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Plot
----
The film opens with Oscar Wilde's 1882 visit to [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado "Leadville, Colorado") during his lecture tour of the United States. Despite his flamboyant personality and urbane wit, he proves to be a success with the local [silver miners](/wiki/Silver_mining "Silver mining") as he regales them with tales of [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") silversmith [Benvenuto Cellini](/wiki/Benvenuto_Cellini "Benvenuto Cellini").
Wilde returns to London and weds [Constance Lloyd](/wiki/Constance_Lloyd "Constance Lloyd"). They have two sons in quick succession. While their second child is still an infant, the couple hosts a young Canadian named [Robbie Ross](/wiki/Robbie_Ross "Robbie Ross"), who seduces Wilde. Ross's love for Wilde endures. On the opening night of his play *[Lady Windermere's Fan](/wiki/Lady_Windermere%27s_Fan "Lady Windermere's Fan")*, Wilde is re\-introduced to the dashingly handsome and foppish poet [Lord Alfred "Bosie" Douglas](/wiki/Lord_Alfred_Douglas "Lord Alfred Douglas"), whom he had met briefly the year before. The two fall into a passionate and tempestuous relationship. The [hedonistic](/wiki/Hedonism "Hedonism") Bosie is not content to remain [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamy "Monogamy") and frequently engages in sexual activity with [rent boys](/wiki/Male_prostitution "Male prostitution") while his older lover plays the role of [voyeur](/wiki/Voyeurism "Voyeurism").
Bosie's father, the [Marquess of Queensberry](/wiki/John_Douglas%2C_9th_Marquess_of_Queensberry "John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry"), a violent and cruel man, objects to his son's relationship with Wilde and demeans the playwright shortly after the opening of *[The Importance of Being Earnest](/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest "The Importance of Being Earnest")*. When Wilde sues the Marquess for criminal libel, his homosexuality is publicly exposed. He is eventually tried for [gross indecency](/wiki/Gross_indecency_between_men "Gross indecency between men") and sentenced to two years' [hard labour](/wiki/Penal_labour "Penal labour"). Constance is advised by friends to go abroad and change her name to protect the children.
Prison life is grueling; the [penal treadmill](/wiki/Penal_treadmill "Penal treadmill") permanently wrecks Wilde's health. Bosie tells Robbie he will look after Wilde in some pleasant sunny place when he is released. Constance visits him in prison. She is sending Cyril to school in Germany, and she may need back surgery. He tells her he has always loved her, and that he did not know himself in the beginning. She tells him she does not want a divorce. The children love him and he is welcome to visit as long as he never sees Bosie again.
Loyal friend [Ada Leverson](/wiki/Ada_Leverson "Ada Leverson") meets Wilde when he is released from prison in May 1897, carrying the manuscript of *[De Profundis](/wiki/De_Profundis_%28letter%29 "De Profundis (letter)")*. He goes straight into exile, to continental Europe. He puts flowers on Constance's grave. Since she died (in April 1898\) he is no longer allowed to see his children. He eventually meets with Douglas. A printed epilogue notes that they parted after three months and describes Wilde's death in Paris in November 1900 at age 46 and the fates of Bosie and Ross.
Portions of the beloved Wilde story "[The Selfish Giant](/wiki/The_Happy_Prince_and_Other_Tales%23%22The_Selfish_Giant%22 "The Happy Prince and Other Tales#")" are woven throughout the film, beginning when Wilde tells the story to his children, then as Constance reads the book to them and so on until Wilde almost finishes the story in a voice\-over as the film nears its end.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The film opens with Oscar Wilde's 1882 visit to [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado \"Leadville, Colorado\") during his lecture tour of the United States. Despite his flamboyant personality and urbane wit, he proves to be a success with the local [silver miners](/wiki/Silver_mining \"Silver mining\") as he regales them with tales of [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") silversmith [Benvenuto Cellini](/wiki/Benvenuto_Cellini \"Benvenuto Cellini\").",
"Wilde returns to London and weds [Constance Lloyd](/wiki/Constance_Lloyd \"Constance Lloyd\"). They have two sons in quick succession. While their second child is still an infant, the couple hosts a young Canadian named [Robbie Ross](/wiki/Robbie_Ross \"Robbie Ross\"), who seduces Wilde. Ross's love for Wilde endures. On the opening night of his play *[Lady Windermere's Fan](/wiki/Lady_Windermere%27s_Fan \"Lady Windermere's Fan\")*, Wilde is re\\-introduced to the dashingly handsome and foppish poet [Lord Alfred \"Bosie\" Douglas](/wiki/Lord_Alfred_Douglas \"Lord Alfred Douglas\"), whom he had met briefly the year before. The two fall into a passionate and tempestuous relationship. The [hedonistic](/wiki/Hedonism \"Hedonism\") Bosie is not content to remain [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamy \"Monogamy\") and frequently engages in sexual activity with [rent boys](/wiki/Male_prostitution \"Male prostitution\") while his older lover plays the role of [voyeur](/wiki/Voyeurism \"Voyeurism\").",
"Bosie's father, the [Marquess of Queensberry](/wiki/John_Douglas%2C_9th_Marquess_of_Queensberry \"John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry\"), a violent and cruel man, objects to his son's relationship with Wilde and demeans the playwright shortly after the opening of *[The Importance of Being Earnest](/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest \"The Importance of Being Earnest\")*. When Wilde sues the Marquess for criminal libel, his homosexuality is publicly exposed. He is eventually tried for [gross indecency](/wiki/Gross_indecency_between_men \"Gross indecency between men\") and sentenced to two years' [hard labour](/wiki/Penal_labour \"Penal labour\"). Constance is advised by friends to go abroad and change her name to protect the children.",
"Prison life is grueling; the [penal treadmill](/wiki/Penal_treadmill \"Penal treadmill\") permanently wrecks Wilde's health. Bosie tells Robbie he will look after Wilde in some pleasant sunny place when he is released. Constance visits him in prison. She is sending Cyril to school in Germany, and she may need back surgery. He tells her he has always loved her, and that he did not know himself in the beginning. She tells him she does not want a divorce. The children love him and he is welcome to visit as long as he never sees Bosie again.",
"Loyal friend [Ada Leverson](/wiki/Ada_Leverson \"Ada Leverson\") meets Wilde when he is released from prison in May 1897, carrying the manuscript of *[De Profundis](/wiki/De_Profundis_%28letter%29 \"De Profundis (letter)\")*. He goes straight into exile, to continental Europe. He puts flowers on Constance's grave. Since she died (in April 1898\\) he is no longer allowed to see his children. He eventually meets with Douglas. A printed epilogue notes that they parted after three months and describes Wilde's death in Paris in November 1900 at age 46 and the fates of Bosie and Ross.",
"Portions of the beloved Wilde story \"[The Selfish Giant](/wiki/The_Happy_Prince_and_Other_Tales%23%22The_Selfish_Giant%22 \"The Happy Prince and Other Tales#\")\" are woven throughout the film, beginning when Wilde tells the story to his children, then as Constance reads the book to them and so on until Wilde almost finishes the story in a voice\\-over as the film nears its end.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{prose\|section\|date\=February 2019}}
The earliest evidence of human occupation in the Pohang area is from the [Mumun Pottery Period](/wiki/Mumun_Pottery_Period "Mumun Pottery Period") (1500–300 BC). Archaeologists have unearthed small villages and megalithic burials ([dolmen](/wiki/Dolmen "Dolmen")) from this period. Still a small fishing village at the dawn of the 20th century, the earliest steps toward developing Pohang into a place of greater significance were taken in 1930 with the construction of a modern harbour. Pohang grew rapidly afterward, attaining the designation of town ([*eup*](/wiki/Eup_%28administrative_division%29 "Eup (administrative division)")) in 1931 and then earning the status of city ([*si*](/wiki/List_of_cities_in_South_Korea "List of cities in South Korea")) in 1949\.[WPS \- Port of Pohang contact information](http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/KOR_Port_of_Pohang_1487.php). Worldportsource.com. Retrieved on 2013\-07\-12\.
Pohang's road arteries and shipping port made it a place of strategic significance during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"). An unopposed landing of UN forces at Pohang on July 18, 1950 was the first large\-scale amphibious operation since World War II, and the region around Pohang saw [fierce clashes](/wiki/Battle_of_P%27ohang-dong "Battle of P'ohang-dong") between South Korea's [3rd Infantry Division](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%28South_Korea%29 "3rd Infantry Division (South Korea)") and North Korea's [5th Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Division_%28North_Korea%29 "5th Division (North Korea)") during August–September 1950\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/116\_43998\.htm \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120802234605/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/116\_43998\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-08\-02 \|script\-title\=ko:페이지를 찾을 수 없습니다 \|publisher\=Archive.is \|date\=2012\-08\-02 \|access\-date\=2018\-09\-01}}
By the 1960s, Pohang was a small coastal city with a population of 50,000\.[KASTN](http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~kocsea/pohang.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604164606/http://www.cs.virginia.edu/\~kocsea/pohang.htm \|date\=2011\-06\-04 }}. Cs.virginia.edu (1996\-02\-01\). Retrieved on 2013\-07\-12\. The next major development in Pohang's growth came in 1968 with the inauguration of the steel maker [POSCO](/wiki/POSCO "POSCO"), and the local plant's commencement of production in 1972\. The introduction of [heavy industry](/wiki/Heavy_industry "Heavy industry") to the city brought the local economy to a blend of iron, steel, shipbuilding and fisheries through the end of the 20th century.
The early 21st century and the age of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization") has brought new economic challenges to companies such as POSCO, giving rise to beliefs that Pohang would be wise to not be overly reliant on heavy industry to maintain its prosperity.{{cite web \|url\=http://esri.handong.edu/korean/download.php?id\=209\&sid\=8e8361e216e22553cc306b08f4598736 \|script\-title\=ko:자동등록방지를 위해 보안절차를 거치고 있습니다 \|publisher\=Esri.handong.edu \|access\-date\=2018\-09\-01 \|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901145611/http://esri.handong.edu/korean/download.php?id\=209\&sid\=8e8361e216e22553cc306b08f4598736 \|url\-status\=dead }} In response, the Pohang of today presents itself as having an eye to the future, striving to become a diversified city of [environmentalism](/wiki/Environmentalism "Environmentalism") and advanced learning, as well as a centre of arts and culture.[http://eng.ipohang.org/En/About/AP01/?navi\=AP01\_1](http://eng.ipohang.org/En/About/AP01/?navi=AP01_1) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901131644/http://eng.ipohang.org/En/About/AP01/?navi\=AP01\_1\|date\=September 1, 2009}}
During the [Silla](/wiki/Silla "Silla") Dynasty the area was made up of four *[hyeon](/wiki/Hyeon "Hyeon")*, Toehwa\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|퇴화현\|退火縣}}), Jidap\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|지답현\|只沓縣}}), Geunoji\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|근오지현\|斤烏支縣}}), Haea\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|해아현\|海阿縣}}). Then during the [Goryeo](/wiki/Goryeo "Goryeo") Dynasty these four were renamed to Heunghae\-[gun](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_South_Korea "Administrative divisions of South Korea") (흥해군/{{lang\|ko\|興海郡}}), Janggi\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|장기현\|長鬐縣}}), Yeongil\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|영일현\|迎日縣}}), Cheongha\-hyeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|청하현\|淸河縣}}) respectively.
On 4 August 1896, the three remaining *hyeon*, which at that time were Janggi, Yeonil ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|연일\|延日}}; originally Yeongil) and Cheongha were reassigned as counties or *[gun](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_South_Korea "Administrative divisions of South Korea")* as part of the change to the 13\-province division of the [Korean Empire](/wiki/Korean_Empire "Korean Empire").
On 1 March 1914, the four counties were unified as one Yeongil\-gun ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|영일군\|迎日郡}}), which was subdivided into 18 *[myeons](/wiki/Myeon_%28administrative_division%29 "Myeon (administrative division)")*.
On 1 April 1931, Pohang\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|포항면\|浦項面}}) was designated as an *[eup](/wiki/Eup_%28administrative_division%29 "Eup (administrative division)")*, thus giving Yeongil\-gun 1 eup and 17 myeon.
On 1 April 1934, Jukbuk\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|죽북면\|竹北面}}) and Juknam\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|죽남면\|竹南面}}) were united to make Jukjang\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|죽장면\|竹長面}}), while Janggi\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|장기면\|長鬐面}}) and Bongsan\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|봉산면\|峰山面}}) united to make Jihaeng\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|지행면\|只杏面}}), so that there were 1 eup and 15 myeon.
On 1 October 1938, Hyeongsan\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|형산면\|兄山面}}) was incorporated into Pohang\-eup, leaving Yeongil\-gun with 1 eup and 14 myeon.
On 1 October 1942 Changju\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|창주면\|滄洲面}}) was renamed and reclassified as Guryongpo\-eup (구룡포읍/九龍浦邑), leaving 2 eup and 13 myeon.
On 15 August 1949, Pohang\-eup was designated as Pohang\-[*si*](/wiki/List_of_cities_in_South_Korea "List of cities in South Korea") ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|포항시\|浦項市}}), leaving Yeongil with 1 si, 1 eup, 13 myeon and 1 local office.
On 8 July 1956, Heunghae\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|흥해면\|興海面}}) and Gokgang\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|곡강면\|曲江面}}) are incorporated into Uichang\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|의창면\|義昌面}}) leaving 1 si, 1 eup and 12 myeon.
On 29 October 1957, Daljeon\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|달전면\|達田面}}) is abolished and incorporated into Heunghae\-myeon and Yeonil\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|연일면\|延日面}}) leaving 1 si, 1 eup and 11 myeons.
On 1 March 1967, the Gibuk Local Office ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|기북출장소\|杞北出張所}}) of Gigye\-myeon (기계면/{{lang\|ko\|杞溪面}}) is established.
On 1 July 1973, Uichang\-myeon is designated as Uichang\-eup ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|의창읍\|義昌邑}}) leaving 1 si, 2 eup, 10 myeon and 3 local offices.
On 1 December 1980, Yeonil\-myeon and Ocheon\-myeon ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|오천면\|烏川面}}) are both designated as eup leaving 1 si, 4 eup, 8 myeon and 3 local offices.
On 1 September 1982, Haedo\-dong ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|해도동\|海島洞}}) and Sangdae\-dong ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|상대동\|上大洞}}) are separated into Haedo 1 and 2\-dong and Sangdae 1 and 2\-dong respectively.
On 1 April 1986, Daebo Local Office ({{Korean\|labels\=no\|대보출장소\|大甫出張所}}) and Gibuk Local Office are designated as myeon leaving 1 si, 4 eup, 10 myeon and 1 local office.
On 1 January 1995, a united Pohang absorbs all of Yeongil\-gun, composed of 1 si, 2 gu, 4 eup, 10 myeon, 25 dong and 1 local office.
On 1 September 1998, the unification of Small\-dong left Pohang with 1 si, 2 gu, 4 eup, 10 myeon, 19 dong and 1 local office.
On 1 January 2009, the unification of Small\-dong left Pohang with 1 si, 2 gu, 4 eup, 10 myeon, 15 dong and 1 local office.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{prose\\|section\\|date\\=February 2019}}\nThe earliest evidence of human occupation in the Pohang area is from the [Mumun Pottery Period](/wiki/Mumun_Pottery_Period \"Mumun Pottery Period\") (1500–300 BC). Archaeologists have unearthed small villages and megalithic burials ([dolmen](/wiki/Dolmen \"Dolmen\")) from this period. Still a small fishing village at the dawn of the 20th century, the earliest steps toward developing Pohang into a place of greater significance were taken in 1930 with the construction of a modern harbour. Pohang grew rapidly afterward, attaining the designation of town ([*eup*](/wiki/Eup_%28administrative_division%29 \"Eup (administrative division)\")) in 1931 and then earning the status of city ([*si*](/wiki/List_of_cities_in_South_Korea \"List of cities in South Korea\")) in 1949\\.[WPS \\- Port of Pohang contact information](http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/KOR_Port_of_Pohang_1487.php). Worldportsource.com. Retrieved on 2013\\-07\\-12\\.",
"Pohang's road arteries and shipping port made it a place of strategic significance during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). An unopposed landing of UN forces at Pohang on July 18, 1950 was the first large\\-scale amphibious operation since World War II, and the region around Pohang saw [fierce clashes](/wiki/Battle_of_P%27ohang-dong \"Battle of P'ohang-dong\") between South Korea's [3rd Infantry Division](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%28South_Korea%29 \"3rd Infantry Division (South Korea)\") and North Korea's [5th Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Division_%28North_Korea%29 \"5th Division (North Korea)\") during August–September 1950\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/116\\_43998\\.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120802234605/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/116\\_43998\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-02 \\|script\\-title\\=ko:페이지를 찾을 수 없습니다 \\|publisher\\=Archive.is \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-02 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-01}}",
"By the 1960s, Pohang was a small coastal city with a population of 50,000\\.[KASTN](http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~kocsea/pohang.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604164606/http://www.cs.virginia.edu/\\~kocsea/pohang.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-04 }}. Cs.virginia.edu (1996\\-02\\-01\\). Retrieved on 2013\\-07\\-12\\. The next major development in Pohang's growth came in 1968 with the inauguration of the steel maker [POSCO](/wiki/POSCO \"POSCO\"), and the local plant's commencement of production in 1972\\. The introduction of [heavy industry](/wiki/Heavy_industry \"Heavy industry\") to the city brought the local economy to a blend of iron, steel, shipbuilding and fisheries through the end of the 20th century.",
"The early 21st century and the age of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\") has brought new economic challenges to companies such as POSCO, giving rise to beliefs that Pohang would be wise to not be overly reliant on heavy industry to maintain its prosperity.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://esri.handong.edu/korean/download.php?id\\=209\\&sid\\=8e8361e216e22553cc306b08f4598736 \\|script\\-title\\=ko:자동등록방지를 위해 보안절차를 거치고 있습니다 \\|publisher\\=Esri.handong.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-01 \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901145611/http://esri.handong.edu/korean/download.php?id\\=209\\&sid\\=8e8361e216e22553cc306b08f4598736 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In response, the Pohang of today presents itself as having an eye to the future, striving to become a diversified city of [environmentalism](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") and advanced learning, as well as a centre of arts and culture.[http://eng.ipohang.org/En/About/AP01/?navi\\=AP01\\_1](http://eng.ipohang.org/En/About/AP01/?navi=AP01_1) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901131644/http://eng.ipohang.org/En/About/AP01/?navi\\=AP01\\_1\\|date\\=September 1, 2009}}",
"During the [Silla](/wiki/Silla \"Silla\") Dynasty the area was made up of four *[hyeon](/wiki/Hyeon \"Hyeon\")*, Toehwa\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|퇴화현\\|退火縣}}), Jidap\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|지답현\\|只沓縣}}), Geunoji\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|근오지현\\|斤烏支縣}}), Haea\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|해아현\\|海阿縣}}). Then during the [Goryeo](/wiki/Goryeo \"Goryeo\") Dynasty these four were renamed to Heunghae\\-[gun](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_South_Korea \"Administrative divisions of South Korea\") (흥해군/{{lang\\|ko\\|興海郡}}), Janggi\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|장기현\\|長鬐縣}}), Yeongil\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|영일현\\|迎日縣}}), Cheongha\\-hyeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|청하현\\|淸河縣}}) respectively.",
"On 4 August 1896, the three remaining *hyeon*, which at that time were Janggi, Yeonil ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|연일\\|延日}}; originally Yeongil) and Cheongha were reassigned as counties or *[gun](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_South_Korea \"Administrative divisions of South Korea\")* as part of the change to the 13\\-province division of the [Korean Empire](/wiki/Korean_Empire \"Korean Empire\").",
"On 1 March 1914, the four counties were unified as one Yeongil\\-gun ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|영일군\\|迎日郡}}), which was subdivided into 18 *[myeons](/wiki/Myeon_%28administrative_division%29 \"Myeon (administrative division)\")*.",
"On 1 April 1931, Pohang\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|포항면\\|浦項面}}) was designated as an *[eup](/wiki/Eup_%28administrative_division%29 \"Eup (administrative division)\")*, thus giving Yeongil\\-gun 1 eup and 17 myeon.",
"On 1 April 1934, Jukbuk\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|죽북면\\|竹北面}}) and Juknam\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|죽남면\\|竹南面}}) were united to make Jukjang\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|죽장면\\|竹長面}}), while Janggi\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|장기면\\|長鬐面}}) and Bongsan\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|봉산면\\|峰山面}}) united to make Jihaeng\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|지행면\\|只杏面}}), so that there were 1 eup and 15 myeon.",
"On 1 October 1938, Hyeongsan\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|형산면\\|兄山面}}) was incorporated into Pohang\\-eup, leaving Yeongil\\-gun with 1 eup and 14 myeon.",
"On 1 October 1942 Changju\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|창주면\\|滄洲面}}) was renamed and reclassified as Guryongpo\\-eup (구룡포읍/九龍浦邑), leaving 2 eup and 13 myeon.",
"On 15 August 1949, Pohang\\-eup was designated as Pohang\\-[*si*](/wiki/List_of_cities_in_South_Korea \"List of cities in South Korea\") ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|포항시\\|浦項市}}), leaving Yeongil with 1 si, 1 eup, 13 myeon and 1 local office.",
"On 8 July 1956, Heunghae\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|흥해면\\|興海面}}) and Gokgang\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|곡강면\\|曲江面}}) are incorporated into Uichang\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|의창면\\|義昌面}}) leaving 1 si, 1 eup and 12 myeon.",
"On 29 October 1957, Daljeon\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|달전면\\|達田面}}) is abolished and incorporated into Heunghae\\-myeon and Yeonil\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|연일면\\|延日面}}) leaving 1 si, 1 eup and 11 myeons.",
"On 1 March 1967, the Gibuk Local Office ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|기북출장소\\|杞北出張所}}) of Gigye\\-myeon (기계면/{{lang\\|ko\\|杞溪面}}) is established.",
"On 1 July 1973, Uichang\\-myeon is designated as Uichang\\-eup ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|의창읍\\|義昌邑}}) leaving 1 si, 2 eup, 10 myeon and 3 local offices.",
"On 1 December 1980, Yeonil\\-myeon and Ocheon\\-myeon ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|오천면\\|烏川面}}) are both designated as eup leaving 1 si, 4 eup, 8 myeon and 3 local offices.",
"On 1 September 1982, Haedo\\-dong ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|해도동\\|海島洞}}) and Sangdae\\-dong ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|상대동\\|上大洞}}) are separated into Haedo 1 and 2\\-dong and Sangdae 1 and 2\\-dong respectively.",
"On 1 April 1986, Daebo Local Office ({{Korean\\|labels\\=no\\|대보출장소\\|大甫出張所}}) and Gibuk Local Office are designated as myeon leaving 1 si, 4 eup, 10 myeon and 1 local office.",
"On 1 January 1995, a united Pohang absorbs all of Yeongil\\-gun, composed of 1 si, 2 gu, 4 eup, 10 myeon, 25 dong and 1 local office.",
"On 1 September 1998, the unification of Small\\-dong left Pohang with 1 si, 2 gu, 4 eup, 10 myeon, 19 dong and 1 local office.",
"On 1 January 2009, the unification of Small\\-dong left Pohang with 1 si, 2 gu, 4 eup, 10 myeon, 15 dong and 1 local office.",
""
] |
Transportation
--------------
The city is served by several trains a day from [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul") and [Daegu](/wiki/Daegu "Daegu"). Pohang is the terminus for a number of ferry routes serving the adjacent Sea of Japan, including the main tourist route for [Ulleung Island](/wiki/Ulleung_Island "Ulleung Island") and [Liancourt Rocks](/wiki/Liancourt_Rocks "Liancourt Rocks").
Pohang is the home of [POSCO](/wiki/POSCO "POSCO") (the Pohang Steel Company), one of the largest steel producers in the world, and a host of related industries. As a result, the port shipped a total of 54\.8 million tons in 2006\.[http://eng.ipohang.org/En/Business/BU01/?navi\=BU01\_1](http://eng.ipohang.org/En/Business/BU01/?navi=BU01_1) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501160334/http://eng.ipohang.org/En/Business/BU01/?navi\=BU01\_1\|date\=May 1, 2009}}
Several flights per day to Seoul [Gimpo Airport](/wiki/Gimpo_Airport "Gimpo Airport") and [Jeju Airport](/wiki/Jeju_Airport "Jeju Airport") are available at [Pohang Gyeongju Airport](/wiki/Pohang_Airport "Pohang Airport").
Local transportation is served by only city buses. They run about 20 different ways of the city and some of them reach to the mountain folk. Also, the buses are classified into 2 kinds – one is Ilban\-bus (normal bus) and the other is Jwaseok\-bus (full of seats and a little more expensive than Ilban\-bus). They run 15\~25 minutes intervals along their own way. The bus routes are listed in both [Korean](http://bis.ipohang.org/Guide/LineGuide/#) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612154911/http://bis.ipohang.org/Guide/LineGuide \|date\=2011\-06\-12 }} and [English](https://web.archive.org/web/20091216001813/http://eng.ipohang.org/home/eng/travelers_Info/page.wscms) but the Korean version is interactive, and thus more helpful.
There are two main bus terminals \- Shiwae ({{Korean\|hangul\=시외\|labels\=no}}) and Gosok ({{Korean\|hangul\=고속\|labels\=no}}) which roughly translate into intercity/city and express. The Shiwae bus terminal ({{Korean\|hangul\=시외버스터미널\|labels\=no}}) also acts as the cross\-country bus terminal from which access to nearby metropolitan cities such as Daegu and Busan (\~1\.5 hrs each depending on traffic) is available. Their [website](http://포항터미날.kr/main/main.asp) is only in Korean and only accessible in Internet Explorer. The Gosok bus terminal ({{Korean\|hangul\=고속버스터미널\|labels\=no}}) [website](https://web.archive.org/web/20070212052546/http://www.kobus.co.kr/web/eng/index.jsp) is in both English and Korean. From Gosok bus terminal one can travel to Seoul and Gwangju.
Pohang is also serviced by two train stations \- [Pohang station](/wiki/Pohang_station "Pohang station") ({{Korean\|hangul\=포항역\|labels\=no}}) and Wolpo station ({{Korean\|hangul\=월포역\|labels\=no}}). Times and destinations are available on the [Korail website](http://info.korail.com/2018/eng/eng_index.jsp) which is in English and Korean.
Passengers using the [KTX](/wiki/KTX "KTX") had to go to [Gyeongju station](/wiki/Gyeongju_station "Gyeongju station") ({{Korean\|hangul\=경주역\|labels\=no}}) until 2015\. However, since 2015, the [KTX](/wiki/KTX "KTX") travels directly to [Pohang station](/wiki/Pohang_station "Pohang station") ({{Korean\|hangul\=포항역\|labels\=no}}).
|
[
"Transportation\n--------------",
"The city is served by several trains a day from [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\") and [Daegu](/wiki/Daegu \"Daegu\"). Pohang is the terminus for a number of ferry routes serving the adjacent Sea of Japan, including the main tourist route for [Ulleung Island](/wiki/Ulleung_Island \"Ulleung Island\") and [Liancourt Rocks](/wiki/Liancourt_Rocks \"Liancourt Rocks\"). \nPohang is the home of [POSCO](/wiki/POSCO \"POSCO\") (the Pohang Steel Company), one of the largest steel producers in the world, and a host of related industries. As a result, the port shipped a total of 54\\.8 million tons in 2006\\.[http://eng.ipohang.org/En/Business/BU01/?navi\\=BU01\\_1](http://eng.ipohang.org/En/Business/BU01/?navi=BU01_1) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501160334/http://eng.ipohang.org/En/Business/BU01/?navi\\=BU01\\_1\\|date\\=May 1, 2009}}",
"Several flights per day to Seoul [Gimpo Airport](/wiki/Gimpo_Airport \"Gimpo Airport\") and [Jeju Airport](/wiki/Jeju_Airport \"Jeju Airport\") are available at [Pohang Gyeongju Airport](/wiki/Pohang_Airport \"Pohang Airport\").",
"Local transportation is served by only city buses. They run about 20 different ways of the city and some of them reach to the mountain folk. Also, the buses are classified into 2 kinds – one is Ilban\\-bus (normal bus) and the other is Jwaseok\\-bus (full of seats and a little more expensive than Ilban\\-bus). They run 15\\~25 minutes intervals along their own way. The bus routes are listed in both [Korean](http://bis.ipohang.org/Guide/LineGuide/#) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612154911/http://bis.ipohang.org/Guide/LineGuide \\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-12 }} and [English](https://web.archive.org/web/20091216001813/http://eng.ipohang.org/home/eng/travelers_Info/page.wscms) but the Korean version is interactive, and thus more helpful.",
"There are two main bus terminals \\- Shiwae ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=시외\\|labels\\=no}}) and Gosok ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=고속\\|labels\\=no}}) which roughly translate into intercity/city and express. The Shiwae bus terminal ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=시외버스터미널\\|labels\\=no}}) also acts as the cross\\-country bus terminal from which access to nearby metropolitan cities such as Daegu and Busan (\\~1\\.5 hrs each depending on traffic) is available. Their [website](http://포항터미날.kr/main/main.asp) is only in Korean and only accessible in Internet Explorer. The Gosok bus terminal ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=고속버스터미널\\|labels\\=no}}) [website](https://web.archive.org/web/20070212052546/http://www.kobus.co.kr/web/eng/index.jsp) is in both English and Korean. From Gosok bus terminal one can travel to Seoul and Gwangju.",
"Pohang is also serviced by two train stations \\- [Pohang station](/wiki/Pohang_station \"Pohang station\") ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=포항역\\|labels\\=no}}) and Wolpo station ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=월포역\\|labels\\=no}}). Times and destinations are available on the [Korail website](http://info.korail.com/2018/eng/eng_index.jsp) which is in English and Korean.",
"Passengers using the [KTX](/wiki/KTX \"KTX\") had to go to [Gyeongju station](/wiki/Gyeongju_station \"Gyeongju station\") ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=경주역\\|labels\\=no}}) until 2015\\. However, since 2015, the [KTX](/wiki/KTX \"KTX\") travels directly to [Pohang station](/wiki/Pohang_station \"Pohang station\") ({{Korean\\|hangul\\=포항역\\|labels\\=no}}).",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1868, the [Croatian–Hungarian Settlement](/wiki/Croatian%E2%80%93Hungarian_Settlement "Croatian–Hungarian Settlement") brought the [Kingdom of Croatia\-Slavonia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia-Slavonia "Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia") under the rule of [Austria\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary"),{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/event/Nagodba\|title\=Nagodba\|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopædia Britannica]]\|date\=9 November 2016\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}} beginning a period of significant industrialization in the country, which saw the emergence of the first workers' associations in cities throughout Croatia. In 1869, the first strikes broke out in [Osijek](/wiki/Osijek "Osijek") and [Rijeka](/wiki/Rijeka "Rijeka") and there were debates over the establishment of a Croatian branch of the [International Workingmen's Association](/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association "International Workingmen's Association"). Croatian workers eventually began to express their demands in the new *Workers' Friend* newspaper, which was launched in 1874\. Meanwhile, a split in the early [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria "Social Democratic Party of Austria") led to the emergence of an anarchist faction, which extended its influence to Croatia.
### Early Croatian anarchist movement
[thumb\|left\|Miloš Krpan (1862–1931\), teacher and founder of the first anarchist commune in Croatian history](/wiki/File:Milos_Krpan%2C_Croatian_anarchist.jpg "Milos Krpan, Croatian anarchist.jpg")
In 1885, the Croatian worker Ignjat Graff was detained in Osijek and accused of anarchist agitation by the authorities, which seized several issues of *[Freiheit](/wiki/Freiheit_%281879%29 "Freiheit (1879)")* from him.{{cite book\|last\=Rajković\|first\=Ana\|title\=Širenje bludnih ideja u Slavoniji. Pojava anarhističkih ideja u radničkom pokretu Slavonije\|publisher\=Što čitaš?\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]\|year\=2016\|pages\=39–43\|language\=hr}} In 1887, the *Radnik* newspaper began publication in [Dubrovnik](/wiki/Dubrovnik "Dubrovnik"). In 1890, workers in Zagreb celebrated [May Day](/wiki/May_Day "May Day") for the first time. In 1894, the Hungarian anarchist Henrik Wieneke began to agitate in the city of Osijek, leading the mayor to express fear of "[propaganda of the deed](/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed "Propaganda of the deed")" and the administration of [Károly Khuen\-Héderváry](/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Khuen-H%C3%A9derv%C3%A1ry "Károly Khuen-Héderváry") to warn of the spread of anarchist views among state officials and the home guard.
In 1898, a socialist newspaper began to be published in [Zadar](/wiki/Zadar "Zadar") and the Italian anarchist Attilio Pieroni moved to [Split](/wiki/Split%2C_Croatia "Split, Croatia"). The same year, the musicologist [Franjo Kuhač](/wiki/Franjo_Kuha%C4%8D "Franjo Kuhač") published a work titled *Anarchy*, in which he criticized the emergence of [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") in Croatia. The authorities then began to point to the influences of Serbian anarchists in Osijek.
In 1900, the French anarchist Joseph Signac was expelled from Rijeka, while arrest warrants for Italian anarchists began to circulate Croatia, many wanted for their connections to the assassinations of [Empress Elizabeth of Austria](/wiki/Empress_Elizabeth_of_Austria "Empress Elizabeth of Austria") and [Umberto I of Italy](/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italy "Umberto I of Italy"). In 1902, two Croatian anarchists were arrested and put on trial in Osijek and the authorities reported that anarchists were spreading throughout the area of [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste"), [Istria](/wiki/Istria "Istria") and [Rijeka](/wiki/Rijeka "Rijeka"). In 1903, several anarchists were arrested in [Pula](/wiki/Pula "Pula") and their illicit press was seized. The next year, fifteen anarchists led a protest through the city. In 1905, a general strike broke out in Osijek, becoming the first of its kind in Croatian history and eventually forcing the government to legalize trade unions. This strike inspired another in [Slavonski Brod](/wiki/Slavonski_Brod "Slavonski Brod"), where [Miloš Krpan](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Krpan "Miloš Krpan") propagated [anarcho\-syndicalist](/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalist "Anarcho-syndicalist") ideas, even inviting Viennese anarchists to establish a commune near the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.zarez.hr/clanci/milos\-krpan\-predstavnik\-slavonske\-utopije/\|title\=Miloš Krpan – predstavnik slavonske utopije\|first\=Ana\|last\=Rajković\|date\=26 January 2015\|publisher\=Zarez\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|language\=hr}}
In 1907, the Trieste anarchist newspaper *Germinal* described Split as a city revived by "a group of young rebels, freemen", while the city's police began mass arrests of anarchists. In 1909, the people of Split organized demonstrations against the murder of [Francesc Ferrer](/wiki/Francesc_Ferrer "Francesc Ferrer"). In 1912, an anarchist football club was founded in Split, who continue to exist under the name [RNK Split](/wiki/RNK_Split "RNK Split").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.jutarnji.hr/kultura/knjizevnost/anarhizam\-u\-hrvatskoj\-split\-je\-1912\-dobio\-nogometni\-klub\-anarh\-koji\-je\-odbio\-izvjesiti\-crnu\-zastavu\-nakon\-ubojstva\-franje\-ferdinanda\-5606167\|title\=ANARHIZAM U HRVATSKOJ Split je 1912\. dobio nogometni klub Anarh koji je odbio izvjesiti crnu zastavu nakon ubojstva Franje Ferdinanda\|author\=Hina\|date\=8 February 2017\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|work\=\[\[Jutarnji list]]\|language\=hr}}
Towards the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") in 1918, a wave of general strikes and the strengthening of the [Green Cadres](/wiki/Green_Cadres "Green Cadres") led the authorities to begin writing about an environment of "general anarchy" in Croatia. In 1920, the government of the new [Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbs%2C_Croats_and_Slovenes "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes") issued the *[Obznana](/wiki/Obznana "Obznana")*, which outlawed the activities of all socialist organizations.
[thumb\|right\|Stjepan and Hermina Fabijanović (1924, Los Angeles)](/wiki/File:Stjepan_and_Hermina_Fabijanovic_%28Los_Angeles%2C_1924%29.jpg "Stjepan and Hermina Fabijanovic (Los Angeles, 1924).jpg")
Following the [March on Rome](/wiki/March_on_Rome "March on Rome") and the rise of [Fascist Italy](/wiki/Fascist_Italy_%281922%E2%80%931943%29 "Fascist Italy (1922–1943)"), repression intensified against anarchists.{{cite web\|url\=https://libcom.org/library/masa\-interviewed\-iasr\|title\=MASA interviewed by IASR\|date\=23 September 2012\|author\=Anarcho\-Syndicalist Initiative from Romania\|publisher\=Libcom.org\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}} The subsequent institution of [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Yugoslavia "Alexander I of Yugoslavia")'s [royal dictatorship](/wiki/6_January_Dictatorship "6 January Dictatorship"), followed by the government of the fascist [Yugoslav Radical Union](/wiki/Yugoslav_Radical_Union "Yugoslav Radical Union"), led to the repression of anarchism in [Croatia](/wiki/Croatian_affairs_in_the_Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Croatian affairs in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia"), as well as the nascent Croatian calls for [federalism](/wiki/Federalism "Federalism") in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Kingdom of Yugoslavia").{{cite book \| last \= Rothschild \| first \= Joseph \| author\-link \= Joseph Rothschild \| title \= East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars \| year \= 1974 \| publisher \= University of Washington Press \| isbn \= 9780295953571 \| pages \= 234 \| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=ytc\-muwFT\_IC\&pg\=PA234 }} In the 1930s, a number of prominent Croatian anarchists, including Miloš Krpan and Stjepan Fabijanović died.
### Anarchism in Yugoslav Croatia
[thumb\|left\|Nikola Turčinović (1911–1973\), Rovinj anarchist and fighter in the Spanish Civil War](/wiki/File:Nikola_Turcinovic.jpg "Nikola Turcinovic.jpg")
Individual anarchists continued to agitate in Croatia, with some becoming involved in the [anti\-fascist](/wiki/Anti-fascist "Anti-fascist") resistance movements during the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") (see [Yugoslav volunteers in the Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Yugoslav_volunteers_in_the_Spanish_Civil_War "Yugoslav volunteers in the Spanish Civil War")) and [World War II in Yugoslavia](/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia "World War II in Yugoslavia"), with anarchist [partisans](/wiki/Croatian_Partisans "Croatian Partisans") being particularly prominent in the area of [Rovinj](/wiki/Rovinj "Rovinj").{{cite book\|last\=Šimleša\|first\=Dražen\|title\=Snaga utopije\|publisher\=Što čitaš?\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]\|year\=2005\|pages\=218–219\|language\=hr}} However, the command of the [League of Communists](/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Croatia "League of Communists of Croatia") over the partisan movement, followed by its subsequent rise to power in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Democratic_Federal_Yugoslavia "Democratic Federal Yugoslavia") and the constitution of the [Socialist Republic of Croatia](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Croatia "Socialist Republic of Croatia"), led to the suppression of any remaining anarchist and left\-communist tendencies.
The newly established government of the [Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia") began implementing a limited form of workers' [socialist self\-management](/wiki/Socialist_self-management "Socialist self-management"), directed by [workers' councils](/wiki/Workers%27_councils "Workers' councils"). However, these were in practice still under the control of the state bureaucracy, which in some cases even introduced a [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy "Market economy"). As unemployment continued to rise, people began to demand a more genuine form of [workers' self\-management](/wiki/Workers%27_self-management "Workers' self-management"), culminating in the [1968 student demonstrations](/wiki/1968_student_demonstrations_in_Yugoslavia "1968 student demonstrations in Yugoslavia").
Following the [death](/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Josip_Broz_Tito "Death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito") of [Josip Broz Tito](/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito "Josip Broz Tito"), a performative anarchist group formed in Zagreb during the 1980s. Initially nameless, it later changed its names several times, some of which included: *Train Toilet Band*, *Svarun* and *Autonomija*. This group mostly held limited performances and "empty demonstrations", in which members ridiculed politics by giving silent speeches and handing out black leaflets. The group eventually disbanded around the time of the [breakup of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia "Breakup of Yugoslavia").{{cite book\|last\=Šimleša\|first\=Dražen\|title\=Snaga utopije\|publisher\=Što čitaš?\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]\|year\=2005\|pages\=220–221\|language\=hr}}
### Contemporary anarchist movement
[thumb\|left\|11th Balkan Anarchist Book Fair, Zagreb, April 2017](/wiki/File:Balkan-Anarchist-Bookfair-Zagreb.jpg "Balkan-Anarchist-Bookfair-Zagreb.jpg")
Following the [independence of Croatia](/wiki/Independence_of_Croatia "Independence of Croatia"), the Croatian anarchist movement began to slowly reconstitute itself. Anarchists began to participate in the [anti\-war movement](/wiki/Anti-war_movement "Anti-war movement") against the [Croatian War of Independence](/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence "Croatian War of Independence"). The Zagreb Anarchist\-Pacifist Movement (ZAPO) was formed spontaneously to agitate against the war, holding events throughout the 1990s, before eventually dissolving itself in 2001, once the [Yugoslav Wars](/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars "Yugoslav Wars") had drawn to a close.{{cite book\|last\=Šimleša\|first\=Dražen\|title\=Snaga utopije\|publisher\=Što čitaš?\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]\|year\=2005\|pages\=222–226\|language\=hr}} During the 1990s, anarchism was largely subcultural, with many anarchists forming connections with Croatian NGOs and participating in the opposition movement to the government of [Franjo Tuđman](/wiki/Franjo_Tu%C4%91man "Franjo Tuđman") and the [Croatian Democratic Union](/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union "Croatian Democratic Union") (HDZ). [Food Not Bombs](/wiki/Food_Not_Bombs "Food Not Bombs") collectives also began to emerge around this time, organizing the distribution of food in cities throughout Croatia.
On October 31, 1999, Anfema (Anarchofeminist Action) was created in Zagreb, intensifying the problematization of women's issues in the anarchist movement. Anfema began to create an alternative feminist scene, as group members had argued that in institutionalized feminist associations, too many relationships were still based on hierarchy and domination, only without men. In early 2000, they published the first issue of WOMB magazine. The main activities of the group were organizing workshops and informing citizens about the problems of women in society.{{cite book\|last\=Šimleša\|first\=Dražen\|title\=Snaga utopije\|publisher\=Što čitaš?\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]\|year\=2005\|page\=227\|language\=hr}}
At the turn of the 21st century, anarchist organizations built around [class struggle](/wiki/Class_struggle "Class struggle") began to emerge, including the Zadar Anarchist Front (ZAF) and the Anarcho\-Syndicalist Confederation (ASK), which were instrumental in re\-introducing [anarcho\-syndicalist](/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalist "Anarcho-syndicalist") ideas to the country.{{cite web\|url\=https://libcom.org/news/network\-anarho\-syndicalists\-masa\-croatia\-16072009\|title\=The network of anarcho\-syndicalists (MASA), Croatia\|first\=Juraj\|last\=Katalenac\|publisher\=Libcom.org\|date\=16 July 2009\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}} The ZAF began to translate anarchist texts into [Croatian](/wiki/Croatian_language "Croatian language") and published their own magazine *Solidarity and Freedom*.{{cite web\|title\= Zadarski anarhistički front (ZAF)\|url\=http://anarhizam.hr/arhiv/40\-intervjui/84\-zadarski\-anarhistiki\-front\-zaf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114095808/https://www.anarhizam.hr/arhiv/40\-intervjui/84\-zadarski\-anarhistiki\-front\-zaf\|archive\-date\=14 January 2017\|date\=26 September 2009\|first\=Matom\|last\=Ćosićem\|publisher\=Center for Anarchist Studies\|language\=hr}} Around the same time, the Rijeka Anarchist Initiative was founded, as an interest group gathered around protests against the installation of radar in [Učka](/wiki/U%C4%8Dka "Učka"), later taking part in other protests against NATO.{{cite web\|url\=http://anarhizam.hr/teorija\-i\-praksa/74\-rijeka\-anarhistika\-inicijativa\-to\-je\-to\-anarhizamliberterski\-socijalizam\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027024757/http://anarhizam.hr/teorija\-i\-praksa/74\-rijeka\-anarhistika\-inicijativa\-to\-je\-to\-anarhizamliberterski\-socijalizam\|archive\-date\=27 October 2017\|date\=25 September 2009\|title\= Riječka anarhistička inicijativa: Što je to anarhizam/liberterski socijalizam?\|publisher\=Center for Anarchist Studies\|series\=R.A.I.\|issue\=6\|language\=hr}} However, Croatian anarchist groups largely remained localized and disconnected during the early 2000s, and these organizations eventually fell apart.
In February 2008, the [Network of Anarcho\-Syndicalists](/wiki/Mre%C5%BEa_anarhosindikalista_i_anarhosindikalistkinja_%28MASA%29 "Mreža anarhosindikalista i anarhosindikalistkinja (MASA)") (MASA) was formed at a national meeting in [Zadar](/wiki/Zadar "Zadar"), holding their first congress in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb "Zagreb") on April 12 of that same year, where it formally constituted its aims and structure. It was made up of local groups in Zagreb, Pula, Split, Rijeka and Zadar, with contacts in various other cities, and participated in a number of direct actions throughout Croatia.
In 2009, MASA opened the Centre for Anarchist Studies, a registered NGO formed with the intention of collecting and publishing anarchist literature, holding lectures and public discussions, and promoting the study of anarcho\-syndicalist theory.{{Cite web\|url\=https://libcom.org/library/centre\-anarchist\-studies\-croatia\|title\=Centre for anarchist studies, Croatia\|publisher\=Libcom.org\|date\=12 October 2009\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}}
Following a number of neoliberal reforms and with the [Croatian entry](/wiki/2013_enlargement_of_the_European_Union "2013 enlargement of the European Union") into the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") on the horizon, popular discontent with the ruling HDZ government began to grow. This culminated on February 22, 2011, when protests broke out against the government,{{cite web\|url\=http://news.antiwar.com/2011/03/14/protest\-movement\-growing\-in\-croatia/\|title\=Protest Movement Growing in Croatia\|first\=Jason\|last\=Ditz\|date\=14 March 2011\|publisher\=\[\[Antiwar.com]]\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}} calling for the resignation of the prime minister [Jadranka Kosor](/wiki/Jadranka_Kosor "Jadranka Kosor") and early elections.{{cite web\|url\=https://fpif.org/days\_of\_rage\_in\_croatia/\|title\=Days of Rage in Croatia\|first\=Sabrina\|last\=Peric\|date\=14 March 2011\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|publisher\=\[\[Foreign Policy In Focus]]}} By February 28, many of the protests had taken on a largely self\-organized character, which led the Network of Anarcho\-Syndicalists to begin participating in the protests, while also criticizing the inaction of mainstream trade unions and the potential of a new government under the [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Croatia "Social Democratic Party of Croatia") (SDP).{{cite web\|url\=https://libcom.org/news/masa\-masses\-against\-ruling\-class\-05032011\|title\=MASA and the masses against the ruling class in Croatia\|date\=5 March 2011\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|publisher\=Libcom.org\|last\=Network of Anarcho\-Syndicalists\|first\=Local Group Zagreb\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]}} As the protests continued, MASA noted the emergence of libertarian principles among the protestors and denounced the leading opposition figures [Ivan Pernar](/wiki/Ivan_Pernar_%28politician%2C_born_1985%29 "Ivan Pernar (politician, born 1985)") ([ZZ](/wiki/Human_Shield_%28political_party%29 "Human Shield (political party)")) and [Dragutin Lesar](/wiki/Dragutin_Lesar "Dragutin Lesar") ([HLSR](/wiki/Croatian_Labourists_%E2%80%93_Labour_Party "Croatian Labourists – Labour Party")) for having promoted the continuation of capitalism.{{cite web\|url\=https://libcom.org/news/masses\-have\-taken\-streets\-06032011\|title\=Zagreb: The masses have taken to the streets\|publisher\=Libcom.org\|last\=Network of Anarcho\-Syndicalists\|first\=Local Group Zagreb\|date\=6 March 2011\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|location\=\[\[Zagreb]]}}
In 2013, the Rijeka branch of MASA left the organization to found the Network of Anarchists of Rijeka (MASA Rijeka).{{cite web\|url\=http://masari.noblogs.org/o\-nama/\|title\=O nama\|publisher\=Network of Anarchists of Rijeka\|year\=2018\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|location\=\[\[Rijeka]]\|language\=hr}} In June 2014, MASA Rijeka became a full member of the [Federation for Anarchist Organisation](/wiki/Federacija_za_anarhisti%C4%8Dno_organiziranje "Federacija za anarhistično organiziranje") (FAO) at the organization's 6th Congress in Slovenia.{{Cite news\|url\=https://afed.org.uk/organise\-magazine\-issue\-83\-winter\-2014/\|title\=Slovenia – uprising in Europe – what happened next?\|publisher\=\[\[Anarchist Federation (Britain)\|Anarchist Federation]]\|series\=Organise!\|issue\=83\|date\=16 January 2015\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|archive\-date\=9 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709040710/https://afed.org.uk/organise\-magazine\-issue\-83\-winter\-2014/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=https://masari.noblogs.org/prikljucenje\-masari\-u\-federaciju\-za\-anarhisticko\-organiziranje/\|title\=Priključenje MASARi u Federaciju za anarhističko organiziranje\|date\=24 June 2014\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|publisher\=Network of Anarchists of Rijeka\|location\=\[\[Rijeka]]\|language\=hr}} In January 2017, at a regular meeting of the FAO, the group confirmed its plans to expand the [Network of Anarchists](/wiki/Mre%C5%BEa_anarhista "Mreža anarhista") throughout the Croatian region, with operations planned in [Istria](/wiki/Istria "Istria") and [Kvarner](/wiki/Kvarner "Kvarner").{{cite web\|url\=https://masari.noblogs.org/delegatski\-sastanak\-anarhisticke\-federacije\-fao\-ifa\-ljubljana\-slovenija/\|title\=Delegatski sastanak anarhističke federacije FAO\-IFA (Ljubljana, Slovenija)\|date\=17 January 2021\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|publisher\=Network of Anarchists of Rijeka\|location\=\[\[Rijeka]]\|language\=hr}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1868, the [Croatian–Hungarian Settlement](/wiki/Croatian%E2%80%93Hungarian_Settlement \"Croatian–Hungarian Settlement\") brought the [Kingdom of Croatia\\-Slavonia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia-Slavonia \"Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia\") under the rule of [Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\"),{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/event/Nagodba\\|title\\=Nagodba\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopædia Britannica]]\\|date\\=9 November 2016\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}} beginning a period of significant industrialization in the country, which saw the emergence of the first workers' associations in cities throughout Croatia. In 1869, the first strikes broke out in [Osijek](/wiki/Osijek \"Osijek\") and [Rijeka](/wiki/Rijeka \"Rijeka\") and there were debates over the establishment of a Croatian branch of the [International Workingmen's Association](/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association \"International Workingmen's Association\"). Croatian workers eventually began to express their demands in the new *Workers' Friend* newspaper, which was launched in 1874\\. Meanwhile, a split in the early [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria \"Social Democratic Party of Austria\") led to the emergence of an anarchist faction, which extended its influence to Croatia.",
"### Early Croatian anarchist movement",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Miloš Krpan (1862–1931\\), teacher and founder of the first anarchist commune in Croatian history](/wiki/File:Milos_Krpan%2C_Croatian_anarchist.jpg \"Milos Krpan, Croatian anarchist.jpg\")\nIn 1885, the Croatian worker Ignjat Graff was detained in Osijek and accused of anarchist agitation by the authorities, which seized several issues of *[Freiheit](/wiki/Freiheit_%281879%29 \"Freiheit (1879)\")* from him.{{cite book\\|last\\=Rajković\\|first\\=Ana\\|title\\=Širenje bludnih ideja u Slavoniji. Pojava anarhističkih ideja u radničkom pokretu Slavonije\\|publisher\\=Što čitaš?\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]\\|year\\=2016\\|pages\\=39–43\\|language\\=hr}} In 1887, the *Radnik* newspaper began publication in [Dubrovnik](/wiki/Dubrovnik \"Dubrovnik\"). In 1890, workers in Zagreb celebrated [May Day](/wiki/May_Day \"May Day\") for the first time. In 1894, the Hungarian anarchist Henrik Wieneke began to agitate in the city of Osijek, leading the mayor to express fear of \"[propaganda of the deed](/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed \"Propaganda of the deed\")\" and the administration of [Károly Khuen\\-Héderváry](/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Khuen-H%C3%A9derv%C3%A1ry \"Károly Khuen-Héderváry\") to warn of the spread of anarchist views among state officials and the home guard.",
"In 1898, a socialist newspaper began to be published in [Zadar](/wiki/Zadar \"Zadar\") and the Italian anarchist Attilio Pieroni moved to [Split](/wiki/Split%2C_Croatia \"Split, Croatia\"). The same year, the musicologist [Franjo Kuhač](/wiki/Franjo_Kuha%C4%8D \"Franjo Kuhač\") published a work titled *Anarchy*, in which he criticized the emergence of [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") in Croatia. The authorities then began to point to the influences of Serbian anarchists in Osijek.",
"In 1900, the French anarchist Joseph Signac was expelled from Rijeka, while arrest warrants for Italian anarchists began to circulate Croatia, many wanted for their connections to the assassinations of [Empress Elizabeth of Austria](/wiki/Empress_Elizabeth_of_Austria \"Empress Elizabeth of Austria\") and [Umberto I of Italy](/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italy \"Umberto I of Italy\"). In 1902, two Croatian anarchists were arrested and put on trial in Osijek and the authorities reported that anarchists were spreading throughout the area of [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\"), [Istria](/wiki/Istria \"Istria\") and [Rijeka](/wiki/Rijeka \"Rijeka\"). In 1903, several anarchists were arrested in [Pula](/wiki/Pula \"Pula\") and their illicit press was seized. The next year, fifteen anarchists led a protest through the city. In 1905, a general strike broke out in Osijek, becoming the first of its kind in Croatian history and eventually forcing the government to legalize trade unions. This strike inspired another in [Slavonski Brod](/wiki/Slavonski_Brod \"Slavonski Brod\"), where [Miloš Krpan](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Krpan \"Miloš Krpan\") propagated [anarcho\\-syndicalist](/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalist \"Anarcho-syndicalist\") ideas, even inviting Viennese anarchists to establish a commune near the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.zarez.hr/clanci/milos\\-krpan\\-predstavnik\\-slavonske\\-utopije/\\|title\\=Miloš Krpan – predstavnik slavonske utopije\\|first\\=Ana\\|last\\=Rajković\\|date\\=26 January 2015\\|publisher\\=Zarez\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|language\\=hr}}",
"In 1907, the Trieste anarchist newspaper *Germinal* described Split as a city revived by \"a group of young rebels, freemen\", while the city's police began mass arrests of anarchists. In 1909, the people of Split organized demonstrations against the murder of [Francesc Ferrer](/wiki/Francesc_Ferrer \"Francesc Ferrer\"). In 1912, an anarchist football club was founded in Split, who continue to exist under the name [RNK Split](/wiki/RNK_Split \"RNK Split\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jutarnji.hr/kultura/knjizevnost/anarhizam\\-u\\-hrvatskoj\\-split\\-je\\-1912\\-dobio\\-nogometni\\-klub\\-anarh\\-koji\\-je\\-odbio\\-izvjesiti\\-crnu\\-zastavu\\-nakon\\-ubojstva\\-franje\\-ferdinanda\\-5606167\\|title\\=ANARHIZAM U HRVATSKOJ Split je 1912\\. dobio nogometni klub Anarh koji je odbio izvjesiti crnu zastavu nakon ubojstva Franje Ferdinanda\\|author\\=Hina\\|date\\=8 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[Jutarnji list]]\\|language\\=hr}}",
"Towards the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in 1918, a wave of general strikes and the strengthening of the [Green Cadres](/wiki/Green_Cadres \"Green Cadres\") led the authorities to begin writing about an environment of \"general anarchy\" in Croatia. In 1920, the government of the new [Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbs%2C_Croats_and_Slovenes \"Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes\") issued the *[Obznana](/wiki/Obznana \"Obznana\")*, which outlawed the activities of all socialist organizations.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Stjepan and Hermina Fabijanović (1924, Los Angeles)](/wiki/File:Stjepan_and_Hermina_Fabijanovic_%28Los_Angeles%2C_1924%29.jpg \"Stjepan and Hermina Fabijanovic (Los Angeles, 1924).jpg\")\nFollowing the [March on Rome](/wiki/March_on_Rome \"March on Rome\") and the rise of [Fascist Italy](/wiki/Fascist_Italy_%281922%E2%80%931943%29 \"Fascist Italy (1922–1943)\"), repression intensified against anarchists.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://libcom.org/library/masa\\-interviewed\\-iasr\\|title\\=MASA interviewed by IASR\\|date\\=23 September 2012\\|author\\=Anarcho\\-Syndicalist Initiative from Romania\\|publisher\\=Libcom.org\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}} The subsequent institution of [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Yugoslavia \"Alexander I of Yugoslavia\")'s [royal dictatorship](/wiki/6_January_Dictatorship \"6 January Dictatorship\"), followed by the government of the fascist [Yugoslav Radical Union](/wiki/Yugoslav_Radical_Union \"Yugoslav Radical Union\"), led to the repression of anarchism in [Croatia](/wiki/Croatian_affairs_in_the_Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Croatian affairs in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"), as well as the nascent Croatian calls for [federalism](/wiki/Federalism \"Federalism\") in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\").{{cite book \\| last \\= Rothschild \\| first \\= Joseph \\| author\\-link \\= Joseph Rothschild \\| title \\= East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars \\| year \\= 1974 \\| publisher \\= University of Washington Press \\| isbn \\= 9780295953571 \\| pages \\= 234 \\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ytc\\-muwFT\\_IC\\&pg\\=PA234 }} In the 1930s, a number of prominent Croatian anarchists, including Miloš Krpan and Stjepan Fabijanović died.",
"### Anarchism in Yugoslav Croatia",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Nikola Turčinović (1911–1973\\), Rovinj anarchist and fighter in the Spanish Civil War](/wiki/File:Nikola_Turcinovic.jpg \"Nikola Turcinovic.jpg\")\nIndividual anarchists continued to agitate in Croatia, with some becoming involved in the [anti\\-fascist](/wiki/Anti-fascist \"Anti-fascist\") resistance movements during the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") (see [Yugoslav volunteers in the Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Yugoslav_volunteers_in_the_Spanish_Civil_War \"Yugoslav volunteers in the Spanish Civil War\")) and [World War II in Yugoslavia](/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia \"World War II in Yugoslavia\"), with anarchist [partisans](/wiki/Croatian_Partisans \"Croatian Partisans\") being particularly prominent in the area of [Rovinj](/wiki/Rovinj \"Rovinj\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Šimleša\\|first\\=Dražen\\|title\\=Snaga utopije\\|publisher\\=Što čitaš?\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]\\|year\\=2005\\|pages\\=218–219\\|language\\=hr}} However, the command of the [League of Communists](/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Croatia \"League of Communists of Croatia\") over the partisan movement, followed by its subsequent rise to power in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Democratic_Federal_Yugoslavia \"Democratic Federal Yugoslavia\") and the constitution of the [Socialist Republic of Croatia](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Croatia \"Socialist Republic of Croatia\"), led to the suppression of any remaining anarchist and left\\-communist tendencies.",
"The newly established government of the [Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\") began implementing a limited form of workers' [socialist self\\-management](/wiki/Socialist_self-management \"Socialist self-management\"), directed by [workers' councils](/wiki/Workers%27_councils \"Workers' councils\"). However, these were in practice still under the control of the state bureaucracy, which in some cases even introduced a [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy \"Market economy\"). As unemployment continued to rise, people began to demand a more genuine form of [workers' self\\-management](/wiki/Workers%27_self-management \"Workers' self-management\"), culminating in the [1968 student demonstrations](/wiki/1968_student_demonstrations_in_Yugoslavia \"1968 student demonstrations in Yugoslavia\").",
"Following the [death](/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Josip_Broz_Tito \"Death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito\") of [Josip Broz Tito](/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito \"Josip Broz Tito\"), a performative anarchist group formed in Zagreb during the 1980s. Initially nameless, it later changed its names several times, some of which included: *Train Toilet Band*, *Svarun* and *Autonomija*. This group mostly held limited performances and \"empty demonstrations\", in which members ridiculed politics by giving silent speeches and handing out black leaflets. The group eventually disbanded around the time of the [breakup of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia \"Breakup of Yugoslavia\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Šimleša\\|first\\=Dražen\\|title\\=Snaga utopije\\|publisher\\=Što čitaš?\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]\\|year\\=2005\\|pages\\=220–221\\|language\\=hr}}",
"### Contemporary anarchist movement",
"[thumb\\|left\\|11th Balkan Anarchist Book Fair, Zagreb, April 2017](/wiki/File:Balkan-Anarchist-Bookfair-Zagreb.jpg \"Balkan-Anarchist-Bookfair-Zagreb.jpg\")\nFollowing the [independence of Croatia](/wiki/Independence_of_Croatia \"Independence of Croatia\"), the Croatian anarchist movement began to slowly reconstitute itself. Anarchists began to participate in the [anti\\-war movement](/wiki/Anti-war_movement \"Anti-war movement\") against the [Croatian War of Independence](/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence \"Croatian War of Independence\"). The Zagreb Anarchist\\-Pacifist Movement (ZAPO) was formed spontaneously to agitate against the war, holding events throughout the 1990s, before eventually dissolving itself in 2001, once the [Yugoslav Wars](/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars \"Yugoslav Wars\") had drawn to a close.{{cite book\\|last\\=Šimleša\\|first\\=Dražen\\|title\\=Snaga utopije\\|publisher\\=Što čitaš?\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]\\|year\\=2005\\|pages\\=222–226\\|language\\=hr}} During the 1990s, anarchism was largely subcultural, with many anarchists forming connections with Croatian NGOs and participating in the opposition movement to the government of [Franjo Tuđman](/wiki/Franjo_Tu%C4%91man \"Franjo Tuđman\") and the [Croatian Democratic Union](/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union \"Croatian Democratic Union\") (HDZ). [Food Not Bombs](/wiki/Food_Not_Bombs \"Food Not Bombs\") collectives also began to emerge around this time, organizing the distribution of food in cities throughout Croatia.",
"On October 31, 1999, Anfema (Anarchofeminist Action) was created in Zagreb, intensifying the problematization of women's issues in the anarchist movement. Anfema began to create an alternative feminist scene, as group members had argued that in institutionalized feminist associations, too many relationships were still based on hierarchy and domination, only without men. In early 2000, they published the first issue of WOMB magazine. The main activities of the group were organizing workshops and informing citizens about the problems of women in society.{{cite book\\|last\\=Šimleša\\|first\\=Dražen\\|title\\=Snaga utopije\\|publisher\\=Što čitaš?\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]\\|year\\=2005\\|page\\=227\\|language\\=hr}}",
"At the turn of the 21st century, anarchist organizations built around [class struggle](/wiki/Class_struggle \"Class struggle\") began to emerge, including the Zadar Anarchist Front (ZAF) and the Anarcho\\-Syndicalist Confederation (ASK), which were instrumental in re\\-introducing [anarcho\\-syndicalist](/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalist \"Anarcho-syndicalist\") ideas to the country.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://libcom.org/news/network\\-anarho\\-syndicalists\\-masa\\-croatia\\-16072009\\|title\\=The network of anarcho\\-syndicalists (MASA), Croatia\\|first\\=Juraj\\|last\\=Katalenac\\|publisher\\=Libcom.org\\|date\\=16 July 2009\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}} The ZAF began to translate anarchist texts into [Croatian](/wiki/Croatian_language \"Croatian language\") and published their own magazine *Solidarity and Freedom*.{{cite web\\|title\\= Zadarski anarhistički front (ZAF)\\|url\\=http://anarhizam.hr/arhiv/40\\-intervjui/84\\-zadarski\\-anarhistiki\\-front\\-zaf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114095808/https://www.anarhizam.hr/arhiv/40\\-intervjui/84\\-zadarski\\-anarhistiki\\-front\\-zaf\\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2017\\|date\\=26 September 2009\\|first\\=Matom\\|last\\=Ćosićem\\|publisher\\=Center for Anarchist Studies\\|language\\=hr}} Around the same time, the Rijeka Anarchist Initiative was founded, as an interest group gathered around protests against the installation of radar in [Učka](/wiki/U%C4%8Dka \"Učka\"), later taking part in other protests against NATO.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://anarhizam.hr/teorija\\-i\\-praksa/74\\-rijeka\\-anarhistika\\-inicijativa\\-to\\-je\\-to\\-anarhizamliberterski\\-socijalizam\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027024757/http://anarhizam.hr/teorija\\-i\\-praksa/74\\-rijeka\\-anarhistika\\-inicijativa\\-to\\-je\\-to\\-anarhizamliberterski\\-socijalizam\\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017\\|date\\=25 September 2009\\|title\\= Riječka anarhistička inicijativa: Što je to anarhizam/liberterski socijalizam?\\|publisher\\=Center for Anarchist Studies\\|series\\=R.A.I.\\|issue\\=6\\|language\\=hr}} However, Croatian anarchist groups largely remained localized and disconnected during the early 2000s, and these organizations eventually fell apart.",
"In February 2008, the [Network of Anarcho\\-Syndicalists](/wiki/Mre%C5%BEa_anarhosindikalista_i_anarhosindikalistkinja_%28MASA%29 \"Mreža anarhosindikalista i anarhosindikalistkinja (MASA)\") (MASA) was formed at a national meeting in [Zadar](/wiki/Zadar \"Zadar\"), holding their first congress in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb \"Zagreb\") on April 12 of that same year, where it formally constituted its aims and structure. It was made up of local groups in Zagreb, Pula, Split, Rijeka and Zadar, with contacts in various other cities, and participated in a number of direct actions throughout Croatia.",
"In 2009, MASA opened the Centre for Anarchist Studies, a registered NGO formed with the intention of collecting and publishing anarchist literature, holding lectures and public discussions, and promoting the study of anarcho\\-syndicalist theory.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://libcom.org/library/centre\\-anarchist\\-studies\\-croatia\\|title\\=Centre for anarchist studies, Croatia\\|publisher\\=Libcom.org\\|date\\=12 October 2009\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}}",
"Following a number of neoliberal reforms and with the [Croatian entry](/wiki/2013_enlargement_of_the_European_Union \"2013 enlargement of the European Union\") into the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") on the horizon, popular discontent with the ruling HDZ government began to grow. This culminated on February 22, 2011, when protests broke out against the government,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.antiwar.com/2011/03/14/protest\\-movement\\-growing\\-in\\-croatia/\\|title\\=Protest Movement Growing in Croatia\\|first\\=Jason\\|last\\=Ditz\\|date\\=14 March 2011\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Antiwar.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}} calling for the resignation of the prime minister [Jadranka Kosor](/wiki/Jadranka_Kosor \"Jadranka Kosor\") and early elections.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://fpif.org/days\\_of\\_rage\\_in\\_croatia/\\|title\\=Days of Rage in Croatia\\|first\\=Sabrina\\|last\\=Peric\\|date\\=14 March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Foreign Policy In Focus]]}} By February 28, many of the protests had taken on a largely self\\-organized character, which led the Network of Anarcho\\-Syndicalists to begin participating in the protests, while also criticizing the inaction of mainstream trade unions and the potential of a new government under the [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Croatia \"Social Democratic Party of Croatia\") (SDP).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://libcom.org/news/masa\\-masses\\-against\\-ruling\\-class\\-05032011\\|title\\=MASA and the masses against the ruling class in Croatia\\|date\\=5 March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|publisher\\=Libcom.org\\|last\\=Network of Anarcho\\-Syndicalists\\|first\\=Local Group Zagreb\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]}} As the protests continued, MASA noted the emergence of libertarian principles among the protestors and denounced the leading opposition figures [Ivan Pernar](/wiki/Ivan_Pernar_%28politician%2C_born_1985%29 \"Ivan Pernar (politician, born 1985)\") ([ZZ](/wiki/Human_Shield_%28political_party%29 \"Human Shield (political party)\")) and [Dragutin Lesar](/wiki/Dragutin_Lesar \"Dragutin Lesar\") ([HLSR](/wiki/Croatian_Labourists_%E2%80%93_Labour_Party \"Croatian Labourists – Labour Party\")) for having promoted the continuation of capitalism.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://libcom.org/news/masses\\-have\\-taken\\-streets\\-06032011\\|title\\=Zagreb: The masses have taken to the streets\\|publisher\\=Libcom.org\\|last\\=Network of Anarcho\\-Syndicalists\\|first\\=Local Group Zagreb\\|date\\=6 March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|location\\=\\[\\[Zagreb]]}}",
"In 2013, the Rijeka branch of MASA left the organization to found the Network of Anarchists of Rijeka (MASA Rijeka).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://masari.noblogs.org/o\\-nama/\\|title\\=O nama\\|publisher\\=Network of Anarchists of Rijeka\\|year\\=2018\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|location\\=\\[\\[Rijeka]]\\|language\\=hr}} In June 2014, MASA Rijeka became a full member of the [Federation for Anarchist Organisation](/wiki/Federacija_za_anarhisti%C4%8Dno_organiziranje \"Federacija za anarhistično organiziranje\") (FAO) at the organization's 6th Congress in Slovenia.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://afed.org.uk/organise\\-magazine\\-issue\\-83\\-winter\\-2014/\\|title\\=Slovenia – uprising in Europe – what happened next?\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anarchist Federation (Britain)\\|Anarchist Federation]]\\|series\\=Organise!\\|issue\\=83\\|date\\=16 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709040710/https://afed.org.uk/organise\\-magazine\\-issue\\-83\\-winter\\-2014/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://masari.noblogs.org/prikljucenje\\-masari\\-u\\-federaciju\\-za\\-anarhisticko\\-organiziranje/\\|title\\=Priključenje MASARi u Federaciju za anarhističko organiziranje\\|date\\=24 June 2014\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|publisher\\=Network of Anarchists of Rijeka\\|location\\=\\[\\[Rijeka]]\\|language\\=hr}} In January 2017, at a regular meeting of the FAO, the group confirmed its plans to expand the [Network of Anarchists](/wiki/Mre%C5%BEa_anarhista \"Mreža anarhista\") throughout the Croatian region, with operations planned in [Istria](/wiki/Istria \"Istria\") and [Kvarner](/wiki/Kvarner \"Kvarner\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://masari.noblogs.org/delegatski\\-sastanak\\-anarhisticke\\-federacije\\-fao\\-ifa\\-ljubljana\\-slovenija/\\|title\\=Delegatski sastanak anarhističke federacije FAO\\-IFA (Ljubljana, Slovenija)\\|date\\=17 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|publisher\\=Network of Anarchists of Rijeka\\|location\\=\\[\\[Rijeka]]\\|language\\=hr}}",
""
] |
Career
------
In 1996, Morton travelled to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") where he was an international fellow at the [Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center](/wiki/Fred_Hutchinson_Cancer_Research_Center "Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center") in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"), before returning to Australian in 1998\.
Morton was previously board member of Icon Cancer Care and the [Leukaemia Foundation](/wiki/Leukaemia_Foundation "Leukaemia Foundation"), where he was credited with developing the World's Greatest Shave initiative into an annual national campaign from a one\-off event in [Lismore, New South Wales](/wiki/Lismore%2C_New_South_Wales "Lismore, New South Wales").Blok, Nerida (4 April 2006\) [Shave for a cure started here in Lismore](https://www.northernstar.com.au/news/apn-shave-for-a-cure-started-here-in/16412), *[The Northern Star](/wiki/The_Northern_Star "The Northern Star")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\.
Morton is arguably best known for his advocacy of children with [autism](/wiki/Autism "Autism").[Fidler, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Fidler "Richard Fidler") (15 August 2011\) [James Morton's mission to create better Autism services for his son](https://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2011/08/15/3293532.htm), *[Conversations](/wiki/Conversations_%28radio_program%29 "Conversations (radio program)")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\.Davies, Hannah (6 June 2020\) [2020 Queensland Greats list celebrates our local heroes](https://www.couriermail.com.au/lifestyle/qweekend/2020-queensland-greats-list-celebrates-our-local-heroes/news-story/de78201c72cfb5f605c9cd3769b94151), *[The Courier Mail](/wiki/The_Courier_Mail "The Courier Mail")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\.
Following a report commissioned by Morton, Australian Prime Minister [John Howard](/wiki/John_Howard "John Howard") announced that $190 million of additional funding would be delivered to support services for autistic children.Roberts, Kathryn (14 May 2007\) [Autism costs community $7billion annually: report](https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2007/s1922504.htm), *[The World Today](/wiki/The_World_Today_%28Australian_radio_program%29 "The World Today (Australian radio program)")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\.Bradford, Gillian (3 October 2007\) [for children with autism](https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2007/s2049837.$190m), *The World Today*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\. The funding announcement was welcomed by Morton who described it as a "monumental package".
Morton was named in the [2015 Australia Day Honours](/wiki/2015_Australia_Day_Honours "2015 Australia Day Honours") and was made a [Member of the Order of Australia](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Australia "Member of the Order of Australia") in recognition for his significant service to children with autism spectrum disorders and to the field of oncology.Harazim, Kristina (25 January 2015\) [Work in oncology and autism spectrum disorders recognised](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-26/australia-day-more-than-100-queenslanders-make-2015-honours/6036524), *[ABC News](/wiki/ABC_News_%28Australia%29 "ABC News (Australia)")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\.[Award: A James Morton](https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1150882), Australian Honours Search Facility, [Australian Government](/wiki/Australian_Government "Australian Government"). Retrieved 9 June 2020\.
On [Queensland Day](/wiki/Queensland_Day "Queensland Day") in 2020, Morton was named as a [Queensland Great](/wiki/Queensland_Greats_Awards "Queensland Greats Awards").[2020 Queensland Greats recipients](https://www.qld.gov.au/about/events-awards-honours/awards/qld-greats-awards/2020-queensland-greats-recipients), [Queensland Government](/wiki/Queensland_Government "Queensland Government"). Retrieved 9 June 2020\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In 1996, Morton travelled to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") where he was an international fellow at the [Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center](/wiki/Fred_Hutchinson_Cancer_Research_Center \"Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center\") in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), before returning to Australian in 1998\\.",
"Morton was previously board member of Icon Cancer Care and the [Leukaemia Foundation](/wiki/Leukaemia_Foundation \"Leukaemia Foundation\"), where he was credited with developing the World's Greatest Shave initiative into an annual national campaign from a one\\-off event in [Lismore, New South Wales](/wiki/Lismore%2C_New_South_Wales \"Lismore, New South Wales\").Blok, Nerida (4 April 2006\\) [Shave for a cure started here in Lismore](https://www.northernstar.com.au/news/apn-shave-for-a-cure-started-here-in/16412), *[The Northern Star](/wiki/The_Northern_Star \"The Northern Star\")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.",
"Morton is arguably best known for his advocacy of children with [autism](/wiki/Autism \"Autism\").[Fidler, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Fidler \"Richard Fidler\") (15 August 2011\\) [James Morton's mission to create better Autism services for his son](https://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2011/08/15/3293532.htm), *[Conversations](/wiki/Conversations_%28radio_program%29 \"Conversations (radio program)\")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.Davies, Hannah (6 June 2020\\) [2020 Queensland Greats list celebrates our local heroes](https://www.couriermail.com.au/lifestyle/qweekend/2020-queensland-greats-list-celebrates-our-local-heroes/news-story/de78201c72cfb5f605c9cd3769b94151), *[The Courier Mail](/wiki/The_Courier_Mail \"The Courier Mail\")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.",
"Following a report commissioned by Morton, Australian Prime Minister [John Howard](/wiki/John_Howard \"John Howard\") announced that $190 million of additional funding would be delivered to support services for autistic children.Roberts, Kathryn (14 May 2007\\) [Autism costs community $7billion annually: report](https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2007/s1922504.htm), *[The World Today](/wiki/The_World_Today_%28Australian_radio_program%29 \"The World Today (Australian radio program)\")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.Bradford, Gillian (3 October 2007\\) [for children with autism](https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2007/s2049837.$190m), *The World Today*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\\. The funding announcement was welcomed by Morton who described it as a \"monumental package\".",
"Morton was named in the [2015 Australia Day Honours](/wiki/2015_Australia_Day_Honours \"2015 Australia Day Honours\") and was made a [Member of the Order of Australia](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Australia \"Member of the Order of Australia\") in recognition for his significant service to children with autism spectrum disorders and to the field of oncology.Harazim, Kristina (25 January 2015\\) [Work in oncology and autism spectrum disorders recognised](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-26/australia-day-more-than-100-queenslanders-make-2015-honours/6036524), *[ABC News](/wiki/ABC_News_%28Australia%29 \"ABC News (Australia)\")*. Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.[Award: A James Morton](https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1150882), Australian Honours Search Facility, [Australian Government](/wiki/Australian_Government \"Australian Government\"). Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.",
"On [Queensland Day](/wiki/Queensland_Day \"Queensland Day\") in 2020, Morton was named as a [Queensland Great](/wiki/Queensland_Greats_Awards \"Queensland Greats Awards\").[2020 Queensland Greats recipients](https://www.qld.gov.au/about/events-awards-honours/awards/qld-greats-awards/2020-queensland-greats-recipients), [Queensland Government](/wiki/Queensland_Government \"Queensland Government\"). Retrieved 9 June 2020\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1953–1969
In 1953, [Capitol Wrestling Corporation](/wiki/Capitol_Wrestling_Corporation "Capitol Wrestling Corporation") (CWC) became a member of the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance "National Wrestling Alliance") (NWA). During this time, CWC wrestlers could compete for championships operated by the NWA.{{cite book\|last\=Hornbaker\|first\=Tim\|title\=National Wrestling Alliance: The Untold Story of the Monopoly That Strangled Pro Wrestling\|publisher\=ECW Press\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-1\-55022\-741\-3\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=npQBhSTtvCsC\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-02}} In 1957, the CWC created the [NWA United States Television Championship](/wiki/NWA_United_States_Television_Championship "NWA United States Television Championship"), its first overall men's singles championship, with [Johnny Valentine](/wiki/Johnny_Valentine "Johnny Valentine") being the inaugural holder of the championship. The following year, the CWC created the [NWA United States Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWWF_United_States_Tag_Team_Championship "WWWF United States Tag Team Championship"), which inaugural champions [Mark Lewin](/wiki/Mark_Lewin "Mark Lewin") and [Don Curtis](/wiki/Don_Curtis "Don Curtis") won in April of that year.{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/usttwwf.html\|title\=WWWF United States Tag Team Title History\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan \& Gary Will \|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-02}} In 1963, CWC ended its partnership with the NWA and established itself as the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/halloffame/vincemcmahon/\|title\=Vince McMahon\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-02}} To reflect the changes, the WWWF introduced its world heavyweight championship (WWE's third overall male singles championship and the current [WWE Championship](/wiki/WWE_Championship "WWE Championship")),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwechampionship/30445411\|title\=Buddy Rogers' WWE Championship reign (April 1963 \- May 17, 1963\)\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-02\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050828211610/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwechampionship/30445411\|archive\-date\=August 28, 2005}} while the WWWF acronym was added to the United States Tag Team title. Without a formal explanation by the WWWF, although newly crowned co\-holder [Bruno Sammartino](/wiki/Bruno_Sammartino "Bruno Sammartino") was also the company's World Heavyweight champion at the time, the Tag Team title was disbanded in 1967, the first championship to be retired during the WWWF years. Ten years later, the company retired its first individually contested WWWF\-branded title, the [WWWF United States Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWWF_United_States_Heavyweight_Championship "WWWF United States Heavyweight Championship"), also without a formal explanation.{{cite book\|last\=Duncan\|first\=Royal\|author2\=Gary Will \|title\=Wrestling Title Histories\|publisher\=Archeus Communications\|year\=1994\|edition\=3\|pages\=27\|chapter\=United States: 19th Century \& Widely defended Titles \- NWA, WWF, AWA, IWA, ECW, NWA\|isbn\=0\-9698161\-1\-1}}
### 1970–1999
The WWWF/WWF formed partnerships with [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling") (NJPW), [Universal Wrestling Federation](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Federation_%28Japan%29 "Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan)") (UWF), and [Universal Wrestling Association](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Association "Universal Wrestling Association") (UWA) between the 1970s and 1980s, and as a result, created and lent titles to these promotions.{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/ituwa.html\|title\=WWF/UWF International Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}}{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/lhwwf.html\|title\=WWF Light Heavyweight Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}}{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/ittwwf.html\|title\=WWF International Tag Team Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} In 1979, the promotion renamed itself to the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and six years later ended its partnerships with NJPW and UWF.{{cite web\|url\=http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\_05\_06\.jsp \|title\=World Wrestling Federation Entertainment Drops The "F" To Emphasize the "E" for Entertainment \|date\=2002\-05\-06 \|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-01 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119180317/http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\_05\_06\.jsp \|archive\-date\=2009\-01\-19 }} This resulted in the retirement of one UWF and three NJPW lent titles: the [WWF International Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_International_Heavyweight_Championship "WWF International Heavyweight Championship") (UWF), [WWF Junior Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_Junior_Heavyweight_Championship "WWF Junior Heavyweight Championship"),{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/jrwwf.html\|title\=WWF Junior Heavyweight Championship\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan and Gary Will\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-05}} [WWF World Martial Arts Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_World_Martial_Arts_Heavyweight_Championship "WWF World Martial Arts Heavyweight Championship"),{{ref label\|1\|a\|a}}{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/njfwwf.html\|title\=WWF World Martial Arts Heavyweight Championship\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} and [WWF International Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWF_International_Tag_Team_Championship "WWF International Tag Team Championship") (NJPW). The company also ceased operations of three short\-lived titles: the [WWF North American Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_North_American_Heavyweight_Championship "WWF North American Heavyweight Championship") (1979–1981\),{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/nawwf.html\|title\=WWF North American Heavyweight Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan and Gary Will\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-05}} [WWF Canadian Championship](/wiki/WWF_Canadian_Championship "WWF Canadian Championship") (1985–1986\),{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/canwwf.html\|title\=WWF Canadian Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan and Gary Will\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-05}} and [WWF Women's Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWF_Women%27s_Tag_Team_Championship "WWF Women's Tag Team Championship") (1983–1989\).{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/wttwwf.html\|title\=WWF Women's Tag Team Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} Despite their names, the geographic\-name\-based titles were not restricted to wrestlers from that location. During the 1990s, the WWF ended its relationship with the UWA; as a result, the [WWF Intercontinental Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWF_Intercontinental_Tag_Team_Championship "WWF Intercontinental Tag Team Championship"){{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/uwaittwwf.html\|title\=WWF/UWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} was abandoned, while the [WWF Light Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_Light_Heavyweight_Championship "WWF Light Heavyweight Championship") (which UWA possessed) was reactivated in the United States for use by the WWF. In 1996, the [Million Dollar Championship](/wiki/Million_Dollar_Championship "Million Dollar Championship"), a title created by [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase "Ted DiBiase"), was retired, although it was never sanctioned by the WWF, but was reintroduced briefly in 2010 by Ted DiBiase Jr., and again in 2021 as part of a storyline in NXT.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/dibiase.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120629211133/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/dibiase.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=June 29, 2012\|first\=John\|last\=Milner\|title\=Ted DiBiase Biography\|work\=SLAM! Sports\|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Online Explorer]]\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08\|quote\=If he couldn't win the WWE Championship and he couldn't buy the WWE Championship, Dibiase decided to purchase his own championship, introducing "the Million Dollar Belt" to the WWE. The title was never official and rarely did Dibiase even bother "defending" the title.}}
### 2000–2015
In March 2001, the WWF acquired all assets of [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling "World Championship Wrestling") (WCW), including its championships.{{cite web\|url\=http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2001/2001\_03\_23\.jsp \|title\=WWE Entertainment, Inc. Acquires WCW from Turner Broadcasting \|date\=2001\-03\-21 \|work\=WWE Corporate \|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050408044957/http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2001/2001\_03\_23\.jsp \|archive\-date\=2005\-04\-08 }} Of these titles, the WWF operated the [WCW World Heavyweight](/wiki/WCW_World_Heavyweight_Championship "WCW World Heavyweight Championship"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wcwchampionship/\|title\=History of the WCW World Championship\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} [World Tag Team](/wiki/WCW_World_Tag_Team_Championship "WCW World Tag Team Championship"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/ttwcw.html\|title\=WCW World Tag Team Championship Title History (1991–2001\)\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan \& Gary Will\|publisher\=Solie's Title Histories\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} and [Cruiserweight](/wiki/WWE_Cruiserweight_Championship_%281991%E2%80%932007%29 "WWE Cruiserweight Championship (1991–2007)") championships.{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/ctwwf.html\|title\=WWE Cruiserweight Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}} In late 2001, the WWF discontinued the WCW World Heavyweight and Tag Team Championships (which were unified with WWF's world and tag team championships, respectively), while the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship was retired in favor of the Cruiserweight, which would also be retired in 2007\. In 2002, WWF was [renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)](/wiki/WWE "WWE"),{{cite web\|url\=http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\_05\_06\.jsp \|title\=World Wrestling Federation Entertainment Drops The "F" To Emphasize the "E" for Entertainment \|date\=2002\-05\-06 \|work\=WWE Corporate \|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119180317/http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\_05\_06\.jsp \|archive\-date\=2009\-01\-19 }} and during this year, WWE discontinued the [WWE Hardcore](/wiki/WWE_Hardcore_Championship "WWE Hardcore Championship") and [European Championships](/wiki/WWE_European_Championship "WWE European Championship") after they were [unified](/wiki/Championship_unification "Championship unification") with the [WWE Intercontinental Championship](/wiki/WWE_Intercontinental_Championship "WWE Intercontinental Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/euro/358594 \|title\=History of the WWE European Championship: Jeff Hardy \|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724125810/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/euro/358594 \|archive\-date\=2008\-07\-24 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/whcwwf.html\|title\=WWE Hardcore Championship reign history\|work\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\|publisher\=Solie.org\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-08}}
WWE also acquired all assets of [Extreme Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Extreme_Championship_Wrestling "Extreme Championship Wrestling") (ECW) in 2003, and implemented the [ECW](/wiki/ECW_%28WWE%29 "ECW (WWE)") [brand](/wiki/WWE_brand_extension "WWE brand extension") in 2006, along with the reactivated [ECW World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/ECW_World_Heavyweight_Championship "ECW World Heavyweight Championship");{{cite web\|title\=History of the ECW Championship: Rob Van Dam\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/history/ecwchampionship/061506rvd\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-09}} however, when the brand closed in 2010, the title was retired after [Ezekiel Jackson](/wiki/Ezekiel_Jackson "Ezekiel Jackson") became the last champion on the final episode of the *[ECW on Syfy](/wiki/ECW_%28WWE%29%23ECW_on_Sci_Fi/Syfy "ECW (WWE)#ECW on Sci Fi/Syfy")* series.{{cite web\|title\=History of the ECW Championship: Ezekiel Jackson\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/history/ecwchampionship/13528698\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-09}} The [World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%29 "World Tag Team Championship (WWE)"), established in 1971, and [WWE Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship "WWE Raw Tag Team Championship"), introduced in 2002, were unified on April 9, 2009, maintaining separate title histories as the "Unified WWE Tag Team Championship". However, on August 16, 2010, the older title was retired in favor of keeping the newer title as the sole tag team championship contended for in WWE. The champions, [The Hart Dynasty](/wiki/The_Hart_Dynasty "The Hart Dynasty") ([David Hart Smith](/wiki/David_Hart_Smith "David Hart Smith") and [Tyson Kidd](/wiki/Tyson_Kidd "Tyson Kidd")) were awarded a new set of belts that represented the 2002 championship, and were thus recognized as the final holders of the original World Tag Team Championship.{{Cite web\|title\=History of the World Tag Team Championship\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/worldtagteam/\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-20\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}{{Cite web\|title\=History of the WWE Tag Team Championship\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwetag/\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-20\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}
The [original WWE Women's Championship](/wiki/WWE_Women%27s_Championship_%281956%E2%80%932010%29 "WWE Women's Championship (1956–2010)"), established in 1956, and the [WWE Divas Championship](/wiki/WWE_Divas_Championship "WWE Divas Championship"), introduced in 2008, were unified on September 19, 2010, maintaining the title history of the Divas Championship. The older title was retired in favor of keeping the newer title as the sole championship contended for in WWE by the [Divas](/wiki/WWE_Diva "WWE Diva"). The self\-professed co\-Women's Champion [Michelle McCool](/wiki/Michelle_McCool "Michelle McCool") defeated Divas Champion [Melina](/wiki/Melina_Perez "Melina Perez") at [Night of Champions](/wiki/Night_of_Champions_%282010%29 "Night of Champions (2010)") to become the unified champion, thus making [Layla](/wiki/Layla_El "Layla El") the final holder of the Women's Championship.{{Cite web\|title\=History of the WWE Women's Championship\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/women/\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-21\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}{{Cite web\|title\=History of the WWE Divas Championship\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/divas/\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-21\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}} On April 3, 2016, at [WrestleMania 32](/wiki/WrestleMania_32 "WrestleMania 32"), Divas Champion [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte_%28wrestler%29 "Charlotte (wrestler)") was originally scheduled to defend her title in a triple\-threat match. At the event, however, the Divas Championship was replaced with a new [WWE Women's Championship](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Women%27s_Championship "WWE Raw Women's Championship"), with the winner of the triple\-threat match becoming the inaugural champion, thus Charlotte was the final holder of the Divas Championship.
The [World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Championship_%28WWE%2C_2002%E2%80%932013%29 "World Heavyweight Championship (WWE, 2002–2013)") was established in 2002 as a second world championship in WWE during the time of the [first brand extension](/wiki/WWE_brand_extension "WWE brand extension"). During this period, the World Heavyweight Championship would be the primary championship for either the Raw or SmackDown brand, with the [WWE Championship](/wiki/WWE_World_Championship "WWE World Championship") on the other. The brand extension ended in 2011, allowing both championships to appear on both shows. On December 15, 2013, World Heavyweight Champion [John Cena](/wiki/John_Cena "John Cena") faced WWE Champion [Randy Orton](/wiki/Randy_Orton "Randy Orton") in a match at [TLC: Tables, Ladders \& Chairs](/wiki/TLC:Tables%2C_Ladders_%26_Chairs_%282013%29 "Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2013)"), where the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship as Orton defeated Cena. At the event, it was announced that the unified titles would be called the "WWE World Heavyweight Championship", retaining the lineage of the WWE Championship. WWE officially recognized Orton as the final World Heavyweight Champion and retired the title.
### 2016–present
In 2016, WWE reintroduced the brand extension. Shortly after, the cruiserweight division was revived and a new [WWE Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/NXT_Cruiserweight_Championship "NXT Cruiserweight Championship") was established. This newer title did not carry the lineage of the original Cruiserweight Championship that was retired in 2007\. The title was originally exclusive to the Raw brand before it became exclusive to the [205 Live](/wiki/205_Live_%28WWE_brand%29 "205 Live (WWE brand)") brand in 2018\. It then also became part of [NXT](/wiki/NXT_%28WWE_brand%29 "NXT (WWE brand)") after 205 Live merged under NXT in October 2019\. It was subsequently renamed the NXT Cruiserweight Championship and was then extended to the [NXT UK](/wiki/NXT_UK_%28WWE_brand%29 "NXT UK (WWE brand)") brand in January 2020\. However, in January 2022, the championship was retired. At the [New Year's Evil](/wiki/NXT:New_Year%27s_Evil_%282022%29 "New Year's Evil (2022)") special episode of *[NXT 2\.0](/wiki/WWE_NXT "WWE NXT")* on January 4, 2022, the title was unified into the [NXT North American Championship](/wiki/NXT_North_American_Championship "NXT North American Championship"). North American Champion [Carmelo Hayes](/wiki/Carmelo_Hayes "Carmelo Hayes") defeated Cruiserweight Champion [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong "Roderick Strong"), with Hayes recognized as the final Cruiserweight Champion and going forward as North American Champion.
In December 2016, WWE announced that they would be establishing a new United Kingdom\-based brand and the first championship created for the brand was the [WWE United Kingdom Championship](/wiki/WWE_United_Kingdom_Championship "WWE United Kingdom Championship"). In June 2018, the brand was formally established as NXT UK, and the [NXT UK Women's Championship](/wiki/NXT_UK_Women%27s_Championship "NXT UK Women's Championship") and [NXT UK Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NXT_UK_Tag_Team_Championship "NXT UK Tag Team Championship") were created at that time. In early 2020, the WWE United Kingdom Championship was renamed as the NXT United Kingdom Championship, and later that year, the [NXT UK Heritage Cup](/wiki/NXT_UK_Heritage_Cup "NXT UK Heritage Cup") was established. In August 2022, WWE announced that the NXT UK brand would be going on hiatus following the [Worlds Collide](/wiki/Worlds_Collide_%282022%29 "Worlds Collide (2022)") event on September 4, 2022, and the brand would relaunch as NXT Europe in 2023\. As such, all of NXT UK's championships were unified into their respective NXT championship counterparts, except for the NXT UK Heritage Cup, which was later transferred to NXT in 2023\. The NXT United Kingdom Championship, NXT UK Women's Championship, and NXT UK Tag Team Championship were unified into the [NXT Championship](/wiki/NXT_Championship "NXT Championship"), [NXT Women's Championship](/wiki/NXT_Women%27s_Championship "NXT Women's Championship"), and [NXT Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NXT_Tag_Team_Championship "NXT Tag Team Championship"), respectively, with [Tyler Bate](/wiki/Tyler_Bate "Tyler Bate"), [Meiko Satomura](/wiki/Meiko_Satomura "Meiko Satomura"), and the team of [Brooks Jensen](/wiki/Brooks_Jensen "Brooks Jensen") and [Josh Briggs](/wiki/Josh_Briggs "Josh Briggs") recognized as the final champions of each.
In May 2019, WWE introduced the [WWE 24/7 Championship](/wiki/WWE_24/7_Championship "WWE 24/7 Championship"), a title similar to the company's former Hardcore Championship. The title had a "24/7" rule in which it could be defended anytime, anywhere, as long as a WWE referee was present. Due to this rule, it was available to all of WWE's brands and could be won by both men and women as well as non\-WWE employees. After [Nikki Cross](/wiki/Nikki_Cross "Nikki Cross") won the championship on the November 7, 2022, episode of *[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw "WWE Raw")*, she discarded the title as trash backstage and two days later, the championship was listed as inactive on WWE.com.
In March 2021, WWE introduced the [NXT Women's Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NXT_Women%27s_Tag_Team_Championship "NXT Women's Tag Team Championship") for the NXT brand following a controversy over the [WWE Women's Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWE_Women%27s_Tag_Team_Championship "WWE Women's Tag Team Championship"). Prior to this, the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship was available to Raw, SmackDown, and NXT, but ceased appearing on NXT after the brand established its own tag team championship. After two years, on the June 23, 2023, episode of *SmackDown*, the NXT Women's Tag Team Championship was unified into the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship, retiring the former with the latter becoming available to NXT again.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.f4wonline.com/news/wwe/ronda\-rousey\-shayna\-baszler\-unify\-womens\-tag\-team\-titles\-on\-wwe\-smackdown\|title\=Ronda Rousey \& Shayna Baszler unify WWE \& NXT Women's Tag Team titles\|date\=June 23, 2023\|last\=Rose\|first\=Bryan\|work\=\[\[Wrestling Observer Figure Four Online]]\|access\-date\=June 23, 2023}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1953–1969",
"In 1953, [Capitol Wrestling Corporation](/wiki/Capitol_Wrestling_Corporation \"Capitol Wrestling Corporation\") (CWC) became a member of the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance \"National Wrestling Alliance\") (NWA). During this time, CWC wrestlers could compete for championships operated by the NWA.{{cite book\\|last\\=Hornbaker\\|first\\=Tim\\|title\\=National Wrestling Alliance: The Untold Story of the Monopoly That Strangled Pro Wrestling\\|publisher\\=ECW Press\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55022\\-741\\-3\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=npQBhSTtvCsC\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-02}} In 1957, the CWC created the [NWA United States Television Championship](/wiki/NWA_United_States_Television_Championship \"NWA United States Television Championship\"), its first overall men's singles championship, with [Johnny Valentine](/wiki/Johnny_Valentine \"Johnny Valentine\") being the inaugural holder of the championship. The following year, the CWC created the [NWA United States Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWWF_United_States_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWWF United States Tag Team Championship\"), which inaugural champions [Mark Lewin](/wiki/Mark_Lewin \"Mark Lewin\") and [Don Curtis](/wiki/Don_Curtis \"Don Curtis\") won in April of that year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/usttwwf.html\\|title\\=WWWF United States Tag Team Title History\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan \\& Gary Will \\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-02}} In 1963, CWC ended its partnership with the NWA and established itself as the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/halloffame/vincemcmahon/\\|title\\=Vince McMahon\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-02}} To reflect the changes, the WWWF introduced its world heavyweight championship (WWE's third overall male singles championship and the current [WWE Championship](/wiki/WWE_Championship \"WWE Championship\")),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwechampionship/30445411\\|title\\=Buddy Rogers' WWE Championship reign (April 1963 \\- May 17, 1963\\)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050828211610/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwechampionship/30445411\\|archive\\-date\\=August 28, 2005}} while the WWWF acronym was added to the United States Tag Team title. Without a formal explanation by the WWWF, although newly crowned co\\-holder [Bruno Sammartino](/wiki/Bruno_Sammartino \"Bruno Sammartino\") was also the company's World Heavyweight champion at the time, the Tag Team title was disbanded in 1967, the first championship to be retired during the WWWF years. Ten years later, the company retired its first individually contested WWWF\\-branded title, the [WWWF United States Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWWF_United_States_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWWF United States Heavyweight Championship\"), also without a formal explanation.{{cite book\\|last\\=Duncan\\|first\\=Royal\\|author2\\=Gary Will \\|title\\=Wrestling Title Histories\\|publisher\\=Archeus Communications\\|year\\=1994\\|edition\\=3\\|pages\\=27\\|chapter\\=United States: 19th Century \\& Widely defended Titles \\- NWA, WWF, AWA, IWA, ECW, NWA\\|isbn\\=0\\-9698161\\-1\\-1}}",
"### 1970–1999",
"The WWWF/WWF formed partnerships with [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\") (NJPW), [Universal Wrestling Federation](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Federation_%28Japan%29 \"Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan)\") (UWF), and [Universal Wrestling Association](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Association \"Universal Wrestling Association\") (UWA) between the 1970s and 1980s, and as a result, created and lent titles to these promotions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/ituwa.html\\|title\\=WWF/UWF International Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/lhwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF Light Heavyweight Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/ittwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF International Tag Team Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} In 1979, the promotion renamed itself to the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and six years later ended its partnerships with NJPW and UWF.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\\_05\\_06\\.jsp \\|title\\=World Wrestling Federation Entertainment Drops The \"F\" To Emphasize the \"E\" for Entertainment \\|date\\=2002\\-05\\-06 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119180317/http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\\_05\\_06\\.jsp \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-19 }} This resulted in the retirement of one UWF and three NJPW lent titles: the [WWF International Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_International_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWF International Heavyweight Championship\") (UWF), [WWF Junior Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_Junior_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWF Junior Heavyweight Championship\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/jrwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF Junior Heavyweight Championship\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan and Gary Will\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-05}} [WWF World Martial Arts Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_World_Martial_Arts_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWF World Martial Arts Heavyweight Championship\"),{{ref label\\|1\\|a\\|a}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/njfwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF World Martial Arts Heavyweight Championship\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} and [WWF International Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWF_International_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWF International Tag Team Championship\") (NJPW). The company also ceased operations of three short\\-lived titles: the [WWF North American Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_North_American_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWF North American Heavyweight Championship\") (1979–1981\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/nawwf.html\\|title\\=WWF North American Heavyweight Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan and Gary Will\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-05}} [WWF Canadian Championship](/wiki/WWF_Canadian_Championship \"WWF Canadian Championship\") (1985–1986\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/canwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF Canadian Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan and Gary Will\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-05}} and [WWF Women's Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWF_Women%27s_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWF Women's Tag Team Championship\") (1983–1989\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/wttwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF Women's Tag Team Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} Despite their names, the geographic\\-name\\-based titles were not restricted to wrestlers from that location. During the 1990s, the WWF ended its relationship with the UWA; as a result, the [WWF Intercontinental Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWF_Intercontinental_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWF Intercontinental Tag Team Championship\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/uwaittwwf.html\\|title\\=WWF/UWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} was abandoned, while the [WWF Light Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWF_Light_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWF Light Heavyweight Championship\") (which UWA possessed) was reactivated in the United States for use by the WWF. In 1996, the [Million Dollar Championship](/wiki/Million_Dollar_Championship \"Million Dollar Championship\"), a title created by [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase \"Ted DiBiase\"), was retired, although it was never sanctioned by the WWF, but was reintroduced briefly in 2010 by Ted DiBiase Jr., and again in 2021 as part of a storyline in NXT.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/dibiase.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120629211133/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/dibiase.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2012\\|first\\=John\\|last\\=Milner\\|title\\=Ted DiBiase Biography\\|work\\=SLAM! Sports\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Online Explorer]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08\\|quote\\=If he couldn't win the WWE Championship and he couldn't buy the WWE Championship, Dibiase decided to purchase his own championship, introducing \"the Million Dollar Belt\" to the WWE. The title was never official and rarely did Dibiase even bother \"defending\" the title.}}",
"### 2000–2015",
"In March 2001, the WWF acquired all assets of [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling \"World Championship Wrestling\") (WCW), including its championships.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2001/2001\\_03\\_23\\.jsp \\|title\\=WWE Entertainment, Inc. Acquires WCW from Turner Broadcasting \\|date\\=2001\\-03\\-21 \\|work\\=WWE Corporate \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050408044957/http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2001/2001\\_03\\_23\\.jsp \\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-04\\-08 }} Of these titles, the WWF operated the [WCW World Heavyweight](/wiki/WCW_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"WCW World Heavyweight Championship\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wcwchampionship/\\|title\\=History of the WCW World Championship\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} [World Tag Team](/wiki/WCW_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"WCW World Tag Team Championship\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/ttwcw.html\\|title\\=WCW World Tag Team Championship Title History (1991–2001\\)\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Royal Duncan \\& Gary Will\\|publisher\\=Solie's Title Histories\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} and [Cruiserweight](/wiki/WWE_Cruiserweight_Championship_%281991%E2%80%932007%29 \"WWE Cruiserweight Championship (1991–2007)\") championships.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/ctwwf.html\\|title\\=WWE Cruiserweight Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}} In late 2001, the WWF discontinued the WCW World Heavyweight and Tag Team Championships (which were unified with WWF's world and tag team championships, respectively), while the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship was retired in favor of the Cruiserweight, which would also be retired in 2007\\. In 2002, WWF was [renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)](/wiki/WWE \"WWE\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\\_05\\_06\\.jsp \\|title\\=World Wrestling Federation Entertainment Drops The \"F\" To Emphasize the \"E\" for Entertainment \\|date\\=2002\\-05\\-06 \\|work\\=WWE Corporate \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119180317/http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2002/2002\\_05\\_06\\.jsp \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-19 }} and during this year, WWE discontinued the [WWE Hardcore](/wiki/WWE_Hardcore_Championship \"WWE Hardcore Championship\") and [European Championships](/wiki/WWE_European_Championship \"WWE European Championship\") after they were [unified](/wiki/Championship_unification \"Championship unification\") with the [WWE Intercontinental Championship](/wiki/WWE_Intercontinental_Championship \"WWE Intercontinental Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/euro/358594 \\|title\\=History of the WWE European Championship: Jeff Hardy \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]] \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724125810/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/euro/358594 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-24 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://solie.org/titlehistories/whcwwf.html\\|title\\=WWE Hardcore Championship reign history\\|work\\=Wrestling Title Histories by Gary Will and Royal Duncan\\|publisher\\=Solie.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-08}}",
"WWE also acquired all assets of [Extreme Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Extreme_Championship_Wrestling \"Extreme Championship Wrestling\") (ECW) in 2003, and implemented the [ECW](/wiki/ECW_%28WWE%29 \"ECW (WWE)\") [brand](/wiki/WWE_brand_extension \"WWE brand extension\") in 2006, along with the reactivated [ECW World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/ECW_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"ECW World Heavyweight Championship\");{{cite web\\|title\\=History of the ECW Championship: Rob Van Dam\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/history/ecwchampionship/061506rvd\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-09}} however, when the brand closed in 2010, the title was retired after [Ezekiel Jackson](/wiki/Ezekiel_Jackson \"Ezekiel Jackson\") became the last champion on the final episode of the *[ECW on Syfy](/wiki/ECW_%28WWE%29%23ECW_on_Sci_Fi/Syfy \"ECW (WWE)#ECW on Sci Fi/Syfy\")* series.{{cite web\\|title\\=History of the ECW Championship: Ezekiel Jackson\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/history/ecwchampionship/13528698\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-09}} The [World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%29 \"World Tag Team Championship (WWE)\"), established in 1971, and [WWE Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWE Raw Tag Team Championship\"), introduced in 2002, were unified on April 9, 2009, maintaining separate title histories as the \"Unified WWE Tag Team Championship\". However, on August 16, 2010, the older title was retired in favor of keeping the newer title as the sole tag team championship contended for in WWE. The champions, [The Hart Dynasty](/wiki/The_Hart_Dynasty \"The Hart Dynasty\") ([David Hart Smith](/wiki/David_Hart_Smith \"David Hart Smith\") and [Tyson Kidd](/wiki/Tyson_Kidd \"Tyson Kidd\")) were awarded a new set of belts that represented the 2002 championship, and were thus recognized as the final holders of the original World Tag Team Championship.{{Cite web\\|title\\=History of the World Tag Team Championship\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/worldtagteam/\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-20\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=History of the WWE Tag Team Championship\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwetag/\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-20\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}",
"The [original WWE Women's Championship](/wiki/WWE_Women%27s_Championship_%281956%E2%80%932010%29 \"WWE Women's Championship (1956–2010)\"), established in 1956, and the [WWE Divas Championship](/wiki/WWE_Divas_Championship \"WWE Divas Championship\"), introduced in 2008, were unified on September 19, 2010, maintaining the title history of the Divas Championship. The older title was retired in favor of keeping the newer title as the sole championship contended for in WWE by the [Divas](/wiki/WWE_Diva \"WWE Diva\"). The self\\-professed co\\-Women's Champion [Michelle McCool](/wiki/Michelle_McCool \"Michelle McCool\") defeated Divas Champion [Melina](/wiki/Melina_Perez \"Melina Perez\") at [Night of Champions](/wiki/Night_of_Champions_%282010%29 \"Night of Champions (2010)\") to become the unified champion, thus making [Layla](/wiki/Layla_El \"Layla El\") the final holder of the Women's Championship.{{Cite web\\|title\\=History of the WWE Women's Championship\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/women/\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-21\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=History of the WWE Divas Championship\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/divas/\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-21\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}} On April 3, 2016, at [WrestleMania 32](/wiki/WrestleMania_32 \"WrestleMania 32\"), Divas Champion [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte_%28wrestler%29 \"Charlotte (wrestler)\") was originally scheduled to defend her title in a triple\\-threat match. At the event, however, the Divas Championship was replaced with a new [WWE Women's Championship](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Women%27s_Championship \"WWE Raw Women's Championship\"), with the winner of the triple\\-threat match becoming the inaugural champion, thus Charlotte was the final holder of the Divas Championship.",
"The [World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Championship_%28WWE%2C_2002%E2%80%932013%29 \"World Heavyweight Championship (WWE, 2002–2013)\") was established in 2002 as a second world championship in WWE during the time of the [first brand extension](/wiki/WWE_brand_extension \"WWE brand extension\"). During this period, the World Heavyweight Championship would be the primary championship for either the Raw or SmackDown brand, with the [WWE Championship](/wiki/WWE_World_Championship \"WWE World Championship\") on the other. The brand extension ended in 2011, allowing both championships to appear on both shows. On December 15, 2013, World Heavyweight Champion [John Cena](/wiki/John_Cena \"John Cena\") faced WWE Champion [Randy Orton](/wiki/Randy_Orton \"Randy Orton\") in a match at [TLC: Tables, Ladders \\& Chairs](/wiki/TLC:Tables%2C_Ladders_%26_Chairs_%282013%29 \"Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2013)\"), where the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship as Orton defeated Cena. At the event, it was announced that the unified titles would be called the \"WWE World Heavyweight Championship\", retaining the lineage of the WWE Championship. WWE officially recognized Orton as the final World Heavyweight Champion and retired the title.",
"### 2016–present",
"In 2016, WWE reintroduced the brand extension. Shortly after, the cruiserweight division was revived and a new [WWE Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/NXT_Cruiserweight_Championship \"NXT Cruiserweight Championship\") was established. This newer title did not carry the lineage of the original Cruiserweight Championship that was retired in 2007\\. The title was originally exclusive to the Raw brand before it became exclusive to the [205 Live](/wiki/205_Live_%28WWE_brand%29 \"205 Live (WWE brand)\") brand in 2018\\. It then also became part of [NXT](/wiki/NXT_%28WWE_brand%29 \"NXT (WWE brand)\") after 205 Live merged under NXT in October 2019\\. It was subsequently renamed the NXT Cruiserweight Championship and was then extended to the [NXT UK](/wiki/NXT_UK_%28WWE_brand%29 \"NXT UK (WWE brand)\") brand in January 2020\\. However, in January 2022, the championship was retired. At the [New Year's Evil](/wiki/NXT:New_Year%27s_Evil_%282022%29 \"New Year's Evil (2022)\") special episode of *[NXT 2\\.0](/wiki/WWE_NXT \"WWE NXT\")* on January 4, 2022, the title was unified into the [NXT North American Championship](/wiki/NXT_North_American_Championship \"NXT North American Championship\"). North American Champion [Carmelo Hayes](/wiki/Carmelo_Hayes \"Carmelo Hayes\") defeated Cruiserweight Champion [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong \"Roderick Strong\"), with Hayes recognized as the final Cruiserweight Champion and going forward as North American Champion.",
"In December 2016, WWE announced that they would be establishing a new United Kingdom\\-based brand and the first championship created for the brand was the [WWE United Kingdom Championship](/wiki/WWE_United_Kingdom_Championship \"WWE United Kingdom Championship\"). In June 2018, the brand was formally established as NXT UK, and the [NXT UK Women's Championship](/wiki/NXT_UK_Women%27s_Championship \"NXT UK Women's Championship\") and [NXT UK Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NXT_UK_Tag_Team_Championship \"NXT UK Tag Team Championship\") were created at that time. In early 2020, the WWE United Kingdom Championship was renamed as the NXT United Kingdom Championship, and later that year, the [NXT UK Heritage Cup](/wiki/NXT_UK_Heritage_Cup \"NXT UK Heritage Cup\") was established. In August 2022, WWE announced that the NXT UK brand would be going on hiatus following the [Worlds Collide](/wiki/Worlds_Collide_%282022%29 \"Worlds Collide (2022)\") event on September 4, 2022, and the brand would relaunch as NXT Europe in 2023\\. As such, all of NXT UK's championships were unified into their respective NXT championship counterparts, except for the NXT UK Heritage Cup, which was later transferred to NXT in 2023\\. The NXT United Kingdom Championship, NXT UK Women's Championship, and NXT UK Tag Team Championship were unified into the [NXT Championship](/wiki/NXT_Championship \"NXT Championship\"), [NXT Women's Championship](/wiki/NXT_Women%27s_Championship \"NXT Women's Championship\"), and [NXT Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NXT_Tag_Team_Championship \"NXT Tag Team Championship\"), respectively, with [Tyler Bate](/wiki/Tyler_Bate \"Tyler Bate\"), [Meiko Satomura](/wiki/Meiko_Satomura \"Meiko Satomura\"), and the team of [Brooks Jensen](/wiki/Brooks_Jensen \"Brooks Jensen\") and [Josh Briggs](/wiki/Josh_Briggs \"Josh Briggs\") recognized as the final champions of each.",
"In May 2019, WWE introduced the [WWE 24/7 Championship](/wiki/WWE_24/7_Championship \"WWE 24/7 Championship\"), a title similar to the company's former Hardcore Championship. The title had a \"24/7\" rule in which it could be defended anytime, anywhere, as long as a WWE referee was present. Due to this rule, it was available to all of WWE's brands and could be won by both men and women as well as non\\-WWE employees. After [Nikki Cross](/wiki/Nikki_Cross \"Nikki Cross\") won the championship on the November 7, 2022, episode of *[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw \"WWE Raw\")*, she discarded the title as trash backstage and two days later, the championship was listed as inactive on WWE.com.",
"In March 2021, WWE introduced the [NXT Women's Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NXT_Women%27s_Tag_Team_Championship \"NXT Women's Tag Team Championship\") for the NXT brand following a controversy over the [WWE Women's Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWE_Women%27s_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWE Women's Tag Team Championship\"). Prior to this, the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship was available to Raw, SmackDown, and NXT, but ceased appearing on NXT after the brand established its own tag team championship. After two years, on the June 23, 2023, episode of *SmackDown*, the NXT Women's Tag Team Championship was unified into the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship, retiring the former with the latter becoming available to NXT again.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.f4wonline.com/news/wwe/ronda\\-rousey\\-shayna\\-baszler\\-unify\\-womens\\-tag\\-team\\-titles\\-on\\-wwe\\-smackdown\\|title\\=Ronda Rousey \\& Shayna Baszler unify WWE \\& NXT Women's Tag Team titles\\|date\\=June 23, 2023\\|last\\=Rose\\|first\\=Bryan\\|work\\=\\[\\[Wrestling Observer Figure Four Online]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2023}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The band was started as a side project by Schnier in January 1999\. They played four shows that month in the [Northeastern United States](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States "Northeastern United States"), with their first show being at the Pontiac Grill in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"). The first incarnation of the band included Schnier on [guitar](/wiki/Guitar "Guitar") and [vocals](/wiki/Singing "Singing"); Kirk Juhas of Free Beer \& Chicken on [keyboard](/wiki/Keyboard_instrument "Keyboard instrument"), [banjo](/wiki/Banjo "Banjo"), [harmonica](/wiki/Harmonica "Harmonica"), and vocals; Jim Loughlin of Yolk on [bass](/wiki/Bass_guitar "Bass guitar") and vocals; Ted Marotta of Ominous Sea Pods on [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit "Drum kit") and vocals; and Rolf Witt of the Merry Danksters and Sonic Garden on [mandolin](/wiki/Mandolin "Mandolin"), [fiddle](/wiki/Fiddle "Fiddle"), and guitar.
They did not perform again until March 2000, when they played three shows in the Northeast. [Vinnie Amico](/wiki/Vinnie_Amico "Vinnie Amico") of moe. replaced Marotta on drums. In June 2000, the band played three more shows across [Upstate New York](/wiki/Upstate_New_York "Upstate New York") ([Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York "Buffalo, New York"), [Utica](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York "Utica, New York"), [Albany](/wiki/Albany%2C_New_York "Albany, New York")). The last show, in Albany, included a guest appearance by Marotta on drums. Their final show of 2000 was played at the first annual moe.down festival in [Turin, New York](/wiki/Turin%2C_New_York "Turin, New York"). The festival was hosted by Schnier's band [moe.](/wiki/Moe. "Moe.") over [Labor Day](/wiki/Labor_Day "Labor Day") weekend. Marotta once again made a guest appearance during this performance.
Over a year later, they made their next appearance playing a moe. aftershow. The show, at the Lion's Den in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") on [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving "Thanksgiving") weekend, featured the same lineup without Rolf Witt. In 2002, they played BerkFest, moe.down, and two other shows in the Northeast.
The band's most active year was 2003, where they played over twenty shows throughout the year. During this time, the band's lineup was augmented; Schnier, Juhas, and Amico remained, while Gordon Stone took over for Witt on banjo and [pedal steel](/wiki/Pedal_steel_guitar "Pedal steel guitar"), and Erik Glockler from Strangefolk took over on bass for Loughlin. Schnier's wife, Diane, also provided vocals on occasion. After moe.down IV, the band performed a series of shows in the Northeast in September and December. The tour was in support of their first album *Analog*, which was released on September 9, 2003\.
In late March 2004, the band did a seven\-show tour that started in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas"), and went through [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"), [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee"), and [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky"). Eventually the tour made its way north and ended in [Hoboken, New Jersey](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey "Hoboken, New Jersey"). In late May, they played four more shows in the Northeast. They finished the year with a performance at moe.down V. During this show, Jay Barady of Woodenspoon replaced Gordon Stone on mandolin. This performance also featured three songs written by Diane Schnier, who also played keyboards and drums. These songs later appeared on her first album *Before Cowboys*.
The band did not perform in 2005, but Al Schnier, Juhas, and Marotta along with Diane Schnier, Kenny Juhas, and Shannon Lynch performed as Before Cowboys. The band performed songs written by Diane Schnier at three separate shows throughout the year, including a set at moe.down VI. On July 15, 2006, they played at the Electric Company in Utica, New York.
The Transamericans and Before Cowboys appeared together on May 11, 2007, at the Electric Company in Utica. Later that month the Transamericans plaued at another moe. festival, [Summer Camp](/wiki/Summer_Camp_Music_Festival "Summer Camp Music Festival") in [Chillicothe, Illinois](/wiki/Chillicothe%2C_Illinois "Chillicothe, Illinois"), over [Memorial Day](/wiki/Memorial_Day "Memorial Day") weekend. A return to the Electric Company for a moe. aftershow in July was followed by two Northeast dates in mid\-August. Their last show of the year was a set at moe.down VIII.
On October 31, 2008, Basemental Records officially released the band's second studio album *This Day \& Age*. The new album featured five new songs and was released as a limited edition series with only 1000 copies. Each copy was signed and numbered by Al Schnier. The album features the most frequent incarnation of the band: Al Schnier, Vinnie Amico, Erik Glockler, Kirk Juhas, and Gordon Stone. The band started a tour to support the new album with a release party on [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween "Halloween") night at the Electric Company in Utica. The tour consisted of dates in the Northeast and lasted until midway through November.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The band was started as a side project by Schnier in January 1999\\. They played four shows that month in the [Northeastern United States](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States \"Northeastern United States\"), with their first show being at the Pontiac Grill in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"). The first incarnation of the band included Schnier on [guitar](/wiki/Guitar \"Guitar\") and [vocals](/wiki/Singing \"Singing\"); Kirk Juhas of Free Beer \\& Chicken on [keyboard](/wiki/Keyboard_instrument \"Keyboard instrument\"), [banjo](/wiki/Banjo \"Banjo\"), [harmonica](/wiki/Harmonica \"Harmonica\"), and vocals; Jim Loughlin of Yolk on [bass](/wiki/Bass_guitar \"Bass guitar\") and vocals; Ted Marotta of Ominous Sea Pods on [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit \"Drum kit\") and vocals; and Rolf Witt of the Merry Danksters and Sonic Garden on [mandolin](/wiki/Mandolin \"Mandolin\"), [fiddle](/wiki/Fiddle \"Fiddle\"), and guitar.",
"They did not perform again until March 2000, when they played three shows in the Northeast. [Vinnie Amico](/wiki/Vinnie_Amico \"Vinnie Amico\") of moe. replaced Marotta on drums. In June 2000, the band played three more shows across [Upstate New York](/wiki/Upstate_New_York \"Upstate New York\") ([Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York \"Buffalo, New York\"), [Utica](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York \"Utica, New York\"), [Albany](/wiki/Albany%2C_New_York \"Albany, New York\")). The last show, in Albany, included a guest appearance by Marotta on drums. Their final show of 2000 was played at the first annual moe.down festival in [Turin, New York](/wiki/Turin%2C_New_York \"Turin, New York\"). The festival was hosted by Schnier's band [moe.](/wiki/Moe. \"Moe.\") over [Labor Day](/wiki/Labor_Day \"Labor Day\") weekend. Marotta once again made a guest appearance during this performance.",
"Over a year later, they made their next appearance playing a moe. aftershow. The show, at the Lion's Den in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") on [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving \"Thanksgiving\") weekend, featured the same lineup without Rolf Witt. In 2002, they played BerkFest, moe.down, and two other shows in the Northeast.",
"The band's most active year was 2003, where they played over twenty shows throughout the year. During this time, the band's lineup was augmented; Schnier, Juhas, and Amico remained, while Gordon Stone took over for Witt on banjo and [pedal steel](/wiki/Pedal_steel_guitar \"Pedal steel guitar\"), and Erik Glockler from Strangefolk took over on bass for Loughlin. Schnier's wife, Diane, also provided vocals on occasion. After moe.down IV, the band performed a series of shows in the Northeast in September and December. The tour was in support of their first album *Analog*, which was released on September 9, 2003\\.",
"In late March 2004, the band did a seven\\-show tour that started in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\"), and went through [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\"), and [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\"). Eventually the tour made its way north and ended in [Hoboken, New Jersey](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey \"Hoboken, New Jersey\"). In late May, they played four more shows in the Northeast. They finished the year with a performance at moe.down V. During this show, Jay Barady of Woodenspoon replaced Gordon Stone on mandolin. This performance also featured three songs written by Diane Schnier, who also played keyboards and drums. These songs later appeared on her first album *Before Cowboys*.",
"The band did not perform in 2005, but Al Schnier, Juhas, and Marotta along with Diane Schnier, Kenny Juhas, and Shannon Lynch performed as Before Cowboys. The band performed songs written by Diane Schnier at three separate shows throughout the year, including a set at moe.down VI. On July 15, 2006, they played at the Electric Company in Utica, New York.",
"The Transamericans and Before Cowboys appeared together on May 11, 2007, at the Electric Company in Utica. Later that month the Transamericans plaued at another moe. festival, [Summer Camp](/wiki/Summer_Camp_Music_Festival \"Summer Camp Music Festival\") in [Chillicothe, Illinois](/wiki/Chillicothe%2C_Illinois \"Chillicothe, Illinois\"), over [Memorial Day](/wiki/Memorial_Day \"Memorial Day\") weekend. A return to the Electric Company for a moe. aftershow in July was followed by two Northeast dates in mid\\-August. Their last show of the year was a set at moe.down VIII.",
"On October 31, 2008, Basemental Records officially released the band's second studio album *This Day \\& Age*. The new album featured five new songs and was released as a limited edition series with only 1000 copies. Each copy was signed and numbered by Al Schnier. The album features the most frequent incarnation of the band: Al Schnier, Vinnie Amico, Erik Glockler, Kirk Juhas, and Gordon Stone. The band started a tour to support the new album with a release party on [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\") night at the Electric Company in Utica. The tour consisted of dates in the Northeast and lasted until midway through November.",
""
] |
Plot
----
On April's fourteenth birthday, Marion, her adoptive mother, gives her earrings, not the [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") she wanted. They argue, and April leaves for [school](/wiki/School "School"). After lying to her friends, claiming she has a phone and is going to the dentist's, April chooses to be truant. While at work at a [stately home](/wiki/Stately_home "Stately home"), Marion hears that April has not arrived at school. She talks to her friend and [colleague](/wiki/Colleague "Colleague") Elliot, who unsuccessfully tries to dissuade her from leaving. April visits the home of Pat Williams, who cared for her as a baby. Pat remembers April and gives her a newspaper cutting telling the story of her discovery as a baby in a dustbin behind a pizza parlour.
In a [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)"), a five\-year\-old April is seen living with Janet and Daniel Johnson. The Johnsons' relationship was an [abusive](/wiki/Domestic_abuse "Domestic abuse") one, that lead to Janet's suicide. Meanwhile, Marion goes to April's school, where she talks to April's friends, and realizes that they were lied to. April leaves Pat's home, and travels alone to visit Janet's grave. Marion continues to search, and meets Elliot in a shopping center. April visits the now abandoned Sunnyholme [Children's Home](/wiki/Children%27s_Home "Children's Home"), where she lived when she was younger.
In a flashback, an eight\-year\-old April lives at the Sunnyholme and is cared for by a woman, Mo. April befriends an older girl, Gina, and is introduced to Pearl, a girl her own age. Pearl behaves in front of Mo, but actually bullies April when Mo is not around. Gina wakes April up one night to join in on a [burglary](/wiki/Burglary "Burglary"), and, later, Pearl attacks April, holding her head under water. Pearl also tears up April's beloved [paper dolls](/wiki/Paper_dolls "Paper dolls"). April confronts Pearl, and pushes her down a flight of stairs. She is reprimanded by Mo. A [voice\-over](/wiki/Voice-over "Voice-over") from 14\-year\-old April says Gina was then "moved on", and, eventually, April is also moved on.
The flashback jumps forward to April's time at Fairdale [Residential School](/wiki/Boarding_school "Boarding school"). She befriends Poppy, who has [Asperger syndrome](/wiki/Asperger_syndrome "Asperger syndrome"). In the present, Marion buys a mobile phone for April. Back at Fairdale, April is being taught by Miss Marion Bean. A Homework project on [family trees](/wiki/Family_tree "Family tree") leads to a fight. At night, April tries to escape the school to find Gina, but is caught by Marion, who sends her back. Marion reads April's records, and when she learns about her history, she apologizes for the family tree incident.
Banned from going out on a Saturday with her peers, April is instead taken to the stately home by Marion. A present\-day Marion goes alone to her house, to find that there are no messages on the phone. The younger Marion introduces April to Elliot as they continue to visit the home. The present\-day Marion goes to April's room, and looks in April's box, which contains mementos from different times in her life. The younger April and Marion walk through the home's garden, and Marion tells April she is leaving Fairdale. April becomes angry, thinking that Marion, like others before her, is now going to leave her life. Marion invites April to move in with her, and she accepts. When shown around her new bedroom, April's first concern is to have somewhere to put her box. The present April considers returning to Marion, but realises there is another place she wants to visit. It occurs to Marion where April will be going, and she drives away from her house.
April goes to the alley where she was found as a baby, and stands among the trash bins. Marion opens April's cell phone and calls Reno's, the pizza parlour. April then notices a phone number on the side of a dustbin, with a message to "Call if Baby". Marion asks for directions to the pizza parlour, while April dials the number she found. It is not her mother who answers, as she hoped, but Frankie, the pizza boy who found her. She meets Frankie in the pizza parlour, and Marion arrives. April explains who Frankie is, and Marion gives April her new phone. The three sit down together. A voice\-over from April says that, though she will probably never know her birth mother, she has a mother in Marion, and this is just the beginning.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"On April's fourteenth birthday, Marion, her adoptive mother, gives her earrings, not the [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") she wanted. They argue, and April leaves for [school](/wiki/School \"School\"). After lying to her friends, claiming she has a phone and is going to the dentist's, April chooses to be truant. While at work at a [stately home](/wiki/Stately_home \"Stately home\"), Marion hears that April has not arrived at school. She talks to her friend and [colleague](/wiki/Colleague \"Colleague\") Elliot, who unsuccessfully tries to dissuade her from leaving. April visits the home of Pat Williams, who cared for her as a baby. Pat remembers April and gives her a newspaper cutting telling the story of her discovery as a baby in a dustbin behind a pizza parlour.",
"In a [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\"), a five\\-year\\-old April is seen living with Janet and Daniel Johnson. The Johnsons' relationship was an [abusive](/wiki/Domestic_abuse \"Domestic abuse\") one, that lead to Janet's suicide. Meanwhile, Marion goes to April's school, where she talks to April's friends, and realizes that they were lied to. April leaves Pat's home, and travels alone to visit Janet's grave. Marion continues to search, and meets Elliot in a shopping center. April visits the now abandoned Sunnyholme [Children's Home](/wiki/Children%27s_Home \"Children's Home\"), where she lived when she was younger.",
"In a flashback, an eight\\-year\\-old April lives at the Sunnyholme and is cared for by a woman, Mo. April befriends an older girl, Gina, and is introduced to Pearl, a girl her own age. Pearl behaves in front of Mo, but actually bullies April when Mo is not around. Gina wakes April up one night to join in on a [burglary](/wiki/Burglary \"Burglary\"), and, later, Pearl attacks April, holding her head under water. Pearl also tears up April's beloved [paper dolls](/wiki/Paper_dolls \"Paper dolls\"). April confronts Pearl, and pushes her down a flight of stairs. She is reprimanded by Mo. A [voice\\-over](/wiki/Voice-over \"Voice-over\") from 14\\-year\\-old April says Gina was then \"moved on\", and, eventually, April is also moved on.",
"The flashback jumps forward to April's time at Fairdale [Residential School](/wiki/Boarding_school \"Boarding school\"). She befriends Poppy, who has [Asperger syndrome](/wiki/Asperger_syndrome \"Asperger syndrome\"). In the present, Marion buys a mobile phone for April. Back at Fairdale, April is being taught by Miss Marion Bean. A Homework project on [family trees](/wiki/Family_tree \"Family tree\") leads to a fight. At night, April tries to escape the school to find Gina, but is caught by Marion, who sends her back. Marion reads April's records, and when she learns about her history, she apologizes for the family tree incident.",
"Banned from going out on a Saturday with her peers, April is instead taken to the stately home by Marion. A present\\-day Marion goes alone to her house, to find that there are no messages on the phone. The younger Marion introduces April to Elliot as they continue to visit the home. The present\\-day Marion goes to April's room, and looks in April's box, which contains mementos from different times in her life. The younger April and Marion walk through the home's garden, and Marion tells April she is leaving Fairdale. April becomes angry, thinking that Marion, like others before her, is now going to leave her life. Marion invites April to move in with her, and she accepts. When shown around her new bedroom, April's first concern is to have somewhere to put her box. The present April considers returning to Marion, but realises there is another place she wants to visit. It occurs to Marion where April will be going, and she drives away from her house.",
"April goes to the alley where she was found as a baby, and stands among the trash bins. Marion opens April's cell phone and calls Reno's, the pizza parlour. April then notices a phone number on the side of a dustbin, with a message to \"Call if Baby\". Marion asks for directions to the pizza parlour, while April dials the number she found. It is not her mother who answers, as she hoped, but Frankie, the pizza boy who found her. She meets Frankie in the pizza parlour, and Marion arrives. April explains who Frankie is, and Marion gives April her new phone. The three sit down together. A voice\\-over from April says that, though she will probably never know her birth mother, she has a mother in Marion, and this is just the beginning.",
""
] |
Media
-----
### Book
*Bootleg* was first published as a book written by [Alex Shearer](/wiki/Alex_Shearer "Alex Shearer") and is published by Macmillan Children's Books on 4 July 2003\.{{cite book
\| title \= Bootleg: Alex Shearer: Books
\| isbn \= 033041562X
\| last1 \= Shearer
\| first1 \= Alex
\| year \= 2003
\| publisher \= Macmillan Children's Books
}}
### TV series
The adaptation, commissioned by BBC was made into a three\-part series and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom and later in Australia.
It has won a [British Academy of Film and Television Arts](/wiki/British_Academy_of_Film_and_Television_Arts "British Academy of Film and Television Arts") Award for Best Children's Drama, with the screenplay written by [Paul Smith](/wiki/Paul_Smith_%28television_writer%29 "Paul Smith (television writer)").
#### Cast
* [Martin Jarvis](/wiki/Martin_Jarvis_%28actor%29 "Martin Jarvis (actor)")
* Steven Geller
* [Gemma Jones](/wiki/Gemma_Jones "Gemma Jones")
* [Louise Siversen](/wiki/Louise_Siversen "Louise Siversen") as Mrs Spring
### Manga
The manga adaptation was done by Japanese [manga artist](/wiki/Mangaka "Mangaka"), [Aiji Yamakawa](/wiki/Aiji_Yamakawa "Aiji Yamakawa"). It was serialized in [Shueisha](/wiki/Shueisha "Shueisha")'s [shōjo](/wiki/Sh%C5%8Djo "Shōjo") monthly manga [magazine](/wiki/Magazine "Magazine"), [Bessatsu Margaret](/wiki/Bessatsu_Margaret "Bessatsu Margaret") from its 2nd issue and ended on the 15th issue of the magazine in the year 2008\.
It has only one volume and was released in October 2008\.{{cite web
\| title \= チョコレート・アンダーグラウンド: 紀伊國屋書店BookWeb
\| url\= http://bookweb.kinokuniya.co.jp/htm/4088463498\.html
\| access\-date \= 22 April 2009}}
### Anime
The anime adaptation of the manga is written by Kiyoko Yoshimura and animated by [Production I.G](/wiki/Production_I.G "Production I.G") with original character designs provided by Aiji Yamakawa. voice actor [Fumie Mizusawa](/wiki/Fumie_Mizusawa "Fumie Mizusawa") and [Toshiyuki Toyonaga](/wiki/Toshiyuki_Toyonaga "Toshiyuki Toyonaga") voices the main characters, Smudger Moore and Huntley Hunter respectively and Japanese singer, [Maaya Sakamoto](/wiki/Maaya_Sakamoto "Maaya Sakamoto") voicing Carol Hunter.
The adaptation's theme song and insert song are sung by Kana Nishino. The theme song's title is *Make Up* and the insert song is titled as *Kirari* and is released under [SME Records](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment_Japan "Sony Music Entertainment Japan").
#### Cast
* Smudger Moore – [Fumie Mizusawa](/wiki/Fumie_Mizusawa "Fumie Mizusawa")
* Huntley Hunter – [Toshiyuki Toyonaga](/wiki/Toshiyuki_Toyonaga "Toshiyuki Toyonaga")
* Louise Bubby – [Mikako Takahashi](/wiki/Mikako_Takahashi "Mikako Takahashi")
* Director of Headquarters – [Katsuyuki Konishi](/wiki/Katsuyuki_Konishi "Katsuyuki Konishi")
* Ron Moore – [Keiji Fujiwara](/wiki/Keiji_Fujiwara "Keiji Fujiwara")
* Joe Crawley – [Kenjirō Tsuda](/wiki/Kenjir%C5%8D_Tsuda "Kenjirō Tsuda")
* Carol Hunter – [Maaya Sakamoto](/wiki/Maaya_Sakamoto "Maaya Sakamoto")
* Kylie Moore – Rie Nakagawa
* John Blades – [Tatsuhisa Suzuki](/wiki/Tatsuhisa_Suzuki "Tatsuhisa Suzuki")
**Source**:{{cite web
\| title \= チョコレート・アンダーグラウンド ｜ CHOCOLATE UNDERGROUND – Cast list
\| url \= http://www.watermark.jp/choco/cast/index.html
\| access\-date \= 22 April 2009
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090903122238/http://www.watermark.jp/choco/cast/index.html
\| archive\-date \= 3 September 2009
\| url\-status \= dead
}}
|
[
"Media\n-----",
"### Book",
"*Bootleg* was first published as a book written by [Alex Shearer](/wiki/Alex_Shearer \"Alex Shearer\") and is published by Macmillan Children's Books on 4 July 2003\\.{{cite book\n \\| title \\= Bootleg: Alex Shearer: Books\n \\| isbn \\= 033041562X\n \\| last1 \\= Shearer\n \\| first1 \\= Alex\n \\| year \\= 2003\n \\| publisher \\= Macmillan Children's Books\n }}",
"### TV series",
"The adaptation, commissioned by BBC was made into a three\\-part series and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom and later in Australia.",
"It has won a [British Academy of Film and Television Arts](/wiki/British_Academy_of_Film_and_Television_Arts \"British Academy of Film and Television Arts\") Award for Best Children's Drama, with the screenplay written by [Paul Smith](/wiki/Paul_Smith_%28television_writer%29 \"Paul Smith (television writer)\").",
"#### Cast",
"* [Martin Jarvis](/wiki/Martin_Jarvis_%28actor%29 \"Martin Jarvis (actor)\")\n* Steven Geller\n* [Gemma Jones](/wiki/Gemma_Jones \"Gemma Jones\")\n* [Louise Siversen](/wiki/Louise_Siversen \"Louise Siversen\") as Mrs Spring",
"### Manga",
"The manga adaptation was done by Japanese [manga artist](/wiki/Mangaka \"Mangaka\"), [Aiji Yamakawa](/wiki/Aiji_Yamakawa \"Aiji Yamakawa\"). It was serialized in [Shueisha](/wiki/Shueisha \"Shueisha\")'s [shōjo](/wiki/Sh%C5%8Djo \"Shōjo\") monthly manga [magazine](/wiki/Magazine \"Magazine\"), [Bessatsu Margaret](/wiki/Bessatsu_Margaret \"Bessatsu Margaret\") from its 2nd issue and ended on the 15th issue of the magazine in the year 2008\\.",
"It has only one volume and was released in October 2008\\.{{cite web\n \\| title \\= チョコレート・アンダーグラウンド: 紀伊國屋書店BookWeb\n \\| url\\= http://bookweb.kinokuniya.co.jp/htm/4088463498\\.html\n \\| access\\-date \\= 22 April 2009}}",
"### Anime",
"The anime adaptation of the manga is written by Kiyoko Yoshimura and animated by [Production I.G](/wiki/Production_I.G \"Production I.G\") with original character designs provided by Aiji Yamakawa. voice actor [Fumie Mizusawa](/wiki/Fumie_Mizusawa \"Fumie Mizusawa\") and [Toshiyuki Toyonaga](/wiki/Toshiyuki_Toyonaga \"Toshiyuki Toyonaga\") voices the main characters, Smudger Moore and Huntley Hunter respectively and Japanese singer, [Maaya Sakamoto](/wiki/Maaya_Sakamoto \"Maaya Sakamoto\") voicing Carol Hunter.",
"The adaptation's theme song and insert song are sung by Kana Nishino. The theme song's title is *Make Up* and the insert song is titled as *Kirari* and is released under [SME Records](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment_Japan \"Sony Music Entertainment Japan\").",
"#### Cast",
"* Smudger Moore – [Fumie Mizusawa](/wiki/Fumie_Mizusawa \"Fumie Mizusawa\")\n* Huntley Hunter – [Toshiyuki Toyonaga](/wiki/Toshiyuki_Toyonaga \"Toshiyuki Toyonaga\")\n* Louise Bubby – [Mikako Takahashi](/wiki/Mikako_Takahashi \"Mikako Takahashi\")\n* Director of Headquarters – [Katsuyuki Konishi](/wiki/Katsuyuki_Konishi \"Katsuyuki Konishi\")\n* Ron Moore – [Keiji Fujiwara](/wiki/Keiji_Fujiwara \"Keiji Fujiwara\")\n* Joe Crawley – [Kenjirō Tsuda](/wiki/Kenjir%C5%8D_Tsuda \"Kenjirō Tsuda\")\n* Carol Hunter – [Maaya Sakamoto](/wiki/Maaya_Sakamoto \"Maaya Sakamoto\")\n* Kylie Moore – Rie Nakagawa\n* John Blades – [Tatsuhisa Suzuki](/wiki/Tatsuhisa_Suzuki \"Tatsuhisa Suzuki\")",
"**Source**:{{cite web\n \\| title \\= チョコレート・アンダーグラウンド ｜ CHOCOLATE UNDERGROUND – Cast list\n \\| url \\= http://www.watermark.jp/choco/cast/index.html\n \\| access\\-date \\= 22 April 2009\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090903122238/http://www.watermark.jp/choco/cast/index.html\n \\| archive\\-date \\= 3 September 2009\n \\| url\\-status \\= dead\n }}",
""
] |
19th century
------------
Astronomer [Jean\-Félix Adolphe Gambart](/wiki/Jean-F%C3%A9lix_Adolphe_Gambart "Jean-Félix Adolphe Gambart") discovered 16 comets from the old observatory.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marseilletourisme.fr/en/places\-see/heritage\-culture/museums/marseille\-observatory/\|title\=Marseille Observatory\|website\=MarseilleTourisme.fr\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-11\-13}} Another astronomer of Marseilles Observatory was [Benjamin Valz](/wiki/Benjamin_Valz "Benjamin Valz").
Jean\-Louis Pons (1761\-1831\) discovered his first comet in 1801, and went on to find 37 more in his career many of them at Marseilles Observatory.
The [Comet Pons\-Brook](/wiki/Comet_Pons-Brooks "Comet Pons-Brooks") was discovered by Pons in July 1812, however it was not seen again until June 1883\.{{Cite journal\|title\=1986AJ.....91\..971Y Page 971\|journal \= The Astronomical Journal\|volume \= 91\|pages \= 971\|bibcode \= 1986AJ.....91\..971Y\|last1 \= Yeomans\|first1 \= D. K.\|year \= 1986\|doi \= 10\.1086/114073}} (The next time it was recovered was in 1953\.) Some other famous comets discovered by Pons include [7P/Pons–Winnecke](/wiki/7P/Pons%E2%80%93Winnecke "7P/Pons–Winnecke"), [12P/Pons–Brooks](/wiki/12P/Pons%E2%80%93Brooks "12P/Pons–Brooks"), and [273P/Pons–Gambart](/wiki/273P/Pons%E2%80%93Gambart "273P/Pons–Gambart"), among many others. (see also [Comet Pons](/wiki/Comet_Pons "Comet Pons"))
Pons also discovered comets that came to be known by other names including [Encke's Comet](/wiki/Encke%27s_Comet "Encke's Comet"), [Comet Crommelin](/wiki/Comet_Crommelin "Comet Crommelin"), and [Biela's Comet](/wiki/Biela%27s_Comet "Biela's Comet"). This is not unusual as comet discoveries are sometimes later determined to be re\-discoveries of previously observed comets or co\-discoveries (discovered at the same time by others). Similarly, some comets were named for the first person to compute the comet's orbit, as in the case of [Halley's comet](/wiki/Halley%27s_comet "Halley's comet").
In 1863 Marseilles Observatory became a branch of the [Paris Observatory](/wiki/Paris_Observatory "Paris Observatory").{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=cWBDAAAAQBAJ\&q\=Marseille\+Observatory\&pg\=PA121\|title\=Le Verrier—Magnificent and Detestable Astronomer\|last\=Lequeux\|first\=James\|date\=2013\-03\-15\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=9781461455653\|language\=en}} This led to a new building inaugurated by 1864, designed by the architect of [Notre Dame de la Garde](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_la_Garde "Notre-Dame de la Garde"), also the 80 cm reflector was installed by that year (at the [Palais Longchamp](/wiki/Palais_Longchamp "Palais Longchamp") site).
Work continued on improvements and by 1866 a [Comet Seeker](/wiki/Comet_seeker "Comet seeker") telescope of 18 cm aperture by Martin had been installed, and a 25\.8 cm (10\.25") aperture refractor by Merz by 1872\. The Merz refractor was on [equatorial mounting](/wiki/Equatorial_mount "Equatorial mount") with governor done by Foucault.
[Foucault](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Foucault "Léon Foucault") operated his 80 cm [silver\-on\-glass](/wiki/Silvering "Silvering") reflector at Marseille Observatory,{{citation\|last1\=Tobin\|first1\=William\|title\=Foucault's invention of the silvered\-glass reflecting telescope and the history of his 80\-cm reflector at the observatoire de Marseille\|journal\=Vistas in Astronomy\|volume\=30\|issue\=2\|pages\=153–184\|year\=1987\|bibcode\=1987VA.....30\..153T\|doi\=10\.1016/0083\-6656(87\)90015\-8}} a telescope with aperture 80 cm (31\.5 inches) from about 1862 to its retirement in 1965\.{{Cite journal\|title\=1996QJRAS..37\..101G Page 101\|journal \= Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\|volume \= 37\|pages \= 101\|bibcode \= 1996QJRAS..37\..101G\|last1 \= Gascoigne\|first1 \= S. C. B.\|year \= 1996}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wyWjVWYWoO8C\&q\=Foucault\+80\+cm\+1965\&pg\=PA419\|title\=Observing and Cataloguing Nebulae and Star Clusters: From Herschel to Dreyer's New General Catalogue\|last\=Steinicke\|first\=Wolfgang\|date\=2010\-08\-19\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=9781139490108\|language\=en}} The telescope was noted for being a pioneering design, that used [silver\-coated glass](/wiki/Silvering "Silvering") in a reflecting telescope.
There was also instruments and facilities for magnetic studies.
1872 Marseilles reported several new nebula discovered using the Eichens searcher.{{Cite journal\|date\=1872\-04\-12\|title\=New Nebulæ discovered and observed by Alphonse Borrelly at the Marseilles Observatory, with the Eichens Searcher\|url\=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/32/6/248/954359\|journal\=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\|language\=en\|volume\=32\|issue\=6\|pages\=248\|doi\=10\.1093/mnras/32\.6\.248\|issn\=0035\-8711\|doi\-access\=free}}
In 1873 Marseilles Observatory announced the discovery of 300 new nebula.{{Cite journal\|title\=1873MNRAS..33\..433S Page 433\|journal \= Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\|volume \= 33\|pages \= 433\|bibcode \= 1873MNRAS..33\..433S\|last1 \= Stéphan\|first1 \= M.\|year \= 1873\| doi\=10\.1093/mnras/33\.7\.433 \|doi\-access \= free}} Of these 75 had their positions accurately cataloged, which was done by comparing the location of the nebula with previously cataloged stars of known position.
In 1873 Marseilles Observatory detached from the Paris Observatory.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Prévot\|first1\=Marie\-Louise\|last2\=Caplan\|first2\=James\|date\=1998\|title\=History of the Marseille Observatory\|journal\=Acta Historica Astronomiae\|language\=en\|volume\=3\|pages\=78\|issn\=0003\-2670\|bibcode\=1998AcHA....3\...78P}}
In 1874 the Comet [C/1874 H1](/wiki/C/1874_H1 "C/1874 H1") was discovered from the observatory.
|
[
"19th century\n------------",
"Astronomer [Jean\\-Félix Adolphe Gambart](/wiki/Jean-F%C3%A9lix_Adolphe_Gambart \"Jean-Félix Adolphe Gambart\") discovered 16 comets from the old observatory.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marseilletourisme.fr/en/places\\-see/heritage\\-culture/museums/marseille\\-observatory/\\|title\\=Marseille Observatory\\|website\\=MarseilleTourisme.fr\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-13}} Another astronomer of Marseilles Observatory was [Benjamin Valz](/wiki/Benjamin_Valz \"Benjamin Valz\").",
"Jean\\-Louis Pons (1761\\-1831\\) discovered his first comet in 1801, and went on to find 37 more in his career many of them at Marseilles Observatory.",
"The [Comet Pons\\-Brook](/wiki/Comet_Pons-Brooks \"Comet Pons-Brooks\") was discovered by Pons in July 1812, however it was not seen again until June 1883\\.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=1986AJ.....91\\..971Y Page 971\\|journal \\= The Astronomical Journal\\|volume \\= 91\\|pages \\= 971\\|bibcode \\= 1986AJ.....91\\..971Y\\|last1 \\= Yeomans\\|first1 \\= D. K.\\|year \\= 1986\\|doi \\= 10\\.1086/114073}} (The next time it was recovered was in 1953\\.) Some other famous comets discovered by Pons include [7P/Pons–Winnecke](/wiki/7P/Pons%E2%80%93Winnecke \"7P/Pons–Winnecke\"), [12P/Pons–Brooks](/wiki/12P/Pons%E2%80%93Brooks \"12P/Pons–Brooks\"), and [273P/Pons–Gambart](/wiki/273P/Pons%E2%80%93Gambart \"273P/Pons–Gambart\"), among many others. (see also [Comet Pons](/wiki/Comet_Pons \"Comet Pons\"))",
"Pons also discovered comets that came to be known by other names including [Encke's Comet](/wiki/Encke%27s_Comet \"Encke's Comet\"), [Comet Crommelin](/wiki/Comet_Crommelin \"Comet Crommelin\"), and [Biela's Comet](/wiki/Biela%27s_Comet \"Biela's Comet\"). This is not unusual as comet discoveries are sometimes later determined to be re\\-discoveries of previously observed comets or co\\-discoveries (discovered at the same time by others). Similarly, some comets were named for the first person to compute the comet's orbit, as in the case of [Halley's comet](/wiki/Halley%27s_comet \"Halley's comet\").",
"In 1863 Marseilles Observatory became a branch of the [Paris Observatory](/wiki/Paris_Observatory \"Paris Observatory\").{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cWBDAAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=Marseille\\+Observatory\\&pg\\=PA121\\|title\\=Le Verrier—Magnificent and Detestable Astronomer\\|last\\=Lequeux\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-15\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=9781461455653\\|language\\=en}} This led to a new building inaugurated by 1864, designed by the architect of [Notre Dame de la Garde](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_la_Garde \"Notre-Dame de la Garde\"), also the 80 cm reflector was installed by that year (at the [Palais Longchamp](/wiki/Palais_Longchamp \"Palais Longchamp\") site).",
"Work continued on improvements and by 1866 a [Comet Seeker](/wiki/Comet_seeker \"Comet seeker\") telescope of 18 cm aperture by Martin had been installed, and a 25\\.8 cm (10\\.25\") aperture refractor by Merz by 1872\\. The Merz refractor was on [equatorial mounting](/wiki/Equatorial_mount \"Equatorial mount\") with governor done by Foucault.",
"[Foucault](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Foucault \"Léon Foucault\") operated his 80 cm [silver\\-on\\-glass](/wiki/Silvering \"Silvering\") reflector at Marseille Observatory,{{citation\\|last1\\=Tobin\\|first1\\=William\\|title\\=Foucault's invention of the silvered\\-glass reflecting telescope and the history of his 80\\-cm reflector at the observatoire de Marseille\\|journal\\=Vistas in Astronomy\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=153–184\\|year\\=1987\\|bibcode\\=1987VA.....30\\..153T\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0083\\-6656(87\\)90015\\-8}} a telescope with aperture 80 cm (31\\.5 inches) from about 1862 to its retirement in 1965\\.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=1996QJRAS..37\\..101G Page 101\\|journal \\= Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\\|volume \\= 37\\|pages \\= 101\\|bibcode \\= 1996QJRAS..37\\..101G\\|last1 \\= Gascoigne\\|first1 \\= S. C. B.\\|year \\= 1996}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wyWjVWYWoO8C\\&q\\=Foucault\\+80\\+cm\\+1965\\&pg\\=PA419\\|title\\=Observing and Cataloguing Nebulae and Star Clusters: From Herschel to Dreyer's New General Catalogue\\|last\\=Steinicke\\|first\\=Wolfgang\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-19\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=9781139490108\\|language\\=en}} The telescope was noted for being a pioneering design, that used [silver\\-coated glass](/wiki/Silvering \"Silvering\") in a reflecting telescope.",
"There was also instruments and facilities for magnetic studies.",
"1872 Marseilles reported several new nebula discovered using the Eichens searcher.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=1872\\-04\\-12\\|title\\=New Nebulæ discovered and observed by Alphonse Borrelly at the Marseilles Observatory, with the Eichens Searcher\\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/32/6/248/954359\\|journal\\=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=32\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=248\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/mnras/32\\.6\\.248\\|issn\\=0035\\-8711\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"In 1873 Marseilles Observatory announced the discovery of 300 new nebula.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=1873MNRAS..33\\..433S Page 433\\|journal \\= Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\\|volume \\= 33\\|pages \\= 433\\|bibcode \\= 1873MNRAS..33\\..433S\\|last1 \\= Stéphan\\|first1 \\= M.\\|year \\= 1873\\| doi\\=10\\.1093/mnras/33\\.7\\.433 \\|doi\\-access \\= free}} Of these 75 had their positions accurately cataloged, which was done by comparing the location of the nebula with previously cataloged stars of known position.",
"In 1873 Marseilles Observatory detached from the Paris Observatory.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Prévot\\|first1\\=Marie\\-Louise\\|last2\\=Caplan\\|first2\\=James\\|date\\=1998\\|title\\=History of the Marseille Observatory\\|journal\\=Acta Historica Astronomiae\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=3\\|pages\\=78\\|issn\\=0003\\-2670\\|bibcode\\=1998AcHA....3\\...78P}}",
"In 1874 the Comet [C/1874 H1](/wiki/C/1874_H1 \"C/1874 H1\") was discovered from the observatory.",
""
] |
Proof
-----
### Direct Proof
Let \\mathcal U be an open cover of X. Since X is compact we can extract a finite subcover \\{A\_1, \\dots, A\_n\\} \\subseteq \\mathcal U.
If any one of the A\_i's equals X then any \\delta \> 0 will serve as a Lebesgue's number.
Otherwise for each i \\in \\{1, \\dots, n\\}, let C\_i :\= X \\smallsetminus A\_i, note that C\_i is not empty, and define a function f : X \\rightarrow \\mathbb R by
f(x) :\= \\frac{1}{n} \\sum\_{i\=1}^n d(x,C\_i).
Since f is continuous on a compact set, it attains a minimum \\delta.
The key observation is that, since every x is contained in some A\_i, the [extreme value theorem](/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem%23Generalization_to_metric_and_topological_spaces "Extreme value theorem#Generalization to metric and topological spaces") shows \\delta \> 0. Now we can verify that this \\delta is the desired Lebesgue's number.
If Y is a subset of X of diameter less than \\delta, choose x\_0 as any point in Y, then by definition of [diameter](/wiki/Diameter_of_a_set "Diameter of a set"), Y\\subseteq B\_\\delta(x\_0\), where B\_\\delta(x\_0\) denotes the ball of radius \\delta centered at x\_0. Since f(x\_0\)\\geq \\delta there must exist at least one i such that d(x\_0,C\_i)\\geq \\delta. But this means that B\_\\delta(x\_0\)\\subseteq A\_i and so, in particular, Y\\subseteq A\_i.
### Proof by Contradiction
Suppose for contradiction that X is [sequentially compact](/wiki/Sequentially_compact_space "Sequentially compact space"), \\{ U\_{\\alpha} \\mid \\alpha \\in J \\} is an open cover of X, and the Lebesgue number \\delta does not exist. That is: for all \\delta \> 0, there exists A \\subset X with \\operatorname{diam} (A) \< \\delta such that there does not exist \\beta \\in J with A \\subset U\_{\\beta}.
This enables us to perform the following construction:
\\delta\_{1} \= 1, \\quad \\exists A\_{1} \\subset X \\quad \\text{where} \\quad \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{1}) \< \\delta\_{1} \\quad \\text {and} \\quad \\neg\\exists \\beta (A\_{1} \\subset U\_{\\beta})
\\delta\_{2} \= \\frac{1}{2}, \\quad \\exists A\_{2} \\subset X \\quad \\text{where} \\quad \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{2}) \< \\delta\_{2} \\quad \\text{and} \\quad \\neg\\exists \\beta (A\_{2} \\subset U\_{\\beta})
\\vdots
\\delta\_{k}\=\\frac{1}{k}, \\quad \\exists A\_{k} \\subset X \\quad \\text{where} \\quad \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{k}) \< \\delta\_{k} \\quad \\text{and} \\quad \\neg\\exists \\beta (A\_{k} \\subset U\_{\\beta})
\\vdots
Note that A\_{n} \\neq \\emptyset for all n \\in \\mathbb{Z}^{\+}, since A\_{n} \\not\\subset U\_{\\beta}. It is therefore possible by the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice "Axiom of choice") to construct a sequence (x\_{n}) in which x\_{i} \\in A\_{i} for each i. Since X is sequentially compact, there exists a subsequence \\{x\_{n\_{k}}\\} (with k \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0}) that converges to x\_{0}.
Because \\{ U\_{\\alpha} \\} is an open cover, there exists some \\alpha\_{0} \\in J such that x\_{0} \\in U\_{\\alpha\_{0}}. As U\_{\\alpha\_{0}} is open, there exists r \> 0 with B\_{d}(x\_{0},r) \\subset U\_{\\alpha\_{0}}. Now we invoke the convergence of the subsequence \\{ x\_{n\_{k}} \\} : there exists L \\in \\mathbb{Z}^{\+} such that
L \\le k implies x\_{n\_{k}} \\in B\_{r/2} (x\_{0}).
Furthermore, there exists M \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0} such that \\delta\_{M}\= \\tfrac{1}{M} \< \\tfrac{r}{2} . Hence for all z \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0}, we have M \\le z implies \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{M}) \< \\tfrac{r}{2}.
Finally, define q \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0} such that n\_{q} \\geq M and q \\geq L. For all x' \\in A\_{n\_{q}}, notice that:
* d(x\_{n\_{q}},x') \\leq \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{n\_{q}})\<\\frac{r}{2}, because n\_{q} \\geq M.
* d(x\_{n\_{q}},x\_{0})\<\\frac{r}{2}, because q \\geq L entails x\_{n\_{q}} \\in B\_{r/2}\\left(x\_{0}\\right).
Hence d(x\_{0},x')\<r by the [triangle inequality](/wiki/Triangle_inequality "Triangle inequality"), which implies that A\_{n\_{q}} \\subset U\_{\\alpha\_{0}}. This yields the desired contradiction.
|
[
"Proof\n-----",
"### Direct Proof",
"Let \\\\mathcal U be an open cover of X. Since X is compact we can extract a finite subcover \\\\{A\\_1, \\\\dots, A\\_n\\\\} \\\\subseteq \\\\mathcal U.\nIf any one of the A\\_i's equals X then any \\\\delta \\> 0 will serve as a Lebesgue's number.\nOtherwise for each i \\\\in \\\\{1, \\\\dots, n\\\\}, let C\\_i :\\= X \\\\smallsetminus A\\_i, note that C\\_i is not empty, and define a function f : X \\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbb R by",
"f(x) :\\= \\\\frac{1}{n} \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n d(x,C\\_i). \nSince f is continuous on a compact set, it attains a minimum \\\\delta. \nThe key observation is that, since every x is contained in some A\\_i, the [extreme value theorem](/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem%23Generalization_to_metric_and_topological_spaces \"Extreme value theorem#Generalization to metric and topological spaces\") shows \\\\delta \\> 0. Now we can verify that this \\\\delta is the desired Lebesgue's number.\nIf Y is a subset of X of diameter less than \\\\delta, choose x\\_0 as any point in Y, then by definition of [diameter](/wiki/Diameter_of_a_set \"Diameter of a set\"), Y\\\\subseteq B\\_\\\\delta(x\\_0\\), where B\\_\\\\delta(x\\_0\\) denotes the ball of radius \\\\delta centered at x\\_0. Since f(x\\_0\\)\\\\geq \\\\delta there must exist at least one i such that d(x\\_0,C\\_i)\\\\geq \\\\delta. But this means that B\\_\\\\delta(x\\_0\\)\\\\subseteq A\\_i and so, in particular, Y\\\\subseteq A\\_i.",
"### Proof by Contradiction",
"Suppose for contradiction that X is [sequentially compact](/wiki/Sequentially_compact_space \"Sequentially compact space\"), \\\\{ U\\_{\\\\alpha} \\\\mid \\\\alpha \\\\in J \\\\} is an open cover of X, and the Lebesgue number \\\\delta does not exist. That is: for all \\\\delta \\> 0, there exists A \\\\subset X with \\\\operatorname{diam} (A) \\< \\\\delta such that there does not exist \\\\beta \\\\in J with A \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta}.",
"This enables us to perform the following construction:",
"\\\\delta\\_{1} \\= 1, \\\\quad \\\\exists A\\_{1} \\\\subset X \\\\quad \\\\text{where} \\\\quad \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{1}) \\< \\\\delta\\_{1} \\\\quad \\\\text {and} \\\\quad \\\\neg\\\\exists \\\\beta (A\\_{1} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta})\n\\\\delta\\_{2} \\= \\\\frac{1}{2}, \\\\quad \\\\exists A\\_{2} \\\\subset X \\\\quad \\\\text{where} \\\\quad \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{2}) \\< \\\\delta\\_{2} \\\\quad \\\\text{and} \\\\quad \\\\neg\\\\exists \\\\beta (A\\_{2} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta})\n\\\\vdots",
"\\\\delta\\_{k}\\=\\\\frac{1}{k}, \\\\quad \\\\exists A\\_{k} \\\\subset X \\\\quad \\\\text{where} \\\\quad \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{k}) \\< \\\\delta\\_{k} \\\\quad \\\\text{and} \\\\quad \\\\neg\\\\exists \\\\beta (A\\_{k} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta})\n\\\\vdots",
"",
"Note that A\\_{n} \\\\neq \\\\emptyset for all n \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}^{\\+}, since A\\_{n} \\\\not\\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta}. It is therefore possible by the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice \"Axiom of choice\") to construct a sequence (x\\_{n}) in which x\\_{i} \\\\in A\\_{i} for each i. Since X is sequentially compact, there exists a subsequence \\\\{x\\_{n\\_{k}}\\\\} (with k \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0}) that converges to x\\_{0}.",
"Because \\\\{ U\\_{\\\\alpha} \\\\} is an open cover, there exists some \\\\alpha\\_{0} \\\\in J such that x\\_{0} \\\\in U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}}. As U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}} is open, there exists r \\> 0 with B\\_{d}(x\\_{0},r) \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}}. Now we invoke the convergence of the subsequence \\\\{ x\\_{n\\_{k}} \\\\} : there exists L \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}^{\\+} such that\n L \\\\le k implies x\\_{n\\_{k}} \\\\in B\\_{r/2} (x\\_{0}).",
"Furthermore, there exists M \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0} such that \\\\delta\\_{M}\\= \\\\tfrac{1}{M} \\< \\\\tfrac{r}{2} . Hence for all z \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0}, we have M \\\\le z implies \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{M}) \\< \\\\tfrac{r}{2}.",
"Finally, define q \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0} such that n\\_{q} \\\\geq M and q \\\\geq L. For all x' \\\\in A\\_{n\\_{q}}, notice that:\n* d(x\\_{n\\_{q}},x') \\\\leq \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{n\\_{q}})\\<\\\\frac{r}{2}, because n\\_{q} \\\\geq M.\n* d(x\\_{n\\_{q}},x\\_{0})\\<\\\\frac{r}{2}, because q \\\\geq L entails x\\_{n\\_{q}} \\\\in B\\_{r/2}\\\\left(x\\_{0}\\\\right).",
"Hence d(x\\_{0},x')\\<r by the [triangle inequality](/wiki/Triangle_inequality \"Triangle inequality\"), which implies that A\\_{n\\_{q}} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}}. This yields the desired contradiction.",
""
] |
### Proof by Contradiction
Suppose for contradiction that X is [sequentially compact](/wiki/Sequentially_compact_space "Sequentially compact space"), \\{ U\_{\\alpha} \\mid \\alpha \\in J \\} is an open cover of X, and the Lebesgue number \\delta does not exist. That is: for all \\delta \> 0, there exists A \\subset X with \\operatorname{diam} (A) \< \\delta such that there does not exist \\beta \\in J with A \\subset U\_{\\beta}.
This enables us to perform the following construction:
\\delta\_{1} \= 1, \\quad \\exists A\_{1} \\subset X \\quad \\text{where} \\quad \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{1}) \< \\delta\_{1} \\quad \\text {and} \\quad \\neg\\exists \\beta (A\_{1} \\subset U\_{\\beta})
\\delta\_{2} \= \\frac{1}{2}, \\quad \\exists A\_{2} \\subset X \\quad \\text{where} \\quad \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{2}) \< \\delta\_{2} \\quad \\text{and} \\quad \\neg\\exists \\beta (A\_{2} \\subset U\_{\\beta})
\\vdots
\\delta\_{k}\=\\frac{1}{k}, \\quad \\exists A\_{k} \\subset X \\quad \\text{where} \\quad \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{k}) \< \\delta\_{k} \\quad \\text{and} \\quad \\neg\\exists \\beta (A\_{k} \\subset U\_{\\beta})
\\vdots
Note that A\_{n} \\neq \\emptyset for all n \\in \\mathbb{Z}^{\+}, since A\_{n} \\not\\subset U\_{\\beta}. It is therefore possible by the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice "Axiom of choice") to construct a sequence (x\_{n}) in which x\_{i} \\in A\_{i} for each i. Since X is sequentially compact, there exists a subsequence \\{x\_{n\_{k}}\\} (with k \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0}) that converges to x\_{0}.
Because \\{ U\_{\\alpha} \\} is an open cover, there exists some \\alpha\_{0} \\in J such that x\_{0} \\in U\_{\\alpha\_{0}}. As U\_{\\alpha\_{0}} is open, there exists r \> 0 with B\_{d}(x\_{0},r) \\subset U\_{\\alpha\_{0}}. Now we invoke the convergence of the subsequence \\{ x\_{n\_{k}} \\} : there exists L \\in \\mathbb{Z}^{\+} such that
L \\le k implies x\_{n\_{k}} \\in B\_{r/2} (x\_{0}).
Furthermore, there exists M \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0} such that \\delta\_{M}\= \\tfrac{1}{M} \< \\tfrac{r}{2} . Hence for all z \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0}, we have M \\le z implies \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{M}) \< \\tfrac{r}{2}.
Finally, define q \\in \\mathbb{Z}\_{\> 0} such that n\_{q} \\geq M and q \\geq L. For all x' \\in A\_{n\_{q}}, notice that:
* d(x\_{n\_{q}},x') \\leq \\operatorname{diam} (A\_{n\_{q}})\<\\frac{r}{2}, because n\_{q} \\geq M.
* d(x\_{n\_{q}},x\_{0})\<\\frac{r}{2}, because q \\geq L entails x\_{n\_{q}} \\in B\_{r/2}\\left(x\_{0}\\right).
Hence d(x\_{0},x')\<r by the [triangle inequality](/wiki/Triangle_inequality "Triangle inequality"), which implies that A\_{n\_{q}} \\subset U\_{\\alpha\_{0}}. This yields the desired contradiction.
|
[
"### Proof by Contradiction",
"Suppose for contradiction that X is [sequentially compact](/wiki/Sequentially_compact_space \"Sequentially compact space\"), \\\\{ U\\_{\\\\alpha} \\\\mid \\\\alpha \\\\in J \\\\} is an open cover of X, and the Lebesgue number \\\\delta does not exist. That is: for all \\\\delta \\> 0, there exists A \\\\subset X with \\\\operatorname{diam} (A) \\< \\\\delta such that there does not exist \\\\beta \\\\in J with A \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta}.",
"This enables us to perform the following construction:",
"\\\\delta\\_{1} \\= 1, \\\\quad \\\\exists A\\_{1} \\\\subset X \\\\quad \\\\text{where} \\\\quad \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{1}) \\< \\\\delta\\_{1} \\\\quad \\\\text {and} \\\\quad \\\\neg\\\\exists \\\\beta (A\\_{1} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta})\n\\\\delta\\_{2} \\= \\\\frac{1}{2}, \\\\quad \\\\exists A\\_{2} \\\\subset X \\\\quad \\\\text{where} \\\\quad \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{2}) \\< \\\\delta\\_{2} \\\\quad \\\\text{and} \\\\quad \\\\neg\\\\exists \\\\beta (A\\_{2} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta})\n\\\\vdots",
"\\\\delta\\_{k}\\=\\\\frac{1}{k}, \\\\quad \\\\exists A\\_{k} \\\\subset X \\\\quad \\\\text{where} \\\\quad \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{k}) \\< \\\\delta\\_{k} \\\\quad \\\\text{and} \\\\quad \\\\neg\\\\exists \\\\beta (A\\_{k} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta})\n\\\\vdots",
"",
"Note that A\\_{n} \\\\neq \\\\emptyset for all n \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}^{\\+}, since A\\_{n} \\\\not\\\\subset U\\_{\\\\beta}. It is therefore possible by the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice \"Axiom of choice\") to construct a sequence (x\\_{n}) in which x\\_{i} \\\\in A\\_{i} for each i. Since X is sequentially compact, there exists a subsequence \\\\{x\\_{n\\_{k}}\\\\} (with k \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0}) that converges to x\\_{0}.",
"Because \\\\{ U\\_{\\\\alpha} \\\\} is an open cover, there exists some \\\\alpha\\_{0} \\\\in J such that x\\_{0} \\\\in U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}}. As U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}} is open, there exists r \\> 0 with B\\_{d}(x\\_{0},r) \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}}. Now we invoke the convergence of the subsequence \\\\{ x\\_{n\\_{k}} \\\\} : there exists L \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}^{\\+} such that\n L \\\\le k implies x\\_{n\\_{k}} \\\\in B\\_{r/2} (x\\_{0}).",
"Furthermore, there exists M \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0} such that \\\\delta\\_{M}\\= \\\\tfrac{1}{M} \\< \\\\tfrac{r}{2} . Hence for all z \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0}, we have M \\\\le z implies \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{M}) \\< \\\\tfrac{r}{2}.",
"Finally, define q \\\\in \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_{\\> 0} such that n\\_{q} \\\\geq M and q \\\\geq L. For all x' \\\\in A\\_{n\\_{q}}, notice that:\n* d(x\\_{n\\_{q}},x') \\\\leq \\\\operatorname{diam} (A\\_{n\\_{q}})\\<\\\\frac{r}{2}, because n\\_{q} \\\\geq M.\n* d(x\\_{n\\_{q}},x\\_{0})\\<\\\\frac{r}{2}, because q \\\\geq L entails x\\_{n\\_{q}} \\\\in B\\_{r/2}\\\\left(x\\_{0}\\\\right).",
"Hence d(x\\_{0},x')\\<r by the [triangle inequality](/wiki/Triangle_inequality \"Triangle inequality\"), which implies that A\\_{n\\_{q}} \\\\subset U\\_{\\\\alpha\\_{0}}. This yields the desired contradiction.",
""
] |
Career
------
During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), he served in the [Army Education Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Educational_Corps "Royal Army Educational Corps"), ending the war as a lieutenant colonel.
He joined the [School of Oriental and African Studies](/wiki/School_of_Oriental_and_African_Studies "School of Oriental and African Studies") (SOAS), and soon became professor and head of the history department.
In 1956 he became director of SOAS, succeeding Sir Ralph Turner, where he "...virtually remade the school..."[Obituaries \- Professor Sir Cyril Philips](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/professor-sir-cyril-philips-523619.html). *The Independent* (19 January 2006\). Retrieved on 17 July 2013\. in the following years.
From 1972 to 1976 he was appointed [vice\-chancellor](/wiki/Vice-chancellor "Vice-chancellor") of the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London "University of London"), where he was involved in controversial reforms which shortened his tenure.
### Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure
Philips chaired a *[Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") on Criminal Procedure* into the police and criminal evidence system, the police complaints board and review of the [Prevention of Terrorism Act](/wiki/Prevention_of_Terrorism_Acts "Prevention of Terrorism Acts") during the years 1978 to 1981\.["Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure (Philips Commission): Records"](http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/SearchUI/details?Uri=C3028) nationalarchives.gov.uk Its terms of reference were to examine, having regard both to the interests of the community in bringing offenders to justice and to the rights and liberties of persons suspected or accused of crime, and taking into account also the need for the efficient and economical use of resources, whether changes are needed in England and Wales in:
* the powers and duties of the police in respect of the investigation of criminal offences and the rights and duties of suspect and accused persons, including the means by which these are secured;
* the process of and responsibility for the prosecution of criminal offences;
* other features of criminal procedure and evidence as relate to the above;
* and to make recommendations.
The commission held 50 full meetings, the first on 15 February 1978 and in addition set up three sub\-committees
* the Research Committee which engaged in the preliminary formulation of a research programme,
* a Law and Procedure Committee which prepared the supplementary volume of the Report describing existing arrangements, and
* a Drafting Committee which prepared drafts of the final Report for the approval of the full Commission.
The commission drew on evidence from four main sources, written submissions, oral evidence, visits by the Commission and research. Oral evidence was taken in late 1979 and early 1980 on the basis of a consultative paper in order to test opinion on key issues already identified and proposed changes. Commissioners visited every police force in England and Wales and also many police stations and criminal courts in the United Kingdom and abroad. In addition they initiated twelve research studies, which were published, and some smaller research projects by Commission staff, the results of which were incorporated in the Report.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), he served in the [Army Education Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Educational_Corps \"Royal Army Educational Corps\"), ending the war as a lieutenant colonel.",
"He joined the [School of Oriental and African Studies](/wiki/School_of_Oriental_and_African_Studies \"School of Oriental and African Studies\") (SOAS), and soon became professor and head of the history department.",
"In 1956 he became director of SOAS, succeeding Sir Ralph Turner, where he \"...virtually remade the school...\"[Obituaries \\- Professor Sir Cyril Philips](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/professor-sir-cyril-philips-523619.html). *The Independent* (19 January 2006\\). Retrieved on 17 July 2013\\. in the following years.",
"From 1972 to 1976 he was appointed [vice\\-chancellor](/wiki/Vice-chancellor \"Vice-chancellor\") of the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London \"University of London\"), where he was involved in controversial reforms which shortened his tenure.",
"### Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure",
"Philips chaired a *[Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission \"Royal Commission\") on Criminal Procedure* into the police and criminal evidence system, the police complaints board and review of the [Prevention of Terrorism Act](/wiki/Prevention_of_Terrorism_Acts \"Prevention of Terrorism Acts\") during the years 1978 to 1981\\.[\"Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure (Philips Commission): Records\"](http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/SearchUI/details?Uri=C3028) nationalarchives.gov.uk Its terms of reference were to examine, having regard both to the interests of the community in bringing offenders to justice and to the rights and liberties of persons suspected or accused of crime, and taking into account also the need for the efficient and economical use of resources, whether changes are needed in England and Wales in:\n* the powers and duties of the police in respect of the investigation of criminal offences and the rights and duties of suspect and accused persons, including the means by which these are secured;\n* the process of and responsibility for the prosecution of criminal offences;\n* other features of criminal procedure and evidence as relate to the above;\n* and to make recommendations.\nThe commission held 50 full meetings, the first on 15 February 1978 and in addition set up three sub\\-committees\n* the Research Committee which engaged in the preliminary formulation of a research programme,\n* a Law and Procedure Committee which prepared the supplementary volume of the Report describing existing arrangements, and\n* a Drafting Committee which prepared drafts of the final Report for the approval of the full Commission.\nThe commission drew on evidence from four main sources, written submissions, oral evidence, visits by the Commission and research. Oral evidence was taken in late 1979 and early 1980 on the basis of a consultative paper in order to test opinion on key issues already identified and proposed changes. Commissioners visited every police force in England and Wales and also many police stations and criminal courts in the United Kingdom and abroad. In addition they initiated twelve research studies, which were published, and some smaller research projects by Commission staff, the results of which were incorporated in the Report.",
""
] |
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