production
Some accounts emphasize the role of increased silver production within Europe itself. According to Nef, the output of silver mines in [Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia "Bohemia"), Germany and Hungary increased rapidly from {{circa\|1460}} to {{circa\|1510}}. Production peaked in the 1530s, thereafter slowly declining for the next 30 years. After 1560, the decline in European silver production was rapid.{{cite journal \|last\=Nef \|first\=J. U. \|year\=1941 \|title\=Silver Production in Central Europe, 1450–1618 \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Political Economy]] \|volume\=49 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=575–591 \|doi\=10\.1086/255744 }} Flynn contends that imports of silver from Spanish America is behind this decline in European silver mining.{{cite book \|author\=D. Flynn \|chapter\=Comparing the Tokugawa Shogunate with Hapsburg Spain: two silver\-based empires in a global setting \|editor\=James Tracy \|title\=The Political Economy of Merchant Empires, 1350–1750 \|year\=1991 \|page\=352 }}
### Quantity theory of money
{{main\|Quantity theory of money}}
The first scholar to make a quantity\-theory link between the influx of American "treasure" and the Price Revolution was supposedly the French philosopher [Jean Bodin](/wiki/Jean_Bodin "Jean Bodin") in his 1568 response to a 1566 treatise by the Royal Councilor [Jean de Malestroit](/wiki/Jean_de_Malestroit "Jean de Malestroit").{{cite book\|last\=Hamilton \|first\=Earl J. \|title\=American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501\-1650 \|place\=New York \|publisher\=Octagon \|date\=1965 }} Malestroit argued that lower\-quality coins were the chief culprit of price influx—similar to the periodic inflations of the 14th and 15th centuries. Bodin dismissed this argument, contending that the growing influx of silver from the Spanish Americas was the primary cause of price inflation. Championed for the [quantity theory of money](/wiki/Quantity_theory_of_money "Quantity theory of money"), Bodin was able to demonstrate that the inflation of prices in France was due far more to Spanish\-American influx than to any change in coin debasement.{{cite book \|last1\=Greaves \|first1\=Percy L. \|first2\=Ludwig \|last2\=Mises \|title\=Mises Made Easier: A Glossary for Ludwig Von Mises' Human Action \|place\=Dobbs Ferry, N.Y. \|publisher\=Free Market \|year\=1974}}
Earl Hamilton, a contemporary price revolution theorist, found that no Spanish writer of the 16th century had voiced opinions similar to those of Jean Bodin despite having conducted meticulous research into Spanish treatises, letters, and other documents. This, however, was not true; less well known is an even earlier Spanish publication in a treatise from 1556 by the cleric [Martín de Azpilcueta](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta "Martín de Azpilcueta") of the [Salamanca School](/wiki/School_of_Salamanca "School of Salamanca"), which made virtually the same claim about the role of Spanish\-American silver in the rise of prices.{{cite book \|last\=Hutchinson \|first\=Marjorie \|title\=The School of Salamanca; Readings in Spanish Monetary Theory, 1544\-1605 \|place\=Oxford \|publisher\=Clarendon \|year\=1952}}
### Debasement
{{See also\|The Great Debasement}}
Regardless, Malestroit did put forth several valid claims about the price revolution that continue to hold up today, particularly his argument explaining the different [price indexes](/wiki/Price_index "Price index") and why the Spanish prices rose the least and the [Brabantine](/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant "Duchy of Brabant") the most. Spain, unlike most other European countries of this era, underwent no [debasements](/wiki/Debasement "Debasement") of the gold and silver coinages during most of the period, but that all changed in 1599, when the new Spanish king [Philip III](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain "Philip III of Spain") (1598–1621\) introduced the purely [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") "vellon" coinage.
Following [Henry VIII of England](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England") and his infamous "[Great Debasement](/wiki/Great_Debasement "Great Debasement")" programme that began 1526, the Spanish King Philip III tried to cement his Spanish legacy through changes in coinage strategy. Previously, Spanish kings (at least from 1471\) issued a largely copper fractional coinage called blancas, with a nominal money\-of\-account value of 0\.5 [maravedí](/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD "Maravedí"), but with a very small amount of silver to convince the public that it was indeed precious\-metal "money". The blanca issued in 1471 had a silver [fineness](/wiki/Fineness "Fineness") of 10 grains or 3\.47% (weighing 1\.107 g). In 1497, that fineness was reduced to 7 grains (2\.43% fine); in 1552, to 5\.5 grains (1\.909% fine); in 1566, to 4 grains (1\.39% fine). By the start of the 17th century, inflation took hold of Spain as the gap between nominal and silver\-based prices dramatically shifted. The purely copper coinage had done its damage to Spain. The difference between the silver\- and vellon\-based price indexes in Spain showed that the purely copper coinage other European countries used made up a much smaller proportion of the total coined money supply (something the Spanish kings had overlooked and Malestroit was able to pinpoint).
### Black Death
{{main\|Black Death}}
Demographic factors also contributed to upward pressure on prices with the resurgence of European population growth after the century of depopulation following the Black Death (1347–1353\). The price of food rose during the years of the plague, and then began to fall as the population of nations decreased. At the same time prices of manufactured goods rose because of a displacement of supply. As the nations began to recover and repopulate after the Black Death, the increase in population placed greater demands on agriculture. Later on, increased population placed greater demands on an agricultural area that had contracted significantly after the 1340s, or had been converted from arable to less intensive [livestock](/wiki/Livestock "Livestock") production.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2015}}
However, population growth and recovery in countries such as England are not consistent with inflation during the early stages of the price revolution. In 1520 at the beginning of the price revolution England's population was roughly 2\.5 million people. This is about half of the English population of 5 million in 1300\. Critics of the population argument raise the question that if England at the beginning stages of the price revolution was very unpopulated, how could any renewed growth from such a low level immediately spark inflation? It can be argued that population growth led to a price increase in the agrarian sector because of an increase demand for food. Marginal lands that were not very fertile and far away from markets were unable to adopt the technological developments to offset the lower returns of farming. In turn this led to a higher [marginal cost](/wiki/Marginal_cost "Marginal cost") to farming and resulted in a price increase for grains and other agricultural goods that surpassed the price increase for non\-agrarian commodities during the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. The resurgence of population after the plague is linked with the demand\-pull explanation of the price revolution. This "demand\-pull" theory states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money.
### Urbanization
Some accounts emphasize the role of [urbanization](/wiki/Urbanization "Urbanization").{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2015}} Urbanization contributed to increased trade between Europe's regions, which made prices more responsive to distant changes in demand, and provided a network for the flow of silver from Spain through western and central Europe. Urbanization is often connected with the increased [velocity of money](/wiki/Velocity_of_money "Velocity of money") theory because the frequency of transactions increases as urban centers grow relative to rural areas. For example, in England, many lands held as common lands were enclosed so that only the landlord could graze his animals. This forced his former tenants either to pay an increased rent, or to leave their own farms. An increase in the number of people unable to afford their farms led to migration into the cities in search of employment. This in turn led to an increase in the velocity of monetary transactions, but was frustrated by the high demand and [inelastic](/wiki/Elasticity_%28economics%29 "Elasticity (economics)") supply of food.
### Population and agricultural growth
If the influx of Spanish silver was not the initial cause of the European Price Revolution then the best explanation for the Price Revolution is population growth. This theory developed under Earl Hamilton argues that prices were not driven by specie (which, at most, sets a floor to prices) but by the actions of monopolists (or governments) whose positions in this period were enhanced by the steady population growth in Western Europe (The resurgence of population after the plague is linked to the "demand\-pull" explanation of the price revolution, which states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money.{{cite book\|last\=Clough \|first\=Shepard B. \|title\=European Economic History; the Economic Development of Western Civilization \|edition\=3rd \|place\=New York \|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill \|year\=1968}}
The significant increase of European population in the period 1460–1620 meant that there were now more people to be fed, clothed, and housed raising the demand for goods of all kinds. Agricultural products then became crucial to the European market. Producers were unable to respond to the rising demand as new and less fertile land were cultivated. Essentially, [marginal costs](/wiki/Marginal_cost "Marginal cost") were increasing and per\-capita yields were shrinking, while demand continued to rise. The price of agricultural commodities, especially grain, rose sooner and faster than those of other goods, and the inflation of agricultural prices eventually caused a general increase in price level in all industries. Until the mid\-17th century, the number of mouths to feed outran the capacity of agriculture to supply basic foodstuffs, causing the vast majority of people to live in a constant state of hunger.{{cite book \|last\=Wernham \|first\= R. B. \|title\=The Counter\-Reformation and Price Revolution, 1559–1610 \|place\=Cambridge \|year\=1968 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press}} Until food production could catch up with the increasing population, prices, especially those of the staple food, bread, continued to rise. Hamilton's theory pointed to evidence of agricultural price growth, slow nonagricultural price growth and poor timing (of the specie outflow to the East) as tangible evidence of the failure to fix prices and feed the growing populace. Hamilton also pointed to monopolistic and other non\-competitive techniques as the typical pricing behavior for European products and factor markets of the period.
|
[
"Causes\n------",
"### Influx of gold and silver",
"From an economic viewpoint the discovery of new [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\") and [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") deposits as well as the [productivity](/wiki/Productivity \"Productivity\") increase in the silver mining industry perpetuated the price revolution. When precious metals entered Spain, this influx drove up the Spanish price level and caused a balance of payments deficit. This deficit occurred on account of Spanish demand for foreign products exceeding exports to foreign markets. The deficit was financed by the metals that entered these foreign countries and in turn increased their money supply and drove up their price levels.",
"The increased importation of [specie](/wiki/Commodity_money \"Commodity money\") to Spain started in Central Europe around the beginning of the sixteenth century. According to Michael North (1994\\) central European silver output doubled between 1470 and 1520, and increased even more in the 1520s with the new mine of [Joachimsthal](/wiki/J%C3%A1chymov \"Jáchymov\"). Also during this time the Spanish and Portuguese brought a large amount of gold from the New World to Europe. Starting in the 1540s a growing amount of silver was shipped to Europe from [Zacatecas](/wiki/Zacatecas_City \"Zacatecas City\"), [Guanajuato](/wiki/Guanajuato_City \"Guanajuato City\") and [Taxco](/wiki/Taxco \"Taxco\") mines in Mexico and the [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\") mountain in Peru. The production of the [Potosí mine](/wiki/Cerro_Rico \"Cerro Rico\") increased greatly in the 1560s after [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\") deposits had been discovered in the Andes, as mercury was necessary to process the silver. Based on the records of Earl J. Hamilton (1934\\), the total imports of specie from the Americas during the 16th century amounted to around 210 million pesos, with 160 million of these pesos being imported in the second half of the 16th century.{{cite book \\|last\\=Hamilton \\|first\\=Earl J. \\|title\\=American treasure and the price revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 \\|publisher\\=New York: Octagon Books \\|date\\=1934}} The total amount of silver imported added up to about 3,915 metric tons of silver. However these numbers underestimate the total amount imported to Spain because Hamilton only counted imports recorded by the official [Casa de Contratación](/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n \"Casa de Contratación\") in Seville, not including the specie shipped directly to [Cadiz](/wiki/Cadiz \"Cadiz\") by the [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company \"Dutch East India Company\") and [British East India Companies](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\").Kindleberger, Charles Poor. *Economic and Financial Crises and Transformations in Sixteenth\\-century Europe*. Princeton, N.J.: International Finance Section, Department of Economics, Princeton University, 1998\\. The influx of these precious metals and the resulting money supply shocks help explain the price increase in Spain during the 16th century.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2015}}",
"### European silver production",
"Some accounts emphasize the role of increased silver production within Europe itself. According to Nef, the output of silver mines in [Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia \"Bohemia\"), Germany and Hungary increased rapidly from {{circa\\|1460}} to {{circa\\|1510}}. Production peaked in the 1530s, thereafter slowly declining for the next 30 years. After 1560, the decline in European silver production was rapid.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Nef \\|first\\=J. U. \\|year\\=1941 \\|title\\=Silver Production in Central Europe, 1450–1618 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Political Economy]] \\|volume\\=49 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=575–591 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/255744 }} Flynn contends that imports of silver from Spanish America is behind this decline in European silver mining.{{cite book \\|author\\=D. Flynn \\|chapter\\=Comparing the Tokugawa Shogunate with Hapsburg Spain: two silver\\-based empires in a global setting \\|editor\\=James Tracy \\|title\\=The Political Economy of Merchant Empires, 1350–1750 \\|year\\=1991 \\|page\\=352 }}",
"### Quantity theory of money",
"{{main\\|Quantity theory of money}}\nThe first scholar to make a quantity\\-theory link between the influx of American \"treasure\" and the Price Revolution was supposedly the French philosopher [Jean Bodin](/wiki/Jean_Bodin \"Jean Bodin\") in his 1568 response to a 1566 treatise by the Royal Councilor [Jean de Malestroit](/wiki/Jean_de_Malestroit \"Jean de Malestroit\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Hamilton \\|first\\=Earl J. \\|title\\=American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501\\-1650 \\|place\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Octagon \\|date\\=1965 }} Malestroit argued that lower\\-quality coins were the chief culprit of price influx—similar to the periodic inflations of the 14th and 15th centuries. Bodin dismissed this argument, contending that the growing influx of silver from the Spanish Americas was the primary cause of price inflation. Championed for the [quantity theory of money](/wiki/Quantity_theory_of_money \"Quantity theory of money\"), Bodin was able to demonstrate that the inflation of prices in France was due far more to Spanish\\-American influx than to any change in coin debasement.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Greaves \\|first1\\=Percy L. \\|first2\\=Ludwig \\|last2\\=Mises \\|title\\=Mises Made Easier: A Glossary for Ludwig Von Mises' Human Action \\|place\\=Dobbs Ferry, N.Y. \\|publisher\\=Free Market \\|year\\=1974}}",
"Earl Hamilton, a contemporary price revolution theorist, found that no Spanish writer of the 16th century had voiced opinions similar to those of Jean Bodin despite having conducted meticulous research into Spanish treatises, letters, and other documents. This, however, was not true; less well known is an even earlier Spanish publication in a treatise from 1556 by the cleric [Martín de Azpilcueta](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta \"Martín de Azpilcueta\") of the [Salamanca School](/wiki/School_of_Salamanca \"School of Salamanca\"), which made virtually the same claim about the role of Spanish\\-American silver in the rise of prices.{{cite book \\|last\\=Hutchinson \\|first\\=Marjorie \\|title\\=The School of Salamanca; Readings in Spanish Monetary Theory, 1544\\-1605 \\|place\\=Oxford \\|publisher\\=Clarendon \\|year\\=1952}}",
"### Debasement",
"{{See also\\|The Great Debasement}}\nRegardless, Malestroit did put forth several valid claims about the price revolution that continue to hold up today, particularly his argument explaining the different [price indexes](/wiki/Price_index \"Price index\") and why the Spanish prices rose the least and the [Brabantine](/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant \"Duchy of Brabant\") the most. Spain, unlike most other European countries of this era, underwent no [debasements](/wiki/Debasement \"Debasement\") of the gold and silver coinages during most of the period, but that all changed in 1599, when the new Spanish king [Philip III](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain \"Philip III of Spain\") (1598–1621\\) introduced the purely [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") \"vellon\" coinage.",
"Following [Henry VIII of England](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England \"Henry VIII of England\") and his infamous \"[Great Debasement](/wiki/Great_Debasement \"Great Debasement\")\" programme that began 1526, the Spanish King Philip III tried to cement his Spanish legacy through changes in coinage strategy. Previously, Spanish kings (at least from 1471\\) issued a largely copper fractional coinage called blancas, with a nominal money\\-of\\-account value of 0\\.5 [maravedí](/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD \"Maravedí\"), but with a very small amount of silver to convince the public that it was indeed precious\\-metal \"money\". The blanca issued in 1471 had a silver [fineness](/wiki/Fineness \"Fineness\") of 10 grains or 3\\.47% (weighing 1\\.107 g). In 1497, that fineness was reduced to 7 grains (2\\.43% fine); in 1552, to 5\\.5 grains (1\\.909% fine); in 1566, to 4 grains (1\\.39% fine). By the start of the 17th century, inflation took hold of Spain as the gap between nominal and silver\\-based prices dramatically shifted. The purely copper coinage had done its damage to Spain. The difference between the silver\\- and vellon\\-based price indexes in Spain showed that the purely copper coinage other European countries used made up a much smaller proportion of the total coined money supply (something the Spanish kings had overlooked and Malestroit was able to pinpoint).",
"### Black Death",
"{{main\\|Black Death}}\nDemographic factors also contributed to upward pressure on prices with the resurgence of European population growth after the century of depopulation following the Black Death (1347–1353\\). The price of food rose during the years of the plague, and then began to fall as the population of nations decreased. At the same time prices of manufactured goods rose because of a displacement of supply. As the nations began to recover and repopulate after the Black Death, the increase in population placed greater demands on agriculture. Later on, increased population placed greater demands on an agricultural area that had contracted significantly after the 1340s, or had been converted from arable to less intensive [livestock](/wiki/Livestock \"Livestock\") production.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2015}}",
"However, population growth and recovery in countries such as England are not consistent with inflation during the early stages of the price revolution. In 1520 at the beginning of the price revolution England's population was roughly 2\\.5 million people. This is about half of the English population of 5 million in 1300\\. Critics of the population argument raise the question that if England at the beginning stages of the price revolution was very unpopulated, how could any renewed growth from such a low level immediately spark inflation? It can be argued that population growth led to a price increase in the agrarian sector because of an increase demand for food. Marginal lands that were not very fertile and far away from markets were unable to adopt the technological developments to offset the lower returns of farming. In turn this led to a higher [marginal cost](/wiki/Marginal_cost \"Marginal cost\") to farming and resulted in a price increase for grains and other agricultural goods that surpassed the price increase for non\\-agrarian commodities during the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. The resurgence of population after the plague is linked with the demand\\-pull explanation of the price revolution. This \"demand\\-pull\" theory states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money.",
"### Urbanization",
"Some accounts emphasize the role of [urbanization](/wiki/Urbanization \"Urbanization\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2015}} Urbanization contributed to increased trade between Europe's regions, which made prices more responsive to distant changes in demand, and provided a network for the flow of silver from Spain through western and central Europe. Urbanization is often connected with the increased [velocity of money](/wiki/Velocity_of_money \"Velocity of money\") theory because the frequency of transactions increases as urban centers grow relative to rural areas. For example, in England, many lands held as common lands were enclosed so that only the landlord could graze his animals. This forced his former tenants either to pay an increased rent, or to leave their own farms. An increase in the number of people unable to afford their farms led to migration into the cities in search of employment. This in turn led to an increase in the velocity of monetary transactions, but was frustrated by the high demand and [inelastic](/wiki/Elasticity_%28economics%29 \"Elasticity (economics)\") supply of food.",
"### Population and agricultural growth",
"If the influx of Spanish silver was not the initial cause of the European Price Revolution then the best explanation for the Price Revolution is population growth. This theory developed under Earl Hamilton argues that prices were not driven by specie (which, at most, sets a floor to prices) but by the actions of monopolists (or governments) whose positions in this period were enhanced by the steady population growth in Western Europe (The resurgence of population after the plague is linked to the \"demand\\-pull\" explanation of the price revolution, which states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money.{{cite book\\|last\\=Clough \\|first\\=Shepard B. \\|title\\=European Economic History; the Economic Development of Western Civilization \\|edition\\=3rd \\|place\\=New York \\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill \\|year\\=1968}}",
"The significant increase of European population in the period 1460–1620 meant that there were now more people to be fed, clothed, and housed raising the demand for goods of all kinds. Agricultural products then became crucial to the European market. Producers were unable to respond to the rising demand as new and less fertile land were cultivated. Essentially, [marginal costs](/wiki/Marginal_cost \"Marginal cost\") were increasing and per\\-capita yields were shrinking, while demand continued to rise. The price of agricultural commodities, especially grain, rose sooner and faster than those of other goods, and the inflation of agricultural prices eventually caused a general increase in price level in all industries. Until the mid\\-17th century, the number of mouths to feed outran the capacity of agriculture to supply basic foodstuffs, causing the vast majority of people to live in a constant state of hunger.{{cite book \\|last\\=Wernham \\|first\\= R. B. \\|title\\=The Counter\\-Reformation and Price Revolution, 1559–1610 \\|place\\=Cambridge \\|year\\=1968 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press}} Until food production could catch up with the increasing population, prices, especially those of the staple food, bread, continued to rise. Hamilton's theory pointed to evidence of agricultural price growth, slow nonagricultural price growth and poor timing (of the specie outflow to the East) as tangible evidence of the failure to fix prices and feed the growing populace. Hamilton also pointed to monopolistic and other non\\-competitive techniques as the typical pricing behavior for European products and factor markets of the period.",
""
] |
Effects
-------
### Spain
#### External debt
Rising costs to sustain Habsburg war efforts eventually led to a severe rise of the Spanish [public debt](/wiki/Public_debt "Public debt"), of which German and Italian bankers were the creditors. The Habsburg [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor") was also [King of Spain](/wiki/King_of_Spain "King of Spain") and borrowed enormous amounts of money from the [Fuggers](/wiki/Fugger "Fugger"), the [Welsers](/wiki/Welser "Welser"), and Genoese banking families, in order to be elected Emperor and sustain, for over 35 years, the Imperial foreign policy. To repay such loans, he relied primarily on the vast stream of bullion provided by Spanish America. In the 1520s and 1530s, ships full of [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec "Aztec") and [Inca](/wiki/Inca "Inca") treasures arrived from [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") and [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") to the courts of Charles V as homage of [Hernán Cortés](/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s "Hernán Cortés") and [Francisco Pizarro](/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro "Francisco Pizarro"). Those treasures were usually minted into coins in [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville") and transferred to German bankers in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp"), a [port city](/wiki/Port_city "Port city") of the [Burgundian Low Countries](/wiki/Burgundian_Low_Countries "Burgundian Low Countries") where major agencies of the Fugger and Welser were located. This allowed Antwerp to become the center of the international economy and accelerated the [capitalist](/wiki/Capitalist "Capitalist") transition of the Low Countries. Certain golden objects have survived in descriptions: for example, some were displayed in Brussels to the German artist [Albrecht Dürer](/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer "Albrecht Dürer") who wrote: "In all my life, I have seen nothing that rejoiced my heart so much as these things". French corsaires were constantly disrupting this trade: notably, the treasure of the Aztec emperor [Cuauhtémoc](/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc "Cuauhtémoc") was captured by the French corsair [Jean Fleury](/wiki/Jean_Fleury "Jean Fleury").
Silver arrived in large amounts, whereas gold was rarer to be found. In 1528, Charles V carved out a colony in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") for his German bankers, hoping to discover the legendary golden city of [El Dorado](/wiki/El_Dorado "El Dorado"). In 1546, the project came to an end and the German colony was disbanded. In the 1540s and 1550s, the discovery of silver mines in the Americas (such as [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí"), [Zacatecas](/wiki/Zacatecas_City "Zacatecas City"), [Taxco](/wiki/Taxco "Taxco"), [Guanajuato](/wiki/Guanajuato_City "Guanajuato City"), [Sombrerete](/wiki/Sombrerete "Sombrerete")) increased the flows of precious metals. Overall, 15 million ducats' worth of bullion reached the Imperial treasury during Charles's reign. This contributed to the higher inflation known as the Spanish price revolution: prices doubled in the first half of the 16th century. The rising costs of war had dramatic consequences on Habsburg finances: one campaign in the 1550s costed as much as one war in the 1520s. Charles V was forced to borrow even more and at higher interest rates, which grew from 17% to 48%.
Despite opposition from the {{lang\|es\|\[\[Cortes Generales]]}}, Charles V managed to impose this [vicious circle](/wiki/Vicious_circle "Vicious circle") that progressively weakened the Spanish finances. Furthermore, in the last years of his reign, Charles V could not be economically supported by his non\-Spanish possessions: he exempted the Low Countries from taxation after the [Revolt of Ghent](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281539%29 "Revolt of Ghent (1539)") in 1540, Germany was in the middle of the [Schmalkaldic Wars](/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War "Schmalkaldic War"), and the budget surplus of Italian states was wiped out by the [Italian Wars](/wiki/Italian_Wars "Italian Wars"). This ultimately put the financial burden of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire") on the Spanish kingdoms and led to the bankruptcy of Spain. Unable to sustain his projects financially, Charles V abdicated in 1556 and retired to a monastery in 1558\. [Sovereign default](/wiki/Sovereign_default "Sovereign default") was declared in 1557\.[Themes in International Economics by Mats Lundahl](https://books.google.com/books?id=Gqp-DwAAQBAJ&dq=Charles+V+cortes+generales+precious+metals&pg=PT111)
[Spanish Opposition to Charles V's Foreign Policy](https://books.google.com/books?id=t8NfAAAAMAAJ)[Gold and Silver: Spain and the New World](https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH8.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007054754/http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/\~cowen/\~GEL115/115CH8\.html \|date\=2008\-10\-07 }} University of California
#### Landowners
Conditions in 16th century Europe support the view that the separation of constantly rising prices and fixed rents destroyed landowners. But this did not apply to Spain, where rent was not fixed and the power of landowners allowed them to raise rent and replace their tenants based on the tenants' ability to meet payments.{{cite web \|last\=Lynch \|first\=John \|title\=Spain During the Price Revolution \|url\=http://www.p12\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\.pdf \|access\-date\=2017\-08\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208001528/http://www.p12\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-08 \|url\-status\=dead }}
On the other hand, the price revolution brought impoverishment to those who lived on fixed income and small rents, as their earning could not keep pace with Spanish prices. Small landowners of the {{lang\|es\|\[\[hidalgo (nobility)\|hidalgo]]}} class, the lower clergy, government officials, and many others all found their standard of living reduced as commodity prices rose beyond their means. The situation of the peasants is less clear, for it is difficult to reconcile agricultural prosperity and the great rural emigration to the towns, which in turn makes it difficult to explain the alleged extension of cultivation in Spain. But one thing is certain—wages lagged behind prices.
#### Sellers and traders
But landowners and the rich were not the only ones gaining from the price revolution. Anyone with something to sell or trade could reap the benefits of inflation, particularly manufacturers and merchants. However in the second half of the century, when the conditions of the Price Revolution got worse and relentless inflation began to make Spanish enterprise less competitive in the international and colonial market, not all merchants and manufactures found life enjoyable. Only the more powerful merchants were able to survive foreign competition and in doing so prospered boundlessly. Enormous fortunes were made in the Indies trade (whose expansion was related directly to the rise of prices) and this encouraged more investment and profitable returns. Profitable returns were distributed beyond the merchant houses of Seville to entrepreneurs in other parts of Spain, as the American market took the oil and wine of [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia"), the wool of [Castile](/wiki/Crown_of_Castile "Crown of Castile"), the metallurgical products and ships of the [Basque country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 "Basque Country (autonomous community)"). To at least the end of the 16th century there was still money to be made in Spain for selected merchants and manufactures.
#### The Crown
The Crown, like its ally the aristocracy, was less crippled by the price revolution than the majority of its subjects. Certainly the cost of administration, and of paying, feeding, and equipping its armed forces, rose for the Crown just as the cost of goods did for the private consumer; unlike other countries, Spain was willing to spend at a higher level to maintain their status as a world power. However, the aristocracy in contrast lost less of its savings than the Crown. The aristocracy could raise rents to increase revenue and not face the full consequences of the Price Revolution. The aristocracy allowed prices to remain high, while inflation alleviated the burden of loans, which became a substantial part of their income.
### Republic of Genoa
Unlike many other states of the period, the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa") gambled the majority of its economic interest on the Spanish monarchy—bankers invested their money in the crown and farmers of Spanish revenue, while Genoa's merchants and nobles settled in Spain (Madrid, Seville, [Kingdom of Naples](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples "Kingdom of Naples") and [Sicily](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily "Kingdom of Sicily")) marrying local nobility and monopolizing majority of the trade. As long as [New Spain](/wiki/New_Spain "New Spain") was sending silver and gold to the {{lang\|es\|\[\[consulado de mercaderes]]}} in Seville, Genoa could flourish. Genoa became a large credit market as the capital of Italian cities was all drained towards Genoa.{{cite book \|last1\=Fratianni \|first1\=Michele \|last2\=Franco \|first2\=Spinelli \|title\=Did Genoa and Venice Kick a Financial Revolution in the Quattrocento? \|place\=Vienna \|publisher\={{lang\|de\|\[\[Oesterreichische Nationalbank]]}} \|year\= 2006}}
A multitude of small investors, Genoese and others, obtained from the Crown long\-term securities ({{lang\-es\|juros de resguardo}}) as collateral for their loans. Also short\-term loans known as {{lang\|es\|\[\[asiento de Negros\#Asientos\|asientos]]}} could be converted into long\-term {{lang\|es\|juros}}.{{citation \|url\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/322623625\.pdf \|author\=J Conklin \|date\=1998 \|title\=The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II }}{{citation \|url\=http://people.bu.edu/chamley/history/castilla/EHR12013\.pdf \|title\=Debt policy under constraints: Philip II, the Cortes, and Genoese bankers \|author1\=Carlos Álvarez\-Nogal \|author2\=Christophe Chamley \|page\=2 }} The contracts specified that these securities would be sold if the Crown did not repay the loans. In essence, the Genoese bankers had worked out an [interest rate swap](/wiki/Interest_rate_swap "Interest rate swap"). Furthermore, the Crown sold silver spot in Spain to the Genoese in exchange for future delivery of gold in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp"), where the gold was used to pay Spanish troops fighting in the Low Countries. Genoa benefited from the price revolution as they enjoyed the advantage of "increasing returns to scale in international financial services". Genoa during the price revolution was a snapshot of global finance at its best. Unfortunately, the [decline of Spain](/wiki/Decline_of_Spain "Decline of Spain") in the 17th century]] brought also the decline of Genoa (due to the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies); Genoa's merchant houses particularly suffered. In 1684, Genoa was bombed by a French fleet as punishment for its long alliance with Spain. As a result the Genoese bankers and traders made new economic and financial links with [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV").
|
[
"Effects\n-------",
"### Spain",
"#### External debt",
"Rising costs to sustain Habsburg war efforts eventually led to a severe rise of the Spanish [public debt](/wiki/Public_debt \"Public debt\"), of which German and Italian bankers were the creditors. The Habsburg [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\") was also [King of Spain](/wiki/King_of_Spain \"King of Spain\") and borrowed enormous amounts of money from the [Fuggers](/wiki/Fugger \"Fugger\"), the [Welsers](/wiki/Welser \"Welser\"), and Genoese banking families, in order to be elected Emperor and sustain, for over 35 years, the Imperial foreign policy. To repay such loans, he relied primarily on the vast stream of bullion provided by Spanish America. In the 1520s and 1530s, ships full of [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec \"Aztec\") and [Inca](/wiki/Inca \"Inca\") treasures arrived from [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") and [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") to the courts of Charles V as homage of [Hernán Cortés](/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s \"Hernán Cortés\") and [Francisco Pizarro](/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro \"Francisco Pizarro\"). Those treasures were usually minted into coins in [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\") and transferred to German bankers in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\"), a [port city](/wiki/Port_city \"Port city\") of the [Burgundian Low Countries](/wiki/Burgundian_Low_Countries \"Burgundian Low Countries\") where major agencies of the Fugger and Welser were located. This allowed Antwerp to become the center of the international economy and accelerated the [capitalist](/wiki/Capitalist \"Capitalist\") transition of the Low Countries. Certain golden objects have survived in descriptions: for example, some were displayed in Brussels to the German artist [Albrecht Dürer](/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer \"Albrecht Dürer\") who wrote: \"In all my life, I have seen nothing that rejoiced my heart so much as these things\". French corsaires were constantly disrupting this trade: notably, the treasure of the Aztec emperor [Cuauhtémoc](/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc \"Cuauhtémoc\") was captured by the French corsair [Jean Fleury](/wiki/Jean_Fleury \"Jean Fleury\").",
"Silver arrived in large amounts, whereas gold was rarer to be found. In 1528, Charles V carved out a colony in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") for his German bankers, hoping to discover the legendary golden city of [El Dorado](/wiki/El_Dorado \"El Dorado\"). In 1546, the project came to an end and the German colony was disbanded. In the 1540s and 1550s, the discovery of silver mines in the Americas (such as [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\"), [Zacatecas](/wiki/Zacatecas_City \"Zacatecas City\"), [Taxco](/wiki/Taxco \"Taxco\"), [Guanajuato](/wiki/Guanajuato_City \"Guanajuato City\"), [Sombrerete](/wiki/Sombrerete \"Sombrerete\")) increased the flows of precious metals. Overall, 15 million ducats' worth of bullion reached the Imperial treasury during Charles's reign. This contributed to the higher inflation known as the Spanish price revolution: prices doubled in the first half of the 16th century. The rising costs of war had dramatic consequences on Habsburg finances: one campaign in the 1550s costed as much as one war in the 1520s. Charles V was forced to borrow even more and at higher interest rates, which grew from 17% to 48%.",
"Despite opposition from the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[Cortes Generales]]}}, Charles V managed to impose this [vicious circle](/wiki/Vicious_circle \"Vicious circle\") that progressively weakened the Spanish finances. Furthermore, in the last years of his reign, Charles V could not be economically supported by his non\\-Spanish possessions: he exempted the Low Countries from taxation after the [Revolt of Ghent](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281539%29 \"Revolt of Ghent (1539)\") in 1540, Germany was in the middle of the [Schmalkaldic Wars](/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War \"Schmalkaldic War\"), and the budget surplus of Italian states was wiped out by the [Italian Wars](/wiki/Italian_Wars \"Italian Wars\"). This ultimately put the financial burden of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\") on the Spanish kingdoms and led to the bankruptcy of Spain. Unable to sustain his projects financially, Charles V abdicated in 1556 and retired to a monastery in 1558\\. [Sovereign default](/wiki/Sovereign_default \"Sovereign default\") was declared in 1557\\.[Themes in International Economics by Mats Lundahl](https://books.google.com/books?id=Gqp-DwAAQBAJ&dq=Charles+V+cortes+generales+precious+metals&pg=PT111)\n[Spanish Opposition to Charles V's Foreign Policy](https://books.google.com/books?id=t8NfAAAAMAAJ)[Gold and Silver: Spain and the New World](https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH8.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007054754/http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/\\~cowen/\\~GEL115/115CH8\\.html \\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-07 }} University of California",
"#### Landowners",
"Conditions in 16th century Europe support the view that the separation of constantly rising prices and fixed rents destroyed landowners. But this did not apply to Spain, where rent was not fixed and the power of landowners allowed them to raise rent and replace their tenants based on the tenants' ability to meet payments.{{cite web \\|last\\=Lynch \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Spain During the Price Revolution \\|url\\=http://www.p12\\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208001528/http://www.p12\\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"On the other hand, the price revolution brought impoverishment to those who lived on fixed income and small rents, as their earning could not keep pace with Spanish prices. Small landowners of the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[hidalgo (nobility)\\|hidalgo]]}} class, the lower clergy, government officials, and many others all found their standard of living reduced as commodity prices rose beyond their means. The situation of the peasants is less clear, for it is difficult to reconcile agricultural prosperity and the great rural emigration to the towns, which in turn makes it difficult to explain the alleged extension of cultivation in Spain. But one thing is certain—wages lagged behind prices.",
"#### Sellers and traders",
"But landowners and the rich were not the only ones gaining from the price revolution. Anyone with something to sell or trade could reap the benefits of inflation, particularly manufacturers and merchants. However in the second half of the century, when the conditions of the Price Revolution got worse and relentless inflation began to make Spanish enterprise less competitive in the international and colonial market, not all merchants and manufactures found life enjoyable. Only the more powerful merchants were able to survive foreign competition and in doing so prospered boundlessly. Enormous fortunes were made in the Indies trade (whose expansion was related directly to the rise of prices) and this encouraged more investment and profitable returns. Profitable returns were distributed beyond the merchant houses of Seville to entrepreneurs in other parts of Spain, as the American market took the oil and wine of [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\"), the wool of [Castile](/wiki/Crown_of_Castile \"Crown of Castile\"), the metallurgical products and ships of the [Basque country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 \"Basque Country (autonomous community)\"). To at least the end of the 16th century there was still money to be made in Spain for selected merchants and manufactures.",
"#### The Crown",
"The Crown, like its ally the aristocracy, was less crippled by the price revolution than the majority of its subjects. Certainly the cost of administration, and of paying, feeding, and equipping its armed forces, rose for the Crown just as the cost of goods did for the private consumer; unlike other countries, Spain was willing to spend at a higher level to maintain their status as a world power. However, the aristocracy in contrast lost less of its savings than the Crown. The aristocracy could raise rents to increase revenue and not face the full consequences of the Price Revolution. The aristocracy allowed prices to remain high, while inflation alleviated the burden of loans, which became a substantial part of their income.",
"### Republic of Genoa",
"Unlike many other states of the period, the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\") gambled the majority of its economic interest on the Spanish monarchy—bankers invested their money in the crown and farmers of Spanish revenue, while Genoa's merchants and nobles settled in Spain (Madrid, Seville, [Kingdom of Naples](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples \"Kingdom of Naples\") and [Sicily](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily \"Kingdom of Sicily\")) marrying local nobility and monopolizing majority of the trade. As long as [New Spain](/wiki/New_Spain \"New Spain\") was sending silver and gold to the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[consulado de mercaderes]]}} in Seville, Genoa could flourish. Genoa became a large credit market as the capital of Italian cities was all drained towards Genoa.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Fratianni \\|first1\\=Michele \\|last2\\=Franco \\|first2\\=Spinelli \\|title\\=Did Genoa and Venice Kick a Financial Revolution in the Quattrocento? \\|place\\=Vienna \\|publisher\\={{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Oesterreichische Nationalbank]]}} \\|year\\= 2006}}",
"A multitude of small investors, Genoese and others, obtained from the Crown long\\-term securities ({{lang\\-es\\|juros de resguardo}}) as collateral for their loans. Also short\\-term loans known as {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[asiento de Negros\\#Asientos\\|asientos]]}} could be converted into long\\-term {{lang\\|es\\|juros}}.{{citation \\|url\\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/322623625\\.pdf \\|author\\=J Conklin \\|date\\=1998 \\|title\\=The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II }}{{citation \\|url\\=http://people.bu.edu/chamley/history/castilla/EHR12013\\.pdf \\|title\\=Debt policy under constraints: Philip II, the Cortes, and Genoese bankers \\|author1\\=Carlos Álvarez\\-Nogal \\|author2\\=Christophe Chamley \\|page\\=2 }} The contracts specified that these securities would be sold if the Crown did not repay the loans. In essence, the Genoese bankers had worked out an [interest rate swap](/wiki/Interest_rate_swap \"Interest rate swap\"). Furthermore, the Crown sold silver spot in Spain to the Genoese in exchange for future delivery of gold in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\"), where the gold was used to pay Spanish troops fighting in the Low Countries. Genoa benefited from the price revolution as they enjoyed the advantage of \"increasing returns to scale in international financial services\". Genoa during the price revolution was a snapshot of global finance at its best. Unfortunately, the [decline of Spain](/wiki/Decline_of_Spain \"Decline of Spain\") in the 17th century]] brought also the decline of Genoa (due to the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies); Genoa's merchant houses particularly suffered. In 1684, Genoa was bombed by a French fleet as punishment for its long alliance with Spain. As a result the Genoese bankers and traders made new economic and financial links with [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\").",
""
] |
### Spain
#### External debt
Rising costs to sustain Habsburg war efforts eventually led to a severe rise of the Spanish [public debt](/wiki/Public_debt "Public debt"), of which German and Italian bankers were the creditors. The Habsburg [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor") was also [King of Spain](/wiki/King_of_Spain "King of Spain") and borrowed enormous amounts of money from the [Fuggers](/wiki/Fugger "Fugger"), the [Welsers](/wiki/Welser "Welser"), and Genoese banking families, in order to be elected Emperor and sustain, for over 35 years, the Imperial foreign policy. To repay such loans, he relied primarily on the vast stream of bullion provided by Spanish America. In the 1520s and 1530s, ships full of [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec "Aztec") and [Inca](/wiki/Inca "Inca") treasures arrived from [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") and [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") to the courts of Charles V as homage of [Hernán Cortés](/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s "Hernán Cortés") and [Francisco Pizarro](/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro "Francisco Pizarro"). Those treasures were usually minted into coins in [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville") and transferred to German bankers in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp"), a [port city](/wiki/Port_city "Port city") of the [Burgundian Low Countries](/wiki/Burgundian_Low_Countries "Burgundian Low Countries") where major agencies of the Fugger and Welser were located. This allowed Antwerp to become the center of the international economy and accelerated the [capitalist](/wiki/Capitalist "Capitalist") transition of the Low Countries. Certain golden objects have survived in descriptions: for example, some were displayed in Brussels to the German artist [Albrecht Dürer](/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer "Albrecht Dürer") who wrote: "In all my life, I have seen nothing that rejoiced my heart so much as these things". French corsaires were constantly disrupting this trade: notably, the treasure of the Aztec emperor [Cuauhtémoc](/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc "Cuauhtémoc") was captured by the French corsair [Jean Fleury](/wiki/Jean_Fleury "Jean Fleury").
Silver arrived in large amounts, whereas gold was rarer to be found. In 1528, Charles V carved out a colony in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") for his German bankers, hoping to discover the legendary golden city of [El Dorado](/wiki/El_Dorado "El Dorado"). In 1546, the project came to an end and the German colony was disbanded. In the 1540s and 1550s, the discovery of silver mines in the Americas (such as [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí"), [Zacatecas](/wiki/Zacatecas_City "Zacatecas City"), [Taxco](/wiki/Taxco "Taxco"), [Guanajuato](/wiki/Guanajuato_City "Guanajuato City"), [Sombrerete](/wiki/Sombrerete "Sombrerete")) increased the flows of precious metals. Overall, 15 million ducats' worth of bullion reached the Imperial treasury during Charles's reign. This contributed to the higher inflation known as the Spanish price revolution: prices doubled in the first half of the 16th century. The rising costs of war had dramatic consequences on Habsburg finances: one campaign in the 1550s costed as much as one war in the 1520s. Charles V was forced to borrow even more and at higher interest rates, which grew from 17% to 48%.
Despite opposition from the {{lang\|es\|\[\[Cortes Generales]]}}, Charles V managed to impose this [vicious circle](/wiki/Vicious_circle "Vicious circle") that progressively weakened the Spanish finances. Furthermore, in the last years of his reign, Charles V could not be economically supported by his non\-Spanish possessions: he exempted the Low Countries from taxation after the [Revolt of Ghent](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281539%29 "Revolt of Ghent (1539)") in 1540, Germany was in the middle of the [Schmalkaldic Wars](/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War "Schmalkaldic War"), and the budget surplus of Italian states was wiped out by the [Italian Wars](/wiki/Italian_Wars "Italian Wars"). This ultimately put the financial burden of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire") on the Spanish kingdoms and led to the bankruptcy of Spain. Unable to sustain his projects financially, Charles V abdicated in 1556 and retired to a monastery in 1558\. [Sovereign default](/wiki/Sovereign_default "Sovereign default") was declared in 1557\.[Themes in International Economics by Mats Lundahl](https://books.google.com/books?id=Gqp-DwAAQBAJ&dq=Charles+V+cortes+generales+precious+metals&pg=PT111)
[Spanish Opposition to Charles V's Foreign Policy](https://books.google.com/books?id=t8NfAAAAMAAJ)[Gold and Silver: Spain and the New World](https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH8.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007054754/http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/\~cowen/\~GEL115/115CH8\.html \|date\=2008\-10\-07 }} University of California
#### Landowners
Conditions in 16th century Europe support the view that the separation of constantly rising prices and fixed rents destroyed landowners. But this did not apply to Spain, where rent was not fixed and the power of landowners allowed them to raise rent and replace their tenants based on the tenants' ability to meet payments.{{cite web \|last\=Lynch \|first\=John \|title\=Spain During the Price Revolution \|url\=http://www.p12\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\.pdf \|access\-date\=2017\-08\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208001528/http://www.p12\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-08 \|url\-status\=dead }}
On the other hand, the price revolution brought impoverishment to those who lived on fixed income and small rents, as their earning could not keep pace with Spanish prices. Small landowners of the {{lang\|es\|\[\[hidalgo (nobility)\|hidalgo]]}} class, the lower clergy, government officials, and many others all found their standard of living reduced as commodity prices rose beyond their means. The situation of the peasants is less clear, for it is difficult to reconcile agricultural prosperity and the great rural emigration to the towns, which in turn makes it difficult to explain the alleged extension of cultivation in Spain. But one thing is certain—wages lagged behind prices.
#### Sellers and traders
But landowners and the rich were not the only ones gaining from the price revolution. Anyone with something to sell or trade could reap the benefits of inflation, particularly manufacturers and merchants. However in the second half of the century, when the conditions of the Price Revolution got worse and relentless inflation began to make Spanish enterprise less competitive in the international and colonial market, not all merchants and manufactures found life enjoyable. Only the more powerful merchants were able to survive foreign competition and in doing so prospered boundlessly. Enormous fortunes were made in the Indies trade (whose expansion was related directly to the rise of prices) and this encouraged more investment and profitable returns. Profitable returns were distributed beyond the merchant houses of Seville to entrepreneurs in other parts of Spain, as the American market took the oil and wine of [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia"), the wool of [Castile](/wiki/Crown_of_Castile "Crown of Castile"), the metallurgical products and ships of the [Basque country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 "Basque Country (autonomous community)"). To at least the end of the 16th century there was still money to be made in Spain for selected merchants and manufactures.
#### The Crown
The Crown, like its ally the aristocracy, was less crippled by the price revolution than the majority of its subjects. Certainly the cost of administration, and of paying, feeding, and equipping its armed forces, rose for the Crown just as the cost of goods did for the private consumer; unlike other countries, Spain was willing to spend at a higher level to maintain their status as a world power. However, the aristocracy in contrast lost less of its savings than the Crown. The aristocracy could raise rents to increase revenue and not face the full consequences of the Price Revolution. The aristocracy allowed prices to remain high, while inflation alleviated the burden of loans, which became a substantial part of their income.
|
[
"### Spain",
"#### External debt",
"Rising costs to sustain Habsburg war efforts eventually led to a severe rise of the Spanish [public debt](/wiki/Public_debt \"Public debt\"), of which German and Italian bankers were the creditors. The Habsburg [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\") was also [King of Spain](/wiki/King_of_Spain \"King of Spain\") and borrowed enormous amounts of money from the [Fuggers](/wiki/Fugger \"Fugger\"), the [Welsers](/wiki/Welser \"Welser\"), and Genoese banking families, in order to be elected Emperor and sustain, for over 35 years, the Imperial foreign policy. To repay such loans, he relied primarily on the vast stream of bullion provided by Spanish America. In the 1520s and 1530s, ships full of [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec \"Aztec\") and [Inca](/wiki/Inca \"Inca\") treasures arrived from [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") and [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") to the courts of Charles V as homage of [Hernán Cortés](/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s \"Hernán Cortés\") and [Francisco Pizarro](/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro \"Francisco Pizarro\"). Those treasures were usually minted into coins in [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\") and transferred to German bankers in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\"), a [port city](/wiki/Port_city \"Port city\") of the [Burgundian Low Countries](/wiki/Burgundian_Low_Countries \"Burgundian Low Countries\") where major agencies of the Fugger and Welser were located. This allowed Antwerp to become the center of the international economy and accelerated the [capitalist](/wiki/Capitalist \"Capitalist\") transition of the Low Countries. Certain golden objects have survived in descriptions: for example, some were displayed in Brussels to the German artist [Albrecht Dürer](/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer \"Albrecht Dürer\") who wrote: \"In all my life, I have seen nothing that rejoiced my heart so much as these things\". French corsaires were constantly disrupting this trade: notably, the treasure of the Aztec emperor [Cuauhtémoc](/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc \"Cuauhtémoc\") was captured by the French corsair [Jean Fleury](/wiki/Jean_Fleury \"Jean Fleury\").",
"Silver arrived in large amounts, whereas gold was rarer to be found. In 1528, Charles V carved out a colony in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") for his German bankers, hoping to discover the legendary golden city of [El Dorado](/wiki/El_Dorado \"El Dorado\"). In 1546, the project came to an end and the German colony was disbanded. In the 1540s and 1550s, the discovery of silver mines in the Americas (such as [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\"), [Zacatecas](/wiki/Zacatecas_City \"Zacatecas City\"), [Taxco](/wiki/Taxco \"Taxco\"), [Guanajuato](/wiki/Guanajuato_City \"Guanajuato City\"), [Sombrerete](/wiki/Sombrerete \"Sombrerete\")) increased the flows of precious metals. Overall, 15 million ducats' worth of bullion reached the Imperial treasury during Charles's reign. This contributed to the higher inflation known as the Spanish price revolution: prices doubled in the first half of the 16th century. The rising costs of war had dramatic consequences on Habsburg finances: one campaign in the 1550s costed as much as one war in the 1520s. Charles V was forced to borrow even more and at higher interest rates, which grew from 17% to 48%.",
"Despite opposition from the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[Cortes Generales]]}}, Charles V managed to impose this [vicious circle](/wiki/Vicious_circle \"Vicious circle\") that progressively weakened the Spanish finances. Furthermore, in the last years of his reign, Charles V could not be economically supported by his non\\-Spanish possessions: he exempted the Low Countries from taxation after the [Revolt of Ghent](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281539%29 \"Revolt of Ghent (1539)\") in 1540, Germany was in the middle of the [Schmalkaldic Wars](/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War \"Schmalkaldic War\"), and the budget surplus of Italian states was wiped out by the [Italian Wars](/wiki/Italian_Wars \"Italian Wars\"). This ultimately put the financial burden of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\") on the Spanish kingdoms and led to the bankruptcy of Spain. Unable to sustain his projects financially, Charles V abdicated in 1556 and retired to a monastery in 1558\\. [Sovereign default](/wiki/Sovereign_default \"Sovereign default\") was declared in 1557\\.[Themes in International Economics by Mats Lundahl](https://books.google.com/books?id=Gqp-DwAAQBAJ&dq=Charles+V+cortes+generales+precious+metals&pg=PT111)\n[Spanish Opposition to Charles V's Foreign Policy](https://books.google.com/books?id=t8NfAAAAMAAJ)[Gold and Silver: Spain and the New World](https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH8.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007054754/http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/\\~cowen/\\~GEL115/115CH8\\.html \\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-07 }} University of California",
"#### Landowners",
"Conditions in 16th century Europe support the view that the separation of constantly rising prices and fixed rents destroyed landowners. But this did not apply to Spain, where rent was not fixed and the power of landowners allowed them to raise rent and replace their tenants based on the tenants' ability to meet payments.{{cite web \\|last\\=Lynch \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Spain During the Price Revolution \\|url\\=http://www.p12\\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208001528/http://www.p12\\.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/units/4/documents/Lynch1\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"On the other hand, the price revolution brought impoverishment to those who lived on fixed income and small rents, as their earning could not keep pace with Spanish prices. Small landowners of the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[hidalgo (nobility)\\|hidalgo]]}} class, the lower clergy, government officials, and many others all found their standard of living reduced as commodity prices rose beyond their means. The situation of the peasants is less clear, for it is difficult to reconcile agricultural prosperity and the great rural emigration to the towns, which in turn makes it difficult to explain the alleged extension of cultivation in Spain. But one thing is certain—wages lagged behind prices.",
"#### Sellers and traders",
"But landowners and the rich were not the only ones gaining from the price revolution. Anyone with something to sell or trade could reap the benefits of inflation, particularly manufacturers and merchants. However in the second half of the century, when the conditions of the Price Revolution got worse and relentless inflation began to make Spanish enterprise less competitive in the international and colonial market, not all merchants and manufactures found life enjoyable. Only the more powerful merchants were able to survive foreign competition and in doing so prospered boundlessly. Enormous fortunes were made in the Indies trade (whose expansion was related directly to the rise of prices) and this encouraged more investment and profitable returns. Profitable returns were distributed beyond the merchant houses of Seville to entrepreneurs in other parts of Spain, as the American market took the oil and wine of [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\"), the wool of [Castile](/wiki/Crown_of_Castile \"Crown of Castile\"), the metallurgical products and ships of the [Basque country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 \"Basque Country (autonomous community)\"). To at least the end of the 16th century there was still money to be made in Spain for selected merchants and manufactures.",
"#### The Crown",
"The Crown, like its ally the aristocracy, was less crippled by the price revolution than the majority of its subjects. Certainly the cost of administration, and of paying, feeding, and equipping its armed forces, rose for the Crown just as the cost of goods did for the private consumer; unlike other countries, Spain was willing to spend at a higher level to maintain their status as a world power. However, the aristocracy in contrast lost less of its savings than the Crown. The aristocracy could raise rents to increase revenue and not face the full consequences of the Price Revolution. The aristocracy allowed prices to remain high, while inflation alleviated the burden of loans, which became a substantial part of their income.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Donald was born in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne "Newcastle upon Tyne") in 1964\. He attended West Jesmond Infant School 1969–1973, West Jesmond Junior School 1973–1975, Heaton School (comprehensive) 1975–1980, and Newcastle College of Arts \& Technology 1981–1983\.
In 1976 Donald joined Newcastle’s [People’s Theatre](/wiki/People%27s_Theatre%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne "People's Theatre, Newcastle upon Tyne"), training in theatre skills. He acted in several of the theatre’s ground\-breaking Young People’s Theatre productions. He worked as assistant stage manager for the [Royal Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company "Royal Shakespeare Company") on their People's Theatre visit in 1977\. He also performed at the [Gulbenkian Theatre](/wiki/Northern_Stage%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne "Northern Stage, Newcastle upon Tyne"). He left the People's Theatre in 1980\.
Between 1981 and 1983, Donald acted as singer and lyricist for comedy rock band Johnny Shiloe’s Movement Machine. The band comprised Dave Rose ([composition](/wiki/Musical_composition "Musical composition") and drums), Paul Rose (guitar) and Gary Shaw (bass).
In 1981, Donald appeared in an episode of [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two "BBC Two")’s *Something Else* programme. In 1983 he co\-wrote and appeared in an episode *Sparks*, also on BBC Two.
He specialised as an antagonist on [Carlton Television's](/wiki/Carlton_Television "Carlton Television") live debate programmes in the early 1990s, and moved on to play important roles in the BBC’s *I Love* series and [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4")’s *100 Greatest*.
He presented a self\-penned film at the launch of [BBC Choice](/wiki/BBC_Choice "BBC Choice") (now [BBC Three](/wiki/BBC_Three "BBC Three")), and did the same for a project by Carlton ‘The Great London Debate’.{{clarify\|date\=November 2022}}
In 2004, he presented *The Regionnaires*, a six\-part north\-east regional panel show broadcast on [ITV Tyne Tees](/wiki/ITV_Tyne_Tees "ITV Tyne Tees"), which he co\-wrote with his former *Viz* partner Alex Collier.
In 2005, he met Hungover Stuntmen and in 2006 joined their management team. He became their sole manager in 2007\. The band recorded an album in [Ibiza](/wiki/Ibiza "Ibiza"), played the [Ibiza Rocks](/wiki/Ibiza_Rocks "Ibiza Rocks") festival two years running and appeared at [Newcastle Arena](/wiki/Newcastle_Arena "Newcastle Arena") with [Paul Weller](/wiki/Paul_Weller "Paul Weller"). His work with the band stopped when Simon became full\-time carer for his eldest brother Steve, who was diagnosed with cancer in the summer of 2008 and died the following November.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Donald was born in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\") in 1964\\. He attended West Jesmond Infant School 1969–1973, West Jesmond Junior School 1973–1975, Heaton School (comprehensive) 1975–1980, and Newcastle College of Arts \\& Technology 1981–1983\\.",
"In 1976 Donald joined Newcastle’s [People’s Theatre](/wiki/People%27s_Theatre%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"People's Theatre, Newcastle upon Tyne\"), training in theatre skills. He acted in several of the theatre’s ground\\-breaking Young People’s Theatre productions. He worked as assistant stage manager for the [Royal Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company \"Royal Shakespeare Company\") on their People's Theatre visit in 1977\\. He also performed at the [Gulbenkian Theatre](/wiki/Northern_Stage%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Northern Stage, Newcastle upon Tyne\"). He left the People's Theatre in 1980\\.",
"Between 1981 and 1983, Donald acted as singer and lyricist for comedy rock band Johnny Shiloe’s Movement Machine. The band comprised Dave Rose ([composition](/wiki/Musical_composition \"Musical composition\") and drums), Paul Rose (guitar) and Gary Shaw (bass).",
"In 1981, Donald appeared in an episode of [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two \"BBC Two\")’s *Something Else* programme. In 1983 he co\\-wrote and appeared in an episode *Sparks*, also on BBC Two.",
"He specialised as an antagonist on [Carlton Television's](/wiki/Carlton_Television \"Carlton Television\") live debate programmes in the early 1990s, and moved on to play important roles in the BBC’s *I Love* series and [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\")’s *100 Greatest*.",
"He presented a self\\-penned film at the launch of [BBC Choice](/wiki/BBC_Choice \"BBC Choice\") (now [BBC Three](/wiki/BBC_Three \"BBC Three\")), and did the same for a project by Carlton ‘The Great London Debate’.{{clarify\\|date\\=November 2022}}",
"In 2004, he presented *The Regionnaires*, a six\\-part north\\-east regional panel show broadcast on [ITV Tyne Tees](/wiki/ITV_Tyne_Tees \"ITV Tyne Tees\"), which he co\\-wrote with his former *Viz* partner Alex Collier.",
"In 2005, he met Hungover Stuntmen and in 2006 joined their management team. He became their sole manager in 2007\\. The band recorded an album in [Ibiza](/wiki/Ibiza \"Ibiza\"), played the [Ibiza Rocks](/wiki/Ibiza_Rocks \"Ibiza Rocks\") festival two years running and appeared at [Newcastle Arena](/wiki/Newcastle_Arena \"Newcastle Arena\") with [Paul Weller](/wiki/Paul_Weller \"Paul Weller\"). His work with the band stopped when Simon became full\\-time carer for his eldest brother Steve, who was diagnosed with cancer in the summer of 2008 and died the following November.",
""
] |
History by country
------------------
### Austria
[The Greens](/wiki/The_Greens_%E2%80%93_The_Green_Alternative "The Greens – The Green Alternative") became a governing party for the first time in January 2020 as part of a coalition deal with the right\-wing [Austrian People's Party](/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party "Austrian People's Party").{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-01\-09\|title\=A new right\-wing\-Green coalition takes office in Austria\|newspaper\=The Economist\|url\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/01/09/a\-new\-right\-wing\-green\-coalition\-takes\-office\-in\-austria\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-20\|issn\=0013\-0613}} On 6 October 2021, Austrian anti\-corruption prosecutors conducted a raid on the offices of [Federal Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Austria "Chancellor of Austria") [Sebastian Kurz](/wiki/Sebastian_Kurz "Sebastian Kurz"), the headquarters of the [Austrian People's Party](/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party "Austrian People's Party") and the [Federal Ministry of Finance](/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Finance_%28Austria%29 "Federal Ministry of Finance (Austria)").{{Cite web\|title\=Mehrere Razzien: Kurz werden Untreue und Beihilfe zur Bestechlichkeit vorgeworfen\|url\=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000130213945/hausdurchsuchung\-in\-der\-oevp\-parteizentrale\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-09\|website\=Der Standard\|language\=de\-AT}} Kurz has been accused of [embezzlement](/wiki/Embezzlement "Embezzlement") and [bribery](/wiki/Bribery "Bribery"), along with nine high\-profile politicians and newspaper executives. As a result of the raid, Kurz has sustained heavy criticism from his junior The Greens, as well as the opposition.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-10\-08\|title\=Grüne verlangen "untadelige Person" anstelle von Kurz\|url\=https://www.diepresse.com/6044606/grune\-verlangen\-untadelige\-person\-anstelle\-von\-kurz\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-09\|website\=Die Presse\|language\=de}} On 9 October 2021, Kurz announced his resignation,{{Cite news\|last\=Murphy\|first\=Francois\|date\=2021\-10\-10\|title\=Austria's Kurz steps down over corruption probe to save coalition\|language\=en\|work\=Reuters\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/austrias\-kurz\-says\-stepping\-down\-chancellor\-2021\-10\-09/\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-12}} with [Alexander Schallenberg](/wiki/Alexander_Schallenberg "Alexander Schallenberg") to serve as his replacement.{{Cite web\|title\=Sebastian Kurz "macht Platz" und zieht sich als Kanzler zurück\|url\=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000130311035/nach\-juengsten\-enthuellungen\-sebastian\-kurz\-vor\-rueckzug\-als\-kanzler\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-09\|website\=Der Standard\|language\=de\-AT}} As a result of the resignation, Kogler announced his intention to continue the governing coalition.
In the [2022 Austrian presidential election](/wiki/2022_Austrian_presidential_election "2022 Austrian presidential election"), incumbent [Green](/wiki/The_Greens_%E2%80%93_The_Green_Alternative "The Greens – The Green Alternative") president [Van der Bellen](/wiki/Alexander_Van_der_Bellen "Alexander Van der Bellen") was re\-elected in the first round with 57% of the vote. [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria "Freedom Party of Austria") (FPÖ) candidate [Walter Rosenkranz](/wiki/Walter_Rosenkranz "Walter Rosenkranz") placed second with 18% of the votes, a significant decline from the party's result in the 2016 presidential election.{{Cite web \|title\=Van der Bellen set to win presidential race – DW – 10/09/2022 \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/austria\-elections\-van\-der\-bellen\-set\-to\-win\-presidential\-race/a\-63382240 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en}}
### Belarus
[right\|thumb\|[2020 Belarusian protests](/wiki/2020_Belarusian_protests "2020 Belarusian protests")](/wiki/File:2020_Belarusian_protests_%E2%80%94_Minsk%2C_13_September_p0007.jpg "2020 Belarusian protests — Minsk, 13 September p0007.jpg")
#### Presidential election
The [2020 Belarusian presidential election](/wiki/2020_Belarusian_presidential_election "2020 Belarusian presidential election") was held on Sunday, 9 August 2020\. Early voting began on 4 August and ran until 8 August.{{Cite news\|title\=Belarus Authorities Cancel Opposition Campaigning Ahead Of Election\|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/belarusian\-authorities\-invent\-pretexts\-to\-cancel\-opposition\-campaigning\-ahead\-of\-election/30767039\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|newspaper\=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\|date\=5 August 2020 \|language\=en}} Incumbent [Alexander Lukashenko](/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko "Alexander Lukashenko") was reelected to the sixth term in office, with official results crediting him with 80% of the vote. Lukashenko has won every presidential election since 1994,{{Cite web\|date\=17 November 2019\|title\=As Belarus Elects New Parliament, Lukashenka Says He Will Seek Another Presidential Term\|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/belarus\-parliament\-elections\-lukashenka\-russia\-us\-china\-eu/30276098\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-05\|website\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty\|language\=en}} with all but the first being labelled by international monitors as neither free nor fair.{{Cite web\|date\=22 November 2019\|title\=Opposition Wins No Seats in Belarus Election\|url\=https://crd.org/2019/11/22/opposition\-wins\-no\-seats\-in\-belarus\-election/\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=Civil Rights Defenders\|language\=en\-US}}
Opposition candidate [Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya](/wiki/Sviatlana_Tsikhanouskaya "Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya") claimed to have won a decisive first\-round victory with at least 60% of the vote, and called on Lukashenko to start negotiations. Her campaign subsequently formed the [Coordination Council](/wiki/Coordination_Council_%28Belarus%29 "Coordination Council (Belarus)") to facilitate a transfer of power and stated that it was ready to organize "long\-term protests" against the official results.{{cite news\|date\=14 August 2020\|title\=Belarus election: Exiled leader calls weekend of 'peaceful rallies'\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-53780685}}{{Cite web\|title\=Тихановская объявила себя победителем президентских выборов и предложила переговоры Лукашенко\|url\=https://meduza.io/news/2020/08/10/tihanovskaya\-ob\-yavila\-sebya\-pobeditelem\-prezidentskih\-vyborov\-i\-predlozhila\-peregovory\-lukashenko\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-10\|website\=meduza.io}} All seven members of the Coordination Council Presidium were subsequently arrested or went into [exile](/wiki/Government_in_exile "Government in exile"). Numerous countries [refused to accept the result of the election](/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_2020_Belarusian_presidential_election_and_protests "International reactions to the 2020 Belarusian presidential election and protests"), as did the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), which imposed sanctions on Belarusian officials deemed to be responsible for "violence, repression and election fraud".{{cite web\|title\=Belarus: EU imposes sanctions as Lukashenko orders police to clear the streets\|url\=https://news.sky.com/story/eu\-threatens\-belarus\-sanctions\-as\-it\-rejects\-election\-result\-12052472\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-19\|website\=Sky News\|language\=en}}
#### Anti\-government protests
The largest [anti\-government protests](/wiki/2020_Belarusian_protests "2020 Belarusian protests") in the history of Belarus began in the lead\-up to and during the election. Initially moderate, the protests intensified nationwide after official election results were announced on the night of 10 August, in which Lukashenko was declared the winner. Following the forced landing of [Ryanair Flight 4978](/wiki/Ryanair_Flight_4978 "Ryanair Flight 4978") to arrest opposition activist and journalist [Roman Protasevich](/wiki/Roman_Protasevich "Roman Protasevich") and his girlfriend Sofia Sapega, the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") agreed to ban EU\-based airlines from flying through Belarusian airspace, to [ban Belarusian carriers from flying into EU airspace](/wiki/List_of_air_carriers_banned_in_the_European_Union "List of air carriers banned in the European Union"), and to implement a fresh round of sanctions.{{cite web\|date\=24 May 2021\|title\=EU leaders agree on Belarus sanctions after plane diversion\|url\=https://apnews.com/article/belarus\-plane\-pratasevich\-lukashenko\-a9d32d02caea49c880ed1b7a5872e5f7\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524202013/https://apnews.com/article/belarus\-plane\-pratasevich\-lukashenko\-a9d32d02caea49c880ed1b7a5872e5f7\|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-24\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-25\|website\=AP NEWS}}
[right\|thumb\|Routes of illegal migration through Belarus during [2021 crisis](/wiki/2021_Belarus%E2%80%93European_Union_border_crisis "2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis")](/wiki/File:2021_Belarus-EU_border_crisis_-_general_map.png "2021 Belarus-EU border crisis - general map.png")
#### Border crisis
The [2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis](/wiki/2021_Belarus%E2%80%93European_Union_border_crisis "2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis") was a [migrant crisis](/wiki/Migrant_crisis "Migrant crisis") manifested in a massive influx of Middle Eastern and African migrants (mainly from [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq")) to [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania"), [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia"), and [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") via those countries' borders with [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"). The crisis was triggered by the severe deterioration in [Belarus–European Union relations](/wiki/Belarus%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "Belarus–European Union relations"), following the 2020 Belarusian presidential election, the [2020–2021 Belarusian protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests "2020–2021 Belarusian protests"), the Ryanair Flight 4978 incident, and the [attempted repatriation of](/wiki/Belarus_2020_Summer_Olympics_scandal "Belarus 2020 Summer Olympics scandal") [Krystsina Tsimanouskaya](/wiki/Krystsina_Tsimanouskaya "Krystsina Tsimanouskaya"). The three EU nations have described the crisis as [hybrid warfare](/wiki/Hybrid_warfare "Hybrid warfare") by [human trafficking](/wiki/Human_trafficking "Human trafficking") of migrants, waged by Belarus against the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), and called on [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels_and_the_European_Union "Brussels and the European Union") to intervene.{{cite web\|last1\=Whitmore\|first1\=Brian\|date\=30 June 2021\|title\=Belarus dictator weaponizes illegal migrants against EU\|url\=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/belarus\-dictator\-weaponizes\-illegal\-migrants\-against\-eu/\|website\=\[\[Atlantic Council]]}}{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-08\-10\|title\=Latvia and Lithuania act to counter migrants crossing Belarus border\|url\=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/10/latvia\-and\-lithuania\-act\-to\-counter\-migrants\-crossing\-belarus\-border\|access\-date\=2021\-08\-10\|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en}}
### Bulgaria
#### Protests
The [2020–2021 Bulgarian protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Bulgarian_protests "2020–2021 Bulgarian protests") were a series of demonstrations held in [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria"), mainly in the capital [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"), as well as cities with a large [Bulgarian diaspora](/wiki/Bulgarian_diaspora "Bulgarian diaspora"), such as [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"),{{Cite web\|title\=More and more Bulgarians abroad want governance model changed\|url\=https://www.bnr.bg/en/post/101313096/more\-and\-more\-bulgarians\-abroad\-want\-governance\-model\-changed\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-22\|website\=www.bnr.bg\|language\=en}} [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"), [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") and [London](/wiki/London "London"). The protest movement was the culmination of long\-standing grievances against endemic corruption and [state capture](/wiki/State_capture "State capture"), particularly associated with prime minister [Boyko Borisov](/wiki/Boyko_Borisov "Boyko Borisov")'s governments, in power since 2009\.
#### Elections
[Snap parliamentary elections](/wiki/July_2021_Bulgarian_parliamentary_election "July 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election") were held in [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria") on 11 July 2021 after no party was able or willing to form a government following the [April 2021 elections](/wiki/April_2021_Bulgarian_parliamentary_election "April 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election").[Bulgaria faces fresh elections as Socialists refuse to form a government](https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/bulgaria-faces-fresh-elections-socialists-refuse-form-government-2021-05-01/) Reuters, 1 May 2021 The populist party [There Is Such a People](/wiki/There_Is_Such_a_People "There Is Such a People") (ITN), led by musician and television host [Slavi Trifonov](/wiki/Slavi_Trifonov "Slavi Trifonov"), narrowly won the most seats over a coalition of the conservative [GERB](/wiki/GERB "GERB") and [Union of Democratic Forces](/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_%28Bulgaria%29 "Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)") parties. ITN's success was propelled primarily by young voters.
The [2022 Bulgarian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Bulgarian_parliamentary_election "2022 Bulgarian parliamentary election") was won by the conservative [GERB](/wiki/GERB "GERB") with 25\.3% of the vote. [We Continue the Change](/wiki/We_Continue_the_Change "We Continue the Change") (PP) came in second with 20\.2% of the vote. Support for the [far\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics") and [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalism "Ultranationalism") [Revival](/wiki/Revival_%28Bulgarian_political_party%29 "Revival (Bulgarian political party)") party significantly increased from 4\.9% to 10\.2%. It was the country's fourth general election in two years, after the collapse of the government led by [Kiril Petkov](/wiki/Kiril_Petkov "Kiril Petkov") in June.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-16 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — Bulgarian polls, trends and election news for Bulgaria \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/bulgaria/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Spirova \|first\=Maria \|date\=December 2023\|title\=Bulgaria: Political Developments and Data in 2022: Yet Another Year of Instability \|journal\=European Journal of Political Research Political Data Yearbook \|language\=en \|volume\=62 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=55–67 \|doi\=10\.1111/2047\-8852\.12415 \|issn\=2047\-8844\|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\=1887/3142366 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
### Croatia
In the [2020 Croatian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Croatian_parliamentary_election "2020 Croatian parliamentary election"), the conservative [Croatian Democratic Union](/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union "Croatian Democratic Union") (HDZ) emerged as the winner, securing the most seats in the parliament. The HDZ, led by Prime Minister [Andrej Plenković](/wiki/Andrej_Plenkovi%C4%87 "Andrej Plenković"), won 66 out of 151 seats in the [Croatian Parliament](/wiki/Croatian_Parliament "Croatian Parliament"), solidifying its position as the ruling party. The [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Croatia "Social Democratic Party of Croatia") (SDP), the main opposition, trailed behind with 41 seats. Turnout was lower than in the last election, 46\.3 percent compared to 52\.6 percent in 2016\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-16 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — Croatian polls, trends and election news for Croatia \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/croatia/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} Following the election, the HDZ successfully negotiated a coalition with smaller parties, including the [Croatian People's Party](/wiki/Croatian_People%27s_Party_%E2%80%93_Liberal_Democrats "Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats") (HNS), ensuring a parliamentary majority. The election addressed national issues, including economic recovery, healthcare reform, anti\-corruption measures, and responses to the ongoing [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-07\-06 \|title\=Croatia's ruling conservatives win parliamentary elections, first results show \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20200706\-croatia\-s\-ruling\-conservatives\-win\-parliamentary\-vote \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=France 24 \|language\=en}}
### Czech Republic
In the [2021 Czech parliamentary election](/wiki/2021_Czech_parliamentary_election "2021 Czech parliamentary election") voters elected the [Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_the_Czech_Republic "Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic") of the Czech Republic. The three\-party, center\-right [SPOLU coalition](/wiki/Spolu_%28Czech_Republic%29 "Spolu (Czech Republic)") narrowly won the election with 27\.8% of the vote. The populist [ANO](/wiki/ANO_2011 "ANO 2011") party of Prime Minister [Andrej Babiš](/wiki/Andrej_Babi%C5%A1 "Andrej Babiš") suffered a surprise defeat with 27\.1% of the vote.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-10\-09 \|title\=Populist Czech PM Babis's party narrowly loses election in surprise result \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/europe/20211009\-populist\-czech\-pm\-babis\-s\-party\-narrowly\-loses\-czech\-election\-in\-surprise\-result \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=France 24 \|language\=en}} The liberal [Pirates and Mayors](/wiki/Pirates_and_Mayors "Pirates and Mayors") (PirStan) electoral coalition came third with 15\.6%. Right\-wing [Freedom and Direct Democracy](/wiki/Freedom_and_Direct_Democracy "Freedom and Direct Democracy") (SPD) came fourth with 9\.5%. The [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democracy_%28Czech_Republic%29 "Social Democracy (Czech Republic)") and the [Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia "Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia"), two of the [ANO](/wiki/ANO_2011 "ANO 2011")\-led coalition government partners failed to reach the 5 percent threshold required to enter parliament.{{Cite web \|title\=Czech election: Opposition wins surprise majority – DW – 10/09/2021 \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/czech\-election\-opposition\-wins\-surprise\-majority/a\-59457738 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en}} After the results, [SPOLU](/wiki/Spolu_%28Czech_Republic%29 "Spolu (Czech Republic)") and PirStan signed a memorandum to form a coalition government with [Petr Fiala](/wiki/Petr_Fiala "Petr Fiala") as prime minister.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-10\-10 \|title\=Czech opposition parties form majority alliance, sign memorandum for new government \|url\=https://www.expats.cz/czech\-news/article/czech\-opposition\-parties\-form\-majority\-alliance\-sign\-memorandum\-for\-new\-government \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=www.expats.cz \|language\=en}}
[thumb\|Petr Pavel during a rally in support of Ukraine in [Brno](/wiki/Brno "Brno"), March 2022](/wiki/File:Brno_pro_Ukrajinu_2022-03-01_%283762a%29_Petr_Pavel.jpg "Brno pro Ukrajinu 2022-03-01 (3762a) Petr Pavel.jpg")
In the [2023 Czech presidential election](/wiki/2023_Czech_presidential_election "2023 Czech presidential election"), retired general [Petr Pavel](/wiki/Petr_Pavel "Petr Pavel") defeated former prime minister and businessman [Andrej Babiš](/wiki/Andrej_Babi%C5%A1 "Andrej Babiš") with over 58% of the popular vote in the second round.{{Cite web \|title\=Former NATO general Petr Pavel wins Czech presidential election \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/28/czech\-presidential\-election\-former\-nato\-general\-petr\-pavel\-wins \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Al Jazeera \|language\=en}} [Petr Pavel](/wiki/Petr_Pavel "Petr Pavel"), former [chair of the NATO Military Committee](/wiki/Chair_of_the_NATO_Military_Committee "Chair of the NATO Military Committee"), ran as an independent on a [pro\-Western](/wiki/Pro-Western "Pro-Western"), [pro\-European](/wiki/Pro-European "Pro-European") platform, and was backed by the centre\-right governing alliance [Spolu](/wiki/Spolu_%28Czech_Republic%29 "Spolu (Czech Republic)").{{Cite news \|last\=Tait \|first\=Robert \|date\=2023\-01\-28 \|title\=Pro\-western Petr Pavel sweeps to landslide win in race for Czech presidency \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Observer \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/28/petr\-pavel\-wins\-landslide\-victory\-in\-czech\-presidential\-elections \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|issn\=0029\-7712}} He won the first round of the election with 35\.40% of the popular vote, ahead of [Andrej Babiš](/wiki/Andrej_Babi%C5%A1 "Andrej Babiš"), the former [Czech prime minister](/wiki/Czech_prime_minister "Czech prime minister") running as the candidate of populist [ANO 2011](/wiki/ANO_2011 "ANO 2011"), who finished second with 34\.99%.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-01\-14 \|title\=Pro\-Western retired general leads first round in Czech presidential election \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/pro\-western\-retired\-general\-leads\-first\-round\-in\-czech\-presidential\-election/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=POLITICO \|language\=en}} Voter turnout in the second round was a little above 70%, the highest in a direct Czech presidential election and the highest in any national Czech election since 1998\.{{Cite web \|title\=Volební účast \- Seznam Zprávy \|url\=https://www.seznamzpravy.cz/tag/volebni\-ucast\-54700 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=www.seznamzpravy.cz \|date\=6 October 2019 \|language\=cs}}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-01\-28 \|title\=Retired army general Petr Pavel elected next president of Czechia \|url\=https://english.radio.cz/retired\-army\-general\-petr\-pavel\-elected\-next\-president\-czechia\-8773546 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=Radio Prague International \|language\=en}}
### Cyprus
The [2021 Cypriot legislative election](/wiki/2021_Cypriot_legislative_election "2021 Cypriot legislative election") was won by the [Democratic Rally](/wiki/Democratic_Rally "Democratic Rally"), a Christian\-democratic party. The party won 27\.77% of the popular vote, taking 17 seats in the parliament and remaining the party with the largest representation.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-16 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — Cypriot polls, trends and election news for Cyprus \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/cyprus/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} The left\-wing [Progressive Party of Working People](/wiki/Progressive_Party_of_Working_People "Progressive Party of Working People") came in second place with 22\.34% of the vote and 15 seats in parliament. [ELAM](/wiki/ELAM_%28Cyprus%29 "ELAM (Cyprus)"), an anti\-migrant nationalist party, almost doubled its vote share compared to the 2016 election to about 6\.8% of the vote, placing it fourth in voter preferences.{{Cite web \|last\=Kambas \|first\=Michele \|date\=May 30, 2021 \|title\=Cyprus sees nationalists gain in parliament vote \|website\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/stung\-by\-graft\-corruption\-cyprus\-voters\-elect\-new\-parliament\-2021\-05\-30/}}
In the 2023 Cypriot presidential election, centrist [Nikos Christodoulides](/wiki/Nikos_Christodoulides "Nikos Christodoulides") was elected President of Cyprus with 51\.97% of the vote against left\-wing [Andreas Mavroyiannis](/wiki/Andreas_Mavroyiannis "Andreas Mavroyiannis") with 48\.03% on the second round.{{Cite web \|title\=Ex\-foreign minister Christodoulides wins Cyprus presidential vote \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/12/ex\-fm\-christodoulides\-wins\-cyprus\-presidential\-vote \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Al Jazeera \|language\=en}}
### Denmark
In the [2022 Danish general election](/wiki/2022_Danish_general_election "2022 Danish general election"), the governing [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democrats_%28Denmark%29 "Social Democrats (Denmark)") achieved their best result in 20 years, with 28% of the vote. Leading opposition party [Venstre](/wiki/Venstre_%28Denmark%29 "Venstre (Denmark)") suffered major losses in the election, losing 20 seats in parliament. Two new parties standing in the elections, the [Moderates](/wiki/Moderates_%28Denmark%29 "Moderates (Denmark)") and the [Denmark Democrats](/wiki/Denmark_Democrats "Denmark Democrats"), won 16 and 14 seats respectively, making them the third\- and fifth\-largest parties. The [Social Liberals](/wiki/Danish_Social_Liberal_Party "Danish Social Liberal Party") experienced one of their worst ever results with 7 seats in parliament from 16 in the last election.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-11\-02 \|title\=Danish left\-wing bloc retains a majority in parliament \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/europe/20221102\-danish\-left\-wing\-bloc\-retains\-a\-majority\-in\-parliament \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=France 24 \|language\=en}} After negotiations, a coalition government composed of the [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democrats_%28Denmark%29 "Social Democrats (Denmark)"), [Venstre](/wiki/Venstre_%28Denmark%29 "Venstre (Denmark)") and the [Moderates](/wiki/Moderates_%28Denmark%29 "Moderates (Denmark)") was formed, the first time since [1977](/wiki/1977_Danish_general_election "1977 Danish general election") where both main parties were part of a coalition government.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-12\-03 \|title\=De Konservative forlader regeringsforhandlingerne \|url\=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/de\-konservative\-forlader\-regeringsforhandlingerne \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=DR \|language\=da\-DK}}
### Estonia
[Kaja Kallas](/wiki/Kaja_Kallas "Kaja Kallas") became the first female prime minister after the [previous government](/wiki/J%C3%BCri_Ratas%27_second_cabinet "Jüri Ratas' second cabinet") fell after a corruption scandal.{{Cite web\|title\=Estonia to get first female prime minister \|date\=2021\-01\-24\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/estonia\-to\-get\-first\-female\-prime\-minister/a\-56330397\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-03\|website\=Deutsche Welle\|language\=en\-GB}}
In the [2023 Estonian parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Estonian_parliamentary_election "2023 Estonian parliamentary election") incumbent Prime Minister [Kaja Kallas](/wiki/Kaja_Kallas "Kaja Kallas")' center\-right [Reform Party](/wiki/Estonian_Reform_Party "Estonian Reform Party") was the clear winner with 31\.2% of the vote and 37 seats in the [Riigikogu](/wiki/Riigikogu "Riigikogu").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-16 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — Estonian polls, trends and election news for Estonia \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/estonia/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} In second place, the right\-wing eurosceptic [EKRE](/wiki/EKRE "EKRE") party won 16\.1 percent of the vote. Support for the [Centre Party](/wiki/Estonian_Centre_Party "Estonian Centre Party"), traditionally supported by Estonia's [ethnic\-Russian minority](/wiki/Russian_minority_in_Estonia "Russian minority in Estonia"), fell to 14\.7 percent from 23\.1 percent in the last election.{{Cite web \|title\=Estonia elections: Kallas secures big win for centre\-right party \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/6/kallas\-secures\-big\-win\-for\-reform\-party\-in\-general\-election \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=Al Jazeera \|language\=en}} The biggest surprise of the election was the emergence of [Estonia 200](/wiki/Estonia_200 "Estonia 200"), a centrist liberal [pro\-EU](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism "Pro-Europeanism") party and a parliament newcomer following the election. It won 13\.3% of the vote and 14 seats in the [Riigikogu](/wiki/Riigikogu "Riigikogu").{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-03\-08 \|title\=Estonia's Reform Party starts coalition government talks \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/estonia\-kallas\-election\-coalition\-negotiations\-35d78cf386e93e106a058400f587cb93 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=AP News \|language\=en}}
### France
#### Islamism
The [murder of Samuel Paty](/wiki/Murder_of_Samuel_Paty "Murder of Samuel Paty") reignited the controversy surrounding [depictions of Muhammad](/wiki/Depictions_of_Muhammad "Depictions of Muhammad"), and was followed by the [2020 Nice stabbing](/wiki/2020_Nice_stabbing "2020 Nice stabbing") committed by another jihadist, as well as a far\-right attack in Avignon on the same day.{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-11\-03\|title\=Despite the horrors in Vienna and Paris, jihadism has declined\|newspaper\=The Economist\|url\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/11/03/despite\-the\-horrors\-in\-vienna\-and\-paris\-jihadism\-has\-declined\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-15\|issn\=0013\-0613}} Before the attacks, the [Charlie Hebdo](/wiki/Charlie_Hebdo "Charlie Hebdo") depiction had been republished on September 1, and the trial over the [Charlie Hebdo shooting](/wiki/Charlie_Hebdo_shooting "Charlie Hebdo shooting") in 2015 had begun on September 2\.{{Cite web\|title\=Timeline: A series of attacks in France amid a debate over Islam\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/29/timeline\-how\-muslim\-anger\-towards\-france\-flared\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-23\|website\=www.aljazeera.com\|language\=en}} There had also been a second attack on Charlie Hebdo's former headquarters in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") on September 25, and on October 2, President [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron") had called [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") a 'religion in crisis'. Following Macron's remarks, the Turkish president [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan") suggested he needed "mental treatment", leading France to withdraw its ambassador.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-10\-24\|title\=France recalls ambassador after Erdoğan attacks Macron over Islam\|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/erdogan\-attacks\-macron\-over\-islam/\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-16\|website\=Politico\|language\=en\-US}} [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") and [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") condemned France, while tens of thousands marched against in protest in [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh").{{Cite web\|title\=Muslim world's falling\-out with France deepens: Live news\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/27/world\-reaction\-to\-macron\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-23\|website\=www.aljazeera.com\|date\=28 October 2020 \|language\=en}} The French government demanded that the representative body for the religion in the country accept a 'charter of republican values', rejecting [political Islam](/wiki/Political_Islam "Political Islam") and foreign interference, as well as establishing a system of official licenses for [imams](/wiki/Imam "Imam").{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-11\-19\|title\=France's Macron asks Muslim leaders to back 'republican values' charter\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-55001167\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-23}} Overseas, the [French military intervention in the Sahel](/wiki/Operation_Serval "Operation Serval") continued fighting against the [Islamic State in the Greater Sahara](/wiki/Islamic_State_in_the_Greater_Sahara "Islamic State in the Greater Sahara").{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-11\-12\|title\=France's thankless war against jihadists in the Sahel\|newspaper\=The Economist\|url\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/11/12/frances\-thankless\-war\-against\-jihadists\-in\-the\-sahel\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-16\|issn\=0013\-0613}}
#### AUKUS reaction
On 17 September 2021, Macron and his foreign minister [Jean\-Yves Le Drian](/wiki/Jean-Yves_Le_Drian "Jean-Yves Le Drian") recalled the French ambassadors to the U.S. and Australia after the formation of the [AUKUS](/wiki/AUKUS "AUKUS") defense technology between the U.S., Australia, and UK (from which France was excluded). As part of the 2021 security agreement, the U.S. decided to provide nuclear\-powered submarines to Australia, to counter China in the Pacific and [Indo\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific "Indo-Pacific") region, and Australia canceled a US$66 billion (A$billion) deal from 2016 to purchase twelve French\-built conventionally powered (diesel) submarines.{{Cite web\|last\=Shear\|first\=Michael D.\|date\=17 September 2021\|title\=France recalls its ambassadors to the U.S. and Australia to protest Biden's submarine deal\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/us/politics/france\-ambassador\-recall\-us\-australia.html\|website\=\[\[The New York Times]]}}{{Cite news\|author\=Rick Noack\|date\=September 17, 2021\|title\=Why the French are so furious at the Biden administration over a derailed submarine deal\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/09/17/france\-submarine\-australia\-anger/\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]}}{{Cite web\|author1\=Angelique Chrisafis \|author2\=Daniel Boffey\|date\=September 16, 2021\|title\='Stab in the back': French fury as Australia scraps submarine deal\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/16/stab\-in\-the\-back\-french\-fury\-australia\-scraps\-submarine\-deal\|newspaper\=The Guardian}} The French government was furious at the cancellation of the submarine agreement and said that it had been blindsided, calling the decision a 'stab in the back'. On September 22, Biden and Macron pledged to improve the relationship between the two countries.{{cite news\|last1\=Salama\|first1\=Vivian\|last2\=Norman\|first2\=Laurence\|date\=22 September 2021\|title\=Biden, Macron Vow to Work to Ease Diplomatic Spat\|work\=Wall Street Journal\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/biden\-macron\-to\-speak\-in\-effort\-to\-ease\-diplomatic\-spat\-11632319882?mod\=politics\_lead\_pos2\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-22}}
#### 2022 presidential election
In the [2022 French presidential election](/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election "2022 French presidential election"), [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron") was re\-elected as the president of France, the first sitting French president to have been so in 20 years. In the second round of voting, Macron, a centrist, secured 58\.5% of the vote over the nationalist\-populist [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen "Marine Le Pen").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-04\-24 \|title\=To Europe's relief, France's Macron wins but far\-right gains \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/2022\-french\-election\-voting\-results\-f5b549e3b99930ee05bed17a9d3870b6 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=AP News \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-15 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — French polls, trends and election news for France \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/france/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}}
In the first round of voting, Macron led by a margin of about four percentage points over Le Pen. In the first round of the 2017 election, Macron was ahead of Le Pen by just three percentage points. Far\-left leader [Jean\-Luc Melenchon](/wiki/Jean-Luc_M%C3%A9lenchon "Jean-Luc Mélenchon") came in third, less than half a million votes from Marine Le Pen. Far\-right polemicist [Eric Zemmour](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Zemmour "Éric Zemmour") came in fourth. Right\-wing candidate [Valerie Pecresse](/wiki/Val%C3%A9rie_P%C3%A9cresse "Valérie Pécresse") and green candidate [Yannick Jadot](/wiki/Yannick_Jadot "Yannick Jadot") each finished with less than 5% of the votes.{{Cite news \|last\=Henley \|first\=Jon \|date\=2022\-04\-11 \|title\=France election: five key takeaways and moments ahead \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/11/france\-election\-key\-takeaways\-emmanuel\-macron\-marine\-le\-pen\-runoff\-first\-round\-voting\-presidential\-race \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|issn\=0261\-3077}}
The results of the first round showed a significant geographical divide between the three leading candidates. The incumbent, [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron")'s support was the strongest in large, affluent cities such as [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse") and [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), in addition to the west of France. [Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen "Marine Le Pen")'s strongest showings were in the post\-industrial northeast, the south, and rural areas more broadly. [Mélenchon's](/wiki/Jean-Luc_M%C3%A9lenchon "Jean-Luc Mélenchon") heartlands were in less prosperous suburbs around Paris, but otherwise he had relative success across the country.{{Cite web \|last1\=Voce \|first1\=Antonio \|last2\=Clarke \|first2\=Seán \|date\=2022\-06\-22 \|title\=French election 2022: full first\-round results \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng\-interactive/2022/apr/10/french\-election\-2022\-projected\-result\-and\-latest\-results \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=the Guardian \|language\=en}}
#### Protests
Thousands of people across France [came to the streets](/wiki/2022_French_protests "2022 French protests") in October 2022, launching a statewide strike against the rise in the cost of living. The demonstrations were described by [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters") as the "stiffest challenge" for Emmanuel Macron since his [re\-election](/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election "2022 French presidential election") in May 2022\.{{Cite news \|last1\=Pailliez \|first1\=Caroline \|last2\=Achi \|first2\=Clotaire \|date\=18 October 2022 \|title\=Scuffles break out as French strike to call for higher wages \|language\=en \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/france\-braces\-nationwide\-strikes\-amidst\-soaring\-inflation\-2022\-10\-18/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-19}} In March 2023, the French government used [Article 49\.3 of the constitution](/wiki/Article_49_of_the_French_Constitution "Article 49 of the French Constitution") to force a [pension reform bill](/wiki/2023_French_pension_reform_bill "2023 French pension reform bill"), which would increase the [retirement age](/wiki/Retirement_age "Retirement age") from 62 to 64 years, through the [French Parliament](/wiki/French_Parliament "French Parliament"), sparking [protests](/wiki/2023_French_pension_reform_strikes "2023 French pension reform strikes") and [two failed no confidence votes](/wiki/March_2023_votes_of_no_confidence_in_the_government_of_%C3%89lisabeth_Borne "March 2023 votes of no confidence in the government of Élisabeth Borne").
A further series of civil disturbances in France began on 27 June 2023 following the [killing of Nahel Merzouk](/wiki/Killing_of_Nahel_Merzouk "Killing of Nahel Merzouk") by a police officer in [Nanterre](/wiki/Nanterre "Nanterre"), a suburb of Paris. Residents started a [protest](/wiki/Protest "Protest") outside the police headquarters on 27 June, which later escalated into a [riot](/wiki/Riot "Riot") as demonstrators set cars alight, destroyed bus stops, and shot fireworks at police.{{Cite news \|title\=France braces for further protests after police kill teenager \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Al Jazeera Media Network\|Al Jazeera]] \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/28/outrage\-in\-france\-after\-police\-shoot\-17\-year\-old\-in\-paris\-suburb \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=28 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629214904/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/28/outrage\-in\-france\-after\-police\-shoot\-17\-year\-old\-in\-paris\-suburb \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023}} By 29 June, over 150 people had been arrested,{{Cite news \|last1\=Chrisafis \|first1\=Angelique \|last2\=Paris \|first2\=Angelique Chrisafisin \|date\=29 June 2023 \|title\=France police shooting: 150 arrests as protests widen over teenager's death \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/29/france\-police\-shooting\-second\-night\-of\-unrest\-as\-protests\-over\-teenagers\-death\-spread \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=29 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630033240/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/29/france\-police\-shooting\-second\-night\-of\-unrest\-as\-protests\-over\-teenagers\-death\-spread \|archive\-date\=30 June 2023 \|issn\=0261\-3077}} 24 officers had been injured, and 40 cars had been torched.{{Cite web \|last\=Brudeau \|first\=Cain \|title\=Riots, racial tensions erupt in France after fatal police shooting \|url\=https://www.courthousenews.com/riots\-racial\-tensions\-erupt\-in\-france\-after\-fatal\-police\-shooting/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629201708/https://www.courthousenews.com/riots\-racial\-tensions\-erupt\-in\-france\-after\-fatal\-police\-shooting/ \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023 \|access\-date\=29 June 2023 \|website\=\[\[Courthouse News Service]]}}{{Cite news \|last1\=Bisset \|first1\=Victoria \|last2\=Suliman \|first2\=Adela \|date\=28 June 2023 \|title\=Protests erupt in Paris after police shoot, kill teen during traffic stop \|language\=en\-US \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/06/28/france\-police\-shooting\-nanterre\-nael/ \|access\-date\=28 June 2023 \|issn\=0190\-8286}} Fearing greater unrest, [Gérald Darmanin](/wiki/G%C3%A9rald_Darmanin "Gérald Darmanin"), [Interior Minister](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_%28France%29 "Minister of the Interior (France)") of France, deployed 1,200 [riot police](/wiki/Riot_police "Riot police") and [gendarmes](/wiki/Gendarmes "Gendarmes") in and around Paris, later adding an additional 2,000\.
{{Cite news \|last1\=Breeden \|first1\=Aurelien \|last2\=Méheut \|first2\=Constant \|date\=28 June 2023 \|title\=Anger Flares in France After Police Shoot and Kill Teenage Driver \|language\=en\-US \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/28/world/europe/france\-police\-shooting\-paris\-nanterre.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=28 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630013949/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/28/world/europe/france\-police\-shooting\-paris\-nanterre.html \|archive\-date\=30 June 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}
### Finland
The [government](/wiki/Marin_Cabinet "Marin Cabinet") of Prime Minister [Sanna Marin](/wiki/Sanna_Marin "Sanna Marin") fell following the [2023 Finnish parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Finnish_parliamentary_election "2023 Finnish parliamentary election").{{Cite news \|last1\=Henley \|first1\=Jon \|date\=2023\-04\-03 \|title\=Sanna Marin suffers defeat in Finland election as SDP beaten into third place \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/02/sanna\-marin\-finland\-election\-sdp\-social\-democratic\-national\-coalition \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-24 \|issn\=0261\-3077}} after her center\-left [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Finland "Social Democratic Party of Finland") (SDP) was narrowly defeated into third place in the [2023 Finnish parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Finnish_parliamentary_election "2023 Finnish parliamentary election") by conservative and far\-right challengers. The pro\-business [NCP](/wiki/National_Coalition_Party "National Coalition Party") gained 48 of the 200 parliamentary seats, narrowly defeating Marin's Social Democrats with 43 seats and the nationalist [Finns Party](/wiki/Finns_Party "Finns Party") with 46 seats.{{Cite news \|last1\=Kauranen \|first1\=Anne \|last2\=Lehto \|first2\=Essi \|date\=2023\-04\-03 \|title\=Finland's PM Marin concedes defeat as right\-wing NCP wins election \|language\=en \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/finlands\-marin\-faces\-tough\-re\-election\-bid\-national\-election\-2023\-04\-01/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27}}
Following the election, a [new right wing coalition government](/wiki/Orpo_Cabinet "Orpo Cabinet") was formed by [Petteri Orpo](/wiki/Petteri_Orpo "Petteri Orpo").{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-16 \|title\=Far\-right set for key role in new Finnish coalition \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-65926194 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-24 \|website\=BBC News \|language\=en\-GB}} with the [Finns Party](/wiki/Finns_Party "Finns Party") and two additional small parties: the [Swedish People's Party](/wiki/Swedish_People%27s_Party_of_Finland "Swedish People's Party of Finland") and the [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Christian_Democrats_%28Finland%29 "Christian Democrats (Finland)").{{Cite web \|title\=Finland's election winner seeks coalition with far\-right – DW – 04/27/2023 \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/finlands\-election\-winner\-seeks\-coalition\-with\-far\-right/a\-65451086 \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en}}
### Germany
The [2021 German federal election](/wiki/2021_German_federal_election "2021 German federal election") made significant shifts in the German political landscape. With 25\.7% of total votes, the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) recorded their best result since 2005, and emerged as the largest party for the first time since [2002](/wiki/2002_German_federal_election "2002 German federal election"). The ruling [CDU/CSU](/wiki/CDU/CSU "CDU/CSU"), which had led a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition_%28Germany%29 "Grand coalition (Germany)") with the SPD since [2013](/wiki/2013_German_federal_election "2013 German federal election"), recorded their worst ever result with 24\.1%, a significant decline from 32\.9% in [2017](/wiki/2017_German_federal_election "2017 German federal election"). [Alliance 90/The Greens](/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens "Alliance 90/The Greens") achieved their best result in history at 14\.8%, while the [Free Democratic Party](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 "Free Democratic Party (Germany)") (FDP) made small gains and finished on 11\.5%. The [Alternative for Germany](/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany "Alternative for Germany") (AfD) fell from third to fifth place with 10\.3%, a decline of 2\.3 percentage points. [The Left](/wiki/The_Left_%28Germany%29 "The Left (Germany)") suffered their worst showing since their official formation in 2007, failing to cross the 5% [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold "Electoral threshold") by just over one\-tenth of a percentage point. Nevertheless, the party was entitled to full proportional representation due to the fact that it won three [direct constituencies](/wiki/List_of_Bundestag_constituencies "List of Bundestag constituencies").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-15 \|title\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — German polls, trends and election news for Germany \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/germany/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=POLITICO \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-09\-27 \|title\=Social Democrats narrowly beat Merkel's bloc in German vote \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/germany\-election\-angela\-merkel\-14ddbbb09c8c9ea194155a73de0970e2 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=AP News \|language\=en}}
[thumb\|239x239px\|Olaf Scholz at an election campaign event](/wiki/File:2021-08-21_Olaf_Scholz_0309.JPG "2021-08-21 Olaf Scholz 0309.JPG")
In terms of geographical distribution, the [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") made the most consequential gains in [eastern Germany](/wiki/New_states_of_Germany "New states of Germany") in addition to increasing their vote share in their traditional heartlands in the [Rhineland](/wiki/Rhineland "Rhineland") and the northwest. Despite losing ground overall, the AfD made some gains in [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia") and other parts of the east. The [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany "Christian Democratic Union of Germany") saw its vote share almost everywhere, but their partner party in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria"), the [CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria "Christian Social Union in Bavaria"), proved slightly more resilient. In the east, [Die Linke](/wiki/Die_Linke "Die Linke") suffered big declines in [Brandenburg](/wiki/Brandenburg "Brandenburg") and eastern [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"). {{Cite web \|last1\=Voce \|first1\=Antonio \|last2\=Clarke \|first2\=Seán \|date\=2021\-09\-27 \|title\=German election 2021: full results and analysis \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng\-interactive/2021/sep/26/german\-election\-results\-exit\-poll\-and\-possible\-coalitions \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=the Guardian \|language\=en}}
With a fifth [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition_%28Germany%29 "Grand coalition (Germany)") being dismissed by both the CDU/CSU and the SPD, the FDP and the Greens were considered [kingmakers](/wiki/Kingmaker "Kingmaker"). On 23 November, following complex [coalition](/wiki/German_governing_coalition "German governing coalition") talks, the SPD, FDP and Greens formalized an agreement to form a [traffic light coalition](/wiki/Traffic_light_coalition "Traffic light coalition"), which was approved by all three parties. [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz "Olaf Scholz") and [his cabinet](/wiki/Scholz_cabinet "Scholz cabinet") were elected by the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag "Bundestag") on 8 December.{{Cite web \|title\=Germany: Governing coalition deal unveiled – DW – 11/24/2021 \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/germanys\-spd\-fdp\-and\-greens\-unveil\-governing\-coalition\-deal/a\-59915201 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en}}
### Greece
Following a surge of migrant arrivals from Turkey, [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece") suspended all asylum applications in March 2020\.{{Cite news\|last\=Stevis\-Gridneff\|first\=Matina\|date\=2020\-03\-01\|title\=Greece Suspends Asylum as Turkey Opens Gates for Migrants\|language\=en\-US\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/world/europe/greece\-migrants\-border\-turkey.html\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-02\|issn\=0362\-4331}} The freeze was lifted a month later.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-04\-03\|title\=Greece ends month\-long freeze on asylum applications\|url\=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/23810/greece\-ends\-month\-long\-freeze\-on\-asylum\-applications\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-28\|website\=InfoMigrants\|language\=en}}
The [2021 Greek protests](/wiki/2021_Greek_protests "2021 Greek protests") broke out in response to a proposed government bill that would allow police presence on university campuses for the first time in decades.
At the [June parliamentary elections in 2023](/wiki/June_2023_Greek_legislative_election "June 2023 Greek legislative election"), the main center\-right party in Greece, incumbent [New Democracy](/wiki/New_Democracy_%28Greece%29 "New Democracy (Greece)") performed strongly by securing an [absolute majority](/wiki/Absolute_majority "Absolute majority"). The political left struggled with the main opposition [Syriza](/wiki/Syriza "Syriza") losing more than 20 seats and far\-right minor parties like [Victory](/wiki/Victory_%28Greece%29 "Victory (Greece)") and [Spartans](/wiki/Spartans_%28Greek_political_party%29 "Spartans (Greek political party)") entered parliament for the first time, giving the Greek parliament its strongest rightward tilt since the restoration of democracy in 1974\.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-25 \|title\=Greece's conservatives win election majority to secure second term \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/greece\-election\-new\-democracy\-conservatives\-win\-second\-term\-kyriakos\-mitsotakis/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Labropoulou \|first\=Elinda \|date\=2023\-06\-25 \|title\=Greek prime minister earns resounding electoral win, as far right makes gains \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/25/europe/kyriakos\-mitsotakis\-elections\-victory\-intl/index.html \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|website\=CNN \|language\=en}}
Under the new voting system, which grants the winning party 50 additional seats, Prime Minister [Kyriakos Mitsotakis](/wiki/Kyriakos_Mitsotakis "Kyriakos Mitsotakis")' [New Democracy](/wiki/New_Democracy_%28Greece%29 "New Democracy (Greece)") party was able to increase its double\-digit advantage over its main challenger, the left\-wing [Syriza party](/wiki/Syriza "Syriza"), and win 158 seats in the 300\-seat legislature.{{Cite web \|title\=MINISTRY OF INTERIOR – National elections – June 2023 \|url\=https://ekloges.ypes.gr/current/v/home/en/}}{{Cite web \|title\=New Democracy party wins landslide victory in Greek elections \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/25/greece\-votes\-in\-parliamentary\-polls\-for\-second\-time\-in\-five\-weeks \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|website\=www.aljazeera.com \|language\=en}} Four minor new parties, mainly from the [far right](/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics"), succeeded in surpassing the 3 percent requirement to enter parliament.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-07\-04 \|title\=In the most recent election, Greek far right made a sinister comeback \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2023/07/04/in\-the\-most\-recent\-election\-greek\-far\-right\-made\-a\-sinister\-comeback \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|website\=euronews \|language\=en}}
[thumb\|Viktor Orbán celebrating his victory](/wiki/File:Peace_and_Security_%281%29.png "Peace and Security (1).png")
### Hungary
At the [2022 Hungarian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Hungarian_parliamentary_election "2022 Hungarian parliamentary election") voters elected the 199 members of [Hungary's National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28Hungary%29 "National Assembly (Hungary)"). [Viktor Orbán](/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n "Viktor Orbán")'s right\-wing [Fidesz party](/wiki/Fidesz "Fidesz") won a fourth consecutive term, consolidating a super majority in the Assembly by gaining over two\-thirds of seats. The scale of his victory shocked his opponents, who had united to challenge him as the [United Opposition](/wiki/United_Opposition_%28Hungary%2C_2022%29 "United Opposition (Hungary, 2022)").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-04\-03 \|title\=Hungarian PM Orbán set for fourth straight term with big election win \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/hungarian\-pm\-orban\-set\-to\-clinch\-fourth\-straight\-term\-with\-big\-election\-win/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-20 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}}
### Italy
#### Government crisis
During the [2021 Italian government crisis](/wiki/2021_Italian_government_crisis "2021 Italian government crisis"), the [Conte II Cabinet](/wiki/Conte_II_Cabinet "Conte II Cabinet") fell after [Matteo Renzi](/wiki/Matteo_Renzi "Matteo Renzi"), leader of [Italia Viva](/wiki/Italia_Viva "Italia Viva") (IV) and former [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy "Prime Minister of Italy"), that he would revoke IV's support to the [government](/wiki/Conte_II_Cabinet "Conte II Cabinet") of [Giuseppe Conte](/wiki/Giuseppe_Conte "Giuseppe Conte").[Conte offre un patto, Renzi ritira le ministre. La crisi è servita](https://www.huffingtonpost.it/entry/conte-offre-un-patto-renzi-ritira-le-ministre-la-crisi-e-servita_it_5fff52bac5b691806c4ee359), *Huffington Post Italia* On 18 and 19 January, Renzi's party abstained and the government won the key confidence votes in the Chamber and in the Senate, but it failed in reaching an [absolute majority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") in the Senate.[Italy's Conte wins Senate vote to keep fragile government afloat: final tally](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-politics-vote/initial-count-shows-italys-conte-winning-senate-vote-to-keep-fragile-government-afloat-idUSKBN29O2KZ), *Reuters* On 26 January, Prime Minister Conte resigned from his office, prompting President [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella "Sergio Mattarella") to start consultations for the formation of a new government. On 13 February, [Mario Draghi](/wiki/Mario_Draghi "Mario Draghi") was sworn in as prime minister, leading to the [Draghi Cabinet](/wiki/Draghi_Cabinet "Draghi Cabinet").[Italy: Ex\-EU bank chief Mario Draghi sworn in as PM](https://dw.com/en/italy-ex-eu-bank-chief-mario-draghi-sworn-in-as-pm/a-56557705), *Deutsche Welle*
During the [2022 Italian government crisis](/wiki/2022_Italian_government_crisis "2022 Italian government crisis") on 14 July, despite having largely won the [confidence vote](/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence "Motion of no confidence"), Prime Minister Draghi offered his resignation, which was rejected by President [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella "Sergio Mattarella").{{cite news \|last1\=Harlan \|first1\=Chico \|last2\=Pitrelli \|first2\=Stefano \|date\=14 July 2022 \|title\=Italy in crisis as president rejects premier Draghi's offer to resign \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/14/italy\-government\-collapse\-fivestar/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=15 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714153809/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/14/italy\-government\-collapse\-fivestar/ \|archive\-date\=14 July 2022}}{{cite news \|date\=14 July 2022 \|title\=Mattarella respinge dimissioni Draghi e manda premier a Camere – Ultima Ora \|language\=it \|publisher\=ANSA \|url\=https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/topnews/2022/07/14/mattarella\-respinge\-dimissioni\-draghi\-e\-manda\-premier\-a\-camere\_8d170c15\-2270\-40f9\-8ab1\-e0a8ed06a03e.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=15 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714201737/https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/topnews/2022/07/14/mattarella\-respinge\-dimissioni\-draghi\-e\-manda\-premier\-a\-camere\_8d170c15\-2270\-40f9\-8ab1\-e0a8ed06a03e.html \|archive\-date\=14 July 2022}}{{cite web \|date\=17 July 2022 \|title\=Four scenarios: What happens next in Italy's government crisis? \|url\=https://www.thelocal.it/20220715/four\-scenarios\-what\-happens\-next\-in\-italys\-government\-crisis/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718163429/https://www.thelocal.it/20220715/four\-scenarios\-what\-happens\-next\-in\-italys\-government\-crisis/ \|archive\-date\=18 July 2022 \|access\-date\=21 July 2022 \|website\=The Local Italy}} On 21 July, Draghi resigned again after a new confidence vote in the Senate failed to pass with an absolute majority, following the defections of M5S, [Lega](/wiki/Lega_%28political_party%29 "Lega (political party)"), and [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 "Forza Italia (2013)");{{cite news \|last\=Horowitz \|first\=Jason \|date\=20 July 2022 \|title\=Draghi Government Falls Apart, Returning Turbulent Politics to Italy \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/20/world/europe/draghi\-italy\-prime\-minister.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721014225/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/20/world/europe/draghi\-italy\-prime\-minister.html \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}{{cite web \|date\=20 July 2022 \|title\=Italy in limbo as Draghi wins confidence vote but loses parliamentary majority \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/europe/20220720\-italy\-s\-draghi\-calls\-for\-new\-pact\-ahead\-of\-confidence\-vote \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720100238/https://www.france24\.com/en/europe/20220720\-italy\-s\-draghi\-calls\-for\-new\-pact\-ahead\-of\-confidence\-vote \|archive\-date\=20 July 2022 \|access\-date\=21 July 2022 \|website\=France 24 \|publisher\=Agence\-France Press}}{{cite news \|last\=Roberts \|first\=Hannah \|date\=20 July 2022 \|title\=Mario Draghi faces the end after Italy's coalition refuses to back him \|work\=Politico Europe \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/latest\-mario\-draghi\-brink\-italy\-prime\-minister\-government\-collapse\-crisis/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721003719/https://www.politico.eu/article/latest\-mario\-draghi\-brink\-italy\-prime\-minister\-government\-collapse\-crisis/ \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022}} President Mattarella accepted Draghi's resignation and asked Draghi to remain in place to handle current affairs.{{cite news \|last1\=Amaro \|first1\=Silvia \|last2\=Clinch \|first2\=Matt \|date\=21 July 2022 \|title\=Italian PM Mario Draghi quits after failing to revive his coalition government \|publisher\=CNBC \|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/21/italian\-pm\-mario\-draghi\-says\-he\-will\-resign\-after\-failing\-to\-revive\-his\-coalition\-government.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721172259/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/21/italian\-pm\-mario\-draghi\-says\-he\-will\-resign\-after\-failing\-to\-revive\-his\-coalition\-government.html \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022}} A snap election was called for 25 September 2022\.{{cite news \|last1\=Borghese \|first1\=Livia \|last2\=Braithwaite \|first2\=Sharon \|last3\=Fox \|first3\=Kara \|last4\=Latza Nadeau \|first4\=Barbie \|last5\=Ruotolo \|first5\=Nicola \|date\=21 July 2022 \|title\=Italy's president dissolves parliament, triggering snap election following Draghi's resignation \|publisher\=CNN \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/21/europe/mario\-draghi\-italy\-resignation\-intl/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=22 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721113352/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/21/europe/mario\-draghi\-italy\-resignation\-intl/index.html \|archive\-date\=21 July 2022}}
#### 2022 presidential election
[thumb\|[Meloni](/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni "Giorgia Meloni") accepting the task of forming a new government](/wiki/File:Giorgia_Meloni_Quirinale_%282022%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Giorgia Meloni Quirinale (2022) (cropped).jpg")
The [2022 Italian presidential election](/wiki/2022_Italian_presidential_election "2022 Italian presidential election") was held in between 24 and 29 January 2022 and culminated in [incumbent](/wiki/Incumbent "Incumbent") president [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella "Sergio Mattarella") being confirmed for a second term, with a total of 759 votes out of 1009 on the eighth ballot.{{Cite web \|title\=Risultati votazione per l'elezione del Presidente della Repubblica in tempo reale \- 8° scrutinio \- La Repubblica \|url\=https://elezioni.repubblica.it/2022/presidente\-repubblica \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=elezioni.repubblica.it}} This was the second most votes ever received by a presidential candidate. Mattarella became the second president to be re\-elected, his predecessor [Giorgio Napolitano](/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano "Giorgio Napolitano") being the first. The [president of Italy](/wiki/President_of_Italy "President of Italy") was elected by a joint assembly composed of the [Italian Parliament](/wiki/Italian_Parliament "Italian Parliament") and regional representatives. The election process extended over multiple days.{{Cite web \|title\=Sergio Mattarella re\-elected as Italy's president with wide majority\-Xinhua \|url\=https://english.news.cn/20220130/4b9ec253f6fd414d9fd682dac0c4abf9/c.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=english.news.cn}}
#### 2022 general election
The [2022 Italian general election](/wiki/2022_Italian_general_election "2022 Italian general election"), which saw record\-low [voter turnout](/wiki/Voter_turnout "Voter turnout"), was won by the [centre\-right coalition](/wiki/Centre-right_coalition_%28Italy%29 "Centre-right coalition (Italy)"), headed by the [Brothers of Italy](/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy "Brothers of Italy") party with their leader [Giorgia Meloni](/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni "Giorgia Meloni").{{Cite news \|last1\=Weir \|first1\=Keith \|last2\=Anzolin \|first2\=Elisa \|date\=2022\-09\-26 \|title\=Italy election victors target era of political stability \|language\=en \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/giorgia\-melonis\-right\-triumphs\-italys\-election\-2022\-09\-26/ \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-26}} Meloni was sworn as Italy's first female prime minister as well as the [furthest right wing](/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics") leader of the country since [Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini").{{Cite news \|date\=2022\-09\-26 \|title\=Giorgia Meloni: Italy's far right on course to win election \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC News \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-63029909 \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-26}}{{Cite web \|author\=Kara Fox, Barbie Latza Nadeau, Antonia Mortensen, Nicola Ruotolo, Sharon Braithwaite and Valentina DiDonato \|title\=Giorgia Meloni claims victory to become Italy's most far\-right prime minister since Mussolini \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/25/europe/italy\-election\-results\-intl/index.html \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-26 \|website\=CNN\|date\=25 September 2022 }}
### Ireland
The [2020 Irish general election](/wiki/2020_Irish_general_election "2020 Irish general election") was called following the collapse of the [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael "Fine Gael")\-led minority government, led by Prime Minister [Leo Varadkar](/wiki/Leo_Varadkar "Leo Varadkar"), in January 2020\. The election resulted in a historic win for the left\-wing nacionalist [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn Féin"), making it the second largest party of the [Dáil Éireann](/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann "Dáil Éireann").{{Cite news\|last\=Carroll Ireland\|first\=Rory\|date\=2020\-02\-11\|title\=Sinn Féin declares victory in Irish general election\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=The Guardian\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/10/sinn\-fein\-declares\-victory\-irish\-general\-election\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-11\|issn\=0261\-3077}} The result was seen as a historic shift in [Ireland's](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") political landscape, effectively ending the [two\-party system](/wiki/Two-party_system "Two-party system") of [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael "Fine Gael") and [Fianna Fáil](/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il "Fianna Fáil").{{Cite web\|title\=Sinn Fein shatters Ireland's political landscape to become second largest party\|url\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/sinn\-fein\-shatters\-irelands\-political\-landscape\-to\-become\-second\-largest\-party/\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-11\|website\=www.timesofisrael.com\|language\=en\-US}} [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn Féin") secured the most first\-preference votes, winning 37 seats. [Fianna Fáil](/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il "Fianna Fáil") won 38 seats, and [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael "Fine Gael") won 35 seats. The [Green Party](/wiki/Green_Party_%28Ireland%29 "Green Party (Ireland)"), which focused on environmental issues, increased its representation significantly from 2 seats to 12 seats in parliament.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-17 \|title\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — Irish polls, trends and election news for Ireland \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/ireland/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=POLITICO \|language\=en}} The reason for the electoral upset for these parties was believed to be in voter dissatisfaction on issues of [health](/wiki/Health_in_Ireland "Health in Ireland"), housing and [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness_in_Ireland "Homelessness in Ireland").{{Cite news\|title\=What is driving Sinn Féin's electoral surge in Ireland?\|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/6449024a\-4c19\-11ea\-95a0\-43d18ec715f5\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-11\|newspaper\=Financial Times\|date\=10 February 2020 }} On 27 June 2020, [Micheál Martin](/wiki/Miche%C3%A1l_Martin "Micheál Martin") was elected as [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach"), in an historic [coalition](/wiki/Coalition_government "Coalition government") agreement that saw his party [Fianna Fáil](/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il "Fianna Fáil") go into government with the [Green Party](/wiki/Green_Party_%28Ireland%29 "Green Party (Ireland)") and Fianna Fáil's historical rivals, [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael "Fine Gael").{{cite news\|date\=27 June 2020\|title\=Micheál Martin becomes new Irish PM after historic coalition deal\|work\=\[\[BBC News]]\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-53201346\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-28}}{{cite news\|date\=27 June 2020\|title\=33rd Dáil elects Micheál Martin as new Taoiseach\|work\=\[\[Irish Examiner]]\|url\=https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/ireland/watch\-micheal\-martin\-and\-mary\-lou\-mcdonald\-nominated\-for\-taoiseach\-as\-civil\-war\-politics\-ends\-1007831\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-27\|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627123616/https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/ireland/watch\-micheal\-martin\-and\-mary\-lou\-mcdonald\-nominated\-for\-taoiseach\-as\-civil\-war\-politics\-ends\-1007831\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Kosovo
Triggered by the [Government of Kosovo](/wiki/Government_of_Kosovo "Government of Kosovo")'s decision to reciprocally ban [Serbian license plates](/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Serbia "Vehicle registration plates of Serbia"), a [series of protests](/wiki/2021_North_Kosovo_crisis "2021 North Kosovo crisis") by [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs_of_Kosovo "Serbs of Kosovo") in [North Kosovo](/wiki/North_Kosovo "North Kosovo")—consisting mostly of blocking traffic near border crossings— began on 20 September 2021\. During the crisis, two government vehicle registration centers in [Zvečan](/wiki/Zve%C4%8Dan "Zvečan") and [Zubin Potok](/wiki/Zubin_Potok "Zubin Potok") were targeted by [arsonists](/wiki/Arson "Arson"). The protests caused [relations between Serbia and Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo%E2%80%93Serbia_relations "Kosovo–Serbia relations")—which [had been improving](/wiki/Belgrade%E2%80%93Pristina_negotiations%23Negotiations_since_2013 "Belgrade–Pristina negotiations#Negotiations since 2013")—to worsen, and led to the [Serbian Armed Forces](/wiki/Serbian_Armed_Forces "Serbian Armed Forces") being placed on heightened [alert](/wiki/Combat_readiness "Combat readiness"). On 30 September, an [agreement](/wiki/Treaty "Treaty") was reached to end the license plate ban, taking effect on 4 October. In return, the protesters agreed to disperse. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, Kosovar license plates in Serbia and Serbian license plates in Kosovo had their national symbols and country codes covered with a temporary [sticker](/wiki/Sticker "Sticker").
Beginning on 31 July 2022, [tensions](/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_North_Kosovo_crisis "2022–2023 North Kosovo crisis") between Serbia and Kosovo heightened again due to the expiration of the eleven\-year validity period of documents for cars on 1 August 2022, between the government of Kosovo and the Serbs in North Kosovo. On 26 May 2023, Kosovo took control of the North Kosovo municipal buildings by force, to enable the newly elected ethnic Albanian mayors to physically assume office, as they had won the [23 April local elections](/wiki/2023_Kosovan_local_elections "2023 Kosovan local elections"){{Spaced en dash}}based on an extremely low number of votes, due to an election boycott by the Serb population. A civil disturbance occurred, and Serbia put its armed forces on alert. The decision of Kosovo to use force was condemned by the United States and the EU.
### Latvia
The [2022 Latvian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Latvian_parliamentary_election "2022 Latvian parliamentary election") resulted in a historic defeat of the centre\-left [Harmony](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%22Harmony%22 "Social Democratic Party ") party which lost all of its parliamentary seats after failing to surpass the electoral threshold of 5%.{{Cite news \|date\=2022\-10\-02 \|title\=Verdict: Saeima elections 2022 winners and losers \|language\=en \|work\=eng.lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \|url\=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/verdict\-saeima\-elections\-2022\-winners\-and\-losers.a476213/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10}} It traditionally represented [Latvia's Russian minority](/wiki/Russians_in_Latvia "Russians in Latvia") and was the largest political group in [Saeima](/wiki/Saeima "Saeima") since the [2011 Latvian parliamentary election](/wiki/2011_Latvian_parliamentary_election "2011 Latvian parliamentary election").
The [New Unity](/wiki/New_Unity "New Unity") party led by the incumbent Prime Minister [Krišjānis Kariņš](/wiki/Kri%C5%A1j%C4%81nis_Kari%C5%86%C5%A1 "Krišjānis Kariņš") won the most votes.{{Cite news \|date\=2022\-10\-02 \|title\=Party of Latvia PM Kariņš wins election, provisional results show \|language\=en \|work\=Politico Europe \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/party\-of\-latvia\-pm\-karins\-wins\-election\-provisional\-results\-show/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10}} Kariņš subsequently formed a centre\-right coalition with the [United List](/wiki/United_List_%28Latvia%29 "United List (Latvia)") and the [National Alliance](/wiki/National_Alliance_%28Latvia%29 "National Alliance (Latvia)") and was re\-elected as prime minister for the second term.{{Cite news \|date\=2022\-12\-14 \|title\=New Latvian government can start work after being approved by Saeima \|language\=en \|work\=eng.lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \|url\=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/new\-latvian\-government\-can\-start\-work\-after\-being\-approved\-by\-saeima.a486801/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10}}
On 31 May 2023, [Edgars Rinkēvičs](/wiki/Edgars_Rink%C4%93vi%C4%8Ds "Edgars Rinkēvičs"), Latvia's long\-serving Minister of Foreign Affairs, was [elected](/wiki/2023_Latvian_presidential_election "2023 Latvian presidential election") new [President of Latvia](/wiki/President_of_Latvia "President of Latvia"), becoming the EU's first openly gay head of state.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-06\-01 \|title\=LGBTQ groups celebrate Latvia electing E.U.'s first openly gay president \|language\=en \| newspaper\=The Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/06/01/latvia\-president\-gay\-edgars\-rinkevics/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-17}} His candidacy was supported by his own party [New Unity](/wiki/New_Unity "New Unity") and two opposition parties – [Union of Greens and Farmers](/wiki/Union_of_Greens_and_Farmers "Union of Greens and Farmers") and [The Progressives](/wiki/The_Progressives_%28Latvia%29 "The Progressives (Latvia)"). This undermined the stability of governing coalition and eventually resulted in the collapse of [second Kariņš' cabinet](/wiki/Second_Kari%C5%86%C5%A1_cabinet "Second Kariņš cabinet") on 14 August 2023\.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-08\-14 \|title\=Latvian prime minister announces resignation \|language\=en \|work\=Politico Europe \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/latvian\-prime\-minister\-krisjanis\-karins\-new\-unity\-resignation\-announcement/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-17}}
On 15 September 2023, the Saeima approved the [new government](/wiki/Sili%C5%86a_cabinet "Siliņa cabinet"), headed by [Evika Siliņa](/wiki/Evika_Sili%C5%86a "Evika Siliņa"), a former lawyer who previously served as a Minister of Welfare.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-09\-15 \|title\=Latvia gets a new government \|language\=en \|work\=eng.lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \|url\=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/15\.09\.2023\-latvia\-gets\-a\-new\-government.a524059/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-01}} She became the second\-ever female to hold the position of Prime Minister, following [Laimdota Straujuma](/wiki/Laimdota_Straujuma "Laimdota Straujuma") in 2014–2016\. Her appointment also marked a historic moment, with all three [Baltic states](/wiki/Baltic_states "Baltic states"), including Estonia and Lithuania, being led by female prime ministers.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-09\-15 \|title\=Latvia parliament approves new broad coalition government \|language\=en \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/latvias\-parliament\-approves\-new\-government\-2023\-09\-15/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21}} The new coalition was labelled by some as the "first\-ever centre\-left" government since the restoration of independence in 1991\.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-10\-09 \|title\=A Progressive Turn in Latvia? \|language\=en \|work\=Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung \|url\=https://www.rosalux.de/en/news/id/51100/a\-progressive\-turn\-in\-latvia \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21}} On 9 November 2023, the Saeima adopted amendments to eight laws envisaging the introduction of a new [Partnership institution in Latvia](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_Latvia "Recognition of same-sex unions in Latvia") which will grant cohabiting adults, including same\-sex partnerships, a degree of legal recognition and protection, starting from 1 July 2024\.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-11\-10 \|title\=Latvian parliament passes registered partnership law \|language\=en \|work\=ERR News \|url\=https://news.err.ee/1609161190/latvian\-parliament\-passes\-registered\-partnership\-law \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21}} The same month, the parliament ratified the [Istanbul Convention](/wiki/Istanbul_Convention "Istanbul Convention").{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-11\-30 \|title\=Saeima ratificē Stambulas konvenciju pēc teju 5 stundu debatēm \|trans\-title\=The Saeima ratifies the Istanbul Convention after almost 5 hours of debate \|language\=lv \|work\=lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \|url\=https://www.lsm.lv/raksts/zinas/latvija/30\.11\.2023\-saeima\-ratifice\-stambulas\-konvenciju\-pec\-teju\-5\-stundu\-debatem.a533581/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21}}
### Lithuania
In the [Lithuanian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "2020 Lithuanian parliamentary election") of October 11, 2020, the [Homeland Union](/wiki/Homeland_Union "Homeland Union"), a center\-right party, emerged as the largest party in the [Seimas](/wiki/Seimas "Seimas").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-17 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — Lithuanian polls, trends and election news for Lithuania \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/lithuania/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} Coalition negotiations ensued, leading to the formation of a new government under Prime Minister [Ingrida Šimonytė](/wiki/Ingrida_%C5%A0imonyt%C4%97 "Ingrida Šimonytė"), which became the second\-ever female [Prime Minister of Lithuania](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Lithuania "Prime Minister of Lithuania") in 2020\.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-10\-26 \|title\=Conservatives win Lithuania election: Preliminary results \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/conservatives\-win\-lithuania\-election\-preliminary\-results/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} The coalition included the [Homeland Union](/wiki/Homeland_Union "Homeland Union"), the [Liberal Movement](/wiki/Liberals%27_Movement_%28Lithuania%29 "Liberals' Movement (Lithuania)"), and the [Freedom Party](/wiki/Freedom_Party_%28Lithuania%29 "Freedom Party (Lithuania)").{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-10\-12 \|title\=Lithuania's Center\-Right Heads Toward An Election Win \|url\=https://www.voanews.com/a/europe\_lithuanias\-center\-right\-heads\-toward\-election\-win/6197023\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Voice of America \|language\=en}} The election, conducted amidst the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), saw increased provisions for early and postal voting.{{Cite web \|last\=Voruta \|date\=2020\-10\-05 \|title\=Prasidėjo išankstinis balsavimas Seimo rinkimuose. Balsuoti iš anksto bus galima net keturias dienas \|url\=https://www.voruta.lt/prasidejo\-isankstinis\-balsavimas\-seimo\-rinkimuose\-balsuoti\-is\-anksto\-bus\-galima\-net\-keturias\-dienas/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-21 \|website\=Voruta \|language\=lt\-LT}} Key campaign issues encompassed economic policies, healthcare, social welfare, and the nation's response to the ongoing health crisis.
### Luxembourg
In [2023 Luxembourg general election](/wiki/2023_Luxembourg_general_election "2023 Luxembourg general election"), the christian democrat [CSV](/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party "Christian Social People's Party") party remained the largest party in parliament with 21 seats, having won 29\.2% of the vote. The [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Luxembourg%29 "Democratic Party (Luxembourg)") (DP) and the [Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party](/wiki/Luxembourg_Socialist_Workers%27_Party "Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party") (LSAP) remained the second and third largest parties in parliament, respectivelly. [The Greens](/wiki/The_Greens_%28Luxembourg%29 "The Greens (Luxembourg)") suffered a significant loss by winning just 4 seats compared with 9 in the last election.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-17 \|title\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — Luxembourg polls, trends and election news for Luxembourg \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/luxembourg/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=POLITICO \|language\=en}} On 13 November [Luc Frieden](/wiki/Luc_Frieden "Luc Frieden") announced a coalition agreement between the [CSV](/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party "Christian Social People's Party") and [DP.](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Luxembourg%29 "Democratic Party (Luxembourg)") The [new cabinet](/wiki/Frieden-Bettel_Government "Frieden-Bettel Government") was sworn in by the Grand Duke and Frieden assumed the office of Prime Minister on 17 November.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-11\-17 \|title\=RTL Today \- On Friday morning: Grand Duke Henri swears in new government at the palace \|url\=https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/2138888\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117130820/https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/2138888\.html \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-17 }}
### Montenegro
The [2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Montenegrin_parliamentary_election "2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election") resulted in a victory for the [opposition parties](/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition "Parliamentary opposition") and the fall from power of the ruling [DPS](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Socialists "Democratic Party of Socialists"), which had ruled the country since the introduction of the [multi\-party system](/wiki/Multi-party_system "Multi-party system") in 1990\. On 31 August, the leaders of three opposition coalitions, [For the Future of Montenegro](/wiki/For_the_Future_of_Montenegro "For the Future of Montenegro"), [Peace is Our Nation](/wiki/Peace_is_Our_Nation "Peace is Our Nation") and [In Black and White](/wiki/In_Black_and_White_%28Montenegro%29 "In Black and White (Montenegro)"), agreed to form an [expert government](/wiki/Technocracy "Technocracy"), and to continue to work on the [European Union accession process](/wiki/Accession_of_Montenegro_to_the_European_Union "Accession of Montenegro to the European Union"). The period before the election was marked by the high polarization of the electorate. Several corruption scandals of the ruling party triggered [2019 anti\-government protests](/wiki/2019_Montenegrin_anti-corruption_protests "2019 Montenegrin anti-corruption protests"), while a controversial [religion law](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Montenegro "Freedom of religion in Montenegro") sparked another [wave of protests](/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Clerical_protests_in_Montenegro "2019–2020 Clerical protests in Montenegro").
In April 2021, a [wave of protests](/wiki/Montenegrin_nationalist_protests_%282020%E2%80%93present%29 "Montenegrin nationalist protests (2020–present)"), dubbed by its organizers as the Montenegrin Spring,{{Cite news\|date\=11 April 2021\|title\=Komite najavljuju 'Crnogorsko proleće'\|language\=cnr\|trans\-title\=Committees announce 'Montenegrin spring'\|website\=Vesti online\|url\=https://www.vesti\-online.com/komite\-najavljuju\-crnogorsko\-prolece\-video/\|access\-date\=11 April 2021}}{{Cite web\|date\=4 April 2021\|title\=Crnogorsko proljeće: Jedan dom! Jedna zastava! Jedna himna!\|url\=https://senat.me/crnogorsko\-proljece\-jedan\-dom\-jedna\-zastava\-jedna\-himna/\|access\-date\=11 April 2021\|website\=senat.me\|language\=cnr}} or the Montenegrin Response/Montenegrin Answer{{Cite web\|date\=4 April 2021\|title\=Izazovi crnogorskog 'odgovora'\|trans\-title\=Challenges of Montenegrin 'response'\|url\=https://www.portalanalitika.me/clanak/izazovi\-crnogorskog\-odgovora\|access\-date\=11 April 2021\|website\=Analitika\|language\=cnr}}{{cite web\|title\=Crnogorski Odgovor: Pokažimo da smo dostojni potomci naših predaka!\|trans\-title\=Montenegrin Response: Let's show that we are worthy descendants of our ancestors!\|url\=https://www.antenam.net/drustvo/170497\-poceo\-crnogorski\-odgovor\-da\-je\-vjecna\-crna\-gora\|access\-date\=15 April 2021\|website\=Antena M\|date\=6 September 2020 \|language\=cnr}}{{cite web\|title\=Crnogorski odgovor danas u podne ispred Skupštine\|trans\-title\=Montenegrin response today at noon in front of the Assembly\|url\=https://m.cdm.me/politika/crnogorski\-odgovor\-danas\-u\-podne\-ispred\-skupstine/\|access\-date\=15 April 2021\|website\=CDM.me\|language\=cnr}} was launched in [Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro "Montenegro") against the announced adoption of regulations that will make it easier to acquire [Montenegrin citizenship](/wiki/Montenegrin_nationality_law "Montenegrin nationality law"), but also take away the citizenship of some Montenegrin emigrants, which the protesters consider as an "attempt of the government to change the ethnic structure of Montenegro" and against the newly formed [technocratic government](/wiki/Krivokapi%C4%87_Cabinet "Krivokapić Cabinet") of Montenegro, which the protesters accuse of being "treacherous" and the "satellite of [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia")".{{Cite web\|date\=8 April 2021\|title\=Protesti ispred zgrade Vlade Crne Gore zbog najavljenog usvajanja propisa o državljanstvu\|trans\-title\=Protests in front of the Government of Montenegro building due to the announced adoption of regulations on citizenship\|url\=https://www.danas.rs/svet/protesti\-ispred\-zgrade\-vlade\-crne\-gore\-zbog\-najavljenog\-usvajanja\-propisa\-o\-drzavljanstvu/\|access\-date\=11 April 2021\|website\=Danas\|language\=sr}}
The [2021 Montenegrin episcopal enthronement protests](/wiki/2021_Montenegrin_episcopal_enthronement_protests "2021 Montenegrin episcopal enthronement protests") are a series of violent protests against the installation (enthronement) of [Joanikije Mićović](/wiki/Joanikije_II%2C_Metropolitan_of_Montenegro "Joanikije II, Metropolitan of Montenegro") of the [Serbian Orthodox Church](/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church "Serbian Orthodox Church") as the [Metropolitan of Montenegro and the Littoral](/wiki/Metropolitanate_of_Montenegro_and_the_Littoral "Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral") that took place at the historic [Cetinje Monastery](/wiki/Cetinje_Monastery "Cetinje Monastery") on 5 September 2021\. Following the enthronement, by mid\-September 2021, divisions within the [Krivokapić Cabinet](/wiki/Krivokapi%C4%87_Cabinet "Krivokapić Cabinet") led some of the [ruling coalition members](/wiki/For_the_Future_of_Montenegro "For the Future of Montenegro") such as the [Democratic Front](/wiki/Democratic_Front_%28Montenegro%29 "Democratic Front (Montenegro)") and [Democratic Montenegro](/wiki/Democratic_Montenegro "Democratic Montenegro") to demand that the government be reconstructed or a snap election be held.{{cite news\|last1\=Kračković\|first1\=Radomir\|date\=17 September 2021\|title\=Montenegro: all against all\|work\=\[\[Deutsche Welle]]\|url\=https://www.dw.com/hr/crna\-gora\-svi\-protiv\-svih/a\-59213509}}
### Poland
#### Protests
On 7 August 2020, a [protest](/wiki/August_2020_LGBT_protests_in_Poland "August 2020 LGBT protests in Poland") against the arrest of LGBT activist [Margot](/wiki/Margot_%28activist%29 "Margot (activist)") led to a confrontation with police in central [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw") and resulted in the arrest of 47 others, some of whom were peacefully protesting and others who were bystanders to the event, dubbed "Polish Stonewall" in an analogy to the 1969 [Stonewall riots](/wiki/Stonewall_riots "Stonewall riots").
The [October–December 2020 Polish protests](/wiki/October%E2%80%93December_2020_Polish_protests "October–December 2020 Polish protests"), commonly known as the *Women's Strike* ({{lang\-pl\|Strajk Kobiet}}){{citation needed\|date\=December 2020}}, are the ongoing anti\-government demonstrations and protests in [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") that began on 22 October 2020, in reaction to a ruling of the [Constitutional Tribunal](/wiki/Constitutional_Tribunal_%28Poland%29 "Constitutional Tribunal (Poland)"), mainly consisting of judges who were appointed by the ruling [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 "Law and Justice (Poland)") ({{lang\-pl\|Prawo i Sprawiedliwość}}, PiS) dominated [United Right](/wiki/United_Right_%28Poland%29 "United Right (Poland)"), which tightened the law on [abortion in Poland](/wiki/Abortion_in_Poland "Abortion in Poland"). The ruling made almost all cases of abortion illegal, including those cases in which the [foetus](/wiki/Foetus "Foetus") had a severe and permanent [disability](/wiki/Disability "Disability"), or an incurable and life\-threatening [disease](/wiki/Disease "Disease").{{cite news\|date\=22 October 2020\|title\=Trybunał Konstytucyjny: Planowanie rodziny, ochrona płodu ludzkiego i warunki dopuszczalności przerywania ciąży\|url\=https://trybunal.gov.pl/postepowanie\-i\-orzeczenia/wyroki/art/11300\-planowanie\-rodziny\-ochrona\-plodu\-ludzkiego\-i\-warunki\-dopuszczalnosci\-przerywania\-ciazy}}{{Cite web\|title\=Dz.U. 1993 nr 17 poz. 78, ''Ustawa z dnia 7 stycznia 1993 r. o planowaniu rodziny, ochronie płodu ludzkiego i warunkach dopuszczalności przerywania ciąży''\|url\=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id\=WDU19930170078\|website\=Sejm of the Polish Republic\|language\=pl}} It was the biggest protest in the country since the [end of the People's Republic](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281945%E2%80%931989%29 "History of Poland (1945–1989)") during the [revolutions of 1989](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989 "Revolutions of 1989").{{Cite web\|last\=Tilles\|first\=Daniel\|date\=2020\-10\-29\|title\=Polish prosecutors seek charges against organisers of abortion protests for endangering public\|url\=https://notesfrompoland.com/2020/10/29/polish\-prosecutors\-seeks\-charges\-against\-organisers\-of\-abortion\-protests\-for\-endangering\-public/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30\|website\=Notes From Poland\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite news\|last1\=Magdziarz\|first1\=Anatol\|last2\=Santora\|first2\=Marc\|date\=2020\-10\-30\|title\=Women Converge on Warsaw, Heightening Poland's Largest Protests in Decades\|language\=en\-US\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/30/world/europe/poland\-abortion\-women\-protests.html\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30\|issn\=0362\-4331}}
#### 2020 presidential election
The [2020 Polish presidential election](/wiki/2020_Polish_presidential_election "2020 Polish presidential election") resulted in the re\-election bid of incumbent president [Andrzej Duda](/wiki/Andrzej_Duda "Andrzej Duda"), a member of the [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 "Law and Justice (Poland)") party. In the first round, held on June 28, Duda emerged as the leading candidate with 43\.5% of the vote. Without a majority of 50% of the vote, a runoff was set against [Rafał Trzaskowski](/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Trzaskowski "Rafał Trzaskowski") from the [Civic Coalition](/wiki/Civic_Coalition_%28Poland%29 "Civic Coalition (Poland)"). In the second round of the election, on July 12, Duda secured a narrow victory with approximately 51% of the vote to Trzaskowski's 49% share of the vote.{{Cite web \|title\=Polish President Duda wins 2nd term by narrow majority – DW – 07/13/2020 \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/poland\-elections\-duda\-results/a\-54152011 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en}}
The campaign was marked by debates on judicial reforms, LGBTQ\+ rights, and Poland's role in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"). Amid tensions with the EU, the election had broad implications for the nation's political landscape. Taking place during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), the election featured adjusted voting procedures, including increased options for postal voting.{{Cite news \|last1\=Walker \|first1\=Shaun \|date\=2020\-07\-13 \|title\=Duda narrowly re\-elected in Poland in boost for ruling nationalists \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/13/incumbent\-andrzej\-duda\-wins\-polish\-presidential\-election\-commission \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|issn\=0261\-3077}}
#### 2023 general election
In the [2023 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Polish_parliamentary_election "2023 Polish parliamentary election"), [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 "Law and Justice (Poland)") returned as the largest party, but without the ability to form a winning coalition in the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm "Sejm"), 460\-member lower house of parliament. The final results which registered a record turnout of 74\.4 percent had the incumbent right\-wing [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 "Law and Justice (Poland)") with 35\.4 percent, followed by the centrist [Civic Coalition](/wiki/Civic_Coalition_%28Poland%29 "Civic Coalition (Poland)") at 30\.7 percent, the center\-right [Third Way](/wiki/Third_Way_%28Poland%29 "Third Way (Poland)") at 14\.4 percent, the [Left](/wiki/The_Left_%28Poland%29 "The Left (Poland)") with 8\.6 percent and the far\-right [Confederation](/wiki/Confederation_%28political_alliance%29 "Confederation (political alliance)") with 7\.2 percent. {{Cite web \|date\=2023\-10\-17 \|title\=Poland election results: Opposition secures win, final count shows \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/poland\-election\-results\-opposition\-donald\-tusk\-wins\-final\-count\-civic\-platform\-pis/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}}{{Cite news \|last\=Bayer \|first\=Lili \|date\=2023\-10\-17 \|title\=Poland election: final results suggest opposition parties could form Tusk\-led coalition – Europe live \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=the Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/oct/17/poland\-election\-donald\-tusk\-reaction\-europe\-latest\-updates \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|issn\=0261\-3077}}
[thumb\|Leaders of the three opposition parties after signing the coalition agreement.](/wiki/File:Umowa_Koalicyjna.jpg "Umowa Koalicyjna.jpg")
Before the election, [Civic Coalition](/wiki/Civic_Coalition_%28Poland%29 "Civic Coalition (Poland)"), led by former prime minister and [European Council](/wiki/European_Council "European Council") President [Donald Tusk](/wiki/Donald_Tusk "Donald Tusk"), the Third Way and the Left pledged to form a coalition government to oust Law and Justice from power.{{Cite news \|last1\=Henley \|first1\=Jon \|date\=2023\-10\-06 \|title\=Polish elections: who are the key players and what is at stake? \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/06/poland\-elections\-explainer\-law\-and\-justice\-party\-civic\-platform \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|issn\=0261\-3077}} After the election, together they won 248 seats in the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm "Sejm"), enough seats to take power from the Law and Justice. The coalition between these three parties also boosted its control of the less powerful upper chamber [Senate](/wiki/Senate_of_Poland "Senate of Poland"), winning 66 seats while Law and Justice won just 34\.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-10\-17 \|title\=Final results show scale of pro\-EU opposition victory in Poland \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2023/10/17/final\-results\-show\-scale\-of\-pro\-eu\-opposition\-victory\-in\-poland \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=euronews \|language\=en}}
Following the election, Poland's parliament elected centrist party leader [Donald Tusk](/wiki/Donald_Tusk "Donald Tusk") as prime minister, allowing the formation of a new [pro\-EU](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism "Pro-Europeanism") government after eight years of national conservative rule in Poland. The outgoing right\-wing populist Law and Justice government was characterized by various disputes with the EU over issues like judicial independence, the rule of law and minority rights which resulted in billions in funds from the bloc being frozen.{{Cite web \|title\=Poland's parliament elects Donald Tusk as prime minister \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/11/pro\-eu\-donald\-tusk\-set\-to\-become\-prime\-minister\-of\-poland \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=Al Jazeera \|language\=en}}
### Portugal
#### 2021 presidential election
Portugal's center\-right president, [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa "Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa"), won a second five\-year term with around 61 percent of the vote. In unprecedented circumstances, the [2021 presidential election](/wiki/2021_Portuguese_presidential_election "2021 Portuguese presidential election") was held less than two weeks after the Portuguese government had placed the nation under lockdown.{{Cite news \|date\=2021\-01\-25 \|title\=Portugal's President Wins Re\-election, but Far Right Gains (Published 2021\) \|work\=The New York Times \|language\=en \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/24/world/europe/portugal\-presidential\-election.html \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|last1\=Minder \|first1\=Raphael }} The results indicated that André Ventura, a far\-right, [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalism "Ultranationalism") candidate, received close to 12 percent of the vote, while the socialist candidate, [Ana Gomes](/wiki/Ana_Gomes "Ana Gomes"), received nearly 13 percent of the vote.{{Cite news \|agency\=Agence France\-Presse \|date\=2021\-01\-25 \|title\=Portugal's centre\-right president re\-elected but far right gains ground \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/25/portugals\-centre\-right\-president\-re\-elected\-but\-far\-right\-gains\-ground \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|issn\=0261\-3077}}
#### 2022 legislative election
The [2022 portuguese legislative elections](/wiki/2022_Portuguese_legislative_election "2022 Portuguese legislative election") were called when two far\-left parties that had supported [Antonio Costa](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Costa "António Costa")'s minority government allied with right\-wing parties in October to reject his draft budget for 2022\.{{Cite web \|title\=Portugal's ruling Socialists win re\-election with outright majority \|date\=30 January 2022 \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/europe/20220130\-portugal\-s\-ruling\-socialists\-and\-far\-right\-party\-chega\-eye\-gains\-in\-snap\-legislative\-elections}} In the election, contrary to expectations, Portugal's ruling center\-left [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 "Socialist Party (Portugal)") secured an absolute parliamentary majority in the snap general election, giving Antonio Costa a solid new mandate as prime minister.{{Cite news\|date\=2022\-01\-31\|title\=Portugal election: Socialists win unexpected majority\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment\-arts\-60194375\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}} The centre\-right [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 "Social Democratic Party (Portugal)") finished far behind the Socialist Party, who received roughly 42% of the vote, with less than 30% of the vote.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-17 \|title\=Politico Poll of Polls — Portuguese polls, trends and election news for Portugal \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/portugal/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} As the third\-largest legislative force, the [far\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics") party Chega increased substantially from having just one seat in the previous legislative cycle to at 12\. Turnout did surpass the previous year's record low of 49%.{{Cite news \|last\=Jones \|first\=Sam \|date\=2022\-01\-31 \|title\=Portugal general election: Socialists win surprise outright majority \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/31/portugal\-general\-election\-pm\-antonio\-costa\-wins\-surprise\-outright\-majority \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-27 \|issn\=0261\-3077}}
#### Prime Minister resignation
On 7 November 2023, Prime Minister [António Costa](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Costa "António Costa") submitted his official resignation which was accepted by the President on the same day.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-12\-01 \|title\=Marcelo aceitou a demissão de Costa e fala ao país na quinta\-feira \|url\=https://www.jn.pt/2336740524/marcelo\-aceitou\-a\-demissao\-de\-costa\-e\-fala\-ao\-pais\-na\-quinta\-feira/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201015000/https://www.jn.pt/2336740524/marcelo\-aceitou\-a\-demissao\-de\-costa\-e\-fala\-ao\-pais\-na\-quinta\-feira/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-12\-01 }} The prime minister's resignation came after Portugal's national police executed searches of Costa's residence and various government ministry buildings. The sweeps were a part of a corruption probe related to [lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium") mining projects in the north of [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") in addition to a [green hydrogen](/wiki/Green_hydrogen "Green hydrogen") production mega\-project in [Sines](/wiki/Sines "Sines"). President [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa "Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa") decided to dissolve parliament and call new elections on [10 March 2024](/wiki/2024_Portuguese_legislative_election "2024 Portuguese legislative election").{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-11\-07 \|title\=Portuguese PM António Costa resigns amid corruption probe \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/portugal\-prime\-minister\-antonio\-costa\-resigns/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en}} Costa's government remains in office in a caretaker capacity until a new government is sworn in following the elections.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-11\-16 \|title\=Marcelo dissolve Parlamento. António Costa no Governo até às próximas eleições a 10 de março \- Política \- Correio da Manhã \|url\=https://www.cmjornal.pt/politica/detalhe/marcelo\-dissolve\-parlamento\-antonio\-costa\-no\-governo\-ate\-as\-proximas\-eleicoes \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116161538/https://www.cmjornal.pt/politica/detalhe/marcelo\-dissolve\-parlamento\-antonio\-costa\-no\-governo\-ate\-as\-proximas\-eleicoes \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-16 }}
### Romania
A [political crisis](/wiki/2021_Romanian_political_crisis "2021 Romanian political crisis") began in [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania") on 1 September 2021 engulfing both major coalition partners of the [Cîțu Cabinet](/wiki/C%C3%AE%C8%9Bu_Cabinet "Cîțu Cabinet"), namely the conservative\-liberal [National Liberal Party](/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_%28Romania%29 "National Liberal Party (Romania)") (PNL) and the progressive\-liberal [Save Romania Union](/wiki/Save_Romania_Union "Save Romania Union") (USR), then [USR PLUS](/wiki/USR_PLUS "USR PLUS").{{cite web\|date\=3 October 2021\|title\=USR PLUS revine la denumirea de USR şi la vechea siglă\|url\=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/politic/usr\-plus\-revine\-la\-denumirea\-de\-usr\-si\-la\-vechea\-sigla.html\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-03\|website\=Știrile Pro TV}} The crisis was sparked by disagreements over the so\-called [Anghel Saligny](/wiki/Anghel_Saligny "Anghel Saligny") investment program meant to develop Romanian settlements,{{cite web\|title\=Scandal uriaș în Guvern. Cîțu a vrut să bage proiectul Saligny pe ordinea de zi suplimentară, USR PLUS amenință cu moțiunea de cenzură\|url\=https://www.digi24\.ro/stiri/actualitate/politica/surse\-scandal\-in\-guvern\-citu\-a\-vrut\-sa\-bage\-proiectul\-saligny\-pe\-ordinea\-de\-zi\-suplimentara\-usr\-plus\-ameninta\-cu\-motiunea\-de\-cenzura\-1652877\|website\=Digi24\|date\=September 2021 }} which was supported by Prime Minister Cîțu but was severely criticized by [USR PLUS](/wiki/USR_PLUS "USR PLUS") (referring to it as a "brand new OUG 13 abuse"){{cite web\|title\=USR PLUS, după adoptarea programului "Anghel Salingy": Un nou abuz marca OUG 13\|url\=https://www.digi24\.ro/stiri/actualitate/politica/usr\-plus\-dupa\-adoptarea\-programului\-anghel\-salingy\-un\-nou\-abuz\-marca\-oug\-13\-1656245\|website\=Digi24\|date\=3 September 2021 }}{{cite web\|date\=31 January 2020\|title\=Trei ani de la OUG 13: istoria unui act normativ cu dedicație\|url\=https://psnews.ro/trei\-ani\-de\-la\-oug\-13\-istoria\-unui\-act\-normativ\-cu\-dedicatie\-345069/\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-02\|website\=PSnews}} whose ministers boycotted a government meeting. In response, [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Romania "Prime Minister of Romania") [Cîțu](/wiki/Florin_C%C3%AE%C8%9Bu "Florin Cîțu") sacked Justice Minister [Stelian Ion](/wiki/Stelian_Ion "Stelian Ion") (USR){{cite web\|date\=September 2021\|title\=Dan Barna, după demiterea ministrului Justiției, Stelian Ion: "Florin Cîţu trebuie să plece"\|url\=https://ziarulunirea.ro/dan\-barna\-dupa\-demiterea\-ministrului\-justitiei\-stelian\-ion\-florin\-citu\-trebuie\-sa\-plece\-731022/\|website\=Ziarul Unirea}} and named Interior Minister [Lucian Bode](/wiki/Lucian_Bode "Lucian Bode") (PNL) as interim, igniting a crisis.{{cite web\|title\=Ultima Oră Cîțu își arată forța \- îl demite pe ministrul Justiției, pentru blocarea Programului național de investiții "Anghel Saligny". Pentru ce sunt alocate cele 50 miliarde lei în dispută document\|url\=https://www.profit.ro/stiri/economie/ultima\-ora\-citu\-isi\-arata\-forta\-il\-demite\-pe\-ministrul\-justitiei\-pentru\-blocarea\-programului\-national\-de\-investitii\-anghel\-saligny\-pentru\-ce\-sunt\-alocate\-cele\-50\-miliarde\-lei\-in\-disputa\-document\-20380626\|website\=Profit.ro}}{{cite web\|date\=10 September 2021\|title\=Romania lurches into another political crisis as Florin Citu clings to power\|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/09/10/romania\-lurches\-into\-another\-political\-crisis\-as\-florin\-citu\-clings\-to\-power\|website\=Euronews}} In retaliation, USR PLUS submitted a [motion of no confidence](/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence "Motion of no confidence") (also known as a motion of censure) against the [Cîțu Cabinet](/wiki/C%C3%AE%C8%9Bu_Cabinet "Cîțu Cabinet") together with the nationalist opposition party [Alliance for the Unity of Romanians](/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Unity_of_Romanians "Alliance for the Unity of Romanians") (AUR){{cite web\|title\=Oficial! USR PLUS și AUR au depus moțiune de cenzură împotriva premierului Cîțu / Cum arată calculele\|url\=https://www.mediafax.ro/politic/oficial\-usr\-plus\-si\-aur\-au\-depus\-motiune\-de\-cenzura\-impotriva\-premierului\-citu\-cum\-arata\-calculele\-20253516\|website\=Mediafax}}{{cite web\|title\=Document. Moțiunea de cenzură USR PLUS \- AUR: "Demiterea Guvernului Cîțu, singura șansă a României de a trăi!"\|url\=https://www.digi24\.ro/stiri/actualitate/politica/document\-motiunea\-de\-cenzura\-usr\-plus\-aur\-demiterea\-guvernului\-citu\-singura\-sansa\-a\-romaniei\-de\-a\-trai\-1656505\|website\=Digi24\|date\=4 September 2021 }} and by 7 September, all USR PLUS ministers resigned on their own.{{cite web\|title\=Miniștrii USR\-PLUS din Guvernul Florin Cîțu au demisionat în bloc\|url\=https://www.dw.com/ro/mini%C8%99trii\-usr\-plus\-din\-guvernul\-florin\-c%C3%AE%C8%9Bu\-au\-demisionat\-%C3%AEn\-bloc/a\-59104271\|website\=DW}} Negotiations between PSD, PNL and UDMR for a new majority took place throughout most of November 2021, after which Ciucă was designated again by Iohannis as prime minister on 22 November. The crisis finally ended on 25 November, with the [Ciucă Cabinet](/wiki/Ciuc%C4%83_Cabinet "Ciucă Cabinet") taking office.
### Russia
#### Consolidation of Putin's power
The entire Russian cabinet resigned in January 2020, with a new Prime Minister [Mikhail Mishustin](/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin "Mikhail Mishustin") soon sworn in.{{Cite web\|author\=Mary Ilyushina and Sheena McKenzie\|title\=Russian government resigns as Putin proposes reforms that could extend his grip on power\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/15/europe/russian\-government\-resigns\-vladimir\-putin\-reforms\-intl/index.html\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-14\|website\=CNN\|date\=15 January 2020 }} Following this, a [constitutional referendum](/wiki/2020_Russian_constitutional_referendum "2020 Russian constitutional referendum") was held in [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia") in 2020\.{{Cite web\|title\=Голосование по поправкам в Конституцию пройдет 22 апреля\|url\=https://www.vedomosti.ru/politics/articles/2020/02/26/823899\-den\-obscherossiiskogo\-golosovaniya\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-26\|website\=Ведомости\|date\=26 February 2020 }} The draft [amendments to the Constitution](/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia "2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia") were submitted to a referendum in accordance with article 2 of the Law on Amendments to the Constitution.{{cite web\|url\=https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/885214\-7\|website\=sozd.duma.gov.ru\|title\=№885214\-7 Законопроект :: Система обеспечения законодательной деятельности :: Закон Российской Федерации о поправке к Конституции Российской Федерации\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-28\|archive\-date\=2020\-01\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124182826/https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/885214\-7\|url\-status\=dead}} The referendum was criticized for extending the rule of [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin"), as well as for not following the normal rules for referendums in Russia (by being labelled an "all\-Russian vote" instead).{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-07\-02\|title\=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-53255964\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-02}}{{Cite web\|last\=Noble\|first\=Ben\|title\=Vladimir Putin secures constitutional changes allowing him to rule until 2036 – what this means for Russia\|url\=http://theconversation.com/vladimir\-putin\-secures\-constitutional\-changes\-allowing\-him\-to\-rule\-until\-2036\-what\-this\-means\-for\-russia\-141103\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-02\|website\=The Conversation\|date\=2 July 2020 \|language\=en}}
The anti\-corruption activist and politician [Alexei Navalny](/wiki/Alexei_Navalny "Alexei Navalny") was the target of an [attempted assassination](/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexei_Navalny "Poisoning of Alexei Navalny") by the Russian [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service "Federal Security Service"), whose members involved in the attempt he exposed together with the investigative journalism outlet [Bellingcat](/wiki/Bellingcat "Bellingcat").{{Cite news\|date\=2021\-01\-02\|title\=Russia menaces Alexei Navalny after he exposed its agents' ineptitude\|newspaper\=The Economist\|url\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2021/01/02/russia\-menaces\-alexei\-navalny\-after\-he\-exposed\-its\-agents\-ineptitude\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-02\|issn\=0013\-0613}} Following his return to Russia, he was arrested and immediately placed in pre\-trial detention.{{Cite news\|date\=2021\-01\-23\|title\=The world must not accept the jailing of Alexei Navalny\|newspaper\=The Economist\|url\=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2021/01/23/the\-world\-must\-not\-accept\-the\-jailing\-of\-alexei\-navalny\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-02\|issn\=0013\-0613}} This, and the release of his film [*A Palace for Putin*](/wiki/A_Palace_for_Putin:The_Story_of_the_Biggest_Bribe "The Story of the Biggest Bribe"), led to the [2021 Russian protests](/wiki/2021_Russian_protests "2021 Russian protests"). Navalny was ultimately sentenced to two\-and\-a\-half years in a [penal colony](/wiki/Penal_colony "Penal colony").{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-02\-02\|title\=Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny sentenced to prison\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/russian\-opposition\-leader\-alexei\-navalny\-sentenced\-to\-prison/a\-56412686\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-03\|website\=Deutsche Welle\|language\=en\-GB}} A court ordered the [Anti\-Corruption Foundation](/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Foundation "Anti-Corruption Foundation"), linked to Navalny, to cease its activities.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-04\-26\|title\=Russia suspends activities of Alexei Navalny's campaign groups\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/russia\-suspends\-activities\-of\-alexei\-navalnys\-campaign\-groups/a\-57335053\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-02\|website\=Deutsche Welle\|language\=en\-GB}}
#### Repercussions of the invasion of Ukraine
Following the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine") on 24 February 2022, daily [anti\-war demonstrations and protests](/wiki/2022_anti-war_protests_in_Russia "2022 anti-war protests in Russia") broke out across Russia.{{cite magazine \|author\=Arik Burakovsky \|date\=3 March 2022 \|title\=Putin's Invasion of Ukraine Has Sparked Antiwar Protests in Russia. They Could Be His Undoing \|url\=https://time.com/6154240/russia\-protests\-war\-ukraine\-putin/ \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303192550/https://time.com/6154240/russia\-protests\-war\-ukraine\-putin/ \|archive\-date\=3 March 2022 \|access\-date\=4 March 2022}} The protests have been met with widespread repression by the Russian authorities, with over 8,000 arrests being made{{cite web \|title\="Нет войне": итоги акции против войны с Украиной 24 февраля \|trans\-title\="No to war": the results of the action against the war with Ukraine on February 24 \|url\=https://ovdinfo.org/articles/2022/02/25/net\-voyne\-itogi\-akcii\-protiv\-voyny\-s\-ukrainoy\-24\-fevralya \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226201832/https://ovdinfo.org/articles/2022/02/25/net\-voyne\-itogi\-akcii\-protiv\-voyny\-s\-ukrainoy\-24\-fevralya \|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-26 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|website\=OVD\-Info \|language\=RU}}{{cite web \|title\=Списки задержанных в связи с акцией против войны с Украиной 25 февраля 2022 года \|trans\-title\=Lists of those detained in connection with the action against the war with Ukraine on February 25, 2022 \|url\=https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/25/spiski\-zaderzhannyh\-v\-svyazi\-s\-akciey\-protiv\-voyny\-s\-ukrainoy\-25\-fevralya\-2022\-goda \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227175556/https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/25/spiski\-zaderzhannyh\-v\-svyazi\-s\-akciey\-protiv\-voyny\-s\-ukrainoy\-25\-fevralya\-2022\-goda \|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|website\=OVD\-Info \|language\=RU}}{{cite web \|title\=Списки задержанных в связи с акциями против войны с Украиной 26 февраля 2022 года \|trans\-title\=Lists of detainees in connection with actions against the war with Ukraine on February 26, 2022 \|url\=https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/26/spiski\-zaderzhannyh\-v\-svyazi\-s\-akciyami\-protiv\-voyny\-s\-ukrainoy\-26\-fevralya\-2022 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227175534/https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/26/spiski\-zaderzhannyh\-v\-svyazi\-s\-akciyami\-protiv\-voyny\-s\-ukrainoy\-26\-fevralya\-2022 \|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|website\=OVD\-Info \|language\=RU}} from 24 February to 4 March.[Russia\-Ukraine war latest: 38 countries, including UK, refer atrocities to ICC – live](https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/02/ukraine-news-russia-war-kyiv-kharkiv-russian-invasion-vladimir-putin-joe-biden-latest-live-updates) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302224652/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/02/ukraine\-news\-russia\-war\-kyiv\-kharkiv\-russian\-invasion\-vladimir\-putin\-joe\-biden\-latest\-live\-updates\|date\=2022\-03\-02}} \| The Guardian *Over 6,500 Russians have so far been detained across Russia during anti\-war protests, according to the independent monitoring site OVD\-Info.*{{cite web \|author\=Vasco Cotovio \|date\=27 February 2022 \|title\=Nearly 6,000 detained across Russia as anti\-war protests enter fourth day, monitoring site says \|url\=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live\-news/ukraine\-russia\-news\-02\-27\-22/h\_b9f792057cdb10388841d3fa2e971da5 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227201349/https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live\-news/ukraine\-russia\-news\-02\-27\-22/h\_b9f792057cdb10388841d3fa2e971da5 \|archive\-date\=27 February 2022 \|access\-date\=28 February 2022}}{{cite web \|date\=24 February 2022 \|title\=Thousands in Russia protest Ukraine war, hundreds detained \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20220224\-thousands\-in\-russia\-protest\-ukraine\-war\-hundreds\-detained \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224220214/http://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20220224\-thousands\-in\-russia\-protest\-ukraine\-war\-hundreds\-detained \|archive\-date\=24 February 2022 \|access\-date\=1 March 2022 \|website\=France24}} By 27 February, 4,000 scientists and science journalists, 6,200 medics, 5,000 architects and 6,700 artists in Russia had signed electronic petitions against the invasion.{{cite web \|date\=27 February 2022 \|title\=Кто против войны. Все открытые письма с призывами остановить вторжение в Украину \|trans\-title\=Who is against the war. All open letters with calls to stop the invasion of Ukraine \|url\=https://zona.media/article/2022/02/27/vse \|publisher\=Zona.media \|language\=Russian \|accessdate\=8 March 2022}} On 6 March, the monitoring group [OVD\-Info](/wiki/OVD-Info "OVD-Info") reported over 5,000 arrests throughout the day,{{cite news \|date\=7 March 2022 \|title\=Russia arrests over 5,000 in single day for protesting Ukraine war \|newspaper\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/russia\-arrests\-over\-5000\-in\-single\-day\-for\-protesting\-ukraine\-war/article65201756\.ece \|access\-date\=7 March 2022}}{{cite web \|author\=Guy Faulconbridge \|date\=6 March 2022 \|title\=More than 4,300 detained at anti\-war protests in Russia \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/more\-than\-64\-people\-detained\-anti\-war\-protests\-russia\-protest\-monitor\-2022\-03\-06/ \|access\-date\=6 March 2022 \|website\=Reuters}} bringing the total number of arrests since the start to over 12,000\.
On 26 February 2022, Russia's communications regulator, [Roskomnadzor](/wiki/Roskomnadzor "Roskomnadzor"), ordered independent media outlets to take down reports that described the Russian invasion of Ukraine as an "assault, invasion, or declaration of war", otherwise fines and blocks would be issued.{{cite news \|date\=26 February 2022 \|title\=Russia Bans 'Invasion' And 'Assault' In Media \|work\=\[\[Barron's (newspaper)\|Barron's]] \|agency\=\[\[Agence France Presse]] \|url\=https://www.barrons.com/news/russia\-watchdog\-tells\-media\-not\-to\-use\-words\-invasion\-and\-assault\-01645866006 \|access\-date\=7 March 2022}} From 1 March, Russian schools started war\-themed social studies classes for teenagers based on the Russian government's position on history; one teaching manual (publicized by independent media outlet [MediaZona](/wiki/MediaZona "MediaZona")) for such classes asserted that "genocide" had been occurring in eastern Ukraine for eight years, and that Russia in this case was responding with a "special peacekeeping operation" in Ukraine, which was "not a war".{{cite news \|date\=2 March 2022 \|title\=Do not call Ukraine invasion a 'war', Russia tells media, schools \|work\=\[\[Al Jazeera Media Network\|Al Jazeera]] \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/2/do\-not\-call\-ukraine\-invasion\-a\-war\-russia\-tells\-media\-schools \|access\-date\=7 March 2022}} On 22 February 2023 the monitoring group [OVD\-Info](/wiki/OVD-Info "OVD-Info") reported that there was almost 20,000 arrests due to anti\-war position and protests.{{Cite web \|title\=Сводка антивоенных репрессий \|url\=https://data.ovdinfo.org/svodka\-antivoennyh\-repressiy\-god\-polnomasshtabnogo\-vtorzheniya\-rossii\-v\-ukrainu \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-15 \|website\=ОВД\-Инфо}} Also by 15 April 2023 they report that in Russia there are 528 being persecuted under criminal law.{{Cite web \|title\=Anti\-war case \|url\=https://en.ovdinfo.org/antiwar\-infographics \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-15 \|website\=ОВД\-Инфо}}
#### Internal power struggles
On 23 June 2023, the [Wagner Group](/wiki/Wagner_Group "Wagner Group"), a Russian government\-funded [paramilitary](/wiki/Paramilitary "Paramilitary") and [private military company](/wiki/Private_military_company "Private military company"), staged a [rebellion](/wiki/Rebellion "Rebellion"). The rebellion occurred after a [period of increasing tensions](/wiki/Prigozhin%E2%80%93Shoigu_conflict "Prigozhin–Shoigu conflict") between the [Russian Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Russian_Ministry_of_Defence "Russian Ministry of Defence") and the leader of Wagner, [Yevgeny Prigozhin](/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin "Yevgeny Prigozhin"). At least thirteen servicemen of the Russian military were killed during the rebellion. On the rebels' side, several Wagner members were reported injured and two military defectors were killed according to Prigozhin.{{cite news \|last1\=Prigozhin \|first1\=Yevgeny \|date\=26 June 2023 \|title\='We did not want to spill Russian blood': Prigozhin makes statement on Wagner Group's mutiny attempt \|work\=\[\[Novaya Gazeta Europe]] \|publisher\=Novoya Gazeta Europe \|url\=https://novayagazeta.eu/articles/2023/06/26/we\-did\-not\-want\-to\-spill\-russian\-blood\-prigozhin\-makes\-statement\-on\-wagner\-groups\-mutiny\-attempt\-en \|access\-date\=26 June 2023 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626174714/https://novayagazeta.eu/articles/2023/06/26/we\-did\-not\-want\-to\-spill\-russian\-blood\-prigozhin\-makes\-statement\-on\-wagner\-groups\-mutiny\-attempt\-en \|archive\-date\=June 26, 2023 \|quote\=Several PMC Wagner fighters were injured. Two were killed — they were Russian Defence Ministry soldiers who joined us voluntarily.}} While Prigozhin was supportive of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine"),{{cite news \|last\=John \|first\=Tara \|date\=24 June 2023 \|title\=Wagner chief to leave Russia for Belarus in deal that ends armed insurrection, Kremlin says \|work\=CNN \|url\=https://www.msn.com/en\-us/news/world/wagner\-chief\-to\-leave\-russia\-for\-belarus\-in\-deal\-that\-ends\-armed\-insurrection\-kremlin\-says/ar\-AA1cYKIU \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=26 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629203826/https://www.msn.com/en\-us/news/world/wagner\-chief\-to\-leave\-russia\-for\-belarus\-in\-deal\-that\-ends\-armed\-insurrection\-kremlin\-says/ar\-AA1cYKIU \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023}} he had previously publicly criticized Defense Minister [Sergei Shoigu](/wiki/Sergei_Shoigu "Sergei Shoigu") and Chief of the General Staff [Valery Gerasimov](/wiki/Valery_Gerasimov "Valery Gerasimov"), blaming them for the country's military shortcomings and accusing them of handing over "Russian territories" to Ukraine.{{cite news \|last\=Khaled \|first\=Fatma \|date\=23 June 2023 \|title\=Prigozhin Accuses Putin's Military Leaders of 'Genocide' Against Russians \|work\=Newsweek \|url\=https://www.newsweek.com/prigozhin\-accuses\-putin\-military\-leaders\-genocide\-against\-russians\-1808757 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=26 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629205637/https://www.newsweek.com/prigozhin\-accuses\-putin\-military\-leaders\-genocide\-against\-russians\-1808757 \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023}} Prigozhin portrayed the rebellion as a response to an alleged attack on his forces by the ministry, and demanded that Shoigu and Gerasimov be turned over to him.{{cite news \|last\=O'Brien \|first\=Phillips \|date\=24 June 2023 \|title\=Prigozhin Planned This \|work\=The Atlantic \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/06/prigozhin\-wagner\-putin\-russia\-coup/674520/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=26 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629210035/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/06/prigozhin\-wagner\-putin\-russia\-coup/674520/ \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023}} In a televised address on 24 June, Russian president [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin") denounced Wagner's actions as treason and pledged to quell the rebellion.
Prigozhin's forces took control of [Rostov\-on\-Don](/wiki/Rostov-on-Don "Rostov-on-Don") and the headquarters of the [Southern Military District](/wiki/Southern_Military_District "Southern Military District") in the city. An armored [column](/wiki/Column_%28formation%29 "Column (formation)") of Wagner troops advanced through [Voronezh Oblast](/wiki/Voronezh_Oblast "Voronezh Oblast") towards [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"). Armed with mobile anti\-aircraft systems, the rebels repelled the air attacks of the [Russian military](/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces "Russian Armed Forces"), whose actions did not deter the progress of the column. Ground defenses were concentrated on the approach to Moscow. Before Wagner reached the defenses, [Belarusian](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus") president [Alexander Lukashenko](/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko "Alexander Lukashenko") brokered a settlement with Prigozhin, who agreed to end the rebellion. On the late evening of 24 June, Wagner forces turned around, and those that had remained in Rostov\-on\-Don began withdrawing. As per the agreement, the [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service "Federal Security Service"), which had initiated a case for armed rebellion under Article 279 of the [Criminal Code](/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia "Criminal Code of Russia") closed the case on 27 June 2023, dropping the charges.
An [Embraer Legacy 600](/wiki/Embraer_Legacy_600 "Embraer Legacy 600") [crashed](/wiki/2023_Tver_Oblast_plane_crash "2023 Tver Oblast plane crash") near [Kuzhenkino](/wiki/Kuzhenkino_%28urban-type_settlement%29 "Kuzhenkino (urban-type settlement)") in [Tver Oblast](/wiki/Tver_Oblast "Tver Oblast"), approximately 100 kilometres north of its departure point in Moscow, on 25 August 2023\. Among the ten victims were [Yevgeny Prigozhin](/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin "Yevgeny Prigozhin") and [Dmitry Utkin](/wiki/Dmitry_Utkin "Dmitry Utkin"), key figures associated with the [Wagner Group](/wiki/Wagner_Group "Wagner Group"), a Russian state\-funded private military company.{{Cite news \|last\=Seddon \|first\=Max \|date\=23 August 2023 \|title\=Yevgeny Prigozhin was passenger on crashed plane, Russian officials say \|work\=\[\[Financial Times]] \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/812c9da3\-80f2\-4fe1\-8fad\-0b4441d1977a \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=23 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823172612/https://www.ft.com/content/812c9da3\-80f2\-4fe1\-8fad\-0b4441d1977a \|archive\-date\=23 August 2023}}{{subscription required}}{{Cite news \|last\=Troianovski \|first\=Anton \|date\=23 August 2023 \|title\=Russia\-Ukraine War: Prigozhin Listed as Passenger on Plane That Crashed, Killing All Aboard \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/23/world/russia\-ukraine\-war\-news \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=23 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823173848/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/23/world/russia\-ukraine\-war\-news \|archive\-date\=23 August 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}{{cite web \|title\=Росавиация \|trans\-title\=Rosaviatsiya \|url\=https://t.me/favt\_ru/1278 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823200535/https://t.me/favt\_ru/1278 \|archive\-date\=23 August 2023 \|access\-date\=23 August 2023 \|website\=Telegram \|publisher\=\[\[Federal Air Transport Agency]] \|language\=ru}}{{cite web \|last\=Binns \|first\=Daniel \|date\=23 August 2023 \|title\=Wagner Group commander Dmitry Utkin was on plane that crashed north of Moscow, Russian civil aviation authority says \|url\=https://news.sky.com/story/wagner\-group\-commander\-dmitry\-utkin\-was\-on\-plane\-that\-crashed\-near\-moscow\-russian\-civil\-aviation\-authority\-says\-12946176 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823205759/https://news.sky.com/story/wagner\-group\-commander\-dmitry\-utkin\-was\-on\-plane\-that\-crashed\-near\-moscow\-russian\-civil\-aviation\-authority\-says\-12946176 \|archive\-date\=23 August 2023 \|access\-date\=23 August 2023 \|publisher\=\[\[Sky News]]}} The circumstances of the crash led to widespread speculation and numerous theories, with many pointing to political motivations and possible involvement of powerful entities in Russia. While official Russian sources downplayed the incident, many observers, including international leaders, implied or openly suggested that the crash was a politically motivated assassination.
### Serbia
On 7 July 2020, a [series of protests](/wiki/2020_Serbian_protests "2020 Serbian protests") and riots began over the government announcement of the reimplementation of the curfew and the government's allegedly poor handling of the [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") situation, as well as being a partial continuation of the ["One of Five Million" movement](/wiki/Serbian_protests_%282018%E2%80%932020%29 "Serbian protests (2018–2020)"). The initial demand of the protesters had been to cancel the planned reintroduction of [curfew](/wiki/Curfew "Curfew") in Serbia during July, which was successfully achieved in less than 48 hours of the protest.{{Cite web\|title\=Serbian President Retracts COVID\-19 Curfew After 60 Hurt in Violence\|url\=https://www.voanews.com/covid\-19\-pandemic/serbian\-president\-retracts\-covid\-19\-curfew\-after\-60\-hurt\-violence\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-14\|website\=www.voanews.com\|date\=8 July 2020 \|publisher\=Voice of America\|language\=en}} Among other causes, the protests were driven by the crisis of democratic institutions under [Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Aleksandar Vučić")'s rule and the growing concern that the [President](/wiki/President_of_Serbia "President of Serbia") is concentrating all powers in his hands at the expense of the parliament.[Svetski mediji o protestima u Srbiji: Protesti spontani, nedostaju institucije (Serbian)](https://mediareform.rs/svetski-mediji-o-protestima-u-srbiji-protesti-spontani-nedostaju-institucije/) Media and Reform (in Serbian), retrieved 2020\-07\-11\.
### Slovakia
In the [2023 Slovak parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Slovak_parliamentary_election "2023 Slovak parliamentary election"), the [left\-wing populist](/wiki/Left-wing_populism "Left-wing populism"), [social conservative](/wiki/Social_conservatism "Social conservatism") and [Pro\-Russia](/wiki/Pro-Russian "Pro-Russian"), [Smer\-SD](/wiki/Smer-SD "Smer-SD") (Direction – Social Democracy), led by former [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Slovakia "Prime Minister of Slovakia") [Robert Fico](/wiki/Robert_Fico "Robert Fico"), emerged as the largest party, winning 42 seats. The [social\-liberal](/wiki/Social_liberalism "Social liberalism") and [pro\-European](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism "Pro-Europeanism"), [PS](/wiki/Progressive_Slovakia "Progressive Slovakia") (Progressive Slovakia) came in second, with 32 seats. Former Prime Minister [Peter Pellegrini](/wiki/Peter_Pellegrini "Peter Pellegrini")'s [social\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy"), [Hlas\-SD](/wiki/Voice_%E2%80%93_Social_Democracy "Voice – Social Democracy") (Voice – Social Democracy), which split from Smer\-SD in 2020, came in third with 27 seats, making Pellegrini the [kingmaker](/wiki/Kingmaker "Kingmaker") in government formation negotiations.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-17 \|title\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — Slovakian polls, trends and election news for Slovakia \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\-poll\-of\-polls/slovakia/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=POLITICO \|language\=en}} On 11 October, [Smer\-SD](/wiki/Smer-SD "Smer-SD"), [Hlas\-SD](/wiki/Voice_%E2%80%93_Social_Democracy "Voice – Social Democracy"), and [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalism "Ultranationalism") [SNS](/wiki/Slovak_National_Party "Slovak National Party") ratified their coalition agreement, according to which they were to receive 6, 7, and 3 ministerial portfolios, respectively.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-10\-11 \|title\=New government emerges in Slovakia, with Robert Fico as prime minister \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/slovakia\-robert\-fico\-elections\-as\-prime\-minister/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-23 \|website\=POLITICO \|language\=en}}
### Slovenia
A [series of protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Slovenian_protests "2020–2021 Slovenian protests") broke out after the formation of [Janez Janša's government](/wiki/14th_Government_of_Slovenia "14th Government of Slovenia") in early 2020, with protestors demanding Janša's resignation and early elections.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-09\-25\|title\=Slovenia's Marathon Anti\-Govt Protests Enter 23rd Week\|url\=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/09/25/slovenias\-marathon\-anti\-govt\-protests\-enter\-23rd\-week/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30\|website\=Balkan Insight\|language\=en\-US}} Janša was accused of eroding freedom of media since assuming office. According to a report by [International Press Institute](/wiki/International_Press_Institute "International Press Institute") Slovenia experienced a swift downturn in media and press freedom. IPI accused Janša of creating a hostile environment for journalists by his tweets, which IPI described as "vitriolic attacks".{{Cite news\|title\=Zašto Slovenci protestuju na biciklima\|language\=sr\-latn\|work\=BBC News na srpskom\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/balkan\-52848572\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30}}{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-09\-02\|title\=Jansa is Eroding Press Freedom in Slovenia, IPI Warns\|url\=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/09/02/jansa\-is\-eroding\-press\-freedom\-in\-slovenia\-ipi\-warns/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30\|website\=Balkan Insight\|language\=en\-US}} He was also accused of usurping power and corruption and compared to [Viktor Orbán](/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n "Viktor Orbán").{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-10\-28\|title\=Will Janez Janša take Slovenia down the same populist road as Hungary?\|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2020/10/28/will\-janez\-jansa\-take\-slovenia\-down\-the\-same\-populist\-road\-as\-hungary\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30\|website\=euronews\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-01\-30\|title\=In a Hungarian Corner of Slovenia, a Homegrown Orban\|url\=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/01/30/in\-a\-hungarian\-corner\-of\-slovenia\-a\-homegrown\-orban/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-30\|website\=Balkan Insight\|language\=en\-US}} In the [2022 Slovenian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Slovenian_parliamentary_election "2022 Slovenian parliamentary election"), the [Freedom Movement](/wiki/Freedom_Movement_%28Slovenia%29 "Freedom Movement (Slovenia)") led by [Robert Golob](/wiki/Robert_Golob "Robert Golob") won 41 seats in its first election. It had campaigned on a transition to green energy, an open society and the rule of law. It won the highest number of seats for a single party in the elections since the independence of Slovenia.
### Sweden
A [government crisis](/wiki/2021_Swedish_government_crisis "2021 Swedish government crisis") started on 21 June 2021 in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") after the [Riksdag](/wiki/Riksdag "Riksdag") ousted [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sweden "Prime Minister of Sweden") [Stefan Löfven](/wiki/Stefan_L%C3%B6fven "Stefan Löfven") with a [no\-confidence vote](/wiki/No-confidence_vote "No-confidence vote").{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-06\-21\|title\=Sweden faces political uncertainty as PM Lofven ousted by parliament\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/swedish\-pm\-brink\-parliament\-readies\-monday\-no\-confidence\-vote\-2021\-06\-21/\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-21\|website\=Reuters}}{{Cite news\|title\=Stefan Löfven fälls av riksdagen \- Nyheter (Ekot)\|url\=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/just\-nu\-riksdagen\-haller\-misstroendeomrostning\-mot\-stefan\-lofven\-\-2\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-21\|newspaper\=Sveriges Radio\|date\=21 June 2021 \|language\=sv}} This was the first time in Swedish history a Prime Minister was ousted by a no\-confidence vote.{{Cite web\|title\=Historiskt: Riksdagen saknar förtroende för Stefan Löfven\|url\=https://bulletin.nu/historiskt\-riksdagen\-saknar\-fortroende\-for\-stefan\-lofven\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-21\|website\=bulletin.nu\|language\=sv}}{{Cite web\|title\=Regeringen faller efter historisk omröstning\|url\=https://www.aftonbladet.se/a/PRKV45\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-21\|website\=www.aftonbladet.se\|date\=21 June 2021 \|language\=sv}} Löfven was narrowly re\-elected to stay in power later.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-07\-06\|title\=Stefan Löfven reappointed Swedish Prime Minister after parliament vote\|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/07/06/stefan\-lofven\-swedish\-caretaker\-pm\-faces\-parliament\-vote\-to\-form\-new\-government\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-11\|website\=euronews\|language\=en}} In November, the Riksdag voted for [Social Democrat](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Sweden "Social Democratic Party of Sweden") leader [Magdalena Andersson](/wiki/Magdalena_Andersson "Magdalena Andersson") to become the first female [prime minister of Sweden](/wiki/Prime_minister_of_Sweden "Prime minister of Sweden"). However, Andersson resigned several hours later, after the [Green Party](/wiki/Green_Party_%28Sweden%29 "Green Party (Sweden)") quit the coalition because the opposition budget was approved by the Riksdag.{{Cite news\|last\=Sweden\|first\=Radio\|date\=2021\-11\-24\|title\=Andersson clears vote to become Sweden's first female prime minister\|language\=en\|work\=Sveriges Radio\|url\=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/andersson\-clears\-vote\-to\-become\-swedens\-first\-female\-prime\-minister\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-28}}{{Cite news\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Simon\|last2\=Ahlander\|first2\=Johan\|date\=2021\-11\-25\|title\=New Swedish PM resigns on first day in job, hopes for swift return\|language\=en\|work\=Reuters\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/rates\-bonds/swedish\-pm\-resigns\-first\-day\-after\-coalition\-collapses\-2021\-11\-24/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-28}} Andersson took office several days later after a confirmation vote in the Riksdag.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-11\-29 \|title\=Magdalena Andersson chosen as Sweden's first female PM... again \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/29/magdalena\-andersson\-set\-to\-be\-chosen\-as\-sweden\-s\-first\-female\-pm\-again \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129131759/https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/29/magdalena\-andersson\-set\-to\-be\-chosen\-as\-sweden\-s\-first\-female\-pm\-again \|archive\-date\=29 November 2021 \|access\-date\=2021\-11\-29 \|publisher\=euronews}}
The [2022 Swedish general election](/wiki/2022_Swedish_general_election "2022 Swedish general election") saw [Andersson's government](/wiki/Andersson_Cabinet "Andersson Cabinet") lose its majority, with the Sweden Democrats becoming the second\-largest party.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-09\-14 \|title\=Swedish center\-right leader Ulf Kristersson claims election win, faces tough coalition talks \|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/swedish\-center\-right\-leader\-ulf\-kristersson\-claims\-election\-win\-faces\-tough\-coalition\-talks/ \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-19 \|website\=Politico \|language\=en\-US}} Overall the right\-leaning bloc won a majority of seats, with [Moderate Party](/wiki/Moderate_Party "Moderate Party") leader [Ulf Kristersson](/wiki/Ulf_Kristersson "Ulf Kristersson") widely expected to become prime minister.{{Cite web \|last\=Auto \|first\=Hermes \|date\=2022\-09\-19 \|title\=Sweden's Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson gets nod to try form a new govt \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/swedens\-moderate\-party\-leader\-ulf\-kristersson\-gets\-nod\-to\-try\-form\-a\-new\-govt \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-19 \|website\=www.straitstimes.com \|language\=en}}
### Ukraine
{{excerpt\|2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
### United Kingdom
{{main\|2020s in United Kingdom political history}}
Under [Boris Johnson](/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson")'s government, the UK left the EU on 31 January 2020; trade deal negotiations continued to within days of the scheduled end of the transition period on 31 December 2020 [CET](/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time"). The [effects of Brexit](/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit "Impact of Brexit") will in part be determined by the [EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement](/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") which was agreed on 24 December 2020 and ratified by the [UK Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom") on 30 December 2020 and was "provisionally" applied by the EU from 31 December 2020\.{{cite news\|author\=Tom Edgington\|date\=31 January 2020\|title\=Brexit: What is the transition period?\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-politics\-50838994\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-01\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131215049/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-politics\-50838994\|archive\-date\=2020\-01\-31}}
Loyalists and unionists argued that [post\-Brexit trading arrangements](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") have created barriers between [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") and the rest of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom").{{Cite news\|last\=Blackall\|first\=Molly\|date\=3 April 2021\|title\=Northern Ireland's first minister joins calls for calm after Belfast riots\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk\-news/2021/apr/03/northern\-ireland\-secretary\-calls\-for\-calm\-after\-belfast\-riots\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-03}} The [Loyalist Communities Council](/wiki/Loyalist_Communities_Council "Loyalist Communities Council"), which represents paramilitary groups including the [Ulster Volunteer Force](/wiki/Ulster_Volunteer_Force "Ulster Volunteer Force") and the [Ulster Defence Association](/wiki/Ulster_Defence_Association "Ulster Defence Association") withdrew their support for the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") (which brought to an end [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles")) until the [sea border](/wiki/Irish_Sea_border "Irish Sea border") is removed.{{Cite news\|date\=4 March 2021\|title\=Loyalist group withdraws support for Good Friday Agreement\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-northern\-ireland\-56276653\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-05}} A [series of riots](/wiki/2021_Northern_Ireland_riots "2021 Northern Ireland riots") in [loyalist](/wiki/Ulster_loyalism "Ulster loyalism") areas of [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") began in [Waterside](/wiki/Waterside%2C_Derry "Waterside, Derry"), [Derry](/wiki/Derry "Derry"), on 30 March 2021\. [First Minister](/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland "First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland") [Arlene Foster](/wiki/Arlene_Foster "Arlene Foster") announced her resignation after losing the support of her [Democratic Unionist Party](/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party "Democratic Unionist Party") in the aftermath of the riots.{{Cite web\|title\=N.Ireland First Minister Foster Announces Resignation\|url\=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/nireland\-first\-minister\-foster\-announces\-res\-1237280\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-02\|website\=UrduPoint\|language\=en}}
Since mid\-2021, Johnson's premiership had been impacted by controversies over Johnson's actions relating to [Owen Paterson's lobbying](/wiki/Owen_Paterson_scandal "Owen Paterson scandal") and the [Partygate](/wiki/Partygate "Partygate") scandal. These, combined with impacts on [electoral performance](/wiki/2022_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2022 United Kingdom local elections"), led to the ruling [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") holding a [vote of confidence](/wiki/2022_vote_of_confidence_in_the_Conservative_Party_leadership_of_Boris_Johnson "2022 vote of confidence in the Conservative Party leadership of Boris Johnson") in Johnson's leadership in June 2022, which he won, although he was politically weakened.{{cite news \|last\=Mason \|first\=Rowena \|date\=6 June 2022 \|title\=Boris Johnson wins no\-confidence vote despite unexpectedly large rebellion \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/jun/06/boris\-johnson\-wins\-no\-confidence\-vote\-despite\-unexpectedly\-large\-rebellion \|access\-date\=15 July 2022}} After previously saying he would remain as [Conservative Party leader](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)") to see through the party's manifesto pledges, Johnson announced on 7 July that he would resign as leader but remain as prime minister in a caretaker capacity until a new party leader was elected, with the results of the [Conservative Party leadership election](/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election") being released on 5 September 2022\.{{cite news \|last1\=Adam \|first1\=Karla \|last2\=Booth \|first2\=William \|date\=7 July 2022 \|title\=Boris Johnson blames 'the herd,' resigns to make way for new U.K. leader \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/07/uk\-boris\-johnson\-resignation/ \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=7 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707194307/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/07/uk\-boris\-johnson\-resignation/ \|archive\-date\=7 July 2022}}{{cite news \|date\=7 July 2022 \|title\=Boris Johnson resigns: Five things that led to the PM's downfall \|publisher\=BBC \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-politics\-62070422 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=7 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707212744/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-politics\-62070422 \|archive\-date\=7 July 2022}}{{cite news \|date\=7 July 2022 \|title\=Boris Johnson facing calls to quit as PM as soon as possible \|work\=BBC \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-politics\-62064789 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=7 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707082742/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-politics\-62064789 \|archive\-date\=7 July 2022}} On 5 September, [Liz Truss](/wiki/Liz_Truss "Liz Truss") was elected leader of the Conservative Party and succeeded Johnson as prime minister on 6 September 2022\.
Truss resigned as leader of the Conservative Party on 20 October 2022, which would make her the [shortest\-serving prime minister in British history](/wiki/Shortest-serving_prime_minister_in_British_history "Shortest-serving prime minister in British history") following the [September mini\-budget](/wiki/September_2022_United_Kingdom_mini-budget "September 2022 United Kingdom mini-budget"), which was received negatively by the world [financial markets](/wiki/Financial_markets "Financial markets"). It ultimately led to the dismissal of the [chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer "Chancellor of the Exchequer"), [Kwasi Kwarteng](/wiki/Kwasi_Kwarteng "Kwasi Kwarteng"), on 14 October, and his replacement by [Jeremy Hunt](/wiki/Jeremy_Hunt "Jeremy Hunt"). In the following days Truss came under increasing pressure to reverse further elements of the mini\-budget to satisfy the markets, and by 17 October five Conservative [members of parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)") had called for her resignation.
[Rishi Sunak](/wiki/Rishi_Sunak "Rishi Sunak") stood in the [Conservative party leadership election](/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election") to replace Johnson,{{cite news \|date\=8 July 2022 \|title\=Ex\-Chancellor Rishi Sunak launches bid to be Conservative leader \|newspaper\=\[\[BBC News]] \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-politics\-62099272 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=8 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708152408/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-politics\-62099272 \|archive\-date\=8 July 2022}} and lost the members' vote to [Liz Truss](/wiki/Liz_Truss "Liz Truss").{{cite news \|date\=5 September 2022 \|title\=Liz Truss to be UK's new PM as Sunak defeated – live \|website\=The Independent \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/prime\-minister\-vote\-liz\-truss\-rishi\-sunak\-b2159849\.html \|access\-date\=5 September 2022}} After Truss's resignation amid a [credibility crisis](/wiki/October_2022_United_Kingdom_government_crisis "October 2022 United Kingdom government crisis"), Sunak was [elected unopposed](/wiki/October_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "October 2022 Conservative Party leadership election") as Leader of the Conservative Party. He was appointed prime minister by [King Charles III](/wiki/King_Charles_III "King Charles III") on 25 October 2022, becoming the first [British Asian](/wiki/British_Asian "British Asian") and [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Hinduism in the United Kingdom") to hold that position.{{cite news \|last1\=Sherwood \|first1\=Harriet \|date\=24 October 2022 \|title\=Rishi Sunak to become first British PM of colour and also first Hindu at No 10 \|language\=en \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/oct/24/rishi\-sunak\-becomes\-first\-british\-pm\-of\-colour\-and\-also\-first\-hindu\-at\-no\-10 \|access\-date\=25 October 2022}}{{Cite news \|author\=Jill Lawless \|date\=24 October 2022 \|title\=Rishi Sunak, UK's next PM, faces major economic problems \|language\=en\-US \|work\=Associated Press \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/british\-politics\-rishi\-sunak\-penny\-mordaunt\-europe\-london\-8e621dc1a9415eedc080cdfbd2d41754 \|access\-date\=26 October 2022}}{{Cite news \|date\=2022\-10\-25 \|title\=Rishi Sunak: A quick guide to the UK's new prime minister \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC News \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-63345272 \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-27}}
#### Northern Ireland
In the [2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election](/wiki/2022_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election "2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election"), [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn Féin") became the largest party, marking the first time an election in Northern Ireland has resulted in a [nationalist](/wiki/Irish_nationalism "Irish nationalism") party winning the most seats, and thus has the right to nominate Northern Ireland's first nationalist [First Minister](/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland "First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland").
|
[
"History by country\n------------------",
"### Austria",
"[The Greens](/wiki/The_Greens_%E2%80%93_The_Green_Alternative \"The Greens – The Green Alternative\") became a governing party for the first time in January 2020 as part of a coalition deal with the right\\-wing [Austrian People's Party](/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party \"Austrian People's Party\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-09\\|title\\=A new right\\-wing\\-Green coalition takes office in Austria\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/01/09/a\\-new\\-right\\-wing\\-green\\-coalition\\-takes\\-office\\-in\\-austria\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-20\\|issn\\=0013\\-0613}} On 6 October 2021, Austrian anti\\-corruption prosecutors conducted a raid on the offices of [Federal Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Austria \"Chancellor of Austria\") [Sebastian Kurz](/wiki/Sebastian_Kurz \"Sebastian Kurz\"), the headquarters of the [Austrian People's Party](/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party \"Austrian People's Party\") and the [Federal Ministry of Finance](/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Finance_%28Austria%29 \"Federal Ministry of Finance (Austria)\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mehrere Razzien: Kurz werden Untreue und Beihilfe zur Bestechlichkeit vorgeworfen\\|url\\=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000130213945/hausdurchsuchung\\-in\\-der\\-oevp\\-parteizentrale\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-09\\|website\\=Der Standard\\|language\\=de\\-AT}} Kurz has been accused of [embezzlement](/wiki/Embezzlement \"Embezzlement\") and [bribery](/wiki/Bribery \"Bribery\"), along with nine high\\-profile politicians and newspaper executives. As a result of the raid, Kurz has sustained heavy criticism from his junior The Greens, as well as the opposition.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-08\\|title\\=Grüne verlangen \"untadelige Person\" anstelle von Kurz\\|url\\=https://www.diepresse.com/6044606/grune\\-verlangen\\-untadelige\\-person\\-anstelle\\-von\\-kurz\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-09\\|website\\=Die Presse\\|language\\=de}} On 9 October 2021, Kurz announced his resignation,{{Cite news\\|last\\=Murphy\\|first\\=Francois\\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-10\\|title\\=Austria's Kurz steps down over corruption probe to save coalition\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Reuters\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/austrias\\-kurz\\-says\\-stepping\\-down\\-chancellor\\-2021\\-10\\-09/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-12}} with [Alexander Schallenberg](/wiki/Alexander_Schallenberg \"Alexander Schallenberg\") to serve as his replacement.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Sebastian Kurz \"macht Platz\" und zieht sich als Kanzler zurück\\|url\\=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000130311035/nach\\-juengsten\\-enthuellungen\\-sebastian\\-kurz\\-vor\\-rueckzug\\-als\\-kanzler\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-09\\|website\\=Der Standard\\|language\\=de\\-AT}} As a result of the resignation, Kogler announced his intention to continue the governing coalition.",
"In the [2022 Austrian presidential election](/wiki/2022_Austrian_presidential_election \"2022 Austrian presidential election\"), incumbent [Green](/wiki/The_Greens_%E2%80%93_The_Green_Alternative \"The Greens – The Green Alternative\") president [Van der Bellen](/wiki/Alexander_Van_der_Bellen \"Alexander Van der Bellen\") was re\\-elected in the first round with 57% of the vote. [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria \"Freedom Party of Austria\") (FPÖ) candidate [Walter Rosenkranz](/wiki/Walter_Rosenkranz \"Walter Rosenkranz\") placed second with 18% of the votes, a significant decline from the party's result in the 2016 presidential election.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Van der Bellen set to win presidential race – DW – 10/09/2022 \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/austria\\-elections\\-van\\-der\\-bellen\\-set\\-to\\-win\\-presidential\\-race/a\\-63382240 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Belarus",
"[right\\|thumb\\|[2020 Belarusian protests](/wiki/2020_Belarusian_protests \"2020 Belarusian protests\")](/wiki/File:2020_Belarusian_protests_%E2%80%94_Minsk%2C_13_September_p0007.jpg \"2020 Belarusian protests — Minsk, 13 September p0007.jpg\")",
"#### Presidential election",
"The [2020 Belarusian presidential election](/wiki/2020_Belarusian_presidential_election \"2020 Belarusian presidential election\") was held on Sunday, 9 August 2020\\. Early voting began on 4 August and ran until 8 August.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Belarus Authorities Cancel Opposition Campaigning Ahead Of Election\\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/belarusian\\-authorities\\-invent\\-pretexts\\-to\\-cancel\\-opposition\\-campaigning\\-ahead\\-of\\-election/30767039\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|newspaper\\=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\\|date\\=5 August 2020 \\|language\\=en}} Incumbent [Alexander Lukashenko](/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko \"Alexander Lukashenko\") was reelected to the sixth term in office, with official results crediting him with 80% of the vote. Lukashenko has won every presidential election since 1994,{{Cite web\\|date\\=17 November 2019\\|title\\=As Belarus Elects New Parliament, Lukashenka Says He Will Seek Another Presidential Term\\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/belarus\\-parliament\\-elections\\-lukashenka\\-russia\\-us\\-china\\-eu/30276098\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-05\\|website\\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty\\|language\\=en}} with all but the first being labelled by international monitors as neither free nor fair.{{Cite web\\|date\\=22 November 2019\\|title\\=Opposition Wins No Seats in Belarus Election\\|url\\=https://crd.org/2019/11/22/opposition\\-wins\\-no\\-seats\\-in\\-belarus\\-election/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=Civil Rights Defenders\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Opposition candidate [Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya](/wiki/Sviatlana_Tsikhanouskaya \"Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya\") claimed to have won a decisive first\\-round victory with at least 60% of the vote, and called on Lukashenko to start negotiations. Her campaign subsequently formed the [Coordination Council](/wiki/Coordination_Council_%28Belarus%29 \"Coordination Council (Belarus)\") to facilitate a transfer of power and stated that it was ready to organize \"long\\-term protests\" against the official results.{{cite news\\|date\\=14 August 2020\\|title\\=Belarus election: Exiled leader calls weekend of 'peaceful rallies'\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-53780685}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Тихановская объявила себя победителем президентских выборов и предложила переговоры Лукашенко\\|url\\=https://meduza.io/news/2020/08/10/tihanovskaya\\-ob\\-yavila\\-sebya\\-pobeditelem\\-prezidentskih\\-vyborov\\-i\\-predlozhila\\-peregovory\\-lukashenko\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-10\\|website\\=meduza.io}} All seven members of the Coordination Council Presidium were subsequently arrested or went into [exile](/wiki/Government_in_exile \"Government in exile\"). Numerous countries [refused to accept the result of the election](/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_2020_Belarusian_presidential_election_and_protests \"International reactions to the 2020 Belarusian presidential election and protests\"), as did the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"), which imposed sanctions on Belarusian officials deemed to be responsible for \"violence, repression and election fraud\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Belarus: EU imposes sanctions as Lukashenko orders police to clear the streets\\|url\\=https://news.sky.com/story/eu\\-threatens\\-belarus\\-sanctions\\-as\\-it\\-rejects\\-election\\-result\\-12052472\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-19\\|website\\=Sky News\\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Anti\\-government protests",
"The largest [anti\\-government protests](/wiki/2020_Belarusian_protests \"2020 Belarusian protests\") in the history of Belarus began in the lead\\-up to and during the election. Initially moderate, the protests intensified nationwide after official election results were announced on the night of 10 August, in which Lukashenko was declared the winner. Following the forced landing of [Ryanair Flight 4978](/wiki/Ryanair_Flight_4978 \"Ryanair Flight 4978\") to arrest opposition activist and journalist [Roman Protasevich](/wiki/Roman_Protasevich \"Roman Protasevich\") and his girlfriend Sofia Sapega, the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") agreed to ban EU\\-based airlines from flying through Belarusian airspace, to [ban Belarusian carriers from flying into EU airspace](/wiki/List_of_air_carriers_banned_in_the_European_Union \"List of air carriers banned in the European Union\"), and to implement a fresh round of sanctions.{{cite web\\|date\\=24 May 2021\\|title\\=EU leaders agree on Belarus sanctions after plane diversion\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/belarus\\-plane\\-pratasevich\\-lukashenko\\-a9d32d02caea49c880ed1b7a5872e5f7\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524202013/https://apnews.com/article/belarus\\-plane\\-pratasevich\\-lukashenko\\-a9d32d02caea49c880ed1b7a5872e5f7\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-25\\|website\\=AP NEWS}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|Routes of illegal migration through Belarus during [2021 crisis](/wiki/2021_Belarus%E2%80%93European_Union_border_crisis \"2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis\")](/wiki/File:2021_Belarus-EU_border_crisis_-_general_map.png \"2021 Belarus-EU border crisis - general map.png\")",
"#### Border crisis",
"The [2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis](/wiki/2021_Belarus%E2%80%93European_Union_border_crisis \"2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis\") was a [migrant crisis](/wiki/Migrant_crisis \"Migrant crisis\") manifested in a massive influx of Middle Eastern and African migrants (mainly from [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\")) to [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\"), [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\"), and [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") via those countries' borders with [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"). The crisis was triggered by the severe deterioration in [Belarus–European Union relations](/wiki/Belarus%E2%80%93European_Union_relations \"Belarus–European Union relations\"), following the 2020 Belarusian presidential election, the [2020–2021 Belarusian protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests \"2020–2021 Belarusian protests\"), the Ryanair Flight 4978 incident, and the [attempted repatriation of](/wiki/Belarus_2020_Summer_Olympics_scandal \"Belarus 2020 Summer Olympics scandal\") [Krystsina Tsimanouskaya](/wiki/Krystsina_Tsimanouskaya \"Krystsina Tsimanouskaya\"). The three EU nations have described the crisis as [hybrid warfare](/wiki/Hybrid_warfare \"Hybrid warfare\") by [human trafficking](/wiki/Human_trafficking \"Human trafficking\") of migrants, waged by Belarus against the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"), and called on [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels_and_the_European_Union \"Brussels and the European Union\") to intervene.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Whitmore\\|first1\\=Brian\\|date\\=30 June 2021\\|title\\=Belarus dictator weaponizes illegal migrants against EU\\|url\\=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/belarus\\-dictator\\-weaponizes\\-illegal\\-migrants\\-against\\-eu/\\|website\\=\\[\\[Atlantic Council]]}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-10\\|title\\=Latvia and Lithuania act to counter migrants crossing Belarus border\\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/10/latvia\\-and\\-lithuania\\-act\\-to\\-counter\\-migrants\\-crossing\\-belarus\\-border\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-10\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Bulgaria",
"#### Protests",
"The [2020–2021 Bulgarian protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Bulgarian_protests \"2020–2021 Bulgarian protests\") were a series of demonstrations held in [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\"), mainly in the capital [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\"), as well as cities with a large [Bulgarian diaspora](/wiki/Bulgarian_diaspora \"Bulgarian diaspora\"), such as [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"),{{Cite web\\|title\\=More and more Bulgarians abroad want governance model changed\\|url\\=https://www.bnr.bg/en/post/101313096/more\\-and\\-more\\-bulgarians\\-abroad\\-want\\-governance\\-model\\-changed\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-22\\|website\\=www.bnr.bg\\|language\\=en}} [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"), [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") and [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). The protest movement was the culmination of long\\-standing grievances against endemic corruption and [state capture](/wiki/State_capture \"State capture\"), particularly associated with prime minister [Boyko Borisov](/wiki/Boyko_Borisov \"Boyko Borisov\")'s governments, in power since 2009\\.",
"#### Elections",
"[Snap parliamentary elections](/wiki/July_2021_Bulgarian_parliamentary_election \"July 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election\") were held in [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\") on 11 July 2021 after no party was able or willing to form a government following the [April 2021 elections](/wiki/April_2021_Bulgarian_parliamentary_election \"April 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election\").[Bulgaria faces fresh elections as Socialists refuse to form a government](https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/bulgaria-faces-fresh-elections-socialists-refuse-form-government-2021-05-01/) Reuters, 1 May 2021 The populist party [There Is Such a People](/wiki/There_Is_Such_a_People \"There Is Such a People\") (ITN), led by musician and television host [Slavi Trifonov](/wiki/Slavi_Trifonov \"Slavi Trifonov\"), narrowly won the most seats over a coalition of the conservative [GERB](/wiki/GERB \"GERB\") and [Union of Democratic Forces](/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_%28Bulgaria%29 \"Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)\") parties. ITN's success was propelled primarily by young voters.",
"The [2022 Bulgarian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Bulgarian_parliamentary_election \"2022 Bulgarian parliamentary election\") was won by the conservative [GERB](/wiki/GERB \"GERB\") with 25\\.3% of the vote. [We Continue the Change](/wiki/We_Continue_the_Change \"We Continue the Change\") (PP) came in second with 20\\.2% of the vote. Support for the [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") and [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalism \"Ultranationalism\") [Revival](/wiki/Revival_%28Bulgarian_political_party%29 \"Revival (Bulgarian political party)\") party significantly increased from 4\\.9% to 10\\.2%. It was the country's fourth general election in two years, after the collapse of the government led by [Kiril Petkov](/wiki/Kiril_Petkov \"Kiril Petkov\") in June.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-16 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — Bulgarian polls, trends and election news for Bulgaria \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/bulgaria/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Spirova \\|first\\=Maria \\|date\\=December 2023\\|title\\=Bulgaria: Political Developments and Data in 2022: Yet Another Year of Instability \\|journal\\=European Journal of Political Research Political Data Yearbook \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=62 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=55–67 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/2047\\-8852\\.12415 \\|issn\\=2047\\-8844\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=1887/3142366 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Croatia",
"In the [2020 Croatian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Croatian_parliamentary_election \"2020 Croatian parliamentary election\"), the conservative [Croatian Democratic Union](/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union \"Croatian Democratic Union\") (HDZ) emerged as the winner, securing the most seats in the parliament. The HDZ, led by Prime Minister [Andrej Plenković](/wiki/Andrej_Plenkovi%C4%87 \"Andrej Plenković\"), won 66 out of 151 seats in the [Croatian Parliament](/wiki/Croatian_Parliament \"Croatian Parliament\"), solidifying its position as the ruling party. The [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Croatia \"Social Democratic Party of Croatia\") (SDP), the main opposition, trailed behind with 41 seats. Turnout was lower than in the last election, 46\\.3 percent compared to 52\\.6 percent in 2016\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-16 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — Croatian polls, trends and election news for Croatia \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/croatia/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} Following the election, the HDZ successfully negotiated a coalition with smaller parties, including the [Croatian People's Party](/wiki/Croatian_People%27s_Party_%E2%80%93_Liberal_Democrats \"Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats\") (HNS), ensuring a parliamentary majority. The election addressed national issues, including economic recovery, healthcare reform, anti\\-corruption measures, and responses to the ongoing [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-06 \\|title\\=Croatia's ruling conservatives win parliamentary elections, first results show \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20200706\\-croatia\\-s\\-ruling\\-conservatives\\-win\\-parliamentary\\-vote \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=France 24 \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Czech Republic",
"In the [2021 Czech parliamentary election](/wiki/2021_Czech_parliamentary_election \"2021 Czech parliamentary election\") voters elected the [Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_the_Czech_Republic \"Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic\") of the Czech Republic. The three\\-party, center\\-right [SPOLU coalition](/wiki/Spolu_%28Czech_Republic%29 \"Spolu (Czech Republic)\") narrowly won the election with 27\\.8% of the vote. The populist [ANO](/wiki/ANO_2011 \"ANO 2011\") party of Prime Minister [Andrej Babiš](/wiki/Andrej_Babi%C5%A1 \"Andrej Babiš\") suffered a surprise defeat with 27\\.1% of the vote.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-09 \\|title\\=Populist Czech PM Babis's party narrowly loses election in surprise result \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/europe/20211009\\-populist\\-czech\\-pm\\-babis\\-s\\-party\\-narrowly\\-loses\\-czech\\-election\\-in\\-surprise\\-result \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=France 24 \\|language\\=en}} The liberal [Pirates and Mayors](/wiki/Pirates_and_Mayors \"Pirates and Mayors\") (PirStan) electoral coalition came third with 15\\.6%. Right\\-wing [Freedom and Direct Democracy](/wiki/Freedom_and_Direct_Democracy \"Freedom and Direct Democracy\") (SPD) came fourth with 9\\.5%. The [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democracy_%28Czech_Republic%29 \"Social Democracy (Czech Republic)\") and the [Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia \"Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia\"), two of the [ANO](/wiki/ANO_2011 \"ANO 2011\")\\-led coalition government partners failed to reach the 5 percent threshold required to enter parliament.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Czech election: Opposition wins surprise majority – DW – 10/09/2021 \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/czech\\-election\\-opposition\\-wins\\-surprise\\-majority/a\\-59457738 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en}} After the results, [SPOLU](/wiki/Spolu_%28Czech_Republic%29 \"Spolu (Czech Republic)\") and PirStan signed a memorandum to form a coalition government with [Petr Fiala](/wiki/Petr_Fiala \"Petr Fiala\") as prime minister.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-10 \\|title\\=Czech opposition parties form majority alliance, sign memorandum for new government \\|url\\=https://www.expats.cz/czech\\-news/article/czech\\-opposition\\-parties\\-form\\-majority\\-alliance\\-sign\\-memorandum\\-for\\-new\\-government \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=www.expats.cz \\|language\\=en}}\n[thumb\\|Petr Pavel during a rally in support of Ukraine in [Brno](/wiki/Brno \"Brno\"), March 2022](/wiki/File:Brno_pro_Ukrajinu_2022-03-01_%283762a%29_Petr_Pavel.jpg \"Brno pro Ukrajinu 2022-03-01 (3762a) Petr Pavel.jpg\")\nIn the [2023 Czech presidential election](/wiki/2023_Czech_presidential_election \"2023 Czech presidential election\"), retired general [Petr Pavel](/wiki/Petr_Pavel \"Petr Pavel\") defeated former prime minister and businessman [Andrej Babiš](/wiki/Andrej_Babi%C5%A1 \"Andrej Babiš\") with over 58% of the popular vote in the second round.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Former NATO general Petr Pavel wins Czech presidential election \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/28/czech\\-presidential\\-election\\-former\\-nato\\-general\\-petr\\-pavel\\-wins \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Al Jazeera \\|language\\=en}} [Petr Pavel](/wiki/Petr_Pavel \"Petr Pavel\"), former [chair of the NATO Military Committee](/wiki/Chair_of_the_NATO_Military_Committee \"Chair of the NATO Military Committee\"), ran as an independent on a [pro\\-Western](/wiki/Pro-Western \"Pro-Western\"), [pro\\-European](/wiki/Pro-European \"Pro-European\") platform, and was backed by the centre\\-right governing alliance [Spolu](/wiki/Spolu_%28Czech_Republic%29 \"Spolu (Czech Republic)\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Tait \\|first\\=Robert \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|title\\=Pro\\-western Petr Pavel sweeps to landslide win in race for Czech presidency \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Observer \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/28/petr\\-pavel\\-wins\\-landslide\\-victory\\-in\\-czech\\-presidential\\-elections \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|issn\\=0029\\-7712}} He won the first round of the election with 35\\.40% of the popular vote, ahead of [Andrej Babiš](/wiki/Andrej_Babi%C5%A1 \"Andrej Babiš\"), the former [Czech prime minister](/wiki/Czech_prime_minister \"Czech prime minister\") running as the candidate of populist [ANO 2011](/wiki/ANO_2011 \"ANO 2011\"), who finished second with 34\\.99%.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-14 \\|title\\=Pro\\-Western retired general leads first round in Czech presidential election \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/pro\\-western\\-retired\\-general\\-leads\\-first\\-round\\-in\\-czech\\-presidential\\-election/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=POLITICO \\|language\\=en}} Voter turnout in the second round was a little above 70%, the highest in a direct Czech presidential election and the highest in any national Czech election since 1998\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Volební účast \\- Seznam Zprávy \\|url\\=https://www.seznamzpravy.cz/tag/volebni\\-ucast\\-54700 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=www.seznamzpravy.cz \\|date\\=6 October 2019 \\|language\\=cs}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|title\\=Retired army general Petr Pavel elected next president of Czechia \\|url\\=https://english.radio.cz/retired\\-army\\-general\\-petr\\-pavel\\-elected\\-next\\-president\\-czechia\\-8773546 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=Radio Prague International \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Cyprus",
"The [2021 Cypriot legislative election](/wiki/2021_Cypriot_legislative_election \"2021 Cypriot legislative election\") was won by the [Democratic Rally](/wiki/Democratic_Rally \"Democratic Rally\"), a Christian\\-democratic party. The party won 27\\.77% of the popular vote, taking 17 seats in the parliament and remaining the party with the largest representation.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-16 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — Cypriot polls, trends and election news for Cyprus \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/cyprus/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} The left\\-wing [Progressive Party of Working People](/wiki/Progressive_Party_of_Working_People \"Progressive Party of Working People\") came in second place with 22\\.34% of the vote and 15 seats in parliament. [ELAM](/wiki/ELAM_%28Cyprus%29 \"ELAM (Cyprus)\"), an anti\\-migrant nationalist party, almost doubled its vote share compared to the 2016 election to about 6\\.8% of the vote, placing it fourth in voter preferences.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kambas \\|first\\=Michele \\|date\\=May 30, 2021 \\|title\\=Cyprus sees nationalists gain in parliament vote \\|website\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/stung\\-by\\-graft\\-corruption\\-cyprus\\-voters\\-elect\\-new\\-parliament\\-2021\\-05\\-30/}}",
"In the 2023 Cypriot presidential election, centrist [Nikos Christodoulides](/wiki/Nikos_Christodoulides \"Nikos Christodoulides\") was elected President of Cyprus with 51\\.97% of the vote against left\\-wing [Andreas Mavroyiannis](/wiki/Andreas_Mavroyiannis \"Andreas Mavroyiannis\") with 48\\.03% on the second round.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ex\\-foreign minister Christodoulides wins Cyprus presidential vote \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/12/ex\\-fm\\-christodoulides\\-wins\\-cyprus\\-presidential\\-vote \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Al Jazeera \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Denmark",
"In the [2022 Danish general election](/wiki/2022_Danish_general_election \"2022 Danish general election\"), the governing [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democrats_%28Denmark%29 \"Social Democrats (Denmark)\") achieved their best result in 20 years, with 28% of the vote. Leading opposition party [Venstre](/wiki/Venstre_%28Denmark%29 \"Venstre (Denmark)\") suffered major losses in the election, losing 20 seats in parliament. Two new parties standing in the elections, the [Moderates](/wiki/Moderates_%28Denmark%29 \"Moderates (Denmark)\") and the [Denmark Democrats](/wiki/Denmark_Democrats \"Denmark Democrats\"), won 16 and 14 seats respectively, making them the third\\- and fifth\\-largest parties. The [Social Liberals](/wiki/Danish_Social_Liberal_Party \"Danish Social Liberal Party\") experienced one of their worst ever results with 7 seats in parliament from 16 in the last election.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|title\\=Danish left\\-wing bloc retains a majority in parliament \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/europe/20221102\\-danish\\-left\\-wing\\-bloc\\-retains\\-a\\-majority\\-in\\-parliament \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=France 24 \\|language\\=en}} After negotiations, a coalition government composed of the [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democrats_%28Denmark%29 \"Social Democrats (Denmark)\"), [Venstre](/wiki/Venstre_%28Denmark%29 \"Venstre (Denmark)\") and the [Moderates](/wiki/Moderates_%28Denmark%29 \"Moderates (Denmark)\") was formed, the first time since [1977](/wiki/1977_Danish_general_election \"1977 Danish general election\") where both main parties were part of a coalition government.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-03 \\|title\\=De Konservative forlader regeringsforhandlingerne \\|url\\=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/de\\-konservative\\-forlader\\-regeringsforhandlingerne \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=DR \\|language\\=da\\-DK}}",
"### Estonia",
"[Kaja Kallas](/wiki/Kaja_Kallas \"Kaja Kallas\") became the first female prime minister after the [previous government](/wiki/J%C3%BCri_Ratas%27_second_cabinet \"Jüri Ratas' second cabinet\") fell after a corruption scandal.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Estonia to get first female prime minister \\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-24\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/estonia\\-to\\-get\\-first\\-female\\-prime\\-minister/a\\-56330397\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-03\\|website\\=Deutsche Welle\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"In the [2023 Estonian parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Estonian_parliamentary_election \"2023 Estonian parliamentary election\") incumbent Prime Minister [Kaja Kallas](/wiki/Kaja_Kallas \"Kaja Kallas\")' center\\-right [Reform Party](/wiki/Estonian_Reform_Party \"Estonian Reform Party\") was the clear winner with 31\\.2% of the vote and 37 seats in the [Riigikogu](/wiki/Riigikogu \"Riigikogu\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-16 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — Estonian polls, trends and election news for Estonia \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/estonia/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} In second place, the right\\-wing eurosceptic [EKRE](/wiki/EKRE \"EKRE\") party won 16\\.1 percent of the vote. Support for the [Centre Party](/wiki/Estonian_Centre_Party \"Estonian Centre Party\"), traditionally supported by Estonia's [ethnic\\-Russian minority](/wiki/Russian_minority_in_Estonia \"Russian minority in Estonia\"), fell to 14\\.7 percent from 23\\.1 percent in the last election.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Estonia elections: Kallas secures big win for centre\\-right party \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/6/kallas\\-secures\\-big\\-win\\-for\\-reform\\-party\\-in\\-general\\-election \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=Al Jazeera \\|language\\=en}} The biggest surprise of the election was the emergence of [Estonia 200](/wiki/Estonia_200 \"Estonia 200\"), a centrist liberal [pro\\-EU](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\") party and a parliament newcomer following the election. It won 13\\.3% of the vote and 14 seats in the [Riigikogu](/wiki/Riigikogu \"Riigikogu\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|title\\=Estonia's Reform Party starts coalition government talks \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/estonia\\-kallas\\-election\\-coalition\\-negotiations\\-35d78cf386e93e106a058400f587cb93 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=AP News \\|language\\=en}}",
"### France",
"#### Islamism",
"The [murder of Samuel Paty](/wiki/Murder_of_Samuel_Paty \"Murder of Samuel Paty\") reignited the controversy surrounding [depictions of Muhammad](/wiki/Depictions_of_Muhammad \"Depictions of Muhammad\"), and was followed by the [2020 Nice stabbing](/wiki/2020_Nice_stabbing \"2020 Nice stabbing\") committed by another jihadist, as well as a far\\-right attack in Avignon on the same day.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-03\\|title\\=Despite the horrors in Vienna and Paris, jihadism has declined\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/11/03/despite\\-the\\-horrors\\-in\\-vienna\\-and\\-paris\\-jihadism\\-has\\-declined\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-15\\|issn\\=0013\\-0613}} Before the attacks, the [Charlie Hebdo](/wiki/Charlie_Hebdo \"Charlie Hebdo\") depiction had been republished on September 1, and the trial over the [Charlie Hebdo shooting](/wiki/Charlie_Hebdo_shooting \"Charlie Hebdo shooting\") in 2015 had begun on September 2\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Timeline: A series of attacks in France amid a debate over Islam\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/29/timeline\\-how\\-muslim\\-anger\\-towards\\-france\\-flared\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-23\\|website\\=www.aljazeera.com\\|language\\=en}} There had also been a second attack on Charlie Hebdo's former headquarters in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") on September 25, and on October 2, President [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\") had called [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") a 'religion in crisis'. Following Macron's remarks, the Turkish president [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\") suggested he needed \"mental treatment\", leading France to withdraw its ambassador.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-24\\|title\\=France recalls ambassador after Erdoğan attacks Macron over Islam\\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/erdogan\\-attacks\\-macron\\-over\\-islam/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-16\\|website\\=Politico\\|language\\=en\\-US}} [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\") and [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") condemned France, while tens of thousands marched against in protest in [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Muslim world's falling\\-out with France deepens: Live news\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/27/world\\-reaction\\-to\\-macron\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-23\\|website\\=www.aljazeera.com\\|date\\=28 October 2020 \\|language\\=en}} The French government demanded that the representative body for the religion in the country accept a 'charter of republican values', rejecting [political Islam](/wiki/Political_Islam \"Political Islam\") and foreign interference, as well as establishing a system of official licenses for [imams](/wiki/Imam \"Imam\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-19\\|title\\=France's Macron asks Muslim leaders to back 'republican values' charter\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-55001167\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-23}} Overseas, the [French military intervention in the Sahel](/wiki/Operation_Serval \"Operation Serval\") continued fighting against the [Islamic State in the Greater Sahara](/wiki/Islamic_State_in_the_Greater_Sahara \"Islamic State in the Greater Sahara\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-12\\|title\\=France's thankless war against jihadists in the Sahel\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/11/12/frances\\-thankless\\-war\\-against\\-jihadists\\-in\\-the\\-sahel\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-16\\|issn\\=0013\\-0613}}",
"#### AUKUS reaction",
"On 17 September 2021, Macron and his foreign minister [Jean\\-Yves Le Drian](/wiki/Jean-Yves_Le_Drian \"Jean-Yves Le Drian\") recalled the French ambassadors to the U.S. and Australia after the formation of the [AUKUS](/wiki/AUKUS \"AUKUS\") defense technology between the U.S., Australia, and UK (from which France was excluded). As part of the 2021 security agreement, the U.S. decided to provide nuclear\\-powered submarines to Australia, to counter China in the Pacific and [Indo\\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific \"Indo-Pacific\") region, and Australia canceled a US$66 billion (A$billion) deal from 2016 to purchase twelve French\\-built conventionally powered (diesel) submarines.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Shear\\|first\\=Michael D.\\|date\\=17 September 2021\\|title\\=France recalls its ambassadors to the U.S. and Australia to protest Biden's submarine deal\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/us/politics/france\\-ambassador\\-recall\\-us\\-australia.html\\|website\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}}{{Cite news\\|author\\=Rick Noack\\|date\\=September 17, 2021\\|title\\=Why the French are so furious at the Biden administration over a derailed submarine deal\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/09/17/france\\-submarine\\-australia\\-anger/\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]}}{{Cite web\\|author1\\=Angelique Chrisafis \\|author2\\=Daniel Boffey\\|date\\=September 16, 2021\\|title\\='Stab in the back': French fury as Australia scraps submarine deal\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/16/stab\\-in\\-the\\-back\\-french\\-fury\\-australia\\-scraps\\-submarine\\-deal\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian}} The French government was furious at the cancellation of the submarine agreement and said that it had been blindsided, calling the decision a 'stab in the back'. On September 22, Biden and Macron pledged to improve the relationship between the two countries.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Salama\\|first1\\=Vivian\\|last2\\=Norman\\|first2\\=Laurence\\|date\\=22 September 2021\\|title\\=Biden, Macron Vow to Work to Ease Diplomatic Spat\\|work\\=Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/biden\\-macron\\-to\\-speak\\-in\\-effort\\-to\\-ease\\-diplomatic\\-spat\\-11632319882?mod\\=politics\\_lead\\_pos2\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-22}}",
"#### 2022 presidential election",
"In the [2022 French presidential election](/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election \"2022 French presidential election\"), [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\") was re\\-elected as the president of France, the first sitting French president to have been so in 20 years. In the second round of voting, Macron, a centrist, secured 58\\.5% of the vote over the nationalist\\-populist [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen \"Marine Le Pen\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-24 \\|title\\=To Europe's relief, France's Macron wins but far\\-right gains \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/2022\\-french\\-election\\-voting\\-results\\-f5b549e3b99930ee05bed17a9d3870b6 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=AP News \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-15 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — French polls, trends and election news for France \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/france/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}}",
"In the first round of voting, Macron led by a margin of about four percentage points over Le Pen. In the first round of the 2017 election, Macron was ahead of Le Pen by just three percentage points. Far\\-left leader [Jean\\-Luc Melenchon](/wiki/Jean-Luc_M%C3%A9lenchon \"Jean-Luc Mélenchon\") came in third, less than half a million votes from Marine Le Pen. Far\\-right polemicist [Eric Zemmour](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Zemmour \"Éric Zemmour\") came in fourth. Right\\-wing candidate [Valerie Pecresse](/wiki/Val%C3%A9rie_P%C3%A9cresse \"Valérie Pécresse\") and green candidate [Yannick Jadot](/wiki/Yannick_Jadot \"Yannick Jadot\") each finished with less than 5% of the votes.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Henley \\|first\\=Jon \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-11 \\|title\\=France election: five key takeaways and moments ahead \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/11/france\\-election\\-key\\-takeaways\\-emmanuel\\-macron\\-marine\\-le\\-pen\\-runoff\\-first\\-round\\-voting\\-presidential\\-race \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}}",
"The results of the first round showed a significant geographical divide between the three leading candidates. The incumbent, [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\")'s support was the strongest in large, affluent cities such as [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\") and [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), in addition to the west of France. [Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen \"Marine Le Pen\")'s strongest showings were in the post\\-industrial northeast, the south, and rural areas more broadly. [Mélenchon's](/wiki/Jean-Luc_M%C3%A9lenchon \"Jean-Luc Mélenchon\") heartlands were in less prosperous suburbs around Paris, but otherwise he had relative success across the country.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Voce \\|first1\\=Antonio \\|last2\\=Clarke \\|first2\\=Seán \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-22 \\|title\\=French election 2022: full first\\-round results \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng\\-interactive/2022/apr/10/french\\-election\\-2022\\-projected\\-result\\-and\\-latest\\-results \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=the Guardian \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Protests",
"Thousands of people across France [came to the streets](/wiki/2022_French_protests \"2022 French protests\") in October 2022, launching a statewide strike against the rise in the cost of living. The demonstrations were described by [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\") as the \"stiffest challenge\" for Emmanuel Macron since his [re\\-election](/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election \"2022 French presidential election\") in May 2022\\.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Pailliez \\|first1\\=Caroline \\|last2\\=Achi \\|first2\\=Clotaire \\|date\\=18 October 2022 \\|title\\=Scuffles break out as French strike to call for higher wages \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/france\\-braces\\-nationwide\\-strikes\\-amidst\\-soaring\\-inflation\\-2022\\-10\\-18/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-19}} In March 2023, the French government used [Article 49\\.3 of the constitution](/wiki/Article_49_of_the_French_Constitution \"Article 49 of the French Constitution\") to force a [pension reform bill](/wiki/2023_French_pension_reform_bill \"2023 French pension reform bill\"), which would increase the [retirement age](/wiki/Retirement_age \"Retirement age\") from 62 to 64 years, through the [French Parliament](/wiki/French_Parliament \"French Parliament\"), sparking [protests](/wiki/2023_French_pension_reform_strikes \"2023 French pension reform strikes\") and [two failed no confidence votes](/wiki/March_2023_votes_of_no_confidence_in_the_government_of_%C3%89lisabeth_Borne \"March 2023 votes of no confidence in the government of Élisabeth Borne\").",
"A further series of civil disturbances in France began on 27 June 2023 following the [killing of Nahel Merzouk](/wiki/Killing_of_Nahel_Merzouk \"Killing of Nahel Merzouk\") by a police officer in [Nanterre](/wiki/Nanterre \"Nanterre\"), a suburb of Paris. Residents started a [protest](/wiki/Protest \"Protest\") outside the police headquarters on 27 June, which later escalated into a [riot](/wiki/Riot \"Riot\") as demonstrators set cars alight, destroyed bus stops, and shot fireworks at police.{{Cite news \\|title\\=France braces for further protests after police kill teenager \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Al Jazeera Media Network\\|Al Jazeera]] \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/28/outrage\\-in\\-france\\-after\\-police\\-shoot\\-17\\-year\\-old\\-in\\-paris\\-suburb \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629214904/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/28/outrage\\-in\\-france\\-after\\-police\\-shoot\\-17\\-year\\-old\\-in\\-paris\\-suburb \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023}} By 29 June, over 150 people had been arrested,{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Chrisafis \\|first1\\=Angelique \\|last2\\=Paris \\|first2\\=Angelique Chrisafisin \\|date\\=29 June 2023 \\|title\\=France police shooting: 150 arrests as protests widen over teenager's death \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/29/france\\-police\\-shooting\\-second\\-night\\-of\\-unrest\\-as\\-protests\\-over\\-teenagers\\-death\\-spread \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630033240/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/29/france\\-police\\-shooting\\-second\\-night\\-of\\-unrest\\-as\\-protests\\-over\\-teenagers\\-death\\-spread \\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2023 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} 24 officers had been injured, and 40 cars had been torched.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Brudeau \\|first\\=Cain \\|title\\=Riots, racial tensions erupt in France after fatal police shooting \\|url\\=https://www.courthousenews.com/riots\\-racial\\-tensions\\-erupt\\-in\\-france\\-after\\-fatal\\-police\\-shooting/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629201708/https://www.courthousenews.com/riots\\-racial\\-tensions\\-erupt\\-in\\-france\\-after\\-fatal\\-police\\-shooting/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Courthouse News Service]]}}{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Bisset \\|first1\\=Victoria \\|last2\\=Suliman \\|first2\\=Adela \\|date\\=28 June 2023 \\|title\\=Protests erupt in Paris after police shoot, kill teen during traffic stop \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/06/28/france\\-police\\-shooting\\-nanterre\\-nael/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2023 \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} Fearing greater unrest, [Gérald Darmanin](/wiki/G%C3%A9rald_Darmanin \"Gérald Darmanin\"), [Interior Minister](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_%28France%29 \"Minister of the Interior (France)\") of France, deployed 1,200 [riot police](/wiki/Riot_police \"Riot police\") and [gendarmes](/wiki/Gendarmes \"Gendarmes\") in and around Paris, later adding an additional 2,000\\.",
"{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Breeden \\|first1\\=Aurelien \\|last2\\=Méheut \\|first2\\=Constant \\|date\\=28 June 2023 \\|title\\=Anger Flares in France After Police Shoot and Kill Teenage Driver \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/28/world/europe/france\\-police\\-shooting\\-paris\\-nanterre.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630013949/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/28/world/europe/france\\-police\\-shooting\\-paris\\-nanterre.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"### Finland",
"The [government](/wiki/Marin_Cabinet \"Marin Cabinet\") of Prime Minister [Sanna Marin](/wiki/Sanna_Marin \"Sanna Marin\") fell following the [2023 Finnish parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Finnish_parliamentary_election \"2023 Finnish parliamentary election\").{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Henley \\|first1\\=Jon \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-03 \\|title\\=Sanna Marin suffers defeat in Finland election as SDP beaten into third place \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/02/sanna\\-marin\\-finland\\-election\\-sdp\\-social\\-democratic\\-national\\-coalition \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-24 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} after her center\\-left [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Finland \"Social Democratic Party of Finland\") (SDP) was narrowly defeated into third place in the [2023 Finnish parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Finnish_parliamentary_election \"2023 Finnish parliamentary election\") by conservative and far\\-right challengers. The pro\\-business [NCP](/wiki/National_Coalition_Party \"National Coalition Party\") gained 48 of the 200 parliamentary seats, narrowly defeating Marin's Social Democrats with 43 seats and the nationalist [Finns Party](/wiki/Finns_Party \"Finns Party\") with 46 seats.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Kauranen \\|first1\\=Anne \\|last2\\=Lehto \\|first2\\=Essi \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-03 \\|title\\=Finland's PM Marin concedes defeat as right\\-wing NCP wins election \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/finlands\\-marin\\-faces\\-tough\\-re\\-election\\-bid\\-national\\-election\\-2023\\-04\\-01/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27}}",
"Following the election, a [new right wing coalition government](/wiki/Orpo_Cabinet \"Orpo Cabinet\") was formed by [Petteri Orpo](/wiki/Petteri_Orpo \"Petteri Orpo\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-16 \\|title\\=Far\\-right set for key role in new Finnish coalition \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-65926194 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-24 \\|website\\=BBC News \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} with the [Finns Party](/wiki/Finns_Party \"Finns Party\") and two additional small parties: the [Swedish People's Party](/wiki/Swedish_People%27s_Party_of_Finland \"Swedish People's Party of Finland\") and the [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Christian_Democrats_%28Finland%29 \"Christian Democrats (Finland)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Finland's election winner seeks coalition with far\\-right – DW – 04/27/2023 \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/finlands\\-election\\-winner\\-seeks\\-coalition\\-with\\-far\\-right/a\\-65451086 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Germany",
"The [2021 German federal election](/wiki/2021_German_federal_election \"2021 German federal election\") made significant shifts in the German political landscape. With 25\\.7% of total votes, the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) recorded their best result since 2005, and emerged as the largest party for the first time since [2002](/wiki/2002_German_federal_election \"2002 German federal election\"). The ruling [CDU/CSU](/wiki/CDU/CSU \"CDU/CSU\"), which had led a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition_%28Germany%29 \"Grand coalition (Germany)\") with the SPD since [2013](/wiki/2013_German_federal_election \"2013 German federal election\"), recorded their worst ever result with 24\\.1%, a significant decline from 32\\.9% in [2017](/wiki/2017_German_federal_election \"2017 German federal election\"). [Alliance 90/The Greens](/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens \"Alliance 90/The Greens\") achieved their best result in history at 14\\.8%, while the [Free Democratic Party](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Free Democratic Party (Germany)\") (FDP) made small gains and finished on 11\\.5%. The [Alternative for Germany](/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany \"Alternative for Germany\") (AfD) fell from third to fifth place with 10\\.3%, a decline of 2\\.3 percentage points. [The Left](/wiki/The_Left_%28Germany%29 \"The Left (Germany)\") suffered their worst showing since their official formation in 2007, failing to cross the 5% [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold \"Electoral threshold\") by just over one\\-tenth of a percentage point. Nevertheless, the party was entitled to full proportional representation due to the fact that it won three [direct constituencies](/wiki/List_of_Bundestag_constituencies \"List of Bundestag constituencies\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-15 \\|title\\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — German polls, trends and election news for Germany \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/germany/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=POLITICO \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-27 \\|title\\=Social Democrats narrowly beat Merkel's bloc in German vote \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/germany\\-election\\-angela\\-merkel\\-14ddbbb09c8c9ea194155a73de0970e2 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=AP News \\|language\\=en}}\n[thumb\\|239x239px\\|Olaf Scholz at an election campaign event](/wiki/File:2021-08-21_Olaf_Scholz_0309.JPG \"2021-08-21 Olaf Scholz 0309.JPG\")\nIn terms of geographical distribution, the [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") made the most consequential gains in [eastern Germany](/wiki/New_states_of_Germany \"New states of Germany\") in addition to increasing their vote share in their traditional heartlands in the [Rhineland](/wiki/Rhineland \"Rhineland\") and the northwest. Despite losing ground overall, the AfD made some gains in [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\") and other parts of the east. The [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany \"Christian Democratic Union of Germany\") saw its vote share almost everywhere, but their partner party in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\"), the [CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria \"Christian Social Union in Bavaria\"), proved slightly more resilient. In the east, [Die Linke](/wiki/Die_Linke \"Die Linke\") suffered big declines in [Brandenburg](/wiki/Brandenburg \"Brandenburg\") and eastern [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"). {{Cite web \\|last1\\=Voce \\|first1\\=Antonio \\|last2\\=Clarke \\|first2\\=Seán \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-27 \\|title\\=German election 2021: full results and analysis \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng\\-interactive/2021/sep/26/german\\-election\\-results\\-exit\\-poll\\-and\\-possible\\-coalitions \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=the Guardian \\|language\\=en}}",
"With a fifth [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition_%28Germany%29 \"Grand coalition (Germany)\") being dismissed by both the CDU/CSU and the SPD, the FDP and the Greens were considered [kingmakers](/wiki/Kingmaker \"Kingmaker\"). On 23 November, following complex [coalition](/wiki/German_governing_coalition \"German governing coalition\") talks, the SPD, FDP and Greens formalized an agreement to form a [traffic light coalition](/wiki/Traffic_light_coalition \"Traffic light coalition\"), which was approved by all three parties. [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz \"Olaf Scholz\") and [his cabinet](/wiki/Scholz_cabinet \"Scholz cabinet\") were elected by the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag \"Bundestag\") on 8 December.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Germany: Governing coalition deal unveiled – DW – 11/24/2021 \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/germanys\\-spd\\-fdp\\-and\\-greens\\-unveil\\-governing\\-coalition\\-deal/a\\-59915201 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Greece",
"Following a surge of migrant arrivals from Turkey, [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\") suspended all asylum applications in March 2020\\.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Stevis\\-Gridneff\\|first\\=Matina\\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-01\\|title\\=Greece Suspends Asylum as Turkey Opens Gates for Migrants\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/world/europe/greece\\-migrants\\-border\\-turkey.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-02\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} The freeze was lifted a month later.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-03\\|title\\=Greece ends month\\-long freeze on asylum applications\\|url\\=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/23810/greece\\-ends\\-month\\-long\\-freeze\\-on\\-asylum\\-applications\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-28\\|website\\=InfoMigrants\\|language\\=en}}",
"The [2021 Greek protests](/wiki/2021_Greek_protests \"2021 Greek protests\") broke out in response to a proposed government bill that would allow police presence on university campuses for the first time in decades.",
"At the [June parliamentary elections in 2023](/wiki/June_2023_Greek_legislative_election \"June 2023 Greek legislative election\"), the main center\\-right party in Greece, incumbent [New Democracy](/wiki/New_Democracy_%28Greece%29 \"New Democracy (Greece)\") performed strongly by securing an [absolute majority](/wiki/Absolute_majority \"Absolute majority\"). The political left struggled with the main opposition [Syriza](/wiki/Syriza \"Syriza\") losing more than 20 seats and far\\-right minor parties like [Victory](/wiki/Victory_%28Greece%29 \"Victory (Greece)\") and [Spartans](/wiki/Spartans_%28Greek_political_party%29 \"Spartans (Greek political party)\") entered parliament for the first time, giving the Greek parliament its strongest rightward tilt since the restoration of democracy in 1974\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-25 \\|title\\=Greece's conservatives win election majority to secure second term \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/greece\\-election\\-new\\-democracy\\-conservatives\\-win\\-second\\-term\\-kyriakos\\-mitsotakis/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Labropoulou \\|first\\=Elinda \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-25 \\|title\\=Greek prime minister earns resounding electoral win, as far right makes gains \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/25/europe/kyriakos\\-mitsotakis\\-elections\\-victory\\-intl/index.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|website\\=CNN \\|language\\=en}}",
"Under the new voting system, which grants the winning party 50 additional seats, Prime Minister [Kyriakos Mitsotakis](/wiki/Kyriakos_Mitsotakis \"Kyriakos Mitsotakis\")' [New Democracy](/wiki/New_Democracy_%28Greece%29 \"New Democracy (Greece)\") party was able to increase its double\\-digit advantage over its main challenger, the left\\-wing [Syriza party](/wiki/Syriza \"Syriza\"), and win 158 seats in the 300\\-seat legislature.{{Cite web \\|title\\=MINISTRY OF INTERIOR – National elections – June 2023 \\|url\\=https://ekloges.ypes.gr/current/v/home/en/}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=New Democracy party wins landslide victory in Greek elections \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/25/greece\\-votes\\-in\\-parliamentary\\-polls\\-for\\-second\\-time\\-in\\-five\\-weeks \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|website\\=www.aljazeera.com \\|language\\=en}} Four minor new parties, mainly from the [far right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\"), succeeded in surpassing the 3 percent requirement to enter parliament.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-04 \\|title\\=In the most recent election, Greek far right made a sinister comeback \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2023/07/04/in\\-the\\-most\\-recent\\-election\\-greek\\-far\\-right\\-made\\-a\\-sinister\\-comeback \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|website\\=euronews \\|language\\=en}}\n[thumb\\|Viktor Orbán celebrating his victory](/wiki/File:Peace_and_Security_%281%29.png \"Peace and Security (1).png\")",
"### Hungary",
"At the [2022 Hungarian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Hungarian_parliamentary_election \"2022 Hungarian parliamentary election\") voters elected the 199 members of [Hungary's National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28Hungary%29 \"National Assembly (Hungary)\"). [Viktor Orbán](/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n \"Viktor Orbán\")'s right\\-wing [Fidesz party](/wiki/Fidesz \"Fidesz\") won a fourth consecutive term, consolidating a super majority in the Assembly by gaining over two\\-thirds of seats. The scale of his victory shocked his opponents, who had united to challenge him as the [United Opposition](/wiki/United_Opposition_%28Hungary%2C_2022%29 \"United Opposition (Hungary, 2022)\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-03 \\|title\\=Hungarian PM Orbán set for fourth straight term with big election win \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/hungarian\\-pm\\-orban\\-set\\-to\\-clinch\\-fourth\\-straight\\-term\\-with\\-big\\-election\\-win/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-20 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Italy",
"#### Government crisis",
"During the [2021 Italian government crisis](/wiki/2021_Italian_government_crisis \"2021 Italian government crisis\"), the [Conte II Cabinet](/wiki/Conte_II_Cabinet \"Conte II Cabinet\") fell after [Matteo Renzi](/wiki/Matteo_Renzi \"Matteo Renzi\"), leader of [Italia Viva](/wiki/Italia_Viva \"Italia Viva\") (IV) and former [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy \"Prime Minister of Italy\"), that he would revoke IV's support to the [government](/wiki/Conte_II_Cabinet \"Conte II Cabinet\") of [Giuseppe Conte](/wiki/Giuseppe_Conte \"Giuseppe Conte\").[Conte offre un patto, Renzi ritira le ministre. La crisi è servita](https://www.huffingtonpost.it/entry/conte-offre-un-patto-renzi-ritira-le-ministre-la-crisi-e-servita_it_5fff52bac5b691806c4ee359), *Huffington Post Italia* On 18 and 19 January, Renzi's party abstained and the government won the key confidence votes in the Chamber and in the Senate, but it failed in reaching an [absolute majority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") in the Senate.[Italy's Conte wins Senate vote to keep fragile government afloat: final tally](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-politics-vote/initial-count-shows-italys-conte-winning-senate-vote-to-keep-fragile-government-afloat-idUSKBN29O2KZ), *Reuters* On 26 January, Prime Minister Conte resigned from his office, prompting President [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella \"Sergio Mattarella\") to start consultations for the formation of a new government. On 13 February, [Mario Draghi](/wiki/Mario_Draghi \"Mario Draghi\") was sworn in as prime minister, leading to the [Draghi Cabinet](/wiki/Draghi_Cabinet \"Draghi Cabinet\").[Italy: Ex\\-EU bank chief Mario Draghi sworn in as PM](https://dw.com/en/italy-ex-eu-bank-chief-mario-draghi-sworn-in-as-pm/a-56557705), *Deutsche Welle*\nDuring the [2022 Italian government crisis](/wiki/2022_Italian_government_crisis \"2022 Italian government crisis\") on 14 July, despite having largely won the [confidence vote](/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence \"Motion of no confidence\"), Prime Minister Draghi offered his resignation, which was rejected by President [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella \"Sergio Mattarella\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Harlan \\|first1\\=Chico \\|last2\\=Pitrelli \\|first2\\=Stefano \\|date\\=14 July 2022 \\|title\\=Italy in crisis as president rejects premier Draghi's offer to resign \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/14/italy\\-government\\-collapse\\-fivestar/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714153809/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/14/italy\\-government\\-collapse\\-fivestar/ \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2022}}{{cite news \\|date\\=14 July 2022 \\|title\\=Mattarella respinge dimissioni Draghi e manda premier a Camere – Ultima Ora \\|language\\=it \\|publisher\\=ANSA \\|url\\=https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/topnews/2022/07/14/mattarella\\-respinge\\-dimissioni\\-draghi\\-e\\-manda\\-premier\\-a\\-camere\\_8d170c15\\-2270\\-40f9\\-8ab1\\-e0a8ed06a03e.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714201737/https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/topnews/2022/07/14/mattarella\\-respinge\\-dimissioni\\-draghi\\-e\\-manda\\-premier\\-a\\-camere\\_8d170c15\\-2270\\-40f9\\-8ab1\\-e0a8ed06a03e.html \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2022}}{{cite web \\|date\\=17 July 2022 \\|title\\=Four scenarios: What happens next in Italy's government crisis? \\|url\\=https://www.thelocal.it/20220715/four\\-scenarios\\-what\\-happens\\-next\\-in\\-italys\\-government\\-crisis/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718163429/https://www.thelocal.it/20220715/four\\-scenarios\\-what\\-happens\\-next\\-in\\-italys\\-government\\-crisis/ \\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|website\\=The Local Italy}} On 21 July, Draghi resigned again after a new confidence vote in the Senate failed to pass with an absolute majority, following the defections of M5S, [Lega](/wiki/Lega_%28political_party%29 \"Lega (political party)\"), and [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 \"Forza Italia (2013)\");{{cite news \\|last\\=Horowitz \\|first\\=Jason \\|date\\=20 July 2022 \\|title\\=Draghi Government Falls Apart, Returning Turbulent Politics to Italy \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/20/world/europe/draghi\\-italy\\-prime\\-minister.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721014225/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/20/world/europe/draghi\\-italy\\-prime\\-minister.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}{{cite web \\|date\\=20 July 2022 \\|title\\=Italy in limbo as Draghi wins confidence vote but loses parliamentary majority \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/europe/20220720\\-italy\\-s\\-draghi\\-calls\\-for\\-new\\-pact\\-ahead\\-of\\-confidence\\-vote \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720100238/https://www.france24\\.com/en/europe/20220720\\-italy\\-s\\-draghi\\-calls\\-for\\-new\\-pact\\-ahead\\-of\\-confidence\\-vote \\|archive\\-date\\=20 July 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|website\\=France 24 \\|publisher\\=Agence\\-France Press}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Hannah \\|date\\=20 July 2022 \\|title\\=Mario Draghi faces the end after Italy's coalition refuses to back him \\|work\\=Politico Europe \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/latest\\-mario\\-draghi\\-brink\\-italy\\-prime\\-minister\\-government\\-collapse\\-crisis/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721003719/https://www.politico.eu/article/latest\\-mario\\-draghi\\-brink\\-italy\\-prime\\-minister\\-government\\-collapse\\-crisis/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022}} President Mattarella accepted Draghi's resignation and asked Draghi to remain in place to handle current affairs.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Amaro \\|first1\\=Silvia \\|last2\\=Clinch \\|first2\\=Matt \\|date\\=21 July 2022 \\|title\\=Italian PM Mario Draghi quits after failing to revive his coalition government \\|publisher\\=CNBC \\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/21/italian\\-pm\\-mario\\-draghi\\-says\\-he\\-will\\-resign\\-after\\-failing\\-to\\-revive\\-his\\-coalition\\-government.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721172259/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/21/italian\\-pm\\-mario\\-draghi\\-says\\-he\\-will\\-resign\\-after\\-failing\\-to\\-revive\\-his\\-coalition\\-government.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022}} A snap election was called for 25 September 2022\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Borghese \\|first1\\=Livia \\|last2\\=Braithwaite \\|first2\\=Sharon \\|last3\\=Fox \\|first3\\=Kara \\|last4\\=Latza Nadeau \\|first4\\=Barbie \\|last5\\=Ruotolo \\|first5\\=Nicola \\|date\\=21 July 2022 \\|title\\=Italy's president dissolves parliament, triggering snap election following Draghi's resignation \\|publisher\\=CNN \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/21/europe/mario\\-draghi\\-italy\\-resignation\\-intl/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721113352/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/21/europe/mario\\-draghi\\-italy\\-resignation\\-intl/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2022}}",
"#### 2022 presidential election",
"[thumb\\|[Meloni](/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni \"Giorgia Meloni\") accepting the task of forming a new government](/wiki/File:Giorgia_Meloni_Quirinale_%282022%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Giorgia Meloni Quirinale (2022) (cropped).jpg\")\nThe [2022 Italian presidential election](/wiki/2022_Italian_presidential_election \"2022 Italian presidential election\") was held in between 24 and 29 January 2022 and culminated in [incumbent](/wiki/Incumbent \"Incumbent\") president [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella \"Sergio Mattarella\") being confirmed for a second term, with a total of 759 votes out of 1009 on the eighth ballot.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Risultati votazione per l'elezione del Presidente della Repubblica in tempo reale \\- 8° scrutinio \\- La Repubblica \\|url\\=https://elezioni.repubblica.it/2022/presidente\\-repubblica \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=elezioni.repubblica.it}} This was the second most votes ever received by a presidential candidate. Mattarella became the second president to be re\\-elected, his predecessor [Giorgio Napolitano](/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano \"Giorgio Napolitano\") being the first. The [president of Italy](/wiki/President_of_Italy \"President of Italy\") was elected by a joint assembly composed of the [Italian Parliament](/wiki/Italian_Parliament \"Italian Parliament\") and regional representatives. The election process extended over multiple days.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sergio Mattarella re\\-elected as Italy's president with wide majority\\-Xinhua \\|url\\=https://english.news.cn/20220130/4b9ec253f6fd414d9fd682dac0c4abf9/c.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=english.news.cn}}",
"#### 2022 general election",
"The [2022 Italian general election](/wiki/2022_Italian_general_election \"2022 Italian general election\"), which saw record\\-low [voter turnout](/wiki/Voter_turnout \"Voter turnout\"), was won by the [centre\\-right coalition](/wiki/Centre-right_coalition_%28Italy%29 \"Centre-right coalition (Italy)\"), headed by the [Brothers of Italy](/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy \"Brothers of Italy\") party with their leader [Giorgia Meloni](/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni \"Giorgia Meloni\").{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Weir \\|first1\\=Keith \\|last2\\=Anzolin \\|first2\\=Elisa \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-26 \\|title\\=Italy election victors target era of political stability \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/giorgia\\-melonis\\-right\\-triumphs\\-italys\\-election\\-2022\\-09\\-26/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-26}} Meloni was sworn as Italy's first female prime minister as well as the [furthest right wing](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") leader of the country since [Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-26 \\|title\\=Giorgia Meloni: Italy's far right on course to win election \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC News \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-63029909 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-26}}{{Cite web \\|author\\=Kara Fox, Barbie Latza Nadeau, Antonia Mortensen, Nicola Ruotolo, Sharon Braithwaite and Valentina DiDonato \\|title\\=Giorgia Meloni claims victory to become Italy's most far\\-right prime minister since Mussolini \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/25/europe/italy\\-election\\-results\\-intl/index.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-26 \\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=25 September 2022 }}",
"### Ireland",
"The [2020 Irish general election](/wiki/2020_Irish_general_election \"2020 Irish general election\") was called following the collapse of the [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael \"Fine Gael\")\\-led minority government, led by Prime Minister [Leo Varadkar](/wiki/Leo_Varadkar \"Leo Varadkar\"), in January 2020\\. The election resulted in a historic win for the left\\-wing nacionalist [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in \"Sinn Féin\"), making it the second largest party of the [Dáil Éireann](/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann \"Dáil Éireann\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Carroll Ireland\\|first\\=Rory\\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-11\\|title\\=Sinn Féin declares victory in Irish general election\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/10/sinn\\-fein\\-declares\\-victory\\-irish\\-general\\-election\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-11\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} The result was seen as a historic shift in [Ireland's](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") political landscape, effectively ending the [two\\-party system](/wiki/Two-party_system \"Two-party system\") of [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael \"Fine Gael\") and [Fianna Fáil](/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il \"Fianna Fáil\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Sinn Fein shatters Ireland's political landscape to become second largest party\\|url\\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/sinn\\-fein\\-shatters\\-irelands\\-political\\-landscape\\-to\\-become\\-second\\-largest\\-party/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-11\\|website\\=www.timesofisrael.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}} [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in \"Sinn Féin\") secured the most first\\-preference votes, winning 37 seats. [Fianna Fáil](/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il \"Fianna Fáil\") won 38 seats, and [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael \"Fine Gael\") won 35 seats. The [Green Party](/wiki/Green_Party_%28Ireland%29 \"Green Party (Ireland)\"), which focused on environmental issues, increased its representation significantly from 2 seats to 12 seats in parliament.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — Irish polls, trends and election news for Ireland \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/ireland/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=POLITICO \\|language\\=en}} The reason for the electoral upset for these parties was believed to be in voter dissatisfaction on issues of [health](/wiki/Health_in_Ireland \"Health in Ireland\"), housing and [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness_in_Ireland \"Homelessness in Ireland\").{{Cite news\\|title\\=What is driving Sinn Féin's electoral surge in Ireland?\\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/6449024a\\-4c19\\-11ea\\-95a0\\-43d18ec715f5\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-11\\|newspaper\\=Financial Times\\|date\\=10 February 2020 }} On 27 June 2020, [Micheál Martin](/wiki/Miche%C3%A1l_Martin \"Micheál Martin\") was elected as [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach \"Taoiseach\"), in an historic [coalition](/wiki/Coalition_government \"Coalition government\") agreement that saw his party [Fianna Fáil](/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il \"Fianna Fáil\") go into government with the [Green Party](/wiki/Green_Party_%28Ireland%29 \"Green Party (Ireland)\") and Fianna Fáil's historical rivals, [Fine Gael](/wiki/Fine_Gael \"Fine Gael\").{{cite news\\|date\\=27 June 2020\\|title\\=Micheál Martin becomes new Irish PM after historic coalition deal\\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]]\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-53201346\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-28}}{{cite news\\|date\\=27 June 2020\\|title\\=33rd Dáil elects Micheál Martin as new Taoiseach\\|work\\=\\[\\[Irish Examiner]]\\|url\\=https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/ireland/watch\\-micheal\\-martin\\-and\\-mary\\-lou\\-mcdonald\\-nominated\\-for\\-taoiseach\\-as\\-civil\\-war\\-politics\\-ends\\-1007831\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-27\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627123616/https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/ireland/watch\\-micheal\\-martin\\-and\\-mary\\-lou\\-mcdonald\\-nominated\\-for\\-taoiseach\\-as\\-civil\\-war\\-politics\\-ends\\-1007831\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Kosovo",
"Triggered by the [Government of Kosovo](/wiki/Government_of_Kosovo \"Government of Kosovo\")'s decision to reciprocally ban [Serbian license plates](/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Serbia \"Vehicle registration plates of Serbia\"), a [series of protests](/wiki/2021_North_Kosovo_crisis \"2021 North Kosovo crisis\") by [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs_of_Kosovo \"Serbs of Kosovo\") in [North Kosovo](/wiki/North_Kosovo \"North Kosovo\")—consisting mostly of blocking traffic near border crossings— began on 20 September 2021\\. During the crisis, two government vehicle registration centers in [Zvečan](/wiki/Zve%C4%8Dan \"Zvečan\") and [Zubin Potok](/wiki/Zubin_Potok \"Zubin Potok\") were targeted by [arsonists](/wiki/Arson \"Arson\"). The protests caused [relations between Serbia and Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo%E2%80%93Serbia_relations \"Kosovo–Serbia relations\")—which [had been improving](/wiki/Belgrade%E2%80%93Pristina_negotiations%23Negotiations_since_2013 \"Belgrade–Pristina negotiations#Negotiations since 2013\")—to worsen, and led to the [Serbian Armed Forces](/wiki/Serbian_Armed_Forces \"Serbian Armed Forces\") being placed on heightened [alert](/wiki/Combat_readiness \"Combat readiness\"). On 30 September, an [agreement](/wiki/Treaty \"Treaty\") was reached to end the license plate ban, taking effect on 4 October. In return, the protesters agreed to disperse. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, Kosovar license plates in Serbia and Serbian license plates in Kosovo had their national symbols and country codes covered with a temporary [sticker](/wiki/Sticker \"Sticker\").",
"Beginning on 31 July 2022, [tensions](/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_North_Kosovo_crisis \"2022–2023 North Kosovo crisis\") between Serbia and Kosovo heightened again due to the expiration of the eleven\\-year validity period of documents for cars on 1 August 2022, between the government of Kosovo and the Serbs in North Kosovo. On 26 May 2023, Kosovo took control of the North Kosovo municipal buildings by force, to enable the newly elected ethnic Albanian mayors to physically assume office, as they had won the [23 April local elections](/wiki/2023_Kosovan_local_elections \"2023 Kosovan local elections\"){{Spaced en dash}}based on an extremely low number of votes, due to an election boycott by the Serb population. A civil disturbance occurred, and Serbia put its armed forces on alert. The decision of Kosovo to use force was condemned by the United States and the EU.",
"### Latvia",
"The [2022 Latvian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Latvian_parliamentary_election \"2022 Latvian parliamentary election\") resulted in a historic defeat of the centre\\-left [Harmony](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%22Harmony%22 \"Social Democratic Party \") party which lost all of its parliamentary seats after failing to surpass the electoral threshold of 5%.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-02 \\|title\\=Verdict: Saeima elections 2022 winners and losers \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=eng.lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \\|url\\=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/verdict\\-saeima\\-elections\\-2022\\-winners\\-and\\-losers.a476213/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10}} It traditionally represented [Latvia's Russian minority](/wiki/Russians_in_Latvia \"Russians in Latvia\") and was the largest political group in [Saeima](/wiki/Saeima \"Saeima\") since the [2011 Latvian parliamentary election](/wiki/2011_Latvian_parliamentary_election \"2011 Latvian parliamentary election\"). \nThe [New Unity](/wiki/New_Unity \"New Unity\") party led by the incumbent Prime Minister [Krišjānis Kariņš](/wiki/Kri%C5%A1j%C4%81nis_Kari%C5%86%C5%A1 \"Krišjānis Kariņš\") won the most votes.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-02 \\|title\\=Party of Latvia PM Kariņš wins election, provisional results show \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Politico Europe \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/party\\-of\\-latvia\\-pm\\-karins\\-wins\\-election\\-provisional\\-results\\-show/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10}} Kariņš subsequently formed a centre\\-right coalition with the [United List](/wiki/United_List_%28Latvia%29 \"United List (Latvia)\") and the [National Alliance](/wiki/National_Alliance_%28Latvia%29 \"National Alliance (Latvia)\") and was re\\-elected as prime minister for the second term.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-14 \\|title\\=New Latvian government can start work after being approved by Saeima \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=eng.lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \\|url\\=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/new\\-latvian\\-government\\-can\\-start\\-work\\-after\\-being\\-approved\\-by\\-saeima.a486801/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10}}",
"On 31 May 2023, [Edgars Rinkēvičs](/wiki/Edgars_Rink%C4%93vi%C4%8Ds \"Edgars Rinkēvičs\"), Latvia's long\\-serving Minister of Foreign Affairs, was [elected](/wiki/2023_Latvian_presidential_election \"2023 Latvian presidential election\") new [President of Latvia](/wiki/President_of_Latvia \"President of Latvia\"), becoming the EU's first openly gay head of state.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-01 \\|title\\=LGBTQ groups celebrate Latvia electing E.U.'s first openly gay president \\|language\\=en \\| newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/06/01/latvia\\-president\\-gay\\-edgars\\-rinkevics/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-17}} His candidacy was supported by his own party [New Unity](/wiki/New_Unity \"New Unity\") and two opposition parties – [Union of Greens and Farmers](/wiki/Union_of_Greens_and_Farmers \"Union of Greens and Farmers\") and [The Progressives](/wiki/The_Progressives_%28Latvia%29 \"The Progressives (Latvia)\"). This undermined the stability of governing coalition and eventually resulted in the collapse of [second Kariņš' cabinet](/wiki/Second_Kari%C5%86%C5%A1_cabinet \"Second Kariņš cabinet\") on 14 August 2023\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-14 \\|title\\=Latvian prime minister announces resignation \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Politico Europe \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/latvian\\-prime\\-minister\\-krisjanis\\-karins\\-new\\-unity\\-resignation\\-announcement/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-17}}",
"On 15 September 2023, the Saeima approved the [new government](/wiki/Sili%C5%86a_cabinet \"Siliņa cabinet\"), headed by [Evika Siliņa](/wiki/Evika_Sili%C5%86a \"Evika Siliņa\"), a former lawyer who previously served as a Minister of Welfare.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-15 \\|title\\=Latvia gets a new government \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=eng.lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \\|url\\=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/15\\.09\\.2023\\-latvia\\-gets\\-a\\-new\\-government.a524059/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-01}} She became the second\\-ever female to hold the position of Prime Minister, following [Laimdota Straujuma](/wiki/Laimdota_Straujuma \"Laimdota Straujuma\") in 2014–2016\\. Her appointment also marked a historic moment, with all three [Baltic states](/wiki/Baltic_states \"Baltic states\"), including Estonia and Lithuania, being led by female prime ministers.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-15 \\|title\\=Latvia parliament approves new broad coalition government \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/latvias\\-parliament\\-approves\\-new\\-government\\-2023\\-09\\-15/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21}} The new coalition was labelled by some as the \"first\\-ever centre\\-left\" government since the restoration of independence in 1991\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-09 \\|title\\=A Progressive Turn in Latvia? \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung \\|url\\=https://www.rosalux.de/en/news/id/51100/a\\-progressive\\-turn\\-in\\-latvia \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21}} On 9 November 2023, the Saeima adopted amendments to eight laws envisaging the introduction of a new [Partnership institution in Latvia](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_Latvia \"Recognition of same-sex unions in Latvia\") which will grant cohabiting adults, including same\\-sex partnerships, a degree of legal recognition and protection, starting from 1 July 2024\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-10 \\|title\\=Latvian parliament passes registered partnership law \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=ERR News \\|url\\=https://news.err.ee/1609161190/latvian\\-parliament\\-passes\\-registered\\-partnership\\-law \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21}} The same month, the parliament ratified the [Istanbul Convention](/wiki/Istanbul_Convention \"Istanbul Convention\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-30 \\|title\\=Saeima ratificē Stambulas konvenciju pēc teju 5 stundu debatēm \\|trans\\-title\\=The Saeima ratifies the Istanbul Convention after almost 5 hours of debate \\|language\\=lv \\|work\\=lsm.lv (Public Broadcasting of Latvia) \\|url\\=https://www.lsm.lv/raksts/zinas/latvija/30\\.11\\.2023\\-saeima\\-ratifice\\-stambulas\\-konvenciju\\-pec\\-teju\\-5\\-stundu\\-debatem.a533581/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21}}",
"### Lithuania",
"In the [Lithuanian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"2020 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") of October 11, 2020, the [Homeland Union](/wiki/Homeland_Union \"Homeland Union\"), a center\\-right party, emerged as the largest party in the [Seimas](/wiki/Seimas \"Seimas\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — Lithuanian polls, trends and election news for Lithuania \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/lithuania/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} Coalition negotiations ensued, leading to the formation of a new government under Prime Minister [Ingrida Šimonytė](/wiki/Ingrida_%C5%A0imonyt%C4%97 \"Ingrida Šimonytė\"), which became the second\\-ever female [Prime Minister of Lithuania](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Lithuania \"Prime Minister of Lithuania\") in 2020\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-26 \\|title\\=Conservatives win Lithuania election: Preliminary results \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/conservatives\\-win\\-lithuania\\-election\\-preliminary\\-results/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} The coalition included the [Homeland Union](/wiki/Homeland_Union \"Homeland Union\"), the [Liberal Movement](/wiki/Liberals%27_Movement_%28Lithuania%29 \"Liberals' Movement (Lithuania)\"), and the [Freedom Party](/wiki/Freedom_Party_%28Lithuania%29 \"Freedom Party (Lithuania)\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-12 \\|title\\=Lithuania's Center\\-Right Heads Toward An Election Win \\|url\\=https://www.voanews.com/a/europe\\_lithuanias\\-center\\-right\\-heads\\-toward\\-election\\-win/6197023\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Voice of America \\|language\\=en}} The election, conducted amidst the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), saw increased provisions for early and postal voting.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Voruta \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-05 \\|title\\=Prasidėjo išankstinis balsavimas Seimo rinkimuose. Balsuoti iš anksto bus galima net keturias dienas \\|url\\=https://www.voruta.lt/prasidejo\\-isankstinis\\-balsavimas\\-seimo\\-rinkimuose\\-balsuoti\\-is\\-anksto\\-bus\\-galima\\-net\\-keturias\\-dienas/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Voruta \\|language\\=lt\\-LT}} Key campaign issues encompassed economic policies, healthcare, social welfare, and the nation's response to the ongoing health crisis.",
"### Luxembourg",
"In [2023 Luxembourg general election](/wiki/2023_Luxembourg_general_election \"2023 Luxembourg general election\"), the christian democrat [CSV](/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party \"Christian Social People's Party\") party remained the largest party in parliament with 21 seats, having won 29\\.2% of the vote. The [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Luxembourg%29 \"Democratic Party (Luxembourg)\") (DP) and the [Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party](/wiki/Luxembourg_Socialist_Workers%27_Party \"Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party\") (LSAP) remained the second and third largest parties in parliament, respectivelly. [The Greens](/wiki/The_Greens_%28Luxembourg%29 \"The Greens (Luxembourg)\") suffered a significant loss by winning just 4 seats compared with 9 in the last election.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — Luxembourg polls, trends and election news for Luxembourg \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/luxembourg/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=POLITICO \\|language\\=en}} On 13 November [Luc Frieden](/wiki/Luc_Frieden \"Luc Frieden\") announced a coalition agreement between the [CSV](/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party \"Christian Social People's Party\") and [DP.](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Luxembourg%29 \"Democratic Party (Luxembourg)\") The [new cabinet](/wiki/Frieden-Bettel_Government \"Frieden-Bettel Government\") was sworn in by the Grand Duke and Frieden assumed the office of Prime Minister on 17 November.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-17 \\|title\\=RTL Today \\- On Friday morning: Grand Duke Henri swears in new government at the palace \\|url\\=https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/2138888\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117130820/https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/2138888\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-17 }}",
"### Montenegro",
"The [2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Montenegrin_parliamentary_election \"2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election\") resulted in a victory for the [opposition parties](/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition \"Parliamentary opposition\") and the fall from power of the ruling [DPS](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Socialists \"Democratic Party of Socialists\"), which had ruled the country since the introduction of the [multi\\-party system](/wiki/Multi-party_system \"Multi-party system\") in 1990\\. On 31 August, the leaders of three opposition coalitions, [For the Future of Montenegro](/wiki/For_the_Future_of_Montenegro \"For the Future of Montenegro\"), [Peace is Our Nation](/wiki/Peace_is_Our_Nation \"Peace is Our Nation\") and [In Black and White](/wiki/In_Black_and_White_%28Montenegro%29 \"In Black and White (Montenegro)\"), agreed to form an [expert government](/wiki/Technocracy \"Technocracy\"), and to continue to work on the [European Union accession process](/wiki/Accession_of_Montenegro_to_the_European_Union \"Accession of Montenegro to the European Union\"). The period before the election was marked by the high polarization of the electorate. Several corruption scandals of the ruling party triggered [2019 anti\\-government protests](/wiki/2019_Montenegrin_anti-corruption_protests \"2019 Montenegrin anti-corruption protests\"), while a controversial [religion law](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Montenegro \"Freedom of religion in Montenegro\") sparked another [wave of protests](/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Clerical_protests_in_Montenegro \"2019–2020 Clerical protests in Montenegro\").",
"In April 2021, a [wave of protests](/wiki/Montenegrin_nationalist_protests_%282020%E2%80%93present%29 \"Montenegrin nationalist protests (2020–present)\"), dubbed by its organizers as the Montenegrin Spring,{{Cite news\\|date\\=11 April 2021\\|title\\=Komite najavljuju 'Crnogorsko proleće'\\|language\\=cnr\\|trans\\-title\\=Committees announce 'Montenegrin spring'\\|website\\=Vesti online\\|url\\=https://www.vesti\\-online.com/komite\\-najavljuju\\-crnogorsko\\-prolece\\-video/\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2021}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=4 April 2021\\|title\\=Crnogorsko proljeće: Jedan dom! Jedna zastava! Jedna himna!\\|url\\=https://senat.me/crnogorsko\\-proljece\\-jedan\\-dom\\-jedna\\-zastava\\-jedna\\-himna/\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2021\\|website\\=senat.me\\|language\\=cnr}} or the Montenegrin Response/Montenegrin Answer{{Cite web\\|date\\=4 April 2021\\|title\\=Izazovi crnogorskog 'odgovora'\\|trans\\-title\\=Challenges of Montenegrin 'response'\\|url\\=https://www.portalanalitika.me/clanak/izazovi\\-crnogorskog\\-odgovora\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2021\\|website\\=Analitika\\|language\\=cnr}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Crnogorski Odgovor: Pokažimo da smo dostojni potomci naših predaka!\\|trans\\-title\\=Montenegrin Response: Let's show that we are worthy descendants of our ancestors!\\|url\\=https://www.antenam.net/drustvo/170497\\-poceo\\-crnogorski\\-odgovor\\-da\\-je\\-vjecna\\-crna\\-gora\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2021\\|website\\=Antena M\\|date\\=6 September 2020 \\|language\\=cnr}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Crnogorski odgovor danas u podne ispred Skupštine\\|trans\\-title\\=Montenegrin response today at noon in front of the Assembly\\|url\\=https://m.cdm.me/politika/crnogorski\\-odgovor\\-danas\\-u\\-podne\\-ispred\\-skupstine/\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2021\\|website\\=CDM.me\\|language\\=cnr}} was launched in [Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro \"Montenegro\") against the announced adoption of regulations that will make it easier to acquire [Montenegrin citizenship](/wiki/Montenegrin_nationality_law \"Montenegrin nationality law\"), but also take away the citizenship of some Montenegrin emigrants, which the protesters consider as an \"attempt of the government to change the ethnic structure of Montenegro\" and against the newly formed [technocratic government](/wiki/Krivokapi%C4%87_Cabinet \"Krivokapić Cabinet\") of Montenegro, which the protesters accuse of being \"treacherous\" and the \"satellite of [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\")\".{{Cite web\\|date\\=8 April 2021\\|title\\=Protesti ispred zgrade Vlade Crne Gore zbog najavljenog usvajanja propisa o državljanstvu\\|trans\\-title\\=Protests in front of the Government of Montenegro building due to the announced adoption of regulations on citizenship\\|url\\=https://www.danas.rs/svet/protesti\\-ispred\\-zgrade\\-vlade\\-crne\\-gore\\-zbog\\-najavljenog\\-usvajanja\\-propisa\\-o\\-drzavljanstvu/\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2021\\|website\\=Danas\\|language\\=sr}}",
"The [2021 Montenegrin episcopal enthronement protests](/wiki/2021_Montenegrin_episcopal_enthronement_protests \"2021 Montenegrin episcopal enthronement protests\") are a series of violent protests against the installation (enthronement) of [Joanikije Mićović](/wiki/Joanikije_II%2C_Metropolitan_of_Montenegro \"Joanikije II, Metropolitan of Montenegro\") of the [Serbian Orthodox Church](/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church \"Serbian Orthodox Church\") as the [Metropolitan of Montenegro and the Littoral](/wiki/Metropolitanate_of_Montenegro_and_the_Littoral \"Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral\") that took place at the historic [Cetinje Monastery](/wiki/Cetinje_Monastery \"Cetinje Monastery\") on 5 September 2021\\. Following the enthronement, by mid\\-September 2021, divisions within the [Krivokapić Cabinet](/wiki/Krivokapi%C4%87_Cabinet \"Krivokapić Cabinet\") led some of the [ruling coalition members](/wiki/For_the_Future_of_Montenegro \"For the Future of Montenegro\") such as the [Democratic Front](/wiki/Democratic_Front_%28Montenegro%29 \"Democratic Front (Montenegro)\") and [Democratic Montenegro](/wiki/Democratic_Montenegro \"Democratic Montenegro\") to demand that the government be reconstructed or a snap election be held.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Kračković\\|first1\\=Radomir\\|date\\=17 September 2021\\|title\\=Montenegro: all against all\\|work\\=\\[\\[Deutsche Welle]]\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/hr/crna\\-gora\\-svi\\-protiv\\-svih/a\\-59213509}}",
"### Poland",
"#### Protests",
"On 7 August 2020, a [protest](/wiki/August_2020_LGBT_protests_in_Poland \"August 2020 LGBT protests in Poland\") against the arrest of LGBT activist [Margot](/wiki/Margot_%28activist%29 \"Margot (activist)\") led to a confrontation with police in central [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\") and resulted in the arrest of 47 others, some of whom were peacefully protesting and others who were bystanders to the event, dubbed \"Polish Stonewall\" in an analogy to the 1969 [Stonewall riots](/wiki/Stonewall_riots \"Stonewall riots\").",
"The [October–December 2020 Polish protests](/wiki/October%E2%80%93December_2020_Polish_protests \"October–December 2020 Polish protests\"), commonly known as the *Women's Strike* ({{lang\\-pl\\|Strajk Kobiet}}){{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}}, are the ongoing anti\\-government demonstrations and protests in [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") that began on 22 October 2020, in reaction to a ruling of the [Constitutional Tribunal](/wiki/Constitutional_Tribunal_%28Poland%29 \"Constitutional Tribunal (Poland)\"), mainly consisting of judges who were appointed by the ruling [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 \"Law and Justice (Poland)\") ({{lang\\-pl\\|Prawo i Sprawiedliwość}}, PiS) dominated [United Right](/wiki/United_Right_%28Poland%29 \"United Right (Poland)\"), which tightened the law on [abortion in Poland](/wiki/Abortion_in_Poland \"Abortion in Poland\"). The ruling made almost all cases of abortion illegal, including those cases in which the [foetus](/wiki/Foetus \"Foetus\") had a severe and permanent [disability](/wiki/Disability \"Disability\"), or an incurable and life\\-threatening [disease](/wiki/Disease \"Disease\").{{cite news\\|date\\=22 October 2020\\|title\\=Trybunał Konstytucyjny: Planowanie rodziny, ochrona płodu ludzkiego i warunki dopuszczalności przerywania ciąży\\|url\\=https://trybunal.gov.pl/postepowanie\\-i\\-orzeczenia/wyroki/art/11300\\-planowanie\\-rodziny\\-ochrona\\-plodu\\-ludzkiego\\-i\\-warunki\\-dopuszczalnosci\\-przerywania\\-ciazy}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Dz.U. 1993 nr 17 poz. 78, ''Ustawa z dnia 7 stycznia 1993 r. o planowaniu rodziny, ochronie płodu ludzkiego i warunkach dopuszczalności przerywania ciąży''\\|url\\=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id\\=WDU19930170078\\|website\\=Sejm of the Polish Republic\\|language\\=pl}} It was the biggest protest in the country since the [end of the People's Republic](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281945%E2%80%931989%29 \"History of Poland (1945–1989)\") during the [revolutions of 1989](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989 \"Revolutions of 1989\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Tilles\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-29\\|title\\=Polish prosecutors seek charges against organisers of abortion protests for endangering public\\|url\\=https://notesfrompoland.com/2020/10/29/polish\\-prosecutors\\-seeks\\-charges\\-against\\-organisers\\-of\\-abortion\\-protests\\-for\\-endangering\\-public/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|website\\=Notes From Poland\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Magdziarz\\|first1\\=Anatol\\|last2\\=Santora\\|first2\\=Marc\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|title\\=Women Converge on Warsaw, Heightening Poland's Largest Protests in Decades\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/30/world/europe/poland\\-abortion\\-women\\-protests.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"#### 2020 presidential election",
"The [2020 Polish presidential election](/wiki/2020_Polish_presidential_election \"2020 Polish presidential election\") resulted in the re\\-election bid of incumbent president [Andrzej Duda](/wiki/Andrzej_Duda \"Andrzej Duda\"), a member of the [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 \"Law and Justice (Poland)\") party. In the first round, held on June 28, Duda emerged as the leading candidate with 43\\.5% of the vote. Without a majority of 50% of the vote, a runoff was set against [Rafał Trzaskowski](/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Trzaskowski \"Rafał Trzaskowski\") from the [Civic Coalition](/wiki/Civic_Coalition_%28Poland%29 \"Civic Coalition (Poland)\"). In the second round of the election, on July 12, Duda secured a narrow victory with approximately 51% of the vote to Trzaskowski's 49% share of the vote.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Polish President Duda wins 2nd term by narrow majority – DW – 07/13/2020 \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/poland\\-elections\\-duda\\-results/a\\-54152011 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"The campaign was marked by debates on judicial reforms, LGBTQ\\+ rights, and Poland's role in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"). Amid tensions with the EU, the election had broad implications for the nation's political landscape. Taking place during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), the election featured adjusted voting procedures, including increased options for postal voting.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Walker \\|first1\\=Shaun \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-13 \\|title\\=Duda narrowly re\\-elected in Poland in boost for ruling nationalists \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/13/incumbent\\-andrzej\\-duda\\-wins\\-polish\\-presidential\\-election\\-commission \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}}",
"#### 2023 general election",
"In the [2023 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Polish_parliamentary_election \"2023 Polish parliamentary election\"), [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 \"Law and Justice (Poland)\") returned as the largest party, but without the ability to form a winning coalition in the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm \"Sejm\"), 460\\-member lower house of parliament. The final results which registered a record turnout of 74\\.4 percent had the incumbent right\\-wing [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice_%28Poland%29 \"Law and Justice (Poland)\") with 35\\.4 percent, followed by the centrist [Civic Coalition](/wiki/Civic_Coalition_%28Poland%29 \"Civic Coalition (Poland)\") at 30\\.7 percent, the center\\-right [Third Way](/wiki/Third_Way_%28Poland%29 \"Third Way (Poland)\") at 14\\.4 percent, the [Left](/wiki/The_Left_%28Poland%29 \"The Left (Poland)\") with 8\\.6 percent and the far\\-right [Confederation](/wiki/Confederation_%28political_alliance%29 \"Confederation (political alliance)\") with 7\\.2 percent. {{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-17 \\|title\\=Poland election results: Opposition secures win, final count shows \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/poland\\-election\\-results\\-opposition\\-donald\\-tusk\\-wins\\-final\\-count\\-civic\\-platform\\-pis/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bayer \\|first\\=Lili \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-17 \\|title\\=Poland election: final results suggest opposition parties could form Tusk\\-led coalition – Europe live \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=the Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/oct/17/poland\\-election\\-donald\\-tusk\\-reaction\\-europe\\-latest\\-updates \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}}\n[thumb\\|Leaders of the three opposition parties after signing the coalition agreement.](/wiki/File:Umowa_Koalicyjna.jpg \"Umowa Koalicyjna.jpg\")\nBefore the election, [Civic Coalition](/wiki/Civic_Coalition_%28Poland%29 \"Civic Coalition (Poland)\"), led by former prime minister and [European Council](/wiki/European_Council \"European Council\") President [Donald Tusk](/wiki/Donald_Tusk \"Donald Tusk\"), the Third Way and the Left pledged to form a coalition government to oust Law and Justice from power.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Henley \\|first1\\=Jon \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-06 \\|title\\=Polish elections: who are the key players and what is at stake? \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/06/poland\\-elections\\-explainer\\-law\\-and\\-justice\\-party\\-civic\\-platform \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} After the election, together they won 248 seats in the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm \"Sejm\"), enough seats to take power from the Law and Justice. The coalition between these three parties also boosted its control of the less powerful upper chamber [Senate](/wiki/Senate_of_Poland \"Senate of Poland\"), winning 66 seats while Law and Justice won just 34\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-17 \\|title\\=Final results show scale of pro\\-EU opposition victory in Poland \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2023/10/17/final\\-results\\-show\\-scale\\-of\\-pro\\-eu\\-opposition\\-victory\\-in\\-poland \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=euronews \\|language\\=en}}",
"Following the election, Poland's parliament elected centrist party leader [Donald Tusk](/wiki/Donald_Tusk \"Donald Tusk\") as prime minister, allowing the formation of a new [pro\\-EU](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\") government after eight years of national conservative rule in Poland. The outgoing right\\-wing populist Law and Justice government was characterized by various disputes with the EU over issues like judicial independence, the rule of law and minority rights which resulted in billions in funds from the bloc being frozen.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Poland's parliament elects Donald Tusk as prime minister \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/11/pro\\-eu\\-donald\\-tusk\\-set\\-to\\-become\\-prime\\-minister\\-of\\-poland \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=Al Jazeera \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Portugal",
"#### 2021 presidential election",
"Portugal's center\\-right president, [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa \"Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa\"), won a second five\\-year term with around 61 percent of the vote. In unprecedented circumstances, the [2021 presidential election](/wiki/2021_Portuguese_presidential_election \"2021 Portuguese presidential election\") was held less than two weeks after the Portuguese government had placed the nation under lockdown.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-25 \\|title\\=Portugal's President Wins Re\\-election, but Far Right Gains (Published 2021\\) \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/24/world/europe/portugal\\-presidential\\-election.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|last1\\=Minder \\|first1\\=Raphael }} The results indicated that André Ventura, a far\\-right, [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalism \"Ultranationalism\") candidate, received close to 12 percent of the vote, while the socialist candidate, [Ana Gomes](/wiki/Ana_Gomes \"Ana Gomes\"), received nearly 13 percent of the vote.{{Cite news \\|agency\\=Agence France\\-Presse \\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-25 \\|title\\=Portugal's centre\\-right president re\\-elected but far right gains ground \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/25/portugals\\-centre\\-right\\-president\\-re\\-elected\\-but\\-far\\-right\\-gains\\-ground \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}}",
"#### 2022 legislative election",
"The [2022 portuguese legislative elections](/wiki/2022_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2022 Portuguese legislative election\") were called when two far\\-left parties that had supported [Antonio Costa](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Costa \"António Costa\")'s minority government allied with right\\-wing parties in October to reject his draft budget for 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Portugal's ruling Socialists win re\\-election with outright majority \\|date\\=30 January 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/europe/20220130\\-portugal\\-s\\-ruling\\-socialists\\-and\\-far\\-right\\-party\\-chega\\-eye\\-gains\\-in\\-snap\\-legislative\\-elections}} In the election, contrary to expectations, Portugal's ruling center\\-left [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Socialist Party (Portugal)\") secured an absolute parliamentary majority in the snap general election, giving Antonio Costa a solid new mandate as prime minister.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=Portugal election: Socialists win unexpected majority\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment\\-arts\\-60194375\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}} The centre\\-right [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Social Democratic Party (Portugal)\") finished far behind the Socialist Party, who received roughly 42% of the vote, with less than 30% of the vote.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=Politico Poll of Polls — Portuguese polls, trends and election news for Portugal \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/portugal/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} As the third\\-largest legislative force, the [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") party Chega increased substantially from having just one seat in the previous legislative cycle to at 12\\. Turnout did surpass the previous year's record low of 49%.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Sam \\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=Portugal general election: Socialists win surprise outright majority \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/31/portugal\\-general\\-election\\-pm\\-antonio\\-costa\\-wins\\-surprise\\-outright\\-majority \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}}",
"#### Prime Minister resignation",
"On 7 November 2023, Prime Minister [António Costa](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Costa \"António Costa\") submitted his official resignation which was accepted by the President on the same day.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-01 \\|title\\=Marcelo aceitou a demissão de Costa e fala ao país na quinta\\-feira \\|url\\=https://www.jn.pt/2336740524/marcelo\\-aceitou\\-a\\-demissao\\-de\\-costa\\-e\\-fala\\-ao\\-pais\\-na\\-quinta\\-feira/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201015000/https://www.jn.pt/2336740524/marcelo\\-aceitou\\-a\\-demissao\\-de\\-costa\\-e\\-fala\\-ao\\-pais\\-na\\-quinta\\-feira/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-01 }} The prime minister's resignation came after Portugal's national police executed searches of Costa's residence and various government ministry buildings. The sweeps were a part of a corruption probe related to [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") mining projects in the north of [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") in addition to a [green hydrogen](/wiki/Green_hydrogen \"Green hydrogen\") production mega\\-project in [Sines](/wiki/Sines \"Sines\"). President [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa \"Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa\") decided to dissolve parliament and call new elections on [10 March 2024](/wiki/2024_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2024 Portuguese legislative election\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-07 \\|title\\=Portuguese PM António Costa resigns amid corruption probe \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/portugal\\-prime\\-minister\\-antonio\\-costa\\-resigns/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en}} Costa's government remains in office in a caretaker capacity until a new government is sworn in following the elections.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-16 \\|title\\=Marcelo dissolve Parlamento. António Costa no Governo até às próximas eleições a 10 de março \\- Política \\- Correio da Manhã \\|url\\=https://www.cmjornal.pt/politica/detalhe/marcelo\\-dissolve\\-parlamento\\-antonio\\-costa\\-no\\-governo\\-ate\\-as\\-proximas\\-eleicoes \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116161538/https://www.cmjornal.pt/politica/detalhe/marcelo\\-dissolve\\-parlamento\\-antonio\\-costa\\-no\\-governo\\-ate\\-as\\-proximas\\-eleicoes \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-16 }}",
"### Romania",
"A [political crisis](/wiki/2021_Romanian_political_crisis \"2021 Romanian political crisis\") began in [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\") on 1 September 2021 engulfing both major coalition partners of the [Cîțu Cabinet](/wiki/C%C3%AE%C8%9Bu_Cabinet \"Cîțu Cabinet\"), namely the conservative\\-liberal [National Liberal Party](/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_%28Romania%29 \"National Liberal Party (Romania)\") (PNL) and the progressive\\-liberal [Save Romania Union](/wiki/Save_Romania_Union \"Save Romania Union\") (USR), then [USR PLUS](/wiki/USR_PLUS \"USR PLUS\").{{cite web\\|date\\=3 October 2021\\|title\\=USR PLUS revine la denumirea de USR şi la vechea siglă\\|url\\=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/politic/usr\\-plus\\-revine\\-la\\-denumirea\\-de\\-usr\\-si\\-la\\-vechea\\-sigla.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-03\\|website\\=Știrile Pro TV}} The crisis was sparked by disagreements over the so\\-called [Anghel Saligny](/wiki/Anghel_Saligny \"Anghel Saligny\") investment program meant to develop Romanian settlements,{{cite web\\|title\\=Scandal uriaș în Guvern. Cîțu a vrut să bage proiectul Saligny pe ordinea de zi suplimentară, USR PLUS amenință cu moțiunea de cenzură\\|url\\=https://www.digi24\\.ro/stiri/actualitate/politica/surse\\-scandal\\-in\\-guvern\\-citu\\-a\\-vrut\\-sa\\-bage\\-proiectul\\-saligny\\-pe\\-ordinea\\-de\\-zi\\-suplimentara\\-usr\\-plus\\-ameninta\\-cu\\-motiunea\\-de\\-cenzura\\-1652877\\|website\\=Digi24\\|date\\=September 2021 }} which was supported by Prime Minister Cîțu but was severely criticized by [USR PLUS](/wiki/USR_PLUS \"USR PLUS\") (referring to it as a \"brand new OUG 13 abuse\"){{cite web\\|title\\=USR PLUS, după adoptarea programului \"Anghel Salingy\": Un nou abuz marca OUG 13\\|url\\=https://www.digi24\\.ro/stiri/actualitate/politica/usr\\-plus\\-dupa\\-adoptarea\\-programului\\-anghel\\-salingy\\-un\\-nou\\-abuz\\-marca\\-oug\\-13\\-1656245\\|website\\=Digi24\\|date\\=3 September 2021 }}{{cite web\\|date\\=31 January 2020\\|title\\=Trei ani de la OUG 13: istoria unui act normativ cu dedicație\\|url\\=https://psnews.ro/trei\\-ani\\-de\\-la\\-oug\\-13\\-istoria\\-unui\\-act\\-normativ\\-cu\\-dedicatie\\-345069/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-02\\|website\\=PSnews}} whose ministers boycotted a government meeting. In response, [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Romania \"Prime Minister of Romania\") [Cîțu](/wiki/Florin_C%C3%AE%C8%9Bu \"Florin Cîțu\") sacked Justice Minister [Stelian Ion](/wiki/Stelian_Ion \"Stelian Ion\") (USR){{cite web\\|date\\=September 2021\\|title\\=Dan Barna, după demiterea ministrului Justiției, Stelian Ion: \"Florin Cîţu trebuie să plece\"\\|url\\=https://ziarulunirea.ro/dan\\-barna\\-dupa\\-demiterea\\-ministrului\\-justitiei\\-stelian\\-ion\\-florin\\-citu\\-trebuie\\-sa\\-plece\\-731022/\\|website\\=Ziarul Unirea}} and named Interior Minister [Lucian Bode](/wiki/Lucian_Bode \"Lucian Bode\") (PNL) as interim, igniting a crisis.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ultima Oră Cîțu își arată forța \\- îl demite pe ministrul Justiției, pentru blocarea Programului național de investiții \"Anghel Saligny\". Pentru ce sunt alocate cele 50 miliarde lei în dispută document\\|url\\=https://www.profit.ro/stiri/economie/ultima\\-ora\\-citu\\-isi\\-arata\\-forta\\-il\\-demite\\-pe\\-ministrul\\-justitiei\\-pentru\\-blocarea\\-programului\\-national\\-de\\-investitii\\-anghel\\-saligny\\-pentru\\-ce\\-sunt\\-alocate\\-cele\\-50\\-miliarde\\-lei\\-in\\-disputa\\-document\\-20380626\\|website\\=Profit.ro}}{{cite web\\|date\\=10 September 2021\\|title\\=Romania lurches into another political crisis as Florin Citu clings to power\\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/09/10/romania\\-lurches\\-into\\-another\\-political\\-crisis\\-as\\-florin\\-citu\\-clings\\-to\\-power\\|website\\=Euronews}} In retaliation, USR PLUS submitted a [motion of no confidence](/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence \"Motion of no confidence\") (also known as a motion of censure) against the [Cîțu Cabinet](/wiki/C%C3%AE%C8%9Bu_Cabinet \"Cîțu Cabinet\") together with the nationalist opposition party [Alliance for the Unity of Romanians](/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Unity_of_Romanians \"Alliance for the Unity of Romanians\") (AUR){{cite web\\|title\\=Oficial! USR PLUS și AUR au depus moțiune de cenzură împotriva premierului Cîțu / Cum arată calculele\\|url\\=https://www.mediafax.ro/politic/oficial\\-usr\\-plus\\-si\\-aur\\-au\\-depus\\-motiune\\-de\\-cenzura\\-impotriva\\-premierului\\-citu\\-cum\\-arata\\-calculele\\-20253516\\|website\\=Mediafax}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Document. Moțiunea de cenzură USR PLUS \\- AUR: \"Demiterea Guvernului Cîțu, singura șansă a României de a trăi!\"\\|url\\=https://www.digi24\\.ro/stiri/actualitate/politica/document\\-motiunea\\-de\\-cenzura\\-usr\\-plus\\-aur\\-demiterea\\-guvernului\\-citu\\-singura\\-sansa\\-a\\-romaniei\\-de\\-a\\-trai\\-1656505\\|website\\=Digi24\\|date\\=4 September 2021 }} and by 7 September, all USR PLUS ministers resigned on their own.{{cite web\\|title\\=Miniștrii USR\\-PLUS din Guvernul Florin Cîțu au demisionat în bloc\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/ro/mini%C8%99trii\\-usr\\-plus\\-din\\-guvernul\\-florin\\-c%C3%AE%C8%9Bu\\-au\\-demisionat\\-%C3%AEn\\-bloc/a\\-59104271\\|website\\=DW}} Negotiations between PSD, PNL and UDMR for a new majority took place throughout most of November 2021, after which Ciucă was designated again by Iohannis as prime minister on 22 November. The crisis finally ended on 25 November, with the [Ciucă Cabinet](/wiki/Ciuc%C4%83_Cabinet \"Ciucă Cabinet\") taking office.",
"### Russia",
"#### Consolidation of Putin's power",
"The entire Russian cabinet resigned in January 2020, with a new Prime Minister [Mikhail Mishustin](/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin \"Mikhail Mishustin\") soon sworn in.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Mary Ilyushina and Sheena McKenzie\\|title\\=Russian government resigns as Putin proposes reforms that could extend his grip on power\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/15/europe/russian\\-government\\-resigns\\-vladimir\\-putin\\-reforms\\-intl/index.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-14\\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=15 January 2020 }} Following this, a [constitutional referendum](/wiki/2020_Russian_constitutional_referendum \"2020 Russian constitutional referendum\") was held in [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") in 2020\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Голосование по поправкам в Конституцию пройдет 22 апреля\\|url\\=https://www.vedomosti.ru/politics/articles/2020/02/26/823899\\-den\\-obscherossiiskogo\\-golosovaniya\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Ведомости\\|date\\=26 February 2020 }} The draft [amendments to the Constitution](/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia \"2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia\") were submitted to a referendum in accordance with article 2 of the Law on Amendments to the Constitution.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/885214\\-7\\|website\\=sozd.duma.gov.ru\\|title\\=№885214\\-7 Законопроект :: Система обеспечения законодательной деятельности :: Закон Российской Федерации о поправке к Конституции Российской Федерации\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-28\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124182826/https://sozd.duma.gov.ru/bill/885214\\-7\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The referendum was criticized for extending the rule of [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\"), as well as for not following the normal rules for referendums in Russia (by being labelled an \"all\\-Russian vote\" instead).{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-02\\|title\\=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-53255964\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-02}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Noble\\|first\\=Ben\\|title\\=Vladimir Putin secures constitutional changes allowing him to rule until 2036 – what this means for Russia\\|url\\=http://theconversation.com/vladimir\\-putin\\-secures\\-constitutional\\-changes\\-allowing\\-him\\-to\\-rule\\-until\\-2036\\-what\\-this\\-means\\-for\\-russia\\-141103\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-02\\|website\\=The Conversation\\|date\\=2 July 2020 \\|language\\=en}}",
"The anti\\-corruption activist and politician [Alexei Navalny](/wiki/Alexei_Navalny \"Alexei Navalny\") was the target of an [attempted assassination](/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexei_Navalny \"Poisoning of Alexei Navalny\") by the Russian [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service \"Federal Security Service\"), whose members involved in the attempt he exposed together with the investigative journalism outlet [Bellingcat](/wiki/Bellingcat \"Bellingcat\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-02\\|title\\=Russia menaces Alexei Navalny after he exposed its agents' ineptitude\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/europe/2021/01/02/russia\\-menaces\\-alexei\\-navalny\\-after\\-he\\-exposed\\-its\\-agents\\-ineptitude\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-02\\|issn\\=0013\\-0613}} Following his return to Russia, he was arrested and immediately placed in pre\\-trial detention.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-23\\|title\\=The world must not accept the jailing of Alexei Navalny\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2021/01/23/the\\-world\\-must\\-not\\-accept\\-the\\-jailing\\-of\\-alexei\\-navalny\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-02\\|issn\\=0013\\-0613}} This, and the release of his film [*A Palace for Putin*](/wiki/A_Palace_for_Putin:The_Story_of_the_Biggest_Bribe \"The Story of the Biggest Bribe\"), led to the [2021 Russian protests](/wiki/2021_Russian_protests \"2021 Russian protests\"). Navalny was ultimately sentenced to two\\-and\\-a\\-half years in a [penal colony](/wiki/Penal_colony \"Penal colony\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-02\\|title\\=Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny sentenced to prison\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/russian\\-opposition\\-leader\\-alexei\\-navalny\\-sentenced\\-to\\-prison/a\\-56412686\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-03\\|website\\=Deutsche Welle\\|language\\=en\\-GB}} A court ordered the [Anti\\-Corruption Foundation](/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Foundation \"Anti-Corruption Foundation\"), linked to Navalny, to cease its activities.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-26\\|title\\=Russia suspends activities of Alexei Navalny's campaign groups\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/russia\\-suspends\\-activities\\-of\\-alexei\\-navalnys\\-campaign\\-groups/a\\-57335053\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-02\\|website\\=Deutsche Welle\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"#### Repercussions of the invasion of Ukraine",
"Following the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\") on 24 February 2022, daily [anti\\-war demonstrations and protests](/wiki/2022_anti-war_protests_in_Russia \"2022 anti-war protests in Russia\") broke out across Russia.{{cite magazine \\|author\\=Arik Burakovsky \\|date\\=3 March 2022 \\|title\\=Putin's Invasion of Ukraine Has Sparked Antiwar Protests in Russia. They Could Be His Undoing \\|url\\=https://time.com/6154240/russia\\-protests\\-war\\-ukraine\\-putin/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303192550/https://time.com/6154240/russia\\-protests\\-war\\-ukraine\\-putin/ \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2022}} The protests have been met with widespread repression by the Russian authorities, with over 8,000 arrests being made{{cite web \\|title\\=\"Нет войне\": итоги акции против войны с Украиной 24 февраля \\|trans\\-title\\=\"No to war\": the results of the action against the war with Ukraine on February 24 \\|url\\=https://ovdinfo.org/articles/2022/02/25/net\\-voyne\\-itogi\\-akcii\\-protiv\\-voyny\\-s\\-ukrainoy\\-24\\-fevralya \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226201832/https://ovdinfo.org/articles/2022/02/25/net\\-voyne\\-itogi\\-akcii\\-protiv\\-voyny\\-s\\-ukrainoy\\-24\\-fevralya \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-26 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|website\\=OVD\\-Info \\|language\\=RU}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Списки задержанных в связи с акцией против войны с Украиной 25 февраля 2022 года \\|trans\\-title\\=Lists of those detained in connection with the action against the war with Ukraine on February 25, 2022 \\|url\\=https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/25/spiski\\-zaderzhannyh\\-v\\-svyazi\\-s\\-akciey\\-protiv\\-voyny\\-s\\-ukrainoy\\-25\\-fevralya\\-2022\\-goda \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227175556/https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/25/spiski\\-zaderzhannyh\\-v\\-svyazi\\-s\\-akciey\\-protiv\\-voyny\\-s\\-ukrainoy\\-25\\-fevralya\\-2022\\-goda \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|website\\=OVD\\-Info \\|language\\=RU}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Списки задержанных в связи с акциями против войны с Украиной 26 февраля 2022 года \\|trans\\-title\\=Lists of detainees in connection with actions against the war with Ukraine on February 26, 2022 \\|url\\=https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/26/spiski\\-zaderzhannyh\\-v\\-svyazi\\-s\\-akciyami\\-protiv\\-voyny\\-s\\-ukrainoy\\-26\\-fevralya\\-2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227175534/https://ovd.news/news/2022/02/26/spiski\\-zaderzhannyh\\-v\\-svyazi\\-s\\-akciyami\\-protiv\\-voyny\\-s\\-ukrainoy\\-26\\-fevralya\\-2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|website\\=OVD\\-Info \\|language\\=RU}} from 24 February to 4 March.[Russia\\-Ukraine war latest: 38 countries, including UK, refer atrocities to ICC – live](https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/02/ukraine-news-russia-war-kyiv-kharkiv-russian-invasion-vladimir-putin-joe-biden-latest-live-updates) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302224652/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/02/ukraine\\-news\\-russia\\-war\\-kyiv\\-kharkiv\\-russian\\-invasion\\-vladimir\\-putin\\-joe\\-biden\\-latest\\-live\\-updates\\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-02}} \\| The Guardian *Over 6,500 Russians have so far been detained across Russia during anti\\-war protests, according to the independent monitoring site OVD\\-Info.*{{cite web \\|author\\=Vasco Cotovio \\|date\\=27 February 2022 \\|title\\=Nearly 6,000 detained across Russia as anti\\-war protests enter fourth day, monitoring site says \\|url\\=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live\\-news/ukraine\\-russia\\-news\\-02\\-27\\-22/h\\_b9f792057cdb10388841d3fa2e971da5 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227201349/https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live\\-news/ukraine\\-russia\\-news\\-02\\-27\\-22/h\\_b9f792057cdb10388841d3fa2e971da5 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2022}}{{cite web \\|date\\=24 February 2022 \\|title\\=Thousands in Russia protest Ukraine war, hundreds detained \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20220224\\-thousands\\-in\\-russia\\-protest\\-ukraine\\-war\\-hundreds\\-detained \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224220214/http://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20220224\\-thousands\\-in\\-russia\\-protest\\-ukraine\\-war\\-hundreds\\-detained \\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2022 \\|website\\=France24}} By 27 February, 4,000 scientists and science journalists, 6,200 medics, 5,000 architects and 6,700 artists in Russia had signed electronic petitions against the invasion.{{cite web \\|date\\=27 February 2022 \\|title\\=Кто против войны. Все открытые письма с призывами остановить вторжение в Украину \\|trans\\-title\\=Who is against the war. All open letters with calls to stop the invasion of Ukraine \\|url\\=https://zona.media/article/2022/02/27/vse \\|publisher\\=Zona.media \\|language\\=Russian \\|accessdate\\=8 March 2022}} On 6 March, the monitoring group [OVD\\-Info](/wiki/OVD-Info \"OVD-Info\") reported over 5,000 arrests throughout the day,{{cite news \\|date\\=7 March 2022 \\|title\\=Russia arrests over 5,000 in single day for protesting Ukraine war \\|newspaper\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/russia\\-arrests\\-over\\-5000\\-in\\-single\\-day\\-for\\-protesting\\-ukraine\\-war/article65201756\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2022}}{{cite web \\|author\\=Guy Faulconbridge \\|date\\=6 March 2022 \\|title\\=More than 4,300 detained at anti\\-war protests in Russia \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/more\\-than\\-64\\-people\\-detained\\-anti\\-war\\-protests\\-russia\\-protest\\-monitor\\-2022\\-03\\-06/ \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2022 \\|website\\=Reuters}} bringing the total number of arrests since the start to over 12,000\\.",
"On 26 February 2022, Russia's communications regulator, [Roskomnadzor](/wiki/Roskomnadzor \"Roskomnadzor\"), ordered independent media outlets to take down reports that described the Russian invasion of Ukraine as an \"assault, invasion, or declaration of war\", otherwise fines and blocks would be issued.{{cite news \\|date\\=26 February 2022 \\|title\\=Russia Bans 'Invasion' And 'Assault' In Media \\|work\\=\\[\\[Barron's (newspaper)\\|Barron's]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Agence France Presse]] \\|url\\=https://www.barrons.com/news/russia\\-watchdog\\-tells\\-media\\-not\\-to\\-use\\-words\\-invasion\\-and\\-assault\\-01645866006 \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2022}} From 1 March, Russian schools started war\\-themed social studies classes for teenagers based on the Russian government's position on history; one teaching manual (publicized by independent media outlet [MediaZona](/wiki/MediaZona \"MediaZona\")) for such classes asserted that \"genocide\" had been occurring in eastern Ukraine for eight years, and that Russia in this case was responding with a \"special peacekeeping operation\" in Ukraine, which was \"not a war\".{{cite news \\|date\\=2 March 2022 \\|title\\=Do not call Ukraine invasion a 'war', Russia tells media, schools \\|work\\=\\[\\[Al Jazeera Media Network\\|Al Jazeera]] \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/2/do\\-not\\-call\\-ukraine\\-invasion\\-a\\-war\\-russia\\-tells\\-media\\-schools \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2022}} On 22 February 2023 the monitoring group [OVD\\-Info](/wiki/OVD-Info \"OVD-Info\") reported that there was almost 20,000 arrests due to anti\\-war position and protests.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Сводка антивоенных репрессий \\|url\\=https://data.ovdinfo.org/svodka\\-antivoennyh\\-repressiy\\-god\\-polnomasshtabnogo\\-vtorzheniya\\-rossii\\-v\\-ukrainu \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-15 \\|website\\=ОВД\\-Инфо}} Also by 15 April 2023 they report that in Russia there are 528 being persecuted under criminal law.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anti\\-war case \\|url\\=https://en.ovdinfo.org/antiwar\\-infographics \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-15 \\|website\\=ОВД\\-Инфо}}",
"#### Internal power struggles",
"On 23 June 2023, the [Wagner Group](/wiki/Wagner_Group \"Wagner Group\"), a Russian government\\-funded [paramilitary](/wiki/Paramilitary \"Paramilitary\") and [private military company](/wiki/Private_military_company \"Private military company\"), staged a [rebellion](/wiki/Rebellion \"Rebellion\"). The rebellion occurred after a [period of increasing tensions](/wiki/Prigozhin%E2%80%93Shoigu_conflict \"Prigozhin–Shoigu conflict\") between the [Russian Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Russian_Ministry_of_Defence \"Russian Ministry of Defence\") and the leader of Wagner, [Yevgeny Prigozhin](/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin \"Yevgeny Prigozhin\"). At least thirteen servicemen of the Russian military were killed during the rebellion. On the rebels' side, several Wagner members were reported injured and two military defectors were killed according to Prigozhin.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Prigozhin \\|first1\\=Yevgeny \\|date\\=26 June 2023 \\|title\\='We did not want to spill Russian blood': Prigozhin makes statement on Wagner Group's mutiny attempt \\|work\\=\\[\\[Novaya Gazeta Europe]] \\|publisher\\=Novoya Gazeta Europe \\|url\\=https://novayagazeta.eu/articles/2023/06/26/we\\-did\\-not\\-want\\-to\\-spill\\-russian\\-blood\\-prigozhin\\-makes\\-statement\\-on\\-wagner\\-groups\\-mutiny\\-attempt\\-en \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2023 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626174714/https://novayagazeta.eu/articles/2023/06/26/we\\-did\\-not\\-want\\-to\\-spill\\-russian\\-blood\\-prigozhin\\-makes\\-statement\\-on\\-wagner\\-groups\\-mutiny\\-attempt\\-en \\|archive\\-date\\=June 26, 2023 \\|quote\\=Several PMC Wagner fighters were injured. Two were killed — they were Russian Defence Ministry soldiers who joined us voluntarily.}} While Prigozhin was supportive of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=John \\|first\\=Tara \\|date\\=24 June 2023 \\|title\\=Wagner chief to leave Russia for Belarus in deal that ends armed insurrection, Kremlin says \\|work\\=CNN \\|url\\=https://www.msn.com/en\\-us/news/world/wagner\\-chief\\-to\\-leave\\-russia\\-for\\-belarus\\-in\\-deal\\-that\\-ends\\-armed\\-insurrection\\-kremlin\\-says/ar\\-AA1cYKIU \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629203826/https://www.msn.com/en\\-us/news/world/wagner\\-chief\\-to\\-leave\\-russia\\-for\\-belarus\\-in\\-deal\\-that\\-ends\\-armed\\-insurrection\\-kremlin\\-says/ar\\-AA1cYKIU \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023}} he had previously publicly criticized Defense Minister [Sergei Shoigu](/wiki/Sergei_Shoigu \"Sergei Shoigu\") and Chief of the General Staff [Valery Gerasimov](/wiki/Valery_Gerasimov \"Valery Gerasimov\"), blaming them for the country's military shortcomings and accusing them of handing over \"Russian territories\" to Ukraine.{{cite news \\|last\\=Khaled \\|first\\=Fatma \\|date\\=23 June 2023 \\|title\\=Prigozhin Accuses Putin's Military Leaders of 'Genocide' Against Russians \\|work\\=Newsweek \\|url\\=https://www.newsweek.com/prigozhin\\-accuses\\-putin\\-military\\-leaders\\-genocide\\-against\\-russians\\-1808757 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629205637/https://www.newsweek.com/prigozhin\\-accuses\\-putin\\-military\\-leaders\\-genocide\\-against\\-russians\\-1808757 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023}} Prigozhin portrayed the rebellion as a response to an alleged attack on his forces by the ministry, and demanded that Shoigu and Gerasimov be turned over to him.{{cite news \\|last\\=O'Brien \\|first\\=Phillips \\|date\\=24 June 2023 \\|title\\=Prigozhin Planned This \\|work\\=The Atlantic \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/06/prigozhin\\-wagner\\-putin\\-russia\\-coup/674520/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629210035/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/06/prigozhin\\-wagner\\-putin\\-russia\\-coup/674520/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023}} In a televised address on 24 June, Russian president [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\") denounced Wagner's actions as treason and pledged to quell the rebellion.",
"Prigozhin's forces took control of [Rostov\\-on\\-Don](/wiki/Rostov-on-Don \"Rostov-on-Don\") and the headquarters of the [Southern Military District](/wiki/Southern_Military_District \"Southern Military District\") in the city. An armored [column](/wiki/Column_%28formation%29 \"Column (formation)\") of Wagner troops advanced through [Voronezh Oblast](/wiki/Voronezh_Oblast \"Voronezh Oblast\") towards [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"). Armed with mobile anti\\-aircraft systems, the rebels repelled the air attacks of the [Russian military](/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces \"Russian Armed Forces\"), whose actions did not deter the progress of the column. Ground defenses were concentrated on the approach to Moscow. Before Wagner reached the defenses, [Belarusian](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\") president [Alexander Lukashenko](/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko \"Alexander Lukashenko\") brokered a settlement with Prigozhin, who agreed to end the rebellion. On the late evening of 24 June, Wagner forces turned around, and those that had remained in Rostov\\-on\\-Don began withdrawing. As per the agreement, the [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service \"Federal Security Service\"), which had initiated a case for armed rebellion under Article 279 of the [Criminal Code](/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia \"Criminal Code of Russia\") closed the case on 27 June 2023, dropping the charges.",
"An [Embraer Legacy 600](/wiki/Embraer_Legacy_600 \"Embraer Legacy 600\") [crashed](/wiki/2023_Tver_Oblast_plane_crash \"2023 Tver Oblast plane crash\") near [Kuzhenkino](/wiki/Kuzhenkino_%28urban-type_settlement%29 \"Kuzhenkino (urban-type settlement)\") in [Tver Oblast](/wiki/Tver_Oblast \"Tver Oblast\"), approximately 100 kilometres north of its departure point in Moscow, on 25 August 2023\\. Among the ten victims were [Yevgeny Prigozhin](/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin \"Yevgeny Prigozhin\") and [Dmitry Utkin](/wiki/Dmitry_Utkin \"Dmitry Utkin\"), key figures associated with the [Wagner Group](/wiki/Wagner_Group \"Wagner Group\"), a Russian state\\-funded private military company.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Seddon \\|first\\=Max \\|date\\=23 August 2023 \\|title\\=Yevgeny Prigozhin was passenger on crashed plane, Russian officials say \\|work\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/812c9da3\\-80f2\\-4fe1\\-8fad\\-0b4441d1977a \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823172612/https://www.ft.com/content/812c9da3\\-80f2\\-4fe1\\-8fad\\-0b4441d1977a \\|archive\\-date\\=23 August 2023}}{{subscription required}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Troianovski \\|first\\=Anton \\|date\\=23 August 2023 \\|title\\=Russia\\-Ukraine War: Prigozhin Listed as Passenger on Plane That Crashed, Killing All Aboard \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/23/world/russia\\-ukraine\\-war\\-news \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823173848/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/23/world/russia\\-ukraine\\-war\\-news \\|archive\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Росавиация \\|trans\\-title\\=Rosaviatsiya \\|url\\=https://t.me/favt\\_ru/1278 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823200535/https://t.me/favt\\_ru/1278 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|website\\=Telegram \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Air Transport Agency]] \\|language\\=ru}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Binns \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=23 August 2023 \\|title\\=Wagner Group commander Dmitry Utkin was on plane that crashed north of Moscow, Russian civil aviation authority says \\|url\\=https://news.sky.com/story/wagner\\-group\\-commander\\-dmitry\\-utkin\\-was\\-on\\-plane\\-that\\-crashed\\-near\\-moscow\\-russian\\-civil\\-aviation\\-authority\\-says\\-12946176 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823205759/https://news.sky.com/story/wagner\\-group\\-commander\\-dmitry\\-utkin\\-was\\-on\\-plane\\-that\\-crashed\\-near\\-moscow\\-russian\\-civil\\-aviation\\-authority\\-says\\-12946176 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky News]]}} The circumstances of the crash led to widespread speculation and numerous theories, with many pointing to political motivations and possible involvement of powerful entities in Russia. While official Russian sources downplayed the incident, many observers, including international leaders, implied or openly suggested that the crash was a politically motivated assassination.",
"### Serbia",
"On 7 July 2020, a [series of protests](/wiki/2020_Serbian_protests \"2020 Serbian protests\") and riots began over the government announcement of the reimplementation of the curfew and the government's allegedly poor handling of the [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\") situation, as well as being a partial continuation of the [\"One of Five Million\" movement](/wiki/Serbian_protests_%282018%E2%80%932020%29 \"Serbian protests (2018–2020)\"). The initial demand of the protesters had been to cancel the planned reintroduction of [curfew](/wiki/Curfew \"Curfew\") in Serbia during July, which was successfully achieved in less than 48 hours of the protest.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Serbian President Retracts COVID\\-19 Curfew After 60 Hurt in Violence\\|url\\=https://www.voanews.com/covid\\-19\\-pandemic/serbian\\-president\\-retracts\\-covid\\-19\\-curfew\\-after\\-60\\-hurt\\-violence\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-14\\|website\\=www.voanews.com\\|date\\=8 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Voice of America\\|language\\=en}} Among other causes, the protests were driven by the crisis of democratic institutions under [Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Aleksandar Vučić\")'s rule and the growing concern that the [President](/wiki/President_of_Serbia \"President of Serbia\") is concentrating all powers in his hands at the expense of the parliament.[Svetski mediji o protestima u Srbiji: Protesti spontani, nedostaju institucije (Serbian)](https://mediareform.rs/svetski-mediji-o-protestima-u-srbiji-protesti-spontani-nedostaju-institucije/) Media and Reform (in Serbian), retrieved 2020\\-07\\-11\\.",
"### Slovakia",
"In the [2023 Slovak parliamentary election](/wiki/2023_Slovak_parliamentary_election \"2023 Slovak parliamentary election\"), the [left\\-wing populist](/wiki/Left-wing_populism \"Left-wing populism\"), [social conservative](/wiki/Social_conservatism \"Social conservatism\") and [Pro\\-Russia](/wiki/Pro-Russian \"Pro-Russian\"), [Smer\\-SD](/wiki/Smer-SD \"Smer-SD\") (Direction – Social Democracy), led by former [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Slovakia \"Prime Minister of Slovakia\") [Robert Fico](/wiki/Robert_Fico \"Robert Fico\"), emerged as the largest party, winning 42 seats. The [social\\-liberal](/wiki/Social_liberalism \"Social liberalism\") and [pro\\-European](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\"), [PS](/wiki/Progressive_Slovakia \"Progressive Slovakia\") (Progressive Slovakia) came in second, with 32 seats. Former Prime Minister [Peter Pellegrini](/wiki/Peter_Pellegrini \"Peter Pellegrini\")'s [social\\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\"), [Hlas\\-SD](/wiki/Voice_%E2%80%93_Social_Democracy \"Voice – Social Democracy\") (Voice – Social Democracy), which split from Smer\\-SD in 2020, came in third with 27 seats, making Pellegrini the [kingmaker](/wiki/Kingmaker \"Kingmaker\") in government formation negotiations.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=POLITICO Poll of Polls — Slovakian polls, trends and election news for Slovakia \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/europe\\-poll\\-of\\-polls/slovakia/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=POLITICO \\|language\\=en}} On 11 October, [Smer\\-SD](/wiki/Smer-SD \"Smer-SD\"), [Hlas\\-SD](/wiki/Voice_%E2%80%93_Social_Democracy \"Voice – Social Democracy\"), and [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalism \"Ultranationalism\") [SNS](/wiki/Slovak_National_Party \"Slovak National Party\") ratified their coalition agreement, according to which they were to receive 6, 7, and 3 ministerial portfolios, respectively.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-11 \\|title\\=New government emerges in Slovakia, with Robert Fico as prime minister \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/slovakia\\-robert\\-fico\\-elections\\-as\\-prime\\-minister/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=POLITICO \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Slovenia",
"A [series of protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Slovenian_protests \"2020–2021 Slovenian protests\") broke out after the formation of [Janez Janša's government](/wiki/14th_Government_of_Slovenia \"14th Government of Slovenia\") in early 2020, with protestors demanding Janša's resignation and early elections.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-25\\|title\\=Slovenia's Marathon Anti\\-Govt Protests Enter 23rd Week\\|url\\=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/09/25/slovenias\\-marathon\\-anti\\-govt\\-protests\\-enter\\-23rd\\-week/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|website\\=Balkan Insight\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Janša was accused of eroding freedom of media since assuming office. According to a report by [International Press Institute](/wiki/International_Press_Institute \"International Press Institute\") Slovenia experienced a swift downturn in media and press freedom. IPI accused Janša of creating a hostile environment for journalists by his tweets, which IPI described as \"vitriolic attacks\".{{Cite news\\|title\\=Zašto Slovenci protestuju na biciklima\\|language\\=sr\\-latn\\|work\\=BBC News na srpskom\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/balkan\\-52848572\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-02\\|title\\=Jansa is Eroding Press Freedom in Slovenia, IPI Warns\\|url\\=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/09/02/jansa\\-is\\-eroding\\-press\\-freedom\\-in\\-slovenia\\-ipi\\-warns/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|website\\=Balkan Insight\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He was also accused of usurping power and corruption and compared to [Viktor Orbán](/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n \"Viktor Orbán\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-28\\|title\\=Will Janez Janša take Slovenia down the same populist road as Hungary?\\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2020/10/28/will\\-janez\\-jansa\\-take\\-slovenia\\-down\\-the\\-same\\-populist\\-road\\-as\\-hungary\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|website\\=euronews\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-30\\|title\\=In a Hungarian Corner of Slovenia, a Homegrown Orban\\|url\\=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/01/30/in\\-a\\-hungarian\\-corner\\-of\\-slovenia\\-a\\-homegrown\\-orban/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-30\\|website\\=Balkan Insight\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In the [2022 Slovenian parliamentary election](/wiki/2022_Slovenian_parliamentary_election \"2022 Slovenian parliamentary election\"), the [Freedom Movement](/wiki/Freedom_Movement_%28Slovenia%29 \"Freedom Movement (Slovenia)\") led by [Robert Golob](/wiki/Robert_Golob \"Robert Golob\") won 41 seats in its first election. It had campaigned on a transition to green energy, an open society and the rule of law. It won the highest number of seats for a single party in the elections since the independence of Slovenia.",
"### Sweden",
"A [government crisis](/wiki/2021_Swedish_government_crisis \"2021 Swedish government crisis\") started on 21 June 2021 in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") after the [Riksdag](/wiki/Riksdag \"Riksdag\") ousted [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sweden \"Prime Minister of Sweden\") [Stefan Löfven](/wiki/Stefan_L%C3%B6fven \"Stefan Löfven\") with a [no\\-confidence vote](/wiki/No-confidence_vote \"No-confidence vote\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-21\\|title\\=Sweden faces political uncertainty as PM Lofven ousted by parliament\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/swedish\\-pm\\-brink\\-parliament\\-readies\\-monday\\-no\\-confidence\\-vote\\-2021\\-06\\-21/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-21\\|website\\=Reuters}}{{Cite news\\|title\\=Stefan Löfven fälls av riksdagen \\- Nyheter (Ekot)\\|url\\=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/just\\-nu\\-riksdagen\\-haller\\-misstroendeomrostning\\-mot\\-stefan\\-lofven\\-\\-2\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-21\\|newspaper\\=Sveriges Radio\\|date\\=21 June 2021 \\|language\\=sv}} This was the first time in Swedish history a Prime Minister was ousted by a no\\-confidence vote.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Historiskt: Riksdagen saknar förtroende för Stefan Löfven\\|url\\=https://bulletin.nu/historiskt\\-riksdagen\\-saknar\\-fortroende\\-for\\-stefan\\-lofven\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-21\\|website\\=bulletin.nu\\|language\\=sv}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Regeringen faller efter historisk omröstning\\|url\\=https://www.aftonbladet.se/a/PRKV45\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-21\\|website\\=www.aftonbladet.se\\|date\\=21 June 2021 \\|language\\=sv}} Löfven was narrowly re\\-elected to stay in power later.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-06\\|title\\=Stefan Löfven reappointed Swedish Prime Minister after parliament vote\\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/07/06/stefan\\-lofven\\-swedish\\-caretaker\\-pm\\-faces\\-parliament\\-vote\\-to\\-form\\-new\\-government\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-11\\|website\\=euronews\\|language\\=en}} In November, the Riksdag voted for [Social Democrat](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Sweden \"Social Democratic Party of Sweden\") leader [Magdalena Andersson](/wiki/Magdalena_Andersson \"Magdalena Andersson\") to become the first female [prime minister of Sweden](/wiki/Prime_minister_of_Sweden \"Prime minister of Sweden\"). However, Andersson resigned several hours later, after the [Green Party](/wiki/Green_Party_%28Sweden%29 \"Green Party (Sweden)\") quit the coalition because the opposition budget was approved by the Riksdag.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Sweden\\|first\\=Radio\\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-24\\|title\\=Andersson clears vote to become Sweden's first female prime minister\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Sveriges Radio\\|url\\=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/andersson\\-clears\\-vote\\-to\\-become\\-swedens\\-first\\-female\\-prime\\-minister\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-28}}{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Simon\\|last2\\=Ahlander\\|first2\\=Johan\\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-25\\|title\\=New Swedish PM resigns on first day in job, hopes for swift return\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Reuters\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/rates\\-bonds/swedish\\-pm\\-resigns\\-first\\-day\\-after\\-coalition\\-collapses\\-2021\\-11\\-24/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-28}} Andersson took office several days later after a confirmation vote in the Riksdag.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-29 \\|title\\=Magdalena Andersson chosen as Sweden's first female PM... again \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/29/magdalena\\-andersson\\-set\\-to\\-be\\-chosen\\-as\\-sweden\\-s\\-first\\-female\\-pm\\-again \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129131759/https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/29/magdalena\\-andersson\\-set\\-to\\-be\\-chosen\\-as\\-sweden\\-s\\-first\\-female\\-pm\\-again \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-29 \\|publisher\\=euronews}}",
"The [2022 Swedish general election](/wiki/2022_Swedish_general_election \"2022 Swedish general election\") saw [Andersson's government](/wiki/Andersson_Cabinet \"Andersson Cabinet\") lose its majority, with the Sweden Democrats becoming the second\\-largest party.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-14 \\|title\\=Swedish center\\-right leader Ulf Kristersson claims election win, faces tough coalition talks \\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/swedish\\-center\\-right\\-leader\\-ulf\\-kristersson\\-claims\\-election\\-win\\-faces\\-tough\\-coalition\\-talks/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-19 \\|website\\=Politico \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Overall the right\\-leaning bloc won a majority of seats, with [Moderate Party](/wiki/Moderate_Party \"Moderate Party\") leader [Ulf Kristersson](/wiki/Ulf_Kristersson \"Ulf Kristersson\") widely expected to become prime minister.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Auto \\|first\\=Hermes \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-19 \\|title\\=Sweden's Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson gets nod to try form a new govt \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/swedens\\-moderate\\-party\\-leader\\-ulf\\-kristersson\\-gets\\-nod\\-to\\-try\\-form\\-a\\-new\\-govt \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-19 \\|website\\=www.straitstimes.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Ukraine",
"{{excerpt\\|2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}",
"### United Kingdom",
"{{main\\|2020s in United Kingdom political history}}\nUnder [Boris Johnson](/wiki/Boris_Johnson \"Boris Johnson\")'s government, the UK left the EU on 31 January 2020; trade deal negotiations continued to within days of the scheduled end of the transition period on 31 December 2020 [CET](/wiki/Central_European_Time \"Central European Time\"). The [effects of Brexit](/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit \"Impact of Brexit\") will in part be determined by the [EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement](/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement \"EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement\") which was agreed on 24 December 2020 and ratified by the [UK Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\") on 30 December 2020 and was \"provisionally\" applied by the EU from 31 December 2020\\.{{cite news\\|author\\=Tom Edgington\\|date\\=31 January 2020\\|title\\=Brexit: What is the transition period?\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-politics\\-50838994\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-01\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131215049/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-politics\\-50838994\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-31}}",
"Loyalists and unionists argued that [post\\-Brexit trading arrangements](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol \"Northern Ireland Protocol\") have created barriers between [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") and the rest of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Blackall\\|first\\=Molly\\|date\\=3 April 2021\\|title\\=Northern Ireland's first minister joins calls for calm after Belfast riots\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk\\-news/2021/apr/03/northern\\-ireland\\-secretary\\-calls\\-for\\-calm\\-after\\-belfast\\-riots\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-03}} The [Loyalist Communities Council](/wiki/Loyalist_Communities_Council \"Loyalist Communities Council\"), which represents paramilitary groups including the [Ulster Volunteer Force](/wiki/Ulster_Volunteer_Force \"Ulster Volunteer Force\") and the [Ulster Defence Association](/wiki/Ulster_Defence_Association \"Ulster Defence Association\") withdrew their support for the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement \"Good Friday Agreement\") (which brought to an end [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\")) until the [sea border](/wiki/Irish_Sea_border \"Irish Sea border\") is removed.{{Cite news\\|date\\=4 March 2021\\|title\\=Loyalist group withdraws support for Good Friday Agreement\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-northern\\-ireland\\-56276653\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-05}} A [series of riots](/wiki/2021_Northern_Ireland_riots \"2021 Northern Ireland riots\") in [loyalist](/wiki/Ulster_loyalism \"Ulster loyalism\") areas of [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") began in [Waterside](/wiki/Waterside%2C_Derry \"Waterside, Derry\"), [Derry](/wiki/Derry \"Derry\"), on 30 March 2021\\. [First Minister](/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland \"First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland\") [Arlene Foster](/wiki/Arlene_Foster \"Arlene Foster\") announced her resignation after losing the support of her [Democratic Unionist Party](/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party \"Democratic Unionist Party\") in the aftermath of the riots.{{Cite web\\|title\\=N.Ireland First Minister Foster Announces Resignation\\|url\\=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/nireland\\-first\\-minister\\-foster\\-announces\\-res\\-1237280\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-02\\|website\\=UrduPoint\\|language\\=en}}",
"Since mid\\-2021, Johnson's premiership had been impacted by controversies over Johnson's actions relating to [Owen Paterson's lobbying](/wiki/Owen_Paterson_scandal \"Owen Paterson scandal\") and the [Partygate](/wiki/Partygate \"Partygate\") scandal. These, combined with impacts on [electoral performance](/wiki/2022_United_Kingdom_local_elections \"2022 United Kingdom local elections\"), led to the ruling [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") holding a [vote of confidence](/wiki/2022_vote_of_confidence_in_the_Conservative_Party_leadership_of_Boris_Johnson \"2022 vote of confidence in the Conservative Party leadership of Boris Johnson\") in Johnson's leadership in June 2022, which he won, although he was politically weakened.{{cite news \\|last\\=Mason \\|first\\=Rowena \\|date\\=6 June 2022 \\|title\\=Boris Johnson wins no\\-confidence vote despite unexpectedly large rebellion \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/jun/06/boris\\-johnson\\-wins\\-no\\-confidence\\-vote\\-despite\\-unexpectedly\\-large\\-rebellion \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2022}} After previously saying he would remain as [Conservative Party leader](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)\") to see through the party's manifesto pledges, Johnson announced on 7 July that he would resign as leader but remain as prime minister in a caretaker capacity until a new party leader was elected, with the results of the [Conservative Party leadership election](/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election \"July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election\") being released on 5 September 2022\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Adam \\|first1\\=Karla \\|last2\\=Booth \\|first2\\=William \\|date\\=7 July 2022 \\|title\\=Boris Johnson blames 'the herd,' resigns to make way for new U.K. leader \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/07/uk\\-boris\\-johnson\\-resignation/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707194307/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/07/uk\\-boris\\-johnson\\-resignation/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2022}}{{cite news \\|date\\=7 July 2022 \\|title\\=Boris Johnson resigns: Five things that led to the PM's downfall \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-politics\\-62070422 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707212744/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-politics\\-62070422 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2022}}{{cite news \\|date\\=7 July 2022 \\|title\\=Boris Johnson facing calls to quit as PM as soon as possible \\|work\\=BBC \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-politics\\-62064789 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707082742/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-politics\\-62064789 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2022}} On 5 September, [Liz Truss](/wiki/Liz_Truss \"Liz Truss\") was elected leader of the Conservative Party and succeeded Johnson as prime minister on 6 September 2022\\.",
"Truss resigned as leader of the Conservative Party on 20 October 2022, which would make her the [shortest\\-serving prime minister in British history](/wiki/Shortest-serving_prime_minister_in_British_history \"Shortest-serving prime minister in British history\") following the [September mini\\-budget](/wiki/September_2022_United_Kingdom_mini-budget \"September 2022 United Kingdom mini-budget\"), which was received negatively by the world [financial markets](/wiki/Financial_markets \"Financial markets\"). It ultimately led to the dismissal of the [chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer \"Chancellor of the Exchequer\"), [Kwasi Kwarteng](/wiki/Kwasi_Kwarteng \"Kwasi Kwarteng\"), on 14 October, and his replacement by [Jeremy Hunt](/wiki/Jeremy_Hunt \"Jeremy Hunt\"). In the following days Truss came under increasing pressure to reverse further elements of the mini\\-budget to satisfy the markets, and by 17 October five Conservative [members of parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") had called for her resignation.",
"[Rishi Sunak](/wiki/Rishi_Sunak \"Rishi Sunak\") stood in the [Conservative party leadership election](/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election \"July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election\") to replace Johnson,{{cite news \\|date\\=8 July 2022 \\|title\\=Ex\\-Chancellor Rishi Sunak launches bid to be Conservative leader \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-politics\\-62099272 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708152408/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-politics\\-62099272 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2022}} and lost the members' vote to [Liz Truss](/wiki/Liz_Truss \"Liz Truss\").{{cite news \\|date\\=5 September 2022 \\|title\\=Liz Truss to be UK's new PM as Sunak defeated – live \\|website\\=The Independent \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/prime\\-minister\\-vote\\-liz\\-truss\\-rishi\\-sunak\\-b2159849\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2022}} After Truss's resignation amid a [credibility crisis](/wiki/October_2022_United_Kingdom_government_crisis \"October 2022 United Kingdom government crisis\"), Sunak was [elected unopposed](/wiki/October_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election \"October 2022 Conservative Party leadership election\") as Leader of the Conservative Party. He was appointed prime minister by [King Charles III](/wiki/King_Charles_III \"King Charles III\") on 25 October 2022, becoming the first [British Asian](/wiki/British_Asian \"British Asian\") and [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Hinduism in the United Kingdom\") to hold that position.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sherwood \\|first1\\=Harriet \\|date\\=24 October 2022 \\|title\\=Rishi Sunak to become first British PM of colour and also first Hindu at No 10 \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/oct/24/rishi\\-sunak\\-becomes\\-first\\-british\\-pm\\-of\\-colour\\-and\\-also\\-first\\-hindu\\-at\\-no\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2022}}{{Cite news \\|author\\=Jill Lawless \\|date\\=24 October 2022 \\|title\\=Rishi Sunak, UK's next PM, faces major economic problems \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=Associated Press \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/british\\-politics\\-rishi\\-sunak\\-penny\\-mordaunt\\-europe\\-london\\-8e621dc1a9415eedc080cdfbd2d41754 \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2022}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-25 \\|title\\=Rishi Sunak: A quick guide to the UK's new prime minister \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC News \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-63345272 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-27}}",
"#### Northern Ireland",
"In the [2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election](/wiki/2022_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election \"2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election\"), [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in \"Sinn Féin\") became the largest party, marking the first time an election in Northern Ireland has resulted in a [nationalist](/wiki/Irish_nationalism \"Irish nationalism\") party winning the most seats, and thus has the right to nominate Northern Ireland's first nationalist [First Minister](/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland \"First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland\").",
""
] |
Rugby union
-----------
### Super Rugby
In [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union "Rugby union"), [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby "Super Rugby") is the highest level of provincial competition in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the highest domestic level in Japan, and the only professional domestic level in Argentina. From the creation of Super Rugby in [1996](/wiki/1996_Super_12_season "1996 Super 12 season") through [2015](/wiki/2015_Super_Rugby_season "2015 Super Rugby season"), only Australia, New Zealand and South Africa participated; the competition added teams in the latter two countries in [2016](/wiki/2016_Super_Rugby_season "2016 Super Rugby season"). Since the [2011 season](/wiki/2011_Super_Rugby_season "2011 Super Rugby season"), it has operated on a conference system.
From 2011 through to 2015, the competition had one conference based in each of its [three founding countries](/wiki/SANZAAR "SANZAAR"). The winner of each conference received a playoff spot, as did the three next best teams overall. With the addition of Argentina's [Jaguares](/wiki/Jaguares_%28Super_Rugby%29 "Jaguares (Super Rugby)") and Japan's [Sunwolves](/wiki/Sunwolves "Sunwolves") for 2016, plus [a sixth franchise](/wiki/Southern_Kings "Southern Kings") for South Africa, the competition reorganised into a new four\-conference system. In 2016 and 2017, Australia and New Zealand formed separate conferences within an Australasian group; the South African teams were joined by the Jaguares and Sunwolves in a "South African" group, with that group also being divided into two conferences. The winner of each conference continued to receive a playoff spot, with additional berths going to the next three best Australasian teams and the next best team of the South African group.
For 2018, Super Rugby will revert to a 15\-team format, following the dropping of two teams from South Africa and one from Australia. The new format features three conferences—Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, each with five teams; the Sunwolves will join the Australian conference and the Jaguares will play in the South African conference. The conference winners will continue to receive playoff berths, with additional berths going to the top five teams in the overall competition table that were not already qualified.
### United Rugby Championship
In the same sport, Pro14, now known as the [United Rugby Championship](/wiki/United_Rugby_Championship "United Rugby Championship"), adopted a conference system effective in [2017–18](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Pro14 "2017–18 Pro14"), following the addition of the two South African teams dropped from Super Rugby. The competition split into two conferences, each featuring two teams from Ireland and Wales, plus single teams from Italy, Scotland and South Africa. Following the league season, the teams that top each conference table received berths in the semifinals, with the next two teams in each conference playing off for semifinal berths.
After the 2020–21 season, South Africa fully aligned its club rugby structure with that of Europe. The then\-existing Pro14 franchises from South Africa were replaced by the country's four Super Rugby franchises, which moved into Pro14 and led to the competition's rebranding as the United Rugby Championship. For the first season under the URC name in 2021–22, the competition reorganized into four regionally based pools, though no longer using the word "conference". Three of the pools are made up of teams from one country—Ireland, South Africa, and Wales. The fourth features the teams from Italy and Scotland. Each regional pool competes for a secondary trophy called a "shield" (Irish, Scottish/Italian, South African, Welsh), with the overall league table used to determine playoff participants. The winner of each shield, however, is assured a place in the following year's [European Rugby Champions Cup](/wiki/European_Rugby_Champions_Cup "European Rugby Champions Cup") regardless of its overall league position.
|
[
"Rugby union\n-----------",
"### Super Rugby",
"In [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union \"Rugby union\"), [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby \"Super Rugby\") is the highest level of provincial competition in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the highest domestic level in Japan, and the only professional domestic level in Argentina. From the creation of Super Rugby in [1996](/wiki/1996_Super_12_season \"1996 Super 12 season\") through [2015](/wiki/2015_Super_Rugby_season \"2015 Super Rugby season\"), only Australia, New Zealand and South Africa participated; the competition added teams in the latter two countries in [2016](/wiki/2016_Super_Rugby_season \"2016 Super Rugby season\"). Since the [2011 season](/wiki/2011_Super_Rugby_season \"2011 Super Rugby season\"), it has operated on a conference system.",
"From 2011 through to 2015, the competition had one conference based in each of its [three founding countries](/wiki/SANZAAR \"SANZAAR\"). The winner of each conference received a playoff spot, as did the three next best teams overall. With the addition of Argentina's [Jaguares](/wiki/Jaguares_%28Super_Rugby%29 \"Jaguares (Super Rugby)\") and Japan's [Sunwolves](/wiki/Sunwolves \"Sunwolves\") for 2016, plus [a sixth franchise](/wiki/Southern_Kings \"Southern Kings\") for South Africa, the competition reorganised into a new four\\-conference system. In 2016 and 2017, Australia and New Zealand formed separate conferences within an Australasian group; the South African teams were joined by the Jaguares and Sunwolves in a \"South African\" group, with that group also being divided into two conferences. The winner of each conference continued to receive a playoff spot, with additional berths going to the next three best Australasian teams and the next best team of the South African group.",
"For 2018, Super Rugby will revert to a 15\\-team format, following the dropping of two teams from South Africa and one from Australia. The new format features three conferences—Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, each with five teams; the Sunwolves will join the Australian conference and the Jaguares will play in the South African conference. The conference winners will continue to receive playoff berths, with additional berths going to the top five teams in the overall competition table that were not already qualified.",
"### United Rugby Championship",
"In the same sport, Pro14, now known as the [United Rugby Championship](/wiki/United_Rugby_Championship \"United Rugby Championship\"), adopted a conference system effective in [2017–18](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Pro14 \"2017–18 Pro14\"), following the addition of the two South African teams dropped from Super Rugby. The competition split into two conferences, each featuring two teams from Ireland and Wales, plus single teams from Italy, Scotland and South Africa. Following the league season, the teams that top each conference table received berths in the semifinals, with the next two teams in each conference playing off for semifinal berths.",
"After the 2020–21 season, South Africa fully aligned its club rugby structure with that of Europe. The then\\-existing Pro14 franchises from South Africa were replaced by the country's four Super Rugby franchises, which moved into Pro14 and led to the competition's rebranding as the United Rugby Championship. For the first season under the URC name in 2021–22, the competition reorganized into four regionally based pools, though no longer using the word \"conference\". Three of the pools are made up of teams from one country—Ireland, South Africa, and Wales. The fourth features the teams from Italy and Scotland. Each regional pool competes for a secondary trophy called a \"shield\" (Irish, Scottish/Italian, South African, Welsh), with the overall league table used to determine playoff participants. The winner of each shield, however, is assured a place in the following year's [European Rugby Champions Cup](/wiki/European_Rugby_Champions_Cup \"European Rugby Champions Cup\") regardless of its overall league position.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins
[thumb\|Founding members of Hajduk, in the [U Fleků](/wiki/U_Flek%C5%AF "U Fleků") inn in [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague")](/wiki/File:Founding_of_Hajduk.jpg "Founding of Hajduk.jpg")
The club was founded in the centuries\-old pub [U Fleků](/wiki/U_Flek%C5%AF "U Fleků") in [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") (then also part of the [Austro\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire "Austro-Hungarian Empire")), by a group of students from Split: [Fabjan Kaliterna](/wiki/Fabjan_Kaliterna "Fabjan Kaliterna"), Lucijan Stella, Ivan Šakić and Vjekoslav Ivanišević.Dalibor Brozović. "Hrvatska enciklopedija: *Volume 1*", 1999\. They went to the pub following a match between [AC Sparta](/wiki/AC_Sparta_Prague "AC Sparta Prague") and [SK Slavia](/wiki/SK_Slavia_Prague "SK Slavia Prague") and decided it was time their own town founded a professional club. They all knew how popular the sport was in their home city of Split, and how well their friends can play.
The club was officially registered with the authorities on 13 February 1911\.{{cite web \|url\=http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1911\-1920 \|title\=HNK Hajduk Split—History: 1911 – 1920 \|publisher\=Hajduk.hr \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|archive\-date\=17 June 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617171530/http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1911\-1920 \|url\-status\=live }} While trying to come up with a name for the club (other options being "Velebit", "Uskok", "Marjan"...), the students went to their old teacher Josip Barač for advice and according to accounts, after enthusiastically storming into his office, he told them to take the name "Hajduk" which symbolized "that which is best in our people: bravery, humanity, friendship, love of freedom, defiance to powers, and protection of the weak. Be worthy of that great name".{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.vjesnik.hr/html/2009/03/28/Clanak.asp?r\=sta\&c\=2 \|title\=Vjesnik: Po kome je Hajduk dobio ime? \|access\-date\=17 February 2011 \|archive\-date\=26 May 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526081244/http://www.vjesnik.hr/html/2009/03/28/Clanak.asp?r\=sta\&c\=2 \|url\-status\=dead }}
[Hajduks](/wiki/Hajduk "Hajduk") were romanticized bandits that fought the rule of the Ottoman Turks. It is speculated that famed hajduk [Andrijica Šimić](/wiki/Andrijica_%C5%A0imi%C4%87 "Andrijica Šimić"), who triumphantly arrived in Split in 1902 to cheering crowds (after a long stint in an Austrian prison), was perhaps the inspiration for the name. The founders subsequently designed the club's emblem, and a group of Catholic nuns from a monastery in Split, created copies which were distributed to fans.[Hajduk's membership pass – Lord help us!](http://www.slobodnadalmacija.hr/Hajduk/tabid/83/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/4012/Default.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511114734/http://www.slobodnadalmacija.hr/Hajduk/tabid/83/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/4012/Default.aspx \|date\=11 May 2008 }}, [Slobodna Dalmacija](/wiki/Slobodna_Dalmacija "Slobodna Dalmacija") Both the name and the checkered board on the crest were found provocative by the Monarchy, but it eventually allowed them having been convinced that a football club is a good way to train soldiers.{{cite web \|url\=http://hajduckiportal.hr/osnivanje\-hajduka\-2/ \|title\=Osnivanje Hajduka \|publisher\=hajduckiportal.hr \|language\=hr \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307052526/http://hajduckiportal.hr/osnivanje\-hajduka\-2/ \|archive\-date\=7 March 2016 \|df\=dmy\-all }}
Hajduk gathered the pro\-Croat party of citizens of Split, Croat unionists or *[puntari](/wiki/Puntari "Puntari")*. That is why the club specifically has the name "hrvatski nogometni klub" ("Croatian football club") and has the Croatian coat\-of\-arms in its crest. The club itself was against the Austrian\-Hungarian government's policy of not allowing the unification of the Croatian provinces and keeping them separated (the government and the emperor did not allow the reunion of [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia "Dalmatia") with the rest of Croatia). Hajduk's first opponent were Calcio Spalato, the club of an autonomist party from in Split, and the match ended with a 9–0 (6–0\) victory for Hajduk. The first to score for Hajduk was Šime Raunig, legend has it – with his knee.{{cite web\|title\="Klub neka se Hajduk zove!"\|url\=http://hrsport.net/Vijest.aspx?ID\=3821\|author\=hrsport.net\|access\-date\=9 July 2016\|date\=9 February 2001\|language\=hr\|archive\-date\=20 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820022355/http://hrsport.net/Vijest.aspx?ID\=3821\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|left\|Before the match: Hajduk played [HŠK Zrinjski Mostar](/wiki/H%C5%A0K_Zrinjski_Mostar "HŠK Zrinjski Mostar") on 13 August 1939, winning 3–2\.](/wiki/File:Zrinjski_-_Hajduk_Split.jpg "Zrinjski - Hajduk Split.jpg")
In 1912, Hajduk played their first match in Zagreb against the [HAŠK](/wiki/HA%C5%A0K "HAŠK") football club, and lost 3–2\. The first international match against an eminent opponent was held in 1913 against Czech club Slavia Prague,[Slavia](http://www.slavia.cz/Historie-1913?menuid=707) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927111857/http://www.slavia.cz/Historie\-1913?menuid\=707 \|date\=27 September 2011 }} which at that time were one of the strongest squads in Europe. Hajduk ended up losing the match 1–13 (0–13\). After the formation of the [Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Serbs%2C_Croats%2C_and_Slovenes "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes"), Hajduk first entered the Yugoslav league in 1923, losing their first and only match that season against [SAŠK](/wiki/NK_SA%C5%A0K_Napredak "NK SAŠK Napredak"). However, that same year while on tour in North Africa, Hajduk defeated [Marseille](/wiki/Olympique_de_Marseille "Olympique de Marseille") 3–2 in their first international match, sparking mass celebrations in Split. The next year, the squad was considered so strong that 10 out of the 11 players which played an international friendly for [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia_national_football_team "Yugoslavia national football team") against [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia_national_football_team "Czechoslovakia national football team") were contracted to Hajduk (only exception being the goalkeeper, as Hajduk had an Italian goalkeeper at the time).
In 1926, in honour of the club's 15th birthday, composer [Ivo Tijardović](/wiki/Ivo_Tijardovi%C4%87 "Ivo Tijardović") dedicated an operetta "{{lang\|hr\|Kraljica baluna}}" to the club, making it the only football club in the world to have its own operetta. Apart from national championship, from 1920 to 1936 Hajduk continuously competed in Dalmatian Championship, having won all but one of them.{{cite web \|url\=http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1921\-1930 \|title\=HNK Hajduk Split—History: 1921 – 1930 \|publisher\=Hajduk.hr \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|archive\-date\=17 June 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617162520/http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1921\-1930 \|url\-status\=live }}
Hajduk reached their first period of glory in the late 1920s, when they won their first two Yugoslav championships (1927 and 1929\), which earned them a slot in the Central European Cup.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46753/Hajduk\-uzletio\-1920\-te\-prva\-dva\-naslova\-stigla\-u\-Split.aspx \|title\=Hajduk uzletio 1920\-te, prva dva naslova stigla u Split \|publisher\=Dalmacijanews.com \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203013142/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46753/Hajduk\-uzletio\-1920\-te\-prva\-dva\-naslova\-stigla\-u\-Split.aspx \|archive\-date\=3 December 2013 \|df\=dmy\-all }} Some of the best players in that period were [Leo Lemešić](/wiki/Leo_Leme%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Leo Lemešić") and [Vladimir Kragić](/wiki/Vladimir_Kragi%C4%87 "Vladimir Kragić"), with [Ljubo Benčić](/wiki/Ljubo_Ben%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Ljubo Benčić") managed to become the best goalscorer of the [1927 season](/wiki/1927_Yugoslav_Football_Championship "1927 Yugoslav Football Championship"). Long\-lasting coach of the team was one of clubs greats, [Luka Kaliterna](/wiki/Luka_Kaliterna "Luka Kaliterna"). During the [6 January Dictatorship](/wiki/6_January_Dictatorship "6 January Dictatorship") the adjective "Croatian" in "Croatian Football Club" was forcibly replaced by the adjective "Yugoslav" to the dismay of the team. Furthermore, the 1930s proved disastrous for Hajduk, as they won no tournaments or championships, recording only a few successes in international matches.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46839/Hajdukove\-tridesete\-\-godine\-krize\-i\-inozemnih\-turneja.aspx \|title\=Hajdukove tridesete – godine krize i inozemnih turneja \|publisher\=Dalmacijanews.com \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331181807/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46839/Hajdukove\-tridesete\-\-godine\-krize\-i\-inozemnih\-turneja.aspx \|archive\-date\=31 March 2012 \|df\=dmy\-all }}
They did manage to win one title during the [Banovina of Croatia](/wiki/Banovina_of_Croatia "Banovina of Croatia") era in 1940–41, with an impressive 14–3–1 record. As a Croatian champion the club was about the play the playoffs for Yugoslav championship, but with [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") emerging, the championship was never finished. During this time, Hajduk could have had a fantastic generation led by young [Frane Matošić](/wiki/Frane_Mato%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Frane Matošić"), [Ratko Kacijan](/wiki/Ratko_Kacijan "Ratko Kacijan"), as well as prominent Czech international [Jiří Sobotka](/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Sobotka "Jiří Sobotka").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.jutarnji.hr/ostavite\-hajduk\-na\-miru\-\-netko\-vas\-je\-gadno\-zajebao\-\-to\-nije\-vas\-klub/1143535/ \|title\=Ostavite Hajduk na miru, netko vas je gadno zajebao: to nije vaš klub \|work\=\[\[Jutarnji list]] \|date\=30 November 2013 \|language\=hr \|access\-date\=2016\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=2 December 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202085552/http://www.jutarnji.hr/ostavite\-hajduk\-na\-miru\-\-netko\-vas\-je\-gadno\-zajebao\-\-to\-nije\-vas\-klub/1143535/ \|url\-status\=dead }}
### World War II
In April 1941, during World War II, Yugoslavia was invaded, occupied and carved\-up by the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers"), with Split being annexed directly into Italy. Residents and players were both opposed to the assimilation to Italy, thus the club ceased to compete in defiance throughout the occupation of Split, declining an offer to join the Italian first division under the name "AC Spalato". Instead, [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") founded Societa Calcio Spalato, and renamed the club's home ground after his son's name. After the capitulation of Italy in 1943, the [Partisans](/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans "Yugoslav Partisans") temporarily liberated Split and disarmed the Italian garrison, but the [German Army](/wiki/German_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 "German Army (Wehrmacht)") quickly re\-occupied the city and granted it to the [Independent State of Croatia](/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia "Independent State of Croatia") (NDH) they had installed in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb "Zagreb") back in 1941\. The attitude of the club did not change when the NDH authorities attempted to include Hajduk in the Independent State of Croatia Cup, as NDH earned resentment in Split for allying and partitioning them to Italy. With the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") invading southern Italy and controlling the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"), the [Adriatic islands](/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Adriatic "List of islands in the Adriatic") became a haven for the resistance, prompting Hajduk's rebirth on one of them in 1944\.
The club's players then joined the Partisan general headquarters on the island of [Vis](/wiki/Vis_%28island%29 "Vis (island)") in the [Adriatic](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea "Adriatic Sea"). On 7 May 1944, on the [Feast](/wiki/Calendar_of_saints "Calendar of saints") of [Saint Domnius](/wiki/Saint_Domnius "Saint Domnius"), the patron saint of Split, in presence of Partisan leader [Josip Broz Tito](/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito "Josip Broz Tito")'s and British officers (one of them being [Randolph Churchill](/wiki/Randolph_Churchill "Randolph Churchill")){{cite web \|url\=http://www.jutarnji.hr/talijani\-se\-raspisali\-o\-hajduku\-\-slavni\-klub\-koji\-je\-odbio\-mussolinija\-\-pavelica\-i\-tita\-/1156188/ \|title\=Hajduk – slavni klub koji je odbio Mussolinija, Pavelića i Tita \|work\=Jutarnji.hr \|date\=2014\-01\-18 \|access\-date\=2016\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=19 July 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719043847/http://www.jutarnji.hr/talijani\-se\-raspisali\-o\-hajduku\-\-slavni\-klub\-koji\-je\-odbio\-mussolinija\-\-pavelica\-i\-tita\-/1156188/ \|url\-status\=live }} Hajduk was formed again and began playing as the official football team of the Yugoslav resistance. They competed with Allied service football teams from across the Adriatic in Italy, where they famously played the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") in a friendly match in [Bari](/wiki/Bari "Bari") on 23 September, in front at least 40,000 spectators, losing 2–9\.{{cite web \|url\=http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1941\-1950 \|title\=HNK Hajduk Split—History: 1941 – 1950 \|publisher\=Hajduk.hr \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222080520/http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1941\-1950 \|url\-status\=live }}Club Soccer 101 by Luke Dempsey The match is considered to be one of the most attended football games during the war years, with a rematch in liberated Split few years after (Hajduk won 1–0\). At this time, the club leadership adopted the Partisans' [red star](/wiki/Red_star "Red star") as the badge on the white\-and\-blue club dress. During 1945, Hajduk embarked on a tourney through [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") and [Malta](/wiki/Malta "Malta"). Traveling roughly 30,000 kilometers, and playing over 90 matches, the club won 74 of them, while at the same time Allied airplanes dropped fliers all over Europe prompting other football clubs to follow Hajduk example.Cerjan, Stjepan. Hajduk – tim NOVJ u: *Enciklopedija hrvatske povijesti i kulture*, Školska knjiga, 1980\., stranice 195–196\. While in [Beirut](/wiki/Beirut "Beirut"), [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle") gave Hajduk the title of honorary team of Free France, the trophy being treasured ever since.
With its proficiency and its "unique [Dalmatian](/wiki/Dalmatia "Dalmatia") spirit", the club reportedly impressed Tito, who frequently attended matches. After the war, he invited Hajduk to move to the Yugoslav capital [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade") and become the official [Yugoslav People's Army](/wiki/Yugoslav_People%27s_Army "Yugoslav People's Army") (JNA) team, but the club refused, wanting to continue to play in their hometown of Split. One of their biggest future rivals, [FK Partizan](/wiki/FK_Partizan "FK Partizan"), were founded instead. However, Hajduk continued to enjoy the reputation of "Tito's favorite" long after the war, and it was because of the friendly relationship with the resistance, it became one of the few Yugoslav football clubs (and the only prominent one) not to be disbanded after the war by the communist government (as was the case with a number of other clubs, especially prominent ones such as [BSK](/wiki/BSK_Beograd "BSK Beograd"), [Građanski](/wiki/Gra%C4%91anski_Zagreb "Građanski Zagreb"), [Jugoslavija](/wiki/SK_Jugoslavija "SK Jugoslavija"), [Concordia](/wiki/H%C5%A0K_Concordia "HŠK Concordia"), [HAŠK](/wiki/HA%C5%A0K "HAŠK") and [Slavija](/wiki/FK_Slavija_Sarajevo "FK Slavija Sarajevo")).
### Iconic 1950s
{{Main\|List of HNK Hajduk Split seasons}}
[thumb\|Hajduk's squad in 1955, wearing the red star badge](/wiki/File:Hajduk_1955.jpg "Hajduk 1955.jpg")
After World War II, Hajduk continued to play in the Yugoslav championship and its cup. In 1946, they won Croatian championship and established the magazine *Journal of Hajduk*. In 1948–49, Hajduk visited Australia and became the first team from Yugoslavia to play on all continents. The club won the [1950 Yugoslav championship](/wiki/1950_Yugoslav_First_League "1950 Yugoslav First League") without a single loss, setting a record that no one managed to accomplish before the breakup of Yugoslavia 40 years later. On 28 October 1950, a day before a decisive match against one of its biggest rivals [Red Star Belgrade](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade "Red Star Belgrade") (a 2–1 win), the official fan organization [Torcida](/wiki/Torcida_Split "Torcida Split") was founded.[Torcida Split: Povijest\-Osnivanje Torcide](http://www.torcida.hr/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=47&Itemid=98) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217032145/http://www.torcida.hr/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=category\&layout\=blog\&id\=47\&Itemid\=98 \|date\=17 February 2011 }} It was created by engineering student Vjenceslav Žuvela, who chose the name after the enthusiastic Brazilian fans, and Torcida become the first organized group of supporters in Europe.[Hajduk Split fans celebrate centenary by engulfing city in flares](https://sports.yahoo.com/soccer/blog/dirty-tackle/post/Hajduk-Split-fans-celebrate-centenary-by-engulfi?urn=sow-320948) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218030205/http://sports.yahoo.com/soccer/blog/dirty\-tackle/post/Hajduk\-Split\-fans\-celebrate\-centenary\-by\-engulfi?urn\=sow\-320948 \|date\=18 February 2011 }} The following year, reconstruction of "[Stari Plac](/wiki/Stadion_Stari_plac "Stadion Stari plac")" stadium was finished, and it homed the club for more than three decades.
Consequent seasons showed Hajduk's supremacy, but also the political manipulations to prevent them winning the championships. For one, Torcida was viewed as a hostile organization by the communist authorities, which posed a risk to the national consciousness of the new Yugoslavian state. Hajduk's leadership was sanctioned, the team's captain expelled from the communist party, and Vjenceslav Žuvela imprisoned. Also, during the winter break of the [1952–53 season](/wiki/1952%E2%80%9353_Yugoslav_First_League "1952–53 Yugoslav First League"), following an invitation from [Juan Perón](/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n "Juan Perón"), Hajduk went on tour to South America and eventually extended their stay there.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\-dominirala\-zlatna\-Hajdukova\-generacija.aspx \|title\=Torcida Split: Povijest\- 1951\. – 1960 \|publisher\=Dalmacijanews.com \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205041327/http://dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\-dominirala\-zlatna\-Hajdukova\-generacija.aspx \|archive\-date\=5 December 2013 \|df\=dmy\-all }} This caused them to come home late, but instead of promised delay of games in the Championship, they faced defeat against [BSK](/wiki/OFK_Beograd "OFK Beograd") and a draw with [Spartak Subotica](/wiki/FK_Spartak_Zlatibor_Voda "FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda") as their youth team and couple of veteran players had to play them. Although Hajduk later beat both Red Star (4–1\) and Partizan (4–2\) in Belgrade, Red Star became the champion by only a two\-point margin.
Next season saw a similar occurrence, with players [Vladimir Beara](/wiki/Vladimir_Beara "Vladimir Beara") and [Bernard Vukas](/wiki/Bernard_Vukas "Bernard Vukas") arriving late for national team training and receiving a month\-long ban from football. Without these essential players, Hajduk lost important matches and Dinamo Zagreb finished as champions. All this prompted club legend [Frane Matošić](/wiki/Frane_Mato%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Frane Matošić") to storm a meeting of the [Yugoslav Football Association](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Yugoslavia "Football Association of Yugoslavia") and say, "Have you at least a gram of integrity?"{{cite news \|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\-dominirala\-zlatna\-Hajdukova\-generacija.aspx \|title\=Pedesetima dominirala zlatna Hajdukova generacija \|last\=Princivali \|first\=Ivan \|date\=8 February 2011 \|work\=dalmacijanews.com \|language\=hr \|access\-date\=7 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331181838/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\-dominirala\-zlatna\-Hajdukova\-generacija.aspx \|archive\-date\=31 March 2012 \|df\=dmy\-all }} On 3 April 1955 in Zagreb, Hajduk defeated Dinamo 6–0, recording its biggest win in the [derby](/wiki/Eternal_derby_%28Croatia%29 "Eternal derby (Croatia)") between the two largest Croatian clubs, and later won the championship. However, the Football Association of Yugoslavia qualified them to the European [Mitropa Cup](/wiki/Mitropa_Cup "Mitropa Cup"), while Partizan was chosen to participate in the inaugural [European Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League").
During the early 1950s, the club had one of its most iconic generation of players, winning three Yugoslav championships. Two such players – goalkeeper [Vladimir Beara](/wiki/Vladimir_Beara "Vladimir Beara") and Zagreb\-born midfielder [Bernard Vukas](/wiki/Bernard_Vukas "Bernard Vukas") (called "Bajdo") – were called to represent Team Europe in friendly matches against Great Britain. In one of the matches, Vukas scored a hat\-trick. Apart from them, Frane Matošić scored his 729 goals in 739 official and unofficial games, setting a club record likely never to be broken. Other famous players included [Božo Broketa](/wiki/Bo%C5%BEo_Broketa "Božo Broketa"), [Ljubomir Kokeza](/wiki/Ljubomir_Kokeza "Ljubomir Kokeza"), [Slavko Luštica](/wiki/Slavko_Lu%C5%A1tica "Slavko Luštica") and [Lenko Grčić](/wiki/Lenko_Gr%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Lenko Grčić").
### Miserable 1960s and another Golden Generation
[thumb\|150px\|Hajduk's red star logo from 1960 to 1990](/wiki/File:Hajduk_logo.png "Hajduk logo.png")
Generation of 1950s broke down after 1955 title, with Matošić retiring, Beara moving to Red Star Belgrade and Vukas to Italian club [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna_F.C._1909 "Bologna F.C. 1909"). The 1960s were remembered as some of the hardest times in Hajduk's history. In four seasons (1963 to 1966\), the club finished no better than tenth and no better than fourth in the next half of the decade. In the [1965–66 season](/wiki/1965%E2%80%9366_Yugoslav_First_League "1965–66 Yugoslav First League"), due to the "Planinić affair" accusing Hajduk of rigging matches during those unsuccessful seasons, five points were deducted (down from the initial penalty of relegation), and Hajduk managed to stay in the top flight with much thanks to [Petar Nadoveza](/wiki/Petar_Nadoveza "Petar Nadoveza"), who managed to become the league's top scorer with 21 goals. During this era, the club won just one trophy – the [1967 cup](/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Yugoslav_Cup "1966–67 Yugoslav Cup"), which was also their first Yugoslav cup trophy and send the team to [European Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/1967%E2%80%9368_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "1967–68 European Cup Winners' Cup") the next year, their first appearance under [UEFA](/wiki/UEFA "UEFA")\-organized international competition.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47178/Sezdesete\-Najteze\-razdoblje\-u\-Hajdukovoj\-povijesti.aspx \|title\=Šezdesete: Najteže razdoblje u Hajdukovoj povijesti \|last\=Princivali \|first\=Ivan \|date\=9 February 2011 \|work\=dalmacijanews.com \|language\=hr \|access\-date\=7 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708222418/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47178/Sezdesete\-Najteze\-razdoblje\-u\-Hajdukovoj\-povijesti.aspx \|archive\-date\=8 July 2011 \|df\=dmy\-all }} Prominent players of the time included [Ante Žanetić](/wiki/Ante_%C5%BDaneti%C4%87 "Ante Žanetić") (member of [1960 World Soccer Team of the Year](/wiki/World_Soccer_%28magazine%29 "World Soccer (magazine)")), [Ivica Hlevnjak](/wiki/Ivica_Hlevnjak "Ivica Hlevnjak"), [Vinko Cuzzi](/wiki/Vinko_Cuzzi "Vinko Cuzzi") and [Andrija Anković](/wiki/Andrija_Ankovi%C4%87 "Andrija Anković").
From 1970 to 1980, Hajduk had achieved its most successful years in Yugoslavia. The new "[Golden Generation](/wiki/Golden_Generation "Golden Generation")" won five consecutive cups and four championships in the period from 1972 to 1979, accompanied by notable international success.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47268/Hajdukova\-zlatna\-generacija\-obiljezila\-sedamdesete.aspx \|title\=Hajdukova zlatna generacija obilježila sedamdesete \|last\=Princivali \|first\=Ivan \|date\=10 February 2011 \|work\=dalmacijanews.com \|language\=hr \|access\-date\=7 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331181907/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47268/Hajdukova\-zlatna\-generacija\-obiljezila\-sedamdesete.aspx \|archive\-date\=31 March 2012 \|df\=dmy }} In 1971, and after a 16\-year wait, Hajduk won the title after a memorable 4–3 away win over Partizan in a decisive match Hajduk were at one time behind 0–3\. This unexpected success was achieved with a team of youngsters, and Nadoveza as a league top scorer yet another time. After winning their first out of five consecutive domestic cups in 1972, the team achieved first major international success, playing in the semi\-finals of next year's [Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "1972–73 European Cup Winners' Cup") against [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. "Leeds United F.C."). The team's manager at the time was one of Croatia's finest, [Branko Zebec](/wiki/Branko_Zebec "Branko Zebec").
After Zebec left the club, he was replaced by the young and talented [Tomislav Ivić](/wiki/Tomislav_Ivi%C4%87 "Tomislav Ivić"), who would later become the club's coaching legend and one of the most successful managers in Europe, winning eight league titles in seven different countries.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.index.hr/sport/clanak/gazzetta\-dello\-sport\-tomislav\-ivic\-je\-najuspjesniji\-trener\-u\-povijesti/345000\.aspx \|title\=Gazzeto dello Sport: Tomislav Ivić je najuspješniji trener u povijesti \|publisher\=Index.hr \|access\-date\=2016\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=7 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307051510/http://www.index.hr/sport/clanak/gazzetta\-dello\-sport\-tomislav\-ivic\-je\-najuspjesniji\-trener\-u\-povijesti/345000\.aspx \|url\-status\=live }} The first three years under Ivić saw Hajduk win two Yugoslav titles and three cups. In [1976](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_Yugoslav_First_League "1975–76 Yugoslav First League"), Hajduk could have won a third\-straight [Double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 "Double (association football)") after defeating the top league team Partizan [6–1 away](/wiki/Partizan_Belgrade_1-6_Hajduk_Split_%289_May_1976%29 "Partizan Belgrade 1-6 Hajduk Split (9 May 1976)"). However, there was a scandal in the last match of the season when Partizan defeated Olimpija after scoring in the 95th minute of the match (despite UEFA not yet introducing added time for another 20 years) after numerous dubious referee decisions during the match. With the season finishing, Ivić left Hajduk for [Ajax](/wiki/AFC_Ajax "AFC Ajax"), but would return two years later only to win another league title, the club's last in the former Yugoslavia.
During these years, Hajduk reached quarter\-finals of both the [European Cup](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_European_Cup "1975–76 European Cup") and [Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/1977%E2%80%9378_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "1977–78 European Cup Winners' Cup"), with notable home wins against [PSV](/wiki/PSV_Eindhoven "PSV Eindhoven") (2–0\), [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") (2–1\) and [Saint Etienne](/wiki/AS_Saint-%C3%89tienne "AS Saint-Étienne") (4–1\). Notable Hajduk and Yugoslav international players included goalkeepers [Ivan Katalinić](/wiki/Ivan_Katalini%C4%87 "Ivan Katalinić") and [Radomir Vukčević](/wiki/Radomir_Vuk%C4%8Devi%C4%87 "Radomir Vukčević"); defenders [Ivan Buljan](/wiki/Ivan_Buljan "Ivan Buljan") (1975 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Zoran Vujović](/wiki/Zoran_Vujovi%C4%87 "Zoran Vujović"), [Dragan Holcer](/wiki/Dragan_Holcer "Dragan Holcer"), [Vilson Džoni](/wiki/Vilson_D%C5%BEoni "Vilson Džoni"), [Luka Peruzović](/wiki/Luka_Peruzovi%C4%87 "Luka Peruzović") and [Vedran Rožić](/wiki/Vedran_Ro%C5%BEi%C4%87 "Vedran Rožić"); midfielders [Jurica Jerković](/wiki/Jurica_Jerkovi%C4%87 "Jurica Jerković"), [Dražen Mužinić](/wiki/Dra%C5%BEen_Mu%C5%BEini%C4%87 "Dražen Mužinić") (1975 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Branko Oblak](/wiki/Branko_Oblak "Branko Oblak") (1974 Ballon d'Or candidate); and strikers [Ivica Šurjak](/wiki/Ivica_%C5%A0urjak "Ivica Šurjak") (1976 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year) and [Slaviša Žungul](/wiki/Slavi%C5%A1a_%C5%BDungul "Slaviša Žungul"). The club's respected president at the time was Tito Kirigin.
### Poljud curse
[thumb\|[Poljud Stadium](/wiki/Poljud_Stadium "Poljud Stadium")](/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Poljud_Stadium_in_2024.jpg "Aerial view of Poljud Stadium in 2024.jpg")
In 1979, Hajduk moved to the newly designed stadium at [Poljud](/wiki/Stadion_Poljud "Stadion Poljud"), built to host the [1979 Mediterranean Games](/wiki/1979_Mediterranean_Games "1979 Mediterranean Games"). However, the 1980s were noticeably less successful, as the club won only three Yugoslav cups before SFR Yugoslavia fell apart in 1991\. The club's struggles were often linked to their new home stadium, which had athletic running track around the pitch, as opposed to Stari Plac, where supporters could cheer much closer to their team. The club's Inaugural season at Poljud saw Hajduk's most iconic official international match: the [1979–80 European Cup](/wiki/1979%E2%80%9380_European_Cup "1979–80 European Cup") quarter\-finals against eventual finalists [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV "Hamburger SV"), and a 3–2 home win after losing 0–1 away. Later years saw Hajduk achieve memorable home wins against [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF "Valencia CF") (4–1\), [Bordeaux](/wiki/FC_Girondins_de_Bordeaux "FC Girondins de Bordeaux") (4–1\), Marseille (2–0\), [Universitatea Craiova](/wiki/CS_Universitatea_Craiova "CS Universitatea Craiova") (1–0\), [Tottenham Hotspur](/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C. "Tottenham Hotspur F.C.") (2–1\) and a friendly win against [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") (6–0\), considered to be United's biggest loss outside England. Hajduk also eliminated clubs such as [Metz](/wiki/FC_Metz "FC Metz") (5–1, 2–2\), [VfB Stuttgart](/wiki/VfB_Stuttgart "VfB Stuttgart") (3–1, 2–2\), [Torino](/wiki/Torino_F.C. "Torino F.C.") (3–1, 1–1\), [Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk](/wiki/FC_Dnipro_Dnipropetrovsk "FC Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk") (2–0, 1–0\), Universitatea Craiova (0–1, 1–0, 3–1pen) and Sparta Prague (2–0, 0–1\), reaching [UEFA Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League "UEFA Europa League") semi\-final in [1984](/wiki/1983%E2%80%9384_UEFA_Cup "1983–84 UEFA Cup") and quarter\-final in [1986](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_UEFA_Cup "1985–86 UEFA Cup"). In [1988](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "1987–88 European Cup Winners' Cup"), during a Cup Winners' Cup home match with Marseille, releasing tear gas from the crowd caused the game to be canceled at 2–0 for Hajduk to award Marseille a default 0–3 victory; Hajduk was also banned from all UEFA competitions for the next two years.{{cite web\|title\=Stadion na zlu glasu u Europi\|url\=http://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20010511/sport1\.htm\|author\=hrsport.net\|access\-date\=9 July 2016\|date\=11 May 2001\|language\=hr\|archive\-date\=6 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406103757/http://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20010511/sport1\.htm\|url\-status\=live}}
Apart from international success, domestic results were not as impressive. Although Hajduk spent the entire decade near the top of the league table, competing with Dinamo Zagreb, Partizan and Red Star Belgrade to form what was known as the "Great Yugoslav Four", the club won no title before Croatia became independent. Prominent players of the time included goalkeepers [Ivan Pudar](/wiki/Ivan_Pudar "Ivan Pudar") and [Zoran Simović](/wiki/Zoran_Simovi%C4%87 "Zoran Simović") (1983 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year); defenders [Boro Primorac](/wiki/Boro_Primorac "Boro Primorac"), [Branko Miljuš](/wiki/Branko_Milju%C5%A1 "Branko Miljuš") and [Jerko Tipurić](/wiki/Jerko_Tipuri%C4%87 "Jerko Tipurić"); midfielders [Blaž Slišković](/wiki/Bla%C5%BE_Sli%C5%A1kovi%C4%87 "Blaž Slišković") (1985 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Ivan Gudelj](/wiki/Ivan_Gudelj "Ivan Gudelj") (1982 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Zoran Vulić](/wiki/Zoran_Vuli%C4%87 "Zoran Vulić"), [Aljoša Asanović](/wiki/Aljo%C5%A1a_Asanovi%C4%87 "Aljoša Asanović"), [Stipe Andrijašević](/wiki/Stipe_Andrija%C5%A1evi%C4%87 "Stipe Andrijašević"), [Dragutin Čelić](/wiki/Dragutin_%C4%8Celi%C4%87 "Dragutin Čelić"); and striker [Zlatko Vujović](/wiki/Zlatko_Vujovi%C4%87 "Zlatko Vujović") (1981 Ballon d'Or candidate).{{cite news \|url\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47320/Osamdesete\-Velika\-generacija\-koja\-je\-mogla\-i\-vise.aspx \|title\=Osamdesete: Velika generacija koja je mogla i više \|last\=Princivali \|first\=Ivan \|date\=11 February 2011 \|work\=dalmacijanews.com \|language\=hr \|access\-date\=7 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130121130650/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47320/Osamdesete\-Velika\-generacija\-koja\-je\-mogla\-i\-vise.aspx \|archive\-date\=21 January 2013 \|df\=dmy\-all }} By the end of the Yugoslav era, a young generation of future [1998 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1998_FIFA_World_Cup "1998 FIFA World Cup") bronze medalists began playing for the club. These included [Igor Štimac](/wiki/Igor_%C5%A0timac "Igor Štimac"), [Robert Jarni](/wiki/Robert_Jarni "Robert Jarni"), [Alen Bokšić](/wiki/Alen_Bok%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Alen Bokšić"), [Nikola Jerkan](/wiki/Nikola_Jerkan "Nikola Jerkan") and [Slaven Bilić](/wiki/Slaven_Bili%C4%87 "Slaven Bilić").
In the wake of national tensions which would eventually lead to [Yugoslav Wars](/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars "Yugoslav Wars"), during a tour in Australia, Hajduk restored its traditional emblem with the Croatian checkerboard, omitting the red star and sparking a massive crowd celebrations upon return. In September of that same year, a home match against Partizan would be cancelled in the 73rd minute due to the crowd entering the pitch and burning the Yugoslav flag. Later, on 8 May 1991, Hajduk won the last held Yugoslav Cup final, defeating that year's [European champions](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_European_Cup "1990–91 European Cup") Red Star in Belgrade with a goal scored by Bokšić. Tito's trophy for Yugoslav Cup winners was therefore awarded to Hajduk to stay in the club's permanent possession.[97 people and events which mark Hajduk's history](http://www.nogometni-magazin.com/newspro/coranto/viewnews.cgi?id=EkpkAElVlpQgfsQyWl&tmpl=coranto_hrv_news), {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616013457/http://www.nogometni\-magazin.com/newspro/coranto/viewnews.cgi?id\=EkpkAElVlpQgfsQyWl\&tmpl\=coranto\_hrv\_news \|date\=16 June 2008 }} Nogometni magazin
### Champions League and financial breakdown
[thumb\|A Hajduk vs [Dinamo](/wiki/GNK_Dinamo_Zagreb "GNK Dinamo Zagreb") match in [Split](/wiki/Split%2C_Croatia "Split, Croatia")](/wiki/File:End_of_the_match_between_Hajduk_Split_-_Dinamo_Zagreb.jpg "End of the match between Hajduk Split - Dinamo Zagreb.jpg")
In the first four years of the [HNL](/wiki/Prva_HNL "Prva HNL") (the Croatian football league), Hajduk became far more successful than rivals Dinamo from Zagreb, winning three league titles, two domestic cups and two supercups, with the [1994–95 season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_HNK_Hajduk_Split_season "1994–95 HNK Hajduk Split season") still standing as the most successful since playing in independent Croatia. Hajduk entered that year's [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_UEFA_Champions_League "1994–95 UEFA Champions League") with a mix of young upcoming stars [Milan Rapaić](/wiki/Milan_Rapai%C4%87 "Milan Rapaić"), [Ivica Mornar](/wiki/Ivica_Mornar "Ivica Mornar"), [Tomislav Erceg](/wiki/Tomislav_Erceg "Tomislav Erceg"), [Goran Vučević](/wiki/Goran_Vu%C4%8Devi%C4%87 "Goran Vučević") and experienced players such as Igor Štimac, Zoran Vulić, Aljoša Asanović and [Tonči Gabrić](/wiki/Ton%C4%8Di_Gabri%C4%87 "Tonči Gabrić") returning to assist them. After entering the group stage, Hajduk finished second behind [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica "S.L. Benfica"), ahead of [Steaua București](/wiki/FC_Steaua_Bucure%C8%99ti "FC Steaua București") and [Anderlecht](/wiki/R.S.C._Anderlecht "R.S.C. Anderlecht"), before losing in the quarter\-finals to eventual champions Ajax (0–0, 0–3\). Domestically, the club won its first and (as of yet) last [double crown](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 "Double (association football)"). However, even though the team was performing well, the club was financially poorly managed, accumulating a massive financial loss that led to blocking of club's account.
For the next five years, Hajduk stood in the shadow of wealthier and politically privileged rivals Dinamo Zagreb, and the Champions League was no longer realistically within reach. Between 1995 and 2000, the club won zero trophies. After continuous domestic and European failures, Hajduk fans began to seek the dismissal of administration officials and circulated the story about the possible privatization of the club, which at that time did not happen. While arch\-rivals Dinamo (then called "Croatia Zagreb") won titles, Hajduk had problems with the registration of players for the league. Dissatisfaction among the fans grew so much that some broke into the club premises, causing a change in leadership and promises of new beginnings. After the death of the first Croatian president [Franjo Tuđman](/wiki/Franjo_Tu%C4%91man "Franjo Tuđman"), whom many saw as heavily preferring and financing Croatia Zagreb, [2001](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Croatian_First_Football_League "2000–01 Croatian First Football League") saw Hajduk become champions once more after a memorable 4–2 win against [Varteks](/wiki/NK_Vara%C5%BEdin_%281931%E2%80%932015%29 "NK Varaždin (1931–2015)") in [Varaždin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin "Varaždin"), a match attended by far more Hajduk fans than locals. Unfortunately, financial conditions in the club were still dire, and the club was often on the precipice of bankruptcy and collapse.
And yet, even if operating with blocked account, chairman Branko Grgić boosted with promises of attractive signings and trophies. Although Hajduk did manage to win Cup in [2003](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Croatian_Cup "2002–03 Croatian Cup") and league titles in [2004](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Croatian_First_Football_League "2003–04 Croatian First Football League") and [2005](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Croatian_First_Football_League "2004–05 Croatian First Football League"), as well as sign Dinamo's promising young captain [Niko Kranjčar](/wiki/Niko_Kranj%C4%8Dar "Niko Kranjčar") and their legendary manager [Miroslav Blažević](/wiki/Miroslav_Bla%C5%BEevi%C4%87 "Miroslav Blažević"), when finances and politically driven leadership finally broke down, so did the club's results. Hajduk spent rest of the decade finishing behind its rival, with numerous coaching and management changes and reorganizations, players of dubious quality and mediocre international performances, worst of which came after being eliminated by [Shelbourne](/wiki/Shelbourne_F.C. "Shelbourne F.C.") and 0–5 home loss to [Debrecen](/wiki/Debreceni_VSC "Debreceni VSC"). The election of new chairman Mate Peroš in June 2008, upon which he changed the entire professional staff and reorganized the administration, brought only temporary relief. Hajduk achieved first away win against Dinamo after five\-and\-a\-half years (2–0\), but again finished behind their arch\-rivals, and reached [Croatian Cup](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Croatian_Cup "2008–09 Croatian Cup") finals only to lose to Dinamo once again in a two\-game thriller which saw two 3–0 wins by both teams, before Dinamo won 4–3 in penalty shootout. More importantly, the club's finances did not radically change until next season, when Hajduk became joint stock company owned by the City of Split. Even if financially secure, newly appointed chairman [Joško Svaguša](/wiki/Jo%C5%A1ko_Svagu%C5%A1a "Joško Svaguša") continued the policy of expensive signings and unsustainable expenses to regain the club's former glory. In 2010, Hajduk won the [Croatian Cup](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Croatian_Cup "2009–10 Croatian Cup"), its first trophy in five years, and later managed to qualify for the group stage of [2010–11 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_UEFA_Europa_League "2010–11 UEFA Europa League") which was the first time since 1994 club secured a place in the group stages of UEFA competitions. Home wins against [Dinamo București](/wiki/FC_Dinamo_Bucure%C8%99ti "FC Dinamo București") (3–0\), [Unirea Urziceni](/wiki/FC_Unirea_Urziceni "FC Unirea Urziceni") (4–1\) and Anderlecht (1–0\) were, however, just a temporary reminiscence of former successes.
Notable players of 1990s and 2000s include goalkeepers [Stipe Pletikosa](/wiki/Stipe_Pletikosa "Stipe Pletikosa"), [Danijel Subašić](/wiki/Danijel_Suba%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Danijel Subašić") and [Tonči Gabrić](/wiki/Ton%C4%8Di_Gabri%C4%87 "Tonči Gabrić"); defenders Igor Štimac, [Igor Tudor](/wiki/Igor_Tudor "Igor Tudor") and [Darijo Srna](/wiki/Darijo_Srna "Darijo Srna"); midfielders [Milan Rapaić](/wiki/Milan_Rapai%C4%87 "Milan Rapaić"), [Nenad Pralija](/wiki/Nenad_Pralija "Nenad Pralija"), [Dean Računica](/wiki/Dean_Ra%C4%8Dunica "Dean Računica"), [Niko Kranjčar](/wiki/Niko_Kranj%C4%8Dar "Niko Kranjčar"), [Josip Skoko](/wiki/Josip_Skoko "Josip Skoko"), [Ivan Leko](/wiki/Ivan_Leko "Ivan Leko"), [Srđan Andrić](/wiki/Sr%C4%91an_Andri%C4%87 "Srđan Andrić") and [Senijad Ibričić](/wiki/Senijad_Ibri%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Senijad Ibričić"); and strikers [Ardian Kozniku](/wiki/Ardian_Kozniku "Ardian Kozniku"), [Nikola Kalinić](/wiki/Nikola_Kalini%C4%87_%28footballer%29 "Nikola Kalinić (footballer)") and [Tomislav Erceg](/wiki/Tomislav_Erceg "Tomislav Erceg").
On 13 February 2011, Hajduk commemorated its 100th anniversary with a massive celebration in Split and all of Croatia, with both Hajduk players and fans honouring the club. The entire city was decorated with Hajduk banners, flags, posters and paraphernalia, and there was a spectacular firework show over Split. Hajduk played a friendly game with Slavia Prague to honour Hajduk's Czech origins, losing 0–2\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ultras\-tifo.net/news/285\-hajduk\-split\-100\-years\-celebration.html \|title\=Hajduk Split 100 years celebration \|publisher\=Ultras\-tifo.net \|date\=2011\-02\-14 \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-29 \|archive\-date\=15 February 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215220343/http://ultras\-tifo.net/news/285\-hajduk\-split\-100\-years\-celebration.html \|url\-status\=live }}
### Naš Hajduk
All this time supporters led by Torcida led a struggle to end what they considered to be politically driven management of the club, and install experts to save Hajduk. In 2009, they started an initiative called "Dite puka" (People's Child) that should have prompted fans to buy up the club's shares and gain control of the club, which at the time didn't happen. However, in July 2011, inspired by examples in [Germany](/wiki/Bundesliga "Bundesliga") and [Sweden](/wiki/Allsvenskan "Allsvenskan") and organized under the association "Naš Hajduk" (Our Hajduk), fans managed to gain rights of organizing elections for members of the club's supervisory board, making Hajduk only fan\-owned football club in Croatian First League, and one of only two in former Yugoslavia (the other being nearby [HNK Trogir](/wiki/HNK_Trogir "HNK Trogir")).
In 2012, the club fell into yet another financial trouble caused by former Hajduk presidents, leaving it with more than 100 million [kunas](/wiki/Croatian_kuna "Croatian kuna") in debt, and one town meeting away from being bankrupt. After forming lines in front of the City Hall on 15 October 2012, fans convinced the town leaders to sign a loan insurance to the newly elected chairman [Marin Brbić](/wiki/Marin_Brbi%C4%87 "Marin Brbić") and start the club's long needed financial recovery. Since then, according to the club's annual financial report, Hajduk is under continuous financial and managerial recovery.{{cite web\|url\=http://telesport.telegram.hr/analize/hajduk\-kad\-ulica\-vodi\-klub/\|title\=Hajduk: kad ulica vodi klub\|publisher\=telesport.telegram.hr\|date\=2017\-08\-16\|access\-date\=2017\-08\-16\|archive\-date\=16 August 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816155106/http://telesport.telegram.hr/analize/hajduk\-kad\-ulica\-vodi\-klub/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nogometplus.net/nogometplusnet/tekst/TabId/98/ArtMID/508/userid/238/ArticleID/5164/Kakav\-je\-bio\-mandat\-prvog\-demokratski\-izabranog\-Nadzornog\-odbora\-u\-Hajduku.aspx\#.Vaptwvmqqko \|title\=Kakav je bio mandat prvog demokratski izabranog Nadzornog odbora u Hajduku \|publisher\=Nogometplus.hr \|date\=2015\-07\-18 \|access\-date\=2016\-03\-31 \|archive\-date\=13 April 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413075436/http://www.nogometplus.net/nogometplusnet/tekst/TabId/98/ArtMID/508/userid/238/ArticleID/5164/Kakav\-je\-bio\-mandat\-prvog\-demokratski\-izabranog\-Nadzornog\-odbora\-u\-Hajduku.aspx\#.Vaptwvmqqko \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/pod\-povecalom/financije/analize\-financijskih\-izvjestaja/analiza\-financijskog\-izvjestaja\-hajduk\-prvi\-put\-od\-2009\-zavrsio\-godinu\-s\-dobiti/ \|title\=Analiza financijskog izvješća: Hajduk po prvi put od 2009\. završio godinu s dobiti \|publisher\=Nogometplus.hr \|date\=2017\-06\-20 \|access\-date\=2017\-06\-20 \|archive\-date\=23 June 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623061737/http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/pod\-povecalom/financije/analize\-financijskih\-izvjestaja/analiza\-financijskog\-izvjestaja\-hajduk\-prvi\-put\-od\-2009\-zavrsio\-godinu\-s\-dobiti/ \|url\-status\=dead }} On 1 April 2015, Brbić was sacked by the club's supervisory board and on 18 May replaced by Ivan Kos.{{Cite web\|url\=http://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\-kos\-novi\-je\-predsjednik\-uprave\-hnk\-hajduk/7240\|title\=Ivan Kos novi je predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk\|website\=hajduk.hr\|access\-date\=2017\-01\-08\|archive\-date\=29 May 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529100639/http://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\-kos\-novi\-je\-predsjednik\-uprave\-hnk\-hajduk/7240\|url\-status\=live}}
Notable successes include 2–0 away win over [Internazionale](/wiki/Inter_Milan "Inter Milan") and winning the [2012–13 Croatian Cup](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Croatian_Football_Cup "2012–13 Croatian Football Cup"). By the end of 2016, the club numbered 43\.339 members, more than any club in the region.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/naslovna/hajduk\-po\-broju\-clanova\-u\-vrhu\-svjetskih\-lista/\|title\=Hajduk po broju članova u vrhu svjetskih lista\|website\=nogometplus.net\|date\=4 January 2017 \|access\-date\=2017\-07\-08\|archive\-date\=4 January 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104021448/http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/naslovna/hajduk\-po\-broju\-clanova\-u\-vrhu\-svjetskih\-lista/\|url\-status\=live}}
### 2020s
Hajduk's poor European results continued, losing to Maltese side [Gżira United](/wiki/G%C5%BCira_United_F.C. "Gżira United F.C.") in the first qualifying round of the [2019–20 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_UEFA_Europa_League "2019–20 UEFA Europa League") and to Kazakh side [FC Tobol](/wiki/FC_Tobol "FC Tobol") in the second qualifying round of the [2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_UEFA_Europa_Conference_League "2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League").
In February 2021, Hajduk signed [Marko Livaja](/wiki/Marko_Livaja "Marko Livaja").{{Cite web \|title\=Marko Livaja se vratio u Hajduk! \|url\=https://dalmatinskiportal.hr/sport/marko\-livaja\-se\-vratio\-u\-hajduk/89420 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=Dalmatinski portal \|language\=hr}} In December 2021, [Prva HNL](/wiki/Prva_HNL "Prva HNL") captains voted Marko Livaja as the best footballer in the league, becoming the Hajduk player to win the best player award since 2003\. Livaja finished the [2021–22 Prva HNL](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_First_Football_League "2021–22 Croatian First Football League") season as top goalscorer with 28 goals. It is a Hajduk record for a single season, beating [Leo Lemešić](/wiki/Leo_Leme%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Leo Lemešić")'s tally of 26 in 1934–35 and [Zlatko Vujović](/wiki/Zlatko_Vujovi%C4%87 "Zlatko Vujović") with 25\. Livaja was awarded the [Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)](/wiki/Prva_HNL_Player_of_the_Year_%28Tportal%29 "Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)") award for 2022\. In doing so, he became the first player to win the award in consecutive years and first since [Sammir](/wiki/Sammir "Sammir") in 2012 to be a repeat winner. For the [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_League "2022–23 Croatian Football League") season, Livaja was again the top goalscorer in the league with 19 goals, as Hajduk finished runners\-up in the competition.
Hajduk won back to back [Croatian Cups](/wiki/Croatian_Football_Cup "Croatian Football Cup") in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_Football_Cup "2021–22 Croatian Football Cup") and [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_Cup "2022–23 Croatian Football Cup").
In September 2023, Hajduk announced that it had achieved 100,000 members for the first time in the club's history.{{Cite web \|title\=Dan za povijest: Hajduk ima impresivnih 100\.000 članova! \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/dan\-za\-povijest\-hajduk\-ima\-impresivnih\-100\-000\-clanova\-/16272 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}}
On 3 April 2024, Hajduk lost 0\-1 to Dinamo in the semi\-final of the Croatian Cup at home, having lost by the same scoreline, at the same location, against the same opposition four days earlier. The results left Hajduk out of the cup and out of the title race, having led the league for 13 of the first 19 rounds. Crowd trouble after the game, including a pitch invasion and clashes with police lead to some 50 arrests.{{Cite web \|title\=Fans clash with police after Croatia Cup semis \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/fans\-clash\-with\-police\-after\-croatia\-cup\-semis\-2024\-04\-04/ \|website\=Reuters}} The collapse of the title chase followed the high profile January signings of [Ivan Perišić](/wiki/Ivan_Peri%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Ivan Perišić"), [Josip Brekalo](/wiki/Josip_Brekalo "Josip Brekalo") and [László Kleinheisler](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kleinheisler "László Kleinheisler").
On 8 April 2024, club president Lukša Jakobušić departed Hajduk at the decision of the Supervisory Board.{{Cite web \|title\=Lukša Jakobušić više nije predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/luksa\-jakobusic\-vise\-nije\-predsjednik\-uprave\-hnk\-hajduk/16742 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} The same day, head coach [Mislav Karoglan](/wiki/Mislav_Karoglan "Mislav Karoglan") also left the club.{{Cite web \|title\=Mislav Karoglan više nije trener Hajduka \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/mislav\-karoglan\-vise\-nije\-trener\-hajduka/16743 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} Shortly after, sporting director [Mindaugas Nikoličius](/wiki/Mindaugas_Nikoli%C4%8Dius "Mindaugas Nikoličius") resigned from his role, ending the Jakobušić\-Nikoličius era at Hajduk.{{Cite web \|title\=Sportski direktor Mindaugas Nikoličius podnio ostavku \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sportski\-direktor\-mindaugas\-nikolicius\-podnio\-ostavku/16749 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}}
On 25 April 2024, Ivan Bilić was announced as the new president of Hajduk Split.{{Cite web \|title\=Ivan Bilić novi je predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk! \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\-bilic\-novi\-je\-predsjednik\-uprave\-hnk\-hajduk\-/16779 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} One of Bilić's first moves was to appoint recently retired Hajduk striker, and former Croatian international, [Nikola Kalinić](/wiki/Nikola_Kalini%C4%87_%28footballer%29 "Nikola Kalinić (footballer)") as the new sporting director in late May.{{Cite web \|title\=Službeno predstavljanje novog sportskog direktora Nikole Kalinića \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sluzbeno\-predstavljanje\-novog\-sportskog\-direktora\-nikole\-kalinica/16865 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} Kalinić's first move as sporting director was to appoint [Gennaro Gattuso](/wiki/Gennaro_Gattuso "Gennaro Gattuso") as head coach of the club in June 2024\.{{Cite web \|title\=Gennaro Gattuso novi je trener Hajduka! \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/gennaro\-gattuso\-novi\-je\-trener\-hajduka\-/16880 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} As a player, Gattuso was a two\-time [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") winner with [AC Milan](/wiki/AC_Milan "AC Milan") and a [World cup](/wiki/World_cup "World cup") winner with [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team "Italy national football team"). Gattuso signed a two\-year contract with Hajduk.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins",
"[thumb\\|Founding members of Hajduk, in the [U Fleků](/wiki/U_Flek%C5%AF \"U Fleků\") inn in [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\")](/wiki/File:Founding_of_Hajduk.jpg \"Founding of Hajduk.jpg\")",
"The club was founded in the centuries\\-old pub [U Fleků](/wiki/U_Flek%C5%AF \"U Fleků\") in [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") (then also part of the [Austro\\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire \"Austro-Hungarian Empire\")), by a group of students from Split: [Fabjan Kaliterna](/wiki/Fabjan_Kaliterna \"Fabjan Kaliterna\"), Lucijan Stella, Ivan Šakić and Vjekoslav Ivanišević.Dalibor Brozović. \"Hrvatska enciklopedija: *Volume 1*\", 1999\\. They went to the pub following a match between [AC Sparta](/wiki/AC_Sparta_Prague \"AC Sparta Prague\") and [SK Slavia](/wiki/SK_Slavia_Prague \"SK Slavia Prague\") and decided it was time their own town founded a professional club. They all knew how popular the sport was in their home city of Split, and how well their friends can play.",
"The club was officially registered with the authorities on 13 February 1911\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1911\\-1920 \\|title\\=HNK Hajduk Split—History: 1911 – 1920 \\|publisher\\=Hajduk.hr \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617171530/http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1911\\-1920 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} While trying to come up with a name for the club (other options being \"Velebit\", \"Uskok\", \"Marjan\"...), the students went to their old teacher Josip Barač for advice and according to accounts, after enthusiastically storming into his office, he told them to take the name \"Hajduk\" which symbolized \"that which is best in our people: bravery, humanity, friendship, love of freedom, defiance to powers, and protection of the weak. Be worthy of that great name\".{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.vjesnik.hr/html/2009/03/28/Clanak.asp?r\\=sta\\&c\\=2 \\|title\\=Vjesnik: Po kome je Hajduk dobio ime? \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526081244/http://www.vjesnik.hr/html/2009/03/28/Clanak.asp?r\\=sta\\&c\\=2 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"[Hajduks](/wiki/Hajduk \"Hajduk\") were romanticized bandits that fought the rule of the Ottoman Turks. It is speculated that famed hajduk [Andrijica Šimić](/wiki/Andrijica_%C5%A0imi%C4%87 \"Andrijica Šimić\"), who triumphantly arrived in Split in 1902 to cheering crowds (after a long stint in an Austrian prison), was perhaps the inspiration for the name. The founders subsequently designed the club's emblem, and a group of Catholic nuns from a monastery in Split, created copies which were distributed to fans.[Hajduk's membership pass – Lord help us!](http://www.slobodnadalmacija.hr/Hajduk/tabid/83/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/4012/Default.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511114734/http://www.slobodnadalmacija.hr/Hajduk/tabid/83/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/4012/Default.aspx \\|date\\=11 May 2008 }}, [Slobodna Dalmacija](/wiki/Slobodna_Dalmacija \"Slobodna Dalmacija\") Both the name and the checkered board on the crest were found provocative by the Monarchy, but it eventually allowed them having been convinced that a football club is a good way to train soldiers.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hajduckiportal.hr/osnivanje\\-hajduka\\-2/ \\|title\\=Osnivanje Hajduka \\|publisher\\=hajduckiportal.hr \\|language\\=hr \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307052526/http://hajduckiportal.hr/osnivanje\\-hajduka\\-2/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 March 2016 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"Hajduk gathered the pro\\-Croat party of citizens of Split, Croat unionists or *[puntari](/wiki/Puntari \"Puntari\")*. That is why the club specifically has the name \"hrvatski nogometni klub\" (\"Croatian football club\") and has the Croatian coat\\-of\\-arms in its crest. The club itself was against the Austrian\\-Hungarian government's policy of not allowing the unification of the Croatian provinces and keeping them separated (the government and the emperor did not allow the reunion of [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia \"Dalmatia\") with the rest of Croatia). Hajduk's first opponent were Calcio Spalato, the club of an autonomist party from in Split, and the match ended with a 9–0 (6–0\\) victory for Hajduk. The first to score for Hajduk was Šime Raunig, legend has it – with his knee.{{cite web\\|title\\=\"Klub neka se Hajduk zove!\"\\|url\\=http://hrsport.net/Vijest.aspx?ID\\=3821\\|author\\=hrsport.net\\|access\\-date\\=9 July 2016\\|date\\=9 February 2001\\|language\\=hr\\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820022355/http://hrsport.net/Vijest.aspx?ID\\=3821\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Before the match: Hajduk played [HŠK Zrinjski Mostar](/wiki/H%C5%A0K_Zrinjski_Mostar \"HŠK Zrinjski Mostar\") on 13 August 1939, winning 3–2\\.](/wiki/File:Zrinjski_-_Hajduk_Split.jpg \"Zrinjski - Hajduk Split.jpg\")\nIn 1912, Hajduk played their first match in Zagreb against the [HAŠK](/wiki/HA%C5%A0K \"HAŠK\") football club, and lost 3–2\\. The first international match against an eminent opponent was held in 1913 against Czech club Slavia Prague,[Slavia](http://www.slavia.cz/Historie-1913?menuid=707) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927111857/http://www.slavia.cz/Historie\\-1913?menuid\\=707 \\|date\\=27 September 2011 }} which at that time were one of the strongest squads in Europe. Hajduk ended up losing the match 1–13 (0–13\\). After the formation of the [Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Serbs%2C_Croats%2C_and_Slovenes \"Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes\"), Hajduk first entered the Yugoslav league in 1923, losing their first and only match that season against [SAŠK](/wiki/NK_SA%C5%A0K_Napredak \"NK SAŠK Napredak\"). However, that same year while on tour in North Africa, Hajduk defeated [Marseille](/wiki/Olympique_de_Marseille \"Olympique de Marseille\") 3–2 in their first international match, sparking mass celebrations in Split. The next year, the squad was considered so strong that 10 out of the 11 players which played an international friendly for [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia_national_football_team \"Yugoslavia national football team\") against [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia_national_football_team \"Czechoslovakia national football team\") were contracted to Hajduk (only exception being the goalkeeper, as Hajduk had an Italian goalkeeper at the time).",
"In 1926, in honour of the club's 15th birthday, composer [Ivo Tijardović](/wiki/Ivo_Tijardovi%C4%87 \"Ivo Tijardović\") dedicated an operetta \"{{lang\\|hr\\|Kraljica baluna}}\" to the club, making it the only football club in the world to have its own operetta. Apart from national championship, from 1920 to 1936 Hajduk continuously competed in Dalmatian Championship, having won all but one of them.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1921\\-1930 \\|title\\=HNK Hajduk Split—History: 1921 – 1930 \\|publisher\\=Hajduk.hr \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617162520/http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1921\\-1930 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Hajduk reached their first period of glory in the late 1920s, when they won their first two Yugoslav championships (1927 and 1929\\), which earned them a slot in the Central European Cup.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46753/Hajduk\\-uzletio\\-1920\\-te\\-prva\\-dva\\-naslova\\-stigla\\-u\\-Split.aspx \\|title\\=Hajduk uzletio 1920\\-te, prva dva naslova stigla u Split \\|publisher\\=Dalmacijanews.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203013142/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46753/Hajduk\\-uzletio\\-1920\\-te\\-prva\\-dva\\-naslova\\-stigla\\-u\\-Split.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2013 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} Some of the best players in that period were [Leo Lemešić](/wiki/Leo_Leme%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Leo Lemešić\") and [Vladimir Kragić](/wiki/Vladimir_Kragi%C4%87 \"Vladimir Kragić\"), with [Ljubo Benčić](/wiki/Ljubo_Ben%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Ljubo Benčić\") managed to become the best goalscorer of the [1927 season](/wiki/1927_Yugoslav_Football_Championship \"1927 Yugoslav Football Championship\"). Long\\-lasting coach of the team was one of clubs greats, [Luka Kaliterna](/wiki/Luka_Kaliterna \"Luka Kaliterna\"). During the [6 January Dictatorship](/wiki/6_January_Dictatorship \"6 January Dictatorship\") the adjective \"Croatian\" in \"Croatian Football Club\" was forcibly replaced by the adjective \"Yugoslav\" to the dismay of the team. Furthermore, the 1930s proved disastrous for Hajduk, as they won no tournaments or championships, recording only a few successes in international matches.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46839/Hajdukove\\-tridesete\\-\\-godine\\-krize\\-i\\-inozemnih\\-turneja.aspx \\|title\\=Hajdukove tridesete – godine krize i inozemnih turneja \\|publisher\\=Dalmacijanews.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331181807/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/46839/Hajdukove\\-tridesete\\-\\-godine\\-krize\\-i\\-inozemnih\\-turneja.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2012 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"They did manage to win one title during the [Banovina of Croatia](/wiki/Banovina_of_Croatia \"Banovina of Croatia\") era in 1940–41, with an impressive 14–3–1 record. As a Croatian champion the club was about the play the playoffs for Yugoslav championship, but with [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") emerging, the championship was never finished. During this time, Hajduk could have had a fantastic generation led by young [Frane Matošić](/wiki/Frane_Mato%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Frane Matošić\"), [Ratko Kacijan](/wiki/Ratko_Kacijan \"Ratko Kacijan\"), as well as prominent Czech international [Jiří Sobotka](/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Sobotka \"Jiří Sobotka\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.jutarnji.hr/ostavite\\-hajduk\\-na\\-miru\\-\\-netko\\-vas\\-je\\-gadno\\-zajebao\\-\\-to\\-nije\\-vas\\-klub/1143535/ \\|title\\=Ostavite Hajduk na miru, netko vas je gadno zajebao: to nije vaš klub \\|work\\=\\[\\[Jutarnji list]] \\|date\\=30 November 2013 \\|language\\=hr \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202085552/http://www.jutarnji.hr/ostavite\\-hajduk\\-na\\-miru\\-\\-netko\\-vas\\-je\\-gadno\\-zajebao\\-\\-to\\-nije\\-vas\\-klub/1143535/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### World War II",
"In April 1941, during World War II, Yugoslavia was invaded, occupied and carved\\-up by the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\"), with Split being annexed directly into Italy. Residents and players were both opposed to the assimilation to Italy, thus the club ceased to compete in defiance throughout the occupation of Split, declining an offer to join the Italian first division under the name \"AC Spalato\". Instead, [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") founded Societa Calcio Spalato, and renamed the club's home ground after his son's name. After the capitulation of Italy in 1943, the [Partisans](/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans \"Yugoslav Partisans\") temporarily liberated Split and disarmed the Italian garrison, but the [German Army](/wiki/German_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"German Army (Wehrmacht)\") quickly re\\-occupied the city and granted it to the [Independent State of Croatia](/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia \"Independent State of Croatia\") (NDH) they had installed in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb \"Zagreb\") back in 1941\\. The attitude of the club did not change when the NDH authorities attempted to include Hajduk in the Independent State of Croatia Cup, as NDH earned resentment in Split for allying and partitioning them to Italy. With the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") invading southern Italy and controlling the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"), the [Adriatic islands](/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Adriatic \"List of islands in the Adriatic\") became a haven for the resistance, prompting Hajduk's rebirth on one of them in 1944\\.",
"The club's players then joined the Partisan general headquarters on the island of [Vis](/wiki/Vis_%28island%29 \"Vis (island)\") in the [Adriatic](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea \"Adriatic Sea\"). On 7 May 1944, on the [Feast](/wiki/Calendar_of_saints \"Calendar of saints\") of [Saint Domnius](/wiki/Saint_Domnius \"Saint Domnius\"), the patron saint of Split, in presence of Partisan leader [Josip Broz Tito](/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito \"Josip Broz Tito\")'s and British officers (one of them being [Randolph Churchill](/wiki/Randolph_Churchill \"Randolph Churchill\")){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.jutarnji.hr/talijani\\-se\\-raspisali\\-o\\-hajduku\\-\\-slavni\\-klub\\-koji\\-je\\-odbio\\-mussolinija\\-\\-pavelica\\-i\\-tita\\-/1156188/ \\|title\\=Hajduk – slavni klub koji je odbio Mussolinija, Pavelića i Tita \\|work\\=Jutarnji.hr \\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719043847/http://www.jutarnji.hr/talijani\\-se\\-raspisali\\-o\\-hajduku\\-\\-slavni\\-klub\\-koji\\-je\\-odbio\\-mussolinija\\-\\-pavelica\\-i\\-tita\\-/1156188/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Hajduk was formed again and began playing as the official football team of the Yugoslav resistance. They competed with Allied service football teams from across the Adriatic in Italy, where they famously played the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") in a friendly match in [Bari](/wiki/Bari \"Bari\") on 23 September, in front at least 40,000 spectators, losing 2–9\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1941\\-1950 \\|title\\=HNK Hajduk Split—History: 1941 – 1950 \\|publisher\\=Hajduk.hr \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222080520/http://hajduk.hr/eng/history/1941\\-1950 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}Club Soccer 101 by Luke Dempsey The match is considered to be one of the most attended football games during the war years, with a rematch in liberated Split few years after (Hajduk won 1–0\\). At this time, the club leadership adopted the Partisans' [red star](/wiki/Red_star \"Red star\") as the badge on the white\\-and\\-blue club dress. During 1945, Hajduk embarked on a tourney through [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") and [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\"). Traveling roughly 30,000 kilometers, and playing over 90 matches, the club won 74 of them, while at the same time Allied airplanes dropped fliers all over Europe prompting other football clubs to follow Hajduk example.Cerjan, Stjepan. Hajduk – tim NOVJ u: *Enciklopedija hrvatske povijesti i kulture*, Školska knjiga, 1980\\., stranice 195–196\\. While in [Beirut](/wiki/Beirut \"Beirut\"), [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\") gave Hajduk the title of honorary team of Free France, the trophy being treasured ever since.",
"With its proficiency and its \"unique [Dalmatian](/wiki/Dalmatia \"Dalmatia\") spirit\", the club reportedly impressed Tito, who frequently attended matches. After the war, he invited Hajduk to move to the Yugoslav capital [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\") and become the official [Yugoslav People's Army](/wiki/Yugoslav_People%27s_Army \"Yugoslav People's Army\") (JNA) team, but the club refused, wanting to continue to play in their hometown of Split. One of their biggest future rivals, [FK Partizan](/wiki/FK_Partizan \"FK Partizan\"), were founded instead. However, Hajduk continued to enjoy the reputation of \"Tito's favorite\" long after the war, and it was because of the friendly relationship with the resistance, it became one of the few Yugoslav football clubs (and the only prominent one) not to be disbanded after the war by the communist government (as was the case with a number of other clubs, especially prominent ones such as [BSK](/wiki/BSK_Beograd \"BSK Beograd\"), [Građanski](/wiki/Gra%C4%91anski_Zagreb \"Građanski Zagreb\"), [Jugoslavija](/wiki/SK_Jugoslavija \"SK Jugoslavija\"), [Concordia](/wiki/H%C5%A0K_Concordia \"HŠK Concordia\"), [HAŠK](/wiki/HA%C5%A0K \"HAŠK\") and [Slavija](/wiki/FK_Slavija_Sarajevo \"FK Slavija Sarajevo\")).",
"### Iconic 1950s",
"{{Main\\|List of HNK Hajduk Split seasons}}\n[thumb\\|Hajduk's squad in 1955, wearing the red star badge](/wiki/File:Hajduk_1955.jpg \"Hajduk 1955.jpg\")",
"After World War II, Hajduk continued to play in the Yugoslav championship and its cup. In 1946, they won Croatian championship and established the magazine *Journal of Hajduk*. In 1948–49, Hajduk visited Australia and became the first team from Yugoslavia to play on all continents. The club won the [1950 Yugoslav championship](/wiki/1950_Yugoslav_First_League \"1950 Yugoslav First League\") without a single loss, setting a record that no one managed to accomplish before the breakup of Yugoslavia 40 years later. On 28 October 1950, a day before a decisive match against one of its biggest rivals [Red Star Belgrade](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade \"Red Star Belgrade\") (a 2–1 win), the official fan organization [Torcida](/wiki/Torcida_Split \"Torcida Split\") was founded.[Torcida Split: Povijest\\-Osnivanje Torcide](http://www.torcida.hr/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=47&Itemid=98) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217032145/http://www.torcida.hr/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=category\\&layout\\=blog\\&id\\=47\\&Itemid\\=98 \\|date\\=17 February 2011 }} It was created by engineering student Vjenceslav Žuvela, who chose the name after the enthusiastic Brazilian fans, and Torcida become the first organized group of supporters in Europe.[Hajduk Split fans celebrate centenary by engulfing city in flares](https://sports.yahoo.com/soccer/blog/dirty-tackle/post/Hajduk-Split-fans-celebrate-centenary-by-engulfi?urn=sow-320948) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218030205/http://sports.yahoo.com/soccer/blog/dirty\\-tackle/post/Hajduk\\-Split\\-fans\\-celebrate\\-centenary\\-by\\-engulfi?urn\\=sow\\-320948 \\|date\\=18 February 2011 }} The following year, reconstruction of \"[Stari Plac](/wiki/Stadion_Stari_plac \"Stadion Stari plac\")\" stadium was finished, and it homed the club for more than three decades.",
"Consequent seasons showed Hajduk's supremacy, but also the political manipulations to prevent them winning the championships. For one, Torcida was viewed as a hostile organization by the communist authorities, which posed a risk to the national consciousness of the new Yugoslavian state. Hajduk's leadership was sanctioned, the team's captain expelled from the communist party, and Vjenceslav Žuvela imprisoned. Also, during the winter break of the [1952–53 season](/wiki/1952%E2%80%9353_Yugoslav_First_League \"1952–53 Yugoslav First League\"), following an invitation from [Juan Perón](/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n \"Juan Perón\"), Hajduk went on tour to South America and eventually extended their stay there.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\\-dominirala\\-zlatna\\-Hajdukova\\-generacija.aspx \\|title\\=Torcida Split: Povijest\\- 1951\\. – 1960 \\|publisher\\=Dalmacijanews.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205041327/http://dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\\-dominirala\\-zlatna\\-Hajdukova\\-generacija.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=5 December 2013 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} This caused them to come home late, but instead of promised delay of games in the Championship, they faced defeat against [BSK](/wiki/OFK_Beograd \"OFK Beograd\") and a draw with [Spartak Subotica](/wiki/FK_Spartak_Zlatibor_Voda \"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda\") as their youth team and couple of veteran players had to play them. Although Hajduk later beat both Red Star (4–1\\) and Partizan (4–2\\) in Belgrade, Red Star became the champion by only a two\\-point margin.",
"Next season saw a similar occurrence, with players [Vladimir Beara](/wiki/Vladimir_Beara \"Vladimir Beara\") and [Bernard Vukas](/wiki/Bernard_Vukas \"Bernard Vukas\") arriving late for national team training and receiving a month\\-long ban from football. Without these essential players, Hajduk lost important matches and Dinamo Zagreb finished as champions. All this prompted club legend [Frane Matošić](/wiki/Frane_Mato%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Frane Matošić\") to storm a meeting of the [Yugoslav Football Association](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Yugoslavia \"Football Association of Yugoslavia\") and say, \"Have you at least a gram of integrity?\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\\-dominirala\\-zlatna\\-Hajdukova\\-generacija.aspx \\|title\\=Pedesetima dominirala zlatna Hajdukova generacija \\|last\\=Princivali \\|first\\=Ivan \\|date\\=8 February 2011 \\|work\\=dalmacijanews.com \\|language\\=hr \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331181838/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47082/Pedesetima\\-dominirala\\-zlatna\\-Hajdukova\\-generacija.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2012 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} On 3 April 1955 in Zagreb, Hajduk defeated Dinamo 6–0, recording its biggest win in the [derby](/wiki/Eternal_derby_%28Croatia%29 \"Eternal derby (Croatia)\") between the two largest Croatian clubs, and later won the championship. However, the Football Association of Yugoslavia qualified them to the European [Mitropa Cup](/wiki/Mitropa_Cup \"Mitropa Cup\"), while Partizan was chosen to participate in the inaugural [European Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\").",
"During the early 1950s, the club had one of its most iconic generation of players, winning three Yugoslav championships. Two such players – goalkeeper [Vladimir Beara](/wiki/Vladimir_Beara \"Vladimir Beara\") and Zagreb\\-born midfielder [Bernard Vukas](/wiki/Bernard_Vukas \"Bernard Vukas\") (called \"Bajdo\") – were called to represent Team Europe in friendly matches against Great Britain. In one of the matches, Vukas scored a hat\\-trick. Apart from them, Frane Matošić scored his 729 goals in 739 official and unofficial games, setting a club record likely never to be broken. Other famous players included [Božo Broketa](/wiki/Bo%C5%BEo_Broketa \"Božo Broketa\"), [Ljubomir Kokeza](/wiki/Ljubomir_Kokeza \"Ljubomir Kokeza\"), [Slavko Luštica](/wiki/Slavko_Lu%C5%A1tica \"Slavko Luštica\") and [Lenko Grčić](/wiki/Lenko_Gr%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Lenko Grčić\").",
"### Miserable 1960s and another Golden Generation",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Hajduk's red star logo from 1960 to 1990](/wiki/File:Hajduk_logo.png \"Hajduk logo.png\")\nGeneration of 1950s broke down after 1955 title, with Matošić retiring, Beara moving to Red Star Belgrade and Vukas to Italian club [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna_F.C._1909 \"Bologna F.C. 1909\"). The 1960s were remembered as some of the hardest times in Hajduk's history. In four seasons (1963 to 1966\\), the club finished no better than tenth and no better than fourth in the next half of the decade. In the [1965–66 season](/wiki/1965%E2%80%9366_Yugoslav_First_League \"1965–66 Yugoslav First League\"), due to the \"Planinić affair\" accusing Hajduk of rigging matches during those unsuccessful seasons, five points were deducted (down from the initial penalty of relegation), and Hajduk managed to stay in the top flight with much thanks to [Petar Nadoveza](/wiki/Petar_Nadoveza \"Petar Nadoveza\"), who managed to become the league's top scorer with 21 goals. During this era, the club won just one trophy – the [1967 cup](/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Yugoslav_Cup \"1966–67 Yugoslav Cup\"), which was also their first Yugoslav cup trophy and send the team to [European Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/1967%E2%80%9368_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"1967–68 European Cup Winners' Cup\") the next year, their first appearance under [UEFA](/wiki/UEFA \"UEFA\")\\-organized international competition.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47178/Sezdesete\\-Najteze\\-razdoblje\\-u\\-Hajdukovoj\\-povijesti.aspx \\|title\\=Šezdesete: Najteže razdoblje u Hajdukovoj povijesti \\|last\\=Princivali \\|first\\=Ivan \\|date\\=9 February 2011 \\|work\\=dalmacijanews.com \\|language\\=hr \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708222418/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47178/Sezdesete\\-Najteze\\-razdoblje\\-u\\-Hajdukovoj\\-povijesti.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2011 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} Prominent players of the time included [Ante Žanetić](/wiki/Ante_%C5%BDaneti%C4%87 \"Ante Žanetić\") (member of [1960 World Soccer Team of the Year](/wiki/World_Soccer_%28magazine%29 \"World Soccer (magazine)\")), [Ivica Hlevnjak](/wiki/Ivica_Hlevnjak \"Ivica Hlevnjak\"), [Vinko Cuzzi](/wiki/Vinko_Cuzzi \"Vinko Cuzzi\") and [Andrija Anković](/wiki/Andrija_Ankovi%C4%87 \"Andrija Anković\").",
"From 1970 to 1980, Hajduk had achieved its most successful years in Yugoslavia. The new \"[Golden Generation](/wiki/Golden_Generation \"Golden Generation\")\" won five consecutive cups and four championships in the period from 1972 to 1979, accompanied by notable international success.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47268/Hajdukova\\-zlatna\\-generacija\\-obiljezila\\-sedamdesete.aspx \\|title\\=Hajdukova zlatna generacija obilježila sedamdesete \\|last\\=Princivali \\|first\\=Ivan \\|date\\=10 February 2011 \\|work\\=dalmacijanews.com \\|language\\=hr \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331181907/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47268/Hajdukova\\-zlatna\\-generacija\\-obiljezila\\-sedamdesete.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2012 \\|df\\=dmy }} In 1971, and after a 16\\-year wait, Hajduk won the title after a memorable 4–3 away win over Partizan in a decisive match Hajduk were at one time behind 0–3\\. This unexpected success was achieved with a team of youngsters, and Nadoveza as a league top scorer yet another time. After winning their first out of five consecutive domestic cups in 1972, the team achieved first major international success, playing in the semi\\-finals of next year's [Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"1972–73 European Cup Winners' Cup\") against [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. \"Leeds United F.C.\"). The team's manager at the time was one of Croatia's finest, [Branko Zebec](/wiki/Branko_Zebec \"Branko Zebec\").",
"After Zebec left the club, he was replaced by the young and talented [Tomislav Ivić](/wiki/Tomislav_Ivi%C4%87 \"Tomislav Ivić\"), who would later become the club's coaching legend and one of the most successful managers in Europe, winning eight league titles in seven different countries.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.index.hr/sport/clanak/gazzetta\\-dello\\-sport\\-tomislav\\-ivic\\-je\\-najuspjesniji\\-trener\\-u\\-povijesti/345000\\.aspx \\|title\\=Gazzeto dello Sport: Tomislav Ivić je najuspješniji trener u povijesti \\|publisher\\=Index.hr \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307051510/http://www.index.hr/sport/clanak/gazzetta\\-dello\\-sport\\-tomislav\\-ivic\\-je\\-najuspjesniji\\-trener\\-u\\-povijesti/345000\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The first three years under Ivić saw Hajduk win two Yugoslav titles and three cups. In [1976](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_Yugoslav_First_League \"1975–76 Yugoslav First League\"), Hajduk could have won a third\\-straight [Double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 \"Double (association football)\") after defeating the top league team Partizan [6–1 away](/wiki/Partizan_Belgrade_1-6_Hajduk_Split_%289_May_1976%29 \"Partizan Belgrade 1-6 Hajduk Split (9 May 1976)\"). However, there was a scandal in the last match of the season when Partizan defeated Olimpija after scoring in the 95th minute of the match (despite UEFA not yet introducing added time for another 20 years) after numerous dubious referee decisions during the match. With the season finishing, Ivić left Hajduk for [Ajax](/wiki/AFC_Ajax \"AFC Ajax\"), but would return two years later only to win another league title, the club's last in the former Yugoslavia.",
"During these years, Hajduk reached quarter\\-finals of both the [European Cup](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_European_Cup \"1975–76 European Cup\") and [Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/1977%E2%80%9378_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"1977–78 European Cup Winners' Cup\"), with notable home wins against [PSV](/wiki/PSV_Eindhoven \"PSV Eindhoven\") (2–0\\), [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") (2–1\\) and [Saint Etienne](/wiki/AS_Saint-%C3%89tienne \"AS Saint-Étienne\") (4–1\\). Notable Hajduk and Yugoslav international players included goalkeepers [Ivan Katalinić](/wiki/Ivan_Katalini%C4%87 \"Ivan Katalinić\") and [Radomir Vukčević](/wiki/Radomir_Vuk%C4%8Devi%C4%87 \"Radomir Vukčević\"); defenders [Ivan Buljan](/wiki/Ivan_Buljan \"Ivan Buljan\") (1975 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Zoran Vujović](/wiki/Zoran_Vujovi%C4%87 \"Zoran Vujović\"), [Dragan Holcer](/wiki/Dragan_Holcer \"Dragan Holcer\"), [Vilson Džoni](/wiki/Vilson_D%C5%BEoni \"Vilson Džoni\"), [Luka Peruzović](/wiki/Luka_Peruzovi%C4%87 \"Luka Peruzović\") and [Vedran Rožić](/wiki/Vedran_Ro%C5%BEi%C4%87 \"Vedran Rožić\"); midfielders [Jurica Jerković](/wiki/Jurica_Jerkovi%C4%87 \"Jurica Jerković\"), [Dražen Mužinić](/wiki/Dra%C5%BEen_Mu%C5%BEini%C4%87 \"Dražen Mužinić\") (1975 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Branko Oblak](/wiki/Branko_Oblak \"Branko Oblak\") (1974 Ballon d'Or candidate); and strikers [Ivica Šurjak](/wiki/Ivica_%C5%A0urjak \"Ivica Šurjak\") (1976 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year) and [Slaviša Žungul](/wiki/Slavi%C5%A1a_%C5%BDungul \"Slaviša Žungul\"). The club's respected president at the time was Tito Kirigin.",
"### Poljud curse",
"[thumb\\|[Poljud Stadium](/wiki/Poljud_Stadium \"Poljud Stadium\")](/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Poljud_Stadium_in_2024.jpg \"Aerial view of Poljud Stadium in 2024.jpg\")\nIn 1979, Hajduk moved to the newly designed stadium at [Poljud](/wiki/Stadion_Poljud \"Stadion Poljud\"), built to host the [1979 Mediterranean Games](/wiki/1979_Mediterranean_Games \"1979 Mediterranean Games\"). However, the 1980s were noticeably less successful, as the club won only three Yugoslav cups before SFR Yugoslavia fell apart in 1991\\. The club's struggles were often linked to their new home stadium, which had athletic running track around the pitch, as opposed to Stari Plac, where supporters could cheer much closer to their team. The club's Inaugural season at Poljud saw Hajduk's most iconic official international match: the [1979–80 European Cup](/wiki/1979%E2%80%9380_European_Cup \"1979–80 European Cup\") quarter\\-finals against eventual finalists [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV \"Hamburger SV\"), and a 3–2 home win after losing 0–1 away. Later years saw Hajduk achieve memorable home wins against [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF \"Valencia CF\") (4–1\\), [Bordeaux](/wiki/FC_Girondins_de_Bordeaux \"FC Girondins de Bordeaux\") (4–1\\), Marseille (2–0\\), [Universitatea Craiova](/wiki/CS_Universitatea_Craiova \"CS Universitatea Craiova\") (1–0\\), [Tottenham Hotspur](/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C. \"Tottenham Hotspur F.C.\") (2–1\\) and a friendly win against [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") (6–0\\), considered to be United's biggest loss outside England. Hajduk also eliminated clubs such as [Metz](/wiki/FC_Metz \"FC Metz\") (5–1, 2–2\\), [VfB Stuttgart](/wiki/VfB_Stuttgart \"VfB Stuttgart\") (3–1, 2–2\\), [Torino](/wiki/Torino_F.C. \"Torino F.C.\") (3–1, 1–1\\), [Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk](/wiki/FC_Dnipro_Dnipropetrovsk \"FC Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk\") (2–0, 1–0\\), Universitatea Craiova (0–1, 1–0, 3–1pen) and Sparta Prague (2–0, 0–1\\), reaching [UEFA Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League \"UEFA Europa League\") semi\\-final in [1984](/wiki/1983%E2%80%9384_UEFA_Cup \"1983–84 UEFA Cup\") and quarter\\-final in [1986](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_UEFA_Cup \"1985–86 UEFA Cup\"). In [1988](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_European_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"1987–88 European Cup Winners' Cup\"), during a Cup Winners' Cup home match with Marseille, releasing tear gas from the crowd caused the game to be canceled at 2–0 for Hajduk to award Marseille a default 0–3 victory; Hajduk was also banned from all UEFA competitions for the next two years.{{cite web\\|title\\=Stadion na zlu glasu u Europi\\|url\\=http://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20010511/sport1\\.htm\\|author\\=hrsport.net\\|access\\-date\\=9 July 2016\\|date\\=11 May 2001\\|language\\=hr\\|archive\\-date\\=6 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406103757/http://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20010511/sport1\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Apart from international success, domestic results were not as impressive. Although Hajduk spent the entire decade near the top of the league table, competing with Dinamo Zagreb, Partizan and Red Star Belgrade to form what was known as the \"Great Yugoslav Four\", the club won no title before Croatia became independent. Prominent players of the time included goalkeepers [Ivan Pudar](/wiki/Ivan_Pudar \"Ivan Pudar\") and [Zoran Simović](/wiki/Zoran_Simovi%C4%87 \"Zoran Simović\") (1983 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year); defenders [Boro Primorac](/wiki/Boro_Primorac \"Boro Primorac\"), [Branko Miljuš](/wiki/Branko_Milju%C5%A1 \"Branko Miljuš\") and [Jerko Tipurić](/wiki/Jerko_Tipuri%C4%87 \"Jerko Tipurić\"); midfielders [Blaž Slišković](/wiki/Bla%C5%BE_Sli%C5%A1kovi%C4%87 \"Blaž Slišković\") (1985 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Ivan Gudelj](/wiki/Ivan_Gudelj \"Ivan Gudelj\") (1982 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), [Zoran Vulić](/wiki/Zoran_Vuli%C4%87 \"Zoran Vulić\"), [Aljoša Asanović](/wiki/Aljo%C5%A1a_Asanovi%C4%87 \"Aljoša Asanović\"), [Stipe Andrijašević](/wiki/Stipe_Andrija%C5%A1evi%C4%87 \"Stipe Andrijašević\"), [Dragutin Čelić](/wiki/Dragutin_%C4%8Celi%C4%87 \"Dragutin Čelić\"); and striker [Zlatko Vujović](/wiki/Zlatko_Vujovi%C4%87 \"Zlatko Vujović\") (1981 Ballon d'Or candidate).{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47320/Osamdesete\\-Velika\\-generacija\\-koja\\-je\\-mogla\\-i\\-vise.aspx \\|title\\=Osamdesete: Velika generacija koja je mogla i više \\|last\\=Princivali \\|first\\=Ivan \\|date\\=11 February 2011 \\|work\\=dalmacijanews.com \\|language\\=hr \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130121130650/http://www.dalmacijanews.com/Hajduk/View/tabid/88/ID/47320/Osamdesete\\-Velika\\-generacija\\-koja\\-je\\-mogla\\-i\\-vise.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=21 January 2013 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} By the end of the Yugoslav era, a young generation of future [1998 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1998_FIFA_World_Cup \"1998 FIFA World Cup\") bronze medalists began playing for the club. These included [Igor Štimac](/wiki/Igor_%C5%A0timac \"Igor Štimac\"), [Robert Jarni](/wiki/Robert_Jarni \"Robert Jarni\"), [Alen Bokšić](/wiki/Alen_Bok%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Alen Bokšić\"), [Nikola Jerkan](/wiki/Nikola_Jerkan \"Nikola Jerkan\") and [Slaven Bilić](/wiki/Slaven_Bili%C4%87 \"Slaven Bilić\").",
"In the wake of national tensions which would eventually lead to [Yugoslav Wars](/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars \"Yugoslav Wars\"), during a tour in Australia, Hajduk restored its traditional emblem with the Croatian checkerboard, omitting the red star and sparking a massive crowd celebrations upon return. In September of that same year, a home match against Partizan would be cancelled in the 73rd minute due to the crowd entering the pitch and burning the Yugoslav flag. Later, on 8 May 1991, Hajduk won the last held Yugoslav Cup final, defeating that year's [European champions](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_European_Cup \"1990–91 European Cup\") Red Star in Belgrade with a goal scored by Bokšić. Tito's trophy for Yugoslav Cup winners was therefore awarded to Hajduk to stay in the club's permanent possession.[97 people and events which mark Hajduk's history](http://www.nogometni-magazin.com/newspro/coranto/viewnews.cgi?id=EkpkAElVlpQgfsQyWl&tmpl=coranto_hrv_news), {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616013457/http://www.nogometni\\-magazin.com/newspro/coranto/viewnews.cgi?id\\=EkpkAElVlpQgfsQyWl\\&tmpl\\=coranto\\_hrv\\_news \\|date\\=16 June 2008 }} Nogometni magazin",
"### Champions League and financial breakdown",
"[thumb\\|A Hajduk vs [Dinamo](/wiki/GNK_Dinamo_Zagreb \"GNK Dinamo Zagreb\") match in [Split](/wiki/Split%2C_Croatia \"Split, Croatia\")](/wiki/File:End_of_the_match_between_Hajduk_Split_-_Dinamo_Zagreb.jpg \"End of the match between Hajduk Split - Dinamo Zagreb.jpg\")\nIn the first four years of the [HNL](/wiki/Prva_HNL \"Prva HNL\") (the Croatian football league), Hajduk became far more successful than rivals Dinamo from Zagreb, winning three league titles, two domestic cups and two supercups, with the [1994–95 season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_HNK_Hajduk_Split_season \"1994–95 HNK Hajduk Split season\") still standing as the most successful since playing in independent Croatia. Hajduk entered that year's [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_UEFA_Champions_League \"1994–95 UEFA Champions League\") with a mix of young upcoming stars [Milan Rapaić](/wiki/Milan_Rapai%C4%87 \"Milan Rapaić\"), [Ivica Mornar](/wiki/Ivica_Mornar \"Ivica Mornar\"), [Tomislav Erceg](/wiki/Tomislav_Erceg \"Tomislav Erceg\"), [Goran Vučević](/wiki/Goran_Vu%C4%8Devi%C4%87 \"Goran Vučević\") and experienced players such as Igor Štimac, Zoran Vulić, Aljoša Asanović and [Tonči Gabrić](/wiki/Ton%C4%8Di_Gabri%C4%87 \"Tonči Gabrić\") returning to assist them. After entering the group stage, Hajduk finished second behind [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica \"S.L. Benfica\"), ahead of [Steaua București](/wiki/FC_Steaua_Bucure%C8%99ti \"FC Steaua București\") and [Anderlecht](/wiki/R.S.C._Anderlecht \"R.S.C. Anderlecht\"), before losing in the quarter\\-finals to eventual champions Ajax (0–0, 0–3\\). Domestically, the club won its first and (as of yet) last [double crown](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 \"Double (association football)\"). However, even though the team was performing well, the club was financially poorly managed, accumulating a massive financial loss that led to blocking of club's account.",
"For the next five years, Hajduk stood in the shadow of wealthier and politically privileged rivals Dinamo Zagreb, and the Champions League was no longer realistically within reach. Between 1995 and 2000, the club won zero trophies. After continuous domestic and European failures, Hajduk fans began to seek the dismissal of administration officials and circulated the story about the possible privatization of the club, which at that time did not happen. While arch\\-rivals Dinamo (then called \"Croatia Zagreb\") won titles, Hajduk had problems with the registration of players for the league. Dissatisfaction among the fans grew so much that some broke into the club premises, causing a change in leadership and promises of new beginnings. After the death of the first Croatian president [Franjo Tuđman](/wiki/Franjo_Tu%C4%91man \"Franjo Tuđman\"), whom many saw as heavily preferring and financing Croatia Zagreb, [2001](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Croatian_First_Football_League \"2000–01 Croatian First Football League\") saw Hajduk become champions once more after a memorable 4–2 win against [Varteks](/wiki/NK_Vara%C5%BEdin_%281931%E2%80%932015%29 \"NK Varaždin (1931–2015)\") in [Varaždin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin \"Varaždin\"), a match attended by far more Hajduk fans than locals. Unfortunately, financial conditions in the club were still dire, and the club was often on the precipice of bankruptcy and collapse.",
"And yet, even if operating with blocked account, chairman Branko Grgić boosted with promises of attractive signings and trophies. Although Hajduk did manage to win Cup in [2003](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Croatian_Cup \"2002–03 Croatian Cup\") and league titles in [2004](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Croatian_First_Football_League \"2003–04 Croatian First Football League\") and [2005](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Croatian_First_Football_League \"2004–05 Croatian First Football League\"), as well as sign Dinamo's promising young captain [Niko Kranjčar](/wiki/Niko_Kranj%C4%8Dar \"Niko Kranjčar\") and their legendary manager [Miroslav Blažević](/wiki/Miroslav_Bla%C5%BEevi%C4%87 \"Miroslav Blažević\"), when finances and politically driven leadership finally broke down, so did the club's results. Hajduk spent rest of the decade finishing behind its rival, with numerous coaching and management changes and reorganizations, players of dubious quality and mediocre international performances, worst of which came after being eliminated by [Shelbourne](/wiki/Shelbourne_F.C. \"Shelbourne F.C.\") and 0–5 home loss to [Debrecen](/wiki/Debreceni_VSC \"Debreceni VSC\"). The election of new chairman Mate Peroš in June 2008, upon which he changed the entire professional staff and reorganized the administration, brought only temporary relief. Hajduk achieved first away win against Dinamo after five\\-and\\-a\\-half years (2–0\\), but again finished behind their arch\\-rivals, and reached [Croatian Cup](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Croatian_Cup \"2008–09 Croatian Cup\") finals only to lose to Dinamo once again in a two\\-game thriller which saw two 3–0 wins by both teams, before Dinamo won 4–3 in penalty shootout. More importantly, the club's finances did not radically change until next season, when Hajduk became joint stock company owned by the City of Split. Even if financially secure, newly appointed chairman [Joško Svaguša](/wiki/Jo%C5%A1ko_Svagu%C5%A1a \"Joško Svaguša\") continued the policy of expensive signings and unsustainable expenses to regain the club's former glory. In 2010, Hajduk won the [Croatian Cup](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Croatian_Cup \"2009–10 Croatian Cup\"), its first trophy in five years, and later managed to qualify for the group stage of [2010–11 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_UEFA_Europa_League \"2010–11 UEFA Europa League\") which was the first time since 1994 club secured a place in the group stages of UEFA competitions. Home wins against [Dinamo București](/wiki/FC_Dinamo_Bucure%C8%99ti \"FC Dinamo București\") (3–0\\), [Unirea Urziceni](/wiki/FC_Unirea_Urziceni \"FC Unirea Urziceni\") (4–1\\) and Anderlecht (1–0\\) were, however, just a temporary reminiscence of former successes.",
"Notable players of 1990s and 2000s include goalkeepers [Stipe Pletikosa](/wiki/Stipe_Pletikosa \"Stipe Pletikosa\"), [Danijel Subašić](/wiki/Danijel_Suba%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Danijel Subašić\") and [Tonči Gabrić](/wiki/Ton%C4%8Di_Gabri%C4%87 \"Tonči Gabrić\"); defenders Igor Štimac, [Igor Tudor](/wiki/Igor_Tudor \"Igor Tudor\") and [Darijo Srna](/wiki/Darijo_Srna \"Darijo Srna\"); midfielders [Milan Rapaić](/wiki/Milan_Rapai%C4%87 \"Milan Rapaić\"), [Nenad Pralija](/wiki/Nenad_Pralija \"Nenad Pralija\"), [Dean Računica](/wiki/Dean_Ra%C4%8Dunica \"Dean Računica\"), [Niko Kranjčar](/wiki/Niko_Kranj%C4%8Dar \"Niko Kranjčar\"), [Josip Skoko](/wiki/Josip_Skoko \"Josip Skoko\"), [Ivan Leko](/wiki/Ivan_Leko \"Ivan Leko\"), [Srđan Andrić](/wiki/Sr%C4%91an_Andri%C4%87 \"Srđan Andrić\") and [Senijad Ibričić](/wiki/Senijad_Ibri%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Senijad Ibričić\"); and strikers [Ardian Kozniku](/wiki/Ardian_Kozniku \"Ardian Kozniku\"), [Nikola Kalinić](/wiki/Nikola_Kalini%C4%87_%28footballer%29 \"Nikola Kalinić (footballer)\") and [Tomislav Erceg](/wiki/Tomislav_Erceg \"Tomislav Erceg\").",
"On 13 February 2011, Hajduk commemorated its 100th anniversary with a massive celebration in Split and all of Croatia, with both Hajduk players and fans honouring the club. The entire city was decorated with Hajduk banners, flags, posters and paraphernalia, and there was a spectacular firework show over Split. Hajduk played a friendly game with Slavia Prague to honour Hajduk's Czech origins, losing 0–2\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ultras\\-tifo.net/news/285\\-hajduk\\-split\\-100\\-years\\-celebration.html \\|title\\=Hajduk Split 100 years celebration \\|publisher\\=Ultras\\-tifo.net \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215220343/http://ultras\\-tifo.net/news/285\\-hajduk\\-split\\-100\\-years\\-celebration.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Naš Hajduk",
"All this time supporters led by Torcida led a struggle to end what they considered to be politically driven management of the club, and install experts to save Hajduk. In 2009, they started an initiative called \"Dite puka\" (People's Child) that should have prompted fans to buy up the club's shares and gain control of the club, which at the time didn't happen. However, in July 2011, inspired by examples in [Germany](/wiki/Bundesliga \"Bundesliga\") and [Sweden](/wiki/Allsvenskan \"Allsvenskan\") and organized under the association \"Naš Hajduk\" (Our Hajduk), fans managed to gain rights of organizing elections for members of the club's supervisory board, making Hajduk only fan\\-owned football club in Croatian First League, and one of only two in former Yugoslavia (the other being nearby [HNK Trogir](/wiki/HNK_Trogir \"HNK Trogir\")).",
"In 2012, the club fell into yet another financial trouble caused by former Hajduk presidents, leaving it with more than 100 million [kunas](/wiki/Croatian_kuna \"Croatian kuna\") in debt, and one town meeting away from being bankrupt. After forming lines in front of the City Hall on 15 October 2012, fans convinced the town leaders to sign a loan insurance to the newly elected chairman [Marin Brbić](/wiki/Marin_Brbi%C4%87 \"Marin Brbić\") and start the club's long needed financial recovery. Since then, according to the club's annual financial report, Hajduk is under continuous financial and managerial recovery.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://telesport.telegram.hr/analize/hajduk\\-kad\\-ulica\\-vodi\\-klub/\\|title\\=Hajduk: kad ulica vodi klub\\|publisher\\=telesport.telegram.hr\\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-16\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-16\\|archive\\-date\\=16 August 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816155106/http://telesport.telegram.hr/analize/hajduk\\-kad\\-ulica\\-vodi\\-klub/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nogometplus.net/nogometplusnet/tekst/TabId/98/ArtMID/508/userid/238/ArticleID/5164/Kakav\\-je\\-bio\\-mandat\\-prvog\\-demokratski\\-izabranog\\-Nadzornog\\-odbora\\-u\\-Hajduku.aspx\\#.Vaptwvmqqko \\|title\\=Kakav je bio mandat prvog demokratski izabranog Nadzornog odbora u Hajduku \\|publisher\\=Nogometplus.hr \\|date\\=2015\\-07\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-31 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413075436/http://www.nogometplus.net/nogometplusnet/tekst/TabId/98/ArtMID/508/userid/238/ArticleID/5164/Kakav\\-je\\-bio\\-mandat\\-prvog\\-demokratski\\-izabranog\\-Nadzornog\\-odbora\\-u\\-Hajduku.aspx\\#.Vaptwvmqqko \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/pod\\-povecalom/financije/analize\\-financijskih\\-izvjestaja/analiza\\-financijskog\\-izvjestaja\\-hajduk\\-prvi\\-put\\-od\\-2009\\-zavrsio\\-godinu\\-s\\-dobiti/ \\|title\\=Analiza financijskog izvješća: Hajduk po prvi put od 2009\\. završio godinu s dobiti \\|publisher\\=Nogometplus.hr \\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623061737/http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/pod\\-povecalom/financije/analize\\-financijskih\\-izvjestaja/analiza\\-financijskog\\-izvjestaja\\-hajduk\\-prvi\\-put\\-od\\-2009\\-zavrsio\\-godinu\\-s\\-dobiti/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} On 1 April 2015, Brbić was sacked by the club's supervisory board and on 18 May replaced by Ivan Kos.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\\-kos\\-novi\\-je\\-predsjednik\\-uprave\\-hnk\\-hajduk/7240\\|title\\=Ivan Kos novi je predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk\\|website\\=hajduk.hr\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529100639/http://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\\-kos\\-novi\\-je\\-predsjednik\\-uprave\\-hnk\\-hajduk/7240\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Notable successes include 2–0 away win over [Internazionale](/wiki/Inter_Milan \"Inter Milan\") and winning the [2012–13 Croatian Cup](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Croatian_Football_Cup \"2012–13 Croatian Football Cup\"). By the end of 2016, the club numbered 43\\.339 members, more than any club in the region.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/naslovna/hajduk\\-po\\-broju\\-clanova\\-u\\-vrhu\\-svjetskih\\-lista/\\|title\\=Hajduk po broju članova u vrhu svjetskih lista\\|website\\=nogometplus.net\\|date\\=4 January 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-07\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=4 January 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104021448/http://www.nogometplus.net/index.php/naslovna/hajduk\\-po\\-broju\\-clanova\\-u\\-vrhu\\-svjetskih\\-lista/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### 2020s",
"Hajduk's poor European results continued, losing to Maltese side [Gżira United](/wiki/G%C5%BCira_United_F.C. \"Gżira United F.C.\") in the first qualifying round of the [2019–20 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_UEFA_Europa_League \"2019–20 UEFA Europa League\") and to Kazakh side [FC Tobol](/wiki/FC_Tobol \"FC Tobol\") in the second qualifying round of the [2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_UEFA_Europa_Conference_League \"2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League\").",
"In February 2021, Hajduk signed [Marko Livaja](/wiki/Marko_Livaja \"Marko Livaja\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Marko Livaja se vratio u Hajduk! \\|url\\=https://dalmatinskiportal.hr/sport/marko\\-livaja\\-se\\-vratio\\-u\\-hajduk/89420 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=Dalmatinski portal \\|language\\=hr}} In December 2021, [Prva HNL](/wiki/Prva_HNL \"Prva HNL\") captains voted Marko Livaja as the best footballer in the league, becoming the Hajduk player to win the best player award since 2003\\. Livaja finished the [2021–22 Prva HNL](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_First_Football_League \"2021–22 Croatian First Football League\") season as top goalscorer with 28 goals. It is a Hajduk record for a single season, beating [Leo Lemešić](/wiki/Leo_Leme%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Leo Lemešić\")'s tally of 26 in 1934–35 and [Zlatko Vujović](/wiki/Zlatko_Vujovi%C4%87 \"Zlatko Vujović\") with 25\\. Livaja was awarded the [Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)](/wiki/Prva_HNL_Player_of_the_Year_%28Tportal%29 \"Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)\") award for 2022\\. In doing so, he became the first player to win the award in consecutive years and first since [Sammir](/wiki/Sammir \"Sammir\") in 2012 to be a repeat winner. For the [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_League \"2022–23 Croatian Football League\") season, Livaja was again the top goalscorer in the league with 19 goals, as Hajduk finished runners\\-up in the competition.",
"Hajduk won back to back [Croatian Cups](/wiki/Croatian_Football_Cup \"Croatian Football Cup\") in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_Football_Cup \"2021–22 Croatian Football Cup\") and [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_Cup \"2022–23 Croatian Football Cup\").",
"In September 2023, Hajduk announced that it had achieved 100,000 members for the first time in the club's history.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Dan za povijest: Hajduk ima impresivnih 100\\.000 članova! \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/dan\\-za\\-povijest\\-hajduk\\-ima\\-impresivnih\\-100\\-000\\-clanova\\-/16272 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}}",
"On 3 April 2024, Hajduk lost 0\\-1 to Dinamo in the semi\\-final of the Croatian Cup at home, having lost by the same scoreline, at the same location, against the same opposition four days earlier. The results left Hajduk out of the cup and out of the title race, having led the league for 13 of the first 19 rounds. Crowd trouble after the game, including a pitch invasion and clashes with police lead to some 50 arrests.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fans clash with police after Croatia Cup semis \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/fans\\-clash\\-with\\-police\\-after\\-croatia\\-cup\\-semis\\-2024\\-04\\-04/ \\|website\\=Reuters}} The collapse of the title chase followed the high profile January signings of [Ivan Perišić](/wiki/Ivan_Peri%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Ivan Perišić\"), [Josip Brekalo](/wiki/Josip_Brekalo \"Josip Brekalo\") and [László Kleinheisler](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kleinheisler \"László Kleinheisler\").",
"On 8 April 2024, club president Lukša Jakobušić departed Hajduk at the decision of the Supervisory Board.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lukša Jakobušić više nije predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/luksa\\-jakobusic\\-vise\\-nije\\-predsjednik\\-uprave\\-hnk\\-hajduk/16742 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} The same day, head coach [Mislav Karoglan](/wiki/Mislav_Karoglan \"Mislav Karoglan\") also left the club.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mislav Karoglan više nije trener Hajduka \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/mislav\\-karoglan\\-vise\\-nije\\-trener\\-hajduka/16743 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} Shortly after, sporting director [Mindaugas Nikoličius](/wiki/Mindaugas_Nikoli%C4%8Dius \"Mindaugas Nikoličius\") resigned from his role, ending the Jakobušić\\-Nikoličius era at Hajduk.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sportski direktor Mindaugas Nikoličius podnio ostavku \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sportski\\-direktor\\-mindaugas\\-nikolicius\\-podnio\\-ostavku/16749 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}}",
"On 25 April 2024, Ivan Bilić was announced as the new president of Hajduk Split.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ivan Bilić novi je predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk! \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\\-bilic\\-novi\\-je\\-predsjednik\\-uprave\\-hnk\\-hajduk\\-/16779 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} One of Bilić's first moves was to appoint recently retired Hajduk striker, and former Croatian international, [Nikola Kalinić](/wiki/Nikola_Kalini%C4%87_%28footballer%29 \"Nikola Kalinić (footballer)\") as the new sporting director in late May.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Službeno predstavljanje novog sportskog direktora Nikole Kalinića \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sluzbeno\\-predstavljanje\\-novog\\-sportskog\\-direktora\\-nikole\\-kalinica/16865 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} Kalinić's first move as sporting director was to appoint [Gennaro Gattuso](/wiki/Gennaro_Gattuso \"Gennaro Gattuso\") as head coach of the club in June 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Gennaro Gattuso novi je trener Hajduka! \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/gennaro\\-gattuso\\-novi\\-je\\-trener\\-hajduka\\-/16880 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} As a player, Gattuso was a two\\-time [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") winner with [AC Milan](/wiki/AC_Milan \"AC Milan\") and a [World cup](/wiki/World_cup \"World cup\") winner with [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team \"Italy national football team\"). Gattuso signed a two\\-year contract with Hajduk.",
""
] |
### 2020s
Hajduk's poor European results continued, losing to Maltese side [Gżira United](/wiki/G%C5%BCira_United_F.C. "Gżira United F.C.") in the first qualifying round of the [2019–20 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_UEFA_Europa_League "2019–20 UEFA Europa League") and to Kazakh side [FC Tobol](/wiki/FC_Tobol "FC Tobol") in the second qualifying round of the [2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_UEFA_Europa_Conference_League "2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League").
In February 2021, Hajduk signed [Marko Livaja](/wiki/Marko_Livaja "Marko Livaja").{{Cite web \|title\=Marko Livaja se vratio u Hajduk! \|url\=https://dalmatinskiportal.hr/sport/marko\-livaja\-se\-vratio\-u\-hajduk/89420 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=Dalmatinski portal \|language\=hr}} In December 2021, [Prva HNL](/wiki/Prva_HNL "Prva HNL") captains voted Marko Livaja as the best footballer in the league, becoming the Hajduk player to win the best player award since 2003\. Livaja finished the [2021–22 Prva HNL](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_First_Football_League "2021–22 Croatian First Football League") season as top goalscorer with 28 goals. It is a Hajduk record for a single season, beating [Leo Lemešić](/wiki/Leo_Leme%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Leo Lemešić")'s tally of 26 in 1934–35 and [Zlatko Vujović](/wiki/Zlatko_Vujovi%C4%87 "Zlatko Vujović") with 25\. Livaja was awarded the [Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)](/wiki/Prva_HNL_Player_of_the_Year_%28Tportal%29 "Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)") award for 2022\. In doing so, he became the first player to win the award in consecutive years and first since [Sammir](/wiki/Sammir "Sammir") in 2012 to be a repeat winner. For the [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_League "2022–23 Croatian Football League") season, Livaja was again the top goalscorer in the league with 19 goals, as Hajduk finished runners\-up in the competition.
Hajduk won back to back [Croatian Cups](/wiki/Croatian_Football_Cup "Croatian Football Cup") in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_Football_Cup "2021–22 Croatian Football Cup") and [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_Cup "2022–23 Croatian Football Cup").
In September 2023, Hajduk announced that it had achieved 100,000 members for the first time in the club's history.{{Cite web \|title\=Dan za povijest: Hajduk ima impresivnih 100\.000 članova! \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/dan\-za\-povijest\-hajduk\-ima\-impresivnih\-100\-000\-clanova\-/16272 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}}
On 3 April 2024, Hajduk lost 0\-1 to Dinamo in the semi\-final of the Croatian Cup at home, having lost by the same scoreline, at the same location, against the same opposition four days earlier. The results left Hajduk out of the cup and out of the title race, having led the league for 13 of the first 19 rounds. Crowd trouble after the game, including a pitch invasion and clashes with police lead to some 50 arrests.{{Cite web \|title\=Fans clash with police after Croatia Cup semis \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/fans\-clash\-with\-police\-after\-croatia\-cup\-semis\-2024\-04\-04/ \|website\=Reuters}} The collapse of the title chase followed the high profile January signings of [Ivan Perišić](/wiki/Ivan_Peri%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Ivan Perišić"), [Josip Brekalo](/wiki/Josip_Brekalo "Josip Brekalo") and [László Kleinheisler](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kleinheisler "László Kleinheisler").
On 8 April 2024, club president Lukša Jakobušić departed Hajduk at the decision of the Supervisory Board.{{Cite web \|title\=Lukša Jakobušić više nije predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/luksa\-jakobusic\-vise\-nije\-predsjednik\-uprave\-hnk\-hajduk/16742 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} The same day, head coach [Mislav Karoglan](/wiki/Mislav_Karoglan "Mislav Karoglan") also left the club.{{Cite web \|title\=Mislav Karoglan više nije trener Hajduka \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/mislav\-karoglan\-vise\-nije\-trener\-hajduka/16743 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} Shortly after, sporting director [Mindaugas Nikoličius](/wiki/Mindaugas_Nikoli%C4%8Dius "Mindaugas Nikoličius") resigned from his role, ending the Jakobušić\-Nikoličius era at Hajduk.{{Cite web \|title\=Sportski direktor Mindaugas Nikoličius podnio ostavku \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sportski\-direktor\-mindaugas\-nikolicius\-podnio\-ostavku/16749 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}}
On 25 April 2024, Ivan Bilić was announced as the new president of Hajduk Split.{{Cite web \|title\=Ivan Bilić novi je predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk! \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\-bilic\-novi\-je\-predsjednik\-uprave\-hnk\-hajduk\-/16779 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} One of Bilić's first moves was to appoint recently retired Hajduk striker, and former Croatian international, [Nikola Kalinić](/wiki/Nikola_Kalini%C4%87_%28footballer%29 "Nikola Kalinić (footballer)") as the new sporting director in late May.{{Cite web \|title\=Službeno predstavljanje novog sportskog direktora Nikole Kalinića \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sluzbeno\-predstavljanje\-novog\-sportskog\-direktora\-nikole\-kalinica/16865 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} Kalinić's first move as sporting director was to appoint [Gennaro Gattuso](/wiki/Gennaro_Gattuso "Gennaro Gattuso") as head coach of the club in June 2024\.{{Cite web \|title\=Gennaro Gattuso novi je trener Hajduka! \|url\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/gennaro\-gattuso\-novi\-je\-trener\-hajduka\-/16880 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14 \|website\=hajduk.hr \|language\=hr}} As a player, Gattuso was a two\-time [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") winner with [AC Milan](/wiki/AC_Milan "AC Milan") and a [World cup](/wiki/World_cup "World cup") winner with [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team "Italy national football team"). Gattuso signed a two\-year contract with Hajduk.
|
[
"### 2020s",
"Hajduk's poor European results continued, losing to Maltese side [Gżira United](/wiki/G%C5%BCira_United_F.C. \"Gżira United F.C.\") in the first qualifying round of the [2019–20 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_UEFA_Europa_League \"2019–20 UEFA Europa League\") and to Kazakh side [FC Tobol](/wiki/FC_Tobol \"FC Tobol\") in the second qualifying round of the [2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_UEFA_Europa_Conference_League \"2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League\").",
"In February 2021, Hajduk signed [Marko Livaja](/wiki/Marko_Livaja \"Marko Livaja\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Marko Livaja se vratio u Hajduk! \\|url\\=https://dalmatinskiportal.hr/sport/marko\\-livaja\\-se\\-vratio\\-u\\-hajduk/89420 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=Dalmatinski portal \\|language\\=hr}} In December 2021, [Prva HNL](/wiki/Prva_HNL \"Prva HNL\") captains voted Marko Livaja as the best footballer in the league, becoming the Hajduk player to win the best player award since 2003\\. Livaja finished the [2021–22 Prva HNL](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_First_Football_League \"2021–22 Croatian First Football League\") season as top goalscorer with 28 goals. It is a Hajduk record for a single season, beating [Leo Lemešić](/wiki/Leo_Leme%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Leo Lemešić\")'s tally of 26 in 1934–35 and [Zlatko Vujović](/wiki/Zlatko_Vujovi%C4%87 \"Zlatko Vujović\") with 25\\. Livaja was awarded the [Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)](/wiki/Prva_HNL_Player_of_the_Year_%28Tportal%29 \"Prva HNL Player of the Year (Tportal)\") award for 2022\\. In doing so, he became the first player to win the award in consecutive years and first since [Sammir](/wiki/Sammir \"Sammir\") in 2012 to be a repeat winner. For the [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_League \"2022–23 Croatian Football League\") season, Livaja was again the top goalscorer in the league with 19 goals, as Hajduk finished runners\\-up in the competition.",
"Hajduk won back to back [Croatian Cups](/wiki/Croatian_Football_Cup \"Croatian Football Cup\") in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Croatian_Football_Cup \"2021–22 Croatian Football Cup\") and [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Croatian_Football_Cup \"2022–23 Croatian Football Cup\").",
"In September 2023, Hajduk announced that it had achieved 100,000 members for the first time in the club's history.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Dan za povijest: Hajduk ima impresivnih 100\\.000 članova! \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/dan\\-za\\-povijest\\-hajduk\\-ima\\-impresivnih\\-100\\-000\\-clanova\\-/16272 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}}",
"On 3 April 2024, Hajduk lost 0\\-1 to Dinamo in the semi\\-final of the Croatian Cup at home, having lost by the same scoreline, at the same location, against the same opposition four days earlier. The results left Hajduk out of the cup and out of the title race, having led the league for 13 of the first 19 rounds. Crowd trouble after the game, including a pitch invasion and clashes with police lead to some 50 arrests.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fans clash with police after Croatia Cup semis \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/fans\\-clash\\-with\\-police\\-after\\-croatia\\-cup\\-semis\\-2024\\-04\\-04/ \\|website\\=Reuters}} The collapse of the title chase followed the high profile January signings of [Ivan Perišić](/wiki/Ivan_Peri%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Ivan Perišić\"), [Josip Brekalo](/wiki/Josip_Brekalo \"Josip Brekalo\") and [László Kleinheisler](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kleinheisler \"László Kleinheisler\").",
"On 8 April 2024, club president Lukša Jakobušić departed Hajduk at the decision of the Supervisory Board.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lukša Jakobušić više nije predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/luksa\\-jakobusic\\-vise\\-nije\\-predsjednik\\-uprave\\-hnk\\-hajduk/16742 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} The same day, head coach [Mislav Karoglan](/wiki/Mislav_Karoglan \"Mislav Karoglan\") also left the club.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mislav Karoglan više nije trener Hajduka \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/mislav\\-karoglan\\-vise\\-nije\\-trener\\-hajduka/16743 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} Shortly after, sporting director [Mindaugas Nikoličius](/wiki/Mindaugas_Nikoli%C4%8Dius \"Mindaugas Nikoličius\") resigned from his role, ending the Jakobušić\\-Nikoličius era at Hajduk.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sportski direktor Mindaugas Nikoličius podnio ostavku \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sportski\\-direktor\\-mindaugas\\-nikolicius\\-podnio\\-ostavku/16749 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}}",
"On 25 April 2024, Ivan Bilić was announced as the new president of Hajduk Split.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ivan Bilić novi je predsjednik Uprave HNK Hajduk! \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/ivan\\-bilic\\-novi\\-je\\-predsjednik\\-uprave\\-hnk\\-hajduk\\-/16779 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} One of Bilić's first moves was to appoint recently retired Hajduk striker, and former Croatian international, [Nikola Kalinić](/wiki/Nikola_Kalini%C4%87_%28footballer%29 \"Nikola Kalinić (footballer)\") as the new sporting director in late May.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Službeno predstavljanje novog sportskog direktora Nikole Kalinića \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/sluzbeno\\-predstavljanje\\-novog\\-sportskog\\-direktora\\-nikole\\-kalinica/16865 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} Kalinić's first move as sporting director was to appoint [Gennaro Gattuso](/wiki/Gennaro_Gattuso \"Gennaro Gattuso\") as head coach of the club in June 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Gennaro Gattuso novi je trener Hajduka! \\|url\\=https://hajduk.hr/vijest/gennaro\\-gattuso\\-novi\\-je\\-trener\\-hajduka\\-/16880 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=hajduk.hr \\|language\\=hr}} As a player, Gattuso was a two\\-time [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") winner with [AC Milan](/wiki/AC_Milan \"AC Milan\") and a [World cup](/wiki/World_cup \"World cup\") winner with [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team \"Italy national football team\"). Gattuso signed a two\\-year contract with Hajduk.",
""
] |
Crest and colours
-----------------
### Colours
{{Football kit box \|
align \= right \|
pattern\_la \= \|
pattern\_b \= \|
pattern\_ra \= \|
leftarm \= FBFAFA \|
body \= FBFAFA \|
rightarm \= FBFAFA \|
shorts \= 0540A0 \|
socks \= 0540A0 \|
alt \= White jersey, blue shorts, blue socks \|
title \= Hajduk's original home colours}}
Hajduk played its first game in a strip with red and white vertical stripes, which symbolized the Croatian coat of arms. The former Austrian City Council did not want to be seen as partisan and would not allow club colors to be made up from the emergent Croatian tricolour. Hajduk changed its kit design to red and blue vertical stripes with white "Hajduk" written in the middle. 1914 saw the club choose a white shirt, blue shorts and socks; a combination that symbolizes white sails on a blue sea. The color white has since then become a symbol for the club, along with the nickname 'Bili' ('Whites').
Its away strip consists of red and blue shirts with vertical stripes (sometimes narrow, sometimes wide), blue shorts and socks, to symbolize the Croatian flag. From 2008 to 2011, the stripes were made horizontal. Although UEFA has not introduced compulsory registration of the third set of colours, one possibility was shirts of vertical red and white stripes, but were not adopted due to the resemblance of club colours of Red Star Belgrade. Third set of colours was therefore often a combination of first two (most often completely white outfit), until a new gray design, composed of small triangular fan flags was introduced in 2015\.
At one time the main colours were to be a combination of navy blue, white with blue horizontal stripes, but this kit was only sporadically worn by goalkeepers Stipe Pletikosa and [Danijel Subašić](/wiki/Danijel_Suba%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Danijel Subašić").
### Crest
Hajduk's crest consists of the [Croatian checkerboard](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Croatia "Coat of arms of Croatia") with 25 red and white checkers bordered by a circle of blue ribbon, with two white vertical lines on each side. The words *Hajduk* and *Split* are written above and below the checkerboard respectively. The symbolism of the white vertical lines is still under discussion, with theories such as being a symbol of the four founders, the equals sign or quotation marks.
The modern crest is almost identical to the one created in 1911\. The original was designed by one of club's founders Vjekoslav Ivanišević. It was then taken to Ana, the sister of the Kaliterna brothers who took a drawing of the crest to a convent where nuns created 20–30 pieces by hand. The crest first appeared in public in 1926 during a performance of the [Tijardović](/wiki/Ivo_Tijardovi%C4%87 "Ivo Tijardović") opera "{{lang\|hr\|Kraljica baluna}}" as part of the scenery.
However, Hajduk did not wear the original crest before World War II as it was not obligatory at the time. After the club's rebirth following the end of WWII the new crest became just a red star {{ndash}} a symbol of [anti\-fascism](/wiki/Anti-fascism "Anti-fascism") which Hajduk stood up for during the war. In 1960, a new crest was made, similar to the old one but with the red star in the middle instead of the former red and white traditional checkerboard. In 1990, while on tour in Australia, the original crest was returned and has been used ever since.
|
[
"Crest and colours\n-----------------",
"### Colours",
"{{Football kit box \\|\n align \\= right \\|\n pattern\\_la \\= \\|\n pattern\\_b \\= \\|\n pattern\\_ra \\= \\|\n leftarm \\= FBFAFA \\|\n body \\= FBFAFA \\|\n rightarm \\= FBFAFA \\|\n shorts \\= 0540A0 \\|\n socks \\= 0540A0 \\|\n alt \\= White jersey, blue shorts, blue socks \\|\n title \\= Hajduk's original home colours}}",
"Hajduk played its first game in a strip with red and white vertical stripes, which symbolized the Croatian coat of arms. The former Austrian City Council did not want to be seen as partisan and would not allow club colors to be made up from the emergent Croatian tricolour. Hajduk changed its kit design to red and blue vertical stripes with white \"Hajduk\" written in the middle. 1914 saw the club choose a white shirt, blue shorts and socks; a combination that symbolizes white sails on a blue sea. The color white has since then become a symbol for the club, along with the nickname 'Bili' ('Whites').",
"Its away strip consists of red and blue shirts with vertical stripes (sometimes narrow, sometimes wide), blue shorts and socks, to symbolize the Croatian flag. From 2008 to 2011, the stripes were made horizontal. Although UEFA has not introduced compulsory registration of the third set of colours, one possibility was shirts of vertical red and white stripes, but were not adopted due to the resemblance of club colours of Red Star Belgrade. Third set of colours was therefore often a combination of first two (most often completely white outfit), until a new gray design, composed of small triangular fan flags was introduced in 2015\\.",
"At one time the main colours were to be a combination of navy blue, white with blue horizontal stripes, but this kit was only sporadically worn by goalkeepers Stipe Pletikosa and [Danijel Subašić](/wiki/Danijel_Suba%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Danijel Subašić\").",
"### Crest",
"Hajduk's crest consists of the [Croatian checkerboard](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Croatia \"Coat of arms of Croatia\") with 25 red and white checkers bordered by a circle of blue ribbon, with two white vertical lines on each side. The words *Hajduk* and *Split* are written above and below the checkerboard respectively. The symbolism of the white vertical lines is still under discussion, with theories such as being a symbol of the four founders, the equals sign or quotation marks.",
"The modern crest is almost identical to the one created in 1911\\. The original was designed by one of club's founders Vjekoslav Ivanišević. It was then taken to Ana, the sister of the Kaliterna brothers who took a drawing of the crest to a convent where nuns created 20–30 pieces by hand. The crest first appeared in public in 1926 during a performance of the [Tijardović](/wiki/Ivo_Tijardovi%C4%87 \"Ivo Tijardović\") opera \"{{lang\\|hr\\|Kraljica baluna}}\" as part of the scenery.",
"However, Hajduk did not wear the original crest before World War II as it was not obligatory at the time. After the club's rebirth following the end of WWII the new crest became just a red star {{ndash}} a symbol of [anti\\-fascism](/wiki/Anti-fascism \"Anti-fascism\") which Hajduk stood up for during the war. In 1960, a new crest was made, similar to the old one but with the red star in the middle instead of the former red and white traditional checkerboard. In 1990, while on tour in Australia, the original crest was returned and has been used ever since.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Journalism, broadcast and activism
Kaoosji is an independent broadcast journalist with a long background in [pedagogy](/wiki/Pedagogy "Pedagogy"). She moved into media via modelling and her broadcast career began when she hosted [Tourism Malaysia](/wiki/Tourism_Malaysia "Tourism Malaysia")’s online travel \& tourism\-centric shows, Travel Info and Tourism Buzz, from 2013 to 2015\. From 2014\- October 2020 she hosted English\-language current affairs talk shows on [Bernama News Channel](/wiki/Bernama_News_Channel "Bernama News Channel"), namely Bernama Today, The Nation and her own online talkshow focusing on women, Tea with Tehmina.
She currently anchors Money Matters, TV3 Malaysia's flagship financial talkshow, focusing on economics \& business\-related current affairs issues.
She covers political, economic and social justice issues from a global, regional and local perspective, securing and producing exclusive interviews with global bodies, thought leaders and personalities ranging from [The World Bank](/wiki/The_World_Bank "The World Bank"), [UNFPA](/wiki/UNFPA "UNFPA"), [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF"), [Bundesliga](/wiki/Bundesliga "Bundesliga"), [Global Bersih](/wiki/Bersih "Bersih"), and the [Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_Women%2C_Family_and_Community_Development "Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development"), as well as diplomats, small business owners, artists and sporting superstars, such as [Ronaldinho](/wiki/Ronaldinho "Ronaldinho"). She is a board member and director with the Institute of Journalists Malaysia.{{cite web\|title\=The New Lineup\| date\=18 November 2018 \|url\=https://wartawan.my/?p\=281\|accessdate\=7 May 2019\|publisher\=The Institute of Journalists Malaysia}}{{Cite web\|last\=Tang\|first\=Terence\|title\=Anti\-graft group says Malaysia making progress in media freedom {{!}} Malay Mail\|url\=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/04/12/anti\-graft\-group\-says\-malaysia\-making\-progress\-in\-media\-freedom/1742710\|access\-date\=13 September 2019\|website\=www.malaymail.com\|date\=12 April 2019 }}
In 2019, Kaoosji represented Malaysia and [Bernama News Channel](/wiki/Bernama_News_Channel "Bernama News Channel") at the [CGTN (TV channel)](/wiki/CGTN_%28TV_channel%29 "CGTN (TV channel)") Dialogue of Asian Civilizations.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time\_continue\=1\&v\=30ux9L2AqDk \|via\=YouTube \|publisher\=CGTN \|accessdate\=31 May 2019\|title\=Dialogue of Asian Civilizations }} She was one of four Asian media personnel who participated in a dialogue on Asian civilizations. She has spoken at various events, which include the World Bank Malaysia Economic Monitor, National Consultation for a Malaysian Media Council, Women Changing the Content Landscape in Malaysia, [TedX KL 2019](/wiki/TED_%28conference%29 "TED (conference)"){{cite web\|title\=TEDxHeriotWattUMalaysia\|url\=https://www.ted.com/tedx/events/30595\|accessdate\=7 May 2019\|website\=TED.com}} and the 2019 Georgetown Literary Festival.
### Acting
Kaoosji is a trained musical theatre practitioner and has also worked in acting. She was formerly a commercial model, appearing in campaigns for major regional and international brands.
In 2015, she had a role in the Michael Mann directed film [*Blackhat*](/wiki/Blackhat_%28film%29 "Blackhat (film)"), appearing as a pharmacy speaker. In 2016, Kaoosji was cast as the titular character, Sara, in the [horror](/wiki/Horror_fiction "Horror fiction") found\-footage style video game *Sara Is Missing*.{{cite web\|date\=17 November 2016\|title\=Sara is Missing: a 'found footage' style mobile game\|url\=https://www.imgawards.com/news/industry/sara\-missing\-found\-footage\-style\-mobile\-game/\|accessdate\=7 May 2019\|website\=International Mobile Gaming Awards Global}}
SIM went viral throughout the internet and the video sharing site [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") at the time of release.
In 2019, she appeared as Rosa Khan in the film *Shadowplay*, and appeared in the [Viu](/wiki/Viu_%28streaming_media%29 "Viu (streaming media)") series *Devoted*, as Kay.{{cite web \|last1\=Chua \|first1\=Dennis \|title\=Time for more girl power on TV \|url\=https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/groove/2019/03/467070/showbiz\-time\-more\-girl\-power\-tv \|website\=www.nst.com.my \|publisher\=\[\[New Straits Times]] \|access\-date\=22 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531034137/https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/groove/2019/03/467070/showbiz\-time\-more\-girl\-power\-tv \|archive\-date\=May 31, 2019 \|language\=en \|date\=March 8, 2019 \|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Journalism, broadcast and activism",
"Kaoosji is an independent broadcast journalist with a long background in [pedagogy](/wiki/Pedagogy \"Pedagogy\"). She moved into media via modelling and her broadcast career began when she hosted [Tourism Malaysia](/wiki/Tourism_Malaysia \"Tourism Malaysia\")’s online travel \\& tourism\\-centric shows, Travel Info and Tourism Buzz, from 2013 to 2015\\. From 2014\\- October 2020 she hosted English\\-language current affairs talk shows on [Bernama News Channel](/wiki/Bernama_News_Channel \"Bernama News Channel\"), namely Bernama Today, The Nation and her own online talkshow focusing on women, Tea with Tehmina.",
"She currently anchors Money Matters, TV3 Malaysia's flagship financial talkshow, focusing on economics \\& business\\-related current affairs issues.",
"She covers political, economic and social justice issues from a global, regional and local perspective, securing and producing exclusive interviews with global bodies, thought leaders and personalities ranging from [The World Bank](/wiki/The_World_Bank \"The World Bank\"), [UNFPA](/wiki/UNFPA \"UNFPA\"), [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF \"UNICEF\"), [Bundesliga](/wiki/Bundesliga \"Bundesliga\"), [Global Bersih](/wiki/Bersih \"Bersih\"), and the [Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_Women%2C_Family_and_Community_Development \"Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development\"), as well as diplomats, small business owners, artists and sporting superstars, such as [Ronaldinho](/wiki/Ronaldinho \"Ronaldinho\"). She is a board member and director with the Institute of Journalists Malaysia.{{cite web\\|title\\=The New Lineup\\| date\\=18 November 2018 \\|url\\=https://wartawan.my/?p\\=281\\|accessdate\\=7 May 2019\\|publisher\\=The Institute of Journalists Malaysia}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Tang\\|first\\=Terence\\|title\\=Anti\\-graft group says Malaysia making progress in media freedom {{!}} Malay Mail\\|url\\=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/04/12/anti\\-graft\\-group\\-says\\-malaysia\\-making\\-progress\\-in\\-media\\-freedom/1742710\\|access\\-date\\=13 September 2019\\|website\\=www.malaymail.com\\|date\\=12 April 2019 }}",
"In 2019, Kaoosji represented Malaysia and [Bernama News Channel](/wiki/Bernama_News_Channel \"Bernama News Channel\") at the [CGTN (TV channel)](/wiki/CGTN_%28TV_channel%29 \"CGTN (TV channel)\") Dialogue of Asian Civilizations.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time\\_continue\\=1\\&v\\=30ux9L2AqDk \\|via\\=YouTube \\|publisher\\=CGTN \\|accessdate\\=31 May 2019\\|title\\=Dialogue of Asian Civilizations }} She was one of four Asian media personnel who participated in a dialogue on Asian civilizations. She has spoken at various events, which include the World Bank Malaysia Economic Monitor, National Consultation for a Malaysian Media Council, Women Changing the Content Landscape in Malaysia, [TedX KL 2019](/wiki/TED_%28conference%29 \"TED (conference)\"){{cite web\\|title\\=TEDxHeriotWattUMalaysia\\|url\\=https://www.ted.com/tedx/events/30595\\|accessdate\\=7 May 2019\\|website\\=TED.com}} and the 2019 Georgetown Literary Festival.",
"### Acting",
"Kaoosji is a trained musical theatre practitioner and has also worked in acting. She was formerly a commercial model, appearing in campaigns for major regional and international brands.",
"In 2015, she had a role in the Michael Mann directed film [*Blackhat*](/wiki/Blackhat_%28film%29 \"Blackhat (film)\"), appearing as a pharmacy speaker. In 2016, Kaoosji was cast as the titular character, Sara, in the [horror](/wiki/Horror_fiction \"Horror fiction\") found\\-footage style video game *Sara Is Missing*.{{cite web\\|date\\=17 November 2016\\|title\\=Sara is Missing: a 'found footage' style mobile game\\|url\\=https://www.imgawards.com/news/industry/sara\\-missing\\-found\\-footage\\-style\\-mobile\\-game/\\|accessdate\\=7 May 2019\\|website\\=International Mobile Gaming Awards Global}}",
"SIM went viral throughout the internet and the video sharing site [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") at the time of release.",
"In 2019, she appeared as Rosa Khan in the film *Shadowplay*, and appeared in the [Viu](/wiki/Viu_%28streaming_media%29 \"Viu (streaming media)\") series *Devoted*, as Kay.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Chua \\|first1\\=Dennis \\|title\\=Time for more girl power on TV \\|url\\=https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/groove/2019/03/467070/showbiz\\-time\\-more\\-girl\\-power\\-tv \\|website\\=www.nst.com.my \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New Straits Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531034137/https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/groove/2019/03/467070/showbiz\\-time\\-more\\-girl\\-power\\-tv \\|archive\\-date\\=May 31, 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=March 8, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Geography
---------
[thumb\|Calexico City hall and SDSU\-Imperial Valley Campus Aerial](/wiki/File:Aerial_View_of_Calexico.jpg "Aerial View of Calexico.jpg")
According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), at the 2010 census, the city had a total area of {{convert\|6\.2\|sqmi\|km2}}, all land.
Calexico is located {{convert\|230\|mi\|km}} southeast of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), {{convert\|125\|mi\|km}} east of [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), {{convert\|260\|mi\|km}} west of [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona"), and adjacent to [Mexicali](/wiki/Mexicali "Mexicali"), [Baja California](/wiki/Baja_California "Baja California"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico").
Calexico's location provides easy overnight trucking access to all those transportation hubs plus the ports of [Long Beach, California](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California "Long Beach, California"), and [Ensenada](/wiki/Ensenada%2C_Baja_California "Ensenada, Baja California"), Baja California, Mexico.
Calexico is served by State Routes [98](/wiki/California_State_Route_98 "California State Route 98"), [7](/wiki/California_State_Route_7 "California State Route 7") and [111](/wiki/California_State_Route_111 "California State Route 111"), with direct connection to [Interstate 8](/wiki/Interstate_8_%28California%29 "Interstate 8 (California)") (5 miles north) and [State Route 86](/wiki/California_State_Route_86 "California State Route 86"). There are eighteen regular and irregular common carriers for intrastate and interstate truck service to Calexico.
Rail service is provided by [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad"), and connects with the main line to [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"); [Rock Island, Illinois](/wiki/Rock_Island%2C_Illinois "Rock Island, Illinois"); [Tucumcari, New Mexico](/wiki/Tucumcari%2C_New_Mexico "Tucumcari, New Mexico"); [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri "St. Louis, Missouri"); and [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana").
Within city limits is [Calexico International Airport](/wiki/Calexico_International_Airport "Calexico International Airport"), the U.S. Customs and Border Protection check\-point for private passenger and air\-cargo flights entering the U.S. from Mexico. Private charter services are also available there.
General aviation facilities and scheduled passenger and air\-cargo service to [San Diego International Airport](/wiki/San_Diego_International_Airport "San Diego International Airport"), [Bob Hope Airport](/wiki/Bob_Hope_Airport "Bob Hope Airport") in Burbank, and other points are available at [Imperial County Airport](/wiki/Imperial_County_Airport "Imperial County Airport") (Boley Field), located {{convert\|17\|mi\|km}} north.
[thumb\|Bird's\-eye view of Calexico during the early 20th century\|324x324px](/wiki/File:Birds_eye_view_of_Mexicali_and_Calexico_LCCN2007664558.tif "Birds eye view of Mexicali and Calexico LCCN2007664558.tif")
### Climate
Calexico has a [subtropical](/wiki/Subtropical_climate "Subtropical climate") [hot\-desert](/wiki/Desert_climate%23hot-desert_climate "Desert climate#hot-desert climate") climate (*BWh*), according to the [Köppen climate classification](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification") system. In December 1932, the city experienced a rare snowfall. Rainfall usually occurs in the winter months of December, January and February. Although summer is extremely dry in Calexico, there are occasional thunderstorms. In 2008, during the months of July and August there were several heavy thunderstorms that let down large amounts of rain and hail. Summer rainfall in the city is infrequent. During winter time, Calexico is sometimes affected by winter rain showers.
The summer temperatures in Calexico are very hot, with most of those days having temperatures at or above {{convert\|100\|F}}. However, the hot desert climate seen in Calexico is actually not unusual for similar parallel cities such as, for example, [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq").
The area has a large amount of sunshine year round due to its stable descending air and high pressure.
{{Weather box
\|location \= Calexico, California
\|single line \= Y
\|Jan high F \= 70
\|Feb high F \= 75
\|Mar high F \= 79
\|Apr high F \= 86
\|May high F \= 94
\|Jun high F \= 103
\|Jul high F \= 107
\|Aug high F \= 106
\|Sep high F \= 101
\|Oct high F \= 91
\|Nov high F \= 78
\|Dec high F \= 70
\|Jan record high F \= 90
\|Feb record high F \= 93
\|Mar record high F \= 101
\|Apr record high F \= 109
\|May record high F \= 116
\|Jun record high F \= 121
\|Jul record high F \= 122
\|Aug record high F \= 120
\|Sep record high F \= 120
\|Oct record high F \= 112
\|Nov record high F \= 98
\|Dec record high F \= 95
\|year record high F \= 122
\|year high F \=88
\|Jan low F \= 41
\|Feb low F \= 45
\|Mar low F \= 49
\|Apr low F \= 54
\|May low F \= 61
\|Jun low F \= 68
\|Jul low F \= 76
\|Aug low F \= 77
\|Sep low F \= 71
\|Oct low F \= 59
\|Nov low F \= 47
\|Dec low F \= 41
\|Jan record low F \= 18
\|Feb record low F \= 24
\|Mar record low F \= 29
\|Apr record low F \= 34
\|May record low F \= 36
\|Jun record low F \= 47
\|Jul record low F \= 52
\|Aug record low F \= 54
\|Sep record low F \= 48
\|Oct record low F \= 33
\|Nov record low F \= 24
\|Dec record low F \= 22
\|year record low F \= 18
\|year low F \=57
\|precipitation colour \= green
\|Jan precipitation inch \= 0\.51
\|Feb precipitation inch \= 0\.36
\|Mar precipitation inch \= 0\.31
\|Apr precipitation inch \= 0\.05
\|May precipitation inch \= 0\.03
\|Jun precipitation inch \= 0\.01
\|Jul precipitation inch \= 0\.06
\|Aug precipitation inch \= 0\.32
\|Sep precipitation inch \= 0\.36
\|Oct precipitation inch \= 0\.35
\|Nov precipitation inch \= 0\.17
\|Dec precipitation inch \= 0\.43
\|year precipitation inch \=
\|source 1 \= {{cite web\| url \=http://www.intellicast.com/Local/History.aspx?location\=USCA0150 \| title \= Historical Averages for Calexico, CA \| work\= Intellicast \|access\-date \= May 8, 2015 }}
\|date\=May 2015
}}
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|Calexico City hall and SDSU\\-Imperial Valley Campus Aerial](/wiki/File:Aerial_View_of_Calexico.jpg \"Aerial View of Calexico.jpg\")\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), at the 2010 census, the city had a total area of {{convert\\|6\\.2\\|sqmi\\|km2}}, all land.\nCalexico is located {{convert\\|230\\|mi\\|km}} southeast of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), {{convert\\|125\\|mi\\|km}} east of [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), {{convert\\|260\\|mi\\|km}} west of [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\"), and adjacent to [Mexicali](/wiki/Mexicali \"Mexicali\"), [Baja California](/wiki/Baja_California \"Baja California\"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\").",
"Calexico's location provides easy overnight trucking access to all those transportation hubs plus the ports of [Long Beach, California](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California \"Long Beach, California\"), and [Ensenada](/wiki/Ensenada%2C_Baja_California \"Ensenada, Baja California\"), Baja California, Mexico.",
"Calexico is served by State Routes [98](/wiki/California_State_Route_98 \"California State Route 98\"), [7](/wiki/California_State_Route_7 \"California State Route 7\") and [111](/wiki/California_State_Route_111 \"California State Route 111\"), with direct connection to [Interstate 8](/wiki/Interstate_8_%28California%29 \"Interstate 8 (California)\") (5 miles north) and [State Route 86](/wiki/California_State_Route_86 \"California State Route 86\"). There are eighteen regular and irregular common carriers for intrastate and interstate truck service to Calexico.",
"Rail service is provided by [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\"), and connects with the main line to [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\"); [Rock Island, Illinois](/wiki/Rock_Island%2C_Illinois \"Rock Island, Illinois\"); [Tucumcari, New Mexico](/wiki/Tucumcari%2C_New_Mexico \"Tucumcari, New Mexico\"); [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis, Missouri\"); and [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\").",
"Within city limits is [Calexico International Airport](/wiki/Calexico_International_Airport \"Calexico International Airport\"), the U.S. Customs and Border Protection check\\-point for private passenger and air\\-cargo flights entering the U.S. from Mexico. Private charter services are also available there.",
"General aviation facilities and scheduled passenger and air\\-cargo service to [San Diego International Airport](/wiki/San_Diego_International_Airport \"San Diego International Airport\"), [Bob Hope Airport](/wiki/Bob_Hope_Airport \"Bob Hope Airport\") in Burbank, and other points are available at [Imperial County Airport](/wiki/Imperial_County_Airport \"Imperial County Airport\") (Boley Field), located {{convert\\|17\\|mi\\|km}} north.",
"[thumb\\|Bird's\\-eye view of Calexico during the early 20th century\\|324x324px](/wiki/File:Birds_eye_view_of_Mexicali_and_Calexico_LCCN2007664558.tif \"Birds eye view of Mexicali and Calexico LCCN2007664558.tif\")",
"### Climate",
"Calexico has a [subtropical](/wiki/Subtropical_climate \"Subtropical climate\") [hot\\-desert](/wiki/Desert_climate%23hot-desert_climate \"Desert climate#hot-desert climate\") climate (*BWh*), according to the [Köppen climate classification](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") system. In December 1932, the city experienced a rare snowfall. Rainfall usually occurs in the winter months of December, January and February. Although summer is extremely dry in Calexico, there are occasional thunderstorms. In 2008, during the months of July and August there were several heavy thunderstorms that let down large amounts of rain and hail. Summer rainfall in the city is infrequent. During winter time, Calexico is sometimes affected by winter rain showers.",
"The summer temperatures in Calexico are very hot, with most of those days having temperatures at or above {{convert\\|100\\|F}}. However, the hot desert climate seen in Calexico is actually not unusual for similar parallel cities such as, for example, [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\").",
"The area has a large amount of sunshine year round due to its stable descending air and high pressure.",
"",
"{{Weather box\n\\|location \\= Calexico, California\n\\|single line \\= Y\n\\|Jan high F \\= 70\n\\|Feb high F \\= 75\n\\|Mar high F \\= 79\n\\|Apr high F \\= 86\n\\|May high F \\= 94\n\\|Jun high F \\= 103\n\\|Jul high F \\= 107\n\\|Aug high F \\= 106\n\\|Sep high F \\= 101\n\\|Oct high F \\= 91\n\\|Nov high F \\= 78\n\\|Dec high F \\= 70\n\\|Jan record high F \\= 90\n\\|Feb record high F \\= 93\n\\|Mar record high F \\= 101\n\\|Apr record high F \\= 109\n\\|May record high F \\= 116\n\\|Jun record high F \\= 121\n\\|Jul record high F \\= 122\n\\|Aug record high F \\= 120\n\\|Sep record high F \\= 120\n\\|Oct record high F \\= 112\n\\|Nov record high F \\= 98\n\\|Dec record high F \\= 95\n\\|year record high F \\= 122\n\\|year high F \\=88\n\\|Jan low F \\= 41\n\\|Feb low F \\= 45\n\\|Mar low F \\= 49\n\\|Apr low F \\= 54\n\\|May low F \\= 61\n\\|Jun low F \\= 68\n\\|Jul low F \\= 76\n\\|Aug low F \\= 77\n\\|Sep low F \\= 71\n\\|Oct low F \\= 59\n\\|Nov low F \\= 47\n\\|Dec low F \\= 41\n\\|Jan record low F \\= 18\n\\|Feb record low F \\= 24\n\\|Mar record low F \\= 29\n\\|Apr record low F \\= 34\n\\|May record low F \\= 36\n\\|Jun record low F \\= 47\n\\|Jul record low F \\= 52\n\\|Aug record low F \\= 54\n\\|Sep record low F \\= 48\n\\|Oct record low F \\= 33\n\\|Nov record low F \\= 24\n\\|Dec record low F \\= 22\n\\|year record low F \\= 18\n\\|year low F \\=57\n\\|precipitation colour \\= green\n\\|Jan precipitation inch \\= 0\\.51\n\\|Feb precipitation inch \\= 0\\.36\n\\|Mar precipitation inch \\= 0\\.31\n\\|Apr precipitation inch \\= 0\\.05\n\\|May precipitation inch \\= 0\\.03\n\\|Jun precipitation inch \\= 0\\.01\n\\|Jul precipitation inch \\= 0\\.06\n\\|Aug precipitation inch \\= 0\\.32\n\\|Sep precipitation inch \\= 0\\.36\n\\|Oct precipitation inch \\= 0\\.35\n\\|Nov precipitation inch \\= 0\\.17\n\\|Dec precipitation inch \\= 0\\.43\n\\|year precipitation inch \\=\n\\|source 1 \\= {{cite web\\| url \\=http://www.intellicast.com/Local/History.aspx?location\\=USCA0150 \\| title \\= Historical Averages for Calexico, CA \\| work\\= Intellicast \\|access\\-date \\= May 8, 2015 }}\n\\|date\\=May 2015\n}}"
] |
School site
-----------
The school site is divided into 3 main blocks (A, B and C), mostly consisting of classrooms for sets of subjects that vary between them. Additionally, there are a variety of sports facilities on site.
A block is a 4\-story building used for mostly languages, mathematics and science, with other subjects, such as law, also having classrooms there.
The largest building in B block contains the performing arts, except dance (with lessons held in either one of 2 dance studios) and art, as well as the general staffroom. It also contains the Boswells College common room, the school's main library and an additional 2 teaching rooms. A second, smaller building in the block contains the English department and classrooms for subjects such as media studies.
C block is the largest building of the school site: it contains offices for administrative personnel and senior staff members, a canteen for students of the main school with kitchen facilities, a front reception and student office, an indoor sporting area and the school's theater. It also contains large amounts of teaching space, with the technology, IT, Business and Humanities departments in this building.
Indoor sports facilities include 2 dance studios, a large multipurpose sports hall and a swimming pool. Outdoor facilities feature 4 tarmacked spaces, (which can be modified into tennis courts), as well as a large sports field with a grass running track, football and rugby pitches and a cricket circle.
|
[
"School site\n-----------",
"The school site is divided into 3 main blocks (A, B and C), mostly consisting of classrooms for sets of subjects that vary between them. Additionally, there are a variety of sports facilities on site.",
"A block is a 4\\-story building used for mostly languages, mathematics and science, with other subjects, such as law, also having classrooms there.",
"The largest building in B block contains the performing arts, except dance (with lessons held in either one of 2 dance studios) and art, as well as the general staffroom. It also contains the Boswells College common room, the school's main library and an additional 2 teaching rooms. A second, smaller building in the block contains the English department and classrooms for subjects such as media studies.",
"C block is the largest building of the school site: it contains offices for administrative personnel and senior staff members, a canteen for students of the main school with kitchen facilities, a front reception and student office, an indoor sporting area and the school's theater. It also contains large amounts of teaching space, with the technology, IT, Business and Humanities departments in this building.",
"Indoor sports facilities include 2 dance studios, a large multipurpose sports hall and a swimming pool. Outdoor facilities feature 4 tarmacked spaces, (which can be modified into tennis courts), as well as a large sports field with a grass running track, football and rugby pitches and a cricket circle.",
""
] |
Method
------
[thumb\|450px\|Fig. 2\. Raw transcript breakdown from sequencing 20,000 clones derived from virus\-infected human tissues. Viral transcripts were present at 0\.03% of the total sequence reads.](/wiki/File:DTSpiechart.png "DTSpiechart.png")
### Construction of cDNA library
{{Main\|cDNA library}}
After treatment with [DNase I](/wiki/DNase_I "DNase I") to eliminate human genomic DNA, total [RNA](/wiki/RNA "RNA") is extracted from primary infected tissue. [Messenger RNA](/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") is then purified using an oligo\-dT column that binds to the [poly\-A tail](/wiki/Poly-A_tail "Poly-A tail"), a signal specifically found on transcribed genes. Using random hexamers priming, [reverse transcriptase](/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase "Reverse transcriptase") (RT) convert all mRNA into [cDNA](/wiki/CDNA "CDNA") and cloned into bacterial vectors. Bacteria, usually *[E. coli](/wiki/E._coli "E. coli")*, are then transformed using the cDNA vectors and selected using a marker, the collection of transformed clones is the cDNA library. This generates a snap\-shot of tissue mRNA that is stable and can be sequenced at a later stage.
### Sequencing and quality control
The cDNA library must be sequenced to great depth (i.e. number of clones sequenced) in order to detect a theoretical rare pathogen sequence (Table 1\), especially if the foreign sequence is novel. Chang\-Moore recommend a sequencing depth of 200,000 transcripts or greater using multiple sequencing platforms.
| \+ Table 1\. Probability of capturing \>1 viral transcript(s) in human tissue\-derived libraries. |
| --- |
| % Viral | 5,000 clones | 10,000 clones | 20,000 clones | 50,000 clones |
| 0\.001% | 4\.9% | 9\.5% | 18\.1% | 39\.3% |
| 0\.01% | 39\.3% | 32\.2% | 86\.5% | 99\.3% |
| 0\.02% | 63\.2% | 86\.5% | 98\.2% | \>99\.995% |
| 0\.03% | 77\.7% | 95\.5% | 99\.8% | \>99\.995% |
| 0\.04% | 86\.5% | 98\.2% | \>99\.995% | \>99\.995% |
| 0\.1% | 99\.3% | \>99\.995% | \>99\.995% | \>99\.995% |
Stringent quality control are then applied to the raw sequences to minimize false\-positive results. The initial quality screen uses several general parameters to exclude ambiguous sequences, leaving behind a dataset of high\-fidelity (Hi\-Fi) reads.
* Low [Phred score](/wiki/Phred_score "Phred score") cutoff is used to remove low\-quality end sequences. Typically, a Phred score cutoff of 20 or 30 is used to ensure 99%\-99\.9% accuracy in each base\-calling.
* Vector and adaptor removal.
* Low complexity \- complexity score of a sequence reflects number of identical bases in a series (homo\-polymers) such as poly\-dT or poly\-dA.
* Human [repetitive DNA](/wiki/Repetitive_DNA "Repetitive DNA").
* Length \- parameter is dependent on the optimized read length specific to the [sequencing technology](/wiki/Sequencing_technology "Sequencing technology") that was used.
* [BLAST](/wiki/BLAST_%28biotechnology%29 "BLAST (biotechnology)") and exclude *[E. coli](/wiki/E._coli "E. coli")* genome sequences.
### BLAST to host genome
Using MEGABLAST, Hi\-Fi reads are then matched to sequences in annotated databases and any positive matches are then subtracted from the dataset. Minimum hit length for a positive match of human sequence is typically 30 consecutive identical bases, which equates to a BLAST score of 60; generally, the remaining sequence is BLAST again with less stringent parameters to allow for slight mismatches (1 in 20 nucleotide). The vast majority of sequences (\>99%) should be removed from the dataset at this stage.
Subtracted sequences typically include:
* [Reference human transcriptome](/wiki/RefSeq "RefSeq") \- eliminates any known human transcripts from expression library sets.
* [Reference human genome](/wiki/RefSeq "RefSeq") \- eliminates genes that have been missed by the annotation process and any contaminating genomic sequences during cDNA library construction.
* [Mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA "Mitochondrial DNA") \- mitochondrial DNA are highly abundant and polymorphic due to rapid mutation rate.
* [Immunoglobulin region](/wiki/Immunoglobulin "Immunoglobulin") \- The immunoglobulin loci is highly polymorphic and would otherwise yield false\-positive due to poor alignment to the reference genome.
* Other [vertebrate](/wiki/Vertebrate "Vertebrate") sequences
* Unannotated sequences
### Analysis of "non\-host" candidates
#### Alignment to pathogen databases
After stringent rounds of subtraction, the remaining sequences are clustered into non\-redundant contigs and aligned to known pathogen sequences using low\-stringency parameters. As pathogen genomes mutates quickly, nucleotide\-nucleotide alignments, or [blastn](/wiki/BLAST_%28biotechnology%29%23Program "BLAST (biotechnology)#Program"){{Broken anchor\|date\=2024\-06\-29\|bot\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\|target\_link\=BLAST (biotechnology)\#Program\|reason\= The anchor (Program) \[\[Special:Diff/1220768605\|has been deleted]].}}, is usually uninformative as it is possible to have mutations at certain bases without changing the amino acid residue due to [codon degeneracy](/wiki/Degenerate_codon "Degenerate codon"). Matching the *[in silico](/wiki/In_silico "In silico")* translated protein sequences of all 6 [open reading frames](/wiki/Open_reading_frames "Open reading frames") to the amino acid sequence to annotated proteins, or [blastx](/wiki/BLAST_%28biotechnology%29%23Program "BLAST (biotechnology)#Program"){{Broken anchor\|date\=2024\-06\-29\|bot\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\|target\_link\=BLAST (biotechnology)\#Program\|reason\= The anchor (Program) \[\[Special:Diff/1220768605\|has been deleted]].}}, is the preferred alignment method as it increases the likelihood of identifying a novel pathogen by matching to a related strain/species. Experimental extension of candidate sequences might also be used at this stage to maximize chances of a positive match.{{cite web\|vauthors\=Chang Y, Moore PS\|title\=New Pathogen Discovery: Digital Transcriptome Subtraction\|url\=http://www.tumorvirology.pitt.edu/dts.html\|accessdate\=1 March 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125220405/http://www.tumorvirology.pitt.edu/dts.html\|archive\-date\=25 January 2010\|url\-status\=dead}}
#### *De novo* assembly
In cases where alignment to known pathogens is uninformative or ambiguous, contigs of candidate sequence can be used as templates for [primer walking](/wiki/Primer_walking "Primer walking") in primary infected tissue to generate the complete pathogen genome sequence. As viral transcripts are exceedingly rare ratio tissue mRNA (10 transcripts in 1 million), it is unlikely to generate a transcriptome based on the original candidate sequences alone due to [low coverage](/wiki/Fold_coverage%23Coverage "Fold coverage#Coverage").
#### Validation of pathogen
Once a putative pathogen has been identified in the high\-throughput sequencing data, it is imperative to validate the presence of pathogen in infected patients using more sensitive techniques, such as:
* [RT\-PCR](/wiki/RT-PCR "RT-PCR") and derivative methods, including 3'\- and 5'\-[RACE](/wiki/Rapid_Amplification_of_cDNA_ends "Rapid Amplification of cDNA ends") to confirm the existence of pathogen mRNA.
* [Immunohistochemistry](/wiki/Immunohistochemistry "Immunohistochemistry") using antibodies to related pathogen to determine existence the pathogen in tissues.
* Serological tests to measure pathogen\-specific [antibody titer](/wiki/Antibody_titer "Antibody titer").
* [Bacterial culture](/wiki/Bacterial_culture "Bacterial culture")/[viral culture](/wiki/Viral_culture "Viral culture"), which is considered as the [gold standard](/wiki/Gold_standard_%28test%29 "Gold standard (test)") in laboratory diagnosis.
|
[
"Method\n------",
"[thumb\\|450px\\|Fig. 2\\. Raw transcript breakdown from sequencing 20,000 clones derived from virus\\-infected human tissues. Viral transcripts were present at 0\\.03% of the total sequence reads.](/wiki/File:DTSpiechart.png \"DTSpiechart.png\")",
"### Construction of cDNA library",
"{{Main\\|cDNA library}}",
"After treatment with [DNase I](/wiki/DNase_I \"DNase I\") to eliminate human genomic DNA, total [RNA](/wiki/RNA \"RNA\") is extracted from primary infected tissue. [Messenger RNA](/wiki/Messenger_RNA \"Messenger RNA\") is then purified using an oligo\\-dT column that binds to the [poly\\-A tail](/wiki/Poly-A_tail \"Poly-A tail\"), a signal specifically found on transcribed genes. Using random hexamers priming, [reverse transcriptase](/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase \"Reverse transcriptase\") (RT) convert all mRNA into [cDNA](/wiki/CDNA \"CDNA\") and cloned into bacterial vectors. Bacteria, usually *[E. coli](/wiki/E._coli \"E. coli\")*, are then transformed using the cDNA vectors and selected using a marker, the collection of transformed clones is the cDNA library. This generates a snap\\-shot of tissue mRNA that is stable and can be sequenced at a later stage.",
"### Sequencing and quality control",
"The cDNA library must be sequenced to great depth (i.e. number of clones sequenced) in order to detect a theoretical rare pathogen sequence (Table 1\\), especially if the foreign sequence is novel. Chang\\-Moore recommend a sequencing depth of 200,000 transcripts or greater using multiple sequencing platforms.",
"",
"| \\+ Table 1\\. Probability of capturing \\>1 viral transcript(s) in human tissue\\-derived libraries. |\n| --- |\n| % Viral | 5,000 clones | 10,000 clones | 20,000 clones | 50,000 clones |\n| 0\\.001% | 4\\.9% | 9\\.5% | 18\\.1% | 39\\.3% |\n| 0\\.01% | 39\\.3% | 32\\.2% | 86\\.5% | 99\\.3% |\n| 0\\.02% | 63\\.2% | 86\\.5% | 98\\.2% | \\>99\\.995% |\n| 0\\.03% | 77\\.7% | 95\\.5% | 99\\.8% | \\>99\\.995% |\n| 0\\.04% | 86\\.5% | 98\\.2% | \\>99\\.995% | \\>99\\.995% |\n| 0\\.1% | 99\\.3% | \\>99\\.995% | \\>99\\.995% | \\>99\\.995% |",
"Stringent quality control are then applied to the raw sequences to minimize false\\-positive results. The initial quality screen uses several general parameters to exclude ambiguous sequences, leaving behind a dataset of high\\-fidelity (Hi\\-Fi) reads.",
"* Low [Phred score](/wiki/Phred_score \"Phred score\") cutoff is used to remove low\\-quality end sequences. Typically, a Phred score cutoff of 20 or 30 is used to ensure 99%\\-99\\.9% accuracy in each base\\-calling.\n* Vector and adaptor removal.\n* Low complexity \\- complexity score of a sequence reflects number of identical bases in a series (homo\\-polymers) such as poly\\-dT or poly\\-dA.\n* Human [repetitive DNA](/wiki/Repetitive_DNA \"Repetitive DNA\").\n* Length \\- parameter is dependent on the optimized read length specific to the [sequencing technology](/wiki/Sequencing_technology \"Sequencing technology\") that was used.\n* [BLAST](/wiki/BLAST_%28biotechnology%29 \"BLAST (biotechnology)\") and exclude *[E. coli](/wiki/E._coli \"E. coli\")* genome sequences.",
"### BLAST to host genome",
"Using MEGABLAST, Hi\\-Fi reads are then matched to sequences in annotated databases and any positive matches are then subtracted from the dataset. Minimum hit length for a positive match of human sequence is typically 30 consecutive identical bases, which equates to a BLAST score of 60; generally, the remaining sequence is BLAST again with less stringent parameters to allow for slight mismatches (1 in 20 nucleotide). The vast majority of sequences (\\>99%) should be removed from the dataset at this stage.",
"Subtracted sequences typically include:\n* [Reference human transcriptome](/wiki/RefSeq \"RefSeq\") \\- eliminates any known human transcripts from expression library sets.\n* [Reference human genome](/wiki/RefSeq \"RefSeq\") \\- eliminates genes that have been missed by the annotation process and any contaminating genomic sequences during cDNA library construction.\n* [Mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA \"Mitochondrial DNA\") \\- mitochondrial DNA are highly abundant and polymorphic due to rapid mutation rate.\n* [Immunoglobulin region](/wiki/Immunoglobulin \"Immunoglobulin\") \\- The immunoglobulin loci is highly polymorphic and would otherwise yield false\\-positive due to poor alignment to the reference genome.\n* Other [vertebrate](/wiki/Vertebrate \"Vertebrate\") sequences\n* Unannotated sequences",
"### Analysis of \"non\\-host\" candidates",
"#### Alignment to pathogen databases",
"After stringent rounds of subtraction, the remaining sequences are clustered into non\\-redundant contigs and aligned to known pathogen sequences using low\\-stringency parameters. As pathogen genomes mutates quickly, nucleotide\\-nucleotide alignments, or [blastn](/wiki/BLAST_%28biotechnology%29%23Program \"BLAST (biotechnology)#Program\"){{Broken anchor\\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-29\\|bot\\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\\|target\\_link\\=BLAST (biotechnology)\\#Program\\|reason\\= The anchor (Program) \\[\\[Special:Diff/1220768605\\|has been deleted]].}}, is usually uninformative as it is possible to have mutations at certain bases without changing the amino acid residue due to [codon degeneracy](/wiki/Degenerate_codon \"Degenerate codon\"). Matching the *[in silico](/wiki/In_silico \"In silico\")* translated protein sequences of all 6 [open reading frames](/wiki/Open_reading_frames \"Open reading frames\") to the amino acid sequence to annotated proteins, or [blastx](/wiki/BLAST_%28biotechnology%29%23Program \"BLAST (biotechnology)#Program\"){{Broken anchor\\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-29\\|bot\\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\\|target\\_link\\=BLAST (biotechnology)\\#Program\\|reason\\= The anchor (Program) \\[\\[Special:Diff/1220768605\\|has been deleted]].}}, is the preferred alignment method as it increases the likelihood of identifying a novel pathogen by matching to a related strain/species. Experimental extension of candidate sequences might also be used at this stage to maximize chances of a positive match.{{cite web\\|vauthors\\=Chang Y, Moore PS\\|title\\=New Pathogen Discovery: Digital Transcriptome Subtraction\\|url\\=http://www.tumorvirology.pitt.edu/dts.html\\|accessdate\\=1 March 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125220405/http://www.tumorvirology.pitt.edu/dts.html\\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"#### *De novo* assembly",
"In cases where alignment to known pathogens is uninformative or ambiguous, contigs of candidate sequence can be used as templates for [primer walking](/wiki/Primer_walking \"Primer walking\") in primary infected tissue to generate the complete pathogen genome sequence. As viral transcripts are exceedingly rare ratio tissue mRNA (10 transcripts in 1 million), it is unlikely to generate a transcriptome based on the original candidate sequences alone due to [low coverage](/wiki/Fold_coverage%23Coverage \"Fold coverage#Coverage\").",
"#### Validation of pathogen",
"Once a putative pathogen has been identified in the high\\-throughput sequencing data, it is imperative to validate the presence of pathogen in infected patients using more sensitive techniques, such as:",
"* [RT\\-PCR](/wiki/RT-PCR \"RT-PCR\") and derivative methods, including 3'\\- and 5'\\-[RACE](/wiki/Rapid_Amplification_of_cDNA_ends \"Rapid Amplification of cDNA ends\") to confirm the existence of pathogen mRNA.\n* [Immunohistochemistry](/wiki/Immunohistochemistry \"Immunohistochemistry\") using antibodies to related pathogen to determine existence the pathogen in tissues.\n* Serological tests to measure pathogen\\-specific [antibody titer](/wiki/Antibody_titer \"Antibody titer\").\n* [Bacterial culture](/wiki/Bacterial_culture \"Bacterial culture\")/[viral culture](/wiki/Viral_culture \"Viral culture\"), which is considered as the [gold standard](/wiki/Gold_standard_%28test%29 \"Gold standard (test)\") in laboratory diagnosis."
] |
Modern military usage
---------------------
[left\|thumb\|[Lord High Admiral Clinton](/wiki/Edward_Clinton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Lincoln "Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln") in an [arming doublet](/wiki/Gambeson "Gambeson") of 1562, showing the decorative *points* or laces with metal tips for securing armour.](/wiki/File:Edward_Fiennes_de_Clinton%2C_Earl_of_Lincoln.jpg "Edward Fiennes de Clinton, Earl of Lincoln.jpg")
### Argentina
Aiguillettes are worn on the right shoulder by armed forces officers serving in specific positions, such as [aide\-de\-camp to the President](/wiki/Aide-de-camp%23Argentina "Aide-de-camp#Argentina"), the [Minister of Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_%28Argentina%29 "Ministry of Defense (Argentina)"), each service's chief of staff and unit commanding officers, and by military attachés to Argentinian embassies abroad. The color of the aiguillette may be golden, silver or tan, depending the nature of the assignment.
Olive green aiguillettes are worn with the combat uniform in very special circumstances, such as ceremonies and inspections. Otherwise, aiguillettes are not worn with the combat uniform. A special red aiguillette is worn by the adjutants to the commanding officers of the [Horse Grenadiers Regiment](/wiki/Regiment_of_Mounted_Grenadiers "Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers") (the presidential guard) and the [Military Academy](/wiki/Colegio_Militar_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n "Colegio Militar de la Nación"). Also, a red aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by the senior [NCO](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer "Non-commissioned officer") of each Army unit. A thinner, yellow aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by NCOs who have completed the instructor course.
In the [Navy](/wiki/Argentine_Navy "Argentine Navy"), adjutants to very senior officers wear golden aiguillettes on the left shoulder.
### Australia
Aiguillettes distinguish officers of Flag, General and Air rank in specific command appointments, military attachés and aides\-de\-camp. Most senior officers and aides\-de\-camp to the Governor\-General or state governors wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder, whilst military attachés and staff aides\-de\-camp wear the aiguillette on the left. Royal aiguillettes are of plain gold, naval aiguillettes are of blue and gold, army aiguillettes are of red and gold, air force aiguillettes of light blue and gold.
The [Governor\-General of Australia](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia "Governor-General of Australia"), as the Commander in Chief of the [Australian Defence Force](/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force "Australian Defence Force"), is entitled to wear a uniform on which an aiguillette made of platinum is worn.{{r\|Australian\-Army\-2016\-10\-05}}
### Canada
Aiguillettes are worn by officers in specific appointments to specific principals. For the following appointments the aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder:
* Aide\-de\-camp to His Majesty and other members of the Royal family;
* Aide\-de\-camp to the Governor\-General of Canada;
* Aide\-de\-camp to Lieutenant\-Governors of provinces; and
* Aide\-de\-camp to visiting foreign heads of state.
For other appointments, the aiguillete is worn on the left shoulder:
* Attachés as part of an embassy or consulate;
* Staff officer to the Minister of National Defence;
* Aides\-de\-camp / flag lieutenants to general / flag officers; and
* Officers appointed as personal assistants to senior officers, Ministers of the Crown, visiting military or civilian officials, dignitaries of foreign nations.
For all regal and vice\-regal appointments, the distinguishing badge or cipher of the principal is worn on the shoulder strap or shoulder board.
Obsolete pattern aiguillettes braided with a coloured stripe may be worn until replaced by officers holding appointments to Lieutenant\-Governors of provinces or military / civilian principals.A\-DH\-265\-000/AG\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch.3, Section 7
For RCN officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, the aiguillete is secured under a fully\-corded shoulderboard worn on the right shoulder for regal and vice\-regal appointments, and under a hard shoulderboard with a corded knot worn on the left shoulder for all other appointments.
For RCAF officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, there is a small attachment hook worn on the appropriate shoulder to which the aiguillette is fastened.
For Army officers, the aiguillette is secured under the appropriate shoulder strap (left or right) and the cipher or badge (if appropriate) is worn on that shoulder strap.
For all branches, the end of the cord near the hanging ends is fastened to a concealed button under the left or right jacket lapel as appropriate.A\-DH\-265\-000/AG\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch. 3 Annex G
### Denmark
[thumb\|Royal Danish Naval Band with red aiguillettes](/wiki/File:Tambur_01.jpg "Tambur 01.jpg")
The Danish military uses aiguillettes for a number of different positions.
* Blue and yellow: Danish troops stationed with [UNFICYP](/wiki/UNFICYP "UNFICYP")
* Blue and red: the [Bugle](/wiki/Bugle "Bugle") Corps of the [Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron](/wiki/Guard_Hussar_Regiment_Mounted_Squadron "Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron")
* Red: Royal Danish Naval Band
* Green: Danish [military police](/wiki/Military_police "Military police")
* Gold: [Adjutants](/wiki/Adjutant "Adjutant")
### France
[thumb\|right\|200px\|[Republican Guard](/wiki/Garde_R%C3%A9publicaine "Garde Républicaine") wearing a gold\-wire aiguillette on the left shoulder](/wiki/File:Republican_Guard_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Palace_1.JPG "Republican Guard Élysée Palace 1.JPG")
The aiguillettes are worn only with the dress uniform. There are several types of aiguillettes in the [French military](/wiki/French_military "French military"):
* Aiguillettes on the right shoulder are worn by officers filling certain duties.
+ Staff officers in the [President](/wiki/President_of_France "President of France")'s staff, the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France "Prime Minister of France")'s staff, the [Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28France%29 "Minister of Defence (France)")'s staff and the [Maréchaux](/wiki/Mar%C3%A9chal_de_France "Maréchal de France")'s Staff. The aiguillette is always in gold wire.
+ The [aides\-de\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp") to the President, the Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the [Légion d'honneur](/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur "Légion d'honneur"), the [Chief of the Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28France%29 "Chief of the Defence Staff (France)") and the [DGA](/wiki/D%C3%A9l%C3%A9gation_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_pour_l%27Armement "Délégation Générale pour l'Armement"). The aiguillette can be silver or gold, depending on the officer's corps. The AdC to the generals in the army and the air force and all the staff officers in the navy can also wear this aiguillette.
+ The [military attachés](/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9 "Military attaché") of an embassy. The aiguillette is always in gold wire.
* Aiguillettes on the left shoulder are worn by all members of some units:
+ The [Gendarmes](/wiki/Gendarmerie_Nationale_%28France%29 "Gendarmerie Nationale (France)"). The aiguillette is white for the *Gendarmerie départementale* and gold for the *Gendarmerie mobile*, including the [Garde Républicaine](/wiki/Garde_R%C3%A9publicaine "Garde Républicaine").
+ The Bands. This aiguillette can be blue, red, or gold.
Aiguillettes should not be confused with *[fourragères](/wiki/Fourrag%C3%A8re "Fourragère")*, which can be worn in the same way on the left shoulder in parade dress.
### Germany
In the German armies, including the [Imperial German Army](/wiki/Imperial_German_Army "Imperial German Army") and the [Imperial German Navy](/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy "Imperial German Navy"), the adjutant generals or admirals wore the *Adjutantenschnur* or *Achselband* (adjutant cord or aguilette) on the right shoulder as of 1863 in gold, the generals *à la suite* and the *Flügeladjutanten* in silver. There were initially several experimental forms in the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr").
On 29 June 1935, so\-called shoulder straps were introduced into the German [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") and were worn on certain occasions, e.g. at parades. Adjutants wore armpit cords as their badge of activity. In the [National People's Army](/wiki/National_People%27s_Army "National People's Army"), the border troops of the [GDR](/wiki/GDR "GDR") and the GDR People's Navy, a silver\-colored armpit cord with silver tips for LaSK/LSK/LV/GT and gold\-colored tips for the People's Navy has also been introduced for officers since 1976; the version for generals and admirals was gold\-colored. In the [Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr "Bundeswehr") it is worn by attachés, officers of protocol, flag escort officers, greeting and liaison officers of the Navy as well as (if these tasks are carried out by officers) wake guards and medal cushion bearers.
### Ghana
In [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana"), aiguillettes form part of the ceremonial uniforms of commissioned officers in the army and other security services including the police, prisons service, fire service, and customs and immigration. Senior police officers wear white aiguillettes with dark\-blue uniforms, prison officers also wear yellow aiguillettes over the official ceremonial number one uniform while customs and immigration officials wear red aiguillettes with olive\-green outfits. When worn, the aiguillettes denote on\-duty status.
### Greece
Aiguillettes are worn by the aides\-de\-camp to the [President of the Hellenic Republic](/wiki/President_of_Greece "President of Greece"). The President's Adjutants wears it on the right shoulder.
### Ireland
Aiguillettes are worn by the aides\-de\-camp to the [President](/wiki/President_of_Ireland "President of Ireland") and [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach"). The President's ADC wears it on the right shoulder, the Taoiseach's ADC on the left.
Civil Defence (Cosaint Sibhialta) personnel wear a white aiguillette on their dress uniform.
Gold aiguillettes are also worn by officers in the Defence Forces with their mess dress uniform. They are worn on the left hand shoulder.
### Israel
In the [IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces"), soldiers who wear an aiguillette are mostly instructors.
List of aiguillette's colors and roles in the IDF:
[thumb\|[IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") uniforms with azure \& yellow aiguillette of the casualties \& City Officers administration](/wiki/File:Azure_%26_Yellow_Aiguillette_of_the_IDF.JPG "Azure & Yellow Aiguillette of the IDF.JPG")
* Green \& White\- [Military intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence "Military intelligence") instructors (mainly)
* Black\- training staff (mainly)
* Blue \- [Navy](/wiki/Israeli_Navy "Israeli Navy") instructors
* Blue \& Red\- [Military Police](/wiki/Military_police "Military police")
* Red (right side)\- IDF orchestra
* Red (Left side)\- Senior [Navy](/wiki/Israeli_Navy "Israeli Navy") instructors (mainly)
* Purple\- Service Rights Staff
* Blue \& White\- Unit's NCO
* White\- Security guards
* Gray\- Education instructors
* Green\- General instructors
* Brown\- Diagnostic crew (mainly)
* Gold\- discipline NCO
* Orange \& Azure\- [Search and Rescue](/wiki/Search_and_Rescue "Search and Rescue") units
* Orange \& Black\- [Combat Engineering Corps](/wiki/Combat_Engineering_Corps "Combat Engineering Corps")
* Yellow \& Black\- [WMD](/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction "Weapon of mass destruction") instructors
* Azure\- [Off\-road vehicle](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle "Off-road vehicle") operators (mainly)
* Azure \& Green\- [Off\-road vehicle](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle "Off-road vehicle") operators instructors
* Azure \& Yellow\- Casualties \& City Officers administration
* Azure \& Purple\- Reserve mobilization
* Green \& Red\- Civil population emergency instructors
* Golden\- [Military attaché](/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9 "Military attaché")
* Black \& Creme\- Military Rabbinate
In the [Israeli Police](/wiki/Israeli_Police "Israeli Police"), policemen mainly wear a black aiguillette, and [Israeli Border Police](/wiki/Israeli_Border_Police "Israeli Border Police") policemen wear a dark green aiguillette.
### Russia
[thumb\|Soldiers of Prezidentskiy polk (The Presidential Regiment), Alexander Garden, Moscow](/wiki/Image:Changing_Guard_Alexander_Garden_Moscow.hires.jpg "Changing Guard Alexander Garden Moscow.hires.jpg")
Aiguillettes are worn by honor guard personnel. A single silver aiguillette is worn on enlisted cut uniforms of minor detachments. A single gold aiguillette is worn on officer cut uniforms of minor detachments. A double gold aiguillette is worn on officer cut uniforms of major detachments. All personnel of major detachments wear officer cut uniforms. Demobilized soldiers also often decorate their uniforms with makeshift aiguillettes.
### Singapore
Aiguillettes are worn on the right shoulder by officers of certain appointments only. They include the:
* [Chief of Defence Force (CDF)](/wiki/Chief_of_Defence_Force_%28Singapore%29 "Chief of Defence Force (Singapore)")
* [Commissioner of Police (CP)](/wiki/Commissioner_of_Police_%28Singapore%29 "Commissioner of Police (Singapore)")
* Commissioner of the Singapore Civil Defence Force
* [Aides\-de\-camp (ADC)](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp") to the President
* Honorary aides\-de\-camp to the President
* Military attachés and assistant military attachés
* MA/SA/NA to the Chief of Defence Force and service chiefs
Aiguillettes are also worn on the left shoulder by musicians of the [Singapore Armed Forces Band](/wiki/Singapore_Armed_Forces_Band "Singapore Armed Forces Band") and the [Singapore Police Force Band](/wiki/Singapore_Police_Force_Band "Singapore Police Force Band").
Musicians of the Singapore Armed Forces Band wears a red and gold aiguillette while Director of Musics of the Singapore Armed Forces Band wear a full gold aiguillette.
Student musicians from both the National Cadet Corps Command Band and National Police Cadet Corps Band similarly wear aiguillettes mirroring the respective parent bodies.
In Singapore, ADCs who are officers of the [Singapore Armed Forces](/wiki/Singapore_Armed_Forces "Singapore Armed Forces") and the [Singapore Civil Defence Force](/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Defence_Force "Singapore Civil Defence Force") wear gold aiguillettes and police officers wear silver aiguillettes. Singapore Armed Forces ADCs wear a gold braid lanyard in lieu of an aiguillette when in No. 3 and No. 5(T).
Additionally the newly commissioned ADC badges are worn across all five services' no.4 uniform.
### Sri Lanka
[150px\|thumb\|Full Aiguillettes (No. 1A) worn by the [Chief of Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28Sri_Lanka%29 "Chief of the Defence Staff (Sri Lanka)").](/wiki/File:Ravindra_C._Wijegunaratne.jpg "Ravindra C. Wijegunaratne.jpg")
In [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), full aiguillettes are worn by members of the personal staff of the [President of Sri Lanka](/wiki/President_of_Sri_Lanka "President of Sri Lanka") and [General officers](/wiki/General_officer "General officer"), [flag officers](/wiki/Flag_officer "Flag officer") and [air officers](/wiki/Air_officer "Air officer"), while half aiguillettes are worn by the [Colonels](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") and [Lieutenant Colonels](/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel "Lieutenant Colonel") in ceremonial uniforms.
* Aiguillettes (No. 1A) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold cord are worn on the right shoulder by; service commanders and officers of the [four\-star rank](/wiki/Four-star_rank "Four-star rank") and above on uniforms No. 1, 2, 3, 4\.
* Aiguillettes (No. 1B) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold (and red orris basket in the case of Army) cord are worn on the right shoulder by; Aides\-de\-camp to the [President of Sri Lanka](/wiki/President_of_Sri_Lanka "President of Sri Lanka") and Aides\-de\-camp to visiting heads of state (in their presence) on uniforms No. 1\.
* Aiguillettes (No. 2A) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold cord are worn on the left shoulder by; by officers of [two\-star rank](/wiki/Two-star_rank "Two-star rank") and [one\-star rank](/wiki/One-star_rank "One-star rank") on uniforms No. 1, 2, 3, 4\.
* Aiguillettes (No. 2B) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold (and red orris basket in the case of Army, black basket in the case of Navy) cord are worn on the left shoulder by; [Military Assistants](/wiki/Military_Assistant "Military Assistant") and Aides\-de\-camps to [general](/wiki/General_officer "General officer"), [flag](/wiki/Flag_officer "Flag officer") and [air officers](/wiki/Air_officer "Air officer").
* Aiguillettes (No. 3\) (Half Aiguillettes) of gold cord joined in the front and back by gilt cloth with a single metal aglet are worn on the left shoulder by [Colonels](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") and [Lieutenant Colonels](/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel "Lieutenant Colonel") in (ceremonial) uniforms No. 1, 2, 3, 4\.
In the [Sri Lanka Police](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Police "Sri Lanka Police"), the [Inspector General of Police](/wiki/Inspector_General_of_Police_%28Sri_Lanka%29 "Inspector General of Police (Sri Lanka)"), wear gold aiguillettes on the right shoulder, while [Senior gazetted police officers](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Police%23Gazetted_Ranks_%28Police_Gazzete_of_Sri_Lanka%29 "Sri Lanka Police#Gazetted Ranks (Police Gazzete of Sri Lanka)") wear black aiguillettes on the left shoulder in both formal and ceremonial dress.
### Sweden
[thumb\|right\|Large aiguillette m/1816, used in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden").](/wiki/File:TKARLSSON.jpg "TKARLSSON.jpg")
The [Swedish Defense Forces](/wiki/Swedish_Defense_Forces "Swedish Defense Forces") uses three types of aiguillettes. All aiguillettes come in gold or silver [braid](/wiki/Braid "Braid") depending on the regiment of the wearer, Royal Guard regiments use silver due to historical reasons, all others gold.
* Large aiguillette m/1816 ([Sw.](/wiki/Swedish_language "Swedish language"): *Stor ägiljett m/1816*) is worn on the right shoulder by officers on the staff of [HM the King of Sweden](/wiki/King_of_Sweden "King of Sweden"), [aide\-de\-camps](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp") of members of the Royal Family and by commissioned [colonels](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") and naval [captains](/wiki/Captain_%28naval%29 "Captain (naval)"). It is also permissible to be worn by officers (except generals) of the staff of the Defense Force, and former officers of the Swedish general staff.
* Small aiguillette m/1889 (Sw.: *Liten ägiljett m/1889*) is worn on the right shoulder by the on duty adjutant of the King in [Service dress uniform](/wiki/Service_dress_uniform "Service dress uniform"), adjutants of government ministers, the [Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces](/wiki/Supreme_Commander_of_the_Swedish_Armed_Forces "Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces") and general officers.
* Aiguillette m/55 (Sw.: *Ägiljett m/55*) is worn on the left shoulder by [military attachés](/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9 "Military attaché") in [Service dress uniform](/wiki/Service_dress_uniform "Service dress uniform") in the country of his or her [accreditation](/wiki/Letter_of_credence "Letter of credence"); it is only used in Sweden during [state visits](/wiki/State_visit "State visit").
In Sweden there is a distinction between the aiguillettes mentioned above, and other cords used on uniforms in the Royal Swedish Navy and the Swedish Air Force.
### United Kingdom
[thumb\|Royal Aiguillette worn by the [Chief of Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)") and Staff Aiguillettes worn by [ADCs](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp")](/wiki/Image:Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst_inspection_of_new_Colours%2C_June_2005.jpg "Royal Military Academy Sandhurst inspection of new Colours, June 2005.jpg")
There are four types of aiguillette worn by the British Armed Forces.
* Aiguillettes (1st Class or Royal) are of [gold\-wire](/wiki/Gold-wire "Gold-wire") cord and are worn on the right shoulder by, among others, [admirals of the fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet "Admiral of the Fleet"), [field marshals](/wiki/Field_marshal "Field marshal") and [marshals of the RAF](/wiki/Marshal_of_the_RAF "Marshal of the RAF"); honorary physicians, honorary chaplains, honorary surgeons and [aides\-de\-camp](/wiki/Personal_aide-de-camp "Personal aide-de-camp") to the [Sovereign](/wiki/Charles_III "Charles III"); and [equerries](/wiki/Equerry "Equerry") to members of the [royal family](/wiki/British_Royal_Family "British Royal Family"). Some appointments carry the privilege of wearing a miniature Sovereign's Cypher on the points of the aiguillettes. These aiguillettes are also worn by [commissioned officers](/wiki/Commissioned_officer "Commissioned officer") of the [Household Cavalry](/wiki/Household_Cavalry "Household Cavalry") (in full dress only). They are worn on the left shoulder in full dress by [warrant officers](/wiki/Warrant_officer "Warrant officer") of the Household Cavalry.
* Aiguillettes (2nd Class or Board) are of gold and dark blue, crimson or light blue depending if worn by Royal Navy, Army or RAF officers and are worn on the right shoulder by, among others, military members of the Defence Board and each Service Board and the personal staff of [governors](/wiki/Governor "Governor"). A simplified version with no coils is worn on the left shoulder by [staff corporals](/wiki/Staff_corporal "Staff corporal"), [corporals of horse](/wiki/Corporal_of_Horse "Corporal of Horse") and [lance corporals of horse](/wiki/Lance_Corporal_of_Horse "Lance Corporal of Horse") of the Household Cavalry in full dress.
* Aiguillettes (3rd Class or Staff) are of gold and dark blue, crimson or light blue depending if worn by Royal Navy, Army or RAF officers. They are worn on the left shoulder by, among others, [attachés](/wiki/Attach%C3%A9 "Attaché"), assistants and aides\-de\-camp.
* Simple aiguillettes are worn by [lance corporals](/wiki/Lance_corporal "Lance corporal") of the Household Cavalry and by bandsmen of [Dragoon Guards](/wiki/Dragoon_Guards "Dragoon Guards") and [Dragoon](/wiki/Dragoon "Dragoon") [regiments](/wiki/Regiment "Regiment") in full dress.
* The Commissioner of the [Metropolitan Police](/wiki/Metropolitan_Police "Metropolitan Police") wears silver aiguillettes in both formal and ceremonial dress.
* The Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner of the [City of London Police](/wiki/City_of_London_Police "City of London Police") wear gold aiguillettes on the right shoulder in ceremonial dress. Some officers of that force also wear gold aiguillettes on the left shoulder in ceremonial dress.
### United States
[thumb\|US Army Service Aiguillette worn on the left arm by aides\-de\-camp, Army attaches, and assistant Army attaches and on the right arm by aides assigned to the President, White House, First Family, and foreign heads of state with the Class A Uniform and Army Service Uniform](/wiki/File:US_Army_Gold_Aiguillette.JPG "US Army Gold Aiguillette.JPG")
[thumb\|U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard Dress Aiguillette (White Uniform): one dark blue braided loop and two single loops](/wiki/File:US_Navy_020905-N-3228G-005_Change_of_Command_aboard_USS_O%27Kane.jpg "US Navy 020905-N-3228G-005 Change of Command aboard USS O'Kane.jpg")
The aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by military aides to the [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") and the [Vice President](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States "Vice President of the United States"). It is worn on the left shoulder by military assistants to the [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") and the [Secretary of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security "United States Secretary of Homeland Security"), aides to the Service Secretaries ([Secretary of the Army](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army "United States Secretary of the Army"), [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy "United States Secretary of the Navy") \& [Secretary of the Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force "United States Secretary of the Air Force")), aide to the NOAA Administrator, military attachés, [General Staff Corps](/wiki/General_staff "General staff") officers, and aides to [flag officers](/wiki/Flag_officer "Flag officer"). The cord colors are gold for the Army and silver for the Air Force, gold and blue for the Coast Guard, Navy and NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps, with one braid "per star" of the Flag Officer (one for RDML, two for RADM, three for VADM and four for ADM), and gold and red for the Marines, with the number of braids corresponding to the rank of the General Officer similar to the Navy use. The gold cord aiguillette is worn by the directors of the [United States Marine Band](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Band "United States Marine Band"), while the enlisted personnel wear aiguillettes of white cord.
A red aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") Recruit Division commanders, whereas a blue aiguillette is worn by Recruit Division commanders in training. Recruit Division commanders wearing these are referred colloquially as "red ropes" and "blue ropes" respectively. The U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard in Washington, D.C. wears a blue aiguillette on summer white uniforms and a white one on winter blue uniforms. From 1983 until the issue of the campaign hat, Women Marine Drill Instructors wore a red aiguillette similar to the Navy.
A blue aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by military training leaders at technical training bases. Student airmen leaders at technical training bases (sometimes called "ropes" in reference to the aiguillette) also wear aiguillettes, with green representing the lowest level of student leadership, yellow representing the intermediate level of student leadership, and red representing the highest level of student leadership. Students wearing a white rope are commonly referred to as chapel guides, and are charged with providing social or moral support to their fellow airmen. Airmen who wear the black rope are experts in drill, choir, or ceremonies, and pride themselves on appearance and uniform wear. Airmen who wear a blue and white rope are members of the drum \& bugle corps for their base. In the United States Air Force, honor guard members wear a silver aiguillette on the left shoulder.
|
[
"Modern military usage\n---------------------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|[Lord High Admiral Clinton](/wiki/Edward_Clinton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Lincoln \"Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln\") in an [arming doublet](/wiki/Gambeson \"Gambeson\") of 1562, showing the decorative *points* or laces with metal tips for securing armour.](/wiki/File:Edward_Fiennes_de_Clinton%2C_Earl_of_Lincoln.jpg \"Edward Fiennes de Clinton, Earl of Lincoln.jpg\")",
"### Argentina",
"Aiguillettes are worn on the right shoulder by armed forces officers serving in specific positions, such as [aide\\-de\\-camp to the President](/wiki/Aide-de-camp%23Argentina \"Aide-de-camp#Argentina\"), the [Minister of Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_%28Argentina%29 \"Ministry of Defense (Argentina)\"), each service's chief of staff and unit commanding officers, and by military attachés to Argentinian embassies abroad. The color of the aiguillette may be golden, silver or tan, depending the nature of the assignment.",
"Olive green aiguillettes are worn with the combat uniform in very special circumstances, such as ceremonies and inspections. Otherwise, aiguillettes are not worn with the combat uniform. A special red aiguillette is worn by the adjutants to the commanding officers of the [Horse Grenadiers Regiment](/wiki/Regiment_of_Mounted_Grenadiers \"Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers\") (the presidential guard) and the [Military Academy](/wiki/Colegio_Militar_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n \"Colegio Militar de la Nación\"). Also, a red aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by the senior [NCO](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer \"Non-commissioned officer\") of each Army unit. A thinner, yellow aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by NCOs who have completed the instructor course.",
"In the [Navy](/wiki/Argentine_Navy \"Argentine Navy\"), adjutants to very senior officers wear golden aiguillettes on the left shoulder.",
"### Australia",
"Aiguillettes distinguish officers of Flag, General and Air rank in specific command appointments, military attachés and aides\\-de\\-camp. Most senior officers and aides\\-de\\-camp to the Governor\\-General or state governors wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder, whilst military attachés and staff aides\\-de\\-camp wear the aiguillette on the left. Royal aiguillettes are of plain gold, naval aiguillettes are of blue and gold, army aiguillettes are of red and gold, air force aiguillettes of light blue and gold.",
"The [Governor\\-General of Australia](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia \"Governor-General of Australia\"), as the Commander in Chief of the [Australian Defence Force](/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force \"Australian Defence Force\"), is entitled to wear a uniform on which an aiguillette made of platinum is worn.{{r\\|Australian\\-Army\\-2016\\-10\\-05}}",
"### Canada",
"Aiguillettes are worn by officers in specific appointments to specific principals. For the following appointments the aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder:\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to His Majesty and other members of the Royal family;\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to the Governor\\-General of Canada;\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to Lieutenant\\-Governors of provinces; and\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to visiting foreign heads of state.",
"For other appointments, the aiguillete is worn on the left shoulder:\n* Attachés as part of an embassy or consulate;\n* Staff officer to the Minister of National Defence;\n* Aides\\-de\\-camp / flag lieutenants to general / flag officers; and\n* Officers appointed as personal assistants to senior officers, Ministers of the Crown, visiting military or civilian officials, dignitaries of foreign nations.\nFor all regal and vice\\-regal appointments, the distinguishing badge or cipher of the principal is worn on the shoulder strap or shoulder board.",
"Obsolete pattern aiguillettes braided with a coloured stripe may be worn until replaced by officers holding appointments to Lieutenant\\-Governors of provinces or military / civilian principals.A\\-DH\\-265\\-000/AG\\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch.3, Section 7",
"For RCN officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, the aiguillete is secured under a fully\\-corded shoulderboard worn on the right shoulder for regal and vice\\-regal appointments, and under a hard shoulderboard with a corded knot worn on the left shoulder for all other appointments.",
"For RCAF officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, there is a small attachment hook worn on the appropriate shoulder to which the aiguillette is fastened.",
"For Army officers, the aiguillette is secured under the appropriate shoulder strap (left or right) and the cipher or badge (if appropriate) is worn on that shoulder strap.",
"For all branches, the end of the cord near the hanging ends is fastened to a concealed button under the left or right jacket lapel as appropriate.A\\-DH\\-265\\-000/AG\\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch. 3 Annex G",
"### Denmark",
"[thumb\\|Royal Danish Naval Band with red aiguillettes](/wiki/File:Tambur_01.jpg \"Tambur 01.jpg\")\nThe Danish military uses aiguillettes for a number of different positions.\n* Blue and yellow: Danish troops stationed with [UNFICYP](/wiki/UNFICYP \"UNFICYP\")\n* Blue and red: the [Bugle](/wiki/Bugle \"Bugle\") Corps of the [Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron](/wiki/Guard_Hussar_Regiment_Mounted_Squadron \"Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron\")\n* Red: Royal Danish Naval Band\n* Green: Danish [military police](/wiki/Military_police \"Military police\")\n* Gold: [Adjutants](/wiki/Adjutant \"Adjutant\")",
"### France",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|[Republican Guard](/wiki/Garde_R%C3%A9publicaine \"Garde Républicaine\") wearing a gold\\-wire aiguillette on the left shoulder](/wiki/File:Republican_Guard_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Palace_1.JPG \"Republican Guard Élysée Palace 1.JPG\")\nThe aiguillettes are worn only with the dress uniform. There are several types of aiguillettes in the [French military](/wiki/French_military \"French military\"):\n* Aiguillettes on the right shoulder are worn by officers filling certain duties.\n\t+ Staff officers in the [President](/wiki/President_of_France \"President of France\")'s staff, the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France \"Prime Minister of France\")'s staff, the [Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28France%29 \"Minister of Defence (France)\")'s staff and the [Maréchaux](/wiki/Mar%C3%A9chal_de_France \"Maréchal de France\")'s Staff. The aiguillette is always in gold wire.\n\t+ The [aides\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\") to the President, the Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the [Légion d'honneur](/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur \"Légion d'honneur\"), the [Chief of the Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28France%29 \"Chief of the Defence Staff (France)\") and the [DGA](/wiki/D%C3%A9l%C3%A9gation_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_pour_l%27Armement \"Délégation Générale pour l'Armement\"). The aiguillette can be silver or gold, depending on the officer's corps. The AdC to the generals in the army and the air force and all the staff officers in the navy can also wear this aiguillette.\n\t+ The [military attachés](/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9 \"Military attaché\") of an embassy. The aiguillette is always in gold wire.\n* Aiguillettes on the left shoulder are worn by all members of some units:\n\t+ The [Gendarmes](/wiki/Gendarmerie_Nationale_%28France%29 \"Gendarmerie Nationale (France)\"). The aiguillette is white for the *Gendarmerie départementale* and gold for the *Gendarmerie mobile*, including the [Garde Républicaine](/wiki/Garde_R%C3%A9publicaine \"Garde Républicaine\").\n\t+ The Bands. This aiguillette can be blue, red, or gold.",
"Aiguillettes should not be confused with *[fourragères](/wiki/Fourrag%C3%A8re \"Fourragère\")*, which can be worn in the same way on the left shoulder in parade dress.",
"### Germany",
"In the German armies, including the [Imperial German Army](/wiki/Imperial_German_Army \"Imperial German Army\") and the [Imperial German Navy](/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy \"Imperial German Navy\"), the adjutant generals or admirals wore the *Adjutantenschnur* or *Achselband* (adjutant cord or aguilette) on the right shoulder as of 1863 in gold, the generals *à la suite* and the *Flügeladjutanten* in silver. There were initially several experimental forms in the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\").",
"On 29 June 1935, so\\-called shoulder straps were introduced into the German [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") and were worn on certain occasions, e.g. at parades. Adjutants wore armpit cords as their badge of activity. In the [National People's Army](/wiki/National_People%27s_Army \"National People's Army\"), the border troops of the [GDR](/wiki/GDR \"GDR\") and the GDR People's Navy, a silver\\-colored armpit cord with silver tips for LaSK/LSK/LV/GT and gold\\-colored tips for the People's Navy has also been introduced for officers since 1976; the version for generals and admirals was gold\\-colored. In the [Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr \"Bundeswehr\") it is worn by attachés, officers of protocol, flag escort officers, greeting and liaison officers of the Navy as well as (if these tasks are carried out by officers) wake guards and medal cushion bearers.",
"### Ghana",
"In [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\"), aiguillettes form part of the ceremonial uniforms of commissioned officers in the army and other security services including the police, prisons service, fire service, and customs and immigration. Senior police officers wear white aiguillettes with dark\\-blue uniforms, prison officers also wear yellow aiguillettes over the official ceremonial number one uniform while customs and immigration officials wear red aiguillettes with olive\\-green outfits. When worn, the aiguillettes denote on\\-duty status.",
"### Greece",
"Aiguillettes are worn by the aides\\-de\\-camp to the [President of the Hellenic Republic](/wiki/President_of_Greece \"President of Greece\"). The President's Adjutants wears it on the right shoulder.",
"### Ireland",
"Aiguillettes are worn by the aides\\-de\\-camp to the [President](/wiki/President_of_Ireland \"President of Ireland\") and [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach \"Taoiseach\"). The President's ADC wears it on the right shoulder, the Taoiseach's ADC on the left.",
"Civil Defence (Cosaint Sibhialta) personnel wear a white aiguillette on their dress uniform.",
"Gold aiguillettes are also worn by officers in the Defence Forces with their mess dress uniform. They are worn on the left hand shoulder.",
"### Israel",
"In the [IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\"), soldiers who wear an aiguillette are mostly instructors.",
"List of aiguillette's colors and roles in the IDF:",
"[thumb\\|[IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\") uniforms with azure \\& yellow aiguillette of the casualties \\& City Officers administration](/wiki/File:Azure_%26_Yellow_Aiguillette_of_the_IDF.JPG \"Azure & Yellow Aiguillette of the IDF.JPG\")\n* Green \\& White\\- [Military intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence \"Military intelligence\") instructors (mainly)\n* Black\\- training staff (mainly)\n* Blue \\- [Navy](/wiki/Israeli_Navy \"Israeli Navy\") instructors\n* Blue \\& Red\\- [Military Police](/wiki/Military_police \"Military police\")\n* Red (right side)\\- IDF orchestra\n* Red (Left side)\\- Senior [Navy](/wiki/Israeli_Navy \"Israeli Navy\") instructors (mainly)\n* Purple\\- Service Rights Staff\n* Blue \\& White\\- Unit's NCO\n* White\\- Security guards\n* Gray\\- Education instructors\n* Green\\- General instructors\n* Brown\\- Diagnostic crew (mainly)\n* Gold\\- discipline NCO\n* Orange \\& Azure\\- [Search and Rescue](/wiki/Search_and_Rescue \"Search and Rescue\") units\n* Orange \\& Black\\- [Combat Engineering Corps](/wiki/Combat_Engineering_Corps \"Combat Engineering Corps\")\n* Yellow \\& Black\\- [WMD](/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction \"Weapon of mass destruction\") instructors\n* Azure\\- [Off\\-road vehicle](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle \"Off-road vehicle\") operators (mainly)\n* Azure \\& Green\\- [Off\\-road vehicle](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle \"Off-road vehicle\") operators instructors\n* Azure \\& Yellow\\- Casualties \\& City Officers administration\n* Azure \\& Purple\\- Reserve mobilization\n* Green \\& Red\\- Civil population emergency instructors\n* Golden\\- [Military attaché](/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9 \"Military attaché\")\n* Black \\& Creme\\- Military Rabbinate",
"In the [Israeli Police](/wiki/Israeli_Police \"Israeli Police\"), policemen mainly wear a black aiguillette, and [Israeli Border Police](/wiki/Israeli_Border_Police \"Israeli Border Police\") policemen wear a dark green aiguillette.",
"### Russia",
"[thumb\\|Soldiers of Prezidentskiy polk (The Presidential Regiment), Alexander Garden, Moscow](/wiki/Image:Changing_Guard_Alexander_Garden_Moscow.hires.jpg \"Changing Guard Alexander Garden Moscow.hires.jpg\")\nAiguillettes are worn by honor guard personnel. A single silver aiguillette is worn on enlisted cut uniforms of minor detachments. A single gold aiguillette is worn on officer cut uniforms of minor detachments. A double gold aiguillette is worn on officer cut uniforms of major detachments. All personnel of major detachments wear officer cut uniforms. Demobilized soldiers also often decorate their uniforms with makeshift aiguillettes.",
"### Singapore",
"Aiguillettes are worn on the right shoulder by officers of certain appointments only. They include the: \n* [Chief of Defence Force (CDF)](/wiki/Chief_of_Defence_Force_%28Singapore%29 \"Chief of Defence Force (Singapore)\")\n* [Commissioner of Police (CP)](/wiki/Commissioner_of_Police_%28Singapore%29 \"Commissioner of Police (Singapore)\")\n* Commissioner of the Singapore Civil Defence Force\n* [Aides\\-de\\-camp (ADC)](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\") to the President\n* Honorary aides\\-de\\-camp to the President\n* Military attachés and assistant military attachés\n* MA/SA/NA to the Chief of Defence Force and service chiefs",
"Aiguillettes are also worn on the left shoulder by musicians of the [Singapore Armed Forces Band](/wiki/Singapore_Armed_Forces_Band \"Singapore Armed Forces Band\") and the [Singapore Police Force Band](/wiki/Singapore_Police_Force_Band \"Singapore Police Force Band\").",
"Musicians of the Singapore Armed Forces Band wears a red and gold aiguillette while Director of Musics of the Singapore Armed Forces Band wear a full gold aiguillette.",
"Student musicians from both the National Cadet Corps Command Band and National Police Cadet Corps Band similarly wear aiguillettes mirroring the respective parent bodies.",
"In Singapore, ADCs who are officers of the [Singapore Armed Forces](/wiki/Singapore_Armed_Forces \"Singapore Armed Forces\") and the [Singapore Civil Defence Force](/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Defence_Force \"Singapore Civil Defence Force\") wear gold aiguillettes and police officers wear silver aiguillettes. Singapore Armed Forces ADCs wear a gold braid lanyard in lieu of an aiguillette when in No. 3 and No. 5(T).",
"Additionally the newly commissioned ADC badges are worn across all five services' no.4 uniform.",
"### Sri Lanka",
"[150px\\|thumb\\|Full Aiguillettes (No. 1A) worn by the [Chief of Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28Sri_Lanka%29 \"Chief of the Defence Staff (Sri Lanka)\").](/wiki/File:Ravindra_C._Wijegunaratne.jpg \"Ravindra C. Wijegunaratne.jpg\")\nIn [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), full aiguillettes are worn by members of the personal staff of the [President of Sri Lanka](/wiki/President_of_Sri_Lanka \"President of Sri Lanka\") and [General officers](/wiki/General_officer \"General officer\"), [flag officers](/wiki/Flag_officer \"Flag officer\") and [air officers](/wiki/Air_officer \"Air officer\"), while half aiguillettes are worn by the [Colonels](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") and [Lieutenant Colonels](/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel \"Lieutenant Colonel\") in ceremonial uniforms.",
"* Aiguillettes (No. 1A) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold cord are worn on the right shoulder by; service commanders and officers of the [four\\-star rank](/wiki/Four-star_rank \"Four-star rank\") and above on uniforms No. 1, 2, 3, 4\\.\n* Aiguillettes (No. 1B) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold (and red orris basket in the case of Army) cord are worn on the right shoulder by; Aides\\-de\\-camp to the [President of Sri Lanka](/wiki/President_of_Sri_Lanka \"President of Sri Lanka\") and Aides\\-de\\-camp to visiting heads of state (in their presence) on uniforms No. 1\\.\n* Aiguillettes (No. 2A) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold cord are worn on the left shoulder by; by officers of [two\\-star rank](/wiki/Two-star_rank \"Two-star rank\") and [one\\-star rank](/wiki/One-star_rank \"One-star rank\") on uniforms No. 1, 2, 3, 4\\.\n* Aiguillettes (No. 2B) (Full Aiguillettes) of gold (and red orris basket in the case of Army, black basket in the case of Navy) cord are worn on the left shoulder by; [Military Assistants](/wiki/Military_Assistant \"Military Assistant\") and Aides\\-de\\-camps to [general](/wiki/General_officer \"General officer\"), [flag](/wiki/Flag_officer \"Flag officer\") and [air officers](/wiki/Air_officer \"Air officer\").\n* Aiguillettes (No. 3\\) (Half Aiguillettes) of gold cord joined in the front and back by gilt cloth with a single metal aglet are worn on the left shoulder by [Colonels](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") and [Lieutenant Colonels](/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel \"Lieutenant Colonel\") in (ceremonial) uniforms No. 1, 2, 3, 4\\.",
"In the [Sri Lanka Police](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Police \"Sri Lanka Police\"), the [Inspector General of Police](/wiki/Inspector_General_of_Police_%28Sri_Lanka%29 \"Inspector General of Police (Sri Lanka)\"), wear gold aiguillettes on the right shoulder, while [Senior gazetted police officers](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Police%23Gazetted_Ranks_%28Police_Gazzete_of_Sri_Lanka%29 \"Sri Lanka Police#Gazetted Ranks (Police Gazzete of Sri Lanka)\") wear black aiguillettes on the left shoulder in both formal and ceremonial dress.",
"### Sweden",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Large aiguillette m/1816, used in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\").](/wiki/File:TKARLSSON.jpg \"TKARLSSON.jpg\")\nThe [Swedish Defense Forces](/wiki/Swedish_Defense_Forces \"Swedish Defense Forces\") uses three types of aiguillettes. All aiguillettes come in gold or silver [braid](/wiki/Braid \"Braid\") depending on the regiment of the wearer, Royal Guard regiments use silver due to historical reasons, all others gold.",
"* Large aiguillette m/1816 ([Sw.](/wiki/Swedish_language \"Swedish language\"): *Stor ägiljett m/1816*) is worn on the right shoulder by officers on the staff of [HM the King of Sweden](/wiki/King_of_Sweden \"King of Sweden\"), [aide\\-de\\-camps](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\") of members of the Royal Family and by commissioned [colonels](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") and naval [captains](/wiki/Captain_%28naval%29 \"Captain (naval)\"). It is also permissible to be worn by officers (except generals) of the staff of the Defense Force, and former officers of the Swedish general staff.\n* Small aiguillette m/1889 (Sw.: *Liten ägiljett m/1889*) is worn on the right shoulder by the on duty adjutant of the King in [Service dress uniform](/wiki/Service_dress_uniform \"Service dress uniform\"), adjutants of government ministers, the [Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces](/wiki/Supreme_Commander_of_the_Swedish_Armed_Forces \"Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces\") and general officers.\n* Aiguillette m/55 (Sw.: *Ägiljett m/55*) is worn on the left shoulder by [military attachés](/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9 \"Military attaché\") in [Service dress uniform](/wiki/Service_dress_uniform \"Service dress uniform\") in the country of his or her [accreditation](/wiki/Letter_of_credence \"Letter of credence\"); it is only used in Sweden during [state visits](/wiki/State_visit \"State visit\").",
"In Sweden there is a distinction between the aiguillettes mentioned above, and other cords used on uniforms in the Royal Swedish Navy and the Swedish Air Force.",
"### United Kingdom",
"[thumb\\|Royal Aiguillette worn by the [Chief of Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)\") and Staff Aiguillettes worn by [ADCs](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\")](/wiki/Image:Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst_inspection_of_new_Colours%2C_June_2005.jpg \"Royal Military Academy Sandhurst inspection of new Colours, June 2005.jpg\")\nThere are four types of aiguillette worn by the British Armed Forces.",
"* Aiguillettes (1st Class or Royal) are of [gold\\-wire](/wiki/Gold-wire \"Gold-wire\") cord and are worn on the right shoulder by, among others, [admirals of the fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet \"Admiral of the Fleet\"), [field marshals](/wiki/Field_marshal \"Field marshal\") and [marshals of the RAF](/wiki/Marshal_of_the_RAF \"Marshal of the RAF\"); honorary physicians, honorary chaplains, honorary surgeons and [aides\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Personal_aide-de-camp \"Personal aide-de-camp\") to the [Sovereign](/wiki/Charles_III \"Charles III\"); and [equerries](/wiki/Equerry \"Equerry\") to members of the [royal family](/wiki/British_Royal_Family \"British Royal Family\"). Some appointments carry the privilege of wearing a miniature Sovereign's Cypher on the points of the aiguillettes. These aiguillettes are also worn by [commissioned officers](/wiki/Commissioned_officer \"Commissioned officer\") of the [Household Cavalry](/wiki/Household_Cavalry \"Household Cavalry\") (in full dress only). They are worn on the left shoulder in full dress by [warrant officers](/wiki/Warrant_officer \"Warrant officer\") of the Household Cavalry.\n* Aiguillettes (2nd Class or Board) are of gold and dark blue, crimson or light blue depending if worn by Royal Navy, Army or RAF officers and are worn on the right shoulder by, among others, military members of the Defence Board and each Service Board and the personal staff of [governors](/wiki/Governor \"Governor\"). A simplified version with no coils is worn on the left shoulder by [staff corporals](/wiki/Staff_corporal \"Staff corporal\"), [corporals of horse](/wiki/Corporal_of_Horse \"Corporal of Horse\") and [lance corporals of horse](/wiki/Lance_Corporal_of_Horse \"Lance Corporal of Horse\") of the Household Cavalry in full dress.\n* Aiguillettes (3rd Class or Staff) are of gold and dark blue, crimson or light blue depending if worn by Royal Navy, Army or RAF officers. They are worn on the left shoulder by, among others, [attachés](/wiki/Attach%C3%A9 \"Attaché\"), assistants and aides\\-de\\-camp.\n* Simple aiguillettes are worn by [lance corporals](/wiki/Lance_corporal \"Lance corporal\") of the Household Cavalry and by bandsmen of [Dragoon Guards](/wiki/Dragoon_Guards \"Dragoon Guards\") and [Dragoon](/wiki/Dragoon \"Dragoon\") [regiments](/wiki/Regiment \"Regiment\") in full dress.\n* The Commissioner of the [Metropolitan Police](/wiki/Metropolitan_Police \"Metropolitan Police\") wears silver aiguillettes in both formal and ceremonial dress.\n* The Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner of the [City of London Police](/wiki/City_of_London_Police \"City of London Police\") wear gold aiguillettes on the right shoulder in ceremonial dress. Some officers of that force also wear gold aiguillettes on the left shoulder in ceremonial dress.",
"### United States",
"[thumb\\|US Army Service Aiguillette worn on the left arm by aides\\-de\\-camp, Army attaches, and assistant Army attaches and on the right arm by aides assigned to the President, White House, First Family, and foreign heads of state with the Class A Uniform and Army Service Uniform](/wiki/File:US_Army_Gold_Aiguillette.JPG \"US Army Gold Aiguillette.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard Dress Aiguillette (White Uniform): one dark blue braided loop and two single loops](/wiki/File:US_Navy_020905-N-3228G-005_Change_of_Command_aboard_USS_O%27Kane.jpg \"US Navy 020905-N-3228G-005 Change of Command aboard USS O'Kane.jpg\")\nThe aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by military aides to the [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") and the [Vice President](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States \"Vice President of the United States\"). It is worn on the left shoulder by military assistants to the [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") and the [Secretary of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security \"United States Secretary of Homeland Security\"), aides to the Service Secretaries ([Secretary of the Army](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army \"United States Secretary of the Army\"), [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"United States Secretary of the Navy\") \\& [Secretary of the Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force \"United States Secretary of the Air Force\")), aide to the NOAA Administrator, military attachés, [General Staff Corps](/wiki/General_staff \"General staff\") officers, and aides to [flag officers](/wiki/Flag_officer \"Flag officer\"). The cord colors are gold for the Army and silver for the Air Force, gold and blue for the Coast Guard, Navy and NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps, with one braid \"per star\" of the Flag Officer (one for RDML, two for RADM, three for VADM and four for ADM), and gold and red for the Marines, with the number of braids corresponding to the rank of the General Officer similar to the Navy use. The gold cord aiguillette is worn by the directors of the [United States Marine Band](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Band \"United States Marine Band\"), while the enlisted personnel wear aiguillettes of white cord.",
"A red aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") Recruit Division commanders, whereas a blue aiguillette is worn by Recruit Division commanders in training. Recruit Division commanders wearing these are referred colloquially as \"red ropes\" and \"blue ropes\" respectively. The U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard in Washington, D.C. wears a blue aiguillette on summer white uniforms and a white one on winter blue uniforms. From 1983 until the issue of the campaign hat, Women Marine Drill Instructors wore a red aiguillette similar to the Navy.",
"A blue aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by military training leaders at technical training bases. Student airmen leaders at technical training bases (sometimes called \"ropes\" in reference to the aiguillette) also wear aiguillettes, with green representing the lowest level of student leadership, yellow representing the intermediate level of student leadership, and red representing the highest level of student leadership. Students wearing a white rope are commonly referred to as chapel guides, and are charged with providing social or moral support to their fellow airmen. Airmen who wear the black rope are experts in drill, choir, or ceremonies, and pride themselves on appearance and uniform wear. Airmen who wear a blue and white rope are members of the drum \\& bugle corps for their base. In the United States Air Force, honor guard members wear a silver aiguillette on the left shoulder.",
""
] |
### Canada
Aiguillettes are worn by officers in specific appointments to specific principals. For the following appointments the aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder:
* Aide\-de\-camp to His Majesty and other members of the Royal family;
* Aide\-de\-camp to the Governor\-General of Canada;
* Aide\-de\-camp to Lieutenant\-Governors of provinces; and
* Aide\-de\-camp to visiting foreign heads of state.
For other appointments, the aiguillete is worn on the left shoulder:
* Attachés as part of an embassy or consulate;
* Staff officer to the Minister of National Defence;
* Aides\-de\-camp / flag lieutenants to general / flag officers; and
* Officers appointed as personal assistants to senior officers, Ministers of the Crown, visiting military or civilian officials, dignitaries of foreign nations.
For all regal and vice\-regal appointments, the distinguishing badge or cipher of the principal is worn on the shoulder strap or shoulder board.
Obsolete pattern aiguillettes braided with a coloured stripe may be worn until replaced by officers holding appointments to Lieutenant\-Governors of provinces or military / civilian principals.A\-DH\-265\-000/AG\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch.3, Section 7
For RCN officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, the aiguillete is secured under a fully\-corded shoulderboard worn on the right shoulder for regal and vice\-regal appointments, and under a hard shoulderboard with a corded knot worn on the left shoulder for all other appointments.
For RCAF officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, there is a small attachment hook worn on the appropriate shoulder to which the aiguillette is fastened.
For Army officers, the aiguillette is secured under the appropriate shoulder strap (left or right) and the cipher or badge (if appropriate) is worn on that shoulder strap.
For all branches, the end of the cord near the hanging ends is fastened to a concealed button under the left or right jacket lapel as appropriate.A\-DH\-265\-000/AG\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch. 3 Annex G
|
[
"### Canada",
"Aiguillettes are worn by officers in specific appointments to specific principals. For the following appointments the aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder:\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to His Majesty and other members of the Royal family;\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to the Governor\\-General of Canada;\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to Lieutenant\\-Governors of provinces; and\n* Aide\\-de\\-camp to visiting foreign heads of state.",
"For other appointments, the aiguillete is worn on the left shoulder:\n* Attachés as part of an embassy or consulate;\n* Staff officer to the Minister of National Defence;\n* Aides\\-de\\-camp / flag lieutenants to general / flag officers; and\n* Officers appointed as personal assistants to senior officers, Ministers of the Crown, visiting military or civilian officials, dignitaries of foreign nations.\nFor all regal and vice\\-regal appointments, the distinguishing badge or cipher of the principal is worn on the shoulder strap or shoulder board.",
"Obsolete pattern aiguillettes braided with a coloured stripe may be worn until replaced by officers holding appointments to Lieutenant\\-Governors of provinces or military / civilian principals.A\\-DH\\-265\\-000/AG\\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch.3, Section 7",
"For RCN officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, the aiguillete is secured under a fully\\-corded shoulderboard worn on the right shoulder for regal and vice\\-regal appointments, and under a hard shoulderboard with a corded knot worn on the left shoulder for all other appointments.",
"For RCAF officers, since the uniform jacket does not normally include shoulder straps, there is a small attachment hook worn on the appropriate shoulder to which the aiguillette is fastened.",
"For Army officers, the aiguillette is secured under the appropriate shoulder strap (left or right) and the cipher or badge (if appropriate) is worn on that shoulder strap.",
"For all branches, the end of the cord near the hanging ends is fastened to a concealed button under the left or right jacket lapel as appropriate.A\\-DH\\-265\\-000/AG\\-001 Canadian Armed Forces Dress Instructions, Ch. 3 Annex G",
""
] |
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