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Party program ------------- ### Basic principles The Liberal Democrats passed their "social\-liberal principles" ([German](/wiki/German_language "German language"): {{lang\|de\|Sozialliberale Leitgedanken}}) in their 47th general assembly in [Göttingen](/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen "Göttingen"). Therein, they call for "human dignity through self\-determination", "equality of all mankind", "progress through reason" and "democratisation of society".{{Cite web\|title\=Social\-liberal Principles\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/grundsatzprogramm/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} ### Education For the Liberal Democrats, education is deemed as "one of the most important goals of social liberal politics". They call for a federally uniform educational system and centralised exams. The educational system shall be reformed as a [comprehensive school](/wiki/Comprehensive_school "Comprehensive school") system. They also call for the replacement of the current religious education through a single class taken by all students regardless of religious and cultural affiliation.{{Cite web\|title\=Education\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/bildung/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} ### Civil rights As outlined in their "social\-liberal principles", the Liberal Democrats advocate for "equal civil rights for all human beings". Securing [privacy](/wiki/Privacy "Privacy") is one of the core elements of their policy. They demand the extension of the [secrecy of correspondence](/wiki/Secrecy_of_correspondence "Secrecy of correspondence") to an overall secrecy of communications including digital communication. Furthermore, they oppose [data retention](/wiki/Data_retention "Data retention") without prior suspicion as well as [eavesdropping](/wiki/Eavesdropping "Eavesdropping") operations on homes.{{Cite web\|title\=Privacy\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/privatsphaere/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} The Liberal Democrats refer to personal data as "property of the data subject" and demand user\-friendly privacy. They urge for a right to [end\-to\-end encrypted](/wiki/End-to-end_encryption "End-to-end encryption") communication and oppose the introduction of [voting machines](/wiki/Voting_machine "Voting machine").{{Cite web\|title\=Digital Policy\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/digitales/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} Amongst equal rights for all human beings, they demand equal rights and acceptance for [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") couples and other forms of relationship.{{Cite web\|title\=Youth \& Family\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/jugend\-familie/\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-06\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} They also urge to abolish the [blood donation](/wiki/Blood_donation "Blood donation") prohibition for homosexual people in Germany.{{Cite web\|title\=Healthcare Policy\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/gesundheit/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} ### Democracy The Liberal Democrats call for decreasing the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold "Electoral threshold"), a [single transferable vote](/wiki/Single_transferable_vote "Single transferable vote") and lowering the [voting age](/wiki/Voting_age "Voting age") to 16\. They claim that [non\-citizens](/wiki/Non-citizen "Non-citizen") with a long\-term main residence in Germany are also part of the [multicultural](/wiki/Multiculturalism "Multiculturalism") society and shall be eligible to vote. They also demand to introduce more [direct democratic](/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy") elements and a stricter [separation of church and state](/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state "Separation of church and state").{{Cite web\|title\=Democracy Policy\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/demokratie/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} ### Social policy The Liberal Democrats call for the introduction of an [unconditional basic income](/wiki/Unconditional_basic_income "Unconditional basic income"), in which all tax\-financed social assistance of the state is combined.{{Cite web\|title\=Bedingungsloses Grundeinkommen\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/bedingungsloses\-grundeinkommen/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-04\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} This should be available immediately via an adjustment of the tax curve in the event of income shortfalls, without representing an additional income for people with high incomes. They also urge to "actively fight against [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness "Homelessness") through housing instead of pushing the topic into the background". To that end, they propose a [Housing First](/wiki/Housing_First "Housing First") solution and demand to end financial subsidies for [defensive architecture](/wiki/Hostile_architecture "Hostile architecture").{{Cite web\|title\=Social Policy\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/soziales/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} ### Health policy The Liberal Democrats favour to establish a national healthcare scheme similar to the British [National Health Service](/wiki/National_Health_Service "National Health Service"). Additional coverage through complementary insurances shall remain possible. They focus on the infrastructure, personnel as well as digitalisation of the healthcare system. [Mental health](/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health") is also one of the main points in their health policy. They also demand to reform various legal frameworks. As such, they outline conditions under which [assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide "Assisted suicide") shall be legalised. They urge to abolish the prohibition of blood donation by homosexual individuals as well as to ease access to [abortion](/wiki/Abortion "Abortion") and [assisted reproductive technology](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology "Assisted reproductive technology"). ### Economic Policy The Liberal Democrats call for a [social market economy](/wiki/Social_market_economy "Social market economy"). They define social market economy as an economy in which the state shall interfere as less as possible. However at the point at which the [invisible hand](/wiki/Invisible_hand "Invisible hand") fails and the economy acts in disfavour of society, the state shall interfere. Safeguarding access to basic supplies and infrastructure has the highest priority in their economic policy. They also take high priority in ensuring labor welfare and outline it as a main condition for access to any [subventions](/wiki/Subvention "Subvention") from the state. Providing the same wage for the same work regardless of a person's gender is also considered part of the fair working conditions they demand.{{Cite web\|title\=Economic Policy\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/wirtschaft/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} They favor a structural policy that focuses on [innovation](/wiki/Innovation "Innovation") and adjustment. They demand to uphold a [balanced budget amendment](/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment "Balanced budget amendment") with little exceptions to it. They are also proposing to reform the [tax system](/wiki/Tax_system "Tax system") partially while sustaining [progressive taxation](/wiki/Progressive_tax "Progressive tax"). Furthermore, they demand to establish a [fiscal union](/wiki/Fiscal_union "Fiscal union") within the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"). ### European Union The Liberal Democrats favour the European Union and demand to further deepen the Union. To do so, they urge to reform the EU as a "European Republic" with a [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") with more competences at its core. They call for establishing a common European government and constitution.{{Cite web\|title\=Europe\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/demokratie/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} The Liberal Democrats urge for solutions at EU\-level for various topics, such as in asylum and migration policy, [labour policy](/wiki/Labour_policy "Labour policy") as well as a common [defense policy](/wiki/Defense_policy "Defense policy") through establishing an EU\-Army. Furthermore, they propose to establish a fiscal union. ### Foreign Policy The Liberal Democrats make positive remarks on how the [European Economic Community](/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community") evolved into the EU and emphasise the advantages of international cooperation. As such, they demand to increase [development aid](/wiki/Development_aid "Development aid") and establish a global partnership in the fight against poverty. Furthermore, they demand to reform the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") with a [UN Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/UN_Parliamentary_Assembly "UN Parliamentary Assembly") representing humankind at its core. The reformed UN shall also establish a UN\-Army, making national armies unnecessary.{{Cite web\|title\=Foreign Policy \& Security\|url\=https://liberale\-demokraten.de/positionen/aussen\-sicherheit/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-15\|website\=Liberale Demokraten \- Die Sozialliberalen\|language\=de\-DE}} The Liberal Democrats demand that military actions shall always be seen as a last resort and always follow legitimation through a [UN resolution](/wiki/UN_resolution "UN resolution") or a [casus foederis](/wiki/Casus_foederis "Casus foederis"). They also condemn violations to [international law](/wiki/International_law "International law") in terms of invasion, occupation, resettlements and coups in foreign territory while endorsing [nonviolent resistances](/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance "Nonviolent resistance") of groups of people for their [right of self\-determination](/wiki/Right_of_self-determination "Right of self-determination"). They consider aiming for multilateral agreements to be the best way to resolve conflicts.
[ "Party program\n-------------", "### Basic principles", "The Liberal Democrats passed their \"social\\-liberal principles\" ([German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\"): {{lang\\|de\\|Sozialliberale Leitgedanken}}) in their 47th general assembly in [Göttingen](/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen \"Göttingen\"). Therein, they call for \"human dignity through self\\-determination\", \"equality of all mankind\", \"progress through reason\" and \"democratisation of society\".{{Cite web\\|title\\=Social\\-liberal Principles\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/grundsatzprogramm/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "### Education", "For the Liberal Democrats, education is deemed as \"one of the most important goals of social liberal politics\". They call for a federally uniform educational system and centralised exams. The educational system shall be reformed as a [comprehensive school](/wiki/Comprehensive_school \"Comprehensive school\") system. They also call for the replacement of the current religious education through a single class taken by all students regardless of religious and cultural affiliation.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Education\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/bildung/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "### Civil rights", "As outlined in their \"social\\-liberal principles\", the Liberal Democrats advocate for \"equal civil rights for all human beings\". Securing [privacy](/wiki/Privacy \"Privacy\") is one of the core elements of their policy. They demand the extension of the [secrecy of correspondence](/wiki/Secrecy_of_correspondence \"Secrecy of correspondence\") to an overall secrecy of communications including digital communication. Furthermore, they oppose [data retention](/wiki/Data_retention \"Data retention\") without prior suspicion as well as [eavesdropping](/wiki/Eavesdropping \"Eavesdropping\") operations on homes.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Privacy\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/privatsphaere/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}} The Liberal Democrats refer to personal data as \"property of the data subject\" and demand user\\-friendly privacy. They urge for a right to [end\\-to\\-end encrypted](/wiki/End-to-end_encryption \"End-to-end encryption\") communication and oppose the introduction of [voting machines](/wiki/Voting_machine \"Voting machine\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Digital Policy\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/digitales/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "Amongst equal rights for all human beings, they demand equal rights and acceptance for [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") couples and other forms of relationship.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Youth \\& Family\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/jugend\\-familie/\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-06\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}} They also urge to abolish the [blood donation](/wiki/Blood_donation \"Blood donation\") prohibition for homosexual people in Germany.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Healthcare Policy\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/gesundheit/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "### Democracy", "The Liberal Democrats call for decreasing the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold \"Electoral threshold\"), a [single transferable vote](/wiki/Single_transferable_vote \"Single transferable vote\") and lowering the [voting age](/wiki/Voting_age \"Voting age\") to 16\\. They claim that [non\\-citizens](/wiki/Non-citizen \"Non-citizen\") with a long\\-term main residence in Germany are also part of the [multicultural](/wiki/Multiculturalism \"Multiculturalism\") society and shall be eligible to vote. They also demand to introduce more [direct democratic](/wiki/Direct_democracy \"Direct democracy\") elements and a stricter [separation of church and state](/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state \"Separation of church and state\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Democracy Policy\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/demokratie/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "### Social policy", "The Liberal Democrats call for the introduction of an [unconditional basic income](/wiki/Unconditional_basic_income \"Unconditional basic income\"), in which all tax\\-financed social assistance of the state is combined.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Bedingungsloses Grundeinkommen\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/bedingungsloses\\-grundeinkommen/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-04\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}} This should be available immediately via an adjustment of the tax curve in the event of income shortfalls, without representing an additional income for people with high incomes.", "They also urge to \"actively fight against [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness \"Homelessness\") through housing instead of pushing the topic into the background\". To that end, they propose a [Housing First](/wiki/Housing_First \"Housing First\") solution and demand to end financial subsidies for [defensive architecture](/wiki/Hostile_architecture \"Hostile architecture\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Social Policy\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/soziales/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "### Health policy", "The Liberal Democrats favour to establish a national healthcare scheme similar to the British [National Health Service](/wiki/National_Health_Service \"National Health Service\"). Additional coverage through complementary insurances shall remain possible. They focus on the infrastructure, personnel as well as digitalisation of the healthcare system. [Mental health](/wiki/Mental_health \"Mental health\") is also one of the main points in their health policy.", "They also demand to reform various legal frameworks. As such, they outline conditions under which [assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide \"Assisted suicide\") shall be legalised. They urge to abolish the prohibition of blood donation by homosexual individuals as well as to ease access to [abortion](/wiki/Abortion \"Abortion\") and [assisted reproductive technology](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology \"Assisted reproductive technology\").", "### Economic Policy", "The Liberal Democrats call for a [social market economy](/wiki/Social_market_economy \"Social market economy\"). They define social market economy as an economy in which the state shall interfere as less as possible. However at the point at which the [invisible hand](/wiki/Invisible_hand \"Invisible hand\") fails and the economy acts in disfavour of society, the state shall interfere. Safeguarding access to basic supplies and infrastructure has the highest priority in their economic policy. They also take high priority in ensuring labor welfare and outline it as a main condition for access to any [subventions](/wiki/Subvention \"Subvention\") from the state. Providing the same wage for the same work regardless of a person's gender is also considered part of the fair working conditions they demand.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Economic Policy\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/wirtschaft/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "They favor a structural policy that focuses on [innovation](/wiki/Innovation \"Innovation\") and adjustment. They demand to uphold a [balanced budget amendment](/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment \"Balanced budget amendment\") with little exceptions to it. They are also proposing to reform the [tax system](/wiki/Tax_system \"Tax system\") partially while sustaining [progressive taxation](/wiki/Progressive_tax \"Progressive tax\"). Furthermore, they demand to establish a [fiscal union](/wiki/Fiscal_union \"Fiscal union\") within the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\").", "### European Union", "The Liberal Democrats favour the European Union and demand to further deepen the Union. To do so, they urge to reform the EU as a \"European Republic\" with a [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") with more competences at its core. They call for establishing a common European government and constitution.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Europe\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/demokratie/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "The Liberal Democrats urge for solutions at EU\\-level for various topics, such as in asylum and migration policy, [labour policy](/wiki/Labour_policy \"Labour policy\") as well as a common [defense policy](/wiki/Defense_policy \"Defense policy\") through establishing an EU\\-Army. Furthermore, they propose to establish a fiscal union.", "### Foreign Policy", "The Liberal Democrats make positive remarks on how the [European Economic Community](/wiki/European_Economic_Community \"European Economic Community\") evolved into the EU and emphasise the advantages of international cooperation. As such, they demand to increase [development aid](/wiki/Development_aid \"Development aid\") and establish a global partnership in the fight against poverty. Furthermore, they demand to reform the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") with a [UN Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/UN_Parliamentary_Assembly \"UN Parliamentary Assembly\") representing humankind at its core. The reformed UN shall also establish a UN\\-Army, making national armies unnecessary.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Foreign Policy \\& Security\\|url\\=https://liberale\\-demokraten.de/positionen/aussen\\-sicherheit/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Liberale Demokraten \\- Die Sozialliberalen\\|language\\=de\\-DE}}", "The Liberal Democrats demand that military actions shall always be seen as a last resort and always follow legitimation through a [UN resolution](/wiki/UN_resolution \"UN resolution\") or a [casus foederis](/wiki/Casus_foederis \"Casus foederis\"). They also condemn violations to [international law](/wiki/International_law \"International law\") in terms of invasion, occupation, resettlements and coups in foreign territory while endorsing [nonviolent resistances](/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance \"Nonviolent resistance\") of groups of people for their [right of self\\-determination](/wiki/Right_of_self-determination \"Right of self-determination\"). They consider aiming for multilateral agreements to be the best way to resolve conflicts.", "" ]
Hatfield–McCoy -------------- {{Main\|Hatfield–McCoy feud}} Perhaps the most infamous feud in the history of the U.S., the Hatfield–McCoy conflict is an iconic and legendary event in American [folklore](/wiki/Folklore "Folklore"). The Hatfields, of [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia "West Virginia"), were led by [William Anderson "Devil Anse" Hatfield](/wiki/Devil_Anse_Hatfield "Devil Anse Hatfield"). The McCoys, of [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky"), were under the leadership of [Randolph "Ole Ran’l" McCoy](/wiki/Randolph_McCoy "Randolph McCoy"). The feud began after the killing of Asa Harmon McCoy, an ex\-[Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 "Union (American Civil War)") soldier, who was gunned down on January 7, 1865, while hiding in a cave. McCoy died at the hands of a group of Hatfield allies, and Confederate irregulars (named the "Logan Wildcats"), who had tracked him to his hiding place. The conflict was renewed thirteen years later when two McCoy family members killed a witness who was related to both families, and who had testified against them in a court case involving ownership of a stray pig. The simmering feud escalated soon afterward, when Roseanna McCoy began a courtship with Johnson "Johnse" Hatfield, Devil Anse's son. Roseanna left her family to live with the Hatfields in West Virginia. In 1881, when Johnse abandoned the pregnant Roseanna, marrying her cousin instead, the bitterness between the two families grew. In 1882, Ellison Hatfield, brother of Devil Anse Hatfield, was killed in an election\-day dispute by three of Roseanna's brothers, who themselves were killed by a Hatfield\-led mob while in the custody of the law. Between 1880 and 1891, the feud claimed more than a dozen members of the two families, becoming headline news around the country. The feud reached its peak during the so\-called 1888 New Years Night Massacre. Several of the Hatfield gang surrounded the McCoy [cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin "Log cabin") and opened fire on the sleeping family. The cabin was set on fire in an effort to drive Randolph McCoy into the open. He escaped by making a break, but two of his children were murdered, and his wife was beaten and left for dead. In 1888, Wall Hatfield and eight others were arrested and ordered to stand trial for the New Years Night murders. Seven received [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment "Life imprisonment"), while the eighth, Ellison "Cottontop" Mounts, was executed by [hanging](/wiki/Hanging "Hanging"). Fighting between the families eased following the hanging of Mounts. Trials, however, continued for several years, with the trial of Johnse Hatfield the last, in 1901\.
[ "Hatfield–McCoy\n--------------", "{{Main\\|Hatfield–McCoy feud}}", "Perhaps the most infamous feud in the history of the U.S., the Hatfield–McCoy conflict is an iconic and legendary event in American [folklore](/wiki/Folklore \"Folklore\"). The Hatfields, of [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\"), were led by [William Anderson \"Devil Anse\" Hatfield](/wiki/Devil_Anse_Hatfield \"Devil Anse Hatfield\"). The McCoys, of [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\"), were under the leadership of [Randolph \"Ole Ran’l\" McCoy](/wiki/Randolph_McCoy \"Randolph McCoy\").", "The feud began after the killing of Asa Harmon McCoy, an ex\\-[Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"Union (American Civil War)\") soldier, who was gunned down on January 7, 1865, while hiding in a cave. McCoy died at the hands of a group of Hatfield allies, and Confederate irregulars (named the \"Logan Wildcats\"), who had tracked him to his hiding place. The conflict was renewed thirteen years later when two McCoy family members killed a witness who was related to both families, and who had testified against them in a court case involving ownership of a stray pig.", "The simmering feud escalated soon afterward, when Roseanna McCoy began a courtship with Johnson \"Johnse\" Hatfield, Devil Anse's son. Roseanna left her family to live with the Hatfields in West Virginia. In 1881, when Johnse abandoned the pregnant Roseanna, marrying her cousin instead, the bitterness between the two families grew. In 1882, Ellison Hatfield, brother of Devil Anse Hatfield, was killed in an election\\-day dispute by three of Roseanna's brothers, who themselves were killed by a Hatfield\\-led mob while in the custody of the law.", "Between 1880 and 1891, the feud claimed more than a dozen members of the two families, becoming headline news around the country.", "The feud reached its peak during the so\\-called 1888 New Years Night Massacre. Several of the Hatfield gang surrounded the McCoy [cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin \"Log cabin\") and opened fire on the sleeping family. The cabin was set on fire in an effort to drive Randolph McCoy into the open. He escaped by making a break, but two of his children were murdered, and his wife was beaten and left for dead.", "In 1888, Wall Hatfield and eight others were arrested and ordered to stand trial for the New Years Night murders. Seven received [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment \"Life imprisonment\"), while the eighth, Ellison \"Cottontop\" Mounts, was executed by [hanging](/wiki/Hanging \"Hanging\"). Fighting between the families eased following the hanging of Mounts. Trials, however, continued for several years, with the trial of Johnse Hatfield the last, in 1901\\.", "" ]
Sutton–Taylor ------------- [thumb\|200px\|John Wesley Hardin joined the Sutton\-Taylor feud at the behest of his cousin, Emanuel "Mannen" Clements](/wiki/File:John_Wesley_Hardin.gif "John Wesley Hardin.gif") {{Main\|Sutton–Taylor feud}} This notorious range war began as a county law enforcement issue between the Taylor family, headed by Pitkin Taylor, brother of Creed Taylor, a renowned Texas Ranger, and local lawman William E. Sutton, a former Confederate soldier, who had moved with his family to [DeWitt County, Texas](/wiki/DeWitt_County%2C_Texas "DeWitt County, Texas"), originally intending to simply raise cattle. The feud, which lasted a decade and cost at least 35 lives, has been called the longest and bloodiest in Texas history. It eventually involved the Texas State Police, the Texas Rangers, and the outlaw [John Wesley Hardin](/wiki/John_Wesley_Hardin "John Wesley Hardin"). Sutton had become a deputy sheriff in Clinton, Texas, and on March 25, 1868, he shot and killed a Taylor kinsman, Charley Taylor, whom he was trying to arrest for horse theft. The following Christmas Eve, Sutton killed Buck Taylor and Dick Chisholm in a saloon in Clinton, after an argument regarding the sale of some horses. On August 23, 1869, the Sutton faction was suspected of the ambush and killing of Jack Hays Taylor. In July 1870, Sutton was appointed to the [state police force](/wiki/Texas_State_Police "Texas State Police"), serving under Captain [Jack Helm](/wiki/Jack_Helm "Jack Helm") (sometimes Helms). The police force was tasked with enforcing the "Reconstruction" policies of the federal government, but operated with somewhat of a free\-hand, and more often than not returned with wanted suspects dead. On August 26, 1870, the Suttons were allegedly sent to arrest Henry and his brother William Kelly, who were both related by marriage to Pitkin Taylor, on a trivial charge. However, rather than arresting the men, the Suttons shot the Kellys. Due to his handling of the affair, Helm was dismissed from the state police force, though cleared of any wrongdoing. Pitkin Taylor was murdered in 1872 by Sutton supporters and was succeeded as head of the family by his son Jim Taylor, who vowed revenge on Sutton. ### John Wesley Hardin joins the feud In early 1872, on\-the\-run outlaw John Wesley Hardin joined his cousin, Mannen Clements, in neighboring [Gonzales County, Texas](/wiki/Gonzales_County%2C_Texas "Gonzales County, Texas"). There, Clements and his brothers were active in the [cattle rustling](/wiki/Cattle_raiding "Cattle raiding") or herding business working for Taylor family friends. On May 15, 1873, Sutton family allies Jim Cox and Jake Christman were killed by the Taylor faction during a gunfight at Tomlinson Creek. Hardin later admitted that there were reports that he had led the fight in which these two men were killed, but would neither confirm nor deny his involvement. Two days later, in a May 17, 1873, gunfight, Hardin killed Dewitt County deputy sheriff, J.B. Morgan—serving under Helm, who was now sheriff of DeWitt County. Hardin played a part in the assassination later that same day of Sheriff Helm in [Albuquerque, Texas](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_Texas "Albuquerque, Texas"). Hardin, Helm and Sam McCracken Jr. were gathered together talking in front of a blacksmith shop. Helm was unarmed, having left his revolvers at Mrs. McCracken's boarding house, where he was then residing. Jim Taylor advanced on Helm from behind and attempted to discharge his revolver, but it misfired. As Helm turned, Taylor fired again, this time striking Helm in the chest. Helm rushed Taylor with the intent to grapple with him, but Hardin discharged a double barrel shotgun, shattering Helm's arm. As Helm attempted to flee into the blacksmith shop, Hardin held townspeople at gunpoint while Taylor unloaded the remaining five bullets from his revolver into him. As Hardin and Taylor mounted their horses and prepared to ride away, they boasted that they had accomplished what they had come to do. The next night, Hardin and other Taylor supporters surrounded the ranch house of Sutton family ally, Joe Tumlinson. A shouted truce was arranged and both sides signed a peace treaty in Clinton, Texas. However, within a year, violence once again broke out between the two sides. The feud reached its apex when Jim and his cousin Billy Taylor gunned down William Sutton and a friend, Gabriel Slaughter, as they waited on a steamboat platform, in [Indianola, Texas](/wiki/Indianola%2C_Texas "Indianola, Texas"), on March 11, 1874\. Tired of the feud, Sutton had been planning to leave the area for good. In retaliation, the Sutton faction caught and lynched three of the Taylor group, on June 22, 1874\. After this, the fighting continued, though with much less frequency. Jim Taylor was killed January 1, 1875\. On November 17, 1875, Reuben H. Brown, the new leader of the Suttons and ex\-marshal of [Cuero, Texas](/wiki/Cuero%2C_Texas "Cuero, Texas"), was shot down in the Exchange Saloon by Hardin, his last known action in the feud. In October 1876, after another outbreak of violence, Texas Ranger, Captain [Jesse Lee Hall](/wiki/Jesse_Lee_Hall "Jesse Lee Hall"), led a force into Cuero, Texas, to break up the feud for good. By January 1877, he and his supporting troop had put an end to the conflict.
[ "Sutton–Taylor\n-------------", "[thumb\\|200px\\|John Wesley Hardin joined the Sutton\\-Taylor feud at the behest of his cousin, Emanuel \"Mannen\" Clements](/wiki/File:John_Wesley_Hardin.gif \"John Wesley Hardin.gif\")\n{{Main\\|Sutton–Taylor feud}}", "This notorious range war began as a county law enforcement issue between the Taylor family, headed by Pitkin Taylor, brother of Creed Taylor, a renowned Texas Ranger, and local lawman William E. Sutton, a former Confederate soldier, who had moved with his family to [DeWitt County, Texas](/wiki/DeWitt_County%2C_Texas \"DeWitt County, Texas\"), originally intending to simply raise cattle. The feud, which lasted a decade and cost at least 35 lives, has been called the longest and bloodiest in Texas history. It eventually involved the Texas State Police, the Texas Rangers, and the outlaw [John Wesley Hardin](/wiki/John_Wesley_Hardin \"John Wesley Hardin\").", "Sutton had become a deputy sheriff in Clinton, Texas, and on March 25, 1868, he shot and killed a Taylor kinsman, Charley Taylor, whom he was trying to arrest for horse theft. The following Christmas Eve, Sutton killed Buck Taylor and Dick Chisholm in a saloon in Clinton, after an argument regarding the sale of some horses. On August 23, 1869, the Sutton faction was suspected of the ambush and killing of Jack Hays Taylor.", "In July 1870, Sutton was appointed to the [state police force](/wiki/Texas_State_Police \"Texas State Police\"), serving under Captain [Jack Helm](/wiki/Jack_Helm \"Jack Helm\") (sometimes Helms). The police force was tasked with enforcing the \"Reconstruction\" policies of the federal government, but operated with somewhat of a free\\-hand, and more often than not returned with wanted suspects dead.", "On August 26, 1870, the Suttons were allegedly sent to arrest Henry and his brother William Kelly, who were both related by marriage to Pitkin Taylor, on a trivial charge. However, rather than arresting the men, the Suttons shot the Kellys. Due to his handling of the affair, Helm was dismissed from the state police force, though cleared of any wrongdoing.", "Pitkin Taylor was murdered in 1872 by Sutton supporters and was succeeded as head of the family by his son Jim Taylor, who vowed revenge on Sutton.", "### John Wesley Hardin joins the feud", "In early 1872, on\\-the\\-run outlaw John Wesley Hardin joined his cousin, Mannen Clements, in neighboring [Gonzales County, Texas](/wiki/Gonzales_County%2C_Texas \"Gonzales County, Texas\"). There, Clements and his brothers were active in the [cattle rustling](/wiki/Cattle_raiding \"Cattle raiding\") or herding business working for Taylor family friends.", "On May 15, 1873, Sutton family allies Jim Cox and Jake Christman were killed by the Taylor faction during a gunfight at Tomlinson Creek. Hardin later admitted that there were reports that he had led the fight in which these two men were killed, but would neither confirm nor deny his involvement.", "Two days later, in a May 17, 1873, gunfight, Hardin killed Dewitt County deputy sheriff, J.B. Morgan—serving under Helm, who was now sheriff of DeWitt County. Hardin played a part in the assassination later that same day of Sheriff Helm in [Albuquerque, Texas](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_Texas \"Albuquerque, Texas\"). Hardin, Helm and Sam McCracken Jr. were gathered together talking in front of a blacksmith shop. Helm was unarmed, having left his revolvers at Mrs. McCracken's boarding house, where he was then residing. Jim Taylor advanced on Helm from behind and attempted to discharge his revolver, but it misfired. As Helm turned, Taylor fired again, this time striking Helm in the chest. Helm rushed Taylor with the intent to grapple with him, but Hardin discharged a double barrel shotgun, shattering Helm's arm. As Helm attempted to flee into the blacksmith shop, Hardin held townspeople at gunpoint while Taylor unloaded the remaining five bullets from his revolver into him. As Hardin and Taylor mounted their horses and prepared to ride away, they boasted that they had accomplished what they had come to do. The next night, Hardin and other Taylor supporters surrounded the ranch house of Sutton family ally, Joe Tumlinson. A shouted truce was arranged and both sides signed a peace treaty in Clinton, Texas. However, within a year, violence once again broke out between the two sides.", "The feud reached its apex when Jim and his cousin Billy Taylor gunned down William Sutton and a friend, Gabriel Slaughter, as they waited on a steamboat platform, in [Indianola, Texas](/wiki/Indianola%2C_Texas \"Indianola, Texas\"), on March 11, 1874\\. Tired of the feud, Sutton had been planning to leave the area for good. In retaliation, the Sutton faction caught and lynched three of the Taylor group, on June 22, 1874\\. After this, the fighting continued, though with much less frequency. Jim Taylor was killed January 1, 1875\\. On November 17, 1875, Reuben H. Brown, the new leader of the Suttons and ex\\-marshal of [Cuero, Texas](/wiki/Cuero%2C_Texas \"Cuero, Texas\"), was shot down in the Exchange Saloon by Hardin, his last known action in the feud.", "In October 1876, after another outbreak of violence, Texas Ranger, Captain [Jesse Lee Hall](/wiki/Jesse_Lee_Hall \"Jesse Lee Hall\"), led a force into Cuero, Texas, to break up the feud for good. By January 1877, he and his supporting troop had put an end to the conflict.", "" ]
### John Wesley Hardin joins the feud In early 1872, on\-the\-run outlaw John Wesley Hardin joined his cousin, Mannen Clements, in neighboring [Gonzales County, Texas](/wiki/Gonzales_County%2C_Texas "Gonzales County, Texas"). There, Clements and his brothers were active in the [cattle rustling](/wiki/Cattle_raiding "Cattle raiding") or herding business working for Taylor family friends. On May 15, 1873, Sutton family allies Jim Cox and Jake Christman were killed by the Taylor faction during a gunfight at Tomlinson Creek. Hardin later admitted that there were reports that he had led the fight in which these two men were killed, but would neither confirm nor deny his involvement. Two days later, in a May 17, 1873, gunfight, Hardin killed Dewitt County deputy sheriff, J.B. Morgan—serving under Helm, who was now sheriff of DeWitt County. Hardin played a part in the assassination later that same day of Sheriff Helm in [Albuquerque, Texas](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_Texas "Albuquerque, Texas"). Hardin, Helm and Sam McCracken Jr. were gathered together talking in front of a blacksmith shop. Helm was unarmed, having left his revolvers at Mrs. McCracken's boarding house, where he was then residing. Jim Taylor advanced on Helm from behind and attempted to discharge his revolver, but it misfired. As Helm turned, Taylor fired again, this time striking Helm in the chest. Helm rushed Taylor with the intent to grapple with him, but Hardin discharged a double barrel shotgun, shattering Helm's arm. As Helm attempted to flee into the blacksmith shop, Hardin held townspeople at gunpoint while Taylor unloaded the remaining five bullets from his revolver into him. As Hardin and Taylor mounted their horses and prepared to ride away, they boasted that they had accomplished what they had come to do. The next night, Hardin and other Taylor supporters surrounded the ranch house of Sutton family ally, Joe Tumlinson. A shouted truce was arranged and both sides signed a peace treaty in Clinton, Texas. However, within a year, violence once again broke out between the two sides. The feud reached its apex when Jim and his cousin Billy Taylor gunned down William Sutton and a friend, Gabriel Slaughter, as they waited on a steamboat platform, in [Indianola, Texas](/wiki/Indianola%2C_Texas "Indianola, Texas"), on March 11, 1874\. Tired of the feud, Sutton had been planning to leave the area for good. In retaliation, the Sutton faction caught and lynched three of the Taylor group, on June 22, 1874\. After this, the fighting continued, though with much less frequency. Jim Taylor was killed January 1, 1875\. On November 17, 1875, Reuben H. Brown, the new leader of the Suttons and ex\-marshal of [Cuero, Texas](/wiki/Cuero%2C_Texas "Cuero, Texas"), was shot down in the Exchange Saloon by Hardin, his last known action in the feud. In October 1876, after another outbreak of violence, Texas Ranger, Captain [Jesse Lee Hall](/wiki/Jesse_Lee_Hall "Jesse Lee Hall"), led a force into Cuero, Texas, to break up the feud for good. By January 1877, he and his supporting troop had put an end to the conflict.
[ "### John Wesley Hardin joins the feud", "In early 1872, on\\-the\\-run outlaw John Wesley Hardin joined his cousin, Mannen Clements, in neighboring [Gonzales County, Texas](/wiki/Gonzales_County%2C_Texas \"Gonzales County, Texas\"). There, Clements and his brothers were active in the [cattle rustling](/wiki/Cattle_raiding \"Cattle raiding\") or herding business working for Taylor family friends.", "On May 15, 1873, Sutton family allies Jim Cox and Jake Christman were killed by the Taylor faction during a gunfight at Tomlinson Creek. Hardin later admitted that there were reports that he had led the fight in which these two men were killed, but would neither confirm nor deny his involvement.", "Two days later, in a May 17, 1873, gunfight, Hardin killed Dewitt County deputy sheriff, J.B. Morgan—serving under Helm, who was now sheriff of DeWitt County. Hardin played a part in the assassination later that same day of Sheriff Helm in [Albuquerque, Texas](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_Texas \"Albuquerque, Texas\"). Hardin, Helm and Sam McCracken Jr. were gathered together talking in front of a blacksmith shop. Helm was unarmed, having left his revolvers at Mrs. McCracken's boarding house, where he was then residing. Jim Taylor advanced on Helm from behind and attempted to discharge his revolver, but it misfired. As Helm turned, Taylor fired again, this time striking Helm in the chest. Helm rushed Taylor with the intent to grapple with him, but Hardin discharged a double barrel shotgun, shattering Helm's arm. As Helm attempted to flee into the blacksmith shop, Hardin held townspeople at gunpoint while Taylor unloaded the remaining five bullets from his revolver into him. As Hardin and Taylor mounted their horses and prepared to ride away, they boasted that they had accomplished what they had come to do. The next night, Hardin and other Taylor supporters surrounded the ranch house of Sutton family ally, Joe Tumlinson. A shouted truce was arranged and both sides signed a peace treaty in Clinton, Texas. However, within a year, violence once again broke out between the two sides.", "The feud reached its apex when Jim and his cousin Billy Taylor gunned down William Sutton and a friend, Gabriel Slaughter, as they waited on a steamboat platform, in [Indianola, Texas](/wiki/Indianola%2C_Texas \"Indianola, Texas\"), on March 11, 1874\\. Tired of the feud, Sutton had been planning to leave the area for good. In retaliation, the Sutton faction caught and lynched three of the Taylor group, on June 22, 1874\\. After this, the fighting continued, though with much less frequency. Jim Taylor was killed January 1, 1875\\. On November 17, 1875, Reuben H. Brown, the new leader of the Suttons and ex\\-marshal of [Cuero, Texas](/wiki/Cuero%2C_Texas \"Cuero, Texas\"), was shot down in the Exchange Saloon by Hardin, his last known action in the feud.", "In October 1876, after another outbreak of violence, Texas Ranger, Captain [Jesse Lee Hall](/wiki/Jesse_Lee_Hall \"Jesse Lee Hall\"), led a force into Cuero, Texas, to break up the feud for good. By January 1877, he and his supporting troop had put an end to the conflict.", "" ]
Horrell–Higgins --------------- [thumb\|200px\|Governor Edmund J. Davis founded the Texas State Police to combat lawlessness.](/wiki/File:Edmund_Davis.jpg "Edmund Davis.jpg") {{Main\|Horrell Brothers}} The Horrell and Higgins families had both settled in the [Lampasas County, Texas](/wiki/Lampasas_County%2C_Texas "Lampasas County, Texas") area several years before the American Civil War. By all accounts, the two families got along well for over a decade. However, by the early 1870s, the five 'Horrell boys': Mart, Tom, Merritt, Ben and Sam had been involved in numerous lawless activities. In January 1873, Lampasas County [Sheriff](/wiki/Sheriff "Sheriff"), Shadrick T. Denson, attempted to arrest two brothers, Wash and Mark Short, who were friends of the Horrell family. Intervention by the Horrell brothers resulted in a gunfight in which Sheriff Denson was shot and killed. A county judge appealed to Texas Governor, [Edmund J. Davis](/wiki/Edmund_J._Davis "Edmund J. Davis"), for help. The [Texas State Police](/wiki/Texas_State_Police "Texas State Police") dispatched a number of lawmen to the area to maintain order. On March 14, 1873, state officers Wesley Cherry, Jim Daniels, and Andrew Melville arrested Bill Bowen, a brother\-in\-law to the Horrell brothers, for carrying a firearm (which Governor Davis had recently outlawed in the area). The officers then entered Jerry Scott's Saloon with Bowen in tow. After a verbal exchange with the Horrell brothers, who had been inside the saloon, a gunfight ensued. Four of the officers were killed, including Capt. Williams. Williams had managed to shoot and badly wound Mart Horrell, and his brother, Tom Horrell, was also among the wounded. Following the gunfight, more state police were sent to the county. Mart Horrell and three friends were arrested and taken to the [Georgetown, Texas](/wiki/Georgetown%2C_Texas "Georgetown, Texas") jail. However, a large crowd of Horrell family friends broke into the jail and freed them. The brothers fled to [Lincoln County, New Mexico](/wiki/Lincoln_County%2C_New_Mexico "Lincoln County, New Mexico"), where later that same year, Ben Horrell was himself killed after he murdered a local law enforcement officer. In early February 1874, the brothers returned to Lampasas, but were no longer welcome. Shortly after their return, local rancher, [John "Pink" Higgins](/wiki/John_Higgins_%28gunman%29 "John Higgins (gunman)"), accused the Horrell brothers of [rustling](/wiki/Cattle_raiding "Cattle raiding") some of his cattle. The brothers were arrested, but were quickly acquitted. Although things were tense between the two families, no actions were taken by either side at that time. The feud quickly escalated, when, on January 22, 1877 (while in the Wiley and Toland's Gem Saloon in Lampasas), John Higgins shot and killed Merritt Horrell in a gunfight. The three remaining Horrell brothers vowed revenge. On March 26, 1877, Tom and Mart Horrell were shot and wounded in an ambush, but both survived. John Higgins and Bob Mitchell were arrested for the action, but later acquitted. ### Shootout at the Lampasas town square On June 7, 1877, John Higgins rode into Lampasas accompanied by: brother\-in\-law, Bob Mitchell; Mitchell's brother, Frank; a friend, Bill Wren; and another brother\-in\-law, Ben Terry. The Horrell brothers and several friends were already in town, gathered at the town square. It is unknown who fired first, but it is believed that someone within the Horrell faction opened fire on the Higgins group. When the gunfight ended, Bill Wren had been wounded, Frank Mitchell had been killed, and Horrell faction members, Buck Waltrup and Carson Graham, had been killed. All three Horrell brothers were arrested, and [Texas Ranger](/wiki/Texas_Ranger_Division "Texas Ranger Division"), Major John B. Jones, acted as a mediator between the remaining members of the two factions. Less than one year later, Mart and Tom Horrell were arrested in [Meridian, Texas](/wiki/Meridian%2C_Texas "Meridian, Texas") for armed robbery and murder. While confined to the local jail, vigilantes broke in and shot and killed them both. Sam was the only remaining Horrell brother. He moved his family to Oregon in 1882, thus marking an end to the feud.
[ "Horrell–Higgins\n---------------", "[thumb\\|200px\\|Governor Edmund J. Davis founded the Texas State Police to combat lawlessness.](/wiki/File:Edmund_Davis.jpg \"Edmund Davis.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Horrell Brothers}}", "The Horrell and Higgins families had both settled in the [Lampasas County, Texas](/wiki/Lampasas_County%2C_Texas \"Lampasas County, Texas\") area several years before the American Civil War. By all accounts, the two families got along well for over a decade. However, by the early 1870s, the five 'Horrell boys': Mart, Tom, Merritt, Ben and Sam had been involved in numerous lawless activities. In January 1873, Lampasas County [Sheriff](/wiki/Sheriff \"Sheriff\"), Shadrick T. Denson, attempted to arrest two brothers, Wash and Mark Short, who were friends of the Horrell family. Intervention by the Horrell brothers resulted in a gunfight in which Sheriff Denson was shot and killed. A county judge appealed to Texas Governor, [Edmund J. Davis](/wiki/Edmund_J._Davis \"Edmund J. Davis\"), for help. The [Texas State Police](/wiki/Texas_State_Police \"Texas State Police\") dispatched a number of lawmen to the area to maintain order.", "On March 14, 1873, state officers Wesley Cherry, Jim Daniels, and Andrew Melville arrested Bill Bowen, a brother\\-in\\-law to the Horrell brothers, for carrying a firearm (which Governor Davis had recently outlawed in the area). The officers then entered Jerry Scott's Saloon with Bowen in tow. After a verbal exchange with the Horrell brothers, who had been inside the saloon, a gunfight ensued. Four of the officers were killed, including Capt. Williams. Williams had managed to shoot and badly wound Mart Horrell, and his brother, Tom Horrell, was also among the wounded. Following the gunfight, more state police were sent to the county. Mart Horrell and three friends were arrested and taken to the [Georgetown, Texas](/wiki/Georgetown%2C_Texas \"Georgetown, Texas\") jail. However, a large crowd of Horrell family friends broke into the jail and freed them.", "The brothers fled to [Lincoln County, New Mexico](/wiki/Lincoln_County%2C_New_Mexico \"Lincoln County, New Mexico\"), where later that same year, Ben Horrell was himself killed after he murdered a local law enforcement officer. In early February 1874, the brothers returned to Lampasas, but were no longer welcome. Shortly after their return, local rancher, [John \"Pink\" Higgins](/wiki/John_Higgins_%28gunman%29 \"John Higgins (gunman)\"), accused the Horrell brothers of [rustling](/wiki/Cattle_raiding \"Cattle raiding\") some of his cattle. The brothers were arrested, but were quickly acquitted. Although things were tense between the two families, no actions were taken by either side at that time.", "The feud quickly escalated, when, on January 22, 1877 (while in the Wiley and Toland's Gem Saloon in Lampasas), John Higgins shot and killed Merritt Horrell in a gunfight. The three remaining Horrell brothers vowed revenge. On March 26, 1877, Tom and Mart Horrell were shot and wounded in an ambush, but both survived. John Higgins and Bob Mitchell were arrested for the action, but later acquitted.", "### Shootout at the Lampasas town square", "On June 7, 1877, John Higgins rode into Lampasas accompanied by: brother\\-in\\-law, Bob Mitchell; Mitchell's brother, Frank; a friend, Bill Wren; and another brother\\-in\\-law, Ben Terry. The Horrell brothers and several friends were already in town, gathered at the town square. It is unknown who fired first, but it is believed that someone within the Horrell faction opened fire on the Higgins group. When the gunfight ended, Bill Wren had been wounded, Frank Mitchell had been killed, and Horrell faction members, Buck Waltrup and Carson Graham, had been killed.", "All three Horrell brothers were arrested, and [Texas Ranger](/wiki/Texas_Ranger_Division \"Texas Ranger Division\"), Major John B. Jones, acted as a mediator between the remaining members of the two factions. Less than one year later, Mart and Tom Horrell were arrested in [Meridian, Texas](/wiki/Meridian%2C_Texas \"Meridian, Texas\") for armed robbery and murder. While confined to the local jail, vigilantes broke in and shot and killed them both. Sam was the only remaining Horrell brother. He moved his family to Oregon in 1882, thus marking an end to the feud.", "" ]
Earp–Clanton ------------ [200px\|thumb\|Tom McLaury, Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton (left to right) in the window of the undertakers following the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral.](/wiki/File:Mclauriesclanton.jpg "Mclauriesclanton.jpg") The Earp vendetta ride arose as a result of coordinated attacks (in December 1881 and again in March 1882\) against the Earp brothers. These ambushes were in retaliation for their involvement in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, in [Tombstone, Arizona](/wiki/Tombstone%2C_Arizona "Tombstone, Arizona"). ### Gunfight at the O.K. Corral {{Main\|Gunfight at the O.K. Corral}} The noted gun\-battle had occurred on October 26, 1881, and was itself the climax of the Earp–Clanton family feud, simmering since the summer of 1880\. Tensions between the Earps and both the Clantons and McLaurys increased through 1881, culminating in the historic gunfight. At the O.K. Corral, three deputized Earp brothers, [Wyatt](/wiki/Wyatt_Earp "Wyatt Earp"), [Morgan](/wiki/Morgan_Earp "Morgan Earp") and [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil_Earp "Virgil Earp"), along with [Doc Holliday](/wiki/Doc_Holliday "Doc Holliday"), had killed [Billy Clanton](/wiki/Billy_Clanton "Billy Clanton"), [Frank McLaury](/wiki/Frank_McLaury "Frank McLaury") and [Tom McLaury](/wiki/Tom_McLaury "Tom McLaury"). The Clanton and McLaury families were aligned with the "[Outlaw Cowboys](/wiki/The_Cowboys_%28Cochise_County%29 "The Cowboys (Cochise County)")", a loosely knit outlaw group of families, friends and acquaintances then living in surrounding [Cochise](/wiki/Cochise_County%2C_Arizona "Cochise County, Arizona") and [Pima](/wiki/Pima_County%2C_Arizona "Pima County, Arizona") counties. ### Earp Vendetta Ride {{Main\|Earp Vendetta Ride}} {{unreferenced section\|date\=October 2014}} The Earp Vendetta ride was a manhunt for the "Outlaw Cowboys" that Wyatt Earp held responsible for the maiming of his brother Virgil (the [police chief](/wiki/Marshal "Marshal") of [Tombstone, Arizona](/wiki/Tombstone%2C_Arizona "Tombstone, Arizona") as well as a Deputy U.S. Marshal) the previous December, and the recent assassination of his brother Morgan (also an assistant U.S. Marshal) the week before. When several suspects in the attacks were set free by the court − some owing to legal technicalities and others based on the strength of alibis provided by sympathetic confederates – Wyatt Earp decided he could not rely on civil justice, and took matters into his own hands. On March 20, 1882, a newly deputized [United States Marshal](/wiki/United_States_Marshal "United States Marshal") Wyatt Earp formed a federal [posse](/wiki/Posse_comitatus_%28common_law%29 "Posse comitatus (common law)") that began to scour Cochise and Pima counties for the purpose of hunting down and killing the men he thought guilty of the attacks. Wyatt and [Warren Earp](/wiki/Warren_Earp "Warren Earp"), Doc Holliday, [John "Texas Jack" Vermillion](/wiki/Texas_Jack_Vermillion "Texas Jack Vermillion"), Dan Tipton, Charlie Smith, Fred Dodge, Johnny Green, and Lou Cooley made up the federal posse. The killing began with the March 22, 1882, shooting of [Frank Stilwell](/wiki/Frank_Stilwell "Frank Stilwell") as he and several Outlaw Cowboys – including [Ike Clanton](/wiki/Ike_Clanton "Ike Clanton") – lay in ambush at the [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona") rail station. The Earp group was escorting the still invalid Virgil Earp, and his wife, to safety so they could be removed from the now dangerous Arizona Territory. Cowboy confederate and Wyatt Earp rival, Cochise County [Sheriff](/wiki/Sheriff "Sheriff") [Johnny Behan](/wiki/Johnny_Behan "Johnny Behan"), then formed his own posse and deputized a number of the outlaws, including [Johnny Ringo](/wiki/Johnny_Ringo "Johnny Ringo"), [Phineas Clanton](/wiki/Phineas_Clanton "Phineas Clanton"), Johnny Barnes and about 18 more men to ride after the federal posse and the five men "wanted" for the shooting of Stilwell. Carrying federal arrest warrants for the assassins, the federal posse killed four men. The vendetta ride ended with the killing of ["Curly Bill" Brocius](/wiki/William_Brocius "William Brocius") and Johnny Barnes on April 15, 1882\. The Earps and their associates then quickly headed for the [New Mexico Territory](/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory "New Mexico Territory"), leaving Arizona Territory, and the feuding behind.
[ "Earp–Clanton\n------------", "[200px\\|thumb\\|Tom McLaury, Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton (left to right) in the window of the undertakers following the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral.](/wiki/File:Mclauriesclanton.jpg \"Mclauriesclanton.jpg\")", "The Earp vendetta ride arose as a result of coordinated attacks (in December 1881 and again in March 1882\\) against the Earp brothers. These ambushes were in retaliation for their involvement in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, in [Tombstone, Arizona](/wiki/Tombstone%2C_Arizona \"Tombstone, Arizona\").", "### Gunfight at the O.K. Corral", "{{Main\\|Gunfight at the O.K. Corral}}", "The noted gun\\-battle had occurred on October 26, 1881, and was itself the climax of the Earp–Clanton family feud, simmering since the summer of 1880\\. Tensions between the Earps and both the Clantons and McLaurys increased through 1881, culminating in the historic gunfight. At the O.K. Corral, three deputized Earp brothers, [Wyatt](/wiki/Wyatt_Earp \"Wyatt Earp\"), [Morgan](/wiki/Morgan_Earp \"Morgan Earp\") and [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil_Earp \"Virgil Earp\"), along with [Doc Holliday](/wiki/Doc_Holliday \"Doc Holliday\"), had killed [Billy Clanton](/wiki/Billy_Clanton \"Billy Clanton\"), [Frank McLaury](/wiki/Frank_McLaury \"Frank McLaury\") and [Tom McLaury](/wiki/Tom_McLaury \"Tom McLaury\"). The Clanton and McLaury families were aligned with the \"[Outlaw Cowboys](/wiki/The_Cowboys_%28Cochise_County%29 \"The Cowboys (Cochise County)\")\", a loosely knit outlaw group of families, friends and acquaintances then living in surrounding [Cochise](/wiki/Cochise_County%2C_Arizona \"Cochise County, Arizona\") and [Pima](/wiki/Pima_County%2C_Arizona \"Pima County, Arizona\") counties.", "### Earp Vendetta Ride", "{{Main\\|Earp Vendetta Ride}}\n{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2014}}\nThe Earp Vendetta ride was a manhunt for the \"Outlaw Cowboys\" that Wyatt Earp held responsible for the maiming of his brother Virgil (the [police chief](/wiki/Marshal \"Marshal\") of [Tombstone, Arizona](/wiki/Tombstone%2C_Arizona \"Tombstone, Arizona\") as well as a Deputy U.S. Marshal) the previous December, and the recent assassination of his brother Morgan (also an assistant U.S. Marshal) the week before. When several suspects in the attacks were set free by the court − some owing to legal technicalities and others based on the strength of alibis provided by sympathetic confederates – Wyatt Earp decided he could not rely on civil justice, and took matters into his own hands.", "On March 20, 1882, a newly deputized [United States Marshal](/wiki/United_States_Marshal \"United States Marshal\") Wyatt Earp formed a federal [posse](/wiki/Posse_comitatus_%28common_law%29 \"Posse comitatus (common law)\") that began to scour Cochise and Pima counties for the purpose of hunting down and killing the men he thought guilty of the attacks. Wyatt and [Warren Earp](/wiki/Warren_Earp \"Warren Earp\"), Doc Holliday, [John \"Texas Jack\" Vermillion](/wiki/Texas_Jack_Vermillion \"Texas Jack Vermillion\"), Dan Tipton, Charlie Smith, Fred Dodge, Johnny Green, and Lou Cooley made up the federal posse.", "The killing began with the March 22, 1882, shooting of [Frank Stilwell](/wiki/Frank_Stilwell \"Frank Stilwell\") as he and several Outlaw Cowboys – including [Ike Clanton](/wiki/Ike_Clanton \"Ike Clanton\") – lay in ambush at the [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\") rail station. The Earp group was escorting the still invalid Virgil Earp, and his wife, to safety so they could be removed from the now dangerous Arizona Territory.", "Cowboy confederate and Wyatt Earp rival, Cochise County [Sheriff](/wiki/Sheriff \"Sheriff\") [Johnny Behan](/wiki/Johnny_Behan \"Johnny Behan\"), then formed his own posse and deputized a number of the outlaws, including [Johnny Ringo](/wiki/Johnny_Ringo \"Johnny Ringo\"), [Phineas Clanton](/wiki/Phineas_Clanton \"Phineas Clanton\"), Johnny Barnes and about 18 more men to ride after the federal posse and the five men \"wanted\" for the shooting of Stilwell.", "Carrying federal arrest warrants for the assassins, the federal posse killed four men. The vendetta ride ended with the killing of [\"Curly Bill\" Brocius](/wiki/William_Brocius \"William Brocius\") and Johnny Barnes on April 15, 1882\\. The Earps and their associates then quickly headed for the [New Mexico Territory](/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory \"New Mexico Territory\"), leaving Arizona Territory, and the feuding behind.", "" ]
Third Crusade and thereafter ---------------------------- Andrew was one of King Richard's central military figures of the [Third Crusade](/wiki/Third_Crusade "Third Crusade") (1190–1192\). He was with the King at the muster of [Vezelay](/wiki/Vezelay "Vezelay") and departed with the army to [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille") on 4 July 1190\. He was present with the King at [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") and proved to be a competent military commander at the [Siege of Acre](/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281189%E2%80%931191%29 "Siege of Acre (1189–1191)") and the [Battle of Arsuf](/wiki/Battle_of_Arsuf "Battle of Arsuf"). According to the chronicler [Richard de Templo](/wiki/Richard_de_Templo "Richard de Templo"), during one of the many skirmishes the crusaders fought against [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin")'s forces, Andrew was wounded through the arm by a Muslim lance. Andrew was granted command by Richard over many other key crusader lords, and at one point, even [Robert IV of Leicester](/wiki/Robert_IV_of_Leicester "Robert IV of Leicester") and [Hugh of Saint\-Pol](/wiki/Hugues_IV_of_St._Pol "Hugues IV of St. Pol") seem subordinate to him. He also seemed to have authority over the knights of the *[familia regis](/wiki/Familia_regis "Familia regis")*, knights like [Peter de Preaux](/wiki/Peter_de_Preaux "Peter de Preaux"), [William des Roches](/wiki/William_des_Roches "William des Roches") and [Gerard de Fournival](/wiki/Gerard_de_Fournival "Gerard de Fournival"). After the cessation of hostilities, Andrew would command the first battalion of pilgrims that entered Jerusalem, followed by [Ralph Taisson](/wiki/Ralph_Taisson "Ralph Taisson") and [Hubert Walter](/wiki/Hubert_Walter "Hubert Walter"), commanders of the second and third battalions respectively. Upon Andrew's return from the crusade, he found that King Philip of France had taken much of the land in Poitevin Berry, including the important castle of [Issoudun](/wiki/Issoudun "Issoudun"). Andrew remained loyal to Richard and assisted in the retaking of [Loches](/wiki/Loches "Loches") and [Châtillon\-sur\-Indre](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2tillon-sur-Indre "Châtillon-sur-Indre"), 1194\. Later, Andrew would be Richard's forces during the attack on Adhemar, [count of Angoulême](/wiki/Count_of_Angoul%C3%AAme "Count of Angoulême"). King Richard attempted to end the war in 1196 with the [Treaty of Gaillon](/wiki/Treaty_of_Gaillon "Treaty of Gaillon"). The treaty was essentially a grant to almost all of Philip's demands for the [Vexin](/wiki/Vexin "Vexin") and Berry. Technically, the treaty called for Andrew to become a liege\-vassal of the King of France for his fiefs in Berry. As the treaty proved to be a failure, and the war continued, Andrew remained firmly in the Angevin camp. With the death of King Richard at the siege of the tower of [Chalus\-Chabrol](/wiki/Chalus-Chabrol "Chalus-Chabrol") in 1199, Andrew had another important decision to make. Does he side with Richard's younger brother, [John of England](/wiki/John_of_England "John of England"), who had a history of animosity with the French King, or with Richard's nephew, [Arthur of Brittany](/wiki/Arthur_of_Brittany "Arthur of Brittany"). Andrew chose to ally with Duke Arthur. Arthur had been invested by King Philip as the rightful lord of the Angevin inheritance. In October 1199, Andrew paid homage to Arthur for his fiefs in Anjou and Poitou and paid homage to King Philip for his castles and lands in Berry. Andrew fought with the forces of [Duke Arthur](/wiki/Arthur_I%2C_Duke_of_Brittany "Arthur I, Duke of Brittany") against King John of England and [William des Roches](/wiki/William_des_Roches "William des Roches"), now seneschal of Anjou and sire de Sable, at the [Battle of Mirebeau](/wiki/Battle_of_Mirebeau "Battle of Mirebeau") in 1202\. He was captured along with Arthur and most of the Poitevin and Breton nobility. He was sent to [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen "Rouen"). Many of John's prisoners were starved to death; he may have been one of them, as the [Complete Peerage](/wiki/Complete_Peerage "Complete Peerage") concludes. In any case, he died that year, and John gave his widow's English lands back to the Earls of Devon. He was succeeded as baron of Deols\-Chateroux by his twelve\-year\-old son William.
[ "Third Crusade and thereafter\n----------------------------", "Andrew was one of King Richard's central military figures of the [Third Crusade](/wiki/Third_Crusade \"Third Crusade\") (1190–1192\\). He was with the King at the muster of [Vezelay](/wiki/Vezelay \"Vezelay\") and departed with the army to [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\") on 4 July 1190\\. He was present with the King at [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") and proved to be a competent military commander at the [Siege of Acre](/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281189%E2%80%931191%29 \"Siege of Acre (1189–1191)\") and the [Battle of Arsuf](/wiki/Battle_of_Arsuf \"Battle of Arsuf\"). According to the chronicler [Richard de Templo](/wiki/Richard_de_Templo \"Richard de Templo\"), during one of the many skirmishes the crusaders fought against [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\")'s forces, Andrew was wounded through the arm by a Muslim lance. Andrew was granted command by Richard over many other key crusader lords, and at one point, even [Robert IV of Leicester](/wiki/Robert_IV_of_Leicester \"Robert IV of Leicester\") and [Hugh of Saint\\-Pol](/wiki/Hugues_IV_of_St._Pol \"Hugues IV of St. Pol\") seem subordinate to him. He also seemed to have authority over the knights of the *[familia regis](/wiki/Familia_regis \"Familia regis\")*, knights like [Peter de Preaux](/wiki/Peter_de_Preaux \"Peter de Preaux\"), [William des Roches](/wiki/William_des_Roches \"William des Roches\") and [Gerard de Fournival](/wiki/Gerard_de_Fournival \"Gerard de Fournival\"). After the cessation of hostilities, Andrew would command the first battalion of pilgrims that entered Jerusalem, followed by [Ralph Taisson](/wiki/Ralph_Taisson \"Ralph Taisson\") and [Hubert Walter](/wiki/Hubert_Walter \"Hubert Walter\"), commanders of the second and third battalions respectively.", "Upon Andrew's return from the crusade, he found that King Philip of France had taken much of the land in Poitevin Berry, including the important castle of [Issoudun](/wiki/Issoudun \"Issoudun\"). Andrew remained loyal to Richard and assisted in the retaking of [Loches](/wiki/Loches \"Loches\") and [Châtillon\\-sur\\-Indre](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2tillon-sur-Indre \"Châtillon-sur-Indre\"), 1194\\. Later, Andrew would be Richard's forces during the attack on Adhemar, [count of Angoulême](/wiki/Count_of_Angoul%C3%AAme \"Count of Angoulême\").", "King Richard attempted to end the war in 1196 with the [Treaty of Gaillon](/wiki/Treaty_of_Gaillon \"Treaty of Gaillon\"). The treaty was essentially a grant to almost all of Philip's demands for the [Vexin](/wiki/Vexin \"Vexin\") and Berry. Technically, the treaty called for Andrew to become a liege\\-vassal of the King of France for his fiefs in Berry. As the treaty proved to be a failure, and the war continued, Andrew remained firmly in the Angevin camp.", "With the death of King Richard at the siege of the tower of [Chalus\\-Chabrol](/wiki/Chalus-Chabrol \"Chalus-Chabrol\") in 1199, Andrew had another important decision to make. Does he side with Richard's younger brother, [John of England](/wiki/John_of_England \"John of England\"), who had a history of animosity with the French King, or with Richard's nephew, [Arthur of Brittany](/wiki/Arthur_of_Brittany \"Arthur of Brittany\"). Andrew chose to ally with Duke Arthur. Arthur had been invested by King Philip as the rightful lord of the Angevin inheritance. In October 1199, Andrew paid homage to Arthur for his fiefs in Anjou and Poitou and paid homage to King Philip for his castles and lands in Berry.", "Andrew fought with the forces of [Duke Arthur](/wiki/Arthur_I%2C_Duke_of_Brittany \"Arthur I, Duke of Brittany\") against King John of England and [William des Roches](/wiki/William_des_Roches \"William des Roches\"), now seneschal of Anjou and sire de Sable, at the [Battle of Mirebeau](/wiki/Battle_of_Mirebeau \"Battle of Mirebeau\") in 1202\\. He was captured along with Arthur and most of the Poitevin and Breton nobility. He was sent to [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen \"Rouen\"). Many of John's prisoners were starved to death; he may have been one of them, as the [Complete Peerage](/wiki/Complete_Peerage \"Complete Peerage\") concludes. In any case, he died that year, and John gave his widow's English lands back to the Earls of Devon.", "He was succeeded as baron of Deols\\-Chateroux by his twelve\\-year\\-old son William.", "" ]
Plot ---- As Howard Cross, head of the county probation service, is on his way to work, he is introduced to four\-year\-old Jamie Johnson by the family chauffeur, Fred Miner. Miner, a navy veteran from World War 2, is now on probation after running down an unknown man while [driving under the influence](/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence "Driving under the influence") of alcohol. Shortly after the two leave, Cross learns from Amy Miner that a ransom note has been delivered to the Johnsons at their Pacific Point home and her husband is suspected of being part of a [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping") plot. The boy's father leaves a suitcase containing $50,000 at the city railway station and Cross decides to investigate so as to exonerate Miner from blame. He manages to pick up the trail of the crook who collected the suitcase, only to discover him murdered in his car. When the victim's body is taken to the [morgue](/wiki/Morgue "Morgue"), no one can identify him, but Cross' assistant Ann Devon believes she had seen him some months before, talking to the Johnson family lawyer, Larry Seifel. Although the [FBI](/wiki/FBI "FBI") have now been called in, Cross leaves for [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") to follow up clues to the identity of the murdered man. Eventually Cross finds that he was Art Lemp and had been an associate of Kerry Snow, the previously unidentified [hit and run](/wiki/Hit_and_run "Hit and run") victim. Snow had served on the same ship as Miner during the war and had been imprisoned as a deserter in 1946 following information furnished by a red\-haired woman. Suspicion for this falls on Helen Johnson, Jamie's mother, and the possibility arises that the kidnapping was an act of revenge on her, with Miner abetting. Helen believes that Miner may have taken Jamie to a desert cabin that the family own. After the boy is discovered there unharmed, Miner tries to escape by car and is killed when he wrecks it. There remains the question of what has happened to the ransom money and who killed Art Lemp. It emerges that Miner's wife, who also worked for the Johnsons, had dyed her hair red in the past. Now she is heading for her old home in San Diego. Cross manages to arrive first in a radio car driven by Sam Dressen from the sheriff's office. Amy had posted the money to her father's house and makes a confession after her arrest there. It was she who had informed on Snow after having an affair with him in the past, and then killed him when he returned for revenge. Later she had tailed Lemp and murdered him as well. It was only due to the circumstance that she had been held in jail as an [accessory after the fact](/wiki/Accessory_after_the_fact "Accessory after the fact") that she had not been able to make her escape earlier.
[ "Plot\n----", "As Howard Cross, head of the county probation service, is on his way to work, he is introduced to four\\-year\\-old Jamie Johnson by the family chauffeur, Fred Miner. Miner, a navy veteran from World War 2, is now on probation after running down an unknown man while [driving under the influence](/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence \"Driving under the influence\") of alcohol. Shortly after the two leave, Cross learns from Amy Miner that a ransom note has been delivered to the Johnsons at their Pacific Point home and her husband is suspected of being part of a [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\") plot.", "The boy's father leaves a suitcase containing $50,000 at the city railway station and Cross decides to investigate so as to exonerate Miner from blame. He manages to pick up the trail of the crook who collected the suitcase, only to discover him murdered in his car. When the victim's body is taken to the [morgue](/wiki/Morgue \"Morgue\"), no one can identify him, but Cross' assistant Ann Devon believes she had seen him some months before, talking to the Johnson family lawyer, Larry Seifel.", "Although the [FBI](/wiki/FBI \"FBI\") have now been called in, Cross leaves for [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") to follow up clues to the identity of the murdered man. Eventually Cross finds that he was Art Lemp and had been an associate of Kerry Snow, the previously unidentified [hit and run](/wiki/Hit_and_run \"Hit and run\") victim. Snow had served on the same ship as Miner during the war and had been imprisoned as a deserter in 1946 following information furnished by a red\\-haired woman. Suspicion for this falls on Helen Johnson, Jamie's mother, and the possibility arises that the kidnapping was an act of revenge on her, with Miner abetting.", "Helen believes that Miner may have taken Jamie to a desert cabin that the family own. After the boy is discovered there unharmed, Miner tries to escape by car and is killed when he wrecks it. There remains the question of what has happened to the ransom money and who killed Art Lemp. It emerges that Miner's wife, who also worked for the Johnsons, had dyed her hair red in the past. Now she is heading for her old home in San Diego. Cross manages to arrive first in a radio car driven by Sam Dressen from the sheriff's office.", "Amy had posted the money to her father's house and makes a confession after her arrest there. It was she who had informed on Snow after having an affair with him in the past, and then killed him when he returned for revenge. Later she had tailed Lemp and murdered him as well. It was only due to the circumstance that she had been held in jail as an [accessory after the fact](/wiki/Accessory_after_the_fact \"Accessory after the fact\") that she had not been able to make her escape earlier.", "" ]
Security -------- The emergence of [cloud storage](/wiki/Cloud_storage "Cloud storage") services has prompted much discussion on security.{{cite web \| url\=http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cloud\-computing/cloud\-storage3\.htm/ \| title\=How Cloud Storage Works \| publisher\=How Stuff Works \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-08 \| author\=Jonathan Strickland \| date\=30 April 2008 \| archive\-date\=29 April 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429091352/http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cloud\-computing/cloud\-storage3\.htm \| url\-status\=live }} Security, as it relates to cloud storage can be broken down into: ### Access and integrity security Deals with the question of [confidentiality and availability](/wiki/Information_assurance "Information assurance"), and may be expressed with questions of the kind: Will the user be able to continue accessing their data? Who else can access it? Who can change it? Whether the user is able to continue accessing their data depends on a large number of factors, ranging from the location and quality of their internet connection, and the physical integrity of the provider's data center, to the financial stability of the storage provider (because, even if perfectly fit from a technical point of view, if the provider financially goes out of business, then its services go offline too). The question of who can access and, potentially, change, their data, ranges from what [physical access controls](/wiki/Physical_access_control "Physical access control") are in place in the provider's data center to what [technical steps have been taken](/wiki/Data_center_security "Data center security"), such as access control, [encryption](/wiki/Encryption "Encryption"), etc. Many [cloud storage services](/wiki/Cloud_storage_service "Cloud storage service") state that they either encrypt data before it is uploaded or while it is stored. While encryption is generally regarded as best practice in cloud storage{{cite web \| url\=http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\-Data\-Storage\-Encryption\-and\-Data\-Protection\-Best\-Practices \| title\=Cloud Data Storage, Encryption and Data Protection Best Practices \| publisher\=Techtarget.com \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-08 \| archive\-date\=2 May 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502073605/http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\-Data\-Storage\-Encryption\-and\-Data\-Protection\-Best\-Practices \| url\-status\=live }} how the encryption is implemented is very important. Consumer\-grade, public file hosting and synchronization services are popular, but for business use, they create the concern that corporate information is exported to devices and cloud services that are not controlled by the organization. Some cloud storage providers offer granular [ACLs](/wiki/Access-control_list "Access-control list") for application keys. One important permission is [append\-only](/wiki/Comparison_of_file_hosting_services%23cite_note-append-only-2 "Comparison of file hosting services#cite note-append-only-2"), which is distinct from simple "read", "write", and "read\-write" permissions in that all existing data is immutable.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.borgbase.com/\|title\=BorgBase \- Secure hosting for your BorgBackup Repos\|website\=BorgBase \- Simple Borg Repo Hosting\|access\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113838/https://www.borgbase.com/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://wasabi.com/blog/use\-immutable\-storage/\|title\=Why Use Immutable Storage?\|date\=11 September 2018\|website\=Wasabi\|access\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113834/https://wasabi.com/blog/use\-immutable\-storage/\|url\-status\=live}} Append\-only support is especially important to mitigate the risk of [data loss](/wiki/Data_loss "Data loss") for [backup](/wiki/Backup "Backup") policies in the event that the computer being backed\-up becomes infected with [ransomware](/wiki/Ransomware "Ransomware") capable of deleting or encrypting the victim's backups.{{cite book\| title\=PayBreak: Defense Against Cryptographic Ransomware\| author1\=Kolodenker, E.\| author2\=Koch, W.\| author3\=Stringhini, G.\| author4\=Egele, M.\| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315862748\_PayBreak\_Defense\_Against\_Cryptographic\_Ransomware\| publisher\=ResearchGate GmbH\| date\=2 April 2017\| access\-date\=5 December 2023\| doi\=10\.1145/3052973\.3053035\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022012939/https://eugenekolo.com/static/paybreak.pdf\| url\-status\=live\| archive\-date\=22 October 2020}}{{cite book\| title\=A Roadmap for Improving the Impact of Anti\-ransomware Research\| author1\=Pont, J.\| author2\=Abu Oun, O.\| author3\=Brierley, C.\| author4\=Arief, B.\| author5\=Hernandez\-Castro, J.\| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337215603\_A\_Roadmap\_for\_Improving\_the\_Impact\_of\_Anti\-ransomware\_Research\| publisher\=ResearchGate GmbH.\| pages\=137\-154\| date\=1 November 2019\| access\-date\=5 December 2023\| doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-35055\-0\_9\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113831/https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/ba284/Papers/NordSec2019\.pdf\| url\-status\=live\| archive\-date\=3 December 2019}} ### Data encryption Secret key encryption is sometimes referred to as [zero knowledge](/wiki/Zero-knowledge_proof "Zero-knowledge proof"), meaning that only the user has the encryption key needed to decrypt the data. Since data is encrypted using the secret key, identical files encrypted with different keys will be different. To be truly zero knowledge, the file hosting service must not be able to store the user's passwords or see their data even with physical access to the servers. For this reason, secret key encryption is considered the highest level of access security in cloud storage.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5\-ways\-to\-securely\-encrypt\-your\-files\-in\-the\-cloud/ \| title\=5 Ways To Securely Encrypt Your Files in the Cloud \| date\=26 May 2012 \| publisher\=Makeuseof.com \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-08 \| archive\-date\=7 May 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507025406/http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5\-ways\-to\-securely\-encrypt\-your\-files\-in\-the\-cloud/ \| url\-status\=live }} This form of encryption is rapidly gaining popularity, with companies such as [MEGA](/wiki/Mega_%28service%29 "Mega (service)"){{Cite web\|url\=https://mega.nz/security\|title\=MEGA has been designed around user\-controlled end\-to\-end encryption. MEGA's end\-to\-end encryption (E2EE) paradigm enhances the overall security by providing 'privacy by design', unlike many of its competitors who only provide 'privacy by policy'.\|website\=MEGA Privacy\|access\-date\=5 June 2019\|archive\-date\=14 June 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614215450/https://mega.nz/security\|url\-status\=live}} (previously Megaupload) and [SpiderOak](/wiki/SpiderOak "SpiderOak") being entirely zero knowledge file storage and sharing.{{cite web\|url\=https://spideroak.com/zero\-knowledge/\|title\=SpiderOak \- Zero Knowledge Privacy with Encrypted Cloud Backup\|access\-date\=29 September 2014\|archive\-date\=9 October 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009131632/https://spideroak.com/zero\-knowledge/\|url\-status\=live}} Since secret key encryption results in unique files, it makes [data deduplication](/wiki/Data_deduplication "Data deduplication") impossible and therefore may use more storage space.{{cite web \|title\=Secure Data Deduplication \|first1\=Mark W. \|last1\=Storer \|first2\=Kevin \|last2\=Greenan \|first3\=Darrell D. E. \|last3\=Long \|first4\=Ethan L. \|last4\=Miller \|url\=http://www.ssrc.ucsc.edu/Papers/storer\-storagess08\.pdf \|publisher\=Ssrc.ucsc.edu \|access\-date\=8 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=22 August 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822211856/http://www.ssrc.ucsc.edu/Papers/storer\-storagess08\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} [Convergent encryption](/wiki/Convergent_encryption "Convergent encryption") derives the key from the file content itself and means an identical file encrypted on different computers result in identical encrypted files. This enables the cloud storage provider to [de\-duplicate](/wiki/Data_deduplication "Data deduplication") data blocks, meaning only one instance of a unique file (such as a document, photo, music or movie file) is actually stored on the cloud servers but made accessible to all uploaders. A third party who gained access to the encrypted files could thus easily determine if a user has uploaded a particular file simply by encrypting it themselves and comparing the outputs. Some point out that there is a theoretical possibility that organizations such as the [RIAA](/wiki/RIAA "RIAA"), [MPAA](/wiki/MPAA "MPAA"), or a government could obtain a warrant for US law enforcement to access the cloud storage provider's servers and gain access to the encrypted files belonging to a user.{{cite web \| url\=https://thenextweb.com/apps/2011/09/23/bitcasa\-infinite\-storage\-comes\-to\-your\-desktop\-but\-so\-do\-big\-questions/ \| title\=Bitcasa: Infinite storage comes to your desktop, but so do big questions \| website\=TheNextWeb.com \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-08 \| author\=Brad McCarty \| date\=23 September 2011 \| archive\-date\=22 July 2016 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722061307/http://thenextweb.com/apps/2011/09/23/bitcasa\-infinite\-storage\-comes\-to\-your\-desktop\-but\-so\-do\-big\-questions/ \| url\-status\=live }} By demonstrating to a court how applying the convergent encryption methodology to an unencrypted copyrighted file produces the same encrypted file as that possessed by the user would appear to make a strong case that the user is guilty of possessing the file in question and thus providing evidence of [copyright infringement](/wiki/Copyright_infringement "Copyright infringement") by the user. There is, however, no easily accessible public record of this having been tried in court as of May 2013 and an argument could be made that, similar to the opinion expressed by Attorney Rick G. Sanders of Aaron \| Sanders PLLC in regards to the iTunes Match "Honeypot" discussion,{{cite web \| url\=https://thenextweb.com/apple/2011/09/16/is\-itunes\-match\-a\-honeypot\-for\-music\-pirates\-a\-copyright\-lawyer\-weighs\-in/ \| title\=Is iTunes Match a honeypot for music pirates? A copyright lawyer weighs in \| website\=TheNextWeb.com \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-08 \| author\=Brad McCarty \| date\=16 September 2011 \| archive\-date\=8 March 2016 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308035537/http://thenextweb.com/apple/2011/09/16/is\-itunes\-match\-a\-honeypot\-for\-music\-pirates\-a\-copyright\-lawyer\-weighs\-in/ \| url\-status\=live }} that a warrant to search the cloud storage provider's servers would be hard to obtain without other, independent, evidence establishing probable cause for copyright infringement. Such legal restraint would obviously not apply to the [secret police](/wiki/Secret_police "Secret police") of an [oppressive government](/wiki/Authoritarianism "Authoritarianism") who could potentially gain access to the encrypted files through various forms of [hacking](/wiki/Hacker_%28computer_security%29 "Hacker (computer security)") or other [cybercrime](/wiki/Cybercrime "Cybercrime"). ### Ownership security {{Expand section\|1\=Deals with the questions: Who owns the data the user uploads? Will the act of uploading change the ownership? \|date\=January 2020}}
[ "Security\n--------", "The emergence of [cloud storage](/wiki/Cloud_storage \"Cloud storage\") services has prompted much discussion on security.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cloud\\-computing/cloud\\-storage3\\.htm/ \\| title\\=How Cloud Storage Works \\| publisher\\=How Stuff Works \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| author\\=Jonathan Strickland \\| date\\=30 April 2008 \\| archive\\-date\\=29 April 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429091352/http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cloud\\-computing/cloud\\-storage3\\.htm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} Security, as it relates to cloud storage can be broken down into:", "### Access and integrity security", "Deals with the question of [confidentiality and availability](/wiki/Information_assurance \"Information assurance\"), and may be expressed with questions of the kind: Will the user be able to continue accessing their data? Who else can access it? Who can change it?", "Whether the user is able to continue accessing their data depends on a large number of factors, ranging from the location and quality of their internet connection, and the physical integrity of the provider's data center, to the financial stability of the storage provider (because, even if perfectly fit from a technical point of view, if the provider financially goes out of business, then its services go offline too).", "The question of who can access and, potentially, change, their data, ranges from what [physical access controls](/wiki/Physical_access_control \"Physical access control\") are in place in the provider's data center to what [technical steps have been taken](/wiki/Data_center_security \"Data center security\"), such as access control, [encryption](/wiki/Encryption \"Encryption\"), etc.", "Many [cloud storage services](/wiki/Cloud_storage_service \"Cloud storage service\") state that they either encrypt data before it is uploaded or while it is stored. While encryption is generally regarded as best practice in cloud storage{{cite web \\| url\\=http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\\-Data\\-Storage\\-Encryption\\-and\\-Data\\-Protection\\-Best\\-Practices \\| title\\=Cloud Data Storage, Encryption and Data Protection Best Practices \\| publisher\\=Techtarget.com \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| archive\\-date\\=2 May 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502073605/http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\\-Data\\-Storage\\-Encryption\\-and\\-Data\\-Protection\\-Best\\-Practices \\| url\\-status\\=live }} how the encryption is implemented is very important.", "Consumer\\-grade, public file hosting and synchronization services are popular, but for business use, they create the concern that corporate information is exported to devices and cloud services that are not controlled by the organization.", "Some cloud storage providers offer granular [ACLs](/wiki/Access-control_list \"Access-control list\") for application keys. One important permission is [append\\-only](/wiki/Comparison_of_file_hosting_services%23cite_note-append-only-2 \"Comparison of file hosting services#cite note-append-only-2\"), which is distinct from simple \"read\", \"write\", and \"read\\-write\" permissions in that all existing data is immutable.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.borgbase.com/\\|title\\=BorgBase \\- Secure hosting for your BorgBackup Repos\\|website\\=BorgBase \\- Simple Borg Repo Hosting\\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113838/https://www.borgbase.com/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wasabi.com/blog/use\\-immutable\\-storage/\\|title\\=Why Use Immutable Storage?\\|date\\=11 September 2018\\|website\\=Wasabi\\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113834/https://wasabi.com/blog/use\\-immutable\\-storage/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Append\\-only support is especially important to mitigate the risk of [data loss](/wiki/Data_loss \"Data loss\") for [backup](/wiki/Backup \"Backup\") policies in the event that the computer being backed\\-up becomes infected with [ransomware](/wiki/Ransomware \"Ransomware\") capable of deleting or encrypting the victim's backups.{{cite book\\| title\\=PayBreak: Defense Against Cryptographic Ransomware\\| author1\\=Kolodenker, E.\\| author2\\=Koch, W.\\| author3\\=Stringhini, G.\\| author4\\=Egele, M.\\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315862748\\_PayBreak\\_Defense\\_Against\\_Cryptographic\\_Ransomware\\| publisher\\=ResearchGate GmbH\\| date\\=2 April 2017\\|\naccess\\-date\\=5 December 2023\\| doi\\=10\\.1145/3052973\\.3053035\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022012939/https://eugenekolo.com/static/paybreak.pdf\\| url\\-status\\=live\\| archive\\-date\\=22 October 2020}}{{cite book\\| title\\=A Roadmap for Improving the Impact of Anti\\-ransomware Research\\| author1\\=Pont, J.\\| author2\\=Abu Oun, O.\\| author3\\=Brierley, C.\\| author4\\=Arief, B.\\| author5\\=Hernandez\\-Castro, J.\\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337215603\\_A\\_Roadmap\\_for\\_Improving\\_the\\_Impact\\_of\\_Anti\\-ransomware\\_Research\\| publisher\\=ResearchGate GmbH.\\| pages\\=137\\-154\\| date\\=1 November 2019\\| access\\-date\\=5 December 2023\\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-35055\\-0\\_9\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113831/https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/ba284/Papers/NordSec2019\\.pdf\\| url\\-status\\=live\\| archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019}}", "### Data encryption", "Secret key encryption is sometimes referred to as [zero knowledge](/wiki/Zero-knowledge_proof \"Zero-knowledge proof\"), meaning that only the user has the encryption key needed to decrypt the data. Since data is encrypted using the secret key, identical files encrypted with different keys will be different. To be truly zero knowledge, the file hosting service must not be able to store the user's passwords or see their data even with physical access to the servers. For this reason, secret key encryption is considered the highest level of access security in cloud storage.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5\\-ways\\-to\\-securely\\-encrypt\\-your\\-files\\-in\\-the\\-cloud/ \\| title\\=5 Ways To Securely Encrypt Your Files in the Cloud \\| date\\=26 May 2012 \\| publisher\\=Makeuseof.com \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| archive\\-date\\=7 May 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507025406/http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5\\-ways\\-to\\-securely\\-encrypt\\-your\\-files\\-in\\-the\\-cloud/ \\| url\\-status\\=live }} This form of encryption is rapidly gaining popularity, with companies such as [MEGA](/wiki/Mega_%28service%29 \"Mega (service)\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://mega.nz/security\\|title\\=MEGA has been designed around user\\-controlled end\\-to\\-end encryption. MEGA's end\\-to\\-end encryption (E2EE) paradigm enhances the overall security by providing 'privacy by design', unlike many of its competitors who only provide 'privacy by policy'.\\|website\\=MEGA Privacy\\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=14 June 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614215450/https://mega.nz/security\\|url\\-status\\=live}} (previously Megaupload) and [SpiderOak](/wiki/SpiderOak \"SpiderOak\") being entirely zero knowledge file storage and sharing.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://spideroak.com/zero\\-knowledge/\\|title\\=SpiderOak \\- Zero Knowledge Privacy with Encrypted Cloud Backup\\|access\\-date\\=29 September 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009131632/https://spideroak.com/zero\\-knowledge/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Since secret key encryption results in unique files, it makes [data deduplication](/wiki/Data_deduplication \"Data deduplication\") impossible and therefore may use more storage space.{{cite web \\|title\\=Secure Data Deduplication \\|first1\\=Mark W. \\|last1\\=Storer \\|first2\\=Kevin \\|last2\\=Greenan \\|first3\\=Darrell D. E. \\|last3\\=Long \\|first4\\=Ethan L. \\|last4\\=Miller \\|url\\=http://www.ssrc.ucsc.edu/Papers/storer\\-storagess08\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=Ssrc.ucsc.edu \\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822211856/http://www.ssrc.ucsc.edu/Papers/storer\\-storagess08\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "[Convergent encryption](/wiki/Convergent_encryption \"Convergent encryption\") derives the key from the file content itself and means an identical file encrypted on different computers result in identical encrypted files. This enables the cloud storage provider to [de\\-duplicate](/wiki/Data_deduplication \"Data deduplication\") data blocks, meaning only one instance of a unique file (such as a document, photo, music or movie file) is actually stored on the cloud servers but made accessible to all uploaders. A third party who gained access to the encrypted files could thus easily determine if a user has uploaded a particular file simply by encrypting it themselves and comparing the outputs.", "Some point out that there is a theoretical possibility that organizations such as the [RIAA](/wiki/RIAA \"RIAA\"), [MPAA](/wiki/MPAA \"MPAA\"), or a government could obtain a warrant for US law enforcement to access the cloud storage provider's servers and gain access to the encrypted files belonging to a user.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://thenextweb.com/apps/2011/09/23/bitcasa\\-infinite\\-storage\\-comes\\-to\\-your\\-desktop\\-but\\-so\\-do\\-big\\-questions/ \\| title\\=Bitcasa: Infinite storage comes to your desktop, but so do big questions \\| website\\=TheNextWeb.com \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| author\\=Brad McCarty \\| date\\=23 September 2011 \\| archive\\-date\\=22 July 2016 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722061307/http://thenextweb.com/apps/2011/09/23/bitcasa\\-infinite\\-storage\\-comes\\-to\\-your\\-desktop\\-but\\-so\\-do\\-big\\-questions/ \\| url\\-status\\=live }} By demonstrating to a court how applying the convergent encryption methodology to an unencrypted copyrighted file produces the same encrypted file as that possessed by the user would appear to make a strong case that the user is guilty of possessing the file in question and thus providing evidence of [copyright infringement](/wiki/Copyright_infringement \"Copyright infringement\") by the user.", "There is, however, no easily accessible public record of this having been tried in court as of May 2013 and an argument could be made that, similar to the opinion expressed by Attorney Rick G. Sanders of Aaron \\| Sanders PLLC in regards to the iTunes Match \"Honeypot\" discussion,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://thenextweb.com/apple/2011/09/16/is\\-itunes\\-match\\-a\\-honeypot\\-for\\-music\\-pirates\\-a\\-copyright\\-lawyer\\-weighs\\-in/ \\| title\\=Is iTunes Match a honeypot for music pirates? A copyright lawyer weighs in \\| website\\=TheNextWeb.com \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| author\\=Brad McCarty \\| date\\=16 September 2011 \\| archive\\-date\\=8 March 2016 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308035537/http://thenextweb.com/apple/2011/09/16/is\\-itunes\\-match\\-a\\-honeypot\\-for\\-music\\-pirates\\-a\\-copyright\\-lawyer\\-weighs\\-in/ \\| url\\-status\\=live }} that a warrant to search the cloud storage provider's servers would be hard to obtain without other, independent, evidence establishing probable cause for copyright infringement. Such legal restraint would obviously not apply to the [secret police](/wiki/Secret_police \"Secret police\") of an [oppressive government](/wiki/Authoritarianism \"Authoritarianism\") who could potentially gain access to the encrypted files through various forms of [hacking](/wiki/Hacker_%28computer_security%29 \"Hacker (computer security)\") or other [cybercrime](/wiki/Cybercrime \"Cybercrime\").", "### Ownership security", "{{Expand section\\|1\\=Deals with the questions: Who owns the data the user uploads? Will the act of uploading change the ownership?\n\\|date\\=January 2020}}", "" ]
### Access and integrity security Deals with the question of [confidentiality and availability](/wiki/Information_assurance "Information assurance"), and may be expressed with questions of the kind: Will the user be able to continue accessing their data? Who else can access it? Who can change it? Whether the user is able to continue accessing their data depends on a large number of factors, ranging from the location and quality of their internet connection, and the physical integrity of the provider's data center, to the financial stability of the storage provider (because, even if perfectly fit from a technical point of view, if the provider financially goes out of business, then its services go offline too). The question of who can access and, potentially, change, their data, ranges from what [physical access controls](/wiki/Physical_access_control "Physical access control") are in place in the provider's data center to what [technical steps have been taken](/wiki/Data_center_security "Data center security"), such as access control, [encryption](/wiki/Encryption "Encryption"), etc. Many [cloud storage services](/wiki/Cloud_storage_service "Cloud storage service") state that they either encrypt data before it is uploaded or while it is stored. While encryption is generally regarded as best practice in cloud storage{{cite web \| url\=http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\-Data\-Storage\-Encryption\-and\-Data\-Protection\-Best\-Practices \| title\=Cloud Data Storage, Encryption and Data Protection Best Practices \| publisher\=Techtarget.com \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-08 \| archive\-date\=2 May 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502073605/http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\-Data\-Storage\-Encryption\-and\-Data\-Protection\-Best\-Practices \| url\-status\=live }} how the encryption is implemented is very important. Consumer\-grade, public file hosting and synchronization services are popular, but for business use, they create the concern that corporate information is exported to devices and cloud services that are not controlled by the organization. Some cloud storage providers offer granular [ACLs](/wiki/Access-control_list "Access-control list") for application keys. One important permission is [append\-only](/wiki/Comparison_of_file_hosting_services%23cite_note-append-only-2 "Comparison of file hosting services#cite note-append-only-2"), which is distinct from simple "read", "write", and "read\-write" permissions in that all existing data is immutable.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.borgbase.com/\|title\=BorgBase \- Secure hosting for your BorgBackup Repos\|website\=BorgBase \- Simple Borg Repo Hosting\|access\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113838/https://www.borgbase.com/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://wasabi.com/blog/use\-immutable\-storage/\|title\=Why Use Immutable Storage?\|date\=11 September 2018\|website\=Wasabi\|access\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113834/https://wasabi.com/blog/use\-immutable\-storage/\|url\-status\=live}} Append\-only support is especially important to mitigate the risk of [data loss](/wiki/Data_loss "Data loss") for [backup](/wiki/Backup "Backup") policies in the event that the computer being backed\-up becomes infected with [ransomware](/wiki/Ransomware "Ransomware") capable of deleting or encrypting the victim's backups.{{cite book\| title\=PayBreak: Defense Against Cryptographic Ransomware\| author1\=Kolodenker, E.\| author2\=Koch, W.\| author3\=Stringhini, G.\| author4\=Egele, M.\| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315862748\_PayBreak\_Defense\_Against\_Cryptographic\_Ransomware\| publisher\=ResearchGate GmbH\| date\=2 April 2017\| access\-date\=5 December 2023\| doi\=10\.1145/3052973\.3053035\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022012939/https://eugenekolo.com/static/paybreak.pdf\| url\-status\=live\| archive\-date\=22 October 2020}}{{cite book\| title\=A Roadmap for Improving the Impact of Anti\-ransomware Research\| author1\=Pont, J.\| author2\=Abu Oun, O.\| author3\=Brierley, C.\| author4\=Arief, B.\| author5\=Hernandez\-Castro, J.\| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337215603\_A\_Roadmap\_for\_Improving\_the\_Impact\_of\_Anti\-ransomware\_Research\| publisher\=ResearchGate GmbH.\| pages\=137\-154\| date\=1 November 2019\| access\-date\=5 December 2023\| doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-35055\-0\_9\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113831/https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/ba284/Papers/NordSec2019\.pdf\| url\-status\=live\| archive\-date\=3 December 2019}}
[ "### Access and integrity security", "Deals with the question of [confidentiality and availability](/wiki/Information_assurance \"Information assurance\"), and may be expressed with questions of the kind: Will the user be able to continue accessing their data? Who else can access it? Who can change it?", "Whether the user is able to continue accessing their data depends on a large number of factors, ranging from the location and quality of their internet connection, and the physical integrity of the provider's data center, to the financial stability of the storage provider (because, even if perfectly fit from a technical point of view, if the provider financially goes out of business, then its services go offline too).", "The question of who can access and, potentially, change, their data, ranges from what [physical access controls](/wiki/Physical_access_control \"Physical access control\") are in place in the provider's data center to what [technical steps have been taken](/wiki/Data_center_security \"Data center security\"), such as access control, [encryption](/wiki/Encryption \"Encryption\"), etc.", "Many [cloud storage services](/wiki/Cloud_storage_service \"Cloud storage service\") state that they either encrypt data before it is uploaded or while it is stored. While encryption is generally regarded as best practice in cloud storage{{cite web \\| url\\=http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\\-Data\\-Storage\\-Encryption\\-and\\-Data\\-Protection\\-Best\\-Practices \\| title\\=Cloud Data Storage, Encryption and Data Protection Best Practices \\| publisher\\=Techtarget.com \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| archive\\-date\\=2 May 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502073605/http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/resources/Cloud\\-Data\\-Storage\\-Encryption\\-and\\-Data\\-Protection\\-Best\\-Practices \\| url\\-status\\=live }} how the encryption is implemented is very important.", "Consumer\\-grade, public file hosting and synchronization services are popular, but for business use, they create the concern that corporate information is exported to devices and cloud services that are not controlled by the organization.", "Some cloud storage providers offer granular [ACLs](/wiki/Access-control_list \"Access-control list\") for application keys. One important permission is [append\\-only](/wiki/Comparison_of_file_hosting_services%23cite_note-append-only-2 \"Comparison of file hosting services#cite note-append-only-2\"), which is distinct from simple \"read\", \"write\", and \"read\\-write\" permissions in that all existing data is immutable.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.borgbase.com/\\|title\\=BorgBase \\- Secure hosting for your BorgBackup Repos\\|website\\=BorgBase \\- Simple Borg Repo Hosting\\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113838/https://www.borgbase.com/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wasabi.com/blog/use\\-immutable\\-storage/\\|title\\=Why Use Immutable Storage?\\|date\\=11 September 2018\\|website\\=Wasabi\\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113834/https://wasabi.com/blog/use\\-immutable\\-storage/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Append\\-only support is especially important to mitigate the risk of [data loss](/wiki/Data_loss \"Data loss\") for [backup](/wiki/Backup \"Backup\") policies in the event that the computer being backed\\-up becomes infected with [ransomware](/wiki/Ransomware \"Ransomware\") capable of deleting or encrypting the victim's backups.{{cite book\\| title\\=PayBreak: Defense Against Cryptographic Ransomware\\| author1\\=Kolodenker, E.\\| author2\\=Koch, W.\\| author3\\=Stringhini, G.\\| author4\\=Egele, M.\\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315862748\\_PayBreak\\_Defense\\_Against\\_Cryptographic\\_Ransomware\\| publisher\\=ResearchGate GmbH\\| date\\=2 April 2017\\|\naccess\\-date\\=5 December 2023\\| doi\\=10\\.1145/3052973\\.3053035\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022012939/https://eugenekolo.com/static/paybreak.pdf\\| url\\-status\\=live\\| archive\\-date\\=22 October 2020}}{{cite book\\| title\\=A Roadmap for Improving the Impact of Anti\\-ransomware Research\\| author1\\=Pont, J.\\| author2\\=Abu Oun, O.\\| author3\\=Brierley, C.\\| author4\\=Arief, B.\\| author5\\=Hernandez\\-Castro, J.\\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337215603\\_A\\_Roadmap\\_for\\_Improving\\_the\\_Impact\\_of\\_Anti\\-ransomware\\_Research\\| publisher\\=ResearchGate GmbH.\\| pages\\=137\\-154\\| date\\=1 November 2019\\| access\\-date\\=5 December 2023\\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-35055\\-0\\_9\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113831/https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/ba284/Papers/NordSec2019\\.pdf\\| url\\-status\\=live\\| archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019}}", "" ]
The Island ---------- As the main setting of the series, the island boasts a number of unusual properties. Its location changes at times and it cannot be reached by ordinary means. The island is surrounded by some sort of barrier which causes [disruptions in the normal flow of time](/wiki/%23Time_travel "#Time travel") for those who cross it. [Electromagnetic](/wiki/Electromagnetism "Electromagnetism") phenomena are common on the island, and it seems to bestow unusual [healing](/wiki/Healing "Healing") properties to its residents. ### Structures #### The *Black Rock* Located deep inside the jungle is the *Black Rock*, a [sailing ship](/wiki/Sailing_ship "Sailing ship") from the mid\-19th century. In "[Ab Aeterno](/wiki/Ab_Aeterno "Ab Aeterno")", the *Black Rock* set sail in 1867 and was captained by [Magnus Hanso](/wiki/Hanso_Foundation "Hanso Foundation") and had [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Richard_Alpert_%28Lost%29 "Richard Alpert (Lost)"), a Spaniard by the name of Ricardo, as a prisoner. [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 "Jacob (Lost)"), the protector of the island, does not deny when asked by [his fraternal twin brother](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 "Man in Black (Lost)") if he brought the ship to the island, as the two watch it approaching. Eventually, it is swept inland by a colossal [rogue wave](/wiki/Rogue_wave "Rogue wave"), destroying all but one foot of the coastal statue of [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret "Taweret") on its way, but a mystery remains as to how the *Black Rock* had landed on almost the other side of the Island from where the statue of Taweret was. In "[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant "The Constant")", it is explained that the *Black Rock* set sail from [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth"), [England](/wiki/England "England"), on March 22, 1845 on a trading mission to the [Kingdom of Siam](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), when she was tragically lost at sea. The only known artifact of this journey is the journal of the ship's [First Mate](/wiki/First_Mate "First Mate"), which was discovered seven years later among the artifacts of [pirates](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy") on [Île Sainte\-Marie](/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie "Île Sainte-Marie"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar"). The contents of this journal have never been made public nor known to anyone outside the family of the seller Tovard Hanso. This journal is later bought at auction by [Charles Widmore](/wiki/Charles_Widmore "Charles Widmore"). In "[Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Lost%29 "Exodus (Lost)")", [John Locke](/wiki/John_Locke_%28Lost%29 "John Locke (Lost)") mentions that this ship must have been en route to a mining colony, probably set\-off from the Eastern Coast of Africa, [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique"). The ship contains dynamite, mining equipment and several chained skeletons, which are revealed to be enslaved people carried by the ship. Dr. Leslie Arzt ([Daniel Roebuck](/wiki/Daniel_Roebuck "Daniel Roebuck")) mentions that a [tsunami](/wiki/Tsunami "Tsunami") could have swept it a couple of miles inland as seen later in the episode. [The Swan](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative_stations%23Station_3:The_Swan "The Swan")'s [blast door](/wiki/Blast_door "Blast door") map has a revision marking "Known Final Resting Place of Magnus Hanso / *Black Rock*" as seen in "[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone "Live Together, Die Alone")". #### The cabin The cabin was built by [the Dharma Initiative](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative "DHARMA Initiative") [mathematician](/wiki/Mathematician "Mathematician") [Horace Goodspeed](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Dharma_Initiative_members "Characters of Lost#Dharma Initiative members") as a sort of [retreat](/wiki/Retreat_%28spiritual%29 "Retreat (spiritual)") for himself and his wife. It is surrounded by a broken ash circle. While at first it is believed that Jacob resides there, it is actually the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_black_%28Lost%29 "Man in black (Lost)"){{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}} in the cabin, falsely giving orders on behalf of Jacob. The cabin has appeared in three separate locations. #### The lighthouse In "[Lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse_%28Lost%29 "Lighthouse (Lost)")", Jacob instructs [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_Reyes "Hugo Reyes") to take [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Shephard "Jack Shephard") to a heretofore\-unseen lighthouse on the Island's coast. At the top of the lighthouse's stone tower is a set of mirrors which can rotate via a large stone dial, labeled with numbers and in some cases the names of the "candidates". Jack is able to see an image of his childhood home reflected in the mirrors when they are turned to his number, 23; whether this is due to some property of the lighthouse mirrors and structure or simply to Jacob's influence is unclear. #### The ruins There are ruins on the Island, many with hieroglyphs. In "[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone "Live Together, Die Alone")", while at sea, [Sayid](/wiki/Sayid_Jarrah "Sayid Jarrah"), [Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon "Jin-Soo Kwon"), and [Sun](/wiki/Sun-Hwa_Kwon "Sun-Hwa Kwon") sight the remnants of a massive statue standing upon a rock in the surf. All that is left is a large, four\-toed marble foot broken off at the ankle. Sayid remarks that he does not know which is more disquieting: the fact that the rest of the statue is missing, or that the foot has only four toes. It has been compared to the [Colossus of Rhodes](/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes "Colossus of Rhodes").{{cite web\|title\=The Foot with Four Toes at AndFound \|url\=http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\-foot\-with\-four\-toes/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201135/http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\-foot\-with\-four\-toes/ \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-27 }} The full statue, viewed from the back, appears from a distance in the fifth\-season episode "[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 "LaFleur (Lost)")". The statue seen from behind has lion\-like ears, a crown on the head, long hair, an [ankh](/wiki/Ankh "Ankh") in each hand, and [ancient Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") dress. The statue is named [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret "Taweret"),Beyond the hatch *Lost: The Official Magazine* Issue 24 (September/October 2009\): pages 25 \- 27\. the Egyptian god of [fertility](/wiki/Fertility "Fertility") and life. At the base of the statue is a [secret chamber](/wiki/Secret_passage "Secret passage") in which [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 "Jacob (Lost)") resides. All [four elements](/wiki/Classical_element "Classical element") of earth, water, fire, and air are represented in this chamber. "The fire pit in the middle of the room consisted of flames rising from black sand with a ring of water surrounding all of it." The room also housed a weaving loom in which Jacob is shown creating a tapestry. In addition, painted on the ceiling was "an ancient Egyptian astronomical chart which refers to the stars and planets, time, and the goddess Taweret." Further ruins are revealed in "[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 "The Brig (Lost)")" when the Others tie [Locke's father](/wiki/Anthony_Cooper_%28Lost%29 "Anthony Cooper (Lost)") to the broken base of a large, stone column. Toward the end of the third season, Ben tells Richard to continue leading the rest of the Others to the Temple, and in "[Meet Kevin Johnson](/wiki/Meet_Kevin_Johnson "Meet Kevin Johnson")" he sends Alex, Karl, and Rousseau to the same location. His map marks it with a Dharma Initiative symbol, but the Temple has also been mentioned as something the Monster is in place to protect{{Clarify\|reason\=\|date\=January 2019}}. In addition, in "[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 "The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)")", after Alex is killed, Ben summons the Smoke Monster in a secret chamber hidden in his closet whose stone door contains hieroglyphics. In "[There's No Place Like Home](/wiki/There%27s_No_Place_Like_Home_%28Lost%29 "There's No Place Like Home (Lost)") Pt 3", when Ben enters the Orchid Station, behind the official Dharma built station, he finds what appear to be ancient tombstones covered with unknown hieroglyphs on his way to the final room, where an ancient man\-made wheel rests that is used to "move the island". The fifth\-season episode "[This Place is Death](/wiki/This_Place_is_Death "This Place is Death")" shows a better view of what appears to be the Temple that Ben will one day order Richard to lead his people to. In this episode the temple is directly guarded by the Monster. In "[Whatever Happened, Happened](/wiki/Whatever_Happened%2C_Happened "Whatever Happened, Happened")", Richard Alpert is seen taking a young Benjamin Linus inside the temple, as a means of healing a fatal gunshot wound. Alpert notes beforehand that Ben will emerge a fundamentally different person. It is revealed in "[Dead is Dead](/wiki/Dead_is_Dead "Dead is Dead")" that the structure the viewers see is merely a wall concealing the temple and the actual temple itself is a mile away on the other side of the wall. There is also a labyrinth of tunnels beneath the surface of the Island. The lair of the Monster lies in these tunnels, beneath the site of the Temple wall, and another chamber was used by the Others to isolate a [hydrogen bomb](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") with a breach in its casing, which lies beneath the Dharma Initiative barracks. Some of these tunnels are marked on the blast door map in the Swan Station. In the sixth\-season episode "[Across the Sea](/wiki/Across_the_Sea_%28Lost%29 "Across the Sea (Lost)")", young [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 "Jacob (Lost)") and his [unnamed fraternal twin brother](/wiki/The_Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 "The Man in Black (Lost)") are shown a cave with a waterfall; in "[The End](/wiki/The_End_%28Lost%29 "The End (Lost)")," [Desmond](/wiki/Desmond_Hume "Desmond Hume") descends into the cave and discovers an ancient chamber. In the chamber there is a pool of electromagnetic energy with a large hieroglyphic stone that sits at the center covering a mysterious hole. When it is removed by Desmond, the water and energy drain from the pool, an infernal red glow infuses the chamber, and the island begins to violently react. When Jack returns the stone, the water begins to flow into the pool again and the electromagnetic energy returns. ### Health\-related properties The Island has extraordinary healing properties. The Island can heal normally untreatable conditions, such as spinal damage (Locke), cancer (Rose), and infertility ([Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon "Jin-Soo Kwon")). Injuries heal much faster than they normally would, though by no means are people incapable of dying. Disease is also possible, though rare. Since "the Incident", increased electromagnetic immersion caused women who conceive children on the Island to die of an [auto\-immune](/wiki/Autoimmunity "Autoimmunity") condition during the second trimester of [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy"). They can otherwise give birth as long as conception occurs off the island or if they leave before the second trimester. #### Healing Some castaways express the belief that they have been miraculously healed since the crash. Prior to his arrival, Locke was paralyzed, but he regains the use of his legs immediately after the crash. [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Others_%28Lost%29%23Dr._Richard_Alpert "Others (Lost)#Dr. Richard Alpert") says in "[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 "The Brig (Lost)")" that Locke's spine healing itself is not a normal event, even by the Island's standards. It is a sign of Locke being somehow "special". The effects of this specialness seem to extend to other people. After his spinal surgery, Ben is paralyzed for over a week, but regains the feeling in his legs immediately after coming into contact with Locke. He is able to walk (with the aid of a cane) only days later. The Others appear to operate on the assumption that cancer is impossible on the Island ("[One of Us](/wiki/One_of_Us_%28Lost%29 "One of Us (Lost)")"). Ben Linus appears deeply shocked when told he has a tumor on his spine, and Juliet notes the coincidence that Jack, a spinal surgeon, arrived on the island two days after Ben's condition was diagnosed. Similarly, Rose had been dying of cancer before crashing on the island. After the crash, she feels as if the cancer has "left her body" and, in "[S.O.S.](/wiki/S.O.S._%28Lost%29 "S.O.S. (Lost)")", credits her cure to the island. Jack contracts appendicitis while on the Island, which Rose observes is suspicious given that they expect their imminent rescue and the fact that she strongly believes that it is impossible to get sick on the Island. Locke also makes a miraculously fast recovery in the episode "[Through the Looking Glass](/wiki/Through_the_Looking_Glass_%28Lost%29 "Through the Looking Glass (Lost)")", after being shot and left for dead by Ben in the episode "[The Man Behind the Curtain](/wiki/The_Man_Behind_the_Curtain_%28Lost%29 "The Man Behind the Curtain (Lost)")". Locke also comments that he would have died from being shot, had the kidney Ben was aiming for not been removed earlier in his life. In the episode "[Lockdown](/wiki/Lockdown_%28Lost%29 "Lockdown (Lost)")", his legs are crushed by the Swan station's blast doors. Rose teases Locke later when he is depressed about possibly being immobile, saying that he will recover sooner than he should. In "[Because You Left](/wiki/Because_You_Left "Because You Left")", Locke gets shot in the leg by Ethan when he is flashed to the past. After Locke gets flashed to the present day, Richard briefly treats his wound and tells him "the island will do the rest." Other characters like [Mikhail Bakunin](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Mikhail_Bakunin "Characters of Lost#Mikhail Bakunin") and Naomi also recover from injuries very fast. Shannon suffers an asthma attack and is in a panic, having lost her inhaler, until Sun recommends herbs from her garden. In "[The Variable](/wiki/The_Variable "The Variable")", Daniel Faraday is shown to have suffered severe mental damage as a result of his experiments in temporal displacement, impairing his long\-term memory. Charles Widmore promises Faraday that he will be healed if he goes on the freighter mission he was recruiting him for. Upon his arrival on the island, Daniel is cured of these problems, although he did suffer a temporary relapse after the death of Charlotte. #### Pregnancy The third season reveals that any woman who conceives on the island dies before the baby is born. Specifically, the pregnancy goes well until about midway through the second trimester, when complications arise. The mother's body rejects the fetus as a viral infection, resulting in both the mother and child's death. Juliet states that in her research, no one made it to their third trimester. Animals such as the wild boars do not die during pregnancy. Women who went through their second trimester off the island are able to give birth without incident (Rousseau, Claire). The Others have enlisted the help of Juliet, a fertility researcher, to help find out why this happens, but she never finds an answer. Several women among the Others volunteer to get pregnant for Juliet's research, all with uniformly fatal results. In the episode "[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 "LaFleur (Lost)")" Amy gives birth to a healthy baby Ethan and there was no mention of her being off the island during conception or pregnancy. It is revealed that during Dharma time women would leave the island to give birth, though Amy is clearly in the third trimester of her pregnancy. This implies that the pregnancy problems were caused by the electromagnetism released during the Incident. In "The New Man In Charge" it is revealed that pregnant polar bears who were transported to the Island from the Hydra station would suffer dire consequences due to the high levels of electromagnetism. The Island also affects fertility in men. Jin\-Soo Kwon was sterile before coming to the Island, but impregnates his wife while there. In the episode "[D.O.C.](/wiki/D.O.C._%28Lost%29 "D.O.C. (Lost)")", Juliet reveals that men on the island have five times the normal [sperm count](/wiki/Sperm_count "Sperm count"). #### "Sickness" Contrary to the lack of disease on the Island, Rousseau claims to have killed her team because they had caught a mysterious disease, which necessitated their executions. She also claims that the Others are the carriers of disease. It is later shown that Rousseau's crew was "infected" after entering the tunnels beneath the Temple in order to rescue a member of her team from the Monster. Upon their return, the three crew members show no physical symptoms of anything being wrong with them, but act strangely, even attempting to kill Rousseau. She executed them, believing that they were no longer "themselves" (although she was on the verge of insanity herself after suffering this ordeal). The Temple master, Dogen, refers to both Sayid and Claire as being "infected". This infection is akin to being "claimed" by the Man in Black, and results in a complete loss of emotion and altered personality, a state which both Sayid and Claire were eventually able to overcome. When Locke is being held captive by Desmond, Desmond asks Locke if any of his people are sick or dying. When Desmond first came to the Island, Kelvin Inman also asked Desmond about his physical health and implied that he was out long enough to have been exposed. A mysterious vaccine is provided by Dharma food drops. It is taken regularly by Kelvin and Desmond in the Swan Station. This vaccine likely exists as a means of enforcing isolation and is of no medical value. It's also highly likely it's for counteracting electromagnetic radiation exposure that's surrounding the Swan Station since 1977\.{{explain\|date\=March 2014}} Additional vaccine is administered to Claire's unborn child by Ethan after her kidnapping. During this encounter, Ethan confides in Claire that the Others don't have enough vaccine, implying that either they or their recent abductees required it as well. This vaccine either serves an alternate purpose that Ethan was unwilling to divulge or represents a dramatic misinterpretation of a sickness' true cause. ### Other physical properties #### Location The Others transmit a signal that they use to locate the Island. The Island is surrounded by a shield of electromagnetic energy, which causes temporal displacement and death when trying to enter or leave the Island, unless the person is traveling from a certain angle and bearing (which changes when the Island moves). The DHARMA Initiative located the Island, after learning about it through the United States Army, by building The Lamp Post, an off\-Island station underneath a church, over a pocket of electromagnetic energy that uses the energy and a complex mathematical equation to locate where and when the Island will be. The Island can be physically moved in space, while many of its occupants have been seen to move through time and space, to wherever the island is located at that moment in time. This phenomenon is achieved by tapping into the Island's energy source, as the frozen wheel does. #### Electromagnetism An [unusual form](/wiki/Technobabble "Technobabble") of naturally occurring [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism "Electromagnetism") is present on the island. While physical objects seem to be affected by the time passage, electromagnetism, such as [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_frequency "Radio frequency") are not affected. People are able to communicate directly to the outside world without a time lapse. A station was built to study the unique form of electromagnetism found there. Radzinski was very vocal in manipulating electromagnetism "in ways we have never dreamed before". At the end of "[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone "Live Together, Die Alone")", when Desmond has used the fail\-safe device in the Swan station to destroy it, a monitoring station in the Antarctic detects the electromagnetic event. It is the same energy as that in the heart of the Island that's been hinted by the Dharma Initiative.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2010}} Jacob's brother tried to use the energy to transport himself off of the Island by building the frozen wheel underground. #### Time travel The Island is surrounded by an invisible electromagnetic barrier in which the normal rules of time do not apply. In "[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist_%28Lost%29 "The Economist (Lost)")", a missile fired from a freighter outside the barrier to the Island, carrying a timer in its payload, is shown to take roughly 31 minutes longer to arrive at its designated target area. In the same episode, a helicopter leaves the Island late in the afternoon. Even though the flight only takes about 30 minutes, it arrives at the freighter the next morning. [Doc Ray](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Other_Kahana_crew_members "Characters of Lost#Other Kahana crew members")'s body washes ashore in "[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 "The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)")", but when the freighter is contacted via radio for an explanation, he is alive and well from their perspective. Two episodes later, in "[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 "Cabin Fever (Lost)")", the doctor is murdered and thrown overboard. The barrier poses a threat to those entering or leaving it, particularly if they have been exposed to a high amount of electromagnetism. Doing so under these circumstances can lead to one's consciousness traveling through time (called "temporal displacement" on the show), eventually resulting in death unless a "[constant](/wiki/The_Constant "The Constant")" can be found between the present and the destination time period. After Benjamin Linus turns the frozen wheel beneath the Orchid station, he finds himself in the Tunisian Desert 10 months later. After the wheel is turned, several characters remaining on the Island are intermittently transported back and forward through time, with each shift being accompanied by a blinding purple flash and health deterioration effects (including headaches and nosebleeds) until Locke puts the wheel back on its axis. Walt's becoming so tall so quickly was a natural event and not a result of the temporal displacement, although it was likely the inspiration of this device. Malcolm David Kelley's sudden growth spurt had caused a problem for Abrams and Lindelof who were seeking ways to explain it. In the end, the characters were stuck on the island for 108 days, the same as off the island.{{Clarify\|reason\=\|date\=January 2019}} #### Temporal displacement In the fourth\-season episode "[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant "The Constant")", it is revealed that freighter communications officer Minkowski and a crew member named Brandon tried to sneak off the boat to get a closer look at the Island. According to Minkowski, as they approached "something happened" to Brandon that caused them to turn back. Brandon died as a result of this attempt to approach the Island, and Minkowski suffered from temporal displacement (jumping between past and present in his mind) and, lacking a "constant" (some aspect of his life present in both times and to which he would have a strong emotional connection), died soon after. One crew member, Regina, speaks with Faraday over a radio regarding a rocket payload experiment. At the time, she sounds normal. By the time Sayid and Desmond have reached the freighter, Regina is suffering from some sort of psychosis. She is pretending to be reading a book, even though it is held upside down and she generally appears as "mentally out of it". Later, Regina commits suicide by wrapping herself in heavy chains and jumping into the ocean. No move is made by the crew to dissuade her, with Captain Gault claiming that "she is too far gone." How Regina, having never gotten close to the Island as Minkowski and Brandon had, became ill is never revealed. In "[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 "Cabin Fever (Lost)")", Captain Gault informs [Martin Keamy](/wiki/Martin_Keamy "Martin Keamy") that he may be suffering from some sort of dementia connected with the Island.
[ "The Island\n----------", "As the main setting of the series, the island boasts a number of unusual properties. Its location changes at times and it cannot be reached by ordinary means. The island is surrounded by some sort of barrier which causes [disruptions in the normal flow of time](/wiki/%23Time_travel \"#Time travel\") for those who cross it. [Electromagnetic](/wiki/Electromagnetism \"Electromagnetism\") phenomena are common on the island, and it seems to bestow unusual [healing](/wiki/Healing \"Healing\") properties to its residents.", "### Structures", "#### The *Black Rock*", "Located deep inside the jungle is the *Black Rock*, a [sailing ship](/wiki/Sailing_ship \"Sailing ship\") from the mid\\-19th century. In \"[Ab Aeterno](/wiki/Ab_Aeterno \"Ab Aeterno\")\", the *Black Rock* set sail in 1867 and was captained by [Magnus Hanso](/wiki/Hanso_Foundation \"Hanso Foundation\") and had [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Richard_Alpert_%28Lost%29 \"Richard Alpert (Lost)\"), a Spaniard by the name of Ricardo, as a prisoner. [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 \"Jacob (Lost)\"), the protector of the island, does not deny when asked by [his fraternal twin brother](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 \"Man in Black (Lost)\") if he brought the ship to the island, as the two watch it approaching. Eventually, it is swept inland by a colossal [rogue wave](/wiki/Rogue_wave \"Rogue wave\"), destroying all but one foot of the coastal statue of [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret \"Taweret\") on its way, but a mystery remains as to how the *Black Rock* had landed on almost the other side of the Island from where the statue of Taweret was. In \"[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant \"The Constant\")\", it is explained that the *Black Rock* set sail from [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), on March 22, 1845 on a trading mission to the [Kingdom of Siam](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), when she was tragically lost at sea. The only known artifact of this journey is the journal of the ship's [First Mate](/wiki/First_Mate \"First Mate\"), which was discovered seven years later among the artifacts of [pirates](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") on [Île Sainte\\-Marie](/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie \"Île Sainte-Marie\"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"). The contents of this journal have never been made public nor known to anyone outside the family of the seller Tovard Hanso. This journal is later bought at auction by [Charles Widmore](/wiki/Charles_Widmore \"Charles Widmore\").", "In \"[Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Lost%29 \"Exodus (Lost)\")\", [John Locke](/wiki/John_Locke_%28Lost%29 \"John Locke (Lost)\") mentions that this ship must have been en route to a mining colony, probably set\\-off from the Eastern Coast of Africa, [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\"). The ship contains dynamite, mining equipment and several chained skeletons, which are revealed to be enslaved people carried by the ship. Dr. Leslie Arzt ([Daniel Roebuck](/wiki/Daniel_Roebuck \"Daniel Roebuck\")) mentions that a [tsunami](/wiki/Tsunami \"Tsunami\") could have swept it a couple of miles inland as seen later in the episode. [The Swan](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative_stations%23Station_3:The_Swan \"The Swan\")'s [blast door](/wiki/Blast_door \"Blast door\") map has a revision marking \"Known Final Resting Place of Magnus Hanso / *Black Rock*\" as seen in \"[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone \"Live Together, Die Alone\")\".", "#### The cabin", "The cabin was built by [the Dharma Initiative](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative \"DHARMA Initiative\") [mathematician](/wiki/Mathematician \"Mathematician\") [Horace Goodspeed](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Dharma_Initiative_members \"Characters of Lost#Dharma Initiative members\") as a sort of [retreat](/wiki/Retreat_%28spiritual%29 \"Retreat (spiritual)\") for himself and his wife. It is surrounded by a broken ash circle. While at first it is believed that Jacob resides there, it is actually the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_black_%28Lost%29 \"Man in black (Lost)\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}} in the cabin, falsely giving orders on behalf of Jacob. The cabin has appeared in three separate locations.", "#### The lighthouse", "In \"[Lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse_%28Lost%29 \"Lighthouse (Lost)\")\", Jacob instructs [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_Reyes \"Hugo Reyes\") to take [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Shephard \"Jack Shephard\") to a heretofore\\-unseen lighthouse on the Island's coast. At the top of the lighthouse's stone tower is a set of mirrors which can rotate via a large stone dial, labeled with numbers and in some cases the names of the \"candidates\". Jack is able to see an image of his childhood home reflected in the mirrors when they are turned to his number, 23; whether this is due to some property of the lighthouse mirrors and structure or simply to Jacob's influence is unclear.", "#### The ruins", "There are ruins on the Island, many with hieroglyphs. In \"[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone \"Live Together, Die Alone\")\", while at sea, [Sayid](/wiki/Sayid_Jarrah \"Sayid Jarrah\"), [Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon \"Jin-Soo Kwon\"), and [Sun](/wiki/Sun-Hwa_Kwon \"Sun-Hwa Kwon\") sight the remnants of a massive statue standing upon a rock in the surf. All that is left is a large, four\\-toed marble foot broken off at the ankle. Sayid remarks that he does not know which is more disquieting: the fact that the rest of the statue is missing, or that the foot has only four toes. It has been compared to the [Colossus of Rhodes](/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes \"Colossus of Rhodes\").{{cite web\\|title\\=The Foot with Four Toes at AndFound \\|url\\=http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\\-foot\\-with\\-four\\-toes/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201135/http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\\-foot\\-with\\-four\\-toes/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-27 }} The full statue, viewed from the back, appears from a distance in the fifth\\-season episode \"[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 \"LaFleur (Lost)\")\". The statue seen from behind has lion\\-like ears, a crown on the head, long hair, an [ankh](/wiki/Ankh \"Ankh\") in each hand, and [ancient Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") dress. The statue is named [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret \"Taweret\"),Beyond the hatch *Lost: The Official Magazine* Issue 24 (September/October 2009\\): pages 25 \\- 27\\. the Egyptian god of [fertility](/wiki/Fertility \"Fertility\") and life.", "At the base of the statue is a [secret chamber](/wiki/Secret_passage \"Secret passage\") in which [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 \"Jacob (Lost)\") resides. All [four elements](/wiki/Classical_element \"Classical element\") of earth, water, fire, and air are represented in this chamber. \"The fire pit in the middle of the room consisted of flames rising from black sand with a ring of water surrounding all of it.\" The room also housed a weaving loom in which Jacob is shown creating a tapestry. In addition, painted on the ceiling was \"an ancient Egyptian astronomical chart which refers to the stars and planets, time, and the goddess Taweret.\"", "Further ruins are revealed in \"[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 \"The Brig (Lost)\")\" when the Others tie [Locke's father](/wiki/Anthony_Cooper_%28Lost%29 \"Anthony Cooper (Lost)\") to the broken base of a large, stone column. Toward the end of the third season, Ben tells Richard to continue leading the rest of the Others to the Temple, and in \"[Meet Kevin Johnson](/wiki/Meet_Kevin_Johnson \"Meet Kevin Johnson\")\" he sends Alex, Karl, and Rousseau to the same location. His map marks it with a Dharma Initiative symbol, but the Temple has also been mentioned as something the Monster is in place to protect{{Clarify\\|reason\\=\\|date\\=January 2019}}. In addition, in \"[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 \"The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)\")\", after Alex is killed, Ben summons the Smoke Monster in a secret chamber hidden in his closet whose stone door contains hieroglyphics. In \"[There's No Place Like Home](/wiki/There%27s_No_Place_Like_Home_%28Lost%29 \"There's No Place Like Home (Lost)\") Pt 3\", when Ben enters the Orchid Station, behind the official Dharma built station, he finds what appear to be ancient tombstones covered with unknown hieroglyphs on his way to the final room, where an ancient man\\-made wheel rests that is used to \"move the island\". The fifth\\-season episode \"[This Place is Death](/wiki/This_Place_is_Death \"This Place is Death\")\" shows a better view of what appears to be the Temple that Ben will one day order Richard to lead his people to. In this episode the temple is directly guarded by the Monster. In \"[Whatever Happened, Happened](/wiki/Whatever_Happened%2C_Happened \"Whatever Happened, Happened\")\", Richard Alpert is seen taking a young Benjamin Linus inside the temple, as a means of healing a fatal gunshot wound. Alpert notes beforehand that Ben will emerge a fundamentally different person. It is revealed in \"[Dead is Dead](/wiki/Dead_is_Dead \"Dead is Dead\")\" that the structure the viewers see is merely a wall concealing the temple and the actual temple itself is a mile away on the other side of the wall.", "There is also a labyrinth of tunnels beneath the surface of the Island. The lair of the Monster lies in these tunnels, beneath the site of the Temple wall, and another chamber was used by the Others to isolate a [hydrogen bomb](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") with a breach in its casing, which lies beneath the Dharma Initiative barracks. Some of these tunnels are marked on the blast door map in the Swan Station.", "In the sixth\\-season episode \"[Across the Sea](/wiki/Across_the_Sea_%28Lost%29 \"Across the Sea (Lost)\")\", young [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 \"Jacob (Lost)\") and his [unnamed fraternal twin brother](/wiki/The_Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 \"The Man in Black (Lost)\") are shown a cave with a waterfall; in \"[The End](/wiki/The_End_%28Lost%29 \"The End (Lost)\"),\" [Desmond](/wiki/Desmond_Hume \"Desmond Hume\") descends into the cave and discovers an ancient chamber. In the chamber there is a pool of electromagnetic energy with a large hieroglyphic stone that sits at the center covering a mysterious hole. When it is removed by Desmond, the water and energy drain from the pool, an infernal red glow infuses the chamber, and the island begins to violently react. When Jack returns the stone, the water begins to flow into the pool again and the electromagnetic energy returns.", "### Health\\-related properties", "The Island has extraordinary healing properties. The Island can heal normally untreatable conditions, such as spinal damage (Locke), cancer (Rose), and infertility ([Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon \"Jin-Soo Kwon\")). Injuries heal much faster than they normally would, though by no means are people incapable of dying. Disease is also possible, though rare. Since \"the Incident\", increased electromagnetic immersion caused women who conceive children on the Island to die of an [auto\\-immune](/wiki/Autoimmunity \"Autoimmunity\") condition during the second trimester of [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\"). They can otherwise give birth as long as conception occurs off the island or if they leave before the second trimester.", "#### Healing", "Some castaways express the belief that they have been miraculously healed since the crash. Prior to his arrival, Locke was paralyzed, but he regains the use of his legs immediately after the crash. [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Others_%28Lost%29%23Dr._Richard_Alpert \"Others (Lost)#Dr. Richard Alpert\") says in \"[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 \"The Brig (Lost)\")\" that Locke's spine healing itself is not a normal event, even by the Island's standards. It is a sign of Locke being somehow \"special\". The effects of this specialness seem to extend to other people. After his spinal surgery, Ben is paralyzed for over a week, but regains the feeling in his legs immediately after coming into contact with Locke. He is able to walk (with the aid of a cane) only days later.", "The Others appear to operate on the assumption that cancer is impossible on the Island (\"[One of Us](/wiki/One_of_Us_%28Lost%29 \"One of Us (Lost)\")\"). Ben Linus appears deeply shocked when told he has a tumor on his spine, and Juliet notes the coincidence that Jack, a spinal surgeon, arrived on the island two days after Ben's condition was diagnosed. Similarly, Rose had been dying of cancer before crashing on the island. After the crash, she feels as if the cancer has \"left her body\" and, in \"[S.O.S.](/wiki/S.O.S._%28Lost%29 \"S.O.S. (Lost)\")\", credits her cure to the island. Jack contracts appendicitis while on the Island, which Rose observes is suspicious given that they expect their imminent rescue and the fact that she strongly believes that it is impossible to get sick on the Island.", "Locke also makes a miraculously fast recovery in the episode \"[Through the Looking Glass](/wiki/Through_the_Looking_Glass_%28Lost%29 \"Through the Looking Glass (Lost)\")\", after being shot and left for dead by Ben in the episode \"[The Man Behind the Curtain](/wiki/The_Man_Behind_the_Curtain_%28Lost%29 \"The Man Behind the Curtain (Lost)\")\". Locke also comments that he would have died from being shot, had the kidney Ben was aiming for not been removed earlier in his life. In the episode \"[Lockdown](/wiki/Lockdown_%28Lost%29 \"Lockdown (Lost)\")\", his legs are crushed by the Swan station's blast doors. Rose teases Locke later when he is depressed about possibly being immobile, saying that he will recover sooner than he should. In \"[Because You Left](/wiki/Because_You_Left \"Because You Left\")\", Locke gets shot in the leg by Ethan when he is flashed to the past. After Locke gets flashed to the present day, Richard briefly treats his wound and tells him \"the island will do the rest.\"", "Other characters like [Mikhail Bakunin](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Mikhail_Bakunin \"Characters of Lost#Mikhail Bakunin\") and Naomi also recover from injuries very fast. Shannon suffers an asthma attack and is in a panic, having lost her inhaler, until Sun recommends herbs from her garden.", "In \"[The Variable](/wiki/The_Variable \"The Variable\")\", Daniel Faraday is shown to have suffered severe mental damage as a result of his experiments in temporal displacement, impairing his long\\-term memory. Charles Widmore promises Faraday that he will be healed if he goes on the freighter mission he was recruiting him for. Upon his arrival on the island, Daniel is cured of these problems, although he did suffer a temporary relapse after the death of Charlotte.", "#### Pregnancy", "The third season reveals that any woman who conceives on the island dies before the baby is born. Specifically, the pregnancy goes well until about midway through the second trimester, when complications arise. The mother's body rejects the fetus as a viral infection, resulting in both the mother and child's death. Juliet states that in her research, no one made it to their third trimester. Animals such as the wild boars do not die during pregnancy. Women who went through their second trimester off the island are able to give birth without incident (Rousseau, Claire). The Others have enlisted the help of Juliet, a fertility researcher, to help find out why this happens, but she never finds an answer. Several women among the Others volunteer to get pregnant for Juliet's research, all with uniformly fatal results.", "In the episode \"[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 \"LaFleur (Lost)\")\" Amy gives birth to a healthy baby Ethan and there was no mention of her being off the island during conception or pregnancy. It is revealed that during Dharma time women would leave the island to give birth, though Amy is clearly in the third trimester of her pregnancy. This implies that the pregnancy problems were caused by the electromagnetism released during the Incident.", "In \"The New Man In Charge\" it is revealed that pregnant polar bears who were transported to the Island from the Hydra station would suffer dire consequences due to the high levels of electromagnetism.", "The Island also affects fertility in men. Jin\\-Soo Kwon was sterile before coming to the Island, but impregnates his wife while there. In the episode \"[D.O.C.](/wiki/D.O.C._%28Lost%29 \"D.O.C. (Lost)\")\", Juliet reveals that men on the island have five times the normal [sperm count](/wiki/Sperm_count \"Sperm count\").", "#### \"Sickness\"", "Contrary to the lack of disease on the Island, Rousseau claims to have killed her team because they had caught a mysterious disease, which necessitated their executions. She also claims that the Others are the carriers of disease. It is later shown that Rousseau's crew was \"infected\" after entering the tunnels beneath the Temple in order to rescue a member of her team from the Monster. Upon their return, the three crew members show no physical symptoms of anything being wrong with them, but act strangely, even attempting to kill Rousseau. She executed them, believing that they were no longer \"themselves\" (although she was on the verge of insanity herself after suffering this ordeal). The Temple master, Dogen, refers to both Sayid and Claire as being \"infected\". This infection is akin to being \"claimed\" by the Man in Black, and results in a complete loss of emotion and altered personality, a state which both Sayid and Claire were eventually able to overcome.", "When Locke is being held captive by Desmond, Desmond asks Locke if any of his people are sick or dying. When Desmond first came to the Island, Kelvin Inman also asked Desmond about his physical health and implied that he was out long enough to have been exposed. A mysterious vaccine is provided by Dharma food drops. It is taken regularly by Kelvin and Desmond in the Swan Station. This vaccine likely exists as a means of enforcing isolation and is of no medical value. It's also highly likely it's for counteracting electromagnetic radiation exposure that's surrounding the Swan Station since 1977\\.{{explain\\|date\\=March 2014}} Additional vaccine is administered to Claire's unborn child by Ethan after her kidnapping. During this encounter, Ethan confides in Claire that the Others don't have enough vaccine, implying that either they or their recent abductees required it as well. This vaccine either serves an alternate purpose that Ethan was unwilling to divulge or represents a dramatic misinterpretation of a sickness' true cause.", "### Other physical properties", "#### Location", "The Others transmit a signal that they use to locate the Island. The Island is surrounded by a shield of electromagnetic energy, which causes temporal displacement and death when trying to enter or leave the Island, unless the person is traveling from a certain angle and bearing (which changes when the Island moves). The DHARMA Initiative located the Island, after learning about it through the United States Army, by building The Lamp Post, an off\\-Island station underneath a church, over a pocket of electromagnetic energy that uses the energy and a complex mathematical equation to locate where and when the Island will be. The Island can be physically moved in space, while many of its occupants have been seen to move through time and space, to wherever the island is located at that moment in time. This phenomenon is achieved by tapping into the Island's energy source, as the frozen wheel does.", "#### Electromagnetism", "An [unusual form](/wiki/Technobabble \"Technobabble\") of naturally occurring [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism \"Electromagnetism\") is present on the island. While physical objects seem to be affected by the time passage, electromagnetism, such as [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_frequency \"Radio frequency\") are not affected. People are able to communicate directly to the outside world without a time lapse. A station was built to study the unique form of electromagnetism found there. Radzinski was very vocal in manipulating electromagnetism \"in ways we have never dreamed before\". At the end of \"[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone \"Live Together, Die Alone\")\", when Desmond has used the fail\\-safe device in the Swan station to destroy it, a monitoring station in the Antarctic detects the electromagnetic event. It is the same energy as that in the heart of the Island that's been hinted by the Dharma Initiative.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2010}} Jacob's brother tried to use the energy to transport himself off of the Island by building the frozen wheel underground.", "#### Time travel", "The Island is surrounded by an invisible electromagnetic barrier in which the normal rules of time do not apply. In \"[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist_%28Lost%29 \"The Economist (Lost)\")\", a missile fired from a freighter outside the barrier to the Island, carrying a timer in its payload, is shown to take roughly 31 minutes longer to arrive at its designated target area. In the same episode, a helicopter leaves the Island late in the afternoon. Even though the flight only takes about 30 minutes, it arrives at the freighter the next morning. [Doc Ray](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Other_Kahana_crew_members \"Characters of Lost#Other Kahana crew members\")'s body washes ashore in \"[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 \"The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)\")\", but when the freighter is contacted via radio for an explanation, he is alive and well from their perspective. Two episodes later, in \"[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 \"Cabin Fever (Lost)\")\", the doctor is murdered and thrown overboard.", "The barrier poses a threat to those entering or leaving it, particularly if they have been exposed to a high amount of electromagnetism. Doing so under these circumstances can lead to one's consciousness traveling through time (called \"temporal displacement\" on the show), eventually resulting in death unless a \"[constant](/wiki/The_Constant \"The Constant\")\" can be found between the present and the destination time period.", "After Benjamin Linus turns the frozen wheel beneath the Orchid station, he finds himself in the Tunisian Desert 10 months later. After the wheel is turned, several characters remaining on the Island are intermittently transported back and forward through time, with each shift being accompanied by a blinding purple flash and health deterioration effects (including headaches and nosebleeds) until Locke puts the wheel back on its axis.", "Walt's becoming so tall so quickly was a natural event and not a result of the temporal displacement, although it was likely the inspiration of this device. Malcolm David Kelley's sudden growth spurt had caused a problem for Abrams and Lindelof who were seeking ways to explain it. In the end, the characters were stuck on the island for 108 days, the same as off the island.{{Clarify\\|reason\\=\\|date\\=January 2019}}", "#### Temporal displacement", "In the fourth\\-season episode \"[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant \"The Constant\")\", it is revealed that freighter communications officer Minkowski and a crew member named Brandon tried to sneak off the boat to get a closer look at the Island. According to Minkowski, as they approached \"something happened\" to Brandon that caused them to turn back. Brandon died as a result of this attempt to approach the Island, and Minkowski suffered from temporal displacement (jumping between past and present in his mind) and, lacking a \"constant\" (some aspect of his life present in both times and to which he would have a strong emotional connection), died soon after.", "One crew member, Regina, speaks with Faraday over a radio regarding a rocket payload experiment. At the time, she sounds normal. By the time Sayid and Desmond have reached the freighter, Regina is suffering from some sort of psychosis. She is pretending to be reading a book, even though it is held upside down and she generally appears as \"mentally out of it\". Later, Regina commits suicide by wrapping herself in heavy chains and jumping into the ocean. No move is made by the crew to dissuade her, with Captain Gault claiming that \"she is too far gone.\" How Regina, having never gotten close to the Island as Minkowski and Brandon had, became ill is never revealed. In \"[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 \"Cabin Fever (Lost)\")\", Captain Gault informs [Martin Keamy](/wiki/Martin_Keamy \"Martin Keamy\") that he may be suffering from some sort of dementia connected with the Island.", "" ]
### Structures #### The *Black Rock* Located deep inside the jungle is the *Black Rock*, a [sailing ship](/wiki/Sailing_ship "Sailing ship") from the mid\-19th century. In "[Ab Aeterno](/wiki/Ab_Aeterno "Ab Aeterno")", the *Black Rock* set sail in 1867 and was captained by [Magnus Hanso](/wiki/Hanso_Foundation "Hanso Foundation") and had [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Richard_Alpert_%28Lost%29 "Richard Alpert (Lost)"), a Spaniard by the name of Ricardo, as a prisoner. [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 "Jacob (Lost)"), the protector of the island, does not deny when asked by [his fraternal twin brother](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 "Man in Black (Lost)") if he brought the ship to the island, as the two watch it approaching. Eventually, it is swept inland by a colossal [rogue wave](/wiki/Rogue_wave "Rogue wave"), destroying all but one foot of the coastal statue of [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret "Taweret") on its way, but a mystery remains as to how the *Black Rock* had landed on almost the other side of the Island from where the statue of Taweret was. In "[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant "The Constant")", it is explained that the *Black Rock* set sail from [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth"), [England](/wiki/England "England"), on March 22, 1845 on a trading mission to the [Kingdom of Siam](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), when she was tragically lost at sea. The only known artifact of this journey is the journal of the ship's [First Mate](/wiki/First_Mate "First Mate"), which was discovered seven years later among the artifacts of [pirates](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy") on [Île Sainte\-Marie](/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie "Île Sainte-Marie"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar"). The contents of this journal have never been made public nor known to anyone outside the family of the seller Tovard Hanso. This journal is later bought at auction by [Charles Widmore](/wiki/Charles_Widmore "Charles Widmore"). In "[Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Lost%29 "Exodus (Lost)")", [John Locke](/wiki/John_Locke_%28Lost%29 "John Locke (Lost)") mentions that this ship must have been en route to a mining colony, probably set\-off from the Eastern Coast of Africa, [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique"). The ship contains dynamite, mining equipment and several chained skeletons, which are revealed to be enslaved people carried by the ship. Dr. Leslie Arzt ([Daniel Roebuck](/wiki/Daniel_Roebuck "Daniel Roebuck")) mentions that a [tsunami](/wiki/Tsunami "Tsunami") could have swept it a couple of miles inland as seen later in the episode. [The Swan](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative_stations%23Station_3:The_Swan "The Swan")'s [blast door](/wiki/Blast_door "Blast door") map has a revision marking "Known Final Resting Place of Magnus Hanso / *Black Rock*" as seen in "[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone "Live Together, Die Alone")". #### The cabin The cabin was built by [the Dharma Initiative](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative "DHARMA Initiative") [mathematician](/wiki/Mathematician "Mathematician") [Horace Goodspeed](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Dharma_Initiative_members "Characters of Lost#Dharma Initiative members") as a sort of [retreat](/wiki/Retreat_%28spiritual%29 "Retreat (spiritual)") for himself and his wife. It is surrounded by a broken ash circle. While at first it is believed that Jacob resides there, it is actually the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_black_%28Lost%29 "Man in black (Lost)"){{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}} in the cabin, falsely giving orders on behalf of Jacob. The cabin has appeared in three separate locations. #### The lighthouse In "[Lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse_%28Lost%29 "Lighthouse (Lost)")", Jacob instructs [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_Reyes "Hugo Reyes") to take [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Shephard "Jack Shephard") to a heretofore\-unseen lighthouse on the Island's coast. At the top of the lighthouse's stone tower is a set of mirrors which can rotate via a large stone dial, labeled with numbers and in some cases the names of the "candidates". Jack is able to see an image of his childhood home reflected in the mirrors when they are turned to his number, 23; whether this is due to some property of the lighthouse mirrors and structure or simply to Jacob's influence is unclear. #### The ruins There are ruins on the Island, many with hieroglyphs. In "[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone "Live Together, Die Alone")", while at sea, [Sayid](/wiki/Sayid_Jarrah "Sayid Jarrah"), [Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon "Jin-Soo Kwon"), and [Sun](/wiki/Sun-Hwa_Kwon "Sun-Hwa Kwon") sight the remnants of a massive statue standing upon a rock in the surf. All that is left is a large, four\-toed marble foot broken off at the ankle. Sayid remarks that he does not know which is more disquieting: the fact that the rest of the statue is missing, or that the foot has only four toes. It has been compared to the [Colossus of Rhodes](/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes "Colossus of Rhodes").{{cite web\|title\=The Foot with Four Toes at AndFound \|url\=http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\-foot\-with\-four\-toes/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201135/http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\-foot\-with\-four\-toes/ \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-27 }} The full statue, viewed from the back, appears from a distance in the fifth\-season episode "[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 "LaFleur (Lost)")". The statue seen from behind has lion\-like ears, a crown on the head, long hair, an [ankh](/wiki/Ankh "Ankh") in each hand, and [ancient Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") dress. The statue is named [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret "Taweret"),Beyond the hatch *Lost: The Official Magazine* Issue 24 (September/October 2009\): pages 25 \- 27\. the Egyptian god of [fertility](/wiki/Fertility "Fertility") and life. At the base of the statue is a [secret chamber](/wiki/Secret_passage "Secret passage") in which [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 "Jacob (Lost)") resides. All [four elements](/wiki/Classical_element "Classical element") of earth, water, fire, and air are represented in this chamber. "The fire pit in the middle of the room consisted of flames rising from black sand with a ring of water surrounding all of it." The room also housed a weaving loom in which Jacob is shown creating a tapestry. In addition, painted on the ceiling was "an ancient Egyptian astronomical chart which refers to the stars and planets, time, and the goddess Taweret." Further ruins are revealed in "[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 "The Brig (Lost)")" when the Others tie [Locke's father](/wiki/Anthony_Cooper_%28Lost%29 "Anthony Cooper (Lost)") to the broken base of a large, stone column. Toward the end of the third season, Ben tells Richard to continue leading the rest of the Others to the Temple, and in "[Meet Kevin Johnson](/wiki/Meet_Kevin_Johnson "Meet Kevin Johnson")" he sends Alex, Karl, and Rousseau to the same location. His map marks it with a Dharma Initiative symbol, but the Temple has also been mentioned as something the Monster is in place to protect{{Clarify\|reason\=\|date\=January 2019}}. In addition, in "[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 "The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)")", after Alex is killed, Ben summons the Smoke Monster in a secret chamber hidden in his closet whose stone door contains hieroglyphics. In "[There's No Place Like Home](/wiki/There%27s_No_Place_Like_Home_%28Lost%29 "There's No Place Like Home (Lost)") Pt 3", when Ben enters the Orchid Station, behind the official Dharma built station, he finds what appear to be ancient tombstones covered with unknown hieroglyphs on his way to the final room, where an ancient man\-made wheel rests that is used to "move the island". The fifth\-season episode "[This Place is Death](/wiki/This_Place_is_Death "This Place is Death")" shows a better view of what appears to be the Temple that Ben will one day order Richard to lead his people to. In this episode the temple is directly guarded by the Monster. In "[Whatever Happened, Happened](/wiki/Whatever_Happened%2C_Happened "Whatever Happened, Happened")", Richard Alpert is seen taking a young Benjamin Linus inside the temple, as a means of healing a fatal gunshot wound. Alpert notes beforehand that Ben will emerge a fundamentally different person. It is revealed in "[Dead is Dead](/wiki/Dead_is_Dead "Dead is Dead")" that the structure the viewers see is merely a wall concealing the temple and the actual temple itself is a mile away on the other side of the wall. There is also a labyrinth of tunnels beneath the surface of the Island. The lair of the Monster lies in these tunnels, beneath the site of the Temple wall, and another chamber was used by the Others to isolate a [hydrogen bomb](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") with a breach in its casing, which lies beneath the Dharma Initiative barracks. Some of these tunnels are marked on the blast door map in the Swan Station. In the sixth\-season episode "[Across the Sea](/wiki/Across_the_Sea_%28Lost%29 "Across the Sea (Lost)")", young [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 "Jacob (Lost)") and his [unnamed fraternal twin brother](/wiki/The_Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 "The Man in Black (Lost)") are shown a cave with a waterfall; in "[The End](/wiki/The_End_%28Lost%29 "The End (Lost)")," [Desmond](/wiki/Desmond_Hume "Desmond Hume") descends into the cave and discovers an ancient chamber. In the chamber there is a pool of electromagnetic energy with a large hieroglyphic stone that sits at the center covering a mysterious hole. When it is removed by Desmond, the water and energy drain from the pool, an infernal red glow infuses the chamber, and the island begins to violently react. When Jack returns the stone, the water begins to flow into the pool again and the electromagnetic energy returns.
[ "### Structures", "#### The *Black Rock*", "Located deep inside the jungle is the *Black Rock*, a [sailing ship](/wiki/Sailing_ship \"Sailing ship\") from the mid\\-19th century. In \"[Ab Aeterno](/wiki/Ab_Aeterno \"Ab Aeterno\")\", the *Black Rock* set sail in 1867 and was captained by [Magnus Hanso](/wiki/Hanso_Foundation \"Hanso Foundation\") and had [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Richard_Alpert_%28Lost%29 \"Richard Alpert (Lost)\"), a Spaniard by the name of Ricardo, as a prisoner. [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 \"Jacob (Lost)\"), the protector of the island, does not deny when asked by [his fraternal twin brother](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 \"Man in Black (Lost)\") if he brought the ship to the island, as the two watch it approaching. Eventually, it is swept inland by a colossal [rogue wave](/wiki/Rogue_wave \"Rogue wave\"), destroying all but one foot of the coastal statue of [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret \"Taweret\") on its way, but a mystery remains as to how the *Black Rock* had landed on almost the other side of the Island from where the statue of Taweret was. In \"[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant \"The Constant\")\", it is explained that the *Black Rock* set sail from [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), on March 22, 1845 on a trading mission to the [Kingdom of Siam](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), when she was tragically lost at sea. The only known artifact of this journey is the journal of the ship's [First Mate](/wiki/First_Mate \"First Mate\"), which was discovered seven years later among the artifacts of [pirates](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") on [Île Sainte\\-Marie](/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie \"Île Sainte-Marie\"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"). The contents of this journal have never been made public nor known to anyone outside the family of the seller Tovard Hanso. This journal is later bought at auction by [Charles Widmore](/wiki/Charles_Widmore \"Charles Widmore\").", "In \"[Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Lost%29 \"Exodus (Lost)\")\", [John Locke](/wiki/John_Locke_%28Lost%29 \"John Locke (Lost)\") mentions that this ship must have been en route to a mining colony, probably set\\-off from the Eastern Coast of Africa, [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\"). The ship contains dynamite, mining equipment and several chained skeletons, which are revealed to be enslaved people carried by the ship. Dr. Leslie Arzt ([Daniel Roebuck](/wiki/Daniel_Roebuck \"Daniel Roebuck\")) mentions that a [tsunami](/wiki/Tsunami \"Tsunami\") could have swept it a couple of miles inland as seen later in the episode. [The Swan](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative_stations%23Station_3:The_Swan \"The Swan\")'s [blast door](/wiki/Blast_door \"Blast door\") map has a revision marking \"Known Final Resting Place of Magnus Hanso / *Black Rock*\" as seen in \"[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone \"Live Together, Die Alone\")\".", "#### The cabin", "The cabin was built by [the Dharma Initiative](/wiki/DHARMA_Initiative \"DHARMA Initiative\") [mathematician](/wiki/Mathematician \"Mathematician\") [Horace Goodspeed](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Dharma_Initiative_members \"Characters of Lost#Dharma Initiative members\") as a sort of [retreat](/wiki/Retreat_%28spiritual%29 \"Retreat (spiritual)\") for himself and his wife. It is surrounded by a broken ash circle. While at first it is believed that Jacob resides there, it is actually the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_black_%28Lost%29 \"Man in black (Lost)\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}} in the cabin, falsely giving orders on behalf of Jacob. The cabin has appeared in three separate locations.", "#### The lighthouse", "In \"[Lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse_%28Lost%29 \"Lighthouse (Lost)\")\", Jacob instructs [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_Reyes \"Hugo Reyes\") to take [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Shephard \"Jack Shephard\") to a heretofore\\-unseen lighthouse on the Island's coast. At the top of the lighthouse's stone tower is a set of mirrors which can rotate via a large stone dial, labeled with numbers and in some cases the names of the \"candidates\". Jack is able to see an image of his childhood home reflected in the mirrors when they are turned to his number, 23; whether this is due to some property of the lighthouse mirrors and structure or simply to Jacob's influence is unclear.", "#### The ruins", "There are ruins on the Island, many with hieroglyphs. In \"[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone \"Live Together, Die Alone\")\", while at sea, [Sayid](/wiki/Sayid_Jarrah \"Sayid Jarrah\"), [Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon \"Jin-Soo Kwon\"), and [Sun](/wiki/Sun-Hwa_Kwon \"Sun-Hwa Kwon\") sight the remnants of a massive statue standing upon a rock in the surf. All that is left is a large, four\\-toed marble foot broken off at the ankle. Sayid remarks that he does not know which is more disquieting: the fact that the rest of the statue is missing, or that the foot has only four toes. It has been compared to the [Colossus of Rhodes](/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes \"Colossus of Rhodes\").{{cite web\\|title\\=The Foot with Four Toes at AndFound \\|url\\=http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\\-foot\\-with\\-four\\-toes/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201135/http://andfound.com/2006/05/25/the\\-foot\\-with\\-four\\-toes/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-27 }} The full statue, viewed from the back, appears from a distance in the fifth\\-season episode \"[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 \"LaFleur (Lost)\")\". The statue seen from behind has lion\\-like ears, a crown on the head, long hair, an [ankh](/wiki/Ankh \"Ankh\") in each hand, and [ancient Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") dress. The statue is named [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret \"Taweret\"),Beyond the hatch *Lost: The Official Magazine* Issue 24 (September/October 2009\\): pages 25 \\- 27\\. the Egyptian god of [fertility](/wiki/Fertility \"Fertility\") and life.", "At the base of the statue is a [secret chamber](/wiki/Secret_passage \"Secret passage\") in which [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 \"Jacob (Lost)\") resides. All [four elements](/wiki/Classical_element \"Classical element\") of earth, water, fire, and air are represented in this chamber. \"The fire pit in the middle of the room consisted of flames rising from black sand with a ring of water surrounding all of it.\" The room also housed a weaving loom in which Jacob is shown creating a tapestry. In addition, painted on the ceiling was \"an ancient Egyptian astronomical chart which refers to the stars and planets, time, and the goddess Taweret.\"", "Further ruins are revealed in \"[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 \"The Brig (Lost)\")\" when the Others tie [Locke's father](/wiki/Anthony_Cooper_%28Lost%29 \"Anthony Cooper (Lost)\") to the broken base of a large, stone column. Toward the end of the third season, Ben tells Richard to continue leading the rest of the Others to the Temple, and in \"[Meet Kevin Johnson](/wiki/Meet_Kevin_Johnson \"Meet Kevin Johnson\")\" he sends Alex, Karl, and Rousseau to the same location. His map marks it with a Dharma Initiative symbol, but the Temple has also been mentioned as something the Monster is in place to protect{{Clarify\\|reason\\=\\|date\\=January 2019}}. In addition, in \"[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 \"The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)\")\", after Alex is killed, Ben summons the Smoke Monster in a secret chamber hidden in his closet whose stone door contains hieroglyphics. In \"[There's No Place Like Home](/wiki/There%27s_No_Place_Like_Home_%28Lost%29 \"There's No Place Like Home (Lost)\") Pt 3\", when Ben enters the Orchid Station, behind the official Dharma built station, he finds what appear to be ancient tombstones covered with unknown hieroglyphs on his way to the final room, where an ancient man\\-made wheel rests that is used to \"move the island\". The fifth\\-season episode \"[This Place is Death](/wiki/This_Place_is_Death \"This Place is Death\")\" shows a better view of what appears to be the Temple that Ben will one day order Richard to lead his people to. In this episode the temple is directly guarded by the Monster. In \"[Whatever Happened, Happened](/wiki/Whatever_Happened%2C_Happened \"Whatever Happened, Happened\")\", Richard Alpert is seen taking a young Benjamin Linus inside the temple, as a means of healing a fatal gunshot wound. Alpert notes beforehand that Ben will emerge a fundamentally different person. It is revealed in \"[Dead is Dead](/wiki/Dead_is_Dead \"Dead is Dead\")\" that the structure the viewers see is merely a wall concealing the temple and the actual temple itself is a mile away on the other side of the wall.", "There is also a labyrinth of tunnels beneath the surface of the Island. The lair of the Monster lies in these tunnels, beneath the site of the Temple wall, and another chamber was used by the Others to isolate a [hydrogen bomb](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") with a breach in its casing, which lies beneath the Dharma Initiative barracks. Some of these tunnels are marked on the blast door map in the Swan Station.", "In the sixth\\-season episode \"[Across the Sea](/wiki/Across_the_Sea_%28Lost%29 \"Across the Sea (Lost)\")\", young [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob_%28Lost%29 \"Jacob (Lost)\") and his [unnamed fraternal twin brother](/wiki/The_Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 \"The Man in Black (Lost)\") are shown a cave with a waterfall; in \"[The End](/wiki/The_End_%28Lost%29 \"The End (Lost)\"),\" [Desmond](/wiki/Desmond_Hume \"Desmond Hume\") descends into the cave and discovers an ancient chamber. In the chamber there is a pool of electromagnetic energy with a large hieroglyphic stone that sits at the center covering a mysterious hole. When it is removed by Desmond, the water and energy drain from the pool, an infernal red glow infuses the chamber, and the island begins to violently react. When Jack returns the stone, the water begins to flow into the pool again and the electromagnetic energy returns.", "" ]
### Health\-related properties The Island has extraordinary healing properties. The Island can heal normally untreatable conditions, such as spinal damage (Locke), cancer (Rose), and infertility ([Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon "Jin-Soo Kwon")). Injuries heal much faster than they normally would, though by no means are people incapable of dying. Disease is also possible, though rare. Since "the Incident", increased electromagnetic immersion caused women who conceive children on the Island to die of an [auto\-immune](/wiki/Autoimmunity "Autoimmunity") condition during the second trimester of [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy"). They can otherwise give birth as long as conception occurs off the island or if they leave before the second trimester. #### Healing Some castaways express the belief that they have been miraculously healed since the crash. Prior to his arrival, Locke was paralyzed, but he regains the use of his legs immediately after the crash. [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Others_%28Lost%29%23Dr._Richard_Alpert "Others (Lost)#Dr. Richard Alpert") says in "[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 "The Brig (Lost)")" that Locke's spine healing itself is not a normal event, even by the Island's standards. It is a sign of Locke being somehow "special". The effects of this specialness seem to extend to other people. After his spinal surgery, Ben is paralyzed for over a week, but regains the feeling in his legs immediately after coming into contact with Locke. He is able to walk (with the aid of a cane) only days later. The Others appear to operate on the assumption that cancer is impossible on the Island ("[One of Us](/wiki/One_of_Us_%28Lost%29 "One of Us (Lost)")"). Ben Linus appears deeply shocked when told he has a tumor on his spine, and Juliet notes the coincidence that Jack, a spinal surgeon, arrived on the island two days after Ben's condition was diagnosed. Similarly, Rose had been dying of cancer before crashing on the island. After the crash, she feels as if the cancer has "left her body" and, in "[S.O.S.](/wiki/S.O.S._%28Lost%29 "S.O.S. (Lost)")", credits her cure to the island. Jack contracts appendicitis while on the Island, which Rose observes is suspicious given that they expect their imminent rescue and the fact that she strongly believes that it is impossible to get sick on the Island. Locke also makes a miraculously fast recovery in the episode "[Through the Looking Glass](/wiki/Through_the_Looking_Glass_%28Lost%29 "Through the Looking Glass (Lost)")", after being shot and left for dead by Ben in the episode "[The Man Behind the Curtain](/wiki/The_Man_Behind_the_Curtain_%28Lost%29 "The Man Behind the Curtain (Lost)")". Locke also comments that he would have died from being shot, had the kidney Ben was aiming for not been removed earlier in his life. In the episode "[Lockdown](/wiki/Lockdown_%28Lost%29 "Lockdown (Lost)")", his legs are crushed by the Swan station's blast doors. Rose teases Locke later when he is depressed about possibly being immobile, saying that he will recover sooner than he should. In "[Because You Left](/wiki/Because_You_Left "Because You Left")", Locke gets shot in the leg by Ethan when he is flashed to the past. After Locke gets flashed to the present day, Richard briefly treats his wound and tells him "the island will do the rest." Other characters like [Mikhail Bakunin](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Mikhail_Bakunin "Characters of Lost#Mikhail Bakunin") and Naomi also recover from injuries very fast. Shannon suffers an asthma attack and is in a panic, having lost her inhaler, until Sun recommends herbs from her garden. In "[The Variable](/wiki/The_Variable "The Variable")", Daniel Faraday is shown to have suffered severe mental damage as a result of his experiments in temporal displacement, impairing his long\-term memory. Charles Widmore promises Faraday that he will be healed if he goes on the freighter mission he was recruiting him for. Upon his arrival on the island, Daniel is cured of these problems, although he did suffer a temporary relapse after the death of Charlotte. #### Pregnancy The third season reveals that any woman who conceives on the island dies before the baby is born. Specifically, the pregnancy goes well until about midway through the second trimester, when complications arise. The mother's body rejects the fetus as a viral infection, resulting in both the mother and child's death. Juliet states that in her research, no one made it to their third trimester. Animals such as the wild boars do not die during pregnancy. Women who went through their second trimester off the island are able to give birth without incident (Rousseau, Claire). The Others have enlisted the help of Juliet, a fertility researcher, to help find out why this happens, but she never finds an answer. Several women among the Others volunteer to get pregnant for Juliet's research, all with uniformly fatal results. In the episode "[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 "LaFleur (Lost)")" Amy gives birth to a healthy baby Ethan and there was no mention of her being off the island during conception or pregnancy. It is revealed that during Dharma time women would leave the island to give birth, though Amy is clearly in the third trimester of her pregnancy. This implies that the pregnancy problems were caused by the electromagnetism released during the Incident. In "The New Man In Charge" it is revealed that pregnant polar bears who were transported to the Island from the Hydra station would suffer dire consequences due to the high levels of electromagnetism. The Island also affects fertility in men. Jin\-Soo Kwon was sterile before coming to the Island, but impregnates his wife while there. In the episode "[D.O.C.](/wiki/D.O.C._%28Lost%29 "D.O.C. (Lost)")", Juliet reveals that men on the island have five times the normal [sperm count](/wiki/Sperm_count "Sperm count"). #### "Sickness" Contrary to the lack of disease on the Island, Rousseau claims to have killed her team because they had caught a mysterious disease, which necessitated their executions. She also claims that the Others are the carriers of disease. It is later shown that Rousseau's crew was "infected" after entering the tunnels beneath the Temple in order to rescue a member of her team from the Monster. Upon their return, the three crew members show no physical symptoms of anything being wrong with them, but act strangely, even attempting to kill Rousseau. She executed them, believing that they were no longer "themselves" (although she was on the verge of insanity herself after suffering this ordeal). The Temple master, Dogen, refers to both Sayid and Claire as being "infected". This infection is akin to being "claimed" by the Man in Black, and results in a complete loss of emotion and altered personality, a state which both Sayid and Claire were eventually able to overcome. When Locke is being held captive by Desmond, Desmond asks Locke if any of his people are sick or dying. When Desmond first came to the Island, Kelvin Inman also asked Desmond about his physical health and implied that he was out long enough to have been exposed. A mysterious vaccine is provided by Dharma food drops. It is taken regularly by Kelvin and Desmond in the Swan Station. This vaccine likely exists as a means of enforcing isolation and is of no medical value. It's also highly likely it's for counteracting electromagnetic radiation exposure that's surrounding the Swan Station since 1977\.{{explain\|date\=March 2014}} Additional vaccine is administered to Claire's unborn child by Ethan after her kidnapping. During this encounter, Ethan confides in Claire that the Others don't have enough vaccine, implying that either they or their recent abductees required it as well. This vaccine either serves an alternate purpose that Ethan was unwilling to divulge or represents a dramatic misinterpretation of a sickness' true cause.
[ "### Health\\-related properties", "The Island has extraordinary healing properties. The Island can heal normally untreatable conditions, such as spinal damage (Locke), cancer (Rose), and infertility ([Jin](/wiki/Jin-Soo_Kwon \"Jin-Soo Kwon\")). Injuries heal much faster than they normally would, though by no means are people incapable of dying. Disease is also possible, though rare. Since \"the Incident\", increased electromagnetic immersion caused women who conceive children on the Island to die of an [auto\\-immune](/wiki/Autoimmunity \"Autoimmunity\") condition during the second trimester of [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\"). They can otherwise give birth as long as conception occurs off the island or if they leave before the second trimester.", "#### Healing", "Some castaways express the belief that they have been miraculously healed since the crash. Prior to his arrival, Locke was paralyzed, but he regains the use of his legs immediately after the crash. [Richard Alpert](/wiki/Others_%28Lost%29%23Dr._Richard_Alpert \"Others (Lost)#Dr. Richard Alpert\") says in \"[The Brig](/wiki/The_Brig_%28Lost%29 \"The Brig (Lost)\")\" that Locke's spine healing itself is not a normal event, even by the Island's standards. It is a sign of Locke being somehow \"special\". The effects of this specialness seem to extend to other people. After his spinal surgery, Ben is paralyzed for over a week, but regains the feeling in his legs immediately after coming into contact with Locke. He is able to walk (with the aid of a cane) only days later.", "The Others appear to operate on the assumption that cancer is impossible on the Island (\"[One of Us](/wiki/One_of_Us_%28Lost%29 \"One of Us (Lost)\")\"). Ben Linus appears deeply shocked when told he has a tumor on his spine, and Juliet notes the coincidence that Jack, a spinal surgeon, arrived on the island two days after Ben's condition was diagnosed. Similarly, Rose had been dying of cancer before crashing on the island. After the crash, she feels as if the cancer has \"left her body\" and, in \"[S.O.S.](/wiki/S.O.S._%28Lost%29 \"S.O.S. (Lost)\")\", credits her cure to the island. Jack contracts appendicitis while on the Island, which Rose observes is suspicious given that they expect their imminent rescue and the fact that she strongly believes that it is impossible to get sick on the Island.", "Locke also makes a miraculously fast recovery in the episode \"[Through the Looking Glass](/wiki/Through_the_Looking_Glass_%28Lost%29 \"Through the Looking Glass (Lost)\")\", after being shot and left for dead by Ben in the episode \"[The Man Behind the Curtain](/wiki/The_Man_Behind_the_Curtain_%28Lost%29 \"The Man Behind the Curtain (Lost)\")\". Locke also comments that he would have died from being shot, had the kidney Ben was aiming for not been removed earlier in his life. In the episode \"[Lockdown](/wiki/Lockdown_%28Lost%29 \"Lockdown (Lost)\")\", his legs are crushed by the Swan station's blast doors. Rose teases Locke later when he is depressed about possibly being immobile, saying that he will recover sooner than he should. In \"[Because You Left](/wiki/Because_You_Left \"Because You Left\")\", Locke gets shot in the leg by Ethan when he is flashed to the past. After Locke gets flashed to the present day, Richard briefly treats his wound and tells him \"the island will do the rest.\"", "Other characters like [Mikhail Bakunin](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Mikhail_Bakunin \"Characters of Lost#Mikhail Bakunin\") and Naomi also recover from injuries very fast. Shannon suffers an asthma attack and is in a panic, having lost her inhaler, until Sun recommends herbs from her garden.", "In \"[The Variable](/wiki/The_Variable \"The Variable\")\", Daniel Faraday is shown to have suffered severe mental damage as a result of his experiments in temporal displacement, impairing his long\\-term memory. Charles Widmore promises Faraday that he will be healed if he goes on the freighter mission he was recruiting him for. Upon his arrival on the island, Daniel is cured of these problems, although he did suffer a temporary relapse after the death of Charlotte.", "#### Pregnancy", "The third season reveals that any woman who conceives on the island dies before the baby is born. Specifically, the pregnancy goes well until about midway through the second trimester, when complications arise. The mother's body rejects the fetus as a viral infection, resulting in both the mother and child's death. Juliet states that in her research, no one made it to their third trimester. Animals such as the wild boars do not die during pregnancy. Women who went through their second trimester off the island are able to give birth without incident (Rousseau, Claire). The Others have enlisted the help of Juliet, a fertility researcher, to help find out why this happens, but she never finds an answer. Several women among the Others volunteer to get pregnant for Juliet's research, all with uniformly fatal results.", "In the episode \"[LaFleur](/wiki/LaFleur_%28Lost%29 \"LaFleur (Lost)\")\" Amy gives birth to a healthy baby Ethan and there was no mention of her being off the island during conception or pregnancy. It is revealed that during Dharma time women would leave the island to give birth, though Amy is clearly in the third trimester of her pregnancy. This implies that the pregnancy problems were caused by the electromagnetism released during the Incident.", "In \"The New Man In Charge\" it is revealed that pregnant polar bears who were transported to the Island from the Hydra station would suffer dire consequences due to the high levels of electromagnetism.", "The Island also affects fertility in men. Jin\\-Soo Kwon was sterile before coming to the Island, but impregnates his wife while there. In the episode \"[D.O.C.](/wiki/D.O.C._%28Lost%29 \"D.O.C. (Lost)\")\", Juliet reveals that men on the island have five times the normal [sperm count](/wiki/Sperm_count \"Sperm count\").", "#### \"Sickness\"", "Contrary to the lack of disease on the Island, Rousseau claims to have killed her team because they had caught a mysterious disease, which necessitated their executions. She also claims that the Others are the carriers of disease. It is later shown that Rousseau's crew was \"infected\" after entering the tunnels beneath the Temple in order to rescue a member of her team from the Monster. Upon their return, the three crew members show no physical symptoms of anything being wrong with them, but act strangely, even attempting to kill Rousseau. She executed them, believing that they were no longer \"themselves\" (although she was on the verge of insanity herself after suffering this ordeal). The Temple master, Dogen, refers to both Sayid and Claire as being \"infected\". This infection is akin to being \"claimed\" by the Man in Black, and results in a complete loss of emotion and altered personality, a state which both Sayid and Claire were eventually able to overcome.", "When Locke is being held captive by Desmond, Desmond asks Locke if any of his people are sick or dying. When Desmond first came to the Island, Kelvin Inman also asked Desmond about his physical health and implied that he was out long enough to have been exposed. A mysterious vaccine is provided by Dharma food drops. It is taken regularly by Kelvin and Desmond in the Swan Station. This vaccine likely exists as a means of enforcing isolation and is of no medical value. It's also highly likely it's for counteracting electromagnetic radiation exposure that's surrounding the Swan Station since 1977\\.{{explain\\|date\\=March 2014}} Additional vaccine is administered to Claire's unborn child by Ethan after her kidnapping. During this encounter, Ethan confides in Claire that the Others don't have enough vaccine, implying that either they or their recent abductees required it as well. This vaccine either serves an alternate purpose that Ethan was unwilling to divulge or represents a dramatic misinterpretation of a sickness' true cause.", "" ]
### Other physical properties #### Location The Others transmit a signal that they use to locate the Island. The Island is surrounded by a shield of electromagnetic energy, which causes temporal displacement and death when trying to enter or leave the Island, unless the person is traveling from a certain angle and bearing (which changes when the Island moves). The DHARMA Initiative located the Island, after learning about it through the United States Army, by building The Lamp Post, an off\-Island station underneath a church, over a pocket of electromagnetic energy that uses the energy and a complex mathematical equation to locate where and when the Island will be. The Island can be physically moved in space, while many of its occupants have been seen to move through time and space, to wherever the island is located at that moment in time. This phenomenon is achieved by tapping into the Island's energy source, as the frozen wheel does. #### Electromagnetism An [unusual form](/wiki/Technobabble "Technobabble") of naturally occurring [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism "Electromagnetism") is present on the island. While physical objects seem to be affected by the time passage, electromagnetism, such as [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_frequency "Radio frequency") are not affected. People are able to communicate directly to the outside world without a time lapse. A station was built to study the unique form of electromagnetism found there. Radzinski was very vocal in manipulating electromagnetism "in ways we have never dreamed before". At the end of "[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone "Live Together, Die Alone")", when Desmond has used the fail\-safe device in the Swan station to destroy it, a monitoring station in the Antarctic detects the electromagnetic event. It is the same energy as that in the heart of the Island that's been hinted by the Dharma Initiative.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2010}} Jacob's brother tried to use the energy to transport himself off of the Island by building the frozen wheel underground. #### Time travel The Island is surrounded by an invisible electromagnetic barrier in which the normal rules of time do not apply. In "[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist_%28Lost%29 "The Economist (Lost)")", a missile fired from a freighter outside the barrier to the Island, carrying a timer in its payload, is shown to take roughly 31 minutes longer to arrive at its designated target area. In the same episode, a helicopter leaves the Island late in the afternoon. Even though the flight only takes about 30 minutes, it arrives at the freighter the next morning. [Doc Ray](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Other_Kahana_crew_members "Characters of Lost#Other Kahana crew members")'s body washes ashore in "[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 "The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)")", but when the freighter is contacted via radio for an explanation, he is alive and well from their perspective. Two episodes later, in "[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 "Cabin Fever (Lost)")", the doctor is murdered and thrown overboard. The barrier poses a threat to those entering or leaving it, particularly if they have been exposed to a high amount of electromagnetism. Doing so under these circumstances can lead to one's consciousness traveling through time (called "temporal displacement" on the show), eventually resulting in death unless a "[constant](/wiki/The_Constant "The Constant")" can be found between the present and the destination time period. After Benjamin Linus turns the frozen wheel beneath the Orchid station, he finds himself in the Tunisian Desert 10 months later. After the wheel is turned, several characters remaining on the Island are intermittently transported back and forward through time, with each shift being accompanied by a blinding purple flash and health deterioration effects (including headaches and nosebleeds) until Locke puts the wheel back on its axis. Walt's becoming so tall so quickly was a natural event and not a result of the temporal displacement, although it was likely the inspiration of this device. Malcolm David Kelley's sudden growth spurt had caused a problem for Abrams and Lindelof who were seeking ways to explain it. In the end, the characters were stuck on the island for 108 days, the same as off the island.{{Clarify\|reason\=\|date\=January 2019}} #### Temporal displacement In the fourth\-season episode "[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant "The Constant")", it is revealed that freighter communications officer Minkowski and a crew member named Brandon tried to sneak off the boat to get a closer look at the Island. According to Minkowski, as they approached "something happened" to Brandon that caused them to turn back. Brandon died as a result of this attempt to approach the Island, and Minkowski suffered from temporal displacement (jumping between past and present in his mind) and, lacking a "constant" (some aspect of his life present in both times and to which he would have a strong emotional connection), died soon after. One crew member, Regina, speaks with Faraday over a radio regarding a rocket payload experiment. At the time, she sounds normal. By the time Sayid and Desmond have reached the freighter, Regina is suffering from some sort of psychosis. She is pretending to be reading a book, even though it is held upside down and she generally appears as "mentally out of it". Later, Regina commits suicide by wrapping herself in heavy chains and jumping into the ocean. No move is made by the crew to dissuade her, with Captain Gault claiming that "she is too far gone." How Regina, having never gotten close to the Island as Minkowski and Brandon had, became ill is never revealed. In "[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 "Cabin Fever (Lost)")", Captain Gault informs [Martin Keamy](/wiki/Martin_Keamy "Martin Keamy") that he may be suffering from some sort of dementia connected with the Island.
[ "### Other physical properties", "#### Location", "The Others transmit a signal that they use to locate the Island. The Island is surrounded by a shield of electromagnetic energy, which causes temporal displacement and death when trying to enter or leave the Island, unless the person is traveling from a certain angle and bearing (which changes when the Island moves). The DHARMA Initiative located the Island, after learning about it through the United States Army, by building The Lamp Post, an off\\-Island station underneath a church, over a pocket of electromagnetic energy that uses the energy and a complex mathematical equation to locate where and when the Island will be. The Island can be physically moved in space, while many of its occupants have been seen to move through time and space, to wherever the island is located at that moment in time. This phenomenon is achieved by tapping into the Island's energy source, as the frozen wheel does.", "#### Electromagnetism", "An [unusual form](/wiki/Technobabble \"Technobabble\") of naturally occurring [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism \"Electromagnetism\") is present on the island. While physical objects seem to be affected by the time passage, electromagnetism, such as [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_frequency \"Radio frequency\") are not affected. People are able to communicate directly to the outside world without a time lapse. A station was built to study the unique form of electromagnetism found there. Radzinski was very vocal in manipulating electromagnetism \"in ways we have never dreamed before\". At the end of \"[Live Together, Die Alone](/wiki/Live_Together%2C_Die_Alone \"Live Together, Die Alone\")\", when Desmond has used the fail\\-safe device in the Swan station to destroy it, a monitoring station in the Antarctic detects the electromagnetic event. It is the same energy as that in the heart of the Island that's been hinted by the Dharma Initiative.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2010}} Jacob's brother tried to use the energy to transport himself off of the Island by building the frozen wheel underground.", "#### Time travel", "The Island is surrounded by an invisible electromagnetic barrier in which the normal rules of time do not apply. In \"[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist_%28Lost%29 \"The Economist (Lost)\")\", a missile fired from a freighter outside the barrier to the Island, carrying a timer in its payload, is shown to take roughly 31 minutes longer to arrive at its designated target area. In the same episode, a helicopter leaves the Island late in the afternoon. Even though the flight only takes about 30 minutes, it arrives at the freighter the next morning. [Doc Ray](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23Other_Kahana_crew_members \"Characters of Lost#Other Kahana crew members\")'s body washes ashore in \"[The Shape of Things to Come](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come_%28Lost%29 \"The Shape of Things to Come (Lost)\")\", but when the freighter is contacted via radio for an explanation, he is alive and well from their perspective. Two episodes later, in \"[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 \"Cabin Fever (Lost)\")\", the doctor is murdered and thrown overboard.", "The barrier poses a threat to those entering or leaving it, particularly if they have been exposed to a high amount of electromagnetism. Doing so under these circumstances can lead to one's consciousness traveling through time (called \"temporal displacement\" on the show), eventually resulting in death unless a \"[constant](/wiki/The_Constant \"The Constant\")\" can be found between the present and the destination time period.", "After Benjamin Linus turns the frozen wheel beneath the Orchid station, he finds himself in the Tunisian Desert 10 months later. After the wheel is turned, several characters remaining on the Island are intermittently transported back and forward through time, with each shift being accompanied by a blinding purple flash and health deterioration effects (including headaches and nosebleeds) until Locke puts the wheel back on its axis.", "Walt's becoming so tall so quickly was a natural event and not a result of the temporal displacement, although it was likely the inspiration of this device. Malcolm David Kelley's sudden growth spurt had caused a problem for Abrams and Lindelof who were seeking ways to explain it. In the end, the characters were stuck on the island for 108 days, the same as off the island.{{Clarify\\|reason\\=\\|date\\=January 2019}}", "#### Temporal displacement", "In the fourth\\-season episode \"[The Constant](/wiki/The_Constant \"The Constant\")\", it is revealed that freighter communications officer Minkowski and a crew member named Brandon tried to sneak off the boat to get a closer look at the Island. According to Minkowski, as they approached \"something happened\" to Brandon that caused them to turn back. Brandon died as a result of this attempt to approach the Island, and Minkowski suffered from temporal displacement (jumping between past and present in his mind) and, lacking a \"constant\" (some aspect of his life present in both times and to which he would have a strong emotional connection), died soon after.", "One crew member, Regina, speaks with Faraday over a radio regarding a rocket payload experiment. At the time, she sounds normal. By the time Sayid and Desmond have reached the freighter, Regina is suffering from some sort of psychosis. She is pretending to be reading a book, even though it is held upside down and she generally appears as \"mentally out of it\". Later, Regina commits suicide by wrapping herself in heavy chains and jumping into the ocean. No move is made by the crew to dissuade her, with Captain Gault claiming that \"she is too far gone.\" How Regina, having never gotten close to the Island as Minkowski and Brandon had, became ill is never revealed. In \"[Cabin Fever](/wiki/Cabin_Fever_%28Lost%29 \"Cabin Fever (Lost)\")\", Captain Gault informs [Martin Keamy](/wiki/Martin_Keamy \"Martin Keamy\") that he may be suffering from some sort of dementia connected with the Island.", "" ]
Plot devices ------------ ### The Man in Black/Smoke Monster {{Main\|Man in Black (Lost)}} The Island is home to a mysterious entity, consisting of a black mass accompanied by mechanical\-like sounds and electrical activity within, dubbed the "Smoke Monster" or just the "Monster" by the survivors. The monster has been described by *Lost* producer Damon Lindelof as "one of the biggest secrets" of the mythology.Lost TV, "It's Not About the Dinosaur: the Official Damon Lindelof Interview, 18 August 2004 The producers have often hinted that the black cloud of smoke is not a monster in the traditional sense, nor is it a cloud of [nanobots](/wiki/Nanobots "Nanobots") (as some fans have speculated).{{cite news \|last\=Wharton \|first\=David Michael \|title\=Comicon 2005 news \|url\=http://www2\.cinescape.com/0/editorial.asp?aff\_id\=0\&this\_cat\=Comics\&action\=page\&obj\_id\=49194 \|publisher\=Cinescape.com \|date\=17 July 2005 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100205014750/http://www2\.cinescape.com/0/editorial.asp?aff\_id\=0\&this\_cat\=Comics\&action\=page\&obj\_id\=49194 \|archive\-date\=5 February 2010 }}{{cite web\|last\=Grillo\-Marxuach \|first\=Javier \|title\=Burning Questions \|url\=http://www.thefuselage.com/Threaded/showthread.php?t\=14649\&highlight\=nanobot \|publisher\=TheFuselage.com \|date\=22 July 2005 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926235819/http://www.thefuselage.com/Threaded/showthread.php?t\=14649\&highlight\=nanobot \|archive\-date\=26 September 2007 }} The smoke monster is established as an antagonist in *Lost* from the very first episode, "[Pilot](/wiki/Pilot_%28Lost%29 "Pilot (Lost)")".Episode: [Pilot](/wiki/Pilot_%28Lost%29 "Pilot (Lost)") The producers' initial plan was for the monster to represent the [id](/wiki/Id%2C_ego_and_super-ego%23Id "Id, ego and super-ego#Id"), in a manner similar to the "[id monster](/wiki/Id_monster "Id monster")" from the 1956 film *[Forbidden Planet](/wiki/Forbidden_Planet "Forbidden Planet")*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://lostpedia.wikia.com/wiki/The\_Lostpedia\_Interview:David\_Fury \|title\=The Lostpedia Interview:David Fury \|date\=20 May 2008 \|publisher\=\[\[Lostpedia]] \|access\-date\=5 March 2011 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718045606/http://lostpedia.wikia.com/wiki/The\_Lostpedia\_Interview%3ADavid\_Fury \|archive\-date\=18 July 2011 }} This idea was changed by the end of [season one](/wiki/Lost_season_1 "Lost season 1"), when the character Danielle Rousseau describes the monster as a "security system" for the Island, specifically the ruins of the temple on the Island.Episode: [Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Lost%29 "Exodus (Lost)") This plan was continued into [season five](/wiki/Lost_season_5 "Lost season 5"), when Rousseau's husband, Robert, describes the monster as a security system that guards the island's temple.Episode: [This Place is Death](/wiki/This_Place_is_Death "This Place is Death") It has been repeatedly described as a "security system." It emerges from vents in the ground to attack people, though it does not always attack those it encounters. The Monster is capable of lifting a grown man, and in one instance tosses a man nearly fifty feet into the air. In another it wraps a tendril of smoke around a man's arm, severing it. In the first episode of season 6, "[LA X](/wiki/LA_X "LA X")", it is revealed that the "Locke", with whom Ben is traveling back to the island, has become The Monster, an incarnation of Jacob's nemesis. It appears in the remains of the statue of Taweret and kills five people. One of the people manages to create a ring of ash around himself, temporarily hindering the smoke monster. The monster throws a rock at the man, knocking him out of the circle and making it possible for it to kill him. After the men are all dead, the smoke monster exits, and Jacob's nemesis, in the form of John Locke, immediately appears, stating that he is sorry that Ben had to see him "like that". It is later revealed that The Monster used to be a man whose only goal has been leaving the Island and "going home".Episode: [LA X](/wiki/LA_X "LA X")Episode:[The Substitute](/wiki/The_Substitute_%28Lost%29 "The Substitute (Lost)") After claiming Sayid to his side, and giving the Others the chance to join him, he stormed the temple and massacred all those who did not comply.Episode: [Sundown](/wiki/Sundown_%28Lost%29 "Sundown (Lost)") In "[Recon](/wiki/Recon_%28Lost%29 "Recon (Lost)")", he gave Sawyer a mission to investigate Hydra Island to see if the coast was clear for him and the Others to travel over there so they could take the Ajira plane and fly off the Island. Later in the episode, it tells Kate that he is sorry about Claire. He tells her that his own mother was crazy, just like Aaron's mother, Claire. In the final episode, he is rendered mortal again, along with Jack, the new protector of the island, when the electromagnetic source at the center of the island is disabled. Trapped in the form of John Locke, the Man in Black fights Jack on the cliffs, stabs him and almost kills him. Kate shoots the Man in Black in the back, and Jack kicks him off the cliff, killing the darkness before it could cross over on a boat to Hydra Island in order to escape the Island using the plane. ### The Numbers The numbers [4](/wiki/4_%28number%29 "4 (number)"), [8](/wiki/8_%28number%29 "8 (number)"), [15](/wiki/15_%28number%29 "15 (number)"), [16](/wiki/16_%28number%29 "16 (number)"), [23](/wiki/23_%28number%29 "23 (number)"), and [42](/wiki/42_%28number%29 "42 (number)") appear throughout the series, both in sequence and individually. The numbers add up to [108](/wiki/108_%28number%29 "108 (number)"), another common number in the series.{{Cite OEIS\|sequencenumber\=A104101 \|name\=The Lost Numbers}} For example, it is said that the Oceanic Six left the island after 108 days. Also, the button in the hatch had to be pushed every 108 minutes. The numbers were first explicitly mentioned in the season one episode "[Numbers](/wiki/Numbers_%28Lost%29 "Numbers (Lost)")", which also happens to be the 18th episode of the series, 18 being the [average](/wiki/Arithmetic_mean "Arithmetic mean") of the numbers. They were chosen by Lindelof, [J. J. Abrams](/wiki/J._J._Abrams "J. J. Abrams") and [David Fury](/wiki/David_Fury "David Fury"), one of the writers of that episode. Speaking in 2008, Fury remarked that "your guesses are as good as mine" as to what the numbers mean. They are placed throughout the series for a kind of "Easter egg hunt". Sometimes DHARMA test rabbits can be seen that have identification numbers on them; at least twice, the 23rd rabbit has been seen. They can also be seen on items such as sports shirts and on the DHARMA interrogation room door, which is also designated "23". The plane that brought the castaways to the island for the first time was Oceanic 815\. During the season 2 episode "[Man of Science, Man of Faith](/wiki/Man_of_Science%2C_Man_of_Faith "Man of Science, Man of Faith")", Jack is giving care to two people who have been in a car crash. After one of them dies, a voice is heard in the background saying, "Time of death, 8:15 AM". According to the DHARMA Orientation video in the [Lost Experience](/wiki/Lost_Experience "Lost Experience"), the numbers represent the factors of the [Valenzetti Equation](/wiki/Gary_Troup_%28Lost%29%23The_Valenzetti_Equation "Gary Troup (Lost)#The Valenzetti Equation"), which claims to accurately predict when humanity will be extinguished. A part of the plot is based on certain characters using the numbers to constitute a code that must be entered in a terminal. The writers originally introduced the numbers solely to engineer a meeting between two characters, [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes "Hugo ") and [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau "Danielle Rousseau"), not because they had a plan for them. Due to viewer feedback, however, they were eventually implemented into a greater part of the story.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1100410,00\.html \|title\=The scoop on "Lost" \|access\-date\=2008\-12\-24 \|last\=Armstrong \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=2005\-09\-09 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219205310/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0%2C%2C1100410%2C00\.html \|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-19 }} The numbers are introduced early in season 1: they were [broadcast](/wiki/Numbers_station "Numbers station") from the island's [radio transmitter](/wiki/Radio_transmitter "Radio transmitter") as a message that drew [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau "Danielle Rousseau")'s expedition there. Rousseau changed the message after the deaths of her teammates. The transmission was also heard by military personnel stationed off the island, eventually making their way to [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes "Hugo ").{{Clarify\|reason\=\|date\=January 2019}} Some time before the crash, Hurley uses the numbers for a lottery, and wins a huge amount of money, but this seems to bring those around him nothing but misfortune. Because of this, Hurley believes the numbers are cursed. In the "flash\-sideways" in season 6, Hurley has again won the lottery, but with different numbers, and appears to have great fortune afterwards. In the season 1 episode ["Deus Ex Machina"](/wiki/Deus_Ex_Machina_%28Lost%29 "Deus Ex Machina (Lost)"), in a flashback, Locke is a salesman teaching a kid how to play the Mouse Trap, when he notices a mysterious woman staring at him, he goes to meet her and asks if he could help her, which in turn she says she's looking for the footballs, Locke proceeds to tell her that Aisle 8 are for regulation and Aisle 15 are for Nerf. In the season five episode "[Some Like It Hoth](/wiki/Some_Like_It_Hoth "Some Like It Hoth")", members of the DHARMA Initiative are shown as they are building the hatch which the survivors would later live in. As they are preparing to place the door on the hatch, a worker asks for the serial number to put on the door. Another worker responds by telling him the numbers, which are inscribed on the hatch door. These numbers are later seen by some of the survivors, including Hurley. The numbers are seen in various occasions in different places during the series. A flashback in season one that shows Jack and Ana meeting at the airport bar mentions their seats on flight 815; Jack sits in row 23 and Ana Lucia in row 42\. In season 6 a part of the plot associates each number with a different character, each of them being a "candidate", according to the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 "Man in Black (Lost)"), destined to become the new 'protector of the Island' in [Jacob](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23The_Others "Characters of Lost#The Others")'s place. Jack Shephard was number 23, as in [Psalm 23](/wiki/Psalm_23 "Psalm 23"), The Lord is my Shepherd (but 42 is associated with Jin Kwon at that point). When the wreckage is found at the bottom of an ocean trench, the TV reporter announces that there were 324 passengers on the plane, which is three times the sum of the numbers (108 × 3 \= 324\). In his last talk to the survivors of the crash, Jacob reveals they are "just numbers". In an interview with Lostpedia, producer David Fury confirmed that the number 42 was a reference to *[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy")* in which it is “[the answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything?](/wiki/Phrases_from_The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy "Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy")". Lindelof has professed to be a fan of [The Illuminatus! Trilogy](/wiki/The_Illuminatus%21_Trilogy "The Illuminatus! Trilogy"), which details the [23 enigma](/wiki/23_enigma "23 enigma"), another one of the numbers.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \|title\=All at sea about Lost? Read on.... \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|date\=11 November 2006 \|access\-date\=24 April 2014 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201006/http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \|archive\-date\=26 April 2014 }} He also mentioned the movie [The Number 23](/wiki/The_Number_23 "The Number 23") and revealed that [Jim Carrey](/wiki/Jim_Carrey "Jim Carrey") was the initial choice for the role of [Jack Shepard](/wiki/Jack_Shephard "Jack Shephard") before being recast with Fox. The number 108 is of great significance in [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu") and [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist "Buddhist") mythology.{{cite web \|last\=Hindu \|first\=Buddhist \|title\=The significance of 108 \|url\=http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813112630/http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-08\-13 \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-03 }} At the 2005 [San Diego Comic\-Con](/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con "San Diego Comic-Con"), Lindelof stated that "we may never know what the Numbers mean". In a 2010 interview with *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today")*, Lindelof also remarked that the show “wasn't about the answer to what the numbers meant, it was really about: 'How did I feel while I was watching *Lost*?{{'"}}{{Cite news\|title\=Cuse, Lindelof shared an 'incredible journey' with 'Lost' \|first\=Bill \|last\=Keveney \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\-05\-18\-lostcuselindelof18\_ST\_N.htm \|newspaper\=\[\[USA Today]] \|publisher\=\[\[Gannett Company]] \|location\=\[\[McLean, Virginia]] \|issn\=0734\-7456 \|oclc\=608153056 \|date\=May 17, 2010 \|access\-date\=December 13, 2011 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121220607/http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\-05\-18\-lostcuselindelof18\_ST\_N.htm \|archive\-date\=January 21, 2011 }}
[ "Plot devices\n------------", "### The Man in Black/Smoke Monster", "{{Main\\|Man in Black (Lost)}}\nThe Island is home to a mysterious entity, consisting of a black mass accompanied by mechanical\\-like sounds and electrical activity within, dubbed the \"Smoke Monster\" or just the \"Monster\" by the survivors. The monster has been described by *Lost* producer Damon Lindelof as \"one of the biggest secrets\" of the mythology.Lost TV, \"It's Not About the Dinosaur: the Official Damon Lindelof Interview, 18 August 2004 The producers have often hinted that the black cloud of smoke is not a monster in the traditional sense, nor is it a cloud of [nanobots](/wiki/Nanobots \"Nanobots\") (as some fans have speculated).{{cite news \\|last\\=Wharton \\|first\\=David Michael \\|title\\=Comicon 2005 news \\|url\\=http://www2\\.cinescape.com/0/editorial.asp?aff\\_id\\=0\\&this\\_cat\\=Comics\\&action\\=page\\&obj\\_id\\=49194 \\|publisher\\=Cinescape.com \\|date\\=17 July 2005 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100205014750/http://www2\\.cinescape.com/0/editorial.asp?aff\\_id\\=0\\&this\\_cat\\=Comics\\&action\\=page\\&obj\\_id\\=49194 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2010 }}{{cite web\\|last\\=Grillo\\-Marxuach \\|first\\=Javier \\|title\\=Burning Questions \\|url\\=http://www.thefuselage.com/Threaded/showthread.php?t\\=14649\\&highlight\\=nanobot \\|publisher\\=TheFuselage.com \\|date\\=22 July 2005 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926235819/http://www.thefuselage.com/Threaded/showthread.php?t\\=14649\\&highlight\\=nanobot \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2007 }} The smoke monster is established as an antagonist in *Lost* from the very first episode, \"[Pilot](/wiki/Pilot_%28Lost%29 \"Pilot (Lost)\")\".Episode: [Pilot](/wiki/Pilot_%28Lost%29 \"Pilot (Lost)\") The producers' initial plan was for the monster to represent the [id](/wiki/Id%2C_ego_and_super-ego%23Id \"Id, ego and super-ego#Id\"), in a manner similar to the \"[id monster](/wiki/Id_monster \"Id monster\")\" from the 1956 film *[Forbidden Planet](/wiki/Forbidden_Planet \"Forbidden Planet\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://lostpedia.wikia.com/wiki/The\\_Lostpedia\\_Interview:David\\_Fury \\|title\\=The Lostpedia Interview:David Fury \\|date\\=20 May 2008 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Lostpedia]] \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718045606/http://lostpedia.wikia.com/wiki/The\\_Lostpedia\\_Interview%3ADavid\\_Fury \\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2011 }} This idea was changed by the end of [season one](/wiki/Lost_season_1 \"Lost season 1\"), when the character Danielle Rousseau describes the monster as a \"security system\" for the Island, specifically the ruins of the temple on the Island.Episode: [Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Lost%29 \"Exodus (Lost)\") This plan was continued into [season five](/wiki/Lost_season_5 \"Lost season 5\"), when Rousseau's husband, Robert, describes the monster as a security system that guards the island's temple.Episode: [This Place is Death](/wiki/This_Place_is_Death \"This Place is Death\") It has been repeatedly described as a \"security system.\" It emerges from vents in the ground to attack people, though it does not always attack those it encounters. The Monster is capable of lifting a grown man, and in one instance tosses a man nearly fifty feet into the air. In another it wraps a tendril of smoke around a man's arm, severing it.", "In the first episode of season 6, \"[LA X](/wiki/LA_X \"LA X\")\", it is revealed that the \"Locke\", with whom Ben is traveling back to the island, has become The Monster, an incarnation of Jacob's nemesis. It appears in the remains of the statue of Taweret and kills five people. One of the people manages to create a ring of ash around himself, temporarily hindering the smoke monster. The monster throws a rock at the man, knocking him out of the circle and making it possible for it to kill him. After the men are all dead, the smoke monster exits, and Jacob's nemesis, in the form of John Locke, immediately appears, stating that he is sorry that Ben had to see him \"like that\". It is later revealed that The Monster used to be a man whose only goal has been leaving the Island and \"going home\".Episode: [LA X](/wiki/LA_X \"LA X\")Episode:[The Substitute](/wiki/The_Substitute_%28Lost%29 \"The Substitute (Lost)\") After claiming Sayid to his side, and giving the Others the chance to join him, he stormed the temple and massacred all those who did not comply.Episode: [Sundown](/wiki/Sundown_%28Lost%29 \"Sundown (Lost)\") In \"[Recon](/wiki/Recon_%28Lost%29 \"Recon (Lost)\")\", he gave Sawyer a mission to investigate Hydra Island to see if the coast was clear for him and the Others to travel over there so they could take the Ajira plane and fly off the Island. Later in the episode, it tells Kate that he is sorry about Claire. He tells her that his own mother was crazy, just like Aaron's mother, Claire. In the final episode, he is rendered mortal again, along with Jack, the new protector of the island, when the electromagnetic source at the center of the island is disabled. Trapped in the form of John Locke, the Man in Black fights Jack on the cliffs, stabs him and almost kills him. Kate shoots the Man in Black in the back, and Jack kicks him off the cliff, killing the darkness before it could cross over on a boat to Hydra Island in order to escape the Island using the plane.", "### The Numbers", "", "The numbers [4](/wiki/4_%28number%29 \"4 (number)\"), [8](/wiki/8_%28number%29 \"8 (number)\"), [15](/wiki/15_%28number%29 \"15 (number)\"), [16](/wiki/16_%28number%29 \"16 (number)\"), [23](/wiki/23_%28number%29 \"23 (number)\"), and [42](/wiki/42_%28number%29 \"42 (number)\") appear throughout the series, both in sequence and individually. The numbers add up to [108](/wiki/108_%28number%29 \"108 (number)\"), another common number in the series.{{Cite OEIS\\|sequencenumber\\=A104101 \\|name\\=The Lost Numbers}} For example, it is said that the Oceanic Six left the island after 108 days. Also, the button in the hatch had to be pushed every 108 minutes.", "The numbers were first explicitly mentioned in the season one episode \"[Numbers](/wiki/Numbers_%28Lost%29 \"Numbers (Lost)\")\", which also happens to be the 18th episode of the series, 18 being the [average](/wiki/Arithmetic_mean \"Arithmetic mean\") of the numbers. They were chosen by Lindelof, [J. J. Abrams](/wiki/J._J._Abrams \"J. J. Abrams\") and [David Fury](/wiki/David_Fury \"David Fury\"), one of the writers of that episode. Speaking in 2008, Fury remarked that \"your guesses are as good as mine\" as to what the numbers mean. They are placed throughout the series for a kind of \"Easter egg hunt\". Sometimes DHARMA test rabbits can be seen that have identification numbers on them; at least twice, the 23rd rabbit has been seen. They can also be seen on items such as sports shirts and on the DHARMA interrogation room door, which is also designated \"23\". The plane that brought the castaways to the island for the first time was Oceanic 815\\. During the season 2 episode \"[Man of Science, Man of Faith](/wiki/Man_of_Science%2C_Man_of_Faith \"Man of Science, Man of Faith\")\", Jack is giving care to two people who have been in a car crash. After one of them dies, a voice is heard in the background saying, \"Time of death, 8:15 AM\".", "According to the DHARMA Orientation video in the [Lost Experience](/wiki/Lost_Experience \"Lost Experience\"), the numbers represent the factors of the [Valenzetti Equation](/wiki/Gary_Troup_%28Lost%29%23The_Valenzetti_Equation \"Gary Troup (Lost)#The Valenzetti Equation\"), which claims to accurately predict when humanity will be extinguished. A part of the plot is based on certain characters using the numbers to constitute a code that must be entered in a terminal. The writers originally introduced the numbers solely to engineer a meeting between two characters, [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes \"Hugo \") and [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau \"Danielle Rousseau\"), not because they had a plan for them. Due to viewer feedback, however, they were eventually implemented into a greater part of the story.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1100410,00\\.html \\|title\\=The scoop on \"Lost\" \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-24 \\|last\\=Armstrong \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=2005\\-09\\-09 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219205310/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0%2C%2C1100410%2C00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-19 }}", "The numbers are introduced early in season 1: they were [broadcast](/wiki/Numbers_station \"Numbers station\") from the island's [radio transmitter](/wiki/Radio_transmitter \"Radio transmitter\") as a message that drew [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau \"Danielle Rousseau\")'s expedition there. Rousseau changed the message after the deaths of her teammates. The transmission was also heard by military personnel stationed off the island, eventually making their way to [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes \"Hugo \").{{Clarify\\|reason\\=\\|date\\=January 2019}} Some time before the crash, Hurley uses the numbers for a lottery, and wins a huge amount of money, but this seems to bring those around him nothing but misfortune. Because of this, Hurley believes the numbers are cursed. In the \"flash\\-sideways\" in season 6, Hurley has again won the lottery, but with different numbers, and appears to have great fortune afterwards.", "In the season 1 episode [\"Deus Ex Machina\"](/wiki/Deus_Ex_Machina_%28Lost%29 \"Deus Ex Machina (Lost)\"), in a flashback, Locke is a salesman teaching a kid how to play the Mouse Trap, when he notices a mysterious woman staring at him, he goes to meet her and asks if he could help her, which in turn she says she's looking for the footballs, Locke proceeds to tell her that Aisle 8 are for regulation and Aisle 15 are for Nerf.", "In the season five episode \"[Some Like It Hoth](/wiki/Some_Like_It_Hoth \"Some Like It Hoth\")\", members of the DHARMA Initiative are shown as they are building the hatch which the survivors would later live in. As they are preparing to place the door on the hatch, a worker asks for the serial number to put on the door. Another worker responds by telling him the numbers, which are inscribed on the hatch door. These numbers are later seen by some of the survivors, including Hurley.", "The numbers are seen in various occasions in different places during the series. A flashback in season one that shows Jack and Ana meeting at the airport bar mentions their seats on flight 815; Jack sits in row 23 and Ana Lucia in row 42\\. In season 6 a part of the plot associates each number with a different character, each of them being a \"candidate\", according to the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 \"Man in Black (Lost)\"), destined to become the new 'protector of the Island' in [Jacob](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23The_Others \"Characters of Lost#The Others\")'s place. Jack Shephard was number 23, as in [Psalm 23](/wiki/Psalm_23 \"Psalm 23\"), The Lord is my Shepherd (but 42 is associated with Jin Kwon at that point).", "When the wreckage is found at the bottom of an ocean trench, the TV reporter announces that there were 324 passengers on the plane, which is three times the sum of the numbers (108 × 3 \\= 324\\).", "In his last talk to the survivors of the crash, Jacob reveals they are \"just numbers\".", "In an interview with Lostpedia, producer David Fury confirmed that the number 42 was a reference to *[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\")* in which it is “[the answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything?](/wiki/Phrases_from_The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy \"Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\")\".", "Lindelof has professed to be a fan of [The Illuminatus! Trilogy](/wiki/The_Illuminatus%21_Trilogy \"The Illuminatus! Trilogy\"), which details the [23 enigma](/wiki/23_enigma \"23 enigma\"), another one of the numbers.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \\|title\\=All at sea about Lost? Read on.... \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|date\\=11 November 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201006/http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2014 }} He also mentioned the movie [The Number 23](/wiki/The_Number_23 \"The Number 23\") and revealed that [Jim Carrey](/wiki/Jim_Carrey \"Jim Carrey\") was the initial choice for the role of [Jack Shepard](/wiki/Jack_Shephard \"Jack Shephard\") before being recast with Fox.", "The number 108 is of great significance in [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") and [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist \"Buddhist\") mythology.{{cite web \\|last\\=Hindu \\|first\\=Buddhist \\|title\\=The significance of 108 \\|url\\=http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813112630/http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-03 }}", "At the 2005 [San Diego Comic\\-Con](/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con \"San Diego Comic-Con\"), Lindelof stated that \"we may never know what the Numbers mean\". In a 2010 interview with *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\")*, Lindelof also remarked that the show “wasn't about the answer to what the numbers meant, it was really about: 'How did I feel while I was watching *Lost*?{{'\"}}{{Cite news\\|title\\=Cuse, Lindelof shared an 'incredible journey' with 'Lost' \\|first\\=Bill \\|last\\=Keveney \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\\-05\\-18\\-lostcuselindelof18\\_ST\\_N.htm \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[USA Today]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gannett Company]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[McLean, Virginia]] \\|issn\\=0734\\-7456 \\|oclc\\=608153056 \\|date\\=May 17, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121220607/http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\\-05\\-18\\-lostcuselindelof18\\_ST\\_N.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=January 21, 2011 }}", "" ]
### The Numbers The numbers [4](/wiki/4_%28number%29 "4 (number)"), [8](/wiki/8_%28number%29 "8 (number)"), [15](/wiki/15_%28number%29 "15 (number)"), [16](/wiki/16_%28number%29 "16 (number)"), [23](/wiki/23_%28number%29 "23 (number)"), and [42](/wiki/42_%28number%29 "42 (number)") appear throughout the series, both in sequence and individually. The numbers add up to [108](/wiki/108_%28number%29 "108 (number)"), another common number in the series.{{Cite OEIS\|sequencenumber\=A104101 \|name\=The Lost Numbers}} For example, it is said that the Oceanic Six left the island after 108 days. Also, the button in the hatch had to be pushed every 108 minutes. The numbers were first explicitly mentioned in the season one episode "[Numbers](/wiki/Numbers_%28Lost%29 "Numbers (Lost)")", which also happens to be the 18th episode of the series, 18 being the [average](/wiki/Arithmetic_mean "Arithmetic mean") of the numbers. They were chosen by Lindelof, [J. J. Abrams](/wiki/J._J._Abrams "J. J. Abrams") and [David Fury](/wiki/David_Fury "David Fury"), one of the writers of that episode. Speaking in 2008, Fury remarked that "your guesses are as good as mine" as to what the numbers mean. They are placed throughout the series for a kind of "Easter egg hunt". Sometimes DHARMA test rabbits can be seen that have identification numbers on them; at least twice, the 23rd rabbit has been seen. They can also be seen on items such as sports shirts and on the DHARMA interrogation room door, which is also designated "23". The plane that brought the castaways to the island for the first time was Oceanic 815\. During the season 2 episode "[Man of Science, Man of Faith](/wiki/Man_of_Science%2C_Man_of_Faith "Man of Science, Man of Faith")", Jack is giving care to two people who have been in a car crash. After one of them dies, a voice is heard in the background saying, "Time of death, 8:15 AM". According to the DHARMA Orientation video in the [Lost Experience](/wiki/Lost_Experience "Lost Experience"), the numbers represent the factors of the [Valenzetti Equation](/wiki/Gary_Troup_%28Lost%29%23The_Valenzetti_Equation "Gary Troup (Lost)#The Valenzetti Equation"), which claims to accurately predict when humanity will be extinguished. A part of the plot is based on certain characters using the numbers to constitute a code that must be entered in a terminal. The writers originally introduced the numbers solely to engineer a meeting between two characters, [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes "Hugo ") and [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau "Danielle Rousseau"), not because they had a plan for them. Due to viewer feedback, however, they were eventually implemented into a greater part of the story.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1100410,00\.html \|title\=The scoop on "Lost" \|access\-date\=2008\-12\-24 \|last\=Armstrong \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=2005\-09\-09 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219205310/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0%2C%2C1100410%2C00\.html \|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-19 }} The numbers are introduced early in season 1: they were [broadcast](/wiki/Numbers_station "Numbers station") from the island's [radio transmitter](/wiki/Radio_transmitter "Radio transmitter") as a message that drew [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau "Danielle Rousseau")'s expedition there. Rousseau changed the message after the deaths of her teammates. The transmission was also heard by military personnel stationed off the island, eventually making their way to [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes "Hugo ").{{Clarify\|reason\=\|date\=January 2019}} Some time before the crash, Hurley uses the numbers for a lottery, and wins a huge amount of money, but this seems to bring those around him nothing but misfortune. Because of this, Hurley believes the numbers are cursed. In the "flash\-sideways" in season 6, Hurley has again won the lottery, but with different numbers, and appears to have great fortune afterwards. In the season 1 episode ["Deus Ex Machina"](/wiki/Deus_Ex_Machina_%28Lost%29 "Deus Ex Machina (Lost)"), in a flashback, Locke is a salesman teaching a kid how to play the Mouse Trap, when he notices a mysterious woman staring at him, he goes to meet her and asks if he could help her, which in turn she says she's looking for the footballs, Locke proceeds to tell her that Aisle 8 are for regulation and Aisle 15 are for Nerf. In the season five episode "[Some Like It Hoth](/wiki/Some_Like_It_Hoth "Some Like It Hoth")", members of the DHARMA Initiative are shown as they are building the hatch which the survivors would later live in. As they are preparing to place the door on the hatch, a worker asks for the serial number to put on the door. Another worker responds by telling him the numbers, which are inscribed on the hatch door. These numbers are later seen by some of the survivors, including Hurley. The numbers are seen in various occasions in different places during the series. A flashback in season one that shows Jack and Ana meeting at the airport bar mentions their seats on flight 815; Jack sits in row 23 and Ana Lucia in row 42\. In season 6 a part of the plot associates each number with a different character, each of them being a "candidate", according to the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 "Man in Black (Lost)"), destined to become the new 'protector of the Island' in [Jacob](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23The_Others "Characters of Lost#The Others")'s place. Jack Shephard was number 23, as in [Psalm 23](/wiki/Psalm_23 "Psalm 23"), The Lord is my Shepherd (but 42 is associated with Jin Kwon at that point). When the wreckage is found at the bottom of an ocean trench, the TV reporter announces that there were 324 passengers on the plane, which is three times the sum of the numbers (108 × 3 \= 324\). In his last talk to the survivors of the crash, Jacob reveals they are "just numbers". In an interview with Lostpedia, producer David Fury confirmed that the number 42 was a reference to *[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy")* in which it is “[the answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything?](/wiki/Phrases_from_The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy "Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy")". Lindelof has professed to be a fan of [The Illuminatus! Trilogy](/wiki/The_Illuminatus%21_Trilogy "The Illuminatus! Trilogy"), which details the [23 enigma](/wiki/23_enigma "23 enigma"), another one of the numbers.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \|title\=All at sea about Lost? Read on.... \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|date\=11 November 2006 \|access\-date\=24 April 2014 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201006/http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \|archive\-date\=26 April 2014 }} He also mentioned the movie [The Number 23](/wiki/The_Number_23 "The Number 23") and revealed that [Jim Carrey](/wiki/Jim_Carrey "Jim Carrey") was the initial choice for the role of [Jack Shepard](/wiki/Jack_Shephard "Jack Shephard") before being recast with Fox. The number 108 is of great significance in [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu") and [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist "Buddhist") mythology.{{cite web \|last\=Hindu \|first\=Buddhist \|title\=The significance of 108 \|url\=http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813112630/http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-08\-13 \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-03 }} At the 2005 [San Diego Comic\-Con](/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con "San Diego Comic-Con"), Lindelof stated that "we may never know what the Numbers mean". In a 2010 interview with *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today")*, Lindelof also remarked that the show “wasn't about the answer to what the numbers meant, it was really about: 'How did I feel while I was watching *Lost*?{{'"}}{{Cite news\|title\=Cuse, Lindelof shared an 'incredible journey' with 'Lost' \|first\=Bill \|last\=Keveney \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\-05\-18\-lostcuselindelof18\_ST\_N.htm \|newspaper\=\[\[USA Today]] \|publisher\=\[\[Gannett Company]] \|location\=\[\[McLean, Virginia]] \|issn\=0734\-7456 \|oclc\=608153056 \|date\=May 17, 2010 \|access\-date\=December 13, 2011 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121220607/http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\-05\-18\-lostcuselindelof18\_ST\_N.htm \|archive\-date\=January 21, 2011 }}
[ "### The Numbers", "", "The numbers [4](/wiki/4_%28number%29 \"4 (number)\"), [8](/wiki/8_%28number%29 \"8 (number)\"), [15](/wiki/15_%28number%29 \"15 (number)\"), [16](/wiki/16_%28number%29 \"16 (number)\"), [23](/wiki/23_%28number%29 \"23 (number)\"), and [42](/wiki/42_%28number%29 \"42 (number)\") appear throughout the series, both in sequence and individually. The numbers add up to [108](/wiki/108_%28number%29 \"108 (number)\"), another common number in the series.{{Cite OEIS\\|sequencenumber\\=A104101 \\|name\\=The Lost Numbers}} For example, it is said that the Oceanic Six left the island after 108 days. Also, the button in the hatch had to be pushed every 108 minutes.", "The numbers were first explicitly mentioned in the season one episode \"[Numbers](/wiki/Numbers_%28Lost%29 \"Numbers (Lost)\")\", which also happens to be the 18th episode of the series, 18 being the [average](/wiki/Arithmetic_mean \"Arithmetic mean\") of the numbers. They were chosen by Lindelof, [J. J. Abrams](/wiki/J._J._Abrams \"J. J. Abrams\") and [David Fury](/wiki/David_Fury \"David Fury\"), one of the writers of that episode. Speaking in 2008, Fury remarked that \"your guesses are as good as mine\" as to what the numbers mean. They are placed throughout the series for a kind of \"Easter egg hunt\". Sometimes DHARMA test rabbits can be seen that have identification numbers on them; at least twice, the 23rd rabbit has been seen. They can also be seen on items such as sports shirts and on the DHARMA interrogation room door, which is also designated \"23\". The plane that brought the castaways to the island for the first time was Oceanic 815\\. During the season 2 episode \"[Man of Science, Man of Faith](/wiki/Man_of_Science%2C_Man_of_Faith \"Man of Science, Man of Faith\")\", Jack is giving care to two people who have been in a car crash. After one of them dies, a voice is heard in the background saying, \"Time of death, 8:15 AM\".", "According to the DHARMA Orientation video in the [Lost Experience](/wiki/Lost_Experience \"Lost Experience\"), the numbers represent the factors of the [Valenzetti Equation](/wiki/Gary_Troup_%28Lost%29%23The_Valenzetti_Equation \"Gary Troup (Lost)#The Valenzetti Equation\"), which claims to accurately predict when humanity will be extinguished. A part of the plot is based on certain characters using the numbers to constitute a code that must be entered in a terminal. The writers originally introduced the numbers solely to engineer a meeting between two characters, [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes \"Hugo \") and [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau \"Danielle Rousseau\"), not because they had a plan for them. Due to viewer feedback, however, they were eventually implemented into a greater part of the story.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1100410,00\\.html \\|title\\=The scoop on \"Lost\" \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-24 \\|last\\=Armstrong \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=2005\\-09\\-09 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219205310/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0%2C%2C1100410%2C00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-19 }}", "The numbers are introduced early in season 1: they were [broadcast](/wiki/Numbers_station \"Numbers station\") from the island's [radio transmitter](/wiki/Radio_transmitter \"Radio transmitter\") as a message that drew [Rousseau](/wiki/Danielle_Rousseau \"Danielle Rousseau\")'s expedition there. Rousseau changed the message after the deaths of her teammates. The transmission was also heard by military personnel stationed off the island, eventually making their way to [Hurley](/wiki/Hugo_%22Hurley%22_Reyes \"Hugo \").{{Clarify\\|reason\\=\\|date\\=January 2019}} Some time before the crash, Hurley uses the numbers for a lottery, and wins a huge amount of money, but this seems to bring those around him nothing but misfortune. Because of this, Hurley believes the numbers are cursed. In the \"flash\\-sideways\" in season 6, Hurley has again won the lottery, but with different numbers, and appears to have great fortune afterwards.", "In the season 1 episode [\"Deus Ex Machina\"](/wiki/Deus_Ex_Machina_%28Lost%29 \"Deus Ex Machina (Lost)\"), in a flashback, Locke is a salesman teaching a kid how to play the Mouse Trap, when he notices a mysterious woman staring at him, he goes to meet her and asks if he could help her, which in turn she says she's looking for the footballs, Locke proceeds to tell her that Aisle 8 are for regulation and Aisle 15 are for Nerf.", "In the season five episode \"[Some Like It Hoth](/wiki/Some_Like_It_Hoth \"Some Like It Hoth\")\", members of the DHARMA Initiative are shown as they are building the hatch which the survivors would later live in. As they are preparing to place the door on the hatch, a worker asks for the serial number to put on the door. Another worker responds by telling him the numbers, which are inscribed on the hatch door. These numbers are later seen by some of the survivors, including Hurley.", "The numbers are seen in various occasions in different places during the series. A flashback in season one that shows Jack and Ana meeting at the airport bar mentions their seats on flight 815; Jack sits in row 23 and Ana Lucia in row 42\\. In season 6 a part of the plot associates each number with a different character, each of them being a \"candidate\", according to the [Man in Black](/wiki/Man_in_Black_%28Lost%29 \"Man in Black (Lost)\"), destined to become the new 'protector of the Island' in [Jacob](/wiki/Characters_of_Lost%23The_Others \"Characters of Lost#The Others\")'s place. Jack Shephard was number 23, as in [Psalm 23](/wiki/Psalm_23 \"Psalm 23\"), The Lord is my Shepherd (but 42 is associated with Jin Kwon at that point).", "When the wreckage is found at the bottom of an ocean trench, the TV reporter announces that there were 324 passengers on the plane, which is three times the sum of the numbers (108 × 3 \\= 324\\).", "In his last talk to the survivors of the crash, Jacob reveals they are \"just numbers\".", "In an interview with Lostpedia, producer David Fury confirmed that the number 42 was a reference to *[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\")* in which it is “[the answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything?](/wiki/Phrases_from_The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy \"Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\")\".", "Lindelof has professed to be a fan of [The Illuminatus! Trilogy](/wiki/The_Illuminatus%21_Trilogy \"The Illuminatus! Trilogy\"), which details the [23 enigma](/wiki/23_enigma \"23 enigma\"), another one of the numbers.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \\|title\\=All at sea about Lost? Read on.... \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|date\\=11 November 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201006/http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2006/nov/12/2 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2014 }} He also mentioned the movie [The Number 23](/wiki/The_Number_23 \"The Number 23\") and revealed that [Jim Carrey](/wiki/Jim_Carrey \"Jim Carrey\") was the initial choice for the role of [Jack Shepard](/wiki/Jack_Shephard \"Jack Shephard\") before being recast with Fox.", "The number 108 is of great significance in [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") and [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist \"Buddhist\") mythology.{{cite web \\|last\\=Hindu \\|first\\=Buddhist \\|title\\=The significance of 108 \\|url\\=http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813112630/http://www.salagram.net/108meaning.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-03 }}", "At the 2005 [San Diego Comic\\-Con](/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con \"San Diego Comic-Con\"), Lindelof stated that \"we may never know what the Numbers mean\". In a 2010 interview with *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\")*, Lindelof also remarked that the show “wasn't about the answer to what the numbers meant, it was really about: 'How did I feel while I was watching *Lost*?{{'\"}}{{Cite news\\|title\\=Cuse, Lindelof shared an 'incredible journey' with 'Lost' \\|first\\=Bill \\|last\\=Keveney \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\\-05\\-18\\-lostcuselindelof18\\_ST\\_N.htm \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[USA Today]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gannett Company]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[McLean, Virginia]] \\|issn\\=0734\\-7456 \\|oclc\\=608153056 \\|date\\=May 17, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121220607/http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010\\-05\\-18\\-lostcuselindelof18\\_ST\\_N.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=January 21, 2011 }}", "" ]
Engineering career ------------------ [thumb\|right\|250px\|Wise introduced somersault signals to the BCDR and the BNCR, like these at Carrickfergus](/wiki/Image:NCC_Carrick_down_home.jpg "NCC Carrick down home.jpg") Wise started his civil engineering career in 1872 as a pupil to Mr Marmaduke Backhouse and then Mr James Price, MICE, Chief Engineer of the [Midland Great Western Railway](/wiki/Midland_Great_Western_Railway "Midland Great Western Railway") of Ireland, during which time he was the Resident Engineer on the construction of the [Navan and Kingscourt Railway](/wiki/Navan_and_Kingscourt_Railway "Navan and Kingscourt Railway").Wise, Berkeley Deane, Candidate's Application, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1888\. From October 1875 until December 1877 Wise was Assistant Engineer to the [Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford Railway](/wiki/Dublin%2C_Wicklow_and_Wexford_Railway "Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford Railway") where he was engaged on a new tunnel 450 yards long at Bray Head. In December 1877 he moved north to become the Chief Engineer to the [Belfast and County Down Railway](/wiki/Belfast_and_County_Down_Railway "Belfast and County Down Railway") (BCDR), where he stayed for 11 years, living at Salem Cottage on the Knock Road, [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast").Crossland, Sir Bernard \& Moore, John Shaw, The Lives of the Great Engineers of Ulster, Vol 3, p86, October 2008\. During this time he re\-made most of the line and carried out extensive alterations to the Belfast Terminus at Queen's Quay including new signal gantries. Towards the end of his time on the BCDR, Wise prepared drawings, specifications and estimates for the Quoile Viaduct to carry the railway over the [River Quoile](/wiki/River_Quoile "River Quoile"). Wise was committed to the safe operation of the railway, and introduced interlocking signals at most of the stations. He developed and patented the signalling staff system which bears his name and is described in patent 1030 of 1896\. He also gave the BNCR its characteristic somersault signal. Wise was elected as a member of the [Institution of Civil Engineers](/wiki/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers "Institution of Civil Engineers") in [London](/wiki/London "London") on 4 December 1888, aged 33, and remained a member until his resignation through ill\-health on 27 February 1907\.The Institution of Civil Engineers, Membership Records. Among those who proposed him were famous Ulster engineers [Luke Livingston Macassey](/wiki/Luke_Livingston_Macassey "Luke Livingston Macassey") and [Bowman Malcolm](/wiki/Bowman_Malcolm "Bowman Malcolm"). He was elected a member of the [Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland](/wiki/Institution_of_Engineers_of_Ireland "Institution of Engineers of Ireland") in 1880 and was its vice president from 1904 to 1906\.
[ "Engineering career\n------------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Wise introduced somersault signals to the BCDR and the BNCR, like these at Carrickfergus](/wiki/Image:NCC_Carrick_down_home.jpg \"NCC Carrick down home.jpg\")\nWise started his civil engineering career in 1872 as a pupil to Mr Marmaduke Backhouse and then Mr James Price, MICE, Chief Engineer of the [Midland Great Western Railway](/wiki/Midland_Great_Western_Railway \"Midland Great Western Railway\") of Ireland, during which time he was the Resident Engineer on the construction of the [Navan and Kingscourt Railway](/wiki/Navan_and_Kingscourt_Railway \"Navan and Kingscourt Railway\").Wise, Berkeley Deane, Candidate's Application, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1888\\.", "From October 1875 until December 1877 Wise was Assistant Engineer to the [Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford Railway](/wiki/Dublin%2C_Wicklow_and_Wexford_Railway \"Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford Railway\") where he was engaged on a new tunnel 450 yards long at Bray Head.", "In December 1877 he moved north to become the Chief Engineer to the [Belfast and County Down Railway](/wiki/Belfast_and_County_Down_Railway \"Belfast and County Down Railway\") (BCDR), where he stayed for 11 years, living at Salem Cottage on the Knock Road, [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\").Crossland, Sir Bernard \\& Moore, John Shaw, The Lives of the Great Engineers of Ulster, Vol 3, p86, October 2008\\.", "During this time he re\\-made most of the line and carried out extensive alterations to the Belfast Terminus at Queen's Quay including new signal gantries. Towards the end of his time on the BCDR, Wise prepared drawings, specifications and estimates for the Quoile Viaduct to carry the railway over the [River Quoile](/wiki/River_Quoile \"River Quoile\").", "Wise was committed to the safe operation of the railway, and introduced interlocking signals at most of the stations. He developed and patented the signalling staff system which bears his name and is described in patent 1030 of 1896\\. He also gave the BNCR its characteristic somersault signal.", "Wise was elected as a member of the [Institution of Civil Engineers](/wiki/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers \"Institution of Civil Engineers\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") on 4 December 1888, aged 33, and remained a member until his resignation through ill\\-health on 27 February 1907\\.The Institution of Civil Engineers, Membership Records. Among those who proposed him were famous Ulster engineers [Luke Livingston Macassey](/wiki/Luke_Livingston_Macassey \"Luke Livingston Macassey\") and [Bowman Malcolm](/wiki/Bowman_Malcolm \"Bowman Malcolm\"). He was elected a member of the [Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland](/wiki/Institution_of_Engineers_of_Ireland \"Institution of Engineers of Ireland\") in 1880 and was its vice president from 1904 to 1906\\.", "" ]
Northern Counties ----------------- The pinnacle of Wise's civil engineering career was his 18 years as Chief Engineer to the [Belfast and Northern Counties Railway](/wiki/Belfast_and_Northern_Counties_Railway "Belfast and Northern Counties Railway") (BNCR). He was appointed to this position on 11 April 1888 at a salary of £400 ({{Inflation\|UK\|400\|1888\|r\=0\|fmt\=eq\|cursign\=£}}),{{Inflation\-fn\|UK}}, and held it until 1906 when his health failed. Wise ensured that renewal of the BNCR track was carried out to a high standard. He specified steel bull head rails of 83 lb per yard laid on creosoted Baltic redwood. Wise was a strong advocate of good quality stone ballast, and he developed a quarry near Ballymoney where he installed the latest stone\-breaking plant. Wise introduced the tablet signalling system and gave the BNCR its characteristic somersault signals. His resignalling of York Road Station, Belfast in 1897\-98 was the largest installation in Ireland. From around 1900, Wise also pioneered the use of reinforced concrete for railway structures, such as the King's Bridge in Whitehead. Wise designed many of the stations of the BNCR (see List of Works). His first was Larne Harbour Station, built in 1890 to a budget of £3,000 ({{Inflation\|UK\|3000\|1890\|r\=0\|fmt\=eq\|cursign\=£}}).{{Inflation\-fn\|UK}} it had a double faced platform, one side serving the broad gauge line from Belfast and the other the narrow gauge from Ballymena, and a clock with two minute hands showing both English and Irish time, which was 25 minutes later.Currie, JRL, The Northern Counties Railway, Vol 1, [David \& Charles](/wiki/David_%26_Charles "David & Charles"), 1973\. [thumb\|right\|400px\|[Portrush railway station](/wiki/Portrush_railway_station "Portrush railway station") in the 1890s](/wiki/File:Portrush_Rly_Station%2C_1890s.jpg "Portrush Rly Station, 1890s.jpg") But perhaps Wise's most famous building is [Portrush railway station](/wiki/Portrush_railway_station "Portrush railway station"), which still stands. By 1891, the existing station was completely inadequate to deal with heavy summer traffic. Wise designed a mock Tudor building with black beams painted on white stucco, all on a red brick base. There was an elegant clock tower, some 50 feet high and three platforms 600 feet long, covered for the first 200 feet by a canopy supported by the girders known as the Belfast Truss. On the seaward side, Wise designed the Cafe and Restaurant for over 250 diners, with a balcony overlooking the Atlantic Ocean. Portrush station was built by contractor McLaughlin and Harvey, opening in the spring of 1893\. Wise gave the BNCR a distinctive architectural style of red brick buildings with large overhanging awnings and half\-timbered gables. It owed much to the Old English style of architect [Norman Shaw](/wiki/Norman_Shaw "Norman Shaw"). Two wooden kiosks, designed by Wise, one from Portrush and one from Belfast York Road in a Swiss style, are preserved in the [Ulster Folk and Transport Museum](/wiki/Ulster_Folk_and_Transport_Museum "Ulster Folk and Transport Museum") in Cultra. Wise worked under [Edward John Cotton](/wiki/Edward_John_Cotton "Edward John Cotton"), General Manager of the BNCR, and together they developed the most prosperous railway in Ireland, showing a particular flair for the promotion of tourism. So as well as his normal work on the railway and its stations, Wise designed tea rooms, promenades, bandstands, footpaths and golf courses across the network. [Glenariff](/wiki/Glenariff "Glenariff"), one of the nine [Glens of Antrim](/wiki/Glens_of_Antrim "Glens of Antrim"), was described by [William Makepeace Thackeray](/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray "William Makepeace Thackeray") as 'Switzerland in Miniature'. In 1889, the BNCR leased the upper part of the Glen and Wise constructed paths and walkways so that tourists could see the spectacular waterfalls. They were brought down by jaunting car from the narrow gauge station at Parkmore. In places Wise cantilevered the path from sheer rock faces and built rustic shelters at strategic points, including one below the Ess\-na\-Larach waterfall which tourists could view through coloured glass. Two years later, Wise designed and constructed a tea room at the bottom of the glen, which survives as a restaurant; ever mindful of the needs of tourists, it incorporated a darkroom for photographers. Wise constructed the Promenade in [Whitehead](/wiki/Whitehead%2C_County_Antrim "Whitehead, County Antrim") using railway sleepers and made a beach by importing sand by train from Portrush.McCutcheon, William Alan, The industrial archaeology of Northern Ireland, 1984\. A bandstand was built on the promenade and there were summer fireworks displays. In 1892, Wise also engineered a path that stretched 1¼ miles to the Blackhead promontory. The lower sections bordered the shore but blasting and cantilevering from the cliffs was necessary towards Blackhead. He designed Sunshine House, a refreshment room beside the path at Blackhead. The path can still be enjoyed today and there is a plaque to Wise's achievement in the car park at Whitehead. [thumb\|right\|400px\|The Tubular Bridge at the Gobbins. Berkeley Deane Wise and his wife, Leah, are in the foreground](/wiki/File:Berkeley_Deane_Wise_at_the_Gobbins.jpg "Berkeley Deane Wise at the Gobbins.jpg") One of Wise's most spectacular civil engineering masterpieces was the [Gobbins Path](/wiki/Gobbins_Path "Gobbins Path"), which wound its way dramatically under the cliffs, over 250 feet high, on the [Islandmagee](/wiki/Islandmagee "Islandmagee") coastline. It was designed to bring tourists to the area using, of course, the BNCR. Construction started in May 1901 and the design showed Wise's typical design flair. The 2 mile path was cut precipitously into the cliffs, with tunnels and bridges, including two tubular bridges 70 feet long that connected the 'Man o'War Stack' to the main path. The bridges were built in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast") and floated to Islandmagee in barges to be lifted into position. The entrance to the path is tunnelled through a basalt outcrop and is known as 'Wise's Eye'. Two of the promontories were named in his honour: Deane's Head and Berkeley's Point. The first section of the Gobbins path opened in August 1902\. An advertisement proclaimed "New cliff path along the Gobbins Cliffs, with its ravines, bore caves, natural aquariums etc, has no parallel in Europe as a marine cliff walk".Martin, Derek, From the Archives, Whiteabbey Presbyterian Church, 2007 Sightseers would travel by scheduled services or special excursion trains and alight at the stations of Whitehead or Ballycarry, before travelling to the Gobbins by jaunting car or charabanc. The Gobbins Path was of great interest to a number of scientific and professional bodies. Members of the [British Association](/wiki/British_Association "British Association") made a visit on 20 August, shortly after it opened. They elected Wise as chairman for the visit, and travelled by special train to Ballycarry, from where they were taken to the path. In June 1904, Wise was again the host for a visit by the [Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland](/wiki/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers_of_Ireland "Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland"). Many technical details of the construction of the path and its bridges are contained in the Transactions of the Institution.Transactions, Seventy First Session, pp 72\-74 Vol XXXII, The Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, DUBLIN, 1907\. [http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Transactions\-of\-the\-Institution\-of\-Civil\-Engineers\-of\-Ireland\-1907/371940/7\#84](http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Transactions-of-the-Institution-of-Civil-Engineers-of-Ireland-1907/371940/7#84) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224170053/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Transactions\-of\-the\-Institution\-of\-Civil\-Engineers\-of\-Ireland\-1907/371940/7\#84 \|date\=2014\-12\-24 }} The Gobbins Path was an extremely successful tourist attraction, as popular as the [Giants Causeway](/wiki/Giants_Causeway "Giants Causeway"), and Wise planned to continue it over a full\-length of {{frac\|3\|1\|4}}  miles to a northern exit at Heddle's Port. An extension was opened in 1906, but then Wise fell ill. In August 1906 [Bowman Malcolm](/wiki/Bowman_Malcolm "Bowman Malcolm") reported to the Board that the full scheme would be too expensive, so he was authorised to proceed only to the 'Seven Sisters Caves' and to postpone any further work. After Wise left the company this final extension was opened in 1908, with a spectacular suspension bridge spanning the mouths of the Seven Sisters. The railings and bridges were last painted in 1936 and The Gobbins Path was closed in 1940 during World War II. It was re\-opened in 1951 by the [Ulster Transport Authority](/wiki/Ulster_Transport_Authority "Ulster Transport Authority") (UTA), with admission of 1 shilling for adults and 6d for children. A number of the bridges were strengthened by the UTA, but the path was affected by landslips and maintenance problems which forced its closure in 1961\. [thumb\|right\|400px\|A replacement Tubular Bridge is lifted into place by McLaughlin and Harvey in Autumn 2014](/wiki/File:Replacement_tubular_bridge_at_the_Gobbins.jpg "Replacement tubular bridge at the Gobbins.jpg") Following many years of feasibility studies, reconstruction of the Gobbins Path was started by [Larne Borough Council](/wiki/Larne_Borough_Council "Larne Borough Council") in 2011\. The contractor for the reconstruction was [McLaughlin \& Harvey Ltd](/wiki/McLaughlin_%26_Harvey_Ltd "McLaughlin & Harvey Ltd"). The new path with its 6 cantilevered walkways and 15 new bridges (4 of them over 30m long) was opened by [Mid and East Antrim Borough Council](/wiki/Mid_and_East_Antrim_Borough_Council "Mid and East Antrim Borough Council") on 19 August 2015 at a cost of £7\.5 million. In the latter part of his career with the BNCR, from 1896 to 1906, Wise lived in Silverstream House, Jordanstown, County AntrimThe Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Membership Lists. where in his spare time he kept poultry. The house, now demolished, is near the site of Belfast High School. During this time he worshipped at Whiteabbey Presbyterian Church where the church records show that he occupied pew 46 and paid a yearly stipend of £3 10s.Whiteabbey Presbyterian Church, Annual Reports, Derek Martin Collection In 1896 Wise took as an apprentice his nephew [Freeman Wills Crofts](/wiki/Freeman_Wills_Crofts "Freeman Wills Crofts"), aged 17, who worked for the BNCR until 1929\. In 1919, during an absence from work due to a long illness, Crofts wrote his first detective novel, *[The Cask](/wiki/The_Cask "The Cask")* (1920\), which established him as a new master of detective fiction. Crofts gave up his railway career to write full\-time, producing a book almost every year for thirty years.
[ "Northern Counties\n-----------------", "The pinnacle of Wise's civil engineering career was his 18 years as Chief Engineer to the [Belfast and Northern Counties Railway](/wiki/Belfast_and_Northern_Counties_Railway \"Belfast and Northern Counties Railway\") (BNCR). He was appointed to this position on 11 April 1888 at a salary of £400 ({{Inflation\\|UK\\|400\\|1888\\|r\\=0\\|fmt\\=eq\\|cursign\\=£}}),{{Inflation\\-fn\\|UK}}, and held it until 1906 when his health failed.", "Wise ensured that renewal of the BNCR track was carried out to a high standard. He specified steel bull head rails of 83 lb per yard laid on creosoted Baltic redwood. Wise was a strong advocate of good quality stone ballast, and he developed a quarry near Ballymoney where he installed the latest stone\\-breaking plant. Wise introduced the tablet signalling system and gave the BNCR its characteristic somersault signals. His resignalling of York Road Station, Belfast in 1897\\-98 was the largest installation in Ireland. From around 1900, Wise also pioneered the use of reinforced concrete for railway structures, such as the King's Bridge in Whitehead.", "Wise designed many of the stations of the BNCR (see List of Works). His first was Larne Harbour Station, built in 1890 to a budget of £3,000 ({{Inflation\\|UK\\|3000\\|1890\\|r\\=0\\|fmt\\=eq\\|cursign\\=£}}).{{Inflation\\-fn\\|UK}} it had a double faced platform, one side serving the broad gauge line from Belfast and the other the narrow gauge from Ballymena, and a clock with two minute hands showing both English and Irish time, which was 25 minutes later.Currie, JRL, The Northern Counties Railway, Vol 1, [David \\& Charles](/wiki/David_%26_Charles \"David & Charles\"), 1973\\.", "[thumb\\|right\\|400px\\|[Portrush railway station](/wiki/Portrush_railway_station \"Portrush railway station\") in the 1890s](/wiki/File:Portrush_Rly_Station%2C_1890s.jpg \"Portrush Rly Station, 1890s.jpg\")\nBut perhaps Wise's most famous building is [Portrush railway station](/wiki/Portrush_railway_station \"Portrush railway station\"), which still stands. By 1891, the existing station was completely inadequate to deal with heavy summer traffic. Wise designed a mock Tudor building with black beams painted on white stucco, all on a red brick base. There was an elegant clock tower, some 50 feet high and three platforms 600 feet long, covered for the first 200 feet by a canopy supported by the girders known as the Belfast Truss. On the seaward side, Wise designed the Cafe and Restaurant for over 250 diners, with a balcony overlooking the Atlantic Ocean. Portrush station was built by contractor McLaughlin and Harvey, opening in the spring of 1893\\.", "Wise gave the BNCR a distinctive architectural style of red brick buildings with large overhanging awnings and half\\-timbered gables. It owed much to the Old English style of architect [Norman Shaw](/wiki/Norman_Shaw \"Norman Shaw\"). Two wooden kiosks, designed by Wise, one from Portrush and one from Belfast York Road in a Swiss style, are preserved in the [Ulster Folk and Transport Museum](/wiki/Ulster_Folk_and_Transport_Museum \"Ulster Folk and Transport Museum\") in Cultra.", "Wise worked under [Edward John Cotton](/wiki/Edward_John_Cotton \"Edward John Cotton\"), General Manager of the BNCR, and together they developed the most prosperous railway in Ireland, showing a particular flair for the promotion of tourism. So as well as his normal work on the railway and its stations, Wise designed tea rooms, promenades, bandstands, footpaths and golf courses across the network.", "[Glenariff](/wiki/Glenariff \"Glenariff\"), one of the nine [Glens of Antrim](/wiki/Glens_of_Antrim \"Glens of Antrim\"), was described by [William Makepeace Thackeray](/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray \"William Makepeace Thackeray\") as 'Switzerland in Miniature'. In 1889, the BNCR leased the upper part of the Glen and Wise constructed paths and walkways so that tourists could see the spectacular waterfalls. They were brought down by jaunting car from the narrow gauge station at Parkmore. In places Wise cantilevered the path from sheer rock faces and built rustic shelters at strategic points, including one below the Ess\\-na\\-Larach waterfall which tourists could view through coloured glass. Two years later, Wise designed and constructed a tea room at the bottom of the glen, which survives as a restaurant; ever mindful of the needs of tourists, it incorporated a darkroom for photographers.", "Wise constructed the Promenade in [Whitehead](/wiki/Whitehead%2C_County_Antrim \"Whitehead, County Antrim\") using railway sleepers and made a beach by importing sand by train from Portrush.McCutcheon, William Alan, The industrial archaeology of Northern Ireland, 1984\\. A bandstand was built on the promenade and there were summer fireworks displays. In 1892, Wise also engineered a path that stretched 1¼ miles to the Blackhead promontory. The lower sections bordered the shore but blasting and cantilevering from the cliffs was necessary towards Blackhead. He designed Sunshine House, a refreshment room beside the path at Blackhead. The path can still be enjoyed today and there is a plaque to Wise's achievement in the car park at Whitehead.", "[thumb\\|right\\|400px\\|The Tubular Bridge at the Gobbins. Berkeley Deane Wise and his wife, Leah, are in the foreground](/wiki/File:Berkeley_Deane_Wise_at_the_Gobbins.jpg \"Berkeley Deane Wise at the Gobbins.jpg\")\nOne of Wise's most spectacular civil engineering masterpieces was the [Gobbins Path](/wiki/Gobbins_Path \"Gobbins Path\"), which wound its way dramatically under the cliffs, over 250 feet high, on the [Islandmagee](/wiki/Islandmagee \"Islandmagee\") coastline. It was designed to bring tourists to the area using, of course, the BNCR. Construction started in May 1901 and the design showed Wise's typical design flair. The 2 mile path was cut precipitously into the cliffs, with tunnels and bridges, including two tubular bridges 70 feet long that connected the 'Man o'War Stack' to the main path. The bridges were built in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\") and floated to Islandmagee in barges to be lifted into position. The entrance to the path is tunnelled through a basalt outcrop and is known as 'Wise's Eye'. Two of the promontories were named in his honour: Deane's Head and Berkeley's Point.", "The first section of the Gobbins path opened in August 1902\\. An advertisement proclaimed \"New cliff path along the Gobbins Cliffs, with its ravines, bore caves, natural aquariums etc, has no parallel in Europe as a marine cliff walk\".Martin, Derek, From the Archives, Whiteabbey Presbyterian Church, 2007 Sightseers would travel by scheduled services or special excursion trains and alight at the stations of Whitehead or Ballycarry, before travelling to the Gobbins by jaunting car or charabanc. The Gobbins Path was of great interest to a number of scientific and professional bodies. Members of the [British Association](/wiki/British_Association \"British Association\") made a visit on 20 August, shortly after it opened. They elected Wise as chairman for the visit, and travelled by special train to Ballycarry, from where they were taken to the path. In June 1904, Wise was again the host for a visit by the [Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland](/wiki/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers_of_Ireland \"Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland\"). Many technical details of the construction of the path and its bridges are contained in the Transactions of the Institution.Transactions, Seventy First Session, pp 72\\-74 Vol XXXII, The Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, DUBLIN, 1907\\. [http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Transactions\\-of\\-the\\-Institution\\-of\\-Civil\\-Engineers\\-of\\-Ireland\\-1907/371940/7\\#84](http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Transactions-of-the-Institution-of-Civil-Engineers-of-Ireland-1907/371940/7#84) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224170053/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Transactions\\-of\\-the\\-Institution\\-of\\-Civil\\-Engineers\\-of\\-Ireland\\-1907/371940/7\\#84 \\|date\\=2014\\-12\\-24 }}", "The Gobbins Path was an extremely successful tourist attraction, as popular as the [Giants Causeway](/wiki/Giants_Causeway \"Giants Causeway\"), and Wise planned to continue it over a full\\-length of {{frac\\|3\\|1\\|4}}  miles to a northern exit at Heddle's Port. An extension was opened in 1906, but then Wise fell ill. In August 1906 [Bowman Malcolm](/wiki/Bowman_Malcolm \"Bowman Malcolm\") reported to the Board that the full scheme would be too expensive, so he was authorised to proceed only to the 'Seven Sisters Caves' and to postpone any further work. After Wise left the company this final extension was opened in 1908, with a spectacular suspension bridge spanning the mouths of the Seven Sisters. The railings and bridges were last painted in 1936 and The Gobbins Path was closed in 1940 during World War II. It was re\\-opened in 1951 by the [Ulster Transport Authority](/wiki/Ulster_Transport_Authority \"Ulster Transport Authority\") (UTA), with admission of 1 shilling for adults and 6d for children. A number of the bridges were strengthened by the UTA, but the path was affected by landslips and maintenance problems which forced its closure in 1961\\.\n[thumb\\|right\\|400px\\|A replacement Tubular Bridge is lifted into place by McLaughlin and Harvey in Autumn 2014](/wiki/File:Replacement_tubular_bridge_at_the_Gobbins.jpg \"Replacement tubular bridge at the Gobbins.jpg\")", "Following many years of feasibility studies, reconstruction of the Gobbins Path was started by [Larne Borough Council](/wiki/Larne_Borough_Council \"Larne Borough Council\") in 2011\\. The contractor for the reconstruction was [McLaughlin \\& Harvey Ltd](/wiki/McLaughlin_%26_Harvey_Ltd \"McLaughlin & Harvey Ltd\"). The new path with its 6 cantilevered walkways and 15 new bridges (4 of them over 30m long) was opened by [Mid and East Antrim Borough Council](/wiki/Mid_and_East_Antrim_Borough_Council \"Mid and East Antrim Borough Council\") on 19 August 2015 at a cost of £7\\.5 million.", "In the latter part of his career with the BNCR, from 1896 to 1906, Wise lived in Silverstream House, Jordanstown, County AntrimThe Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Membership Lists. where in his spare time he kept poultry. The house, now demolished, is near the site of Belfast High School. During this time he worshipped at Whiteabbey Presbyterian Church where the church records show that he occupied pew 46 and paid a yearly stipend of £3 10s.Whiteabbey Presbyterian Church, Annual Reports, Derek Martin Collection", "In 1896 Wise took as an apprentice his nephew [Freeman Wills Crofts](/wiki/Freeman_Wills_Crofts \"Freeman Wills Crofts\"), aged 17, who worked for the BNCR until 1929\\. In 1919, during an absence from work due to a long illness, Crofts wrote his first detective novel, *[The Cask](/wiki/The_Cask \"The Cask\")* (1920\\), which established him as a new master of detective fiction. Crofts gave up his railway career to write full\\-time, producing a book almost every year for thirty years.", "" ]
Academic career --------------- Batchelor was educated at Chatham Public School and [Chatham High School (Taree, New South Wales)](/wiki/Chatham_High_School_%28Taree%2C_New_South_Wales%29 "Chatham High School (Taree, New South Wales)"). He completed an Honours degree in [Theoretical Physics](/wiki/Theoretical_Physics "Theoretical Physics") at the [University of New South Wales](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales "University of New South Wales") in 1983, graduating with 1st class honours and a University Medal. Batchelor completed a PhD in [Mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics") at the [Australian National University](/wiki/Australian_National_University "Australian National University") in 1987\.{{Cite news\|title\=Batchelor lives for great discoveries in maths.\|last\=Macdonald\|first\=Emma\|date\=14 October 1998\|work\=The Canberra Times}} His first postdoctoral research position was at the [Lorentz Institute](/wiki/Lorentz_Institute "Lorentz Institute") in [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden"). After a time as a postdoctoral research fellow in mathematics at the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne "University of Melbourne") he took up an [Australian Research Council](/wiki/Australian_Research_Council "Australian Research Council") QEII Fellowship at the [Australian National University](/wiki/Australian_National_University "Australian National University"). He then was awarded two successive ARC Senior Research Fellowships, followed by an ARC Professorial Fellowship in 2003\. Batchelor served as Head of the Department of Theoretical Physics from mid\-2005 to March 2013\. He has held visiting positions at a number of universities, including the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford"), the [University of Tokyo](/wiki/University_of_Tokyo "University of Tokyo") and [Institut Henri Poincaré](/wiki/Institut_Henri_Poincar%C3%A9 "Institut Henri Poincaré"). He held a Visiting Fellowship at [All Souls College](/wiki/All_Souls_College "All Souls College"), Oxford during [Michaelmas Term](/wiki/Michaelmas_Term "Michaelmas Term") 2013\. During his career, Batchelor has published over 150 [peer\-reviewed](/wiki/Peer-review "Peer-review") papers. He is a Fellow of the [Australian Mathematical Society](/wiki/Australian_Mathematical_Society "Australian Mathematical Society"), the [Australian Institute of Physics](/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Physics "Australian Institute of Physics") and the [Institute of Physics](/wiki/Institute_of_Physics "Institute of Physics") (UK). Batchelor was Editor\-in\-Chief of [*Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical*](/wiki/Journal_of_Physics_A "Journal of Physics A"). Prior to this he served as Mathematical Physics Section Editor (2007–2008\) and as a member of the Editorial Board (2005–2006\). He is currently Topical Reviews Editor (2014\-). In 2008 Batchelor was awarded an [Honorary Professorship](/wiki/Honorary_Professor "Honorary Professor") at [Chongqing University](/wiki/Chongqing_University "Chongqing University"), China. He took up a full\-time position there in 2013 under the [1000 Talents Plan](/wiki/1000_Talents_Plan "1000 Talents Plan"). He is a General Council Member of the [Asia\-Pacific Center for Theoretical Physics](/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Center_for_Theoretical_Physics "Asia-Pacific Center for Theoretical Physics"). He holds a part\-time position at the [Australian National University](/wiki/Australian_National_University "Australian National University") jointly between the Department of Theoretical Physics in the [Research School of Physics and Engineering](/wiki/Research_School_of_Physics_and_Engineering "Research School of Physics and Engineering") and the Mathematical Sciences Institute. However, Batchelor has also shown an interest in ancient and modern [stromatolites](/wiki/Stromatolites "Stromatolites"), which has led him on a number of field trips to outback Australia, including to the [Pilbara Craton](/wiki/Pilbara_Craton "Pilbara Craton") and to [Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve](/wiki/Hamelin_Pool_Marine_Nature_Reserve "Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve"). In 2018 he led research into the stones used to build [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace "Buckingham Palace"), determining that they were made from 200 million year old microbes.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/01/18/buckingham\-palace\-riddled\-ancient\-fossils\-scientists\-confirm/\|title\=Buckingham Palace is riddled with ancient fossils, scientists confirm\|last\=Knapton\|first\=Sarah\|date\=2018\|work\=The Telegraph\|location\=London\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-22\|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0307\-1235}}
[ "Academic career\n---------------", "Batchelor was educated at Chatham Public School and [Chatham High School (Taree, New South Wales)](/wiki/Chatham_High_School_%28Taree%2C_New_South_Wales%29 \"Chatham High School (Taree, New South Wales)\"). He completed an Honours degree in [Theoretical Physics](/wiki/Theoretical_Physics \"Theoretical Physics\") at the [University of New South Wales](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales \"University of New South Wales\") in 1983, graduating with 1st class honours and a University Medal. Batchelor completed a PhD in [Mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\") at the [Australian National University](/wiki/Australian_National_University \"Australian National University\") in 1987\\.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Batchelor lives for great discoveries in maths.\\|last\\=Macdonald\\|first\\=Emma\\|date\\=14 October 1998\\|work\\=The Canberra Times}}", "His first postdoctoral research position was at the [Lorentz Institute](/wiki/Lorentz_Institute \"Lorentz Institute\") in [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\"). After a time as a postdoctoral research fellow in mathematics at the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne \"University of Melbourne\") he took up an [Australian Research Council](/wiki/Australian_Research_Council \"Australian Research Council\") QEII Fellowship at the [Australian National University](/wiki/Australian_National_University \"Australian National University\"). He then was awarded two successive ARC Senior Research Fellowships, followed by an ARC Professorial Fellowship in 2003\\.", "Batchelor served as Head of the Department of Theoretical Physics from mid\\-2005 to March 2013\\. He has held visiting positions at a number of universities, including the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\"), the [University of Tokyo](/wiki/University_of_Tokyo \"University of Tokyo\") and [Institut Henri Poincaré](/wiki/Institut_Henri_Poincar%C3%A9 \"Institut Henri Poincaré\"). He held a Visiting Fellowship at [All Souls College](/wiki/All_Souls_College \"All Souls College\"), Oxford during [Michaelmas Term](/wiki/Michaelmas_Term \"Michaelmas Term\") 2013\\.", "During his career, Batchelor has published over 150 [peer\\-reviewed](/wiki/Peer-review \"Peer-review\") papers. He is a Fellow of the [Australian Mathematical Society](/wiki/Australian_Mathematical_Society \"Australian Mathematical Society\"), the [Australian Institute of Physics](/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Physics \"Australian Institute of Physics\") and the [Institute of Physics](/wiki/Institute_of_Physics \"Institute of Physics\") (UK).", "Batchelor was Editor\\-in\\-Chief of [*Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical*](/wiki/Journal_of_Physics_A \"Journal of Physics A\"). Prior to this he served as Mathematical Physics Section Editor (2007–2008\\) and as a member of the Editorial Board (2005–2006\\). He is currently Topical Reviews Editor (2014\\-).", "In 2008 Batchelor was awarded an [Honorary Professorship](/wiki/Honorary_Professor \"Honorary Professor\") at [Chongqing University](/wiki/Chongqing_University \"Chongqing University\"), China. He took up a full\\-time position there in 2013 under the [1000 Talents Plan](/wiki/1000_Talents_Plan \"1000 Talents Plan\"). He is a General Council Member of the [Asia\\-Pacific Center for Theoretical Physics](/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Center_for_Theoretical_Physics \"Asia-Pacific Center for Theoretical Physics\").", "He holds a part\\-time position at the [Australian National University](/wiki/Australian_National_University \"Australian National University\") jointly between the Department of Theoretical Physics in the [Research School of Physics and Engineering](/wiki/Research_School_of_Physics_and_Engineering \"Research School of Physics and Engineering\") and the Mathematical Sciences Institute.", "However, Batchelor has also shown an interest in ancient and modern [stromatolites](/wiki/Stromatolites \"Stromatolites\"), which has led him on a number of field trips to outback Australia, including to the [Pilbara Craton](/wiki/Pilbara_Craton \"Pilbara Craton\") and to [Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve](/wiki/Hamelin_Pool_Marine_Nature_Reserve \"Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve\").", "In 2018 he led research into the stones used to build [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace \"Buckingham Palace\"), determining that they were made from 200 million year old microbes.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/01/18/buckingham\\-palace\\-riddled\\-ancient\\-fossils\\-scientists\\-confirm/\\|title\\=Buckingham Palace is riddled with ancient fossils, scientists confirm\\|last\\=Knapton\\|first\\=Sarah\\|date\\=2018\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|location\\=London\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-22\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}}", "" ]
Events ------ Spring: * John Randolph Spring Arts Kick Off: Celebrate spring with local artisans showcasing their crafts, pottery, weaving, blacksmithing, and wood carving. Enjoy music, demos, and unique handcrafted treasures. Summer: * Weekend of Workshops: Learn traditional skills like basket weaving, dulcimer playing, and candle making through immersive workshops with expert guidance. * Upward Bound \- Night of Volunteerism: Lend a hand with community service projects around the fort, from planting herbs to historical reenactments. * Myths of the Mountains: Travel through Appalachian folklore and legends under the stars. Storytellers share tales of ghosts, witches, and woodland creatures, sparking excitement and a touch of spooky chills. Fall: * Apple Butter Festival: Experience the traditional process of making apple butter, witness demonstrations, enjoy music, games, and plenty of delicious apple butter to taste and buy. * Fort Fall Day: Immerse yourself in harvest festivities! Witness cider pressing, corn shucking, and pumpkin carving, enjoy hayrides, music, and traditional games. Winter: * Spirit of Christmas in the Mountains: Embrace the season with candlelit walks, decorated cabins, and heartwarming reenactments of Christmastime customs. Enjoy caroling, music, and the warmth of a crackling fire. No matter your interests, Fort New Salem's events offer a unique and immersive journey back in time for all ages. Choose your adventure and create unforgettable memories!
[ "Events\n------", "Spring:\n* John Randolph Spring Arts Kick Off: Celebrate spring with local artisans showcasing their crafts, pottery, weaving, blacksmithing, and wood carving. Enjoy music, demos, and unique handcrafted treasures.", "Summer:\n* Weekend of Workshops: Learn traditional skills like basket weaving, dulcimer playing, and candle making through immersive workshops with expert guidance.\n* Upward Bound \\- Night of Volunteerism: Lend a hand with community service projects around the fort, from planting herbs to historical reenactments.\n* Myths of the Mountains: Travel through Appalachian folklore and legends under the stars. Storytellers share tales of ghosts, witches, and woodland creatures, sparking excitement and a touch of spooky chills.", "Fall:\n* Apple Butter Festival: Experience the traditional process of making apple butter, witness demonstrations, enjoy music, games, and plenty of delicious apple butter to taste and buy.\n* Fort Fall Day: Immerse yourself in harvest festivities! Witness cider pressing, corn shucking, and pumpkin carving, enjoy hayrides, music, and traditional games.", "Winter:\n* Spirit of Christmas in the Mountains: Embrace the season with candlelit walks, decorated cabins, and heartwarming reenactments of Christmastime customs. Enjoy caroling, music, and the warmth of a crackling fire.", "", "No matter your interests, Fort New Salem's events offer a unique and immersive journey back in time for all ages. Choose your adventure and create unforgettable memories!", "", "", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Moore was born with [cerebral palsy](/wiki/Cerebral_palsy "Cerebral palsy"), could not walk or talk, and communicated using a laser\-pointer and a board of letters, numbers, and commonly used words. Using his pointer, he wrote books, directed plays, directed, acted in and edited films, and regularly gave poetry readings. Moore played piano, sang in ensemble music jams, and led bands in hard core [punk](/wiki/Punk_rock "Punk rock") clubs all along the [West Coast of the United States](/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States "West Coast of the United States") until his death. He also produced, and exhibited across the United States and Canada, a large collection of original oil and digital paintings. Moore was known for his long (5–48 hours) ritualistic performances with audience participation, nudity, and eroticism.{{cite book \|last\=Dubin \|first\=S. \|title\=Arresting Images: Impolitic Art and Uncivil Actions \|publisher\=Routledge \|date\=1994 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/arrestingimages00stev/page/155 155] \|isbn\=978\-0415908931 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/arrestingimages00stev/page/155 }} His writings on performance, art,{{cite book \|editor\-last1\=Kaplan \|editor\-first1\=Rachel \|editor\-last2\=Hennessy \|editor\-first2\=Keith \|title\=More Out Than In: Notes on sex, art \& community \|publisher\=Abundant Fuck Publications \|date\=1995 \|isbn\=978\-1881430513}} life,Moore, Frank. *Cherotic Magic Revised*, Inter\-Relations, 2015\. {{ISBN\| 978\-1515240181}}Moore, Frank. *Art Of Living* from *Frankly Speaking; A Collection of Essays, Writings and Rants*, Inter\-Relations, 2014\. Pgs.22\-24 {{ISBN\| 978\-1495443381}}{{cite web\|last1\=Smith\|first1\=Barbara\|title\=''Cherotic Magic'' by Frank Moore\|url\=http://www.eroplay.com/cheroticmagic/cherotic\-magic\-by\-frank\-moore\-review\-by\-barbara\-smith.html\|website\=eroplay.com\|access\-date\=7 July 2017}} and cultural subversion,{{cite web\|last1\=Moore\|first1\=Frank\|title\=Cultural Subversion\|url\=http://www.eroplay.com/cultsub.html\|website\=eroplay.com\|access\-date\=7 July 2017}} and his performance/video archive on Vimeo.com seen by over 32 million people, further influence Moore's legacy. Moore coined the word "eroplay" to describe physical play between adults released from the linear goals of sex and orgasm.{{cite book \|last\=Brown \|first\=Steven \|title\=Movie Stars and Sensuous Scars: Essays on the Journey from Disability Shame to Disability Pride \|publisher\=iUniverse, Inc. \|date\=2003 \|pages\=130–133 \|isbn\=978\-0595288939}} He explored this and similar concepts in performance and ritual as a way for people to connect on a deeper level beyond the social and cultural expectations and limitations.{{cite encyclopedia \|last\=Burch \|first\=S. \|title\=Encyclopedia of American Disability History \|publisher\=Facts on File \|date\=2009 \|isbn\=978\-0816070305}} Frank Moore first came to be known in the 1970s as the creator of the popular [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret "Cabaret") show, the "Outrageous Beauty Revue". In the 1980s Moore attended the [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute "San Francisco Art Institute") where he earned his M.F.A. in Performance/Video in 1983\.{{cite web\|title\=Frank Moore's Resume\|url\=http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/resume.html\|website\=Eroplay.com\|access\-date\=7 July 2017}} At this school Moore discovered that the work that he had been doing for over a decade was called performance art.{{cite web\|last1\=Moore\|first1\=Frank\|title\=Sol Divus (aka Michael Peppe) \- Frank Moore's Shaman's Den\|url\=https://vimeo.com/197309142\|website\=Vimeo\|date\=28 December 2016\|access\-date\=7 July 2017}} (2:24:20\-2:24:50\) In 1992 he was voted Best Performance Artist by the *[San Francisco Bay Guardian](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Guardian "San Francisco Bay Guardian")*. In the early 1990s Moore was targeted by Senator [Jesse Helms](/wiki/Jesse_Helms "Jesse Helms").{{cite news \|last\=Carr \|first\=C. \|title\=The Fiery Furnace: Performance in the '80s, War in the '90s \|publisher\=TDR: The Drama Review, Volume 49, Number 1 (T 185\), Spring 2005\. Pgs. 19\-28}} From 1991 to 1999 Moore published and edited the underground zine {{Proper name\|The Cherotic (r)Evolutionary}}.{{cite news \|last\=Sant \|first\=Toni \|title\=Franklin Furnace and the Spirit of the Avant\-Garde: A History of the Future \|publisher\=Intellect Ltd \|date\=2011 \|page\=105 \|isbn\=978\-1841503714}}{{cite web \|last\=Perkins \|first\=Stephen \|date\=May 9, 2019 \|url\=https://artistsperiodicals.blogspot.com/2019/05/p\_9\.html \|title\=The Cherotic (r)Evolutionary (1991\-1999\) \|website\=artistsperiodicals.blogspot.com}} In addition to his books, *Cherotic Magic*, *Art of a Shaman*, *Chapped Lap*, *Skin Passion* and numerous other self\-published pieces, Moore was widely published in various art and other periodicals. In artist Pamela Kay Walker's book, *Moving Over the Edge,* Moore is one of the artists featured as having "greatly impacted me and many people through their artistic expression and their lives." Moore's award\-winning video works have shown throughout North America, and in 2001 he began producing shows for Berkeley's [public access](/wiki/Public-access_television "Public-access television") channel, Berkeley Community Media, Channel 28\.{{cite news \|last\=Burke \|first\=Stoney \|title\=Weapon: Mouth Adventures in the Free Speech Zone \|publisher\=Regent Press \|date\=2014 \|page\=192 \|isbn\=978\-1587902727}} His shows continue to play several times each week. In 2011, Moore launched his online performance and video retrospective on [Vimeo](/wiki/Vimeo "Vimeo"). At the same time he created the “Nude Performance Art, Dance and Video: EROART” group on Vimeo featuring videos by eroart artists from across the world.{{cite web\|last1\=Moore\|first1\=Frank\|title\= Nude Performance Art, Dance and Video: EROART \|url\=https://vimeo.com/groups/eroart \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928025856/vimeo.com/groups/eroart \|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-28 \|access\-date\=27 March 2021}} Eroart is a word coined by Frank Moore to describe art that embraces nudity, eroticism, sexuality, physical play, love, the body, passion for life, pleasure, and is distinguished from pornography.{{cite web\|last1\=Interns\|first1\=Franklin Furnace 2019\|title\=\[Label This]\|url\= https://issuu.com/labelthis2019/docs/franklin\_furnace\_exhibit\_2019\_\_2\_\|website\=issuu.com\|date\=17 July 2019 \| access\-date\=27 March 2021}} pg.4Moore, Frank. ["Eroart, Not Porn"](http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/Writings/eroart.html) from “Frankly Speaking; A Collection of Essays, Writings and Rants”, Inter\-Relations, 2014\. Pg.81 ISBN 978\-1495443381 The word eroart first appears in an essay by Moore written in 1984, “Eroplay in Life and Art”, then in “Eroart” (1984\), and later in “Eroart Not Porn” (1986\).Moore, Frank. ["Eroplay in Life and Art"](http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/Writings/eroplay-in-life-and-art.html) from “Frankly Speaking; A Collection of Essays, Writings and Rants”, Inter\-Relations, 2014\. Pg.96 ISBN 978\-1495443381{{cite web\|last1\=Moore\|first1\=Frank\|title\=Eroart\|url\=http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/Writings/eroart\_1984\.html\|website\=Frank Moore's Web of All Possibilities\|accessdate\=27 March 2021}} Moore's Vimeo account was terminated by [Vimeo](/wiki/Vimeo "Vimeo") in August 2019\. Starting that same month, all of the videos have been moved to the Frank Moore Archives on the [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive").{{cite web \|title\=Frank Moore Archives\|url\=https://archive.org/details/frank\-moore\-archives\|website\=The Internet Archive \|access\-date\=4 June 2021}} Frank Moore's *Web of All Possibilities* features a growing archive of his audio, video, visual and written work, as well as the work of other artists. He founded Love Underground Visionary Revolution (LUVeR) in 1999, a webstation combining live streaming and on\-demand libraries of audio and video programming, described by Moore as a "non\-corporate, d.i.y., totally uncensored, noncommercial, nonprofit internet\-only communal collective with 24\-hour 'live' programming (by amazing people) with 'no\-limits' content." LUVeR ran until 2012\. In 2006, Moore announced his candidacy for the 2008 election for President of the United States.{{cite news \|url\=https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Wikinews\_interviews\_Frank\_Moore,\_independent\_candidate\_for\_US\_President \|newspaper\=\[\[Wikinews]] \|title\=Wikinews\_interviews\_Frank\_Moore,\_independent\_candidate\_for\_US\_President\|date\=1 March 2008}} He became a qualified [write\-in](/wiki/Write-in "Write-in") candidate in 25 states. His campaign was responsible for reforming the write\-in candidate qualifications and procedures in many states. His platform videos are available on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube"). Moore also hosted his regular internet show, *Frank Moore's Shaman's Den*, from August 1998 until May 2013\. Moore describes it as a show that "will arouse, inspire, move, threaten you, not with sound bites, but with a two\-hour (usually longer) feast of live streaming video. You might get an in\-studio concert of bands from around the world...or poetry reading...or an in\-depth conversation about politics, art, music, and LIFE with extremely dangerous people! But then you may see beautiful women naked dancing erotically. You never know, because you are in *The Shaman's Den* with Frank Moore." Video and audio archives of all of these *Shaman's Den* shows are available online. Frank Moore died of pneumonia on October 14, 2013\.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/iconic\-bay\-area\-performance\-artist\-frank\-moore\-dies\-tribute\-planned\-in\-oakland/Content?oid\=2608053 \|title\=Iconic Bay Area performance artist Frank Moore dies; tribute planned in Oakland \|last\=Echavaria \|first\=Vince \|work\=San Francisco Examiner \|date\=October 21, 2013}} He performed regularly in the San Francisco Bay Area up until his death.
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Moore was born with [cerebral palsy](/wiki/Cerebral_palsy \"Cerebral palsy\"), could not walk or talk, and communicated using a laser\\-pointer and a board of letters, numbers, and commonly used words. Using his pointer, he wrote books, directed plays, directed, acted in and edited films, and regularly gave poetry readings. Moore played piano, sang in ensemble music jams, and led bands in hard core [punk](/wiki/Punk_rock \"Punk rock\") clubs all along the [West Coast of the United States](/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States \"West Coast of the United States\") until his death. He also produced, and exhibited across the United States and Canada, a large collection of original oil and digital paintings.", "Moore was known for his long (5–48 hours) ritualistic performances with audience participation, nudity, and eroticism.{{cite book \\|last\\=Dubin \\|first\\=S. \\|title\\=Arresting Images: Impolitic Art and Uncivil Actions \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|date\\=1994 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/arrestingimages00stev/page/155 155] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0415908931 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/arrestingimages00stev/page/155 }} His writings on performance, art,{{cite book \\|editor\\-last1\\=Kaplan \\|editor\\-first1\\=Rachel \\|editor\\-last2\\=Hennessy \\|editor\\-first2\\=Keith \\|title\\=More Out Than In: Notes on sex, art \\& community \\|publisher\\=Abundant Fuck Publications \\|date\\=1995 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1881430513}} life,Moore, Frank. *Cherotic Magic Revised*, Inter\\-Relations, 2015\\. {{ISBN\\| 978\\-1515240181}}Moore, Frank. *Art Of Living* from *Frankly Speaking; A Collection of Essays, Writings and Rants*, Inter\\-Relations, 2014\\. Pgs.22\\-24 {{ISBN\\| 978\\-1495443381}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Smith\\|first1\\=Barbara\\|title\\=''Cherotic Magic'' by Frank Moore\\|url\\=http://www.eroplay.com/cheroticmagic/cherotic\\-magic\\-by\\-frank\\-moore\\-review\\-by\\-barbara\\-smith.html\\|website\\=eroplay.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2017}} and cultural subversion,{{cite web\\|last1\\=Moore\\|first1\\=Frank\\|title\\=Cultural Subversion\\|url\\=http://www.eroplay.com/cultsub.html\\|website\\=eroplay.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2017}} and his performance/video archive on Vimeo.com seen by over 32 million people, further influence Moore's legacy.", "Moore coined the word \"eroplay\" to describe physical play between adults released from the linear goals of sex and orgasm.{{cite book \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=Steven \\|title\\=Movie Stars and Sensuous Scars: Essays on the Journey from Disability Shame to Disability Pride \\|publisher\\=iUniverse, Inc. \\|date\\=2003 \\|pages\\=130–133 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0595288939}} He explored this and similar concepts in performance and ritual as a way for people to connect on a deeper level beyond the social and cultural expectations and limitations.{{cite encyclopedia \\|last\\=Burch \\|first\\=S. \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of American Disability History \\|publisher\\=Facts on File \\|date\\=2009 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0816070305}}", "Frank Moore first came to be known in the 1970s as the creator of the popular [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret \"Cabaret\") show, the \"Outrageous Beauty Revue\". In the 1980s Moore attended the [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute \"San Francisco Art Institute\") where he earned his M.F.A. in Performance/Video in 1983\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Frank Moore's Resume\\|url\\=http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/resume.html\\|website\\=Eroplay.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2017}} At this school Moore discovered that the work that he had been doing for over a decade was called performance art.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Moore\\|first1\\=Frank\\|title\\=Sol Divus (aka Michael Peppe) \\- Frank Moore's Shaman's Den\\|url\\=https://vimeo.com/197309142\\|website\\=Vimeo\\|date\\=28 December 2016\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2017}} (2:24:20\\-2:24:50\\) In 1992 he was voted Best Performance Artist by the *[San Francisco Bay Guardian](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Guardian \"San Francisco Bay Guardian\")*. In the early 1990s Moore was targeted by Senator [Jesse Helms](/wiki/Jesse_Helms \"Jesse Helms\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Carr \\|first\\=C. \\|title\\=The Fiery Furnace: Performance in the '80s, War in the '90s \\|publisher\\=TDR: The Drama Review, Volume 49, Number 1 (T 185\\), Spring 2005\\. Pgs. 19\\-28}} From 1991 to 1999 Moore published and edited the underground zine {{Proper name\\|The Cherotic (r)Evolutionary}}.{{cite news \\|last\\=Sant \\|first\\=Toni \\|title\\=Franklin Furnace and the Spirit of the Avant\\-Garde: A History of the Future \\|publisher\\=Intellect Ltd \\|date\\=2011 \\|page\\=105 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1841503714}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Perkins \\|first\\=Stephen \\|date\\=May 9, 2019 \\|url\\=https://artistsperiodicals.blogspot.com/2019/05/p\\_9\\.html \\|title\\=The Cherotic (r)Evolutionary (1991\\-1999\\) \\|website\\=artistsperiodicals.blogspot.com}}", "In addition to his books, *Cherotic Magic*, *Art of a Shaman*, *Chapped Lap*, *Skin Passion* and numerous other self\\-published pieces, Moore was widely published in various art and other periodicals. In artist Pamela Kay Walker's book, *Moving Over the Edge,* Moore is one of the artists featured as having \"greatly impacted me and many people through their artistic expression and their lives.\"", "Moore's award\\-winning video works have shown throughout North America, and in 2001 he began producing shows for Berkeley's [public access](/wiki/Public-access_television \"Public-access television\") channel, Berkeley Community Media, Channel 28\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Burke \\|first\\=Stoney \\|title\\=Weapon: Mouth Adventures in the Free Speech Zone \\|publisher\\=Regent Press \\|date\\=2014 \\|page\\=192 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1587902727}} His shows continue to play several times each week.", "In 2011, Moore launched his online performance and video retrospective on [Vimeo](/wiki/Vimeo \"Vimeo\"). At the same time he created the “Nude Performance Art, Dance and Video: EROART” group on Vimeo featuring videos by eroart artists from across the world.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Moore\\|first1\\=Frank\\|title\\= Nude Performance Art, Dance and Video: EROART \\|url\\=https://vimeo.com/groups/eroart \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928025856/vimeo.com/groups/eroart \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2021}} Eroart is a word coined by Frank Moore to describe art that embraces nudity, eroticism, sexuality, physical play, love, the body, passion for life, pleasure, and is distinguished from pornography.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Interns\\|first1\\=Franklin Furnace 2019\\|title\\=\\[Label This]\\|url\\= https://issuu.com/labelthis2019/docs/franklin\\_furnace\\_exhibit\\_2019\\_\\_2\\_\\|website\\=issuu.com\\|date\\=17 July 2019 \\| access\\-date\\=27 March 2021}} pg.4Moore, Frank. [\"Eroart, Not Porn\"](http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/Writings/eroart.html) from “Frankly Speaking; A Collection of Essays, Writings and Rants”, Inter\\-Relations, 2014\\. Pg.81 ISBN 978\\-1495443381 The word eroart first appears in an essay by Moore written in 1984, “Eroplay in Life and Art”, then in “Eroart” (1984\\), and later in “Eroart Not Porn” (1986\\).Moore, Frank. [\"Eroplay in Life and Art\"](http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/Writings/eroplay-in-life-and-art.html) from “Frankly Speaking; A Collection of Essays, Writings and Rants”, Inter\\-Relations, 2014\\. Pg.96 ISBN 978\\-1495443381{{cite web\\|last1\\=Moore\\|first1\\=Frank\\|title\\=Eroart\\|url\\=http://www.eroplay.com/Cave/Writings/eroart\\_1984\\.html\\|website\\=Frank Moore's Web of All Possibilities\\|accessdate\\=27 March 2021}}", "Moore's Vimeo account was terminated by [Vimeo](/wiki/Vimeo \"Vimeo\") in August 2019\\. Starting that same month, all of the videos have been moved to the Frank Moore Archives on the [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive \"Internet Archive\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Frank Moore Archives\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/frank\\-moore\\-archives\\|website\\=The Internet Archive \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2021}}", "Frank Moore's *Web of All Possibilities* features a growing archive of his audio, video, visual and written work, as well as the work of other artists. He founded Love Underground Visionary Revolution (LUVeR) in 1999, a webstation combining live streaming and on\\-demand libraries of audio and video programming, described by Moore as a \"non\\-corporate, d.i.y., totally uncensored, noncommercial, nonprofit internet\\-only communal collective with 24\\-hour 'live' programming (by amazing people) with 'no\\-limits' content.\" LUVeR ran until 2012\\.", "In 2006, Moore announced his candidacy for the 2008 election for President of the United States.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Wikinews\\_interviews\\_Frank\\_Moore,\\_independent\\_candidate\\_for\\_US\\_President \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Wikinews]] \\|title\\=Wikinews\\_interviews\\_Frank\\_Moore,\\_independent\\_candidate\\_for\\_US\\_President\\|date\\=1 March 2008}} He became a qualified [write\\-in](/wiki/Write-in \"Write-in\") candidate in 25 states. His campaign was responsible for reforming the write\\-in candidate qualifications and procedures in many states. His platform videos are available on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\").", "Moore also hosted his regular internet show, *Frank Moore's Shaman's Den*, from August 1998 until May 2013\\. Moore describes it as a show that \"will arouse, inspire, move, threaten you, not with sound bites, but with a two\\-hour (usually longer) feast of live streaming video. You might get an in\\-studio concert of bands from around the world...or poetry reading...or an in\\-depth conversation about politics, art, music, and LIFE with extremely dangerous people! But then you may see beautiful women naked dancing erotically. You never know, because you are in *The Shaman's Den* with Frank Moore.\" Video and audio archives of all of these *Shaman's Den* shows are available online.", "Frank Moore died of pneumonia on October 14, 2013\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/iconic\\-bay\\-area\\-performance\\-artist\\-frank\\-moore\\-dies\\-tribute\\-planned\\-in\\-oakland/Content?oid\\=2608053 \\|title\\=Iconic Bay Area performance artist Frank Moore dies; tribute planned in Oakland \\|last\\=Echavaria \\|first\\=Vince \\|work\\=San Francisco Examiner \\|date\\=October 21, 2013}} He performed regularly in the San Francisco Bay Area up until his death.", "" ]
Range and habitat ----------------- The native range of the honey locust is widely agreed to be from northern Mexico through the [Gulf Coast of the United States](/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States "Gulf Coast of the United States"), northwards into the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States"), parts of the US East Coast, and the southernmost parts of Canada.{{cite web \|last1\=Hassler \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Synonymic Checklist and Distribution of the World Flora. Version 19\.3 \|url\=https://www.worldplants.de \|website\=World Plants \|access\-date\=1 June 2024 \|language\=en \|date\=18 May 2024}} In Canada it is a rare forest species found in southern Ontario near Lake Huron, Ontario, or Erie.{{cite web \|title\=Honey\-Locust \- ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' \|url\=https://arboretum.uoguelph.ca/thingstosee/trees/honeylocust \|website\=The Arboretum \|publisher\=University of Guelph \|access\-date\=1 June 2024}} However, Plants of the World Online (POWO) lists it as introduced to Ontario while NatureServe and World Plants list it as native. It is listed as native to Nova Scotia by World Plants, but as introduced by POWO and not recorded by NatureServe. It is also recorded by NatureServe as growing as an introduced plant on Prince Edward Island. In the midwest it grows in very widely in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Missouri and is much rarer and scattered in Wisconsin and Minnesota, North Dakota. In Kansas it grows naturally in the eastern half of the state, and at the eastern and northern edge of Nebraska along the Missouri River, a small area of South Dakota, and the southern portion of Michigan.{{cite web \|last1\=Little, Jr. \|first1\=Elbert L. \|title\=Digital Representations of Tree Species Range Maps from "Atlas of United States Trees" : ''Gleditsia trianthos'' \|url\=http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/data/little/gledtria.pdf \|website\=Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center \|publisher\=United States Geological Survey \|access\-date\=1 June 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606124808/http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/data/little/gledtria.pdf \|archive\-date\=6 June 2013 \|url\-status\=dead}} In the eastern United States honey locust trees are regarded as native to Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and New York. Though the botanist [Elbert Luther Little](/wiki/Elbert_Luther_Little "Elbert Luther Little") showed the range as extending naturally into Pennsylvania, NatureServe list it as introduced to that state. They likewise list it as introduced to Maine, Vermont, and New Jersey, while both POWO and World Plants list it as native to all of them. In the [American South](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States"), only NatureServe lists it as introduced to Delaware and the District of Columbia, while World Plants lists it as native to both. Plants of the World Online does not list it as growing wild in Washington, D.C. It is listed as growing natively through all the rest of the south, though Elbert Luther Little's range map does not show it growing east of the Appalachian Mountains. Also, in Florida it is only shown as growing in a few isolated areas of the [Florida Panhandle](/wiki/Florida_Panhandle "Florida Panhandle"). To the west it grows throughout eastern Texas and Oklahoma, while becoming scattered and isolated to the west. It is listed as introduced to New Mexico by POWO, but native in Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. Contradicting this, NatureServe list it as native to New Mexico, while introduced in Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. Only World Plants lists it as native to many western states including Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. In Mexico it grows in four states; [Coahuila](/wiki/Coahuila "Coahuila"), [Nuevo León](/wiki/Nuevo_Le%C3%B3n "Nuevo León"), [Sonora](/wiki/Sonora "Sonora"), and [Tamaulipas](/wiki/Tamaulipas "Tamaulipas"). Trees in Mexico are much smaller than those in the center of its range, reaching a maximum size of just {{cvt\|12\|m\|feet\|0}} and less than {{cvt\|6\|m\|feet\|0}} in some populations. They are also found in isolated locations growing on south facing slopes at elevations of {{convert\|1170 to 1400\|m\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite journal \|last1\=Estrada\-Castillón \|first1\=Eduardo \|last2\=Jurado \|first2\=Enrique \|last3\=Jiménez\-Pérez \|first3\=Javier \|title\=New Locality of ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' (Caesalpiniaceae) in Northeastern Mexico and Its Phytogeographic Interest \|journal\=The Southwestern Naturalist \|date\=2002 \|volume\=47 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=602–604 \|doi\=10\.2307/3672664 \|jstor\=3672664 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3672664 \|access\-date\=4 June 2024 \|issn\=0038\-4909}} World wide it has become established outside of cultivation in Europe, southern Asia, Australia, southern Africa, and in Argentina and Uruguay. In its native range the honey locust grows in humid or subhumid climates.{{cite web \|last1\=Davis \|first1\=Costanza \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' \|url\=https://sites.lafayette.edu/campustrees/2016/05/16/gleditsia\-triacanthos/ \|website\=Campus Tree Project \|publisher\=\[\[Lafayette College]] \|access\-date\=1 June 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218223032/https://sites.lafayette.edu/campustrees/2016/05/16/gleditsia\-triacanthos/ \|archive\-date\=18 December 2023 \|location\=Easton, Pennsylvania \|language\=en \|date\=16 May 2016 \|url\-status\=live}} It grows best in soils that are organically rich and moist, but well\-drained. However, it is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions. It is intolerant of shade and is a minor component of forests.
[ "Range and habitat\n-----------------", "The native range of the honey locust is widely agreed to be from northern Mexico through the [Gulf Coast of the United States](/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States \"Gulf Coast of the United States\"), northwards into the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\"), parts of the US East Coast, and the southernmost parts of Canada.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Hassler \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Synonymic Checklist and Distribution of the World Flora. Version 19\\.3 \\|url\\=https://www.worldplants.de \\|website\\=World Plants \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=18 May 2024}} In Canada it is a rare forest species found in southern Ontario near Lake Huron, Ontario, or Erie.{{cite web \\|title\\=Honey\\-Locust \\- ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' \\|url\\=https://arboretum.uoguelph.ca/thingstosee/trees/honeylocust \\|website\\=The Arboretum \\|publisher\\=University of Guelph \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024}} However, Plants of the World Online (POWO) lists it as introduced to Ontario while NatureServe and World Plants list it as native. It is listed as native to Nova Scotia by World Plants, but as introduced by POWO and not recorded by NatureServe. It is also recorded by NatureServe as growing as an introduced plant on Prince Edward Island.", "In the midwest it grows in very widely in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Missouri and is much rarer and scattered in Wisconsin and Minnesota, North Dakota. In Kansas it grows naturally in the eastern half of the state, and at the eastern and northern edge of Nebraska along the Missouri River, a small area of South Dakota, and the southern portion of Michigan.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Little, Jr. \\|first1\\=Elbert L. \\|title\\=Digital Representations of Tree Species Range Maps from \"Atlas of United States Trees\" : ''Gleditsia trianthos'' \\|url\\=http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/data/little/gledtria.pdf \\|website\\=Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center \\|publisher\\=United States Geological Survey \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606124808/http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/data/little/gledtria.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "In the eastern United States honey locust trees are regarded as native to Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and New York. Though the botanist [Elbert Luther Little](/wiki/Elbert_Luther_Little \"Elbert Luther Little\") showed the range as extending naturally into Pennsylvania, NatureServe list it as introduced to that state. They likewise list it as introduced to Maine, Vermont, and New Jersey, while both POWO and World Plants list it as native to all of them.", "In the [American South](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\"), only NatureServe lists it as introduced to Delaware and the District of Columbia, while World Plants lists it as native to both. Plants of the World Online does not list it as growing wild in Washington, D.C. It is listed as growing natively through all the rest of the south, though Elbert Luther Little's range map does not show it growing east of the Appalachian Mountains. Also, in Florida it is only shown as growing in a few isolated areas of the [Florida Panhandle](/wiki/Florida_Panhandle \"Florida Panhandle\").", "To the west it grows throughout eastern Texas and Oklahoma, while becoming scattered and isolated to the west. It is listed as introduced to New Mexico by POWO, but native in Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. Contradicting this, NatureServe list it as native to New Mexico, while introduced in Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. Only World Plants lists it as native to many western states including Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming.", "In Mexico it grows in four states; [Coahuila](/wiki/Coahuila \"Coahuila\"), [Nuevo León](/wiki/Nuevo_Le%C3%B3n \"Nuevo León\"), [Sonora](/wiki/Sonora \"Sonora\"), and [Tamaulipas](/wiki/Tamaulipas \"Tamaulipas\"). Trees in Mexico are much smaller than those in the center of its range, reaching a maximum size of just {{cvt\\|12\\|m\\|feet\\|0}} and less than {{cvt\\|6\\|m\\|feet\\|0}} in some populations. They are also found in isolated locations growing on south facing slopes at elevations of {{convert\\|1170 to 1400\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Estrada\\-Castillón \\|first1\\=Eduardo \\|last2\\=Jurado \\|first2\\=Enrique \\|last3\\=Jiménez\\-Pérez \\|first3\\=Javier \\|title\\=New Locality of ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' (Caesalpiniaceae) in Northeastern Mexico and Its Phytogeographic Interest \\|journal\\=The Southwestern Naturalist \\|date\\=2002 \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=602–604 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3672664 \\|jstor\\=3672664 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3672664 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2024 \\|issn\\=0038\\-4909}}", "World wide it has become established outside of cultivation in Europe, southern Asia, Australia, southern Africa, and in Argentina and Uruguay.", "In its native range the honey locust grows in humid or subhumid climates.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Davis \\|first1\\=Costanza \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' \\|url\\=https://sites.lafayette.edu/campustrees/2016/05/16/gleditsia\\-triacanthos/ \\|website\\=Campus Tree Project \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Lafayette College]] \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218223032/https://sites.lafayette.edu/campustrees/2016/05/16/gleditsia\\-triacanthos/ \\|archive\\-date\\=18 December 2023 \\|location\\=Easton, Pennsylvania \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=16 May 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} It grows best in soils that are organically rich and moist, but well\\-drained. However, it is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions. It is intolerant of shade and is a minor component of forests.", "" ]
Cultivation ----------- Due to the honey locust's tolerance of urban problems such as salt spray, compacted soils, poor aeration, constrained planting areas, and pollution, it has been widely planted in cities.{{cite web \|last1\=Kling \|first1\=Gary J. \|last2\=Lindsey \|first2\=Christopher P. \|last3\=Zampardo \|first3\=Mark E. \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' habit \|url\=https://woodyplants.nres.uiuc.edu/plant/gletr80 \|website\=UI Plants \|publisher\=University of Illinois at UIPLANTS \|access\-date\=1 June 2024}}{{cite web \|last1\=Gilman \|first1\=Edward F. \|last2\=Watson \|first2\=Dennis G. \|title\=ENH438/ST279: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'': Thornless Honeylocust \|url\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST279 \|website\=Ask IFAS \- Powered by EDIS \|publisher\=University of Florida \|access\-date\=1 June 2024 \|date\=2006}} In addition it will adapt to relatively dry conditions and either alkaline or acidic soils. Once established it is also drought tolerant, though it grows best with good moisture. It was very widely planted as a replacement for [American elm](/wiki/American_elm "American elm") trees killed by [Dutch elm disease](/wiki/Dutch_elm_disease "Dutch elm disease"),{{cite web \|last1\=Blair \|first1\=Robert M. \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' L \|url\=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag\_654/volume\_2/gleditsia/triacanthos.htm \|website\=Southern Research Station \|publisher\=\[\[United States Forest Service]], U.S. Department of Agriculture \|access\-date\=24 August 2024}} becoming somewhat overplanted in 1970s. However, due to its wide planting many problems have been discovered. Like maples and oaks, honey locust is particularly vulnerable to [Ganoderma](/wiki/Ganoderma "Ganoderma") root rots, a fungal infection of the roots and lower trunk of the tree.{{cite web \|title\=Ganoderma Root Rots \|url\=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/gardens\-gardening/your\-garden/help\-for\-the\-home\-gardener/advice\-tips\-resources/insects\-pests\-and\-problems/diseases/rot/ganoderma\-root \|website\=Gardening Help \|publisher\=Missouri Botanical Garden \|access\-date\=1 June 2024 \|language\=en}} Three insects are the main pests that attack the honey locusts in urban areas, [honeylocust plant bug](/wiki/Honeylocust_plant_bug "Honeylocust plant bug") (*Blepharidopterus chlorionis*), [mimosa webworm](/wiki/Mimosa_webworm "Mimosa webworm") (*Homadaula anisocentra*), and honeylocust spider mite (*Platytetranychus multidigituli*).{{cite journal \|last1\=Sperry \|first1\=Chad \|last2\=Chaney \|first2\=William \|last3\=Shao \|first3\=Guofan \|last4\=Sadof \|first4\=Clifford \|title\=Effects of Tree Density, Tree Species Diversity, and Percentage of Hardscape on Three Insect Pests of Honeylocust \|journal\=Arboriculture \& Urban Forestry \|date\=1 September 2001 \|volume\=27 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=263–271 \|doi\=10\.48044/jauf.2001\.028 \|url\=https://auf.isa\-arbor.com/content/27/5/263 \|access\-date\=24 August 2024 \|language\=en}} Thornless [cultivars](/wiki/Cultivar "Cultivar") are especially subsceptable to damage by the Asian mimosa webworm. Though healthy trees are able to withstand one or two years of complete defoliation, stressed trees may be killed.{{cite web \|last1\=Knupp \|first1\=Barbara \|last2\=Hoover, Sr. \|first2\=Gregory A. \|last3\=Skvarla \|first3\=Michael \|title\=Mimosa Webworm \|url\=https://extension.psu.edu/mimosa\-webworm \|website\=PennState Extension \|access\-date\=1 June 2024 \|language\=en \|date\=16 March 2023}} The number of honey locust trees within {{convert\|10\|m\|ft\|sp\=us}} increases attacks by the webworms as does the amount of impermeable hardscape surfaces out to {{cvt\|20\|m\|ft}} from a tree. ### Cultivars Almost all cultivated varieties do not have thorns. #### 'Beatrice' A cultivar that has been nearly or wholy unavailable in the plant trade since the 1980s.{{cite book \|last1\=Jacobson \|first1\=Arthur Lee \|title\=North American Landscape Trees \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=Ten Speed Press \|location\=Berkeley, California \|isbn\=978\-0\-89815\-813\-7 \|pages\=228–232 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/northamericanlan0000jaco/page/228 \|access\-date\=23 July 2024 \|language\=en}} It was sourced from a then 50\-year\-old tree in Beatrice, Nebraska by the Inter\-State Nursery of Hamburg, Iowa in 1955\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Santamour \|first1\=Frank \|last2\=McArdle \|first2\=Alice \|title\=Checklist of Cultivars of Honeylocust (Gleditsia Triacanthos L.) \|journal\=Arboriculture \& Urban Forestry \|date\=1 September 1983 \|volume\=9 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=248–252 \|doi\=10\.48044/jauf.1983\.060 \|url\=https://joa.isa\-arbor.com/request.asp?JournalID\=1\&ArticleID\=1909\&Type\=2 \|access\-date\=23 July 2024}} This cultivar is shaped similarly to an [American elm](/wiki/American_elm "American elm") with a wide, spreading top and is also thornless and nearly pod free. #### 'Continental' The 'Continental' cultivar has especially large leaves of a darker blue\-green shade during the summer.{{cite web \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' 'Continental' \- Continental thornless honey locust \|url\=https://dawesarb.arboretumexplorer.org/taxon\-22395\.aspx \|website\=Arboretum Explorer \|publisher\=The Dawes Arboretum \|access\-date\=23 July 2024 \|language\=en}} It is a large and vigorous selection with a narrow crown that is thornless and nearly seedless. It was introduced to plant commerce by Princeton Nursery of New Jersey in 1973 and patented in 1958\. #### 'Elegantissima' Also known as 'Compacta', *[Gleditsia sinensis](/wiki/Gleditsia_sinensis "Gleditsia sinensis")* 'Inermis', *[Gleditsia aquatica](/wiki/Gleditsia_aquatica "Gleditsia aquatica")* 'Elegantissima', 'Globe Honey Locust' and 'Bushy Honey Locust', this cultivar had become very rare by 1996\. It is a bushy tree with smaller leaflets with slow growth, only reaching about {{convert\|4\|m\|ft\|0\|sp\=us}} when 25 years old. It has a narrow vase shaped crown and is thornless. It is propagated on its own roots, from ground budding, and also top grafted. It was raised by the nurseryman Charles Breton of [Orléans](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans "Orléans") in France around 1880\. It has, in some cases, reached large sizes of {{cvt\|12\|m\|ft\|0}} or {{cvt\|9\.75\|m\|ft\|0}}. #### 'Emerald Kascade' This cultivar has a [weeping form](/wiki/Weeping_form "Weeping form"), with branches that cascade downward. Because it does not produce a leader it must be grafted onto a standard, an upright section of trunk, or be staked. It is reported to be both thornless and fruitless. The leaves are dark green in the summer and bright yellow in the autumn. It was introduced to the horticultural trade by the Duncan \& Davies nursery in New Zealand in 1992\. It is hardy to USDA zone 3\.{{cite web \|last1\=Breen \|first1\=Patrick \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Emerald Kascade' \|url\=https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/gleditsia\-triacanthos\-var\-inermis\-emerald\-kascade \|website\=Landscape Plants \|publisher\=Oregon State University \|access\-date\=23 July 2024}} It is alternatively spelled 'Emerald Cascade' by some sources.{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Bryant \|editor1\-first\=Geoff \|editor2\-last\=Rodd \|editor2\-first\=Tony \|title\=Trees and Shrubs : A gardener's Encyclopedia \|date\=2010 \|publisher\=Firefly Books \|location\=Buffalo, New York \|isbn\=978\-1\-55407\-836\-3 \|page\=167 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/treesshrubsgarde0000unse/page/167}} #### 'Imperial' It is a popular cultivar that grows to only about {{convert\|35\|ft\|m\|sp\=us\|order\=flip}} in height. It is of very regular growth habit with branches that emerge at right angles to the trunk and a symmetrical arrangement around it. It is noted for its rounded crown. Due to the lower emergence of main branches it requires significant amounts of pruning to be used as a street tree where clearance above vehicles is required.{{cite web \|last1\=Gilman \|first1\=Edward F. \|last2\=Watson \|first2\=Dennis G. \|title\=ENH439/ST280: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Imperial': 'Imperial' Thornless Honeylocust \|url\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \|website\=Ask IFAS \- Powered by EDIS \|publisher\=University of Florida \|access\-date\=23 August 2024 \|date\=2006}} It is used where a somewhat smaller shade tree is required. #### 'Shademaster' This is a very popular cultivar of the honey locust. Trees have a straight trunk and branches that grow outward and then curve upward to create a symmetrical crown. Very often, without trimming, they will have three or four leaders. At 15 years of age the top of the tree is relatively flat, creating a vase like shape. Compared with 'Skyline' it has a finer branch structure and wider angles where branches attach to the trunk.{{cite journal \|last1\=Haserodt \|first1\=Heidi \|last2\=Sydnor \|first2\=T. Davis \|title\=Growth Habits of Five Cultivars of Gleditsia Triacanthos \|journal\=Arboriculture \& Urban Forestry \|date\=1 July 1983 \|volume\=9 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=186–189 \|doi\=10\.48044/jauf.1983\.046 \|url\=https://auf.isa\-arbor.com/content/9/7/186 \|access\-date\=24 July 2024}} Sources disagree on the maximum height obtained by this cultivar, Perdue lists it as {{cvt\|45\|ft\|m\|0\|order\=flip}} while the University of Florida lists it as {{cvt\|50 to 70\|ft\|m\|0\|order\=flip}}.{{cite web \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' \[sold as Shademaster®] \|url\=https://www.arboretum.purdue.edu/explorer/plants/263/ \|website\=Purdue Arboretum Explorer \|publisher\=Perdue University \|access\-date\=24 July 2024}} Trees will produces a few pods when mature and are thornless with dark green foliage in summer.{{cite web \|title\=Thornless Common Honeylocust \|url\=https://cmg.extension.colostate.edu/volunteer\-information/cmg\-gardennotes\-class\-handouts/thornless\-common\-honeylocust/ \|website\=Colorado Master Gardener \|publisher\=Colorado State University Extension \|access\-date\=24 July 2024 \|language\=en}} #### 'Skyline' This is a very common cultivar that has a more pyramidal or slightly squared shape to its canopy. Full grown trees may reach a height of {{convert\|50\|ft\|m\|sp\=us\|order\=flip}} or more. Of five standard cultivars including 'Imperial, 'Moraine', 'Shademaster', and 'Sunburst' it showed the greatest height after 15 years of growth. Trees tend to have one or two larger leaders and evenly spaced branches with somewhat narrower crotch angles. Trees can be trimmed to develop one strong central leader with little pruning, because of this lower branches can be removed without distoring the even shape of the crown. This habits make it appropriate as a street tree where lower branches must be removed.{{cite web \|last1\=Gilman \|first1\=Edward F. \|last2\=Watson \|first2\=Dennis G. \|title\=ENH441/ST282: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Skyline': 'Skyline' Thornless Honeylocust \|url\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \|website\=Ask IFAS \- Powered by EDIS \|publisher\=University of Florida \|access\-date\=23 August 2024 \|date\=2006}} The leaflets have a redish to bronze tone when emerging and a dark green and leathery appearance for most of the season. It was introduced by the Cole Nursery in Painesville, Ohio in 1957\.
[ "Cultivation\n-----------", "Due to the honey locust's tolerance of urban problems such as salt spray, compacted soils, poor aeration, constrained planting areas, and pollution, it has been widely planted in cities.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Kling \\|first1\\=Gary J. \\|last2\\=Lindsey \\|first2\\=Christopher P. \\|last3\\=Zampardo \\|first3\\=Mark E. \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' habit \\|url\\=https://woodyplants.nres.uiuc.edu/plant/gletr80 \\|website\\=UI Plants \\|publisher\\=University of Illinois at UIPLANTS \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gilman \\|first1\\=Edward F. \\|last2\\=Watson \\|first2\\=Dennis G. \\|title\\=ENH438/ST279: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'': Thornless Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST279 \\|website\\=Ask IFAS \\- Powered by EDIS \\|publisher\\=University of Florida \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024 \\|date\\=2006}} In addition it will adapt to relatively dry conditions and either alkaline or acidic soils. Once established it is also drought tolerant, though it grows best with good moisture. It was very widely planted as a replacement for [American elm](/wiki/American_elm \"American elm\") trees killed by [Dutch elm disease](/wiki/Dutch_elm_disease \"Dutch elm disease\"),{{cite web \\|last1\\=Blair \\|first1\\=Robert M. \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' L \\|url\\=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag\\_654/volume\\_2/gleditsia/triacanthos.htm \\|website\\=Southern Research Station \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Forest Service]], U.S. Department of Agriculture \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2024}} becoming somewhat overplanted in 1970s.", "However, due to its wide planting many problems have been discovered. Like maples and oaks, honey locust is particularly vulnerable to [Ganoderma](/wiki/Ganoderma \"Ganoderma\") root rots, a fungal infection of the roots and lower trunk of the tree.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ganoderma Root Rots \\|url\\=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/gardens\\-gardening/your\\-garden/help\\-for\\-the\\-home\\-gardener/advice\\-tips\\-resources/insects\\-pests\\-and\\-problems/diseases/rot/ganoderma\\-root \\|website\\=Gardening Help \\|publisher\\=Missouri Botanical Garden \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024 \\|language\\=en}} Three insects are the main pests that attack the honey locusts in urban areas, [honeylocust plant bug](/wiki/Honeylocust_plant_bug \"Honeylocust plant bug\") (*Blepharidopterus chlorionis*), [mimosa webworm](/wiki/Mimosa_webworm \"Mimosa webworm\") (*Homadaula anisocentra*), and honeylocust spider mite (*Platytetranychus multidigituli*).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Sperry \\|first1\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Chaney \\|first2\\=William \\|last3\\=Shao \\|first3\\=Guofan \\|last4\\=Sadof \\|first4\\=Clifford \\|title\\=Effects of Tree Density, Tree Species Diversity, and Percentage of Hardscape on Three Insect Pests of Honeylocust \\|journal\\=Arboriculture \\& Urban Forestry \\|date\\=1 September 2001 \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=263–271 \\|doi\\=10\\.48044/jauf.2001\\.028 \\|url\\=https://auf.isa\\-arbor.com/content/27/5/263 \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2024 \\|language\\=en}} Thornless [cultivars](/wiki/Cultivar \"Cultivar\") are especially subsceptable to damage by the Asian mimosa webworm. Though healthy trees are able to withstand one or two years of complete defoliation, stressed trees may be killed.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Knupp \\|first1\\=Barbara \\|last2\\=Hoover, Sr. \\|first2\\=Gregory A. \\|last3\\=Skvarla \\|first3\\=Michael \\|title\\=Mimosa Webworm \\|url\\=https://extension.psu.edu/mimosa\\-webworm \\|website\\=PennState Extension \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=16 March 2023}} The number of honey locust trees within {{convert\\|10\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us}} increases attacks by the webworms as does the amount of impermeable hardscape surfaces out to {{cvt\\|20\\|m\\|ft}} from a tree.", "### Cultivars", "Almost all cultivated varieties do not have thorns.", "#### 'Beatrice'", "A cultivar that has been nearly or wholy unavailable in the plant trade since the 1980s.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jacobson \\|first1\\=Arthur Lee \\|title\\=North American Landscape Trees \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Ten Speed Press \\|location\\=Berkeley, California \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89815\\-813\\-7 \\|pages\\=228–232 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/northamericanlan0000jaco/page/228 \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024 \\|language\\=en}} It was sourced from a then 50\\-year\\-old tree in Beatrice, Nebraska by the Inter\\-State Nursery of Hamburg, Iowa in 1955\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Santamour \\|first1\\=Frank \\|last2\\=McArdle \\|first2\\=Alice \\|title\\=Checklist of Cultivars of Honeylocust (Gleditsia Triacanthos L.) \\|journal\\=Arboriculture \\& Urban Forestry \\|date\\=1 September 1983 \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=248–252 \\|doi\\=10\\.48044/jauf.1983\\.060 \\|url\\=https://joa.isa\\-arbor.com/request.asp?JournalID\\=1\\&ArticleID\\=1909\\&Type\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024}} This cultivar is shaped similarly to an [American elm](/wiki/American_elm \"American elm\") with a wide, spreading top and is also thornless and nearly pod free.", "#### 'Continental'", "The 'Continental' cultivar has especially large leaves of a darker blue\\-green shade during the summer.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' 'Continental' \\- Continental thornless honey locust \\|url\\=https://dawesarb.arboretumexplorer.org/taxon\\-22395\\.aspx \\|website\\=Arboretum Explorer \\|publisher\\=The Dawes Arboretum \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024 \\|language\\=en}} It is a large and vigorous selection with a narrow crown that is thornless and nearly seedless. It was introduced to plant commerce by Princeton Nursery of New Jersey in 1973 and patented in 1958\\.", "#### 'Elegantissima'", "Also known as 'Compacta', *[Gleditsia sinensis](/wiki/Gleditsia_sinensis \"Gleditsia sinensis\")* 'Inermis', *[Gleditsia aquatica](/wiki/Gleditsia_aquatica \"Gleditsia aquatica\")* 'Elegantissima', 'Globe Honey Locust' and 'Bushy Honey Locust', this cultivar had become very rare by 1996\\. It is a bushy tree with smaller leaflets with slow growth, only reaching about {{convert\\|4\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|sp\\=us}} when 25 years old. It has a narrow vase shaped crown and is thornless. It is propagated on its own roots, from ground budding, and also top grafted. It was raised by the nurseryman Charles Breton of [Orléans](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans \"Orléans\") in France around 1880\\. It has, in some cases, reached large sizes of {{cvt\\|12\\|m\\|ft\\|0}} or {{cvt\\|9\\.75\\|m\\|ft\\|0}}.", "#### 'Emerald Kascade'", "This cultivar has a [weeping form](/wiki/Weeping_form \"Weeping form\"), with branches that cascade downward. Because it does not produce a leader it must be grafted onto a standard, an upright section of trunk, or be staked. It is reported to be both thornless and fruitless. The leaves are dark green in the summer and bright yellow in the autumn. It was introduced to the horticultural trade by the Duncan \\& Davies nursery in New Zealand in 1992\\. It is hardy to USDA zone 3\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Breen \\|first1\\=Patrick \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Emerald Kascade' \\|url\\=https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/gleditsia\\-triacanthos\\-var\\-inermis\\-emerald\\-kascade \\|website\\=Landscape Plants \\|publisher\\=Oregon State University \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024}} It is alternatively spelled 'Emerald Cascade' by some sources.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Bryant \\|editor1\\-first\\=Geoff \\|editor2\\-last\\=Rodd \\|editor2\\-first\\=Tony \\|title\\=Trees and Shrubs : A gardener's Encyclopedia \\|date\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Firefly Books \\|location\\=Buffalo, New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55407\\-836\\-3 \\|page\\=167 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/treesshrubsgarde0000unse/page/167}}", "#### 'Imperial'", "It is a popular cultivar that grows to only about {{convert\\|35\\|ft\\|m\\|sp\\=us\\|order\\=flip}} in height. It is of very regular growth habit with branches that emerge at right angles to the trunk and a symmetrical arrangement around it. It is noted for its rounded crown. Due to the lower emergence of main branches it requires significant amounts of pruning to be used as a street tree where clearance above vehicles is required.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gilman \\|first1\\=Edward F. \\|last2\\=Watson \\|first2\\=Dennis G. \\|title\\=ENH439/ST280: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Imperial': 'Imperial' Thornless Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \\|website\\=Ask IFAS \\- Powered by EDIS \\|publisher\\=University of Florida \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2024 \\|date\\=2006}} It is used where a somewhat smaller shade tree is required.", "#### 'Shademaster'", "This is a very popular cultivar of the honey locust. Trees have a straight trunk and branches that grow outward and then curve upward to create a symmetrical crown. Very often, without trimming, they will have three or four leaders. At 15 years of age the top of the tree is relatively flat, creating a vase like shape. Compared with 'Skyline' it has a finer branch structure and wider angles where branches attach to the trunk.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Haserodt \\|first1\\=Heidi \\|last2\\=Sydnor \\|first2\\=T. Davis \\|title\\=Growth Habits of Five Cultivars of Gleditsia Triacanthos \\|journal\\=Arboriculture \\& Urban Forestry \\|date\\=1 July 1983 \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=186–189 \\|doi\\=10\\.48044/jauf.1983\\.046 \\|url\\=https://auf.isa\\-arbor.com/content/9/7/186 \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2024}} Sources disagree on the maximum height obtained by this cultivar, Perdue lists it as {{cvt\\|45\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|order\\=flip}} while the University of Florida lists it as {{cvt\\|50 to 70\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|order\\=flip}}.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' \\[sold as Shademaster®] \\|url\\=https://www.arboretum.purdue.edu/explorer/plants/263/ \\|website\\=Purdue Arboretum Explorer \\|publisher\\=Perdue University \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2024}} Trees will produces a few pods when mature and are thornless with dark green foliage in summer.{{cite web \\|title\\=Thornless Common Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://cmg.extension.colostate.edu/volunteer\\-information/cmg\\-gardennotes\\-class\\-handouts/thornless\\-common\\-honeylocust/ \\|website\\=Colorado Master Gardener \\|publisher\\=Colorado State University Extension \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2024 \\|language\\=en}}", "#### 'Skyline'", "This is a very common cultivar that has a more pyramidal or slightly squared shape to its canopy. Full grown trees may reach a height of {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m\\|sp\\=us\\|order\\=flip}} or more. Of five standard cultivars including 'Imperial, 'Moraine', 'Shademaster', and 'Sunburst' it showed the greatest height after 15 years of growth. Trees tend to have one or two larger leaders and evenly spaced branches with somewhat narrower crotch angles. Trees can be trimmed to develop one strong central leader with little pruning, because of this lower branches can be removed without distoring the even shape of the crown. This habits make it appropriate as a street tree where lower branches must be removed.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gilman \\|first1\\=Edward F. \\|last2\\=Watson \\|first2\\=Dennis G. \\|title\\=ENH441/ST282: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Skyline': 'Skyline' Thornless Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \\|website\\=Ask IFAS \\- Powered by EDIS \\|publisher\\=University of Florida \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2024 \\|date\\=2006}} The leaflets have a redish to bronze tone when emerging and a dark green and leathery appearance for most of the season. It was introduced by the Cole Nursery in Painesville, Ohio in 1957\\.", "" ]
### Cultivars Almost all cultivated varieties do not have thorns. #### 'Beatrice' A cultivar that has been nearly or wholy unavailable in the plant trade since the 1980s.{{cite book \|last1\=Jacobson \|first1\=Arthur Lee \|title\=North American Landscape Trees \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=Ten Speed Press \|location\=Berkeley, California \|isbn\=978\-0\-89815\-813\-7 \|pages\=228–232 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/northamericanlan0000jaco/page/228 \|access\-date\=23 July 2024 \|language\=en}} It was sourced from a then 50\-year\-old tree in Beatrice, Nebraska by the Inter\-State Nursery of Hamburg, Iowa in 1955\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Santamour \|first1\=Frank \|last2\=McArdle \|first2\=Alice \|title\=Checklist of Cultivars of Honeylocust (Gleditsia Triacanthos L.) \|journal\=Arboriculture \& Urban Forestry \|date\=1 September 1983 \|volume\=9 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=248–252 \|doi\=10\.48044/jauf.1983\.060 \|url\=https://joa.isa\-arbor.com/request.asp?JournalID\=1\&ArticleID\=1909\&Type\=2 \|access\-date\=23 July 2024}} This cultivar is shaped similarly to an [American elm](/wiki/American_elm "American elm") with a wide, spreading top and is also thornless and nearly pod free. #### 'Continental' The 'Continental' cultivar has especially large leaves of a darker blue\-green shade during the summer.{{cite web \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' 'Continental' \- Continental thornless honey locust \|url\=https://dawesarb.arboretumexplorer.org/taxon\-22395\.aspx \|website\=Arboretum Explorer \|publisher\=The Dawes Arboretum \|access\-date\=23 July 2024 \|language\=en}} It is a large and vigorous selection with a narrow crown that is thornless and nearly seedless. It was introduced to plant commerce by Princeton Nursery of New Jersey in 1973 and patented in 1958\. #### 'Elegantissima' Also known as 'Compacta', *[Gleditsia sinensis](/wiki/Gleditsia_sinensis "Gleditsia sinensis")* 'Inermis', *[Gleditsia aquatica](/wiki/Gleditsia_aquatica "Gleditsia aquatica")* 'Elegantissima', 'Globe Honey Locust' and 'Bushy Honey Locust', this cultivar had become very rare by 1996\. It is a bushy tree with smaller leaflets with slow growth, only reaching about {{convert\|4\|m\|ft\|0\|sp\=us}} when 25 years old. It has a narrow vase shaped crown and is thornless. It is propagated on its own roots, from ground budding, and also top grafted. It was raised by the nurseryman Charles Breton of [Orléans](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans "Orléans") in France around 1880\. It has, in some cases, reached large sizes of {{cvt\|12\|m\|ft\|0}} or {{cvt\|9\.75\|m\|ft\|0}}. #### 'Emerald Kascade' This cultivar has a [weeping form](/wiki/Weeping_form "Weeping form"), with branches that cascade downward. Because it does not produce a leader it must be grafted onto a standard, an upright section of trunk, or be staked. It is reported to be both thornless and fruitless. The leaves are dark green in the summer and bright yellow in the autumn. It was introduced to the horticultural trade by the Duncan \& Davies nursery in New Zealand in 1992\. It is hardy to USDA zone 3\.{{cite web \|last1\=Breen \|first1\=Patrick \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Emerald Kascade' \|url\=https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/gleditsia\-triacanthos\-var\-inermis\-emerald\-kascade \|website\=Landscape Plants \|publisher\=Oregon State University \|access\-date\=23 July 2024}} It is alternatively spelled 'Emerald Cascade' by some sources.{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Bryant \|editor1\-first\=Geoff \|editor2\-last\=Rodd \|editor2\-first\=Tony \|title\=Trees and Shrubs : A gardener's Encyclopedia \|date\=2010 \|publisher\=Firefly Books \|location\=Buffalo, New York \|isbn\=978\-1\-55407\-836\-3 \|page\=167 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/treesshrubsgarde0000unse/page/167}} #### 'Imperial' It is a popular cultivar that grows to only about {{convert\|35\|ft\|m\|sp\=us\|order\=flip}} in height. It is of very regular growth habit with branches that emerge at right angles to the trunk and a symmetrical arrangement around it. It is noted for its rounded crown. Due to the lower emergence of main branches it requires significant amounts of pruning to be used as a street tree where clearance above vehicles is required.{{cite web \|last1\=Gilman \|first1\=Edward F. \|last2\=Watson \|first2\=Dennis G. \|title\=ENH439/ST280: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Imperial': 'Imperial' Thornless Honeylocust \|url\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \|website\=Ask IFAS \- Powered by EDIS \|publisher\=University of Florida \|access\-date\=23 August 2024 \|date\=2006}} It is used where a somewhat smaller shade tree is required. #### 'Shademaster' This is a very popular cultivar of the honey locust. Trees have a straight trunk and branches that grow outward and then curve upward to create a symmetrical crown. Very often, without trimming, they will have three or four leaders. At 15 years of age the top of the tree is relatively flat, creating a vase like shape. Compared with 'Skyline' it has a finer branch structure and wider angles where branches attach to the trunk.{{cite journal \|last1\=Haserodt \|first1\=Heidi \|last2\=Sydnor \|first2\=T. Davis \|title\=Growth Habits of Five Cultivars of Gleditsia Triacanthos \|journal\=Arboriculture \& Urban Forestry \|date\=1 July 1983 \|volume\=9 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=186–189 \|doi\=10\.48044/jauf.1983\.046 \|url\=https://auf.isa\-arbor.com/content/9/7/186 \|access\-date\=24 July 2024}} Sources disagree on the maximum height obtained by this cultivar, Perdue lists it as {{cvt\|45\|ft\|m\|0\|order\=flip}} while the University of Florida lists it as {{cvt\|50 to 70\|ft\|m\|0\|order\=flip}}.{{cite web \|title\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' \[sold as Shademaster®] \|url\=https://www.arboretum.purdue.edu/explorer/plants/263/ \|website\=Purdue Arboretum Explorer \|publisher\=Perdue University \|access\-date\=24 July 2024}} Trees will produces a few pods when mature and are thornless with dark green foliage in summer.{{cite web \|title\=Thornless Common Honeylocust \|url\=https://cmg.extension.colostate.edu/volunteer\-information/cmg\-gardennotes\-class\-handouts/thornless\-common\-honeylocust/ \|website\=Colorado Master Gardener \|publisher\=Colorado State University Extension \|access\-date\=24 July 2024 \|language\=en}} #### 'Skyline' This is a very common cultivar that has a more pyramidal or slightly squared shape to its canopy. Full grown trees may reach a height of {{convert\|50\|ft\|m\|sp\=us\|order\=flip}} or more. Of five standard cultivars including 'Imperial, 'Moraine', 'Shademaster', and 'Sunburst' it showed the greatest height after 15 years of growth. Trees tend to have one or two larger leaders and evenly spaced branches with somewhat narrower crotch angles. Trees can be trimmed to develop one strong central leader with little pruning, because of this lower branches can be removed without distoring the even shape of the crown. This habits make it appropriate as a street tree where lower branches must be removed.{{cite web \|last1\=Gilman \|first1\=Edward F. \|last2\=Watson \|first2\=Dennis G. \|title\=ENH441/ST282: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Skyline': 'Skyline' Thornless Honeylocust \|url\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \|website\=Ask IFAS \- Powered by EDIS \|publisher\=University of Florida \|access\-date\=23 August 2024 \|date\=2006}} The leaflets have a redish to bronze tone when emerging and a dark green and leathery appearance for most of the season. It was introduced by the Cole Nursery in Painesville, Ohio in 1957\.
[ "### Cultivars", "Almost all cultivated varieties do not have thorns.", "#### 'Beatrice'", "A cultivar that has been nearly or wholy unavailable in the plant trade since the 1980s.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jacobson \\|first1\\=Arthur Lee \\|title\\=North American Landscape Trees \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Ten Speed Press \\|location\\=Berkeley, California \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89815\\-813\\-7 \\|pages\\=228–232 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/northamericanlan0000jaco/page/228 \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024 \\|language\\=en}} It was sourced from a then 50\\-year\\-old tree in Beatrice, Nebraska by the Inter\\-State Nursery of Hamburg, Iowa in 1955\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Santamour \\|first1\\=Frank \\|last2\\=McArdle \\|first2\\=Alice \\|title\\=Checklist of Cultivars of Honeylocust (Gleditsia Triacanthos L.) \\|journal\\=Arboriculture \\& Urban Forestry \\|date\\=1 September 1983 \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=248–252 \\|doi\\=10\\.48044/jauf.1983\\.060 \\|url\\=https://joa.isa\\-arbor.com/request.asp?JournalID\\=1\\&ArticleID\\=1909\\&Type\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024}} This cultivar is shaped similarly to an [American elm](/wiki/American_elm \"American elm\") with a wide, spreading top and is also thornless and nearly pod free.", "#### 'Continental'", "The 'Continental' cultivar has especially large leaves of a darker blue\\-green shade during the summer.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' 'Continental' \\- Continental thornless honey locust \\|url\\=https://dawesarb.arboretumexplorer.org/taxon\\-22395\\.aspx \\|website\\=Arboretum Explorer \\|publisher\\=The Dawes Arboretum \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024 \\|language\\=en}} It is a large and vigorous selection with a narrow crown that is thornless and nearly seedless. It was introduced to plant commerce by Princeton Nursery of New Jersey in 1973 and patented in 1958\\.", "#### 'Elegantissima'", "Also known as 'Compacta', *[Gleditsia sinensis](/wiki/Gleditsia_sinensis \"Gleditsia sinensis\")* 'Inermis', *[Gleditsia aquatica](/wiki/Gleditsia_aquatica \"Gleditsia aquatica\")* 'Elegantissima', 'Globe Honey Locust' and 'Bushy Honey Locust', this cultivar had become very rare by 1996\\. It is a bushy tree with smaller leaflets with slow growth, only reaching about {{convert\\|4\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|sp\\=us}} when 25 years old. It has a narrow vase shaped crown and is thornless. It is propagated on its own roots, from ground budding, and also top grafted. It was raised by the nurseryman Charles Breton of [Orléans](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans \"Orléans\") in France around 1880\\. It has, in some cases, reached large sizes of {{cvt\\|12\\|m\\|ft\\|0}} or {{cvt\\|9\\.75\\|m\\|ft\\|0}}.", "#### 'Emerald Kascade'", "This cultivar has a [weeping form](/wiki/Weeping_form \"Weeping form\"), with branches that cascade downward. Because it does not produce a leader it must be grafted onto a standard, an upright section of trunk, or be staked. It is reported to be both thornless and fruitless. The leaves are dark green in the summer and bright yellow in the autumn. It was introduced to the horticultural trade by the Duncan \\& Davies nursery in New Zealand in 1992\\. It is hardy to USDA zone 3\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Breen \\|first1\\=Patrick \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Emerald Kascade' \\|url\\=https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/gleditsia\\-triacanthos\\-var\\-inermis\\-emerald\\-kascade \\|website\\=Landscape Plants \\|publisher\\=Oregon State University \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2024}} It is alternatively spelled 'Emerald Cascade' by some sources.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Bryant \\|editor1\\-first\\=Geoff \\|editor2\\-last\\=Rodd \\|editor2\\-first\\=Tony \\|title\\=Trees and Shrubs : A gardener's Encyclopedia \\|date\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Firefly Books \\|location\\=Buffalo, New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55407\\-836\\-3 \\|page\\=167 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/treesshrubsgarde0000unse/page/167}}", "#### 'Imperial'", "It is a popular cultivar that grows to only about {{convert\\|35\\|ft\\|m\\|sp\\=us\\|order\\=flip}} in height. It is of very regular growth habit with branches that emerge at right angles to the trunk and a symmetrical arrangement around it. It is noted for its rounded crown. Due to the lower emergence of main branches it requires significant amounts of pruning to be used as a street tree where clearance above vehicles is required.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gilman \\|first1\\=Edward F. \\|last2\\=Watson \\|first2\\=Dennis G. \\|title\\=ENH439/ST280: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Imperial': 'Imperial' Thornless Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \\|website\\=Ask IFAS \\- Powered by EDIS \\|publisher\\=University of Florida \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2024 \\|date\\=2006}} It is used where a somewhat smaller shade tree is required.", "#### 'Shademaster'", "This is a very popular cultivar of the honey locust. Trees have a straight trunk and branches that grow outward and then curve upward to create a symmetrical crown. Very often, without trimming, they will have three or four leaders. At 15 years of age the top of the tree is relatively flat, creating a vase like shape. Compared with 'Skyline' it has a finer branch structure and wider angles where branches attach to the trunk.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Haserodt \\|first1\\=Heidi \\|last2\\=Sydnor \\|first2\\=T. Davis \\|title\\=Growth Habits of Five Cultivars of Gleditsia Triacanthos \\|journal\\=Arboriculture \\& Urban Forestry \\|date\\=1 July 1983 \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=186–189 \\|doi\\=10\\.48044/jauf.1983\\.046 \\|url\\=https://auf.isa\\-arbor.com/content/9/7/186 \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2024}} Sources disagree on the maximum height obtained by this cultivar, Perdue lists it as {{cvt\\|45\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|order\\=flip}} while the University of Florida lists it as {{cvt\\|50 to 70\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|order\\=flip}}.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' f. ''inermis'' \\[sold as Shademaster®] \\|url\\=https://www.arboretum.purdue.edu/explorer/plants/263/ \\|website\\=Purdue Arboretum Explorer \\|publisher\\=Perdue University \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2024}} Trees will produces a few pods when mature and are thornless with dark green foliage in summer.{{cite web \\|title\\=Thornless Common Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://cmg.extension.colostate.edu/volunteer\\-information/cmg\\-gardennotes\\-class\\-handouts/thornless\\-common\\-honeylocust/ \\|website\\=Colorado Master Gardener \\|publisher\\=Colorado State University Extension \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2024 \\|language\\=en}}", "#### 'Skyline'", "This is a very common cultivar that has a more pyramidal or slightly squared shape to its canopy. Full grown trees may reach a height of {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m\\|sp\\=us\\|order\\=flip}} or more. Of five standard cultivars including 'Imperial, 'Moraine', 'Shademaster', and 'Sunburst' it showed the greatest height after 15 years of growth. Trees tend to have one or two larger leaders and evenly spaced branches with somewhat narrower crotch angles. Trees can be trimmed to develop one strong central leader with little pruning, because of this lower branches can be removed without distoring the even shape of the crown. This habits make it appropriate as a street tree where lower branches must be removed.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gilman \\|first1\\=Edward F. \\|last2\\=Watson \\|first2\\=Dennis G. \\|title\\=ENH441/ST282: ''Gleditsia triacanthos'' var. ''inermis'' 'Skyline': 'Skyline' Thornless Honeylocust \\|url\\=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST280 \\|website\\=Ask IFAS \\- Powered by EDIS \\|publisher\\=University of Florida \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2024 \\|date\\=2006}} The leaflets have a redish to bronze tone when emerging and a dark green and leathery appearance for most of the season. It was introduced by the Cole Nursery in Painesville, Ohio in 1957\\.", "" ]
Golf career ----------- Hodson played in the 1926 Welsh Professional Championship at Harlech where he finished fifth. [Bert Weastell](/wiki/Bert_Weastell "Bert Weastell") won the championship by 12 strokes.{{cite news \|title\=The Welsh Professional Championship \|newspaper\=The Times \|page\=8 \|date\=9 July 1926}} In 1927 at Tenby he was a shot behind Ernest Kenyon at the end of the first day but won with a score of 290\.{{cite news \|title\=The Welsh Championship \|newspaper\=The Times \|page\=6 \|date\=30 June 1927}}{{cite news \|title\=The Welsh Championship \|newspaper\=The Times \|page\=7 \|date\=1 July 1927}} He won the Welsh Professional Championship a second time in 1929\. ### 1927 Open Championship The [1927 Open Championship](/wiki/1927_Open_Championship "1927 Open Championship") was the 62nd Open Championship, held 13–15 July at the [Old Course at St Andrews](/wiki/Old_Course_at_St_Andrews "Old Course at St Andrews") in [St Andrews, Scotland](/wiki/St_Andrews "St Andrews"). Amateur [Bobby Jones](/wiki/Bobby_Jones_%28golfer%29 "Bobby Jones (golfer)") successfully defended the title with a dominating six stroke victory, the second of his three victories at the Open Championship. Hodson finished T7 and carded rounds of 72\-70\-81\-74\=297 and won £10\. In September 1927 Hodson was one of twelve young professionals invited by [Samuel Ryder](/wiki/Samuel_Ryder "Samuel Ryder") to play in a tournament at Verulam, St Albans. He finished joint\-winner with [Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28golfer%29 "Jack Smith (golfer)").{{cite news \|title\=Young Professionals' Tournament – Good round by J. Smith \|newspaper\=The Times \|page\=6 \|date\=29 September 1927}} Hodson was also involved in a "Seniors" v "Juniors" match organised by Ryder at Verulam in April 1928\. He played for the juniors, losing his match against [Harry Vardon](/wiki/Harry_Vardon "Harry Vardon") 4 and 3\.{{cite news \|title\=Golf – Seniors professionals' victory \|newspaper\=The Times \|page\=5 \|date\=5 April 1928}} Hodson moved from Newport Golf Club to Chigwell, Essex, starting his new position on 1 August 1929\.{{cite news \|title\=B Hodson \|newspaper\=The Times \|page\=6 \|date\=22 July 1929}} Hodson remained at Chigwell until 1950 when he was replaced by [Eddie Whitcombe](/wiki/Eddie_Whitcombe "Eddie Whitcombe"). ### 1934 Open Championship Hodson finished T7 in the [1934 Open Championship](/wiki/1934_Open_Championship "1934 Open Championship") held 27–29 June at [Royal St George's Golf Club](/wiki/Royal_St_George%27s_Golf_Club "Royal St George's Golf Club") in [Sandwich, England](/wiki/Sandwich%2C_Kent "Sandwich, Kent"). The English linksman [Henry Cotton](/wiki/Henry_Cotton_%28golfer%29 "Henry Cotton (golfer)") dominated the championship, leading wire\-to\-wire on his way to a five stroke win and his first of three Open titles. Hodson fired rounds of 71\-74\-74\-76\=295 and won £17 10s. ### Ryder Cup Hodson was a member of the [1931](/wiki/1931_Ryder_Cup "1931 Ryder Cup") Great Britain [Ryder Cup](/wiki/Ryder_Cup "Ryder Cup") team.
[ "Golf career\n-----------", "Hodson played in the 1926 Welsh Professional Championship at Harlech where he finished fifth. [Bert Weastell](/wiki/Bert_Weastell \"Bert Weastell\") won the championship by 12 strokes.{{cite news \\|title\\=The Welsh Professional Championship \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|page\\=8 \\|date\\=9 July 1926}} In 1927 at Tenby he was a shot behind Ernest Kenyon at the end of the first day but won with a score of 290\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=The Welsh Championship \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|page\\=6 \\|date\\=30 June 1927}}{{cite news \\|title\\=The Welsh Championship \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|page\\=7 \\|date\\=1 July 1927}} He won the Welsh Professional Championship a second time in 1929\\.", "### 1927 Open Championship", "The [1927 Open Championship](/wiki/1927_Open_Championship \"1927 Open Championship\") was the 62nd Open Championship, held 13–15 July at the [Old Course at St Andrews](/wiki/Old_Course_at_St_Andrews \"Old Course at St Andrews\") in [St Andrews, Scotland](/wiki/St_Andrews \"St Andrews\"). Amateur [Bobby Jones](/wiki/Bobby_Jones_%28golfer%29 \"Bobby Jones (golfer)\") successfully defended the title with a dominating six stroke victory, the second of his three victories at the Open Championship. Hodson finished T7 and carded rounds of 72\\-70\\-81\\-74\\=297 and won £10\\.", "In September 1927 Hodson was one of twelve young professionals invited by [Samuel Ryder](/wiki/Samuel_Ryder \"Samuel Ryder\") to play in a tournament at Verulam, St Albans. He finished joint\\-winner with [Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28golfer%29 \"Jack Smith (golfer)\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Young Professionals' Tournament – Good round by J. Smith \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|page\\=6 \\|date\\=29 September 1927}} Hodson was also involved in a \"Seniors\" v \"Juniors\" match organised by Ryder at Verulam in April 1928\\. He played for the juniors, losing his match against [Harry Vardon](/wiki/Harry_Vardon \"Harry Vardon\") 4 and 3\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Golf – Seniors professionals' victory \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|page\\=5 \\|date\\=5 April 1928}}", "Hodson moved from Newport Golf Club to Chigwell, Essex, starting his new position on 1 August 1929\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=B Hodson \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|page\\=6 \\|date\\=22 July 1929}} Hodson remained at Chigwell until 1950 when he was replaced by [Eddie Whitcombe](/wiki/Eddie_Whitcombe \"Eddie Whitcombe\").", "### 1934 Open Championship", "Hodson finished T7 in the [1934 Open Championship](/wiki/1934_Open_Championship \"1934 Open Championship\") held 27–29 June at [Royal St George's Golf Club](/wiki/Royal_St_George%27s_Golf_Club \"Royal St George's Golf Club\") in [Sandwich, England](/wiki/Sandwich%2C_Kent \"Sandwich, Kent\"). The English linksman [Henry Cotton](/wiki/Henry_Cotton_%28golfer%29 \"Henry Cotton (golfer)\") dominated the championship, leading wire\\-to\\-wire on his way to a five stroke win and his first of three Open titles. Hodson fired rounds of 71\\-74\\-74\\-76\\=295 and won £17 10s.", "### Ryder Cup", "Hodson was a member of the [1931](/wiki/1931_Ryder_Cup \"1931 Ryder Cup\") Great Britain [Ryder Cup](/wiki/Ryder_Cup \"Ryder Cup\") team.", "" ]
Chianti subregions ------------------ [right\|thumb\|350px\|Chianti wine area within Tuscany](/wiki/File:Sottozone_chianti.jpg "Sottozone chianti.jpg") The Chianti region covers a vast area of Tuscany and includes within its boundaries several overlapping *[Denominazione di origine controllata](/wiki/Denominazione_di_origine_controllata "Denominazione di origine controllata")* (DOC) and *[Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita](/wiki/Denominazione_di_Origine_Controllata_e_Garantita "Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita")* (DOCG) regions. Other well known Sangiovese\-based [Tuscan wines](/wiki/Tuscan_wines "Tuscan wines") such as [Brunello di Montalcino](/wiki/Brunello_di_Montalcino "Brunello di Montalcino") and [Vino Nobile di Montepulciano](/wiki/Vino_Nobile_di_Montepulciano "Vino Nobile di Montepulciano") could be bottled and labelled under the most basic designation of "Chianti" if their producers chose to do so.T. Stevenson *"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"* pp. 282\-286 Dorling Kindersley 2005 {{ISBN\|0\-7566\-1324\-8}} Within the collective Chianti region more than 8 million cases of wines classified as DOC\-level or above are produced each year. Today, most Chianti falls under two major designations of Chianti DOCG, which includes basic level Chianti, as well as that from seven designated sub\-zones, and Chianti Classico DOCG. Together, these two Chianti zones produce the largest volume of DOC/G wines in Italy. The Chianti DOCG covers all the Chianti wine and includes a large stretch of land encompassing the western reaches of the [province of Pisa](/wiki/Province_of_Pisa "Province of Pisa") near the coast of the [Tyrrhenian Sea](/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea "Tyrrhenian Sea"), the Florentine hills in the province of Florence to the north, to the [province of Arezzo](/wiki/Province_of_Arezzo "Province of Arezzo") in the east and the Siena hills to the south. Within this regions are vineyards that overlap the DOCG regions of Brunello di Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano and [Vernaccia di San Gimignano](/wiki/Vernaccia_di_San_Gimignano "Vernaccia di San Gimignano"). Any Sangiovese\-based wine made according to the Chianti guidelines from these vineyards can be labelled and marked under the basic Chianti DOCG should the producer wish to use the designation. Within the Chianti DOCG there are eight defined sub\-zones that are permitted to affix their name to the [wine label](/wiki/Wine_label "Wine label"). Wines that are labelled as simply Chianti are made either from a blend from these sub\-zones or include grapes from peripheral areas not within the boundaries of a sub\-zone. The sub\-zones are (clockwise from the north): the Colli Fiorentini which is located south of the city of Florence; Chianti Rufina in the northeastern part of the zone located around the commune of [Rufina](/wiki/Rufina "Rufina"); Classico in the centre of Chianti, across the provinces of Florence and Siena; Colli Aretini in the Arezzo province to the east; Colli Senesi south of Chianti Classico in the Siena hills, which is the largest of the sub\-zones and includes the Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano areas; Colline Pisane, the westernmost sub\-zone in the province of Pisa; Montespertoli located within the Colli Fiorentini around the commune of [Montespertoli](/wiki/Montespertoli "Montespertoli"); Montalbano in the north\-west part of the zone which includes the [Carmignano](/wiki/Carmignano_%28wine%29 "Carmignano (wine)") DOCG. {{As of\|2006}}, there were {{convert\|786\|acre\|ha\|order\=flip}} under production in Montalbano, {{convert\|2236\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in the Colli Fiorentini, {{convert\|140\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in Montespertoli, {{convert\|1840\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in Rufina, {{convert\|8780\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in the Colli Senesi, {{convert\|380\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in Colline Pisane, {{convert\|1603\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in the Colli Aretini, and an additional {{convert\|25511\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in the peripheral areas that do not fall within one of the sub\-zone classifications. Wines produced from these vineyards are labelled simply "Chianti". ### Chianti Classico [thumb\|Chianti Classico premium wine](/wiki/File:Chianti_0002.JPG "Chianti 0002.JPG") The original area dictated by the edict of [Cosimo III de' Medici](/wiki/Cosimo_III_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany "Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany") would eventually be considered the heart of the modern "Chianti Classico" subregion.A. Domine (ed.) *Wine*, pp. 402\-411, Ullmann Publishing, 2008 {{ISBN\|978\-3\-8331\-4611\-4}} {{As of\|2006}}, there were {{convert\|17640\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion. The Chianti Classico subregion covers an area of approximate {{convert\|100\|sqmi\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} between the city of [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") to the north and [Siena](/wiki/Siena "Siena") to the south. The four communes of Castellina in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti, Greve in Chianti and Radda in Chianti are located entirely within the boundaries of the Classico area with parts of Barberino Val d'Elsa, San Casciano in Val di Pesa and [Tavarnelle Val di Pesa](/wiki/Tavarnelle_Val_di_Pesa "Tavarnelle Val di Pesa") in the [province of Florence](/wiki/Province_of_Florence "Province of Florence") as well as [Castelnuovo Berardenga](/wiki/Castelnuovo_Berardenga "Castelnuovo Berardenga") and [Poggibonsi](/wiki/Poggibonsi "Poggibonsi") in the [province of Siena](/wiki/Province_of_Siena "Province of Siena") included within the permitted boundaries of Chianti Classico. The soil and geography of this subregion can be quite varied, with altitudes ranging from {{convert\|820\|to\|2000\|ft\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}}, and rolling hills producing differing [macroclimates](/wiki/Macroclimate "Macroclimate"). There are two main soil types in the area: a weathered sandstone known as *[alberese](/wiki/Alberese "Alberese")* and a bluish\-gray [chalky](/wiki/Chalk "Chalk") [marlstone](/wiki/Marlstone "Marlstone") known as *[galestro](/wiki/Galestro "Galestro")*. The soil in the north is richer and more fertile with more *galestro*, with the soil gradually becoming harder and stonier with more *albarese* in the south. In the north, the [Arno River](/wiki/Arno_River "Arno River") can have an influence on the climate, keeping the temperatures slightly cooler, an influence that diminishes further south in the warmer Classico territory towards Castelnuovo Berardenga. [thumb\|left\|Vineyards in [Gaiole in Chianti](/wiki/Gaiole_in_Chianti "Gaiole in Chianti") in the Chianti Classico area](/wiki/File:Chianti-colline2-2.jpg "Chianti-colline2-2.jpg") Chianti Classico are premium Chianti wines that tend to be medium\-bodied with firm [tannins](/wiki/Tannins_%28wine%29 "Tannins (wine)") and medium\-high to high [acidity](/wiki/Acidity_%28wine%29 "Acidity (wine)"). Floral, cherry and light nutty notes are characteristic [aromas](/wiki/Aromas_%28wine%29 "Aromas (wine)") with the wines expressing more notes on the mid\-[palate](/wiki/Palate "Palate") and [finish](/wiki/Finish_%28wine%29 "Finish (wine)") than at the front of the mouth. As with [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux_%28wine%29 "Bordeaux (wine)"), the different zones of Chianti Classico have unique characteristics that can be exemplified and perceived in some wines from those areas. According to [Master of Wine](/wiki/Master_of_Wine "Master of Wine") [Mary Ewing\-Mulligan](/wiki/Mary_Ewing-Mulligan "Mary Ewing-Mulligan"), Chianti Classico wines from the Castellina area tend to have a very delicate aroma and flavour, Castelnuovo Berardegna wines tend to be the [most ripe](/wiki/Most_ripe_%28wine%29 "Most ripe (wine)") and richest tasting, wines from Gaiole tend to have been characterised by their structure and firm tannins while wines from the Greve area tend to have very concentrated flavours. [right\|thumb\|150px\|Black rooster seal of the [Consorzio Chianti Classico](/wiki/Consorzio_Vino_Chianti_Classico "Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico")](/wiki/File:Chianti_Classico.jpg "Chianti Classico.jpg") The production of Chianti Classico is realised under the supervision of [Consorzio del Vino Chianti Classico](/wiki/Consorzio_del_Vino_Chianti_Classico "Consorzio del Vino Chianti Classico"), a union of producers in the Chianti Classico subregion. The Consorzio was founded with the aim of promoting the wines of the subregion, improving quality and preventing [wine fraud](/wiki/Wine_fraud "Wine fraud"). Since the 1980s, the foundation has sponsored extensive research into the viticultural and winemaking practice of the Chianti Classico area, particularly in the area of clonal research. In the last three decades, more than 50% of the vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion have been replanted with improved Sangiovese clones and modern vineyard techniques as part of the Consorzio Chianti Classico's project "Chianti 2000". In 2014, a new category of Chianti Classico was introduced: Chianti Classico Gran Selezione.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chianticlassico.com/en/2014/02/chianti\-classico\-gran\-selezione\-carta\-d%E2%80%99identita/\|title\=Chianti Classico Gran Selezione: Identity Card\|work\=chianticlassico.com\|publisher\=Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico\|access\-date\=22 January 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122121031/http://www.chianticlassico.com/en/2014/02/chianti\-classico\-gran\-selezione\-carta\-d%E2%80%99identita/\|archive\-date\=22 January 2015}} Gran Selezione is made exclusively from a winery's own grapes grown according to stricter regulations compared to regular Chianti Classico. Gran Selezione is granted to a Chianti Classico after it passes a suitability test conducted by authorised laboratories, and after it is approved by a special tasting committee. The creation of the Chianti Classico Gran Selezione DOCG has been criticized, with some describing it as being "Needless; an extra layer of confusion created by marketing people hoping to help Chianti Classico out of a sales crisis."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.decanter.com/premium/chianti\-classico\-gran\-selezione\-revisited\-382839/\|title\=What has Gran Selezione done for Chianti? \- Decanter\|date\=23 January 2018\|work\=Decanter\|access\-date\=24 November 2018\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015\-06\-09/chianti\-classico\-gran\-selezione\-makes\-a\-super\-premium\-wine\-grab\|title\=Chianti Classico Makes a Grab for the Super\-Premium Market\|last\=McCoy\|first\=Elin\|website\=Bloomberg\|date\=10 June 2015\|access\-date\=1 April 2020}} ### Greater Chianti region [thumb\|Logo of the [Consorzio Vino Chianti](/wiki/Consorzio_Vino_Chianti "Consorzio Vino Chianti") (*Chianti Wine Consortium*), the association of Tuscan winemaers ensuring the quality and authenticity of Chianti wines from different subregions, besides Chianti Classico](/wiki/File:Logo_Chianti.svg "Logo Chianti.svg") Outside of the Chianti Classico area, the wines of the Chianti sub\-zone of Rufina are among the most widely recognised and exported from the Chianti region. Located in the [Arno](/wiki/Arno "Arno") valley near the town of [Pontassieve](/wiki/Pontassieve "Pontassieve"), the Rufina region includes much area in the [Pomino](/wiki/Pomino "Pomino") region, an area that has a long history of wine production. The area is noted for the cool climate of its elevated vineyards located up to {{convert\|2950\|ft\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}}. The [vineyard soils](/wiki/Vineyard_soil "Vineyard soil") of the area are predominantly [marl](/wiki/Marl "Marl") and [chalk](/wiki/Chalk "Chalk"). The Florentine merchant families of the [Antinori](/wiki/Antinori "Antinori") and [Frescobaldi](/wiki/Frescobaldi "Frescobaldi") own the majority of the vineyards in Rufina. Chianti from the Rufina area is characterised by its multi\-layered [complexity](/wiki/Complexity_%28wine%29 "Complexity (wine)") and elegance. The Colli Fiorentini subregion has seen an influx of activity and new vineyard development in recent years as wealthy Florentine business people move to the country to plant vineyards and open wineries. Many foreign "[flying winemakers](/wiki/Flying_winemaker "Flying winemaker")" have had a hand in this development, bringing global [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture "Viticulture") and wine\-making techniques to the Colli Fiorentini. Located in the hills between the Chianti Classico area and Arno valley, the wines of the Colli Fiorentini vary widely depending on producer, but tend to have a simple structure with strong character and fruit notes. The Montespertoli sub\-zone was part of the Colli Fiorentini sub\-zone until 2002 when it became its own tiny enclave. The Montalbano subregion is located in the shadow of the Carmignano DOCG, with much of the best Sangiovese going to that wine. A similar situation exists in the Colli Senesi which includes the well known DOCG region of Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Both regions rarely appear on wine labels that are exported out of Tuscany. The Colli Pisane area produces typical Chiantis with the lightest body and color. The Colli Aretini is a relatively new and emerging area that has seen an influx of investment and new winemaking in recent years.
[ "Chianti subregions\n------------------", "[right\\|thumb\\|350px\\|Chianti wine area within Tuscany](/wiki/File:Sottozone_chianti.jpg \"Sottozone chianti.jpg\")\nThe Chianti region covers a vast area of Tuscany and includes within its boundaries several overlapping *[Denominazione di origine controllata](/wiki/Denominazione_di_origine_controllata \"Denominazione di origine controllata\")* (DOC) and *[Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita](/wiki/Denominazione_di_Origine_Controllata_e_Garantita \"Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita\")* (DOCG) regions. Other well known Sangiovese\\-based [Tuscan wines](/wiki/Tuscan_wines \"Tuscan wines\") such as [Brunello di Montalcino](/wiki/Brunello_di_Montalcino \"Brunello di Montalcino\") and [Vino Nobile di Montepulciano](/wiki/Vino_Nobile_di_Montepulciano \"Vino Nobile di Montepulciano\") could be bottled and labelled under the most basic designation of \"Chianti\" if their producers chose to do so.T. Stevenson *\"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia\"* pp. 282\\-286 Dorling Kindersley 2005 {{ISBN\\|0\\-7566\\-1324\\-8}} Within the collective Chianti region more than 8 million cases of wines classified as DOC\\-level or above are produced each year. Today, most Chianti falls under two major designations of Chianti DOCG, which includes basic level Chianti, as well as that from seven designated sub\\-zones, and Chianti Classico DOCG. Together, these two Chianti zones produce the largest volume of DOC/G wines in Italy.", "The Chianti DOCG covers all the Chianti wine and includes a large stretch of land encompassing the western reaches of the [province of Pisa](/wiki/Province_of_Pisa \"Province of Pisa\") near the coast of the [Tyrrhenian Sea](/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea \"Tyrrhenian Sea\"), the Florentine hills in the province of Florence to the north, to the [province of Arezzo](/wiki/Province_of_Arezzo \"Province of Arezzo\") in the east and the Siena hills to the south. Within this regions are vineyards that overlap the DOCG regions of Brunello di Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano and [Vernaccia di San Gimignano](/wiki/Vernaccia_di_San_Gimignano \"Vernaccia di San Gimignano\"). Any Sangiovese\\-based wine made according to the Chianti guidelines from these vineyards can be labelled and marked under the basic Chianti DOCG should the producer wish to use the designation.", "Within the Chianti DOCG there are eight defined sub\\-zones that are permitted to affix their name to the [wine label](/wiki/Wine_label \"Wine label\"). Wines that are labelled as simply Chianti are made either from a blend from these sub\\-zones or include grapes from peripheral areas not within the boundaries of a sub\\-zone. The sub\\-zones are (clockwise from the north): the Colli Fiorentini which is located south of the city of Florence; Chianti Rufina in the northeastern part of the zone located around the commune of [Rufina](/wiki/Rufina \"Rufina\"); Classico in the centre of Chianti, across the provinces of Florence and Siena; Colli Aretini in the Arezzo province to the east; Colli Senesi south of Chianti Classico in the Siena hills, which is the largest of the sub\\-zones and includes the Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano areas; Colline Pisane, the westernmost sub\\-zone in the province of Pisa; Montespertoli located within the Colli Fiorentini around the commune of [Montespertoli](/wiki/Montespertoli \"Montespertoli\"); Montalbano in the north\\-west part of the zone which includes the [Carmignano](/wiki/Carmignano_%28wine%29 \"Carmignano (wine)\") DOCG.", "{{As of\\|2006}}, there were {{convert\\|786\\|acre\\|ha\\|order\\=flip}} under production in Montalbano, {{convert\\|2236\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in the Colli Fiorentini, {{convert\\|140\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in Montespertoli, {{convert\\|1840\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in Rufina, {{convert\\|8780\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in the Colli Senesi, {{convert\\|380\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in Colline Pisane, {{convert\\|1603\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in the Colli Aretini, and an additional {{convert\\|25511\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in the peripheral areas that do not fall within one of the sub\\-zone classifications. Wines produced from these vineyards are labelled simply \"Chianti\".", "### Chianti Classico", "[thumb\\|Chianti Classico premium wine](/wiki/File:Chianti_0002.JPG \"Chianti 0002.JPG\")\nThe original area dictated by the edict of [Cosimo III de' Medici](/wiki/Cosimo_III_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany \"Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany\") would eventually be considered the heart of the modern \"Chianti Classico\" subregion.A. Domine (ed.) *Wine*, pp. 402\\-411, Ullmann Publishing, 2008 {{ISBN\\|978\\-3\\-8331\\-4611\\-4}} {{As of\\|2006}}, there were {{convert\\|17640\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion. The Chianti Classico subregion covers an area of approximate {{convert\\|100\\|sqmi\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} between the city of [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") to the north and [Siena](/wiki/Siena \"Siena\") to the south. The four communes of Castellina in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti, Greve in Chianti and Radda in Chianti are located entirely within the boundaries of the Classico area with parts of Barberino Val d'Elsa, San Casciano in Val di Pesa and [Tavarnelle Val di Pesa](/wiki/Tavarnelle_Val_di_Pesa \"Tavarnelle Val di Pesa\") in the [province of Florence](/wiki/Province_of_Florence \"Province of Florence\") as well as [Castelnuovo Berardenga](/wiki/Castelnuovo_Berardenga \"Castelnuovo Berardenga\") and [Poggibonsi](/wiki/Poggibonsi \"Poggibonsi\") in the [province of Siena](/wiki/Province_of_Siena \"Province of Siena\") included within the permitted boundaries of Chianti Classico.", "The soil and geography of this subregion can be quite varied, with altitudes ranging from {{convert\\|820\\|to\\|2000\\|ft\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}}, and rolling hills producing differing [macroclimates](/wiki/Macroclimate \"Macroclimate\"). There are two main soil types in the area: a weathered sandstone known as *[alberese](/wiki/Alberese \"Alberese\")* and a bluish\\-gray [chalky](/wiki/Chalk \"Chalk\") [marlstone](/wiki/Marlstone \"Marlstone\") known as *[galestro](/wiki/Galestro \"Galestro\")*. The soil in the north is richer and more fertile with more *galestro*, with the soil gradually becoming harder and stonier with more *albarese* in the south. In the north, the [Arno River](/wiki/Arno_River \"Arno River\") can have an influence on the climate, keeping the temperatures slightly cooler, an influence that diminishes further south in the warmer Classico territory towards Castelnuovo Berardenga.", "[thumb\\|left\\|Vineyards in [Gaiole in Chianti](/wiki/Gaiole_in_Chianti \"Gaiole in Chianti\") in the Chianti Classico area](/wiki/File:Chianti-colline2-2.jpg \"Chianti-colline2-2.jpg\")\nChianti Classico are premium Chianti wines that tend to be medium\\-bodied with firm [tannins](/wiki/Tannins_%28wine%29 \"Tannins (wine)\") and medium\\-high to high [acidity](/wiki/Acidity_%28wine%29 \"Acidity (wine)\"). Floral, cherry and light nutty notes are characteristic [aromas](/wiki/Aromas_%28wine%29 \"Aromas (wine)\") with the wines expressing more notes on the mid\\-[palate](/wiki/Palate \"Palate\") and [finish](/wiki/Finish_%28wine%29 \"Finish (wine)\") than at the front of the mouth. As with [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux_%28wine%29 \"Bordeaux (wine)\"), the different zones of Chianti Classico have unique characteristics that can be exemplified and perceived in some wines from those areas. According to [Master of Wine](/wiki/Master_of_Wine \"Master of Wine\") [Mary Ewing\\-Mulligan](/wiki/Mary_Ewing-Mulligan \"Mary Ewing-Mulligan\"), Chianti Classico wines from the Castellina area tend to have a very delicate aroma and flavour, Castelnuovo Berardegna wines tend to be the [most ripe](/wiki/Most_ripe_%28wine%29 \"Most ripe (wine)\") and richest tasting, wines from Gaiole tend to have been characterised by their structure and firm tannins while wines from the Greve area tend to have very concentrated flavours.", "[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|Black rooster seal of the [Consorzio Chianti Classico](/wiki/Consorzio_Vino_Chianti_Classico \"Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico\")](/wiki/File:Chianti_Classico.jpg \"Chianti Classico.jpg\")\nThe production of Chianti Classico is realised under the supervision of [Consorzio del Vino Chianti Classico](/wiki/Consorzio_del_Vino_Chianti_Classico \"Consorzio del Vino Chianti Classico\"), a union of producers in the Chianti Classico subregion. The Consorzio was founded with the aim of promoting the wines of the subregion, improving quality and preventing [wine fraud](/wiki/Wine_fraud \"Wine fraud\"). Since the 1980s, the foundation has sponsored extensive research into the viticultural and winemaking practice of the Chianti Classico area, particularly in the area of clonal research. In the last three decades, more than 50% of the vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion have been replanted with improved Sangiovese clones and modern vineyard techniques as part of the Consorzio Chianti Classico's project \"Chianti 2000\".", "In 2014, a new category of Chianti Classico was introduced: Chianti Classico Gran Selezione.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chianticlassico.com/en/2014/02/chianti\\-classico\\-gran\\-selezione\\-carta\\-d%E2%80%99identita/\\|title\\=Chianti Classico Gran Selezione: Identity Card\\|work\\=chianticlassico.com\\|publisher\\=Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico\\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122121031/http://www.chianticlassico.com/en/2014/02/chianti\\-classico\\-gran\\-selezione\\-carta\\-d%E2%80%99identita/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 January 2015}} Gran Selezione is made exclusively from a winery's own grapes grown according to stricter regulations compared to regular Chianti Classico. Gran Selezione is granted to a Chianti Classico after it passes a suitability test conducted by authorised laboratories, and after it is approved by a special tasting committee. The creation of the Chianti Classico Gran Selezione DOCG has been criticized, with some describing it as being \"Needless; an extra layer of confusion created by marketing people hoping to help Chianti Classico out of a sales crisis.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.decanter.com/premium/chianti\\-classico\\-gran\\-selezione\\-revisited\\-382839/\\|title\\=What has Gran Selezione done for Chianti? \\- Decanter\\|date\\=23 January 2018\\|work\\=Decanter\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015\\-06\\-09/chianti\\-classico\\-gran\\-selezione\\-makes\\-a\\-super\\-premium\\-wine\\-grab\\|title\\=Chianti Classico Makes a Grab for the Super\\-Premium Market\\|last\\=McCoy\\|first\\=Elin\\|website\\=Bloomberg\\|date\\=10 June 2015\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2020}}", "### Greater Chianti region", "[thumb\\|Logo of the [Consorzio Vino Chianti](/wiki/Consorzio_Vino_Chianti \"Consorzio Vino Chianti\") (*Chianti Wine Consortium*), the association of Tuscan winemaers ensuring the quality and authenticity of Chianti wines from different subregions, besides Chianti Classico](/wiki/File:Logo_Chianti.svg \"Logo Chianti.svg\")\nOutside of the Chianti Classico area, the wines of the Chianti sub\\-zone of Rufina are among the most widely recognised and exported from the Chianti region. Located in the [Arno](/wiki/Arno \"Arno\") valley near the town of [Pontassieve](/wiki/Pontassieve \"Pontassieve\"), the Rufina region includes much area in the [Pomino](/wiki/Pomino \"Pomino\") region, an area that has a long history of wine production. The area is noted for the cool climate of its elevated vineyards located up to {{convert\\|2950\\|ft\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}}. The [vineyard soils](/wiki/Vineyard_soil \"Vineyard soil\") of the area are predominantly [marl](/wiki/Marl \"Marl\") and [chalk](/wiki/Chalk \"Chalk\"). The Florentine merchant families of the [Antinori](/wiki/Antinori \"Antinori\") and [Frescobaldi](/wiki/Frescobaldi \"Frescobaldi\") own the majority of the vineyards in Rufina. Chianti from the Rufina area is characterised by its multi\\-layered [complexity](/wiki/Complexity_%28wine%29 \"Complexity (wine)\") and elegance.", "The Colli Fiorentini subregion has seen an influx of activity and new vineyard development in recent years as wealthy Florentine business people move to the country to plant vineyards and open wineries. Many foreign \"[flying winemakers](/wiki/Flying_winemaker \"Flying winemaker\")\" have had a hand in this development, bringing global [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture \"Viticulture\") and wine\\-making techniques to the Colli Fiorentini. Located in the hills between the Chianti Classico area and Arno valley, the wines of the Colli Fiorentini vary widely depending on producer, but tend to have a simple structure with strong character and fruit notes. The Montespertoli sub\\-zone was part of the Colli Fiorentini sub\\-zone until 2002 when it became its own tiny enclave.", "The Montalbano subregion is located in the shadow of the Carmignano DOCG, with much of the best Sangiovese going to that wine. A similar situation exists in the Colli Senesi which includes the well known DOCG region of Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Both regions rarely appear on wine labels that are exported out of Tuscany. The Colli Pisane area produces typical Chiantis with the lightest body and color. The Colli Aretini is a relatively new and emerging area that has seen an influx of investment and new winemaking in recent years.", "" ]
Regular season -------------- The season began with a strong 26–14 victory over Cleveland and a close Monday night loss to Washington, 33–31\. However, in Week Three the Cowboys were defeated at home by Philadelphia, 24–0\. The Eagles sacked [Troy Aikman](/wiki/Troy_Aikman "Troy Aikman") eleven times, limited the Cowboys to just 90 yards of offense, and served notice that the Cowboys were still behind the "contenders" in the NFC East. A narrow victory the next week over [the Cardinals](/wiki/1991_Phoenix_Cardinals_season "1991 Phoenix Cardinals season") did little to change that contention. However, in Week 5, the Cowboys scored on a 23\-yard touchdown to [Michael Irvin](/wiki/Michael_Irvin "Michael Irvin") and upset the defending Super Bowl champion Giants 21–16 (snapping a 6\-game losing streak to the Giants). The momentum from the Giants win carried the Cowboys to three wins in the next four games, besting the slumping [Packers](/wiki/1991_Green_Bay_Packers_season "1991 Green Bay Packers season") and winless [Bengals](/wiki/1991_Cincinnati_Bengals_season "1991 Cincinnati Bengals season"). After a turnover\-plagued humiliation at [Detroit](/wiki/1991_Detroit_Lions_season "1991 Detroit Lions season"), the Cowboys manhandled the Cardinals again and now stood at 6–3\. But then the Cowboys lost to the Oilers in overtime (the Cowboys were driving close to field goal range in the overtime period when [Emmitt Smith](/wiki/Emmitt_Smith "Emmitt Smith") committed a rare fumble). The next week, they lost at the Giants in a game [Jimmy Johnson](/wiki/Jimmy_Johnson_%28American_football_coach%29 "Jimmy Johnson (American football coach)") said was "officiated as poorly" as any he had ever coached in. At 6–5, the playoff chances seemed in serious jeopardy, especially with their upcoming opponent being a road game against the undefeated (and eventual [Super bowl champion](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXVI "Super Bowl XXVI")) Washington Redskins. However, Jimmy Johnson presented a gambling game plan for the Redskins game, including a first\-half [onside kick](/wiki/Onside_kick "Onside kick"), several decisions to "go for it" on 4th down at unusual times, and opting to throw for the end zone on the final play of the first half even though the team was within field goal range at the Redskins' 34\-yard line. [Alvin Harper](/wiki/Alvin_Harper "Alvin Harper") made the catch for a TD. The gambling game plan worked and the Cowboys completed a titanic 24–21 upset of the Redskins. Troy Aikman was injured in the Redskins game and was replaced early in the 2nd half by [Steve Beuerlein](/wiki/Steve_Beuerlein "Steve Beuerlein") (who had been signed late in the pre\-season so as to avoid the problems at backup QB that plagued the Cowboys late in the [1990 season](/wiki/1990_Dallas_Cowboys_season "1990 Dallas Cowboys season")). Aikman's injury was serious enough for him to miss the rest of the regular season. After the Washington win, Beuerlein led the Cowboys to four straight victories to end the season. In Dallas's final game against [Chuck Noll](/wiki/Chuck_Noll "Chuck Noll"), the Cowboys defeated the Steelers 20–10, then defeated Dallas's former starter [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28American_football%29 "Steve Walsh (American football)") and the Saints 23–14\. The Eagles were downed 25–13 and then the Cowboys edged the [Falcons](/wiki/1991_Atlanta_Falcons_season "1991 Atlanta Falcons season") 31–27; Jimmy Johnson, fearing complacency in his young players, called a snap full pads practice in driving rain the Friday before. The Cowboys' 11–5 record was good enough to earn a wildcard playoff berth. In most of the games, the Beuerlein\-led offense was limited in passing yardage but the passing offense avoided serious mistakes and was helped by strong defensive performances and by Emmitt Smith, who finished the season with his first NFL rushing title. The biggest win of the Cowboys' late\-season streak was a 25–13 win road win over the Philadelphia Eagles. It snapped a 7\-game losing streak to the Eagles in "non\-replacement games" and avenged the 24–0 loss back in week 3\. In fairness, the Eagles were down to their third quarterback for this game (starter [Randall Cunningham](/wiki/Randall_Cunningham "Randall Cunningham") was lost for the season in week 1 and [Jim McMahon](/wiki/Jim_McMahon "Jim McMahon"), who had led the Eagles to their earlier win over Dallas, was also injured, leaving the reins to [Jeff Kemp](/wiki/Jeff_Kemp "Jeff Kemp")). The [special teams](/wiki/Special_teams "Special teams") coached by [Joe Avezzano](/wiki/Joe_Avezzano "Joe Avezzano") were a strength of the Cowboys: * Dallas led the [NFC](/wiki/National_Football_Conference "National Football Conference") in special teams effectiveness and ranked second in the NFL behind the [Los Angeles Raiders](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Raiders "Los Angeles Raiders"). * It led the league in special teams [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown") (3\) and average [kickoff return](/wiki/Kickoff_return "Kickoff return") (21\.7 yards). * The Cowboys placed a player in the top three in the NFL in both [punt](/wiki/Punt_%28gridiron_football%29%23Return "Punt (gridiron football)#Return") and kickoff return averages in the same season for the first time in team history. In addition, [Alexander Wright](/wiki/Alexander_Wright_%28American_football%29 "Alexander Wright (American football)")'s 102 yard kickoff return against the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons") and [Kelvin Martin](/wiki/Kelvin_Martin_%28American_football%29 "Kelvin Martin (American football)")'s 85 yard punt return against the [Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eagles "Philadelphia Eagles") were NFL season\-bests. * [Kicker](/wiki/Placekicker "Placekicker") [Ken Willis](/wiki/Ken_Willis "Ken Willis") tied a club record with 27 [field goals](/wiki/Field_goal_%28American_and_Canadian_football%29 "Field goal (American and Canadian football)") and set another with four 50\-yarders. * [Punter](/wiki/Punter_%28football%29 "Punter (football)") [Mike Saxon](/wiki/Mike_Saxon "Mike Saxon") finished tied for fourth in the NFL with a career best 36\.8 yard net average. * Blocked three [punts](/wiki/Punt_%28gridiron_football%29 "Punt (gridiron football)"), returning one for a touchdown against the [Houston Oilers](/wiki/Houston_Oilers "Houston Oilers"). * The special teams also recovered an [onside kick](/wiki/Onside_kick "Onside kick") against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins "Washington Redskins"), forced a [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28gridiron_football_score%29 "Safety (gridiron football score)") and recovered two punts [fumbled](/wiki/Fumble "Fumble") by opponents. ### Schedule | Week Date Opponent Result Record Venue Attendance | | 1 | September 1 | at [Cleveland Browns](/wiki/1991_Cleveland_Browns_season "1991 Cleveland Browns season") | **W** 26–14 | 1–0 | [Cleveland Municipal Stadium](/wiki/Cleveland_Municipal_Stadium "Cleveland Municipal Stadium") | 78,860 | 2 | {{dow tooltip\|September 9, 1991}} | **[Washington Redskins](/wiki/1991_Washington_Redskins_season "1991 Washington Redskins season")** | **L** 31–33 | 1–1 | [Texas Stadium](/wiki/Texas_Stadium "Texas Stadium") | 63,025 | 3 | September 15 | **[Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/1991_Philadelphia_Eagles_season "1991 Philadelphia Eagles season")** | **L** 0–24 | 1–2 | Texas Stadium | 62,656 | 4 | September 22 | at **[Phoenix Cardinals](/wiki/1991_Phoenix_Cardinals_season "1991 Phoenix Cardinals season")** | **W** 17–9 | 2–2 | [Sun Devil Stadium](/wiki/Sun_Devil_Stadium "Sun Devil Stadium") | 68,814 | 5 | September 29 | **[New York Giants](/wiki/1991_New_York_Giants_season "1991 New York Giants season")** | **W** 21–16 | 3–2 | Texas Stadium | 64,010 | 6 | October 6 | at [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1991_Green_Bay_Packers_season "1991 Green Bay Packers season") | **W** 20–17 | 4–2 | [Milwaukee County Stadium](/wiki/Milwaukee_County_Stadium "Milwaukee County Stadium") | 53,695 | 7 | October 13 | [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/1991_Cincinnati_Bengals_season "1991 Cincinnati Bengals season") | **W** 35–23 | 5–2 | Texas Stadium | 63,275 || 8 | *[Bye](/wiki/Bye_%28sports%29 "Bye (sports)")* | | | | | | 9 | October 27 | at [Detroit Lions](/wiki/1991_Detroit_Lions_season "1991 Detroit Lions season") | **L** 10–34 | 5–3 | [Pontiac Silverdome](/wiki/Pontiac_Silverdome "Pontiac Silverdome") | 74,906 | 10 | November 3 | **[Phoenix Cardinals](/wiki/1991_Phoenix_Cardinals_season "1991 Phoenix Cardinals season")** | **W** 27–7 | 6–3 | Texas Stadium | 61,190 | 11 | November 10 | at [Houston Oilers](/wiki/1991_Houston_Oilers_season "1991 Houston Oilers season") | **L** 23–26 {{Small\|(OT)}} | 6–4 | [Astrodome](/wiki/Astrodome "Astrodome") | 63,001 | 12 | November 17 | at **[New York Giants](/wiki/1991_New_York_Giants_season "1991 New York Giants season")** | **L** 9–22 | 6–5 | [Giants Stadium](/wiki/Giants_Stadium "Giants Stadium") | 76,410 | 13 | November 24 | at **[Washington Redskins](/wiki/1991_Washington_Redskins_season "1991 Washington Redskins season")** | **W** 24–21 | 7–5 | [RFK Stadium](/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Memorial_Stadium "Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium") | 55,561 | 14 | [November 28](/wiki/NFL_on_Thanksgiving_Day "NFL on Thanksgiving Day") | [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/1991_Pittsburgh_Steelers_season "1991 Pittsburgh Steelers season") | **W** 20–10 | 8–5 | Texas Stadium | 62,253 | 15 | December 8 | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/1991_New_Orleans_Saints_season "1991 New Orleans Saints season") | **W** 23–14 | 9–5 | Texas Stadium | 64,530 | 16 | December 15 | at **[Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/1991_Philadelphia_Eagles_season "1991 Philadelphia Eagles season")** | **W** 25–13 | 10–5 | [Veterans Stadium](/wiki/Veterans_Stadium "Veterans Stadium") | 65,854 | 17 | December 22 | [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/1991_Atlanta_Falcons_season "1991 Atlanta Falcons season") | **W** 31–27 | 11–5 | Texas Stadium | 60,962 | **Note:** Intra\-division opponents are in **bold** text. ### Playoffs {{main\|1991–92 NFL playoffs}} | Round Date Opponent (seed) Result Record Venue | | Wild Card | December 29, 1991 | at [Chicago Bears](/wiki/1991_Chicago_Bears_season "1991 Chicago Bears season") (4\) | **W** 17–13 | 1–0 | [Soldier Field](/wiki/Soldier_Field "Soldier Field") | Divisional | January 5, 1992 | at [Detroit Lions](/wiki/1991_Detroit_Lions_season "1991 Detroit Lions season") (2\) | **L** 6–38 | 1–1 | [Pontiac Silverdome](/wiki/Pontiac_Silverdome "Pontiac Silverdome") | ### Standings {{1991 NFC East standings}}
[ "Regular season\n--------------", "The season began with a strong 26–14 victory over Cleveland and a close Monday night loss to Washington, 33–31\\. However, in Week Three the Cowboys were defeated at home by Philadelphia, 24–0\\. The Eagles sacked [Troy Aikman](/wiki/Troy_Aikman \"Troy Aikman\") eleven times, limited the Cowboys to just 90 yards of offense, and served notice that the Cowboys were still behind the \"contenders\" in the NFC East.", "A narrow victory the next week over [the Cardinals](/wiki/1991_Phoenix_Cardinals_season \"1991 Phoenix Cardinals season\") did little to change that contention. However, in Week 5, the Cowboys scored on a 23\\-yard touchdown to [Michael Irvin](/wiki/Michael_Irvin \"Michael Irvin\") and upset the defending Super Bowl champion Giants 21–16 (snapping a 6\\-game losing streak to the Giants).", "The momentum from the Giants win carried the Cowboys to three wins in the next four games, besting the slumping [Packers](/wiki/1991_Green_Bay_Packers_season \"1991 Green Bay Packers season\") and winless [Bengals](/wiki/1991_Cincinnati_Bengals_season \"1991 Cincinnati Bengals season\"). After a turnover\\-plagued humiliation at [Detroit](/wiki/1991_Detroit_Lions_season \"1991 Detroit Lions season\"), the Cowboys manhandled the Cardinals again and now stood at 6–3\\.", "But then the Cowboys lost to the Oilers in overtime (the Cowboys were driving close to field goal range in the overtime period when [Emmitt Smith](/wiki/Emmitt_Smith \"Emmitt Smith\") committed a rare fumble). The next week, they lost at the Giants in a game [Jimmy Johnson](/wiki/Jimmy_Johnson_%28American_football_coach%29 \"Jimmy Johnson (American football coach)\") said was \"officiated as poorly\" as any he had ever coached in.", "At 6–5, the playoff chances seemed in serious jeopardy, especially with their upcoming opponent being a road game against the undefeated (and eventual [Super bowl champion](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXVI \"Super Bowl XXVI\")) Washington Redskins. However, Jimmy Johnson presented a gambling game plan for the Redskins game, including a first\\-half [onside kick](/wiki/Onside_kick \"Onside kick\"), several decisions to \"go for it\" on 4th down at unusual times, and opting to throw for the end zone on the final play of the first half even though the team was within field goal range at the Redskins' 34\\-yard line. [Alvin Harper](/wiki/Alvin_Harper \"Alvin Harper\") made the catch for a TD. The gambling game plan worked and the Cowboys completed a titanic 24–21 upset of the Redskins. Troy Aikman was injured in the Redskins game and was replaced early in the 2nd half by [Steve Beuerlein](/wiki/Steve_Beuerlein \"Steve Beuerlein\") (who had been signed late in the pre\\-season so as to avoid the problems at backup QB that plagued the Cowboys late in the [1990 season](/wiki/1990_Dallas_Cowboys_season \"1990 Dallas Cowboys season\")).", "Aikman's injury was serious enough for him to miss the rest of the regular season. After the Washington win, Beuerlein led the Cowboys to four straight victories to end the season. In Dallas's final game against [Chuck Noll](/wiki/Chuck_Noll \"Chuck Noll\"), the Cowboys defeated the Steelers 20–10, then defeated Dallas's former starter [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28American_football%29 \"Steve Walsh (American football)\") and the Saints 23–14\\. The Eagles were downed 25–13 and then the Cowboys edged the [Falcons](/wiki/1991_Atlanta_Falcons_season \"1991 Atlanta Falcons season\") 31–27; Jimmy Johnson, fearing complacency in his young players, called a snap full pads practice in driving rain the Friday before.", "The Cowboys' 11–5 record was good enough to earn a wildcard playoff berth. In most of the games, the Beuerlein\\-led offense was limited in passing yardage but the passing offense avoided serious mistakes and was helped by strong defensive performances and by Emmitt Smith, who finished the season with his first NFL rushing title. The biggest win of the Cowboys' late\\-season streak was a 25–13 win road win over the Philadelphia Eagles. It snapped a 7\\-game losing streak to the Eagles in \"non\\-replacement games\" and avenged the 24–0 loss back in week 3\\. In fairness, the Eagles were down to their third quarterback for this game (starter [Randall Cunningham](/wiki/Randall_Cunningham \"Randall Cunningham\") was lost for the season in week 1 and [Jim McMahon](/wiki/Jim_McMahon \"Jim McMahon\"), who had led the Eagles to their earlier win over Dallas, was also injured, leaving the reins to [Jeff Kemp](/wiki/Jeff_Kemp \"Jeff Kemp\")).", "The [special teams](/wiki/Special_teams \"Special teams\") coached by [Joe Avezzano](/wiki/Joe_Avezzano \"Joe Avezzano\") were a strength of the Cowboys:\n* Dallas led the [NFC](/wiki/National_Football_Conference \"National Football Conference\") in special teams effectiveness and ranked second in the NFL behind the [Los Angeles Raiders](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Raiders \"Los Angeles Raiders\").\n* It led the league in special teams [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\") (3\\) and average [kickoff return](/wiki/Kickoff_return \"Kickoff return\") (21\\.7 yards).\n* The Cowboys placed a player in the top three in the NFL in both [punt](/wiki/Punt_%28gridiron_football%29%23Return \"Punt (gridiron football)#Return\") and kickoff return averages in the same season for the first time in team history. In addition, [Alexander Wright](/wiki/Alexander_Wright_%28American_football%29 \"Alexander Wright (American football)\")'s 102 yard kickoff return against the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\") and [Kelvin Martin](/wiki/Kelvin_Martin_%28American_football%29 \"Kelvin Martin (American football)\")'s 85 yard punt return against the [Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eagles \"Philadelphia Eagles\") were NFL season\\-bests.\n* [Kicker](/wiki/Placekicker \"Placekicker\") [Ken Willis](/wiki/Ken_Willis \"Ken Willis\") tied a club record with 27 [field goals](/wiki/Field_goal_%28American_and_Canadian_football%29 \"Field goal (American and Canadian football)\") and set another with four 50\\-yarders.\n* [Punter](/wiki/Punter_%28football%29 \"Punter (football)\") [Mike Saxon](/wiki/Mike_Saxon \"Mike Saxon\") finished tied for fourth in the NFL with a career best 36\\.8 yard net average.\n* Blocked three [punts](/wiki/Punt_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Punt (gridiron football)\"), returning one for a touchdown against the [Houston Oilers](/wiki/Houston_Oilers \"Houston Oilers\").\n* The special teams also recovered an [onside kick](/wiki/Onside_kick \"Onside kick\") against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins \"Washington Redskins\"), forced a [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28gridiron_football_score%29 \"Safety (gridiron football score)\") and recovered two punts [fumbled](/wiki/Fumble \"Fumble\") by opponents.", "### Schedule", "", "| Week", "Date", "Opponent", "Result", "Record", "Venue", "Attendance", "| |", "1 |\n September 1 |\n at [Cleveland Browns](/wiki/1991_Cleveland_Browns_season \"1991 Cleveland Browns season\") |\n **W** 26–14 |\n 1–0 |\n [Cleveland Municipal Stadium](/wiki/Cleveland_Municipal_Stadium \"Cleveland Municipal Stadium\") |\n 78,860 |\n 2 |\n {{dow tooltip\\|September 9, 1991}} |\n **[Washington Redskins](/wiki/1991_Washington_Redskins_season \"1991 Washington Redskins season\")** |\n **L** 31–33 |\n 1–1 |\n [Texas Stadium](/wiki/Texas_Stadium \"Texas Stadium\") |\n 63,025 |\n 3 |\n September 15 |\n **[Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/1991_Philadelphia_Eagles_season \"1991 Philadelphia Eagles season\")** |\n **L** 0–24 |\n 1–2 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 62,656 |\n 4 |\n September 22 |\n at **[Phoenix Cardinals](/wiki/1991_Phoenix_Cardinals_season \"1991 Phoenix Cardinals season\")** |\n **W** 17–9 |\n 2–2 |\n [Sun Devil Stadium](/wiki/Sun_Devil_Stadium \"Sun Devil Stadium\") |\n 68,814 |\n 5 |\n September 29 |\n **[New York Giants](/wiki/1991_New_York_Giants_season \"1991 New York Giants season\")** |\n **W** 21–16 |\n 3–2 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 64,010 |\n 6 |\n October 6 |\n at [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1991_Green_Bay_Packers_season \"1991 Green Bay Packers season\") |\n **W** 20–17 |\n 4–2 |\n [Milwaukee County Stadium](/wiki/Milwaukee_County_Stadium \"Milwaukee County Stadium\") |\n 53,695 |\n 7 |\n October 13 |\n [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/1991_Cincinnati_Bengals_season \"1991 Cincinnati Bengals season\") |\n **W** 35–23 |\n 5–2 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 63,275 || 8 | *[Bye](/wiki/Bye_%28sports%29 \"Bye (sports)\")* | | | | | |", "9 |\n October 27 |\n at [Detroit Lions](/wiki/1991_Detroit_Lions_season \"1991 Detroit Lions season\") |\n **L** 10–34 |\n 5–3 |\n [Pontiac Silverdome](/wiki/Pontiac_Silverdome \"Pontiac Silverdome\") |\n 74,906 |\n 10 |\n November 3 |\n **[Phoenix Cardinals](/wiki/1991_Phoenix_Cardinals_season \"1991 Phoenix Cardinals season\")** |\n **W** 27–7 |\n 6–3 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 61,190 |\n 11 |\n November 10 |\n at [Houston Oilers](/wiki/1991_Houston_Oilers_season \"1991 Houston Oilers season\") |\n **L** 23–26 {{Small\\|(OT)}} |\n 6–4 |\n [Astrodome](/wiki/Astrodome \"Astrodome\") |\n 63,001 |\n 12 |\n November 17 |\n at **[New York Giants](/wiki/1991_New_York_Giants_season \"1991 New York Giants season\")** |\n **L** 9–22 |\n 6–5 |\n [Giants Stadium](/wiki/Giants_Stadium \"Giants Stadium\") |\n 76,410 |\n 13 |\n November 24 |\n at **[Washington Redskins](/wiki/1991_Washington_Redskins_season \"1991 Washington Redskins season\")** |\n **W** 24–21 |\n 7–5 |\n [RFK Stadium](/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Memorial_Stadium \"Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium\") |\n 55,561 |\n 14 |\n [November 28](/wiki/NFL_on_Thanksgiving_Day \"NFL on Thanksgiving Day\") |\n [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/1991_Pittsburgh_Steelers_season \"1991 Pittsburgh Steelers season\") |\n **W** 20–10 |\n 8–5 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 62,253 |\n 15 |\n December 8 |\n [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/1991_New_Orleans_Saints_season \"1991 New Orleans Saints season\") |\n **W** 23–14 |\n 9–5 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 64,530 |\n 16 |\n December 15 |\n at **[Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/1991_Philadelphia_Eagles_season \"1991 Philadelphia Eagles season\")** |\n **W** 25–13 |\n 10–5 |\n [Veterans Stadium](/wiki/Veterans_Stadium \"Veterans Stadium\") |\n 65,854 |\n 17 |\n December 22 |\n [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/1991_Atlanta_Falcons_season \"1991 Atlanta Falcons season\") |\n **W** 31–27 |\n 11–5 |\n Texas Stadium |\n 60,962 |\n **Note:** Intra\\-division opponents are in **bold** text.", "### Playoffs", "{{main\\|1991–92 NFL playoffs}}", "| Round", "Date", "Opponent (seed)", "Result", "Record", "Venue", "| |", "Wild Card |\n December 29, 1991 |\n at [Chicago Bears](/wiki/1991_Chicago_Bears_season \"1991 Chicago Bears season\") (4\\) |\n **W** 17–13 |\n 1–0 |\n [Soldier Field](/wiki/Soldier_Field \"Soldier Field\") |\n Divisional |\n January 5, 1992 |\n at [Detroit Lions](/wiki/1991_Detroit_Lions_season \"1991 Detroit Lions season\") (2\\) |\n **L** 6–38 |\n 1–1 |\n [Pontiac Silverdome](/wiki/Pontiac_Silverdome \"Pontiac Silverdome\") |", "", "### Standings", "{{1991 NFC East standings}}", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- He began his career in 1970 as a [journalist](/wiki/Journalist "Journalist") at [ORTF](/wiki/Office_de_radiodiffusion-t%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_fran%C3%A7aise "Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française"). In [1974](/wiki/1974 "1974"), he became head of domestic politics at [TF1](/wiki/TF1 "TF1"),"Patrice Duhamel," *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%28magazine%29 "Vanity Fair (magazine)")* no. 51, October 2017, page 44\. followed by head of politics and social affairs in [1976](/wiki/1976 "1976"). In 1980, the channel entrusted him with a political program called *Le Grand Débat*. He was also [editor\-in\-chief](/wiki/Editor-in-chief "Editor-in-chief") for several months in 1981\. In 1986, he was appointed deputy director and then program director at [RMC](/wiki/RMC_%28France%29 "RMC (France)") and in 1987, he returned to television as head of information at [La Cinq](/wiki/La_Cinq "La Cinq"). In 1993, he returned to public service as head of programming and later as director of programs at [France Inter](/wiki/France_Inter "France Inter"). Appointed [general director](/wiki/General_director "General director") of broadcasting at [Radio France](/wiki/Radio_France "Radio France") in 1996, he was the general director in charge of programming at [France 3](/wiki/France_3 "France 3") from {{Date\|June 1996}} to {{Date\|July 1998}}. Formerly general director in charge of programming at [France 2](/wiki/France_2 "France 2"), he joined the *[Le Figaro](/wiki/Le_Figaro "Le Figaro")* group in 1999 as deputy general director and publisher of *[Figaro Magazine](/wiki/Figaro_Magazine "Figaro Magazine")* and *[Madame Figaro](/wiki/Madame_Figaro "Madame Figaro")* alongside [Yves de Chaisemartin](/wiki/Yves_de_Chaisemartin "Yves de Chaisemartin"), chairman of the executive board, and Michel Senamaud, general administrator. He was the general director of [France Télévisions](/wiki/France_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9visions "France Télévisions") in charge of programming and diversification during [Patrick de Carolis](/wiki/Patrick_de_Carolis "Patrick de Carolis")' presidency of the group. He had often collaborated with him professionally. He also served as president of the [École de journalisme et de communication d'Aix\-Marseille](/wiki/%C3%89cole_de_journalisme_et_de_communication_d%27Aix-Marseille "École de journalisme et de communication d'Aix-Marseille"). He had no family relation with political scientist [Olivier Duhamel](/wiki/Olivier_Duhamel "Olivier Duhamel").
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "He began his career in 1970 as a [journalist](/wiki/Journalist \"Journalist\") at [ORTF](/wiki/Office_de_radiodiffusion-t%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_fran%C3%A7aise \"Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française\"). In [1974](/wiki/1974 \"1974\"), he became head of domestic politics at [TF1](/wiki/TF1 \"TF1\"),\"Patrice Duhamel,\" *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%28magazine%29 \"Vanity Fair (magazine)\")* no. 51, October 2017, page 44\\. followed by head of politics and social affairs in [1976](/wiki/1976 \"1976\"). In 1980, the channel entrusted him with a political program called *Le Grand Débat*. He was also [editor\\-in\\-chief](/wiki/Editor-in-chief \"Editor-in-chief\") for several months in 1981\\.", "In 1986, he was appointed deputy director and then program director at [RMC](/wiki/RMC_%28France%29 \"RMC (France)\") and in 1987, he returned to television as head of information at [La Cinq](/wiki/La_Cinq \"La Cinq\"). In 1993, he returned to public service as head of programming and later as director of programs at [France Inter](/wiki/France_Inter \"France Inter\").", "Appointed [general director](/wiki/General_director \"General director\") of broadcasting at [Radio France](/wiki/Radio_France \"Radio France\") in 1996, he was the general director in charge of programming at [France 3](/wiki/France_3 \"France 3\") from {{Date\\|June 1996}} to {{Date\\|July 1998}}.", "Formerly general director in charge of programming at [France 2](/wiki/France_2 \"France 2\"), he joined the *[Le Figaro](/wiki/Le_Figaro \"Le Figaro\")* group in 1999 as deputy general director and publisher of *[Figaro Magazine](/wiki/Figaro_Magazine \"Figaro Magazine\")* and *[Madame Figaro](/wiki/Madame_Figaro \"Madame Figaro\")* alongside [Yves de Chaisemartin](/wiki/Yves_de_Chaisemartin \"Yves de Chaisemartin\"), chairman of the executive board, and Michel Senamaud, general administrator.", "He was the general director of [France Télévisions](/wiki/France_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9visions \"France Télévisions\") in charge of programming and diversification during [Patrick de Carolis](/wiki/Patrick_de_Carolis \"Patrick de Carolis\")' presidency of the group. He had often collaborated with him professionally.", "He also served as president of the [École de journalisme et de communication d'Aix\\-Marseille](/wiki/%C3%89cole_de_journalisme_et_de_communication_d%27Aix-Marseille \"École de journalisme et de communication d'Aix-Marseille\").", "He had no family relation with political scientist [Olivier Duhamel](/wiki/Olivier_Duhamel \"Olivier Duhamel\").", "" ]
Song ---- The enduring popularity of the song reflects the traditional role that the [wool](/wiki/Wool "Wool") industry has played in Australian life. The song describes the various roles in the [shearing shed](/wiki/Shearing_shed "Shearing shed"), including the "ringer", the "boss of the board", the "colonial experience man" and the "tar boy". After the day's shearing, the "old shearer" takes his [cheque](/wiki/Cheque "Cheque") and heads to the local [pub](/wiki/Pub "Pub") for a drinking session. The tune is from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") song "[Ring the Bell, Watchman](/wiki/Ring_the_Bell%2C_Watchman "Ring the Bell, Watchman")", by [Henry Clay Work](/wiki/Henry_Clay_Work "Henry Clay Work"), and the first verse follows closely, in parody, Work's lyrics as well. It was originally named "The Bare Bellied Ewe",{{cite news \|title\=The Bare Belled Ewe \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article89280995 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-17 \|work\=The Bacchus Marsh Express \|date\=1891\-12\-05 \|page\=7 \|via\=Trove}} and only became popular in the 1950s, more than half a century later. [thumb\|A pair of blade shears](/wiki/File:BladeShears.jpg "BladeShears.jpg") The second verse in the original 19th\-century song is as follows: {{poemquote\|1\= Click goes his shears; click, click, click. Wide are the blows, and his hand is moving quick, The ringer looks round, for he lost it by a blow, And he curses that old shearer with the bare belled ewe.}} The usual chorus of the song is as follows: {{poemquote\|1\= Click go the shears boys, click, click, click, Wide is his blow and his hands move quick, The ringer looks around and is beaten by a blow, And curses the old snagger with the bare\-bellied yoe}} In June 2013, folklorist Mark Gregory discovered that a version of the song was first published in 1891 in the regional Victorian newspaper the *[Bacchus Marsh Express](/wiki/Bacchus_Marsh_Express "Bacchus Marsh Express")* under the title "The Bare Belled Ewe" and the tune given as "Ring the Bell Watchman." That version was signed "C. C. Eynesbury, Nov. 20, 1891," *Eynesbury* being a rural property in the [Bacchus Marsh](/wiki/Bacchus_Marsh "Bacchus Marsh") area.{{cite news \|title\=Eynesbury \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article88346409 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-17 \|work\=The Bacchus Marsh Express \|date\=1896\-04\-11 \|page\=1 \|via\=Trove}} It is possible that "C.C." was the author of the song. There was a [shearers' strike](/wiki/1891_Australian_shearers%27_strike "1891 Australian shearers' strike") in 1891 so the publication of the song in that year would have resonated with the [Australian](/wiki/Australians "Australians") community.{{cite web \|title\=Click Go The Shears dates from time of shearers strike in 1890s, newly unearthed lyrics reveal \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\-01\-31/unearthed\-lyrics\-reveal\-early\-version\-of\-click\-go\-the\-shears/5230018 \|website\=ABC News \|publisher\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-17 \|date\=2014\-01\-31}} The song was next published in 1939 in two Australian newspapers and then, in 1946, as a traditional song "collected and arranged" by [musicologist](/wiki/Musicology "Musicology") the Reverend Dr Percy Jones. The lyrics vary widely: "bare\-bellied yoe" (yoe is a dialect word for [ewe](/wiki/Domestic_sheep "Domestic sheep")) is often "bare\-bellied joe" or even "blue\-bellied ewe". The last line in the verse about the "colonial experience" man "smelling like a whore" is often [bowdlerised](/wiki/Bowdlerised "Bowdlerised") to "smelling like a sewer" or completely rewritten.{{Fact\|date\=August 2024}} The song has been recorded by many artists, notably in 1958 by the [American](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America") [folk musician](/wiki/Folk_music "Folk music") [Burl Ives](/wiki/Burl_Ives "Burl Ives"), on his album *[Australian Folk Songs](/wiki/Australian_Folk_Songs "Australian Folk Songs")*. Another version was recorded by the [British](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") [folklorist](/wiki/Folklorist "Folklorist") [A. L. Lloyd](/wiki/A._L._Lloyd "A. L. Lloyd"). In January 2014, [Chloe and Jason Roweth](/wiki/Chloe_and_Jason_Roweth "Chloe and Jason Roweth") sang the 1891 version of the song for an [ABC TV](/wiki/ABC_Television_%28Australian_TV_network%29 "ABC Television (Australian TV network)") story. When Australia replaced the [pound](/wiki/Australian_pound "Australian pound") with the [dollar](/wiki/Australian_dollar "Australian dollar") in 1966, a jingle that accompanied the changover was written to the same tune:{{cite web \|title\=Dollar Bill Turns 50 Years Old \|url\=https://museum.rba.gov.au/exhibitions/the\-decimal\-revolution/dollar\-bill/ \|publisher\=Reserve Bank of Australia \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-17}} {{poemquote\|1\= In come the dollars; in come the cents, To replace the pounds and the shillings and the pence, Be prepared folks, when the coins begin to mix, On the fourteenth of February, nineteen\-sixty\-six.}} In 1973, when [Gough Whitlam](/wiki/Gough_Whitlam "Gough Whitlam"), the then Australian Prime Minister, visited the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China"), a PLA (People's Liberation Army) military band played "Click Go the Shears" as Whitlam stepped off his aircraft at [Beijing Airport](/wiki/Beijing_Capital_International_Airport "Beijing Capital International Airport"). In 1988, Australian\-British singer [Olivia Newton\-John](/wiki/Olivia_Newton-John "Olivia Newton-John") included the song in her [Olivia Down Under](/wiki/Olivia_Down_Under "Olivia Down Under") television special.
[ "Song\n----", "The enduring popularity of the song reflects the traditional role that the [wool](/wiki/Wool \"Wool\") industry has played in Australian life. The song describes the various roles in the [shearing shed](/wiki/Shearing_shed \"Shearing shed\"), including the \"ringer\", the \"boss of the board\", the \"colonial experience man\" and the \"tar boy\". After the day's shearing, the \"old shearer\" takes his [cheque](/wiki/Cheque \"Cheque\") and heads to the local [pub](/wiki/Pub \"Pub\") for a drinking session.", "The tune is from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") song \"[Ring the Bell, Watchman](/wiki/Ring_the_Bell%2C_Watchman \"Ring the Bell, Watchman\")\", by [Henry Clay Work](/wiki/Henry_Clay_Work \"Henry Clay Work\"), and the first verse follows closely, in parody, Work's lyrics as well. It was originally named \"The Bare Bellied Ewe\",{{cite news \\|title\\=The Bare Belled Ewe \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article89280995 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-17 \\|work\\=The Bacchus Marsh Express \\|date\\=1891\\-12\\-05 \\|page\\=7 \\|via\\=Trove}} and only became popular in the 1950s, more than half a century later.", "[thumb\\|A pair of blade shears](/wiki/File:BladeShears.jpg \"BladeShears.jpg\")", "The second verse in the original 19th\\-century song is as follows:\n{{poemquote\\|1\\=\nClick goes his shears; click, click, click.\nWide are the blows, and his hand is moving quick,\nThe ringer looks round, for he lost it by a blow,\nAnd he curses that old shearer with the bare belled ewe.}}", "The usual chorus of the song is as follows:", "{{poemquote\\|1\\=\nClick go the shears boys, click, click, click,\nWide is his blow and his hands move quick,\nThe ringer looks around and is beaten by a blow,\nAnd curses the old snagger with the bare\\-bellied yoe}}", "In June 2013, folklorist Mark Gregory discovered that a version of the song was first published in 1891 in the regional Victorian newspaper the *[Bacchus Marsh Express](/wiki/Bacchus_Marsh_Express \"Bacchus Marsh Express\")* under the title \"The Bare Belled Ewe\" and the tune given as \"Ring the Bell Watchman.\" That version was signed \"C. C. Eynesbury, Nov. 20, 1891,\" *Eynesbury* being a rural property in the [Bacchus Marsh](/wiki/Bacchus_Marsh \"Bacchus Marsh\") area.{{cite news \\|title\\=Eynesbury \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article88346409 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-17 \\|work\\=The Bacchus Marsh Express \\|date\\=1896\\-04\\-11 \\|page\\=1 \\|via\\=Trove}} It is possible that \"C.C.\" was the author of the song.", "There was a [shearers' strike](/wiki/1891_Australian_shearers%27_strike \"1891 Australian shearers' strike\") in 1891 so the publication of the song in that year would have resonated with the [Australian](/wiki/Australians \"Australians\") community.{{cite web \\|title\\=Click Go The Shears dates from time of shearers strike in 1890s, newly unearthed lyrics reveal \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\\-01\\-31/unearthed\\-lyrics\\-reveal\\-early\\-version\\-of\\-click\\-go\\-the\\-shears/5230018 \\|website\\=ABC News \\|publisher\\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-17 \\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-31}}", "The song was next published in 1939 in two Australian newspapers and then, in 1946, as a traditional song \"collected and arranged\" by [musicologist](/wiki/Musicology \"Musicology\") the Reverend Dr Percy Jones. The lyrics vary widely: \"bare\\-bellied yoe\" (yoe is a dialect word for [ewe](/wiki/Domestic_sheep \"Domestic sheep\")) is often \"bare\\-bellied joe\" or even \"blue\\-bellied ewe\". The last line in the verse about the \"colonial experience\" man \"smelling like a whore\" is often [bowdlerised](/wiki/Bowdlerised \"Bowdlerised\") to \"smelling like a sewer\" or completely rewritten.{{Fact\\|date\\=August 2024}}", "The song has been recorded by many artists, notably in 1958 by the [American](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\") [folk musician](/wiki/Folk_music \"Folk music\") [Burl Ives](/wiki/Burl_Ives \"Burl Ives\"), on his album *[Australian Folk Songs](/wiki/Australian_Folk_Songs \"Australian Folk Songs\")*. Another version was recorded by the [British](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") [folklorist](/wiki/Folklorist \"Folklorist\") [A. L. Lloyd](/wiki/A._L._Lloyd \"A. L. Lloyd\"). In January 2014, [Chloe and Jason Roweth](/wiki/Chloe_and_Jason_Roweth \"Chloe and Jason Roweth\") sang the 1891 version of the song for an [ABC TV](/wiki/ABC_Television_%28Australian_TV_network%29 \"ABC Television (Australian TV network)\") story.", "When Australia replaced the [pound](/wiki/Australian_pound \"Australian pound\") with the [dollar](/wiki/Australian_dollar \"Australian dollar\") in 1966, a jingle that accompanied the changover was written to the same tune:{{cite web \\|title\\=Dollar Bill Turns 50 Years Old \\|url\\=https://museum.rba.gov.au/exhibitions/the\\-decimal\\-revolution/dollar\\-bill/ \\|publisher\\=Reserve Bank of Australia \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-17}}", "{{poemquote\\|1\\=\nIn come the dollars; in come the cents,\nTo replace the pounds and the shillings and the pence,\nBe prepared folks, when the coins begin to mix,\nOn the fourteenth of February, nineteen\\-sixty\\-six.}}", "In 1973, when [Gough Whitlam](/wiki/Gough_Whitlam \"Gough Whitlam\"), the then Australian Prime Minister, visited the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\"), a PLA (People's Liberation Army) military band played \"Click Go the Shears\" as Whitlam stepped off his aircraft at [Beijing Airport](/wiki/Beijing_Capital_International_Airport \"Beijing Capital International Airport\").", "In 1988, Australian\\-British singer [Olivia Newton\\-John](/wiki/Olivia_Newton-John \"Olivia Newton-John\") included the song in her [Olivia Down Under](/wiki/Olivia_Down_Under \"Olivia Down Under\") television special.", "" ]
Flight ------ {{Location map many \| Pakistan \| relief \= 1 \| width \= \| caption \= A map showing the locations of the Chitral airport (CJL); Islamabad's Benazir Bhutto International Airport (ISB); and Havelian, the location of the crash site. \| alt \= Location of departure and destination airports \| \| label1 \= '''CJL''' \| label1\_size \= \| position1 \= \| background1 \= \| mark1 \= Airplane silhouette.svg \| mark1size \= \| link1 \= \| lat1\_deg \= 35 \| lat1\_min \= 52 \| lat1\_sec \= 54 \| lat1\_dir \= N \| lon1\_deg \= 71 \| lon1\_min \= 47 \| lon1\_sec \= 53 \| lon1\_dir \= E \| \| label2 \= Crash site \| label2\_size \= \| position2 \= \| background2 \= \| mark2 \= City locator 9\.svg \| mark2size \= \| link2 \= \| lat2\_deg \= 34 \| lat2\_min \= 01 \| lat2\_sec \= 43 \| lat2\_dir \= N \| lon2\_deg \= 73 \| lon2\_min \= 09 \| lon2\_sec \= 09 \| lon2\_dir \= E \| \| label3 \= '''ISB''' \| label3\_size \= \| position3 \= bottom \| background3 \= \| mark3 \= Airplane silhouette.svg \| mark3size \= \| link3 \= \| lat3\_deg \= 33 \| lat3\_min \= 36 \| lat3\_sec \= 59 \| lat3\_dir \= N \| lon3\_deg \= 73 \| lon3\_min \= 05 \| lon3\_sec \= 57 \| lon3\_dir \= E }} Flight 661 was a flight from Chitral, the capital of Chitral District located in the mountainous region of [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa"), to Pakistan's capital of Islamabad. The flight was scheduled for twice a week and was expected to take off at 15:30 [PST](/wiki/Pakistan_Standard_Time "Pakistan Standard Time"). The expected time of arrival in Islamabad's [Benazir Bhutto International Airport](/wiki/Benazir_Bhutto_International_Airport "Benazir Bhutto International Airport") was at around 16:40 local time.{{Rp\|2,7}} The aircraft left [Chitral Airport's](/wiki/Chitral_Airport "Chitral Airport") Runway 20 at 15:38, with trainee first officer Ahmed Janjua as the pilot flying and Captain Saleh Janjua as the co\-pilot and pilot monitoring. The trainee first officer was flying for route familiarization, while another cockpit crew, First Officer Akram, was sitting at the back of the cockpit on the jumpseat to observe him as well. The weather in the region was fine and there was no recorded significant activity on the radar.{{cite web\|title\=PIA plane crashes near Abbottabad, all passengers feared dead\|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/170426\-PIA\-plane\-crashed\-near\-Abbottabad\|publisher\=\[\[The News International]]\|access\-date\=7 December 2016\|website\=The News }}{{Rp\|4,7}} Cruising at FL135, the airspeed was stabilized at 186 knots. After everything was set, Captain Janjua decided to make an announcement to the passengers.{{Rp\|8}} ### Start of anomaly While he was making the announcement, he was interrupted by the trainee first officer, who informed him that an alert of a mechanical fault on the Propeller Electrical Control\-1 (PEC\-1\) had suddenly appeared. Captain Janjua asked the crew to read the procedure checklist for such issue and ordered the trainee first officer to call the flight engineer in the cabin to the cockpit. He turned his attention back to the PA system to complete his announcement. After completing it, he asked the crew to read the checklist again. The crew decided to reset the PEC\-1\. By this time, the airspeed had dropped to {{convert\|146\|knot\|km/h mph}}.{{Rp\|8}} The alert appeared for the second time. First Officer Akram, who was sitting on the cockpit jumpseat, asked the throttle lever to be moved to 100% and to override the PEC, while Captain Janjua asked the trainee first officer to read the checklist once more. The lever was moved to 100% while the PEC was put into a reset again for three times, but the fault stayed on. Failing to resolve the issue, they decided to switch off the PEC. Meanwhile, the airspeed started to increase due to the lever setting.{{Rp\|9}} In accordance with PIA's policy, Captain Janjua took over the controls from the trainee first officer while First Officer Akram switched his seat with the latter pilot, becoming the co\-pilot for the rest of the flight. Shortly after, Captain Janjua informed the controller in [Cherat](/wiki/Cherat "Cherat") about his intention to switch to Islamabad Control. The controller approved his request and asked the crew to report back once they had reached Islamabad.{{Rp\|10}} Shortly after, the pilots began to notice an abnormal sound coming from the engines. The torque of the left engine rapidly dropped from 75% to 0%, while the speed of the left propeller quickly accelerated to 102%. The airspeed immediately dropped to {{convert\|154\|knot\|km/h mph}} and the aircraft started to drift towards the left. Captain Janjua announced that they had lost the left engine and attempted engine feathering. The fuel flow to the engine was shut off and the engine was shut down. The crew successfully slowed the loss of airspeed. The speed of the left propeller then decreased, hovering at around 25%.{{Rp\|10–13}} ### Struggle for control {{External media \|float \= right \|topic \= ATC recording \|subtopic \= \|video1 \= {{YouTube\|Q\_9WwZJLhLY\|ATC recording during the accident}} }} At 16:11 local time, Captain Janjua ordered First Officer Akram to request permission for the flight to descend and to make a mayday call. During this time, the speed of the left propeller was still relatively low, with an amount of below 25%. The speed then gradually increased to 50% in 26 seconds before it suddenly jumped to 120 – 125% in just 8 seconds. The cockpit crew initially didn't notice the change in the sound of the propeller, but when the propeller suddenly accelerated it took the crew by surprise as the noise quickly intensified, prompting Captain Janjua to ask the crew about the sound. While he was asking, the sound continued to become louder and a massive drag force had just been generated on the left side of the aircraft.{{Rp\|13}} The heavy drag led the autopilot to be disconnected and caused the aircraft to start banking gradually to the left. The aircraft was then manually flown by the pilots. Due to the massive left drag, Captain Janjua had to apply excessive force to the rudder and aileron to keep the aircraft from being pulled towards the left. Despite the huge input that he had applied, his efforts were in vain as the aircraft kept moving to the left. In addition, the airspeed was constantly decreasing, creeping towards the aircraft's stall speed. The crew didn't understand the reason for the aircraft's unusual behaviour. They noticed that their attempted feathering of the left engine earlier had failed and decided to try another attempt of engine feathering, but it failed again. In his effort to stabilize the flight, Captain Janjua added more thrust to the right engine several times, but his actions somehow aggravated the situation as it worsened the condition.{{Rp\|13–15}} ### First plunge and initial recovery [thumb\|300px\|Illustration of the flight profile during the accident](/wiki/File:Illustration_of_the_flight_profile_during_the_accident_%28PK661%29_%282%29.png "Illustration of the flight profile during the accident (PK661) (2).png") The faulty engine suddenly fixed itself as the speed of the left propeller dropped from over 120% to just around 25% in seconds. In an instant, the massive drag force on the left side of the aircraft vanished. As Captain Janjua made excessive right turn inputs on the control column, the aircraft immediately banked to the right at a large angle, taking the crew by surprise. The aircraft flipped over, barrel\-rolled, and then plunged for {{convert\|5,100\|ft\|m\|0}} with the right wing perpendicular to the ground. This lasted a total of 24 seconds. Panicking, the crew repeatedly tried to save the aircraft from rolling by deflecting the aileron to the left. They eventually managed to regain control and level the wings.{{Rp\|17}} The crew was clearly traumatized by the incident as they could be heard hyperventilating and their voices were trembling. First Officer Akram asked whether there was something wrong with the power. The other crew members were still confused about the exact cause of the aircraft's bizarre state. They were so terrified by the plunge that they couldn't have a structured discussion. Meanwhile, the speed of the left propeller had stabilized to under 5%. Despite this, a massive drag generated on the left side again as the blade pitch was in an angle that was close to a low pitch angle. The power lever was moved forward, but the airspeed kept decaying. The state of the aircraft's performance had largely degraded. It was impossible for the crew to reach Islamabad unless they put the aircraft into a gradual descent, even though they were flying over a mountainous area. The crew reluctantly descended the aircraft to preserve the remaining airspeed, which was continuously decreasing. As they became closer to the ground, the crew tried to decrease the rate of descent, but as a result, this increased the depletion rate of the airspeed. The trainee first officer at the back, fearing another plunge, repeatedly advised the crew not to put the aircraft into a bank. He requested that the captain maintains an altitude of {{convert\|5,200\|ft\|m\|0}}. Captain Janjua attempted to comply, but had to reduce the rate of descent, causing the airspeed to decrease and trigger the stick shaker. The crew then alerted the controller in Islamabad and declared multiple Mayday calls requesting priority landing. Seeing the oncoming mountain, Captain Janjua desperately tried to turn the aircraft to the right. He was successful as the aircraft gradually turned, but the airspeed continued to deplete, causing stall warnings to blare inside the cockpit. Immediately afterwards, the aircraft started to turn to the left again. Their airspeed was at {{convert\|156\|knot\|km/h mph}} and their altitude was at {{convert\|5,280\|ft\|m\|0}}, with merely hundreds of feet being left from the ground.{{Rp\|18–19}} ### Final plunge Captain Janjua tried to stop the aircraft from turning to the left with great effort as the large drag on the left side had forced the crew to make large right input on the controls. The turn, however, became more uncontrollable and the airspeed continued to drop. The aircraft continued to lose its altitude and became nearer to the mountainous terrain. Captain Janjua tried hard to level the wings and to avoid the mountains by making excessive right turn input and modulating the thrust on the right engine, but he didn't realize that by that time it was not possible anymore for the aircraft to fly over the mountains. The TAWS warned the crew on the impending collision with terrain, while the crew desperately tried to save the aircraft from the mountains by holding the altitude. In doing so, the airspeed continued to decay further.{{Rp\|19}} The aircraft finally reached a dangerously low speed and the stall warning sounded again inside the cockpit. At {{convert\|850\|ft\|m\|0}} above ground, the left wing completely stalled and the aircraft banked 90 degrees to the left, nosediving into the mountain. It slammed onto terrain at a speed of {{convert\|138\|kn\|km/h mph}} and disintegrated. The aircraft crashed at about 16:15, leaving wreckage ablaze on the side of a hill between the villages of Saddha Batolni and Gug, near the [Pakistan Ordnance Factory](/wiki/Pakistan_Ordnance_Factory "Pakistan Ordnance Factory") in Havelian in [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa") province about {{convert\|90\|km\|mi nmi}} from the airport. The wreckage was reported to be strewn over an area about {{convert\|2\|km\|mi}} across.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.newser.com/article/f2cd537617c14880afd7783ed635dace/pakistan\-opens\-probe\-into\-deadly\-plane\-crash\-that\-killed\-47\.html\|title\=Pakistan opens probe into deadly plane crash that killed 47\|agency\=Associated Press\|last1\=Shahzad\|first1\=Asif\|last2\=Ahmed\|first2\=Munir\|date\=8 December 2016\|access\-date\=8 December 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208141114/http://www.newser.com/article/f2cd537617c14880afd7783ed635dace/pakistan\-opens\-probe\-into\-deadly\-plane\-crash\-that\-killed\-47\.html\|archive\-date\=8 December 2016\|df\=dmy\-all}}{{Rp\|19}} [thumb\|View of the crash site](/wiki/File:View_of_the_wreckage_field_%28PK661%29.png "View of the wreckage field (PK661).png") All 47 passengers and crew members were killed in the crash. This was the seventh aircraft accident resulting in [hull loss](/wiki/Hull_loss "Hull loss") sustained by PIA since 2000\. Of the previous six, one resulted in fatalities; that of [Pakistan International Airlines Flight 688](/wiki/Pakistan_International_Airlines_Flight_688 "Pakistan International Airlines Flight 688") in 2006, in which 45 people died.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/atr\-crash\-is\-pias\-tenth\-hull\-loss\-since\-2000\-432228/ \|title\=ATR crash is PIA's tenth hull loss since 2000 \|first\=Greg \|last\=Davies \|publisher\=Flightglobal \|access\-date\=8 December 2016}} Coincidentally, the crash happened on [International Civil Aviation Day](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Day "International Civil Aviation Day").{{cite news\|author\=Chappell, Bill\|title\=Plane Crashes In Northern Pakistan; 48 People Are Believed Dead\|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo\-way/2016/12/07/504682541/plane\-crashes\-in\-northern\-pakistan\-48\-people\-are\-believed\-dead\|publisher\=NPR\|accessdate\=19 July 2022}} ### Rescue operation According to an eyewitness, Mohammad Haroon, the aircraft flew at a very low altitude and made a high\-pitched noise, flying in an erratic, up\-and\-down mode before crashing into the hillside. "There was a huge bang after the plane hit the mountainside and caught fire".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1301192/nation\-in\-grief\-over\-airliner\-tragedy\|title\=Nation in grief over airliner tragedy\|work\=Dawn\|first1\=Rashid\|last1\=Javed\|first2\=Manzoor\|last2\=Ali\|date\=8 December 2016\|access\-date\=8 December 2016}} Announcements were broadcast by local mosques to mobilise villagers, who rushed to the site to look for survivors but were unable to get close due to the heat of the fire. [Pakistan Army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army "Pakistan Army") personnel and helicopters were also sent to the area for search and rescue operations. Ambulances could not reach the crash site due to absence of road access. Rescuers had to carry the bodies down to the assembly point below. The remains were taken by air to forensic laboratories in Islamabad and [Rawalpindi](/wiki/Rawalpindi "Rawalpindi") for DNA testing to aid identification. On the evening of 8 December, the rescue operation was ended by officials as rescuers managed to recover all 47 victims from the crash site.{{cite web\|title\=PIA crash victims to be identified by DNA\|date\=8 December 2016 \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1257236/pia\-crash\-victims\-identified\-dna\|publisher\=The Express Tribune\|accessdate\=18 July 2022}}
[ "Flight\n------", "{{Location map many\n\\| Pakistan\n\\| relief \\= 1\n\\| width \\=\n\\| caption \\= A map showing the locations of the Chitral airport (CJL); Islamabad's Benazir Bhutto International Airport (ISB); and Havelian, the location of the crash site.\n\\| alt \\= Location of departure and destination airports\n\\| \n\\| label1 \\= '''CJL'''\n\\| label1\\_size \\= \n\\| position1 \\= \n\\| background1 \\= \n\\| mark1 \\= Airplane silhouette.svg\n\\| mark1size \\=\n\\| link1 \\= \n\\| lat1\\_deg \\= 35\n\\| lat1\\_min \\= 52\n\\| lat1\\_sec \\= 54\n\\| lat1\\_dir \\= N\n\\| lon1\\_deg \\= 71\n\\| lon1\\_min \\= 47\n\\| lon1\\_sec \\= 53\n\\| lon1\\_dir \\= E\n\\| \n\\| label2 \\= Crash site\n\\| label2\\_size \\=\n\\| position2 \\= \n\\| background2 \\= \n\\| mark2 \\= City locator 9\\.svg\n\\| mark2size \\=\n\\| link2 \\=\n\\| lat2\\_deg \\= 34\n\\| lat2\\_min \\= 01\n\\| lat2\\_sec \\= 43\n\\| lat2\\_dir \\= N\n\\| lon2\\_deg \\= 73\n\\| lon2\\_min \\= 09\n\\| lon2\\_sec \\= 09\n\\| lon2\\_dir \\= E\n\\| \n\\| label3 \\= '''ISB'''\n\\| label3\\_size \\=\n\\| position3 \\= bottom\n\\| background3 \\= \n\\| mark3 \\= Airplane silhouette.svg\n\\| mark3size \\=\n\\| link3 \\=\n\\| lat3\\_deg \\= 33\n\\| lat3\\_min \\= 36\n\\| lat3\\_sec \\= 59\n\\| lat3\\_dir \\= N\n\\| lon3\\_deg \\= 73\n\\| lon3\\_min \\= 05\n\\| lon3\\_sec \\= 57\n\\| lon3\\_dir \\= E\n}}\nFlight 661 was a flight from Chitral, the capital of Chitral District located in the mountainous region of [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa \"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa\"), to Pakistan's capital of Islamabad. The flight was scheduled for twice a week and was expected to take off at 15:30 [PST](/wiki/Pakistan_Standard_Time \"Pakistan Standard Time\"). The expected time of arrival in Islamabad's [Benazir Bhutto International Airport](/wiki/Benazir_Bhutto_International_Airport \"Benazir Bhutto International Airport\") was at around 16:40 local time.{{Rp\\|2,7}}", "The aircraft left [Chitral Airport's](/wiki/Chitral_Airport \"Chitral Airport\") Runway 20 at 15:38, with trainee first officer Ahmed Janjua as the pilot flying and Captain Saleh Janjua as the co\\-pilot and pilot monitoring. The trainee first officer was flying for route familiarization, while another cockpit crew, First Officer Akram, was sitting at the back of the cockpit on the jumpseat to observe him as well. The weather in the region was fine and there was no recorded significant activity on the radar.{{cite web\\|title\\=PIA plane crashes near Abbottabad, all passengers feared dead\\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/170426\\-PIA\\-plane\\-crashed\\-near\\-Abbottabad\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The News International]]\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2016\\|website\\=The News }}{{Rp\\|4,7}}", "Cruising at FL135, the airspeed was stabilized at 186 knots. After everything was set, Captain Janjua decided to make an announcement to the passengers.{{Rp\\|8}}", "### Start of anomaly", "While he was making the announcement, he was interrupted by the trainee first officer, who informed him that an alert of a mechanical fault on the Propeller Electrical Control\\-1 (PEC\\-1\\) had suddenly appeared. Captain Janjua asked the crew to read the procedure checklist for such issue and ordered the trainee first officer to call the flight engineer in the cabin to the cockpit. He turned his attention back to the PA system to complete his announcement. After completing it, he asked the crew to read the checklist again. The crew decided to reset the PEC\\-1\\. By this time, the airspeed had dropped to {{convert\\|146\\|knot\\|km/h mph}}.{{Rp\\|8}}", "The alert appeared for the second time. First Officer Akram, who was sitting on the cockpit jumpseat, asked the throttle lever to be moved to 100% and to override the PEC, while Captain Janjua asked the trainee first officer to read the checklist once more. The lever was moved to 100% while the PEC was put into a reset again for three times, but the fault stayed on. Failing to resolve the issue, they decided to switch off the PEC. Meanwhile, the airspeed started to increase due to the lever setting.{{Rp\\|9}}", "In accordance with PIA's policy, Captain Janjua took over the controls from the trainee first officer while First Officer Akram switched his seat with the latter pilot, becoming the co\\-pilot for the rest of the flight. Shortly after, Captain Janjua informed the controller in [Cherat](/wiki/Cherat \"Cherat\") about his intention to switch to Islamabad Control. The controller approved his request and asked the crew to report back once they had reached Islamabad.{{Rp\\|10}}", "Shortly after, the pilots began to notice an abnormal sound coming from the engines. The torque of the left engine rapidly dropped from 75% to 0%, while the speed of the left propeller quickly accelerated to 102%. The airspeed immediately dropped to {{convert\\|154\\|knot\\|km/h mph}} and the aircraft started to drift towards the left. Captain Janjua announced that they had lost the left engine and attempted engine feathering. The fuel flow to the engine was shut off and the engine was shut down. The crew successfully slowed the loss of airspeed. The speed of the left propeller then decreased, hovering at around 25%.{{Rp\\|10–13}}", "### Struggle for control", "{{External media\n\\|float \\= right\n\\|topic \\= ATC recording \n\\|subtopic \\= \n\\|video1 \\= {{YouTube\\|Q\\_9WwZJLhLY\\|ATC recording during the accident}}\n}}", "At 16:11 local time, Captain Janjua ordered First Officer Akram to request permission for the flight to descend and to make a mayday call. During this time, the speed of the left propeller was still relatively low, with an amount of below 25%. The speed then gradually increased to 50% in 26 seconds before it suddenly jumped to 120 – 125% in just 8 seconds. The cockpit crew initially didn't notice the change in the sound of the propeller, but when the propeller suddenly accelerated it took the crew by surprise as the noise quickly intensified, prompting Captain Janjua to ask the crew about the sound. While he was asking, the sound continued to become louder and a massive drag force had just been generated on the left side of the aircraft.{{Rp\\|13}}", "The heavy drag led the autopilot to be disconnected and caused the aircraft to start banking gradually to the left. The aircraft was then manually flown by the pilots. Due to the massive left drag, Captain Janjua had to apply excessive force to the rudder and aileron to keep the aircraft from being pulled towards the left. Despite the huge input that he had applied, his efforts were in vain as the aircraft kept moving to the left. In addition, the airspeed was constantly decreasing, creeping towards the aircraft's stall speed.", "The crew didn't understand the reason for the aircraft's unusual behaviour. They noticed that their attempted feathering of the left engine earlier had failed and decided to try another attempt of engine feathering, but it failed again. In his effort to stabilize the flight, Captain Janjua added more thrust to the right engine several times, but his actions somehow aggravated the situation as it worsened the condition.{{Rp\\|13–15}}", "### First plunge and initial recovery", "[thumb\\|300px\\|Illustration of the flight profile during the accident](/wiki/File:Illustration_of_the_flight_profile_during_the_accident_%28PK661%29_%282%29.png \"Illustration of the flight profile during the accident (PK661) (2).png\")\nThe faulty engine suddenly fixed itself as the speed of the left propeller dropped from over 120% to just around 25% in seconds. In an instant, the massive drag force on the left side of the aircraft vanished. As Captain Janjua made excessive right turn inputs on the control column, the aircraft immediately banked to the right at a large angle, taking the crew by surprise. The aircraft flipped over, barrel\\-rolled, and then plunged for {{convert\\|5,100\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} with the right wing perpendicular to the ground. This lasted a total of 24 seconds. Panicking, the crew repeatedly tried to save the aircraft from rolling by deflecting the aileron to the left. They eventually managed to regain control and level the wings.{{Rp\\|17}}", "The crew was clearly traumatized by the incident as they could be heard hyperventilating and their voices were trembling. First Officer Akram asked whether there was something wrong with the power. The other crew members were still confused about the exact cause of the aircraft's bizarre state. They were so terrified by the plunge that they couldn't have a structured discussion. Meanwhile, the speed of the left propeller had stabilized to under 5%. Despite this, a massive drag generated on the left side again as the blade pitch was in an angle that was close to a low pitch angle. The power lever was moved forward, but the airspeed kept decaying.", "The state of the aircraft's performance had largely degraded. It was impossible for the crew to reach Islamabad unless they put the aircraft into a gradual descent, even though they were flying over a mountainous area. The crew reluctantly descended the aircraft to preserve the remaining airspeed, which was continuously decreasing. As they became closer to the ground, the crew tried to decrease the rate of descent, but as a result, this increased the depletion rate of the airspeed.", "The trainee first officer at the back, fearing another plunge, repeatedly advised the crew not to put the aircraft into a bank. He requested that the captain maintains an altitude of {{convert\\|5,200\\|ft\\|m\\|0}}. Captain Janjua attempted to comply, but had to reduce the rate of descent, causing the airspeed to decrease and trigger the stick shaker. The crew then alerted the controller in Islamabad and declared multiple Mayday calls requesting priority landing.", "Seeing the oncoming mountain, Captain Janjua desperately tried to turn the aircraft to the right. He was successful as the aircraft gradually turned, but the airspeed continued to deplete, causing stall warnings to blare inside the cockpit. Immediately afterwards, the aircraft started to turn to the left again. Their airspeed was at {{convert\\|156\\|knot\\|km/h mph}} and their altitude was at {{convert\\|5,280\\|ft\\|m\\|0}}, with merely hundreds of feet being left from the ground.{{Rp\\|18–19}}", "### Final plunge", "Captain Janjua tried to stop the aircraft from turning to the left with great effort as the large drag on the left side had forced the crew to make large right input on the controls. The turn, however, became more uncontrollable and the airspeed continued to drop. The aircraft continued to lose its altitude and became nearer to the mountainous terrain. Captain Janjua tried hard to level the wings and to avoid the mountains by making excessive right turn input and modulating the thrust on the right engine, but he didn't realize that by that time it was not possible anymore for the aircraft to fly over the mountains. The TAWS warned the crew on the impending collision with terrain, while the crew desperately tried to save the aircraft from the mountains by holding the altitude. In doing so, the airspeed continued to decay further.{{Rp\\|19}}", "The aircraft finally reached a dangerously low speed and the stall warning sounded again inside the cockpit. At {{convert\\|850\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} above ground, the left wing completely stalled and the aircraft banked 90 degrees to the left, nosediving into the mountain. It slammed onto terrain at a speed of {{convert\\|138\\|kn\\|km/h mph}} and disintegrated. The aircraft crashed at about 16:15, leaving wreckage ablaze on the side of a hill between the villages of Saddha Batolni and Gug, near the [Pakistan Ordnance Factory](/wiki/Pakistan_Ordnance_Factory \"Pakistan Ordnance Factory\") in Havelian in [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa \"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa\") province about {{convert\\|90\\|km\\|mi nmi}} from the airport. The wreckage was reported to be strewn over an area about {{convert\\|2\\|km\\|mi}} across.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.newser.com/article/f2cd537617c14880afd7783ed635dace/pakistan\\-opens\\-probe\\-into\\-deadly\\-plane\\-crash\\-that\\-killed\\-47\\.html\\|title\\=Pakistan opens probe into deadly plane crash that killed 47\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|last1\\=Shahzad\\|first1\\=Asif\\|last2\\=Ahmed\\|first2\\=Munir\\|date\\=8 December 2016\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208141114/http://www.newser.com/article/f2cd537617c14880afd7783ed635dace/pakistan\\-opens\\-probe\\-into\\-deadly\\-plane\\-crash\\-that\\-killed\\-47\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2016\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{Rp\\|19}}", "[thumb\\|View of the crash site](/wiki/File:View_of_the_wreckage_field_%28PK661%29.png \"View of the wreckage field (PK661).png\")\nAll 47 passengers and crew members were killed in the crash. This was the seventh aircraft accident resulting in [hull loss](/wiki/Hull_loss \"Hull loss\") sustained by PIA since 2000\\. Of the previous six, one resulted in fatalities; that of [Pakistan International Airlines Flight 688](/wiki/Pakistan_International_Airlines_Flight_688 \"Pakistan International Airlines Flight 688\") in 2006, in which 45 people died.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/atr\\-crash\\-is\\-pias\\-tenth\\-hull\\-loss\\-since\\-2000\\-432228/ \\|title\\=ATR crash is PIA's tenth hull loss since 2000 \\|first\\=Greg \\|last\\=Davies \\|publisher\\=Flightglobal \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2016}}", "Coincidentally, the crash happened on [International Civil Aviation Day](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Day \"International Civil Aviation Day\").{{cite news\\|author\\=Chappell, Bill\\|title\\=Plane Crashes In Northern Pakistan; 48 People Are Believed Dead\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo\\-way/2016/12/07/504682541/plane\\-crashes\\-in\\-northern\\-pakistan\\-48\\-people\\-are\\-believed\\-dead\\|publisher\\=NPR\\|accessdate\\=19 July 2022}}", "### Rescue operation", "According to an eyewitness, Mohammad Haroon, the aircraft flew at a very low altitude and made a high\\-pitched noise, flying in an erratic, up\\-and\\-down mode before crashing into the hillside. \"There was a huge bang after the plane hit the mountainside and caught fire\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1301192/nation\\-in\\-grief\\-over\\-airliner\\-tragedy\\|title\\=Nation in grief over airliner tragedy\\|work\\=Dawn\\|first1\\=Rashid\\|last1\\=Javed\\|first2\\=Manzoor\\|last2\\=Ali\\|date\\=8 December 2016\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2016}} Announcements were broadcast by local mosques to mobilise villagers, who rushed to the site to look for survivors but were unable to get close due to the heat of the fire. [Pakistan Army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army \"Pakistan Army\") personnel and helicopters were also sent to the area for search and rescue operations. Ambulances could not reach the crash site due to absence of road access. Rescuers had to carry the bodies down to the assembly point below. The remains were taken by air to forensic laboratories in Islamabad and [Rawalpindi](/wiki/Rawalpindi \"Rawalpindi\") for DNA testing to aid identification.", "On the evening of 8 December, the rescue operation was ended by officials as rescuers managed to recover all 47 victims from the crash site.{{cite web\\|title\\=PIA crash victims to be identified by DNA\\|date\\=8 December 2016 \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1257236/pia\\-crash\\-victims\\-identified\\-dna\\|publisher\\=The Express Tribune\\|accessdate\\=18 July 2022}}", "" ]
Investigation ------------- The crash was investigated by members of Safety Investigation Board (later changed into the Aircraft Accident Investigation Board). According to Pakistani newspaper *The Express Tribune*, the crash of Flight 661 was the first ever crash investigation that would be conducted by an independent Safety Investigation Board. According to the decision that had been taken by authorities, the SIB would be separated from the control of CAA, which was operating under the Ministry of Defence. Instead, the SIB would report directly to the Aviation Division.{{cite web\|title\=Safety Investigation Board to do first independent inquiry\|date\=7 December 2016 \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1257094/free\-caa\-safety\-investigation\-board\-first\-independent\-inquiry\|publisher\=The Express Tribune\|accessdate\=18 July 2022}} Assistance would be provided by [French](/wiki/France "France") [BEA](/wiki/Bureau_of_Enquiry_and_Analysis_for_Civil_Aviation_Safety "Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety") and [ATR](/wiki/ATR_%28aircraft_manufacturer%29 "ATR (aircraft manufacturer)"). The [NTSB](/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board "National Transportation Safety Board") of the [United States](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America") also had an active role in the investigation as the propellers were made by US\-based [Woodward Propellers](/wiki/Woodward%2C_Inc. "Woodward, Inc."). Subsequently, [Canadian TSB](/wiki/Transportation_Safety_Board_of_Canada "Transportation Safety Board of Canada") was also involved in the investigation as the engines were manufactured by [Pratt \& Whitney Canada](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney "Pratt & Whitney").{{cite web\|title\=ATR team to arrive in Islamabad to probe PK\-661 crash\|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1259414/atr\-team\-arrive\-islamabad\-probe\-pk\-661\-crash\|publisher\=The Express Trbune\|accessdate\=18 July 2022}} On 12 December, the nine members of the investigation team, three representatives from ATR, three from Pratt \& Whitney Canada, and three from Pakistan, visited the crash site for wreckage examination.{{cite web\|title\=Nine\-Member Investigation Team Visits Pakistan International Airlines Crash Site\|url\=https://www.ndtv.com/world\-news/nine\-member\-investigation\-team\-visits\-pakistan\-international\-airlines\-crash\-site\-1637353\|publisher\=NDTV\|accessdate\=18 July 2022}} Investigators retrieved the aircraft's [flight recorder](/wiki/Flight_recorder "Flight recorder") soon after the crash and it was sent to France for decoding. An initial report into the accident by the [Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority](/wiki/Pakistan_Civil_Aviation_Authority "Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority") (PCAA) was said to have determined that the aircraft's left engine malfunctioned at an altitude of {{convert\|13375\|ft}}. The pilot reported the engine failure at 16:12, which was followed by a rapid uncontrolled descent and the disappearance of the aircraft from [ground radar](/wiki/Air_traffic_control%23Radar_coverage "Air traffic control#Radar coverage") a few minutes later. However, the radio communication continued with radar even after disappearance from the screen of the radar. Early reports speculated that the failed engine exploded and compromised the airframe, leading to the crash, but they have not been substantiated. Manager of Chitral Airport stated that no fault was found inside the aircraft as it had been completely checked by ground workers.{{cite web\|title\=Engine failure aside, fresh questions arise\|date\=8 December 2016 \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1258073/engine\-failure\-aside\-fresh\-questions\-arise\|publisher\=The Express Tribune\|accessdate\=18 July 2022}} Chairman of PIA also claimed that the aircraft was "technically sound", while PIA spokesperson Danyal Gilani further accused the media of "baseless accusation", stating that "it defies common sense that pilots will fly aircraft with defects".{{cite web\|title\=Defies common sense that pilots will fly aircraft with defects: PIA\|date\=9 December 2016 \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1258499/defies\-common\-sense\-pilots\-engineers\-will\-fly\-aircraft\-defects\-pia\|publisher\=The Express Tribune\|accessdate\=18 July 2022}} Analysis of the flight recorder data continued through January 2017, with the reason why the aircraft was not able to safely land on the functioning engine still unknown.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1307983\|title\=Aviation authority shares findings of black box report for Abbottabad plane crash\|last\=Bilal\|first\=Dawn.com {{!}} Mohammad\|date\=2017\-01\-12\|work\=DAWN.COM\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-04\|language\=en\-US}} A one\-page preliminary report of the Safety Investigation Board found a 'lapse' on the part of the PIA and a 'lack of oversight' by the PCAA.{{cite news \|title\=Safety body blames PIA, CAA for 2016 air crash \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1456983/ \|work\=Dawn \|date\=12 January 2019}} ### Series of malfunctions Despite claims from PIA chairman that the aircraft was airworthy and had been checked properly by their employees, the findings from the investigation revealed that the aircraft in fact had three pre\-existing technical problems; a fractured [turbine blade](/wiki/Turbine_blade "Turbine blade") of the left engine, a fractured pin inside the flyweights of the overspeed governor (OSG) of the left engine, and debris inside the overspeed line of the propeller valve module (PVM). All three defects had directly contributed to the aircraft's unusual behaviour during the accident. One of the blades inside the turbine had fractured at some point before 7 December flight. During the flight, the fractured blade generated vibration that travelled through the turbine shaft. The vibration enabled physical contact (rub) between components, one of which was the No. 6 seal bearing. Contact between the turbine shaft and the bearing inflicted damage to the bearing, causing some metal flakes from the bearing to get in to the oil system of the engine. The engine finally degraded but it had not failed yet as the turbine was still able to produce power. If the engine failed to work properly, instead of being turned by engines, the propellers would be hit by the oncoming airflow from the front. When it occurred, the [blade pitch](/wiki/Blade_pitch "Blade pitch") would decrease. Simultaneously with the decrease in blade pitch angle, the propeller speed would increase as the decrease of the propeller angle would cause the propeller to catch the wind more easily. If the propellers managed to get rotated by the airflow, these would endanger the flight as it would generate drag, causing the airspeed to decrease. The phenomenon is known as [windmilling](/wiki/Propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Feathering "Propeller (aeronautics)#Feathering"). To prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle and the propeller speed to go beyond the [overspeed](/wiki/Overspeed "Overspeed") value, the aircraft was equipped with a device called [the overspeed governor (OSG)](/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Constant-speed_propellers "Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)#Constant-speed propellers"). [thumb\|The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights‘ "toes" will push the plunger upwards.](/wiki/File:The_OSG_is_included_with_flyweights_and_plunger._To_open_the_OSG_valve%2C_the_flyweights_%E2%80%98_%E2%80%9Ctoes%E2%80%9D_will_push_the_plunger_upwards._%28PK661%29_%282%29.png "The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights ‘ “toes” will push the plunger upwards. (PK661) (2).png") The protection system of the overspeed governor will activate when the overspeed valve is opened. To open the overspeed valve, the aircraft is equipped with flyweights. In the case of an engine failure, these flyweights will open the valve by pushing a plunger upwards. The plunger sits directly above the flyweights and usually rotates in tandem with the propeller, along with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor. To rotate simultaneously in a safe manner, the plunger is equipped with rotational pin to connect it with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor. [thumb\|Cross\-sectional view of the OSG](/wiki/File:Cross-sectional_view_of_OSG_%28PK661%29.png "Cross-sectional view of OSG (PK661).png") The pin inside the involved ATR\-42 had broken off prior to Flight 661\. Due to the broken pin, the plunger lost its connection with the propeller. The flyweights, however, were still able to rotate in tandem with the propeller. As a result, the corners of the plunger got caught with the flyweights. This put metal fatigue to the flyweights, one of which had broken off before the flight due to excessive stress. In Flight 661, the fractured blade caused metal flakes to enter the overspeed line, collecting itself near the overspeed valve. This put more stress to the flyweights as it hardened the rotation of the plunger. The excessive load pulled the flyweights upwards by a little, causing it to push the plunger upward by a bit, partially opening the OSG valve. The partial opening managed to decrease the propeller speed. At this point, the engine had not failed yet. The Propeller Electrical Control (PEC) sensed an anomaly on the propeller's speed and tried to change the blade pitch to increase the propeller speed. It failed to do so as the blade pitch was already controlled by the OSG, not the PEC. The PEC then sent messages regarding the failure to the crew. Meanwhile, the OSG valve became closed again as the last remaining flyweights began to break due to fatigue, causing the blade pitch to decrease and the propeller speed to accelerate. The sudden change in propeller speed generated sound that was loud enough for the crew to notice. As the flyweights were faced with an enormous resistance from the hardened rotation for another time, the flyweights were pulled up again, causing the plunger to go up as well and opening the OSG valve. The propeller speed started to decrease again. Minutes later, the torque of the left engine dropped to 0% in seconds and the captain declared that the left engine had failed. To prevent the propeller from windmilling, the crew had to feather the propeller. The crew then initiated the propeller feathering procedure, which involved the feather solenoid and the protection valve. In principle, the activation of the feather solenoid will provide protection on the feathering process, ensuring that the propellers will always be feathered and thus preserving the airspeed. To activate the protection system, the feather solenoid will retrieve oil from the opening of the protection valve. The valve has two modes; unprotected mode and protected mode. In the protected mode, the valve will open and oil from the overspeed line will pour in. As a result, the calculated pressure inside the OSG line will decrease, while a nearby chamber will record an increase in pressure. This difference in pressure will force the blade pitch to increase, thus reducing the speed of the propeller. In Flight 661, the line that connected the feather solenoid with the oil had been contaminated with debris of unknown origin. When the oil travelled through the line, it picked up the debris and caused it to clump together at a bottleneck. This restricted the oil flow to the feather solenoid, causing the protection valve to switch from the protected mode to the unprotected mode. Therefore, the propeller was not able to be feathered. [thumb\|In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn't rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As a result, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.](/wiki/File:In_this_figure%2C_the_plunger_had_pushed_through_the_flyweights_and_didn%E2%80%99t_rest_on_top_of_the_flyweights_anymore._As_such%2C_the_plunger_could_not_be_pushed_upwards_and_the_OSG_valve_remained_in_closed_position.%28PK661%29.png "In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn’t rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As such, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.(PK661).png") Back in the OSG, the flyweights had failed as the plunger had pushed through them. As it was not positioned at the top of the flyweights, the plunger could not be pushed by the flyweights anymore and as a result the OSG valve was closed and could never be opened again, enabling the blade pitch to go beyond the lowest allowable angle and the propeller speed to accelerate. As all of the propeller feathering system had been compromised, the propeller could not be feathered properly and the airspeed continued to deplete. The unfeathered propeller on the left engine generated massive amount of drag. Additionally, the thrust was not symmetrical and thus the aircraft was pulled to the left. While the left propeller was windmilling, the propeller also rotated the turbine of the left engine to the same direction. As the blade pitch became nearer to zero, the engine managed to absorb the forces that rotated the propeller, causing the propeller speed to decrease gradually. The force of the hitting airflow eventually could not withstand the friction forces of the engine's turbine and the propeller suddenly stopped in its track. The sudden drop in propeller speed caught the crew by surprise, which caused the aircraft to barrel roll due to the excessive input that had been made by the crew. After the first plunge, the propeller speed managed to stabilize to a value below 5%. Despite this, the blade pitch had reached a value below zero, known as reverse angle. Such blade angle would have been prevented by the ATR\-42 safety feature, the SLPS protection system. However, the system was overridden before by the contaminated overspeed line and thus it could not prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle. The reverse angle, normally used for landing, generated massive drag with a value of around {{convert\|2,000\|lbf}}, seven times greater than the normal propeller drag in a single\-engine operation. This further compromised the airspeed, causing it to continuously drop even though the lever of the right engine had been significantly advanced forward. By this point, it was impossible for the crew to maintain their altitude. ### Cause of failures [thumb\|Signs of fractures on the left engine turbine](/wiki/File:Signs_of_fractures_on_the_left_engine_turbine_%28PK661%29_%282%29.png "Signs of fractures on the left engine turbine (PK661) (2).png") According to the manufacturer of the engine, Pratt and Whitney, there was a known issue on the blades of the [PW127 engines](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100 "Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100"). If the turbine had exceeded the 10,000 hours lifespan, there would be fractures on the blades. The issue had been reported since 2007, nearly 10 years before the crash. The company then issued a service bulletin in October 2015 for design renewal on the blades and the service bulletin was transmitted to every operator of the engine. The service bulletin stated that operator of the engine should replace the blades within the very first available opportunity to change it. Pakistan International Airlines confirmed that they knew about the service bulletin, but chose not to follow it. Approximately 93 hours before the crash, the involved aircraft, AP\-BHO, was brought into PIA maintenance facility for a repair. The engines were disassembled and the workers gained access to the turbine blades. According to the investigators, this was the very first opportunity for PIA to replace the turbine blades. The blades of the involved aircraft had accumulated a total of 10,004\.1 hours, exceeding the threshold that had been set by the manufacturer, but PIA didn't replace them with the new blades. The aircraft was put back into service with the old blades. One of the blades eventually fractured, setting off the whole sequence of the crash. While PIA was responsible for the maintenance of the engines, they were not permitted to conduct maintenance on the OSG of the aircraft, which included the flyweights and the plunger. Under PIA, the components were listed as repair abroad item, in which said components should be sent abroad for maintenance. The OSG had been maintained at least three times and the last maintenance was conducted in 2015\. At the time of the accident, the flyweights and plunger were not functioning normally as the rotational pin of the plunger had snapped. According to the manufacturer, Woodward Propellers, analysis regarding the aircraft's OSG components revealed that there was an improper assembly on the lower body of the OSG. According to the analysis, the components were forced to work altogether. The review further stated that the technique that was used during the improper assembly of the OSG had taken much more time and work than the normal technique. The maintenance hence was presumably done by someone who did not understand how to assemble the flyweights and the plunger, but did so anyway. The rotational pin of the plunger eventually snapped, damaging the flyweights. [thumb\|Suspected location of pin fracture inside the flyweights](/wiki/File:Suspected_location_of_pin_fracture_inside_the_flyweights_%28PK661%29.png "Suspected location of pin fracture inside the flyweights (PK661).png") Unfortunately, investigators could not determine when or where this unauthorized maintenance took place. The company stated that a set of tests had always been conducted on whether the produced components from the company were at an acceptable level. According to the review, this was the first time that the company had ever received a faulty OSG as records from 1994 showed that there were virtually no reported similar complaints. Investigators concluded that it was unlikely, though not impossible, that the maintenance had been conducted by an untrained technician from Woodward Propellers. [thumb\|CT\-Scan of the involved PVM, showing debris inside the overspeed line](/wiki/File:CT-Scan_of_the_involved_Propeller_Valve_Module_%28PVM%29%2C_showing_debris_inside_the_overspeed_line_%282%29_%28PK661%29.png "CT-Scan of the involved Propeller Valve Module (PVM), showing debris inside the overspeed line (2) (PK661).png") The debris inside the overspeed line was big enough that it could neither go through the filters nor a narrowing area inside the line. It was concluded that the debris had not originated from the metal flakes that had been produced by the failing engine. According to investigators, the debris was likely introduced into the overspeed line when the propeller [LRU](/wiki/Line-replaceable_unit "Line-replaceable unit") was installed on the gearbox. However, investigators could not determine when or where such maintenance took place. ### Oversight As the findings indicated that there were errors during maintenance of the aircraft, further investigation was needed regarding the role of structural factors into the crash. The aircraft was maintained by PIA in the airline's [Maintenance Repair and Overhaul](/wiki/Maintenance_%28technical%29 "Maintenance (technical)") (MRO) facility in Karachi. The report described the PIA maintenance facility as one of the pioneers in the region to achieve high\-level certification, including from the [European Union Aviation Safety Agency](/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency "European Union Aviation Safety Agency") (EASA). PIA's MRO facility in Karachi's [Jinnah International Airport](/wiki/Jinnah_International_Airport "Jinnah International Airport") had even provided services for countries in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia"). Operational review from investigators revealed that some improvements were required in several fields, including the assembly and disassembly of engines, bearing inspection and material handling. However, as further analysis regarding the airworthiness of PIA's fleet was needed, a review from Pratt and Whitney was requested to compare the reliability of the ATR fleet/PW127 engines that had been operated under PIA. The result showed that PIA's ATR/PW127 engines had very low reliability compared to the other ATR fleet worldwide. Even when investigators compared PIA with other airliners in near similar operating environment, the reliability of PIA's ATR/PW127 engines were still considerably lower. The logbook from 2008 to 2016 showed that there were several cases of inflight engine shutdown. Despite this, no proactive measures and further analysis had been taken by PIA or CAA. Investigators also noted that there were deviations from the procedure that had been issued by Pratt and Whitney. Such deviations were documented or registered by CAA Airworthiness system. Another problem regarding the issuance of dubious pilots’ licenses began to appear as well. Irregularities on physical pilot attendance during licensing exams and recorded number of participants during a specific period of time gave rise to the suspicion. The names of Captain Janjua and First Officer Akram initially were among the list of pilots who were suspected of having such dubious licenses, but the issue eventually became irrelevant to the cause of the crash as the AAIB concluded that the actions of the crew during the flight had been commensurate with their respective training and experience. The finding, however, was still concerning. Added with the fact that PIA had purposely not complied with the service bulletin that had been issued by the manufacturer, Pakistan's CAA, which was responsible for the oversight of the nation's aviation safety, was questioned on their oversight. The annual audits of PIA from 2014 to 2018 revealed that there were gaps and loopholes in the monitoring and evaluation of aircraft airworthiness and safety spectrum and CAA was unable to identify the issues. The CAA was described by investigators as being unable to demonstrate proportionate conclusions, identify the trends and undertake proactive interventions. The report concluded that the oversight mechanism that had been established by PIA and CAA was inadequate or ineffective to identify weak areas within the system's scope. ### Conclusion The AAIB released the final report on 18 November 2020\. The cause of the accident was a fracture of a turbine blade in the number one (left side) turboprop engine as a result of improper maintenance. This led to the initial engine failure. A fractured pin in the overspeed governor allowed the propeller to reach rotational speeds in excess of 120%. The highly variable propeller speeds resulted in rapidly changing aerodynamic characteristics. The propeller eventually settled into a very high\-drag configuration. The ATR\-42's behaviour was different from the 'typical' loss of a single engine and level flight became impossible. The report notes, "It was exceptionally difficult for the pilots to understand the situation and hence possibly control the aircraft." It was also noted that crew resource management was ineffective, but did not contribute to the accident. The AAIB issued several recommendations to the involved parties. The first part was consisted of two urgent recommendations, which were issued during the progress of the investigation. The first recommendation was issued in January 2019, in which PIA was asked to inspect their entire ATR fleet to change the blades that had met the criteria for replacement. The second recommendation was issued in August 2019, following request by the NTSB and Collins Aerospace. The recommendation stated that PIA should inspect all of the OSGs inside their ATR fleet and the OSGs should be sent to United States after said inspection, following discovery of an improper assembly. The second part of the recommendations were given after the completion of the investigation. Among those, PIA was asked to ensure strict compliance with the issued service bulletin, to conduct improvements on weak areas in its MRO facility and to identify critical performance indicators within its airworthiness and flight safety operation. The cockpit resource management training system of PIA and the country was asked to be revamped. Improvements were also ordered for CAA relating to its oversight system. According to the final report, the manufacturer of the aircraft, ATR, were to consider including a specific procedure in the future aircraft training programme, in case of possible similar aerodynamic features to that encountered by the crew of Flight 661\. [FAA](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration "Federal Aviation Administration") and [Collins Aerospace](/wiki/Collins_Aerospace "Collins Aerospace") stated that they were considering a system review and also a possible improvements of the filtration inside the oil system to prevent it from being clogged by unwanted debris.
[ "Investigation\n-------------", "The crash was investigated by members of Safety Investigation Board (later changed into the Aircraft Accident Investigation Board). According to Pakistani newspaper *The Express Tribune*, the crash of Flight 661 was the first ever crash investigation that would be conducted by an independent Safety Investigation Board. According to the decision that had been taken by authorities, the SIB would be separated from the control of CAA, which was operating under the Ministry of Defence. Instead, the SIB would report directly to the Aviation Division.{{cite web\\|title\\=Safety Investigation Board to do first independent inquiry\\|date\\=7 December 2016 \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1257094/free\\-caa\\-safety\\-investigation\\-board\\-first\\-independent\\-inquiry\\|publisher\\=The Express Tribune\\|accessdate\\=18 July 2022}}", "Assistance would be provided by [French](/wiki/France \"France\") [BEA](/wiki/Bureau_of_Enquiry_and_Analysis_for_Civil_Aviation_Safety \"Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety\") and [ATR](/wiki/ATR_%28aircraft_manufacturer%29 \"ATR (aircraft manufacturer)\"). The [NTSB](/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board \"National Transportation Safety Board\") of the [United States](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\") also had an active role in the investigation as the propellers were made by US\\-based [Woodward Propellers](/wiki/Woodward%2C_Inc. \"Woodward, Inc.\"). Subsequently, [Canadian TSB](/wiki/Transportation_Safety_Board_of_Canada \"Transportation Safety Board of Canada\") was also involved in the investigation as the engines were manufactured by [Pratt \\& Whitney Canada](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney \"Pratt & Whitney\").{{cite web\\|title\\=ATR team to arrive in Islamabad to probe PK\\-661 crash\\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1259414/atr\\-team\\-arrive\\-islamabad\\-probe\\-pk\\-661\\-crash\\|publisher\\=The Express Trbune\\|accessdate\\=18 July 2022}} On 12 December, the nine members of the investigation team, three representatives from ATR, three from Pratt \\& Whitney Canada, and three from Pakistan, visited the crash site for wreckage examination.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nine\\-Member Investigation Team Visits Pakistan International Airlines Crash Site\\|url\\=https://www.ndtv.com/world\\-news/nine\\-member\\-investigation\\-team\\-visits\\-pakistan\\-international\\-airlines\\-crash\\-site\\-1637353\\|publisher\\=NDTV\\|accessdate\\=18 July 2022}}", "Investigators retrieved the aircraft's [flight recorder](/wiki/Flight_recorder \"Flight recorder\") soon after the crash and it was sent to France for decoding. An initial report into the accident by the [Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority](/wiki/Pakistan_Civil_Aviation_Authority \"Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority\") (PCAA) was said to have determined that the aircraft's left engine malfunctioned at an altitude of {{convert\\|13375\\|ft}}. The pilot reported the engine failure at 16:12, which was followed by a rapid uncontrolled descent and the disappearance of the aircraft from [ground radar](/wiki/Air_traffic_control%23Radar_coverage \"Air traffic control#Radar coverage\") a few minutes later. However, the radio communication continued with radar even after disappearance from the screen of the radar.", "Early reports speculated that the failed engine exploded and compromised the airframe, leading to the crash, but they have not been substantiated. Manager of Chitral Airport stated that no fault was found inside the aircraft as it had been completely checked by ground workers.{{cite web\\|title\\=Engine failure aside, fresh questions arise\\|date\\=8 December 2016 \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1258073/engine\\-failure\\-aside\\-fresh\\-questions\\-arise\\|publisher\\=The Express Tribune\\|accessdate\\=18 July 2022}} Chairman of PIA also claimed that the aircraft was \"technically sound\", while PIA spokesperson Danyal Gilani further accused the media of \"baseless accusation\", stating that \"it defies common sense that pilots will fly aircraft with defects\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Defies common sense that pilots will fly aircraft with defects: PIA\\|date\\=9 December 2016 \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1258499/defies\\-common\\-sense\\-pilots\\-engineers\\-will\\-fly\\-aircraft\\-defects\\-pia\\|publisher\\=The Express Tribune\\|accessdate\\=18 July 2022}} Analysis of the flight recorder data continued through January 2017, with the reason why the aircraft was not able to safely land on the functioning engine still unknown.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1307983\\|title\\=Aviation authority shares findings of black box report for Abbottabad plane crash\\|last\\=Bilal\\|first\\=Dawn.com {{!}} Mohammad\\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-12\\|work\\=DAWN.COM\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-04\\|language\\=en\\-US}} A one\\-page preliminary report of the Safety Investigation Board found a 'lapse' on the part of the PIA and a 'lack of oversight' by the PCAA.{{cite news \\|title\\=Safety body blames PIA, CAA for 2016 air crash \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1456983/ \\|work\\=Dawn \\|date\\=12 January 2019}}", "### Series of malfunctions", "Despite claims from PIA chairman that the aircraft was airworthy and had been checked properly by their employees, the findings from the investigation revealed that the aircraft in fact had three pre\\-existing technical problems; a fractured [turbine blade](/wiki/Turbine_blade \"Turbine blade\") of the left engine, a fractured pin inside the flyweights of the overspeed governor (OSG) of the left engine, and debris inside the overspeed line of the propeller valve module (PVM). All three defects had directly contributed to the aircraft's unusual behaviour during the accident.", "One of the blades inside the turbine had fractured at some point before 7 December flight. During the flight, the fractured blade generated vibration that travelled through the turbine shaft. The vibration enabled physical contact (rub) between components, one of which was the No. 6 seal bearing. Contact between the turbine shaft and the bearing inflicted damage to the bearing, causing some metal flakes from the bearing to get in to the oil system of the engine. The engine finally degraded but it had not failed yet as the turbine was still able to produce power.", "If the engine failed to work properly, instead of being turned by engines, the propellers would be hit by the oncoming airflow from the front. When it occurred, the [blade pitch](/wiki/Blade_pitch \"Blade pitch\") would decrease. Simultaneously with the decrease in blade pitch angle, the propeller speed would increase as the decrease of the propeller angle would cause the propeller to catch the wind more easily. If the propellers managed to get rotated by the airflow, these would endanger the flight as it would generate drag, causing the airspeed to decrease. The phenomenon is known as [windmilling](/wiki/Propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Feathering \"Propeller (aeronautics)#Feathering\"). To prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle and the propeller speed to go beyond the [overspeed](/wiki/Overspeed \"Overspeed\") value, the aircraft was equipped with a device called [the overspeed governor (OSG)](/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Constant-speed_propellers \"Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)#Constant-speed propellers\").", "[thumb\\|The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights‘ \"toes\" will push the plunger upwards.](/wiki/File:The_OSG_is_included_with_flyweights_and_plunger._To_open_the_OSG_valve%2C_the_flyweights_%E2%80%98_%E2%80%9Ctoes%E2%80%9D_will_push_the_plunger_upwards._%28PK661%29_%282%29.png \"The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights ‘ “toes” will push the plunger upwards. (PK661) (2).png\")\nThe protection system of the overspeed governor will activate when the overspeed valve is opened. To open the overspeed valve, the aircraft is equipped with flyweights. In the case of an engine failure, these flyweights will open the valve by pushing a plunger upwards. The plunger sits directly above the flyweights and usually rotates in tandem with the propeller, along with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor. To rotate simultaneously in a safe manner, the plunger is equipped with rotational pin to connect it with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor.", "[thumb\\|Cross\\-sectional view of the OSG](/wiki/File:Cross-sectional_view_of_OSG_%28PK661%29.png \"Cross-sectional view of OSG (PK661).png\")\nThe pin inside the involved ATR\\-42 had broken off prior to Flight 661\\. Due to the broken pin, the plunger lost its connection with the propeller. The flyweights, however, were still able to rotate in tandem with the propeller. As a result, the corners of the plunger got caught with the flyweights. This put metal fatigue to the flyweights, one of which had broken off before the flight due to excessive stress. In Flight 661, the fractured blade caused metal flakes to enter the overspeed line, collecting itself near the overspeed valve. This put more stress to the flyweights as it hardened the rotation of the plunger. The excessive load pulled the flyweights upwards by a little, causing it to push the plunger upward by a bit, partially opening the OSG valve. The partial opening managed to decrease the propeller speed. At this point, the engine had not failed yet.", "The Propeller Electrical Control (PEC) sensed an anomaly on the propeller's speed and tried to change the blade pitch to increase the propeller speed. It failed to do so as the blade pitch was already controlled by the OSG, not the PEC. The PEC then sent messages regarding the failure to the crew. Meanwhile, the OSG valve became closed again as the last remaining flyweights began to break due to fatigue, causing the blade pitch to decrease and the propeller speed to accelerate. The sudden change in propeller speed generated sound that was loud enough for the crew to notice. As the flyweights were faced with an enormous resistance from the hardened rotation for another time, the flyweights were pulled up again, causing the plunger to go up as well and opening the OSG valve. The propeller speed started to decrease again. Minutes later, the torque of the left engine dropped to 0% in seconds and the captain declared that the left engine had failed. To prevent the propeller from windmilling, the crew had to feather the propeller. The crew then initiated the propeller feathering procedure, which involved the feather solenoid and the protection valve.", "In principle, the activation of the feather solenoid will provide protection on the feathering process, ensuring that the propellers will always be feathered and thus preserving the airspeed. To activate the protection system, the feather solenoid will retrieve oil from the opening of the protection valve. The valve has two modes; unprotected mode and protected mode. In the protected mode, the valve will open and oil from the overspeed line will pour in. As a result, the calculated pressure inside the OSG line will decrease, while a nearby chamber will record an increase in pressure. This difference in pressure will force the blade pitch to increase, thus reducing the speed of the propeller. In Flight 661, the line that connected the feather solenoid with the oil had been contaminated with debris of unknown origin. When the oil travelled through the line, it picked up the debris and caused it to clump together at a bottleneck. This restricted the oil flow to the feather solenoid, causing the protection valve to switch from the protected mode to the unprotected mode. Therefore, the propeller was not able to be feathered.", "[thumb\\|In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn't rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As a result, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.](/wiki/File:In_this_figure%2C_the_plunger_had_pushed_through_the_flyweights_and_didn%E2%80%99t_rest_on_top_of_the_flyweights_anymore._As_such%2C_the_plunger_could_not_be_pushed_upwards_and_the_OSG_valve_remained_in_closed_position.%28PK661%29.png \"In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn’t rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As such, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.(PK661).png\")\nBack in the OSG, the flyweights had failed as the plunger had pushed through them. As it was not positioned at the top of the flyweights, the plunger could not be pushed by the flyweights anymore and as a result the OSG valve was closed and could never be opened again, enabling the blade pitch to go beyond the lowest allowable angle and the propeller speed to accelerate. As all of the propeller feathering system had been compromised, the propeller could not be feathered properly and the airspeed continued to deplete. The unfeathered propeller on the left engine generated massive amount of drag. Additionally, the thrust was not symmetrical and thus the aircraft was pulled to the left.", "While the left propeller was windmilling, the propeller also rotated the turbine of the left engine to the same direction. As the blade pitch became nearer to zero, the engine managed to absorb the forces that rotated the propeller, causing the propeller speed to decrease gradually. The force of the hitting airflow eventually could not withstand the friction forces of the engine's turbine and the propeller suddenly stopped in its track. The sudden drop in propeller speed caught the crew by surprise, which caused the aircraft to barrel roll due to the excessive input that had been made by the crew.", "After the first plunge, the propeller speed managed to stabilize to a value below 5%. Despite this, the blade pitch had reached a value below zero, known as reverse angle. Such blade angle would have been prevented by the ATR\\-42 safety feature, the SLPS protection system. However, the system was overridden before by the contaminated overspeed line and thus it could not prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle. The reverse angle, normally used for landing, generated massive drag with a value of around {{convert\\|2,000\\|lbf}}, seven times greater than the normal propeller drag in a single\\-engine operation. This further compromised the airspeed, causing it to continuously drop even though the lever of the right engine had been significantly advanced forward. By this point, it was impossible for the crew to maintain their altitude.", "### Cause of failures", "[thumb\\|Signs of fractures on the left engine turbine](/wiki/File:Signs_of_fractures_on_the_left_engine_turbine_%28PK661%29_%282%29.png \"Signs of fractures on the left engine turbine (PK661) (2).png\")\nAccording to the manufacturer of the engine, Pratt and Whitney, there was a known issue on the blades of the [PW127 engines](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100 \"Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100\"). If the turbine had exceeded the 10,000 hours lifespan, there would be fractures on the blades. The issue had been reported since 2007, nearly 10 years before the crash. The company then issued a service bulletin in October 2015 for design renewal on the blades and the service bulletin was transmitted to every operator of the engine. The service bulletin stated that operator of the engine should replace the blades within the very first available opportunity to change it. Pakistan International Airlines confirmed that they knew about the service bulletin, but chose not to follow it.", "Approximately 93 hours before the crash, the involved aircraft, AP\\-BHO, was brought into PIA maintenance facility for a repair. The engines were disassembled and the workers gained access to the turbine blades. According to the investigators, this was the very first opportunity for PIA to replace the turbine blades. The blades of the involved aircraft had accumulated a total of 10,004\\.1 hours, exceeding the threshold that had been set by the manufacturer, but PIA didn't replace them with the new blades. The aircraft was put back into service with the old blades. One of the blades eventually fractured, setting off the whole sequence of the crash.", "While PIA was responsible for the maintenance of the engines, they were not permitted to conduct maintenance on the OSG of the aircraft, which included the flyweights and the plunger. Under PIA, the components were listed as repair abroad item, in which said components should be sent abroad for maintenance. The OSG had been maintained at least three times and the last maintenance was conducted in 2015\\. At the time of the accident, the flyweights and plunger were not functioning normally as the rotational pin of the plunger had snapped.", "According to the manufacturer, Woodward Propellers, analysis regarding the aircraft's OSG components revealed that there was an improper assembly on the lower body of the OSG. According to the analysis, the components were forced to work altogether. The review further stated that the technique that was used during the improper assembly of the OSG had taken much more time and work than the normal technique. The maintenance hence was presumably done by someone who did not understand how to assemble the flyweights and the plunger, but did so anyway. The rotational pin of the plunger eventually snapped, damaging the flyweights.", "[thumb\\|Suspected location of pin fracture inside the flyweights](/wiki/File:Suspected_location_of_pin_fracture_inside_the_flyweights_%28PK661%29.png \"Suspected location of pin fracture inside the flyweights (PK661).png\") \nUnfortunately, investigators could not determine when or where this unauthorized maintenance took place. The company stated that a set of tests had always been conducted on whether the produced components from the company were at an acceptable level. According to the review, this was the first time that the company had ever received a faulty OSG as records from 1994 showed that there were virtually no reported similar complaints. Investigators concluded that it was unlikely, though not impossible, that the maintenance had been conducted by an untrained technician from Woodward Propellers.", "[thumb\\|CT\\-Scan of the involved PVM, showing debris inside the overspeed line](/wiki/File:CT-Scan_of_the_involved_Propeller_Valve_Module_%28PVM%29%2C_showing_debris_inside_the_overspeed_line_%282%29_%28PK661%29.png \"CT-Scan of the involved Propeller Valve Module (PVM), showing debris inside the overspeed line (2) (PK661).png\")\nThe debris inside the overspeed line was big enough that it could neither go through the filters nor a narrowing area inside the line. It was concluded that the debris had not originated from the metal flakes that had been produced by the failing engine. According to investigators, the debris was likely introduced into the overspeed line when the propeller [LRU](/wiki/Line-replaceable_unit \"Line-replaceable unit\") was installed on the gearbox. However, investigators could not determine when or where such maintenance took place.", "### Oversight", "As the findings indicated that there were errors during maintenance of the aircraft, further investigation was needed regarding the role of structural factors into the crash.", "The aircraft was maintained by PIA in the airline's [Maintenance Repair and Overhaul](/wiki/Maintenance_%28technical%29 \"Maintenance (technical)\") (MRO) facility in Karachi. The report described the PIA maintenance facility as one of the pioneers in the region to achieve high\\-level certification, including from the [European Union Aviation Safety Agency](/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency \"European Union Aviation Safety Agency\") (EASA). PIA's MRO facility in Karachi's [Jinnah International Airport](/wiki/Jinnah_International_Airport \"Jinnah International Airport\") had even provided services for countries in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"), [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\"). Operational review from investigators revealed that some improvements were required in several fields, including the assembly and disassembly of engines, bearing inspection and material handling. However, as further analysis regarding the airworthiness of PIA's fleet was needed, a review from Pratt and Whitney was requested to compare the reliability of the ATR fleet/PW127 engines that had been operated under PIA. The result showed that PIA's ATR/PW127 engines had very low reliability compared to the other ATR fleet worldwide. Even when investigators compared PIA with other airliners in near similar operating environment, the reliability of PIA's ATR/PW127 engines were still considerably lower.", "The logbook from 2008 to 2016 showed that there were several cases of inflight engine shutdown. Despite this, no proactive measures and further analysis had been taken by PIA or CAA. Investigators also noted that there were deviations from the procedure that had been issued by Pratt and Whitney. Such deviations were documented or registered by CAA Airworthiness system.", "Another problem regarding the issuance of dubious pilots’ licenses began to appear as well. Irregularities on physical pilot attendance during licensing exams and recorded number of participants during a specific period of time gave rise to the suspicion. The names of Captain Janjua and First Officer Akram initially were among the list of pilots who were suspected of having such dubious licenses, but the issue eventually became irrelevant to the cause of the crash as the AAIB concluded that the actions of the crew during the flight had been commensurate with their respective training and experience. The finding, however, was still concerning.", "Added with the fact that PIA had purposely not complied with the service bulletin that had been issued by the manufacturer, Pakistan's CAA, which was responsible for the oversight of the nation's aviation safety, was questioned on their oversight. The annual audits of PIA from 2014 to 2018 revealed that there were gaps and loopholes in the monitoring and evaluation of aircraft airworthiness and safety spectrum and CAA was unable to identify the issues. The CAA was described by investigators as being unable to demonstrate proportionate conclusions, identify the trends and undertake proactive interventions. The report concluded that the oversight mechanism that had been established by PIA and CAA was inadequate or ineffective to identify weak areas within the system's scope.", "### Conclusion", "The AAIB released the final report on 18 November 2020\\. The cause of the accident was a fracture of a turbine blade in the number one (left side) turboprop engine as a result of improper maintenance. This led to the initial engine failure. A fractured pin in the overspeed governor allowed the propeller to reach rotational speeds in excess of 120%. The highly variable propeller speeds resulted in rapidly changing aerodynamic characteristics. The propeller eventually settled into a very high\\-drag configuration. The ATR\\-42's behaviour was different from the 'typical' loss of a single engine and level flight became impossible. The report notes, \"It was exceptionally difficult for the pilots to understand the situation and hence possibly control the aircraft.\" It was also noted that crew resource management was ineffective, but did not contribute to the accident.", "The AAIB issued several recommendations to the involved parties. The first part was consisted of two urgent recommendations, which were issued during the progress of the investigation. The first recommendation was issued in January 2019, in which PIA was asked to inspect their entire ATR fleet to change the blades that had met the criteria for replacement. The second recommendation was issued in August 2019, following request by the NTSB and Collins Aerospace. The recommendation stated that PIA should inspect all of the OSGs inside their ATR fleet and the OSGs should be sent to United States after said inspection, following discovery of an improper assembly.", "The second part of the recommendations were given after the completion of the investigation. Among those, PIA was asked to ensure strict compliance with the issued service bulletin, to conduct improvements on weak areas in its MRO facility and to identify critical performance indicators within its airworthiness and flight safety operation. The cockpit resource management training system of PIA and the country was asked to be revamped. Improvements were also ordered for CAA relating to its oversight system.", "According to the final report, the manufacturer of the aircraft, ATR, were to consider including a specific procedure in the future aircraft training programme, in case of possible similar aerodynamic features to that encountered by the crew of Flight 661\\. [FAA](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration \"Federal Aviation Administration\") and [Collins Aerospace](/wiki/Collins_Aerospace \"Collins Aerospace\") stated that they were considering a system review and also a possible improvements of the filtration inside the oil system to prevent it from being clogged by unwanted debris.", "" ]
### Series of malfunctions Despite claims from PIA chairman that the aircraft was airworthy and had been checked properly by their employees, the findings from the investigation revealed that the aircraft in fact had three pre\-existing technical problems; a fractured [turbine blade](/wiki/Turbine_blade "Turbine blade") of the left engine, a fractured pin inside the flyweights of the overspeed governor (OSG) of the left engine, and debris inside the overspeed line of the propeller valve module (PVM). All three defects had directly contributed to the aircraft's unusual behaviour during the accident. One of the blades inside the turbine had fractured at some point before 7 December flight. During the flight, the fractured blade generated vibration that travelled through the turbine shaft. The vibration enabled physical contact (rub) between components, one of which was the No. 6 seal bearing. Contact between the turbine shaft and the bearing inflicted damage to the bearing, causing some metal flakes from the bearing to get in to the oil system of the engine. The engine finally degraded but it had not failed yet as the turbine was still able to produce power. If the engine failed to work properly, instead of being turned by engines, the propellers would be hit by the oncoming airflow from the front. When it occurred, the [blade pitch](/wiki/Blade_pitch "Blade pitch") would decrease. Simultaneously with the decrease in blade pitch angle, the propeller speed would increase as the decrease of the propeller angle would cause the propeller to catch the wind more easily. If the propellers managed to get rotated by the airflow, these would endanger the flight as it would generate drag, causing the airspeed to decrease. The phenomenon is known as [windmilling](/wiki/Propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Feathering "Propeller (aeronautics)#Feathering"). To prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle and the propeller speed to go beyond the [overspeed](/wiki/Overspeed "Overspeed") value, the aircraft was equipped with a device called [the overspeed governor (OSG)](/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Constant-speed_propellers "Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)#Constant-speed propellers"). [thumb\|The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights‘ "toes" will push the plunger upwards.](/wiki/File:The_OSG_is_included_with_flyweights_and_plunger._To_open_the_OSG_valve%2C_the_flyweights_%E2%80%98_%E2%80%9Ctoes%E2%80%9D_will_push_the_plunger_upwards._%28PK661%29_%282%29.png "The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights ‘ “toes” will push the plunger upwards. (PK661) (2).png") The protection system of the overspeed governor will activate when the overspeed valve is opened. To open the overspeed valve, the aircraft is equipped with flyweights. In the case of an engine failure, these flyweights will open the valve by pushing a plunger upwards. The plunger sits directly above the flyweights and usually rotates in tandem with the propeller, along with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor. To rotate simultaneously in a safe manner, the plunger is equipped with rotational pin to connect it with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor. [thumb\|Cross\-sectional view of the OSG](/wiki/File:Cross-sectional_view_of_OSG_%28PK661%29.png "Cross-sectional view of OSG (PK661).png") The pin inside the involved ATR\-42 had broken off prior to Flight 661\. Due to the broken pin, the plunger lost its connection with the propeller. The flyweights, however, were still able to rotate in tandem with the propeller. As a result, the corners of the plunger got caught with the flyweights. This put metal fatigue to the flyweights, one of which had broken off before the flight due to excessive stress. In Flight 661, the fractured blade caused metal flakes to enter the overspeed line, collecting itself near the overspeed valve. This put more stress to the flyweights as it hardened the rotation of the plunger. The excessive load pulled the flyweights upwards by a little, causing it to push the plunger upward by a bit, partially opening the OSG valve. The partial opening managed to decrease the propeller speed. At this point, the engine had not failed yet. The Propeller Electrical Control (PEC) sensed an anomaly on the propeller's speed and tried to change the blade pitch to increase the propeller speed. It failed to do so as the blade pitch was already controlled by the OSG, not the PEC. The PEC then sent messages regarding the failure to the crew. Meanwhile, the OSG valve became closed again as the last remaining flyweights began to break due to fatigue, causing the blade pitch to decrease and the propeller speed to accelerate. The sudden change in propeller speed generated sound that was loud enough for the crew to notice. As the flyweights were faced with an enormous resistance from the hardened rotation for another time, the flyweights were pulled up again, causing the plunger to go up as well and opening the OSG valve. The propeller speed started to decrease again. Minutes later, the torque of the left engine dropped to 0% in seconds and the captain declared that the left engine had failed. To prevent the propeller from windmilling, the crew had to feather the propeller. The crew then initiated the propeller feathering procedure, which involved the feather solenoid and the protection valve. In principle, the activation of the feather solenoid will provide protection on the feathering process, ensuring that the propellers will always be feathered and thus preserving the airspeed. To activate the protection system, the feather solenoid will retrieve oil from the opening of the protection valve. The valve has two modes; unprotected mode and protected mode. In the protected mode, the valve will open and oil from the overspeed line will pour in. As a result, the calculated pressure inside the OSG line will decrease, while a nearby chamber will record an increase in pressure. This difference in pressure will force the blade pitch to increase, thus reducing the speed of the propeller. In Flight 661, the line that connected the feather solenoid with the oil had been contaminated with debris of unknown origin. When the oil travelled through the line, it picked up the debris and caused it to clump together at a bottleneck. This restricted the oil flow to the feather solenoid, causing the protection valve to switch from the protected mode to the unprotected mode. Therefore, the propeller was not able to be feathered. [thumb\|In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn't rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As a result, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.](/wiki/File:In_this_figure%2C_the_plunger_had_pushed_through_the_flyweights_and_didn%E2%80%99t_rest_on_top_of_the_flyweights_anymore._As_such%2C_the_plunger_could_not_be_pushed_upwards_and_the_OSG_valve_remained_in_closed_position.%28PK661%29.png "In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn’t rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As such, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.(PK661).png") Back in the OSG, the flyweights had failed as the plunger had pushed through them. As it was not positioned at the top of the flyweights, the plunger could not be pushed by the flyweights anymore and as a result the OSG valve was closed and could never be opened again, enabling the blade pitch to go beyond the lowest allowable angle and the propeller speed to accelerate. As all of the propeller feathering system had been compromised, the propeller could not be feathered properly and the airspeed continued to deplete. The unfeathered propeller on the left engine generated massive amount of drag. Additionally, the thrust was not symmetrical and thus the aircraft was pulled to the left. While the left propeller was windmilling, the propeller also rotated the turbine of the left engine to the same direction. As the blade pitch became nearer to zero, the engine managed to absorb the forces that rotated the propeller, causing the propeller speed to decrease gradually. The force of the hitting airflow eventually could not withstand the friction forces of the engine's turbine and the propeller suddenly stopped in its track. The sudden drop in propeller speed caught the crew by surprise, which caused the aircraft to barrel roll due to the excessive input that had been made by the crew. After the first plunge, the propeller speed managed to stabilize to a value below 5%. Despite this, the blade pitch had reached a value below zero, known as reverse angle. Such blade angle would have been prevented by the ATR\-42 safety feature, the SLPS protection system. However, the system was overridden before by the contaminated overspeed line and thus it could not prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle. The reverse angle, normally used for landing, generated massive drag with a value of around {{convert\|2,000\|lbf}}, seven times greater than the normal propeller drag in a single\-engine operation. This further compromised the airspeed, causing it to continuously drop even though the lever of the right engine had been significantly advanced forward. By this point, it was impossible for the crew to maintain their altitude.
[ "### Series of malfunctions", "Despite claims from PIA chairman that the aircraft was airworthy and had been checked properly by their employees, the findings from the investigation revealed that the aircraft in fact had three pre\\-existing technical problems; a fractured [turbine blade](/wiki/Turbine_blade \"Turbine blade\") of the left engine, a fractured pin inside the flyweights of the overspeed governor (OSG) of the left engine, and debris inside the overspeed line of the propeller valve module (PVM). All three defects had directly contributed to the aircraft's unusual behaviour during the accident.", "One of the blades inside the turbine had fractured at some point before 7 December flight. During the flight, the fractured blade generated vibration that travelled through the turbine shaft. The vibration enabled physical contact (rub) between components, one of which was the No. 6 seal bearing. Contact between the turbine shaft and the bearing inflicted damage to the bearing, causing some metal flakes from the bearing to get in to the oil system of the engine. The engine finally degraded but it had not failed yet as the turbine was still able to produce power.", "If the engine failed to work properly, instead of being turned by engines, the propellers would be hit by the oncoming airflow from the front. When it occurred, the [blade pitch](/wiki/Blade_pitch \"Blade pitch\") would decrease. Simultaneously with the decrease in blade pitch angle, the propeller speed would increase as the decrease of the propeller angle would cause the propeller to catch the wind more easily. If the propellers managed to get rotated by the airflow, these would endanger the flight as it would generate drag, causing the airspeed to decrease. The phenomenon is known as [windmilling](/wiki/Propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Feathering \"Propeller (aeronautics)#Feathering\"). To prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle and the propeller speed to go beyond the [overspeed](/wiki/Overspeed \"Overspeed\") value, the aircraft was equipped with a device called [the overspeed governor (OSG)](/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_%28aeronautics%29%23Constant-speed_propellers \"Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)#Constant-speed propellers\").", "[thumb\\|The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights‘ \"toes\" will push the plunger upwards.](/wiki/File:The_OSG_is_included_with_flyweights_and_plunger._To_open_the_OSG_valve%2C_the_flyweights_%E2%80%98_%E2%80%9Ctoes%E2%80%9D_will_push_the_plunger_upwards._%28PK661%29_%282%29.png \"The OSG is included with flyweights and plunger. To open the OSG valve, the flyweights ‘ “toes” will push the plunger upwards. (PK661) (2).png\")\nThe protection system of the overspeed governor will activate when the overspeed valve is opened. To open the overspeed valve, the aircraft is equipped with flyweights. In the case of an engine failure, these flyweights will open the valve by pushing a plunger upwards. The plunger sits directly above the flyweights and usually rotates in tandem with the propeller, along with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor. To rotate simultaneously in a safe manner, the plunger is equipped with rotational pin to connect it with the flyweights and the rotating part of the overspeed governor.", "[thumb\\|Cross\\-sectional view of the OSG](/wiki/File:Cross-sectional_view_of_OSG_%28PK661%29.png \"Cross-sectional view of OSG (PK661).png\")\nThe pin inside the involved ATR\\-42 had broken off prior to Flight 661\\. Due to the broken pin, the plunger lost its connection with the propeller. The flyweights, however, were still able to rotate in tandem with the propeller. As a result, the corners of the plunger got caught with the flyweights. This put metal fatigue to the flyweights, one of which had broken off before the flight due to excessive stress. In Flight 661, the fractured blade caused metal flakes to enter the overspeed line, collecting itself near the overspeed valve. This put more stress to the flyweights as it hardened the rotation of the plunger. The excessive load pulled the flyweights upwards by a little, causing it to push the plunger upward by a bit, partially opening the OSG valve. The partial opening managed to decrease the propeller speed. At this point, the engine had not failed yet.", "The Propeller Electrical Control (PEC) sensed an anomaly on the propeller's speed and tried to change the blade pitch to increase the propeller speed. It failed to do so as the blade pitch was already controlled by the OSG, not the PEC. The PEC then sent messages regarding the failure to the crew. Meanwhile, the OSG valve became closed again as the last remaining flyweights began to break due to fatigue, causing the blade pitch to decrease and the propeller speed to accelerate. The sudden change in propeller speed generated sound that was loud enough for the crew to notice. As the flyweights were faced with an enormous resistance from the hardened rotation for another time, the flyweights were pulled up again, causing the plunger to go up as well and opening the OSG valve. The propeller speed started to decrease again. Minutes later, the torque of the left engine dropped to 0% in seconds and the captain declared that the left engine had failed. To prevent the propeller from windmilling, the crew had to feather the propeller. The crew then initiated the propeller feathering procedure, which involved the feather solenoid and the protection valve.", "In principle, the activation of the feather solenoid will provide protection on the feathering process, ensuring that the propellers will always be feathered and thus preserving the airspeed. To activate the protection system, the feather solenoid will retrieve oil from the opening of the protection valve. The valve has two modes; unprotected mode and protected mode. In the protected mode, the valve will open and oil from the overspeed line will pour in. As a result, the calculated pressure inside the OSG line will decrease, while a nearby chamber will record an increase in pressure. This difference in pressure will force the blade pitch to increase, thus reducing the speed of the propeller. In Flight 661, the line that connected the feather solenoid with the oil had been contaminated with debris of unknown origin. When the oil travelled through the line, it picked up the debris and caused it to clump together at a bottleneck. This restricted the oil flow to the feather solenoid, causing the protection valve to switch from the protected mode to the unprotected mode. Therefore, the propeller was not able to be feathered.", "[thumb\\|In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn't rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As a result, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.](/wiki/File:In_this_figure%2C_the_plunger_had_pushed_through_the_flyweights_and_didn%E2%80%99t_rest_on_top_of_the_flyweights_anymore._As_such%2C_the_plunger_could_not_be_pushed_upwards_and_the_OSG_valve_remained_in_closed_position.%28PK661%29.png \"In this figure, the plunger had pushed through the flyweights and didn’t rest on top of the flyweights anymore. As such, the plunger could not be pushed upwards and the OSG valve remained in closed position.(PK661).png\")\nBack in the OSG, the flyweights had failed as the plunger had pushed through them. As it was not positioned at the top of the flyweights, the plunger could not be pushed by the flyweights anymore and as a result the OSG valve was closed and could never be opened again, enabling the blade pitch to go beyond the lowest allowable angle and the propeller speed to accelerate. As all of the propeller feathering system had been compromised, the propeller could not be feathered properly and the airspeed continued to deplete. The unfeathered propeller on the left engine generated massive amount of drag. Additionally, the thrust was not symmetrical and thus the aircraft was pulled to the left.", "While the left propeller was windmilling, the propeller also rotated the turbine of the left engine to the same direction. As the blade pitch became nearer to zero, the engine managed to absorb the forces that rotated the propeller, causing the propeller speed to decrease gradually. The force of the hitting airflow eventually could not withstand the friction forces of the engine's turbine and the propeller suddenly stopped in its track. The sudden drop in propeller speed caught the crew by surprise, which caused the aircraft to barrel roll due to the excessive input that had been made by the crew.", "After the first plunge, the propeller speed managed to stabilize to a value below 5%. Despite this, the blade pitch had reached a value below zero, known as reverse angle. Such blade angle would have been prevented by the ATR\\-42 safety feature, the SLPS protection system. However, the system was overridden before by the contaminated overspeed line and thus it could not prevent the blade pitch from reaching low angle. The reverse angle, normally used for landing, generated massive drag with a value of around {{convert\\|2,000\\|lbf}}, seven times greater than the normal propeller drag in a single\\-engine operation. This further compromised the airspeed, causing it to continuously drop even though the lever of the right engine had been significantly advanced forward. By this point, it was impossible for the crew to maintain their altitude.", "" ]
### Oversight As the findings indicated that there were errors during maintenance of the aircraft, further investigation was needed regarding the role of structural factors into the crash. The aircraft was maintained by PIA in the airline's [Maintenance Repair and Overhaul](/wiki/Maintenance_%28technical%29 "Maintenance (technical)") (MRO) facility in Karachi. The report described the PIA maintenance facility as one of the pioneers in the region to achieve high\-level certification, including from the [European Union Aviation Safety Agency](/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency "European Union Aviation Safety Agency") (EASA). PIA's MRO facility in Karachi's [Jinnah International Airport](/wiki/Jinnah_International_Airport "Jinnah International Airport") had even provided services for countries in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia"). Operational review from investigators revealed that some improvements were required in several fields, including the assembly and disassembly of engines, bearing inspection and material handling. However, as further analysis regarding the airworthiness of PIA's fleet was needed, a review from Pratt and Whitney was requested to compare the reliability of the ATR fleet/PW127 engines that had been operated under PIA. The result showed that PIA's ATR/PW127 engines had very low reliability compared to the other ATR fleet worldwide. Even when investigators compared PIA with other airliners in near similar operating environment, the reliability of PIA's ATR/PW127 engines were still considerably lower. The logbook from 2008 to 2016 showed that there were several cases of inflight engine shutdown. Despite this, no proactive measures and further analysis had been taken by PIA or CAA. Investigators also noted that there were deviations from the procedure that had been issued by Pratt and Whitney. Such deviations were documented or registered by CAA Airworthiness system. Another problem regarding the issuance of dubious pilots’ licenses began to appear as well. Irregularities on physical pilot attendance during licensing exams and recorded number of participants during a specific period of time gave rise to the suspicion. The names of Captain Janjua and First Officer Akram initially were among the list of pilots who were suspected of having such dubious licenses, but the issue eventually became irrelevant to the cause of the crash as the AAIB concluded that the actions of the crew during the flight had been commensurate with their respective training and experience. The finding, however, was still concerning. Added with the fact that PIA had purposely not complied with the service bulletin that had been issued by the manufacturer, Pakistan's CAA, which was responsible for the oversight of the nation's aviation safety, was questioned on their oversight. The annual audits of PIA from 2014 to 2018 revealed that there were gaps and loopholes in the monitoring and evaluation of aircraft airworthiness and safety spectrum and CAA was unable to identify the issues. The CAA was described by investigators as being unable to demonstrate proportionate conclusions, identify the trends and undertake proactive interventions. The report concluded that the oversight mechanism that had been established by PIA and CAA was inadequate or ineffective to identify weak areas within the system's scope.
[ "### Oversight", "As the findings indicated that there were errors during maintenance of the aircraft, further investigation was needed regarding the role of structural factors into the crash.", "The aircraft was maintained by PIA in the airline's [Maintenance Repair and Overhaul](/wiki/Maintenance_%28technical%29 \"Maintenance (technical)\") (MRO) facility in Karachi. The report described the PIA maintenance facility as one of the pioneers in the region to achieve high\\-level certification, including from the [European Union Aviation Safety Agency](/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency \"European Union Aviation Safety Agency\") (EASA). PIA's MRO facility in Karachi's [Jinnah International Airport](/wiki/Jinnah_International_Airport \"Jinnah International Airport\") had even provided services for countries in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"), [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\"). Operational review from investigators revealed that some improvements were required in several fields, including the assembly and disassembly of engines, bearing inspection and material handling. However, as further analysis regarding the airworthiness of PIA's fleet was needed, a review from Pratt and Whitney was requested to compare the reliability of the ATR fleet/PW127 engines that had been operated under PIA. The result showed that PIA's ATR/PW127 engines had very low reliability compared to the other ATR fleet worldwide. Even when investigators compared PIA with other airliners in near similar operating environment, the reliability of PIA's ATR/PW127 engines were still considerably lower.", "The logbook from 2008 to 2016 showed that there were several cases of inflight engine shutdown. Despite this, no proactive measures and further analysis had been taken by PIA or CAA. Investigators also noted that there were deviations from the procedure that had been issued by Pratt and Whitney. Such deviations were documented or registered by CAA Airworthiness system.", "Another problem regarding the issuance of dubious pilots’ licenses began to appear as well. Irregularities on physical pilot attendance during licensing exams and recorded number of participants during a specific period of time gave rise to the suspicion. The names of Captain Janjua and First Officer Akram initially were among the list of pilots who were suspected of having such dubious licenses, but the issue eventually became irrelevant to the cause of the crash as the AAIB concluded that the actions of the crew during the flight had been commensurate with their respective training and experience. The finding, however, was still concerning.", "Added with the fact that PIA had purposely not complied with the service bulletin that had been issued by the manufacturer, Pakistan's CAA, which was responsible for the oversight of the nation's aviation safety, was questioned on their oversight. The annual audits of PIA from 2014 to 2018 revealed that there were gaps and loopholes in the monitoring and evaluation of aircraft airworthiness and safety spectrum and CAA was unable to identify the issues. The CAA was described by investigators as being unable to demonstrate proportionate conclusions, identify the trends and undertake proactive interventions. The report concluded that the oversight mechanism that had been established by PIA and CAA was inadequate or ineffective to identify weak areas within the system's scope.", "" ]
History ------- ### The foundation of NHK and Kenjiro Takayanagi's research [thumb\|[Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi "Kenjiro Takayanagi"), recognized in his homeland as "the father of television".{{cite book \|last\=Partner \|first\=Simon \|title\=Assembled in Japan: Electrical Goods and the Making of the Japanese Consumer \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=University of California Press \|location\=Berkeley \|page\=31 \|isbn\=0\-520\-21792\-6}}, was one of the pioneers in the technology that was the base for television.{{cite book \|last1\=Odagiri \|first1\=Hiroyuki \|last2\=Gotō \|first2\=Akira \|title\=Technology and Industrial Development in Japan: Building Capabilities by Learning, Innovation and Public Policy \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=Clarendon Press \|location\=Oxford \|page\=164 \|isbn\=0\-19\-828802\-6}}](/wiki/File:Takayanagi_Kenjiro_1953.jpg "Takayanagi Kenjiro 1953.jpg") In 1924, [Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi "Kenjiro Takayanagi") began a research program on [electronic television](/wiki/Electronic_television "Electronic television"). In 1925, he demonstrated a [cathode ray tube](/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube "Cathode ray tube") (CRT) [television](/wiki/Television "Television") with thermal electron emission.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development\_of\_Electronic\_Television,\_1924\-1941\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306061539/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development\_of\_Electronic\_Television,\_1924\-1941\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924\-1941\|archive\-date\=March 6, 2012\|access\-date\=December 11, 2015}} Television tests were conducted in 1926 using a combined mechanical [Nipkow disk](/wiki/Nipkow_disk "Nipkow disk") and electronic [Braun tube](/wiki/Braun_tube "Braun tube") system.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p05/index.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604084708/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p05/index.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television\|archive\-date\=2002\-06\-04\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-01}} In 1926, he demonstrated a CRT television with 40\-line [resolution](/wiki/Display_resolution "Display resolution"), the first working example of a fully [electronic television](/wiki/History_of_television%23Electronic_television "History of television#Electronic television") receiver. In 1927, he increased the television resolution to 100 lines, which was unrivaled until 1931\.{{cite book \|editor\-last\=Forrester \|editor\-first\=Chris \|chapter\=The Astra Chronicles \|title\=High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Springer \|page\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=wQhlFaxDwrsC\&pg\=PA220 220] \|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-12008\-4 \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-642\-12009\-1}} In 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half\-tones on television.{{cite book \|last\=Abramson \|first\=Albert \|date\=1995 \|title\=Zworykin, Pioneer of Television \|publisher\=University of Illinois Press \|location\=Urbana \|page\=231 \|isbn\=0\-252\-02104\-5}} [thumb\|A recreation of [Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi "Kenjiro Takayanagi")'s pioneering 1926 [electronic television](/wiki/Electronic_television "Electronic television") experiment, at [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") Broadcasting Museum in Atagoyama, Tokyo](/wiki/File:Early_TV_experiment_by_Takayanagi.jpg "Early TV experiment by Takayanagi.jpg") In the same period the engineer [Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi "Kenjiro Takayanagi") also turned his interest to television studies after having learned about the new technology in a French magazine. He developed a system similar to that of [John Logie Baird](/wiki/John_Logie_Baird "John Logie Baird"), using the [Nipkow disk](/wiki/Nipkow_disk "Nipkow disk") to scan the subject and generate electrical signals. But unlike Baird, Takayanagi took the important step of using a [cathode ray tube](/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube "Cathode ray tube") to display the received signal, successfully reproducing the [Katakana](/wiki/Katakana "Katakana") character [イ](/wiki/I_%28kana%29 "I (kana)") in December 1926\. In 1928 his research took a further breakthrough, when he managed to reproduce an image of a person with a [resolution](/wiki/Screen_resolution "Screen resolution") of 40 [lines](/wiki/Scan_lines "Scan lines") at a refresh rate of 14 [frames per second](/wiki/Frame_rate "Frame rate"). In the 1930s Takayanagi and his research team developed a fully electronic television system using a revised version of the [iconoscope](/wiki/Iconoscope "Iconoscope"). This was followed by the invention of a video receiver capable of reproducing images with a resolution of 441 lines at 30 frames per second, the best on the market at the time.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p07\.html\|title\=Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=7\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411212842/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p07\.html\|archive\-date\=11 April 2013}} After the first broadcasts via [radio](/wiki/Radio "Radio"), which became a reality in the second half of the 1920s,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p04\.html\|title\=Dawn of TV Technology: Electricity meets the radio wave\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|page\=4\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411212002/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p04\.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-04\-11 \|url\-status\=dead}} the creation of a central institution for the management of radio broadcasting services that could reach the entire national territory became increasingly urgent.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p06col\_1\.html\|title\=Establishment of NHK (1926\)\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134808/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p06col\_1\.html\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-24\|url\-status\=dead}} At the behest of the [Ministry of Communications](/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_and_Communications_%28Japan%29 "Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Japan)") the local stations of [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka "Osaka") and [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya "Nagoya") were thus merged in 1926 into a single national organization called [Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai](/wiki/Nippon_H%C5%8Ds%C5%8D_Ky%C5%8Dkai "Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai").{{efn\|The English acronym NHK was only used after the end of the Second World War.{{cite book \|last\=Krauss \|first\=Ellis S. \|title\=Broadcasting Politics in Japan: NHK and Television News \|date\=2000 \|publisher\=Cornell University Press \|location\=Ithaca \|page\=90 \|isbn\=0\-8014\-3748\-2}}}} Right after its creation, four other stations were created in other regions, namely [Hokkaidō](/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D "Hokkaidō"), [Tōhoku](/wiki/T%C5%8Dhoku "Tōhoku"), [Chūgoku](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABgoku "Chūgoku") and [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB "Kyūshū"), whose first broadcasts took place in November 1928\. In 1930 the Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai founded the [Science \& Technology Research Laboratories](/wiki/NHK_Science_%26_Technology_Research_Laboratories "NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories") (STRL) with the aim of developing a television set in the wake of the inventions of [Paul Gottlieb Nipkow](/wiki/Paul_Gottlieb_Nipkow "Paul Gottlieb Nipkow") and [Vladimir Zworykin](/wiki/Vladimir_Zworykin "Vladimir Zworykin").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p08\.html\|title\=NHK STRL Established: Full\-scale TV Research Commences\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=8\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411213233/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p08\.html\|archive\-date\=2013\-04\-11\|url\-status\=dead}} Meanwhile in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), the first regular test broadcasts were being conducted, with [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") ready to broadcast the imminent [Berlin Olympics](/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympic_Games "1936 Summer Olympic Games") of 1936\. The following year, it was decided that the [Giochi](/wiki/1940_Summer_Olympics "1940 Summer Olympics") were to be held in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), and the STRL was put in charge of the event's television project. Takayanagi himself and other leading engineers of the time took part in the program and, although the Olympics were officially canceled in July 1938, television research continued, fueled by the zeal of those involved in the project.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p09\.html\|title\=Intended Coverage of the Cancelled Tokyo Olympic Games of 1940\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=9\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411195337/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p09\.html\|archive\-date\=11 April 2013}} On May 13, 1939 an experimental television signal was broadcast from the STRL antenna at the new Broadcasting Hall in [Uchisaiwaichō](/wiki/Uchisaiwaich%C5%8D "Uchisaiwaichō"), located 13 km away.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p09col\_1\.html\|title\="Can you see me clearly?" Public TV image reception experiment (1939\)\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134730/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p09col\_1\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}} This represented the first public television experiment conducted through the use of radio waves in Japan. ### The beginning of regular broadcasts and the end of the NHK monopoly The experiments continued until the end of the decade. Existing equipment was improved and new lighting systems were created along with smaller, lighter cameras to capture moving images. An all\-electronic system was adopted in the 1930s using a domestically developed [iconoscope](/wiki/Iconoscope "Iconoscope") system. A variety of productions such as films, variety shows, musical shows and TV dramas (such as the family comedy *[Yūge\-mae (Before Supper)](/wiki/%E5%A4%95%E9%A4%89%E5%89%8D "夕餉前")*, the first [dorama](/wiki/Dorama "Dorama") in history, broadcast live in four episodes over three nights{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p09col\_2\.html\|title\=The first TV dramas: the 12\-minute, "Yuge\-mae (Before Supper)"\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134805/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p09col\_2\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}}) saw the light, laying the foundations for the development of the television and electronics industry after the Second World War. During the conflict, however, research on television equipment was suspended and electrotechnical companies gave way to the production of weapons, ammunition and other products for war use. Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai itself, which until then had maintained a certain independence from the government, with the increase in military control over the institutions ended up becoming a simple propaganda weapon of the State.{{Harvtxt\|Krauss\|2000\|ref\=Krauss, 2000\|p\= 91}} For a brief period in the aftermath of Japan's surrender, the occupied government banned television research in 1945, but was lifted in July 1946\. Takayanagi joined the [Victor Company of Japan](/wiki/JVC "JVC") to continue research on his own end, while the NHK resumed theirs in November.{{Cite book\|url\=https://t2r2\.star.titech.ac.jp/cgi\-bin/publicationinfo.cgi?q\_publication\_content\_number\=CTT100725641 \|format\=PDF \|title\=冷戦期のアメリカの対日外交政策と日本への技術導入 : 読売新聞グループと日本のテレビジョン放送及び原子力導入 : 1945年～1956年 \|accessdate\=2021\-02\-25 \|author\=奥田謙造 \|publisher\=東京工業大学 \|date\=2007\-03\-26}} Takayanagi played a central role in jointly developing television broadcasting technology and television receivers with NHK, Sharp, and Toshiba. [thumb\|200px\|Reproduction of a street television set in the 1950s at the Shin\-Yokohama Ramen Museum](/wiki/File:Gaitou_tv.JPG "Gaitou tv.JPG") After the war, the [occupation forces](/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan "Occupation of Japan") removed all government and military control over the Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai. In 1950, following a reform of the Japanese broadcasting system, it became an independent company supported by the licence fee paid by listeners and at the same time the market for commercial broadcasting was liberalised.{{Harvtxt\|Krauss\|2000\|ref\=Krauss, 2000\|p\= 94}} and {{Harvtxt\|Ono\|2004\|ref\=Ono, 2004\|pp\= 1277\-1278}}. On 1 September 1951, the first commercial broadcaster, [CBC Radio (JOAR)](/wiki/Chubu-Nippon_Broadcasting "Chubu-Nippon Broadcasting") in Nagoya, started broadcasting, followed shortly after by [NJB](/wiki/Mainichi_Broadcasting_System "Mainichi Broadcasting System") in Osaka.{{Harvtxt\|Ito\|2010\|ref\=Ito, 2010\|p\= 13}}. Subsequently, several other stations obtained broadcasting rights (among them [ABC Radio](/wiki/Asahi_Broadcasting_Corporation "Asahi Broadcasting Corporation"), [RKB Radio](/wiki/RKB_Mainichi_Broadcasting "RKB Mainichi Broadcasting"), [KBS Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto_Broadcasting_System "Kyoto Broadcasting System") and [KRT Radio Tokyo](/wiki/TBS_Radio "TBS Radio")){{cite web \|access\-date\=24 February 2017 \|archive\-date\=24 February 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134741/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p10col\_1\.html \|language\=en \|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]] \|title\=NHK/commercial broadcasters: a system of coexistence \|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p10col\_1\.html }} and by 1952 there were eighteen private radio stations in operation.{{cite web \|access\-date\=24 February 2017 \|archive\-date\=24 February 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134811/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p10\.html \|language\=en \|page\=10 \|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]] \|title\=Broadcast Law: Broadcasting for the Public \|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p10\.html }} Thus a new era began, with the public broadcaster Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (since then better identified by its English acronym NHK)The acronym NHK was only used after the end of the Second World War. See {{Harvtxt\|Krauss\|2000\|ref\=Krauss, 2000\|p\= 90}}. on one side and commercial broadcasters financed by advertising revenue on the other.{{Harvtxt\|Chun\|2006\|ref\=Chun, 2006\|pp\= 43\-44, 54}}. [thumb\|The Tokyo Tower in 1961](/wiki/File:Tokyo_Tower_1961.jpg "Tokyo Tower 1961.jpg") In 1948 NHK had resumed its research program but since then no great progress had been made in the effective provision of the service to the public. On May 26, 1951, the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Japan%29 "House of Representatives (Japan)") requested the government's authorization to finally start television broadcasts in the country and on October 2 of the same year the private broadcaster [Nippon Television](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") (NTV) obtained the broadcasting license, preceding NHK by a few months. The latter began its regular television programming on February 1, 1953, broadcasting for approximately seven hours from 2 to 8:45 in the evening;{{Harvtxt\|Tay e Turner\|2015\|ref\=Tay e Turner, 2015\|p\= 220}} On August 28 of the same year, Nippon Television, the first commercial television, also became operational.{{Harvtxt\|Ito\|2010\|ref\=Ito, 2010\|p\= 14}}. The two broadcasters immediately entered into competition by offering viewers schedules with different styles and contents: if NHK insisted on culturally elevated programs suitable for the highest social classes, NTV aimed more decisively at the masses.{{Harvtxt\|Chun\|2006\|ref\=Chun, 2006\|pp\= 54\-57}}. Initially the high cost of the receivers slowed down their diffusion, when at the end of March 1954 there were only 17,000 subscribers compared to more than eleven million radio listeners. To overcome this problem, televisions were installed in city centres, in train stations and in parks, attracting large numbers of people and helping to spread television culture in the country. [250px\|right\|thumb\|Changes to the television penetration rate in Japan from 1957 to 2015](/wiki/File:Television_penetration_rate_in_Japan_from_1957_to_2015.svg "Television penetration rate in Japan from 1957 to 2015.svg") In the second half of the 1950s, [KRT](/wiki/TBS_Television_%28Japan%29 "TBS Television (Japan)"), [Fuji TV](/wiki/Fuji_TV "Fuji TV") and [NET](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi") signed on, joining the existing NTV.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p11col\_1\.html\|title\=Commercial TV broadcasters\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134735/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p11col\_1\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}} By the end of 1956, NHK had perfected its television broadcasting network, reaching, in addition to Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka (these last two started broadcasting in 1954\), also [Sapporo](/wiki/Sapporo "Sapporo") and [Fukuoka](/wiki/Fukuoka "Fukuoka"), as well as the smaller citires of [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai "Sendai") and [Hiroshima](/wiki/Hiroshima "Hiroshima").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p11\.html\|title\=TV Broadcasting Begins\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=11\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134749/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p11\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}} In [Kantō region](/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_region "Kantō region"), although each commercial station had installed its own transmitting antennas, the government launched a proposal to build a single large tower capable of transmitting the signal throughout the region.{{cite web\|author\=Rob Gilhooly\|language\=en\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20020317a1\.html\|title\=The tower and the story\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=17 March 2002\|access\-date\=17 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110143228/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2002/03/17/community/the\-tower\-and\-the\-story/\|archive\-date\=10 November 2013}} In 1958 the [Tokyo Tower](/wiki/Tokyo_Tower "Tokyo Tower") was inaugurated, symbol of the [period of great economic growth](/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle "Japanese economic miracle") which affected Japan in those years.{{cite web\|author\=Masami Ito\|language\=en\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20081230i1\.html\|title\=Half century on, Tokyo Tower still dazzles as landmark\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=30 December 2008\|access\-date\=17 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225010214/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/12/30/news/half\-century\-on\-tokyo\-tower\-still\-dazzles\-as\-landmark/\|archive\-date\=25 February 2016}} At the time of the first regular broadcasts in 1953, there were only 3,000 television sets. The year following the royal wedding of Crown Prince [Akihito](/wiki/Akihito "Akihito") in 1959, the number of sets had increased to 12 million.{{cite magazine\|magazine\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|date\=14 May 1975\|page\=116\|title\=How receivers grew}} Local television stations appeared successively on the VHF band, paving way to the first networks, in which a syndication exchange between the five oldest KRT\-affiliated stations of the time led to the creation of the [Japan News Network](/wiki/Japan_News_Network "Japan News Network"),{{Cite book \|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/12164852 \|publisher\=Nippon Television \|year\=1978 \|language\=ja \|script\-title\=ja:大衆とともに25年 \|trans\-title\=25 Years with the Public \|oclc\=12164852}}{{Rp\|page\=100}}{{Cite book \|last\=Sadanobu \|first\=Aoki \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/title/674445957 \|title\=日本の民放ネットワーク : JNNの軌跡 \|publisher\=Tokyo Broadcasting System \|year\=1981 \|language\=ja \|trans\-title\=Japan's Commercial Broadcasting Network : The Trajectory of JNN \|oclc\=674445957}}{{Rp\|page\=7}} which was formalized on August 1, 1959\.{{Rp\|page\=1}} The last VHF commercial station to sign on was [Tokyo 12 Channel](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo") in 1964\. Precisely the economic well\-being after the Second World War and the lowering of television prices were among the determining factors in the diffusion of television at a national level, which led it to quickly become one of the [material goods](/wiki/Material_goods "Material goods") of greatest importance for [Japanese families](/wiki/Japanese_family "Japanese family") together with the [refrigerator](/wiki/Refrigerator "Refrigerator") and the [washing machine](/wiki/Washing_machine "Washing machine"). ### The arrival of color television [thumb\|left\|Fuji TV's headquarters in the 1960s](/wiki/File:Fuji_Television_1961.jpg "Fuji Television 1961.jpg") After the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"), Japan was the third country in the world to introduce [color television](/wiki/Color_television "Color television"). The first broadcasts began on September 10, 1960 using the [NTSC](/wiki/NTSC "NTSC") television standard, chosen for its ability to make color content available even for owners of a black and white television set. Color programming initially focused on foreign films, time\-delayed sporting events, and short educational programs, due to the inadequacy of television stations' equipment. In 1964 the networks worked to broadcast the [1964 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics "1964 Summer Olympics") which would have taken place in Tokyo in October of that year, relying on the [geostationary satellite](/wiki/Geostationary_satellite "Geostationary satellite") [Syncom 3](/wiki/Syncom%23Syncom_3 "Syncom#Syncom 3") for the live television broadcast. The latter, however, was not the first satellite to have transmitted a television program across the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"), as the [Relay 1](/wiki/Relay_program "Relay program") satellite transmitted the first program from the USA to Japan in November 1963, on the occasion of the [assassination of President Kennedy](/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy "Assassination of John F. Kennedy").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p13\.html\|title\=US\-Japan Satellite Relay Broadcast and Apollo 11\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=13\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134737/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p13\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}} [thumb\|In the years of the [Japanese economic miracle](/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle "Japanese economic miracle") the television set becomes indispensable for Japanese](/wiki/File:Amberley_TV.jpg "Amberley TV.jpg") Events of such magnitude and general interest, as well as the wedding of the then crown prince [Akihito](/wiki/Akihito "Akihito") in 1959, contributed to the rapid popularization of television as a new medium of mass communication. The number of black and white televisions sold exceeded 2 million by the end of the 1950s. However, it took longer for the new color devices to emerge, mainly due to the high prices, and only 1,200 units were sold in the year in which color broadcasts began.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p12\.html\|title\=Regular Color TV Broadcasts, Tokyo Olympic Games\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=12\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134728/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p12\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017\|access\-date\=24 February 2017}} Demand grew, however, as prices fell and the production volume increased: from 4,000 units in the two\-year period 1962\-1963 it went to 1\.28 million in 1967 and over 6\.4 million in 1970\.{{harvnb\|Sumiya, 2000\|p\= 402}} In November 1975, the number of television sets owned by the general population stood at approximately 46 million, of which 32 million were color televisions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p14\.html\|title\=NHK General TV: All Broadcasts in Color \- Realizing the Dream of Color Broadcasting\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=14\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134747/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p14\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}} In the meantime, the last and smallest of the main Japanese commercial broadcasters also appeared on the television scene, [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo"), which began in 1964 as a channel dedicated to cultural and educational programs before later establishing itself also in the entertainment field in general, with particular attention paid to [anime](/wiki/Anime "Anime").{{harvnb\|Hoover, 2011\|p\= 309}}. By the late 1960s, 30 million households owned a television set, commercial TV had 500 transmitters and NHK, 1000\. With the early introduction of color television, on the other hand, only a small amount in 1967 afforded such a set, estimated at 80,000\-90,000 \- aiming for a 100,000 target by spring 1968, accounting to less than 1% of the total number of sets at the time. Its programming in the 1960s was seen as "primitive" for US standards.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-TV\-Radio\-Age/60s/68/Television\-Radio\-Age\-1968\-01\-01\.pdf \|title\=Television and Radio Age \|date\=1 January 1968 \|accessdate\=18 April 2024 \|page\=58}} The [Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai](/wiki/NHK "NHK") (NHK, the Japan Broadcasting Corporation) began conducting research to "unlock the fundamental mechanism of video and sound interactions with the five human senses" in 1964, after the Tokyo Olympics. NHK set out to create an [HDTV](/wiki/HDTV "HDTV") system that ended up scoring much higher in subjective tests than NTSC's previously dubbed "HDTV". This new system, NHK Color, created in 1972, included 1,125 lines, a 5:3 aspect ratio and 60 Hz refresh rate. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), headed by Charles Ginsburg, became the testing and study authority for HDTV technology in the international theater. SMPTE would test HDTV systems from different companies from every conceivable perspective, but the problem of combining the different formats plagued the technology for many years.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2018}} The television industry in Japan affected the [film industry](/wiki/Cinema_of_Japan "Cinema of Japan") {{endash}} in the 1960s, film companies reacted by not allowing their top actors and directors to work on television, not even the formers' production skills. Eventually the film companies lost money.{{cite news \|title\=Thwarted talent hampers Japan's new media age \|url\=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/biztimes19950113\-1\.2\.37\.2 \|work\=Business Times \|date\=13 January 1993}} ### New technologies, UHF, the age of satellite television and the rise of high\-definition television [thumb\|left\|The [NHK Broadcasting Center](/wiki/NHK_Broadcasting_Center "NHK Broadcasting Center")](/wiki/File:NHK_Broadcasting_Center_Parabola_antenna_3.JPG "NHK Broadcasting Center Parabola antenna 3.JPG") The first UHF television station to go on air in Japan was the [Tokushima](/wiki/NHK_Tokushima_Broadcasting_Station "NHK Tokushima Broadcasting Station") station of [NHK Educational TV](/wiki/NHK_Educational_TV "NHK Educational TV"), on February 20, 1968\.[NHK出版 NHK年鑑'15 p\=664 第2放送回線系統図](https://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/book/regular/nenkan/pdf15/15_660_665.pdf) In 1973, the Space Activities Commission launched the experimental satellite transmission program, entrusting its development to [NASDA](/wiki/NASDA "NASDA") and management to NHK. Five years later, the first Japanese satellite was launched for [direct broadcast satellite](/wiki/Satellite_television "Satellite television") (DBS) broadcasts, named BSE or *Yuri*, but the first tests only began in 1984 by means of the BS\-2a satellite.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p16\.html\|title\=Satellite Broadcasting Begins\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=16\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134744/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p16\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}}{{harvnb\|Iida, 2000\|p\= 35}}. The latter, unlike its predecessors, allowed signal reception even from small [satellite dishes](/wiki/Satellite_dishes "Satellite dishes") of 40 or 60 centimeters in diameter, suitable for domestic use.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p17\.html\|title\=Broadcasting Services Diversify\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=17\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134720/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p17\.html\|archive\-date\=24 February 2017}} In 1989, NHK finally began satellite transmissions, simultaneously launching the new [high\-definition television](/wiki/High-definition_television "High-definition television") technology on an experimental basis. In Japan, research into high definition had begun in the sixties, when Takashi Fujio, director of STRL, believed that television technology, though still [analog](/wiki/Analog_television "Analog television"), had reached sufficient maturity to move from the traditional "small screen" to the big movie screen.{{cite web\|title\=R\&D on Large\-Screen, High\-Definition Television (Hi\-Vision)\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p18\.html\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=18\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134739/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p18\.html\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-24 }}{{harvnb\|Van Tassel, 2013\|p\= 77}}. The Fujio's team agreed that, both technically and economically, HDTV technology was more easily applicable to direct satellite broadcasts, also taking into account how [cable TV](/wiki/Cable_TV "Cable TV") was poorly developed in Japan than it had been, for example, in the United States.{{harvnb\|Krauss, 2000\|p\= 186}}. In the 1980s, NHK thus developed the analog Hi\-Vision system with 1125 lines, 60 frames per second and an initial [aspect ratio](/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28image%29 "Aspect ratio (image)") of [5:3](/wiki/5:3 "3") (later upgraded to [16:9](/wiki/16:9 "9")), beaming the first high definition analog broadcasts via satellite through the [MUSE](/wiki/Multiple_sub-Nyquist_sampling_encoding "Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding") compression system.{{harvnb\|Krauss, 2000\|p\= 187}}. However, it took several years before this technology was adopted globally, mainly due to incompatibility with the standards used in the United States and [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p19\.html\|title\=Hi\-Vision Goes Global\|work\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\|publisher\=\[\[NHK]]\|page\=19\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134724/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\-of\-tv\-en/p19\.html\|access\-date\=24 February 2017\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-24 }}{{harvnb\|Van Tassel, 2013\|pp\= 79\-80}}. In the 1980s, the large\-scale diffusion of television sets, which had now become universal objects in Japanese homes, also began to have a certain impact on a social level, contributing to loosening family ties and consequently making family members more independent from each other. This also affected the television schedule, from which in a few years the generalist programs designed to entertain the whole family disappeared, replaced by specific programs based on age groups, in addition to programs designed for a mature audience in the late evening hours.{{harvnb\|Furnari, 2005\|pp\= 33\-34}}. In 1991, the first subscription satellite television network, [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW "WOWOW"), is born, specialized in broadcasting films, shows and sports. In 2000, digital satellite broadcasts began and several other companies entered the satellite market.{{harvnb\|Cave and Nakamura, 2006\|p\= 123}}. [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 "SKY PerfecTV!") was born in May 1998 from the merger of PerfecTV and JSkyB,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/1998/05/01/national/perfectv\-jskyb\-merge\-to\-form\-new\-digital\-broadcaster/\|title\=PerfecTV, JSkyB merge to form new digital broadcaster\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=1 May 1998\|access\-date\=13 April 2016\|language\=en}} whereas the Japanese subsidiary of [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV "DirecTV") started its services in December 1997\.{{harvnb\|Nakamura, 2011\|p\= 29}}. With DirecTV retiring from the Japanese market in March 2000, SKY PerfectTV! emerges as one of Japan's largest pay\-TV platforms, competing with WOWOW, cable company [J:COM](/wiki/J:COM "COM") and [Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV "Hikari TV")'s [IPTV](/wiki/IPTV "IPTV") service. ### The digital transition and the rise of the Internet [thumb\|[Tokyo Skytree](/wiki/Tokyo_Skytree "Tokyo Skytree")](/wiki/File:Tokyo_Sky_Tree_%285%29.JPG "Tokyo Sky Tree (5).JPG") Since the old MUSE system was not compatible with the new digital standards, Japan developed the [ISDB\-T](/wiki/ISDB "ISDB") in the 2000s for [digital terrestrial television](/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television "Digital terrestrial television"), later adopted in other countries in [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America"). The first transmission tests using this new generation standard began in 2003 in the metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.soumu.go.jp/main\_sosiki/joho\_tsusin/eng/Releases/Telecommunications/110700\_a.html\|title\=Japan Completed Analog Switch Off in Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Successfully\|date\=July 2011\|language\=en\|access\-date\=23 April 2016\|archive\-date\=12 August 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812224751/http://www.soumu.go.jp/main\_sosiki/joho\_tsusin/eng/Releases/Telecommunications/110700\_a.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{harvnb\|Song, Yang and Wang, 2015\|pp\= 32\-33}}. In 2006, the [1seg](/wiki/1seg "1seg") function was launched, a very popular service that allowed users to watch TV on their mobile phones via digital terrestrial.{{Cite news\|author\=Kanako Takahara\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2006/04/01/business/tv\-programs\-go\-mobile\-as\-one\-seg\-services\-begin/\|title\=TV programs go mobile as One Seg services begin\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=1 April 2006\|access\-date\=23 April 2016\|language\=en}} From 2010 to 2011 the transition to digital television took place through the [digital switchover](/wiki/Digital_switchover "Digital switchover"), the phased switching off on a regional basis of [analog television](/wiki/Analog_television "Analog television"). The transition concluded in most of the country on July 24, 2011, except for the prefectures of [Iwate](/wiki/Iwate_Prefecture "Iwate Prefecture"), [Miyagi](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture "Miyagi Prefecture"), and [Fukushima](/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture "Fukushima Prefecture"), on whose switchoff was postponed to the following year due to the [Tōhoku earthquake](/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami "2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2011/07/25/editorials/tv\-broadcasts\-go\-digital/\|title\=TV broadcasts go digital\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=25 July 2011\|access\-date\=23 April 2016\|language\=en}} However, the transition was not without problems: the 333m [Tokyo Tower](/wiki/Tokyo_Tower "Tokyo Tower") was in fact insufficient to adequately cover the Kantō area with the digital terrestrial signal. For this reason, another 634m high tower was built, the [Tokyo Skytree](/wiki/Tokyo_Skytree "Tokyo Skytree"), inaugurated in 2012 in the [Sumida](/wiki/Sumida%2C_Tokyo "Sumida, Tokyo") ward. The total digitalization of television in Japan radically changed the traditional radio broadcasting model, leading the main private broadcasters, satellite platforms and telecommunications companies to offer their programs via paid services on the [internet](/wiki/Internet_in_Japan "Internet in Japan").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00091/\|title\=Will TV Be Dethroned as Japan's Entertainment King?\|date\=28 January 2015\|access\-date\=29 April 2016\|language\=en}} GAlready in 2008, NHK inaugurated its subscription service NHK On Demand (now known as NHK\+) for the online viewing of programs that were previously shown on terrestrial television. In January 2014, Nippon TV launched a free service that allowed viewers to watch programs online up to a week after the original air date. TBS then followed with the launch of a similar service in October 2014\. In 2015, to counter the entry of [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") and [Amazon Video](/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Video "Amazon Prime Video") into the Japanese market,{{harvnb\|Dentsu, 2016\|p\= 10}}. the main commercial networks based in Tokyo struck a deal by jointly launching the free TVer website.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/08/business/japanese\-broadcasters\-launch\-online\-platform\-viewing\-tv\-shows/\|title\=Japanese broadcasters launch online platform for viewing TV shows\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=8 January 2016\|access\-date\=29 April 2016\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109070230/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/08/business/japanese\-broadcasters\-launch\-online\-platform\-viewing\-tv\-shows/\|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-09 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://variety.com/2015/digital/asia/japan\-tv\-networks\-tver\-online\-video\-platform\-1201543856/\|title\=Japan TV Networks to Launch TVer Online Video Platform\|author\=Mark Schilling\|publisher\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|date\=19 July 2015\|access\-date\=29 April 2016\|language\=en}} In the IPTV sector the Japanese [internet service providers](/wiki/Internet_service_provider "Internet service provider") have been offering their customers the opportunity to use TV\-related services via the Internet since the early 2000s,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.itif.org/files/2008BBAppendixD.pdf\|title\=Japan\|publisher\=Information Technology \& Innovation Foundation\|website\=itif.org\|date\=May 2008\|language\=en\|access\-date\=23 January 2017}} but it was thanks to the launch of the acTVila portal in 2007 by a consortium formed by [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"), [Panasonic](/wiki/Panasonic "Panasonic"), [Sharp](/wiki/Sharp_Corporation "Sharp Corporation"), [Toshiba](/wiki/Toshiba "Toshiba") and [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi "Hitachi") that Japan entered the Internet TV market forcefully.{{harvnb\|Hjelm, 2008\|pp\= 92\-95}}. The large\-scale diffusion of the Internet has led to the formation of a generation gap in which older people spend more time in front of a television compared to younger people, who spend more time online rather than with any other type of media. Especially among teenagers, [video sharing](/wiki/Video_sharing "Video sharing") or [video on demand](/wiki/Video_on_demand "Video on demand") services such as [Niconico](/wiki/Niconico "Niconico"), [Yahoo! Douga](/wiki/Yahoo%21_Japan "Yahoo! Japan") and GyaO.
[ "History\n-------", "### The foundation of NHK and Kenjiro Takayanagi's research", "[thumb\\|[Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi \"Kenjiro Takayanagi\"), recognized in his homeland as \"the father of television\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Partner \\|first\\=Simon \\|title\\=Assembled in Japan: Electrical Goods and the Making of the Japanese Consumer \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=University of California Press \\|location\\=Berkeley \\|page\\=31 \\|isbn\\=0\\-520\\-21792\\-6}}, was one of the pioneers in the technology that was the base for television.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Odagiri \\|first1\\=Hiroyuki \\|last2\\=Gotō \\|first2\\=Akira \\|title\\=Technology and Industrial Development in Japan: Building Capabilities by Learning, Innovation and Public Policy \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Clarendon Press \\|location\\=Oxford \\|page\\=164 \\|isbn\\=0\\-19\\-828802\\-6}}](/wiki/File:Takayanagi_Kenjiro_1953.jpg \"Takayanagi Kenjiro 1953.jpg\")", "In 1924, [Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi \"Kenjiro Takayanagi\") began a research program on [electronic television](/wiki/Electronic_television \"Electronic television\"). In 1925, he demonstrated a [cathode ray tube](/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube \"Cathode ray tube\") (CRT) [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\") with thermal electron emission.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development\\_of\\_Electronic\\_Television,\\_1924\\-1941\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306061539/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development\\_of\\_Electronic\\_Television,\\_1924\\-1941\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924\\-1941\\|archive\\-date\\=March 6, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=December 11, 2015}} Television tests were conducted in 1926 using a combined mechanical [Nipkow disk](/wiki/Nipkow_disk \"Nipkow disk\") and electronic [Braun tube](/wiki/Braun_tube \"Braun tube\") system.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p05/index.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604084708/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p05/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television\\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-06\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-01}} In 1926, he demonstrated a CRT television with 40\\-line [resolution](/wiki/Display_resolution \"Display resolution\"), the first working example of a fully [electronic television](/wiki/History_of_television%23Electronic_television \"History of television#Electronic television\") receiver. In 1927, he increased the television resolution to 100 lines, which was unrivaled until 1931\\.{{cite book \\|editor\\-last\\=Forrester \\|editor\\-first\\=Chris \\|chapter\\=The Astra Chronicles \\|title\\=High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|page\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wQhlFaxDwrsC\\&pg\\=PA220 220] \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-12008\\-4 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-642\\-12009\\-1}} In 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half\\-tones on television.{{cite book \\|last\\=Abramson \\|first\\=Albert \\|date\\=1995 \\|title\\=Zworykin, Pioneer of Television \\|publisher\\=University of Illinois Press \\|location\\=Urbana \\|page\\=231 \\|isbn\\=0\\-252\\-02104\\-5}}", "[thumb\\|A recreation of [Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi \"Kenjiro Takayanagi\")'s pioneering 1926 [electronic television](/wiki/Electronic_television \"Electronic television\") experiment, at [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") Broadcasting Museum in Atagoyama, Tokyo](/wiki/File:Early_TV_experiment_by_Takayanagi.jpg \"Early TV experiment by Takayanagi.jpg\")\nIn the same period the engineer [Kenjiro Takayanagi](/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi \"Kenjiro Takayanagi\") also turned his interest to television studies after having learned about the new technology in a French magazine. He developed a system similar to that of [John Logie Baird](/wiki/John_Logie_Baird \"John Logie Baird\"), using the [Nipkow disk](/wiki/Nipkow_disk \"Nipkow disk\") to scan the subject and generate electrical signals. But unlike Baird, Takayanagi took the important step of using a [cathode ray tube](/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube \"Cathode ray tube\") to display the received signal, successfully reproducing the [Katakana](/wiki/Katakana \"Katakana\") character [イ](/wiki/I_%28kana%29 \"I (kana)\") in December 1926\\. In 1928 his research took a further breakthrough, when he managed to reproduce an image of a person with a [resolution](/wiki/Screen_resolution \"Screen resolution\") of 40 [lines](/wiki/Scan_lines \"Scan lines\") at a refresh rate of 14 [frames per second](/wiki/Frame_rate \"Frame rate\"). In the 1930s Takayanagi and his research team developed a fully electronic television system using a revised version of the [iconoscope](/wiki/Iconoscope \"Iconoscope\"). This was followed by the invention of a video receiver capable of reproducing images with a resolution of 441 lines at 30 frames per second, the best on the market at the time.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p07\\.html\\|title\\=Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=7\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411212842/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p07\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2013}}", "After the first broadcasts via [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\"), which became a reality in the second half of the 1920s,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p04\\.html\\|title\\=Dawn of TV Technology: Electricity meets the radio wave\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|page\\=4\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411212002/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p04\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} the creation of a central institution for the management of radio broadcasting services that could reach the entire national territory became increasingly urgent.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p06col\\_1\\.html\\|title\\=Establishment of NHK (1926\\)\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134808/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p06col\\_1\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-24\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} \nAt the behest of the [Ministry of Communications](/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_and_Communications_%28Japan%29 \"Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Japan)\") the local stations of [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka \"Osaka\") and [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") were thus merged in 1926 into a single national organization called [Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai](/wiki/Nippon_H%C5%8Ds%C5%8D_Ky%C5%8Dkai \"Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai\").{{efn\\|The English acronym NHK was only used after the end of the Second World War.{{cite book \\|last\\=Krauss \\|first\\=Ellis S. \\|title\\=Broadcasting Politics in Japan: NHK and Television News \\|date\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press \\|location\\=Ithaca \\|page\\=90 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8014\\-3748\\-2}}}} Right after its creation, four other stations were created in other regions, namely [Hokkaidō](/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D \"Hokkaidō\"), [Tōhoku](/wiki/T%C5%8Dhoku \"Tōhoku\"), [Chūgoku](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABgoku \"Chūgoku\") and [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB \"Kyūshū\"), whose first broadcasts took place in November 1928\\. In 1930 the Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai founded the [Science \\& Technology Research Laboratories](/wiki/NHK_Science_%26_Technology_Research_Laboratories \"NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories\") (STRL) with the aim of developing a television set in the wake of the inventions of [Paul Gottlieb Nipkow](/wiki/Paul_Gottlieb_Nipkow \"Paul Gottlieb Nipkow\") and [Vladimir Zworykin](/wiki/Vladimir_Zworykin \"Vladimir Zworykin\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p08\\.html\\|title\\=NHK STRL Established: Full\\-scale TV Research Commences\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=8\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411213233/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p08\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-11\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Meanwhile in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), the first regular test broadcasts were being conducted, with [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") ready to broadcast the imminent [Berlin Olympics](/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympic_Games \"1936 Summer Olympic Games\") of 1936\\. The following year, it was decided that the [Giochi](/wiki/1940_Summer_Olympics \"1940 Summer Olympics\") were to be held in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), and the STRL was put in charge of the event's television project. Takayanagi himself and other leading engineers of the time took part in the program and, although the Olympics were officially canceled in July 1938, television research continued, fueled by the zeal of those involved in the project.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p09\\.html\\|title\\=Intended Coverage of the Cancelled Tokyo Olympic Games of 1940\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=9\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411195337/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p09\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2013}} On May 13, 1939 an experimental television signal was broadcast from the STRL antenna at the new Broadcasting Hall in [Uchisaiwaichō](/wiki/Uchisaiwaich%C5%8D \"Uchisaiwaichō\"), located 13 km away.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p09col\\_1\\.html\\|title\\=\"Can you see me clearly?\" Public TV image reception experiment (1939\\)\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134730/https://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p09col\\_1\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}} This represented the first public television experiment conducted through the use of radio waves in Japan.", "### The beginning of regular broadcasts and the end of the NHK monopoly", "The experiments continued until the end of the decade. Existing equipment was improved and new lighting systems were created along with smaller, lighter cameras to capture moving images. An all\\-electronic system was adopted in the 1930s using a domestically developed [iconoscope](/wiki/Iconoscope \"Iconoscope\") system. A variety of productions such as films, variety shows, musical shows and TV dramas (such as the family comedy *[Yūge\\-mae (Before Supper)](/wiki/%E5%A4%95%E9%A4%89%E5%89%8D \"夕餉前\")*, the first [dorama](/wiki/Dorama \"Dorama\") in history, broadcast live in four episodes over three nights{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p09col\\_2\\.html\\|title\\=The first TV dramas: the 12\\-minute, \"Yuge\\-mae (Before Supper)\"\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134805/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p09col\\_2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}}) saw the light, laying the foundations for the development of the television and electronics industry after the Second World War. During the conflict, however, research on television equipment was suspended and electrotechnical companies gave way to the production of weapons, ammunition and other products for war use. Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai itself, which until then had maintained a certain independence from the government, with the increase in military control over the institutions ended up becoming a simple propaganda weapon of the State.{{Harvtxt\\|Krauss\\|2000\\|ref\\=Krauss, 2000\\|p\\= 91}}", "For a brief period in the aftermath of Japan's surrender, the occupied government banned television research in 1945, but was lifted in July 1946\\. Takayanagi joined the [Victor Company of Japan](/wiki/JVC \"JVC\") to continue research on his own end, while the NHK resumed theirs in November.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://t2r2\\.star.titech.ac.jp/cgi\\-bin/publicationinfo.cgi?q\\_publication\\_content\\_number\\=CTT100725641 \\|format\\=PDF \\|title\\=冷戦期のアメリカの対日外交政策と日本への技術導入 : 読売新聞グループと日本のテレビジョン放送及び原子力導入 : 1945年～1956年 \\|accessdate\\=2021\\-02\\-25 \\|author\\=奥田謙造 \\|publisher\\=東京工業大学 \\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-26}} Takayanagi played a central role in jointly developing television broadcasting technology and television receivers with NHK, Sharp, and Toshiba.", "[thumb\\|200px\\|Reproduction of a street television set in the 1950s at the Shin\\-Yokohama Ramen Museum](/wiki/File:Gaitou_tv.JPG \"Gaitou tv.JPG\")\nAfter the war, the [occupation forces](/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan \"Occupation of Japan\") removed all government and military control over the Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai. In 1950, following a reform of the Japanese broadcasting system, it became an independent company supported by the licence fee paid by listeners and at the same time the market for commercial broadcasting was liberalised.{{Harvtxt\\|Krauss\\|2000\\|ref\\=Krauss, 2000\\|p\\= 94}} and {{Harvtxt\\|Ono\\|2004\\|ref\\=Ono, 2004\\|pp\\= 1277\\-1278}}. On 1 September 1951, the first commercial broadcaster, [CBC Radio (JOAR)](/wiki/Chubu-Nippon_Broadcasting \"Chubu-Nippon Broadcasting\") in Nagoya, started broadcasting, followed shortly after by [NJB](/wiki/Mainichi_Broadcasting_System \"Mainichi Broadcasting System\") in Osaka.{{Harvtxt\\|Ito\\|2010\\|ref\\=Ito, 2010\\|p\\= 13}}. Subsequently, several other stations obtained broadcasting rights (among them [ABC Radio](/wiki/Asahi_Broadcasting_Corporation \"Asahi Broadcasting Corporation\"), [RKB Radio](/wiki/RKB_Mainichi_Broadcasting \"RKB Mainichi Broadcasting\"), [KBS Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto_Broadcasting_System \"Kyoto Broadcasting System\") and [KRT Radio Tokyo](/wiki/TBS_Radio \"TBS Radio\")){{cite web \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134741/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p10col\\_1\\.html \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]] \\|title\\=NHK/commercial broadcasters: a system of coexistence \\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p10col\\_1\\.html }} and by 1952 there were eighteen private radio stations in operation.{{cite web \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134811/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p10\\.html \\|language\\=en \\|page\\=10 \\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]] \\|title\\=Broadcast Law: Broadcasting for the Public \\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p10\\.html }} Thus a new era began, with the public broadcaster Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (since then better identified by its English acronym NHK)The acronym NHK was only used after the end of the Second World War. See {{Harvtxt\\|Krauss\\|2000\\|ref\\=Krauss, 2000\\|p\\= 90}}. on one side and commercial broadcasters financed by advertising revenue on the other.{{Harvtxt\\|Chun\\|2006\\|ref\\=Chun, 2006\\|pp\\= 43\\-44, 54}}.", "[thumb\\|The Tokyo Tower in 1961](/wiki/File:Tokyo_Tower_1961.jpg \"Tokyo Tower 1961.jpg\")\nIn 1948 NHK had resumed its research program but since then no great progress had been made in the effective provision of the service to the public. On May 26, 1951, the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Japan%29 \"House of Representatives (Japan)\") requested the government's authorization to finally start television broadcasts in the country and on October 2 of the same year the private broadcaster [Nippon Television](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") (NTV) obtained the broadcasting license, preceding NHK by a few months. The latter began its regular television programming on February 1, 1953, broadcasting for approximately seven hours from 2 to 8:45 in the evening;{{Harvtxt\\|Tay e Turner\\|2015\\|ref\\=Tay e Turner, 2015\\|p\\= 220}} On August 28 of the same year, Nippon Television, the first commercial television, also became operational.{{Harvtxt\\|Ito\\|2010\\|ref\\=Ito, 2010\\|p\\= 14}}. The two broadcasters immediately entered into competition by offering viewers schedules with different styles and contents: if NHK insisted on culturally elevated programs suitable for the highest social classes, NTV aimed more decisively at the masses.{{Harvtxt\\|Chun\\|2006\\|ref\\=Chun, 2006\\|pp\\= 54\\-57}}. Initially the high cost of the receivers slowed down their diffusion, when at the end of March 1954 there were only 17,000 subscribers compared to more than eleven million radio listeners. To overcome this problem, televisions were installed in city centres, in train stations and in parks, attracting large numbers of people and helping to spread television culture in the country.", "[250px\\|right\\|thumb\\|Changes to the television penetration rate in Japan from 1957 to 2015](/wiki/File:Television_penetration_rate_in_Japan_from_1957_to_2015.svg \"Television penetration rate in Japan from 1957 to 2015.svg\")\nIn the second half of the 1950s, [KRT](/wiki/TBS_Television_%28Japan%29 \"TBS Television (Japan)\"), [Fuji TV](/wiki/Fuji_TV \"Fuji TV\") and [NET](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\") signed on, joining the existing NTV.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p11col\\_1\\.html\\|title\\=Commercial TV broadcasters\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134735/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p11col\\_1\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}} By the end of 1956, NHK had perfected its television broadcasting network, reaching, in addition to Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka (these last two started broadcasting in 1954\\), also [Sapporo](/wiki/Sapporo \"Sapporo\") and [Fukuoka](/wiki/Fukuoka \"Fukuoka\"), as well as the smaller citires of [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai \"Sendai\") and [Hiroshima](/wiki/Hiroshima \"Hiroshima\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p11\\.html\\|title\\=TV Broadcasting Begins\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=11\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134749/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p11\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}} In [Kantō region](/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_region \"Kantō region\"), although each commercial station had installed its own transmitting antennas, the government launched a proposal to build a single large tower capable of transmitting the signal throughout the region.{{cite web\\|author\\=Rob Gilhooly\\|language\\=en\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20020317a1\\.html\\|title\\=The tower and the story\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=17 March 2002\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110143228/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2002/03/17/community/the\\-tower\\-and\\-the\\-story/\\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2013}} In 1958 the [Tokyo Tower](/wiki/Tokyo_Tower \"Tokyo Tower\") was inaugurated, symbol of the [period of great economic growth](/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle \"Japanese economic miracle\") which affected Japan in those years.{{cite web\\|author\\=Masami Ito\\|language\\=en\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20081230i1\\.html\\|title\\=Half century on, Tokyo Tower still dazzles as landmark\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=30 December 2008\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225010214/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/12/30/news/half\\-century\\-on\\-tokyo\\-tower\\-still\\-dazzles\\-as\\-landmark/\\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2016}}", "At the time of the first regular broadcasts in 1953, there were only 3,000 television sets. The year following the royal wedding of Crown Prince [Akihito](/wiki/Akihito \"Akihito\") in 1959, the number of sets had increased to 12 million.{{cite magazine\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|date\\=14 May 1975\\|page\\=116\\|title\\=How receivers grew}} Local television stations appeared successively on the VHF band, paving way to the first networks, in which a syndication exchange between the five oldest KRT\\-affiliated stations of the time led to the creation of the [Japan News Network](/wiki/Japan_News_Network \"Japan News Network\"),{{Cite book \\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/12164852 \\|publisher\\=Nippon Television \\|year\\=1978 \\|language\\=ja \\|script\\-title\\=ja:大衆とともに25年 \\|trans\\-title\\=25 Years with the Public \\|oclc\\=12164852}}{{Rp\\|page\\=100}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sadanobu \\|first\\=Aoki \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/title/674445957 \\|title\\=日本の民放ネットワーク : JNNの軌跡 \\|publisher\\=Tokyo Broadcasting System \\|year\\=1981 \\|language\\=ja \\|trans\\-title\\=Japan's Commercial Broadcasting Network : The Trajectory of JNN \\|oclc\\=674445957}}{{Rp\\|page\\=7}} which was formalized on August 1, 1959\\.{{Rp\\|page\\=1}} The last VHF commercial station to sign on was [Tokyo 12 Channel](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\") in 1964\\. Precisely the economic well\\-being after the Second World War and the lowering of television prices were among the determining factors in the diffusion of television at a national level, which led it to quickly become one of the [material goods](/wiki/Material_goods \"Material goods\") of greatest importance for [Japanese families](/wiki/Japanese_family \"Japanese family\") together with the [refrigerator](/wiki/Refrigerator \"Refrigerator\") and the [washing machine](/wiki/Washing_machine \"Washing machine\").", "### The arrival of color television", "[thumb\\|left\\|Fuji TV's headquarters in the 1960s](/wiki/File:Fuji_Television_1961.jpg \"Fuji Television 1961.jpg\")\nAfter the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), Japan was the third country in the world to introduce [color television](/wiki/Color_television \"Color television\"). The first broadcasts began on September 10, 1960 using the [NTSC](/wiki/NTSC \"NTSC\") television standard, chosen for its ability to make color content available even for owners of a black and white television set. Color programming initially focused on foreign films, time\\-delayed sporting events, and short educational programs, due to the inadequacy of television stations' equipment. In 1964 the networks worked to broadcast the [1964 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics \"1964 Summer Olympics\") \nwhich would have taken place in Tokyo in October of that year, relying on the [geostationary satellite](/wiki/Geostationary_satellite \"Geostationary satellite\") [Syncom 3](/wiki/Syncom%23Syncom_3 \"Syncom#Syncom 3\") for the live television broadcast. The latter, however, was not the first satellite to have transmitted a television program across the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"), as the [Relay 1](/wiki/Relay_program \"Relay program\") satellite transmitted the first program from the USA to Japan in November 1963, on the occasion of the [assassination of President Kennedy](/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy \"Assassination of John F. Kennedy\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p13\\.html\\|title\\=US\\-Japan Satellite Relay Broadcast and Apollo 11\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=13\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134737/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p13\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}}\n[thumb\\|In the years of the [Japanese economic miracle](/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle \"Japanese economic miracle\") the television set becomes indispensable for Japanese](/wiki/File:Amberley_TV.jpg \"Amberley TV.jpg\")\nEvents of such magnitude and general interest, as well as the wedding of the then crown prince [Akihito](/wiki/Akihito \"Akihito\") in 1959, contributed to the rapid popularization of television as a new medium of mass communication. The number of black and white televisions sold exceeded 2 million by the end of the 1950s. However, it took longer for the new color devices to emerge, mainly due to the high prices, and only 1,200 units were sold in the year in which color broadcasts began.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p12\\.html\\|title\\=Regular Color TV Broadcasts, Tokyo Olympic Games\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=12\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134728/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p12\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017}} Demand grew, however, as prices fell and the production volume increased: from 4,000 units in the two\\-year period 1962\\-1963 it went to 1\\.28 million in 1967 and over 6\\.4 million in 1970\\.{{harvnb\\|Sumiya, 2000\\|p\\= 402}} In November 1975, the number of television sets owned by the general population stood at approximately 46 million, of which 32 million were color televisions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p14\\.html\\|title\\=NHK General TV: All Broadcasts in Color \\- Realizing the Dream of Color Broadcasting\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=14\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134747/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p14\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}}", "In the meantime, the last and smallest of the main Japanese commercial broadcasters also appeared on the television scene, [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\"), which began in 1964 as a channel dedicated to cultural and educational programs before later establishing itself also in the entertainment field in general, with particular attention paid to [anime](/wiki/Anime \"Anime\").{{harvnb\\|Hoover, 2011\\|p\\= 309}}.", "By the late 1960s, 30 million households owned a television set, commercial TV had 500 transmitters and NHK, 1000\\. With the early introduction of color television, on the other hand, only a small amount in 1967 afforded such a set, estimated at 80,000\\-90,000 \\- aiming for a 100,000 target by spring 1968, accounting to less than 1% of the total number of sets at the time. Its programming in the 1960s was seen as \"primitive\" for US standards.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-TV\\-Radio\\-Age/60s/68/Television\\-Radio\\-Age\\-1968\\-01\\-01\\.pdf \\|title\\=Television and Radio Age \\|date\\=1 January 1968 \\|accessdate\\=18 April 2024 \\|page\\=58}}", "The [Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") (NHK, the Japan Broadcasting Corporation) began conducting research to \"unlock the fundamental mechanism of video and sound interactions with the five human senses\" in 1964, after the Tokyo Olympics. NHK set out to create an [HDTV](/wiki/HDTV \"HDTV\") system that ended up scoring much higher in subjective tests than NTSC's previously dubbed \"HDTV\". This new system, NHK Color, created in 1972, included 1,125 lines, a 5:3 aspect ratio and 60 Hz refresh rate. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), headed by Charles Ginsburg, became the testing and study authority for HDTV technology in the international theater. SMPTE would test HDTV systems from different companies from every conceivable perspective, but the problem of combining the different formats plagued the technology for many years.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2018}}", "The television industry in Japan affected the [film industry](/wiki/Cinema_of_Japan \"Cinema of Japan\") {{endash}} in the 1960s, film companies reacted by not allowing their top actors and directors to work on television, not even the formers' production skills. Eventually the film companies lost money.{{cite news \\|title\\=Thwarted talent hampers Japan's new media age \\|url\\=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/biztimes19950113\\-1\\.2\\.37\\.2 \\|work\\=Business Times \\|date\\=13 January 1993}}", "### New technologies, UHF, the age of satellite television and the rise of high\\-definition television", "[thumb\\|left\\|The [NHK Broadcasting Center](/wiki/NHK_Broadcasting_Center \"NHK Broadcasting Center\")](/wiki/File:NHK_Broadcasting_Center_Parabola_antenna_3.JPG \"NHK Broadcasting Center Parabola antenna 3.JPG\")\nThe first UHF television station to go on air in Japan was the [Tokushima](/wiki/NHK_Tokushima_Broadcasting_Station \"NHK Tokushima Broadcasting Station\") station of [NHK Educational TV](/wiki/NHK_Educational_TV \"NHK Educational TV\"), on February 20, 1968\\.[NHK出版 NHK年鑑'15 p\\=664 第2放送回線系統図](https://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/book/regular/nenkan/pdf15/15_660_665.pdf)", "In 1973, the Space Activities Commission launched the experimental satellite transmission program, entrusting its development to [NASDA](/wiki/NASDA \"NASDA\") and management to NHK. Five years later, the first Japanese satellite was launched for [direct broadcast satellite](/wiki/Satellite_television \"Satellite television\") (DBS) broadcasts, named BSE or *Yuri*, but the first tests only began in 1984 by means of the BS\\-2a satellite.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p16\\.html\\|title\\=Satellite Broadcasting Begins\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=16\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134744/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p16\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}}{{harvnb\\|Iida, 2000\\|p\\= 35}}. The latter, unlike its predecessors, allowed signal reception even from small [satellite dishes](/wiki/Satellite_dishes \"Satellite dishes\") of 40 or 60 centimeters in diameter, suitable for domestic use.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p17\\.html\\|title\\=Broadcasting Services Diversify\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=17\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134720/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p17\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2017}}", "In 1989, NHK finally began satellite transmissions, simultaneously launching the new [high\\-definition television](/wiki/High-definition_television \"High-definition television\") technology on an experimental basis. In Japan, research into high definition had begun in the sixties, when Takashi Fujio, director of STRL, believed that television technology, though still [analog](/wiki/Analog_television \"Analog television\"), had reached sufficient maturity to move from the traditional \"small screen\" to the big movie screen.{{cite web\\|title\\=R\\&D on Large\\-Screen, High\\-Definition Television (Hi\\-Vision)\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p18\\.html\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=18\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134739/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p18\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-24 }}{{harvnb\\|Van Tassel, 2013\\|p\\= 77}}. The Fujio's team agreed that, both technically and economically, HDTV technology was more easily applicable to direct satellite broadcasts, also taking into account how [cable TV](/wiki/Cable_TV \"Cable TV\") was poorly developed in Japan than it had been, for example, in the United States.{{harvnb\\|Krauss, 2000\\|p\\= 186}}. In the 1980s, NHK thus developed the analog Hi\\-Vision system with 1125 lines, 60 frames per second and an initial [aspect ratio](/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28image%29 \"Aspect ratio (image)\") of [5:3](/wiki/5:3 \"3\") (later upgraded to [16:9](/wiki/16:9 \"9\")), beaming the first high definition analog broadcasts via satellite through the [MUSE](/wiki/Multiple_sub-Nyquist_sampling_encoding \"Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding\") compression system.{{harvnb\\|Krauss, 2000\\|p\\= 187}}. However, it took several years before this technology was adopted globally, mainly due to incompatibility with the standards used in the United States and [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p19\\.html\\|title\\=Hi\\-Vision Goes Global\\|work\\=The Evolution of TV. A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NHK]]\\|page\\=19\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224134724/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution\\-of\\-tv\\-en/p19\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-24 }}{{harvnb\\|Van Tassel, 2013\\|pp\\= 79\\-80}}.", "In the 1980s, the large\\-scale diffusion of television sets, which had now become universal objects in Japanese homes, also began to have a certain impact on a social level, contributing to loosening family ties and consequently making family members more independent from each other. This also affected the television schedule, from which in a few years the generalist programs designed to entertain the whole family disappeared, replaced by specific programs based on age groups, in addition to programs designed for a mature audience in the late evening hours.{{harvnb\\|Furnari, 2005\\|pp\\= 33\\-34}}.", "In 1991, the first subscription satellite television network, [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW \"WOWOW\"), is born, specialized in broadcasting films, shows and sports. In 2000, digital satellite broadcasts began and several other companies entered the satellite market.{{harvnb\\|Cave and Nakamura, 2006\\|p\\= 123}}. [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 \"SKY PerfecTV!\") was born in May 1998 from the merger of PerfecTV and JSkyB,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/1998/05/01/national/perfectv\\-jskyb\\-merge\\-to\\-form\\-new\\-digital\\-broadcaster/\\|title\\=PerfecTV, JSkyB merge to form new digital broadcaster\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=1 May 1998\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2016\\|language\\=en}} whereas the Japanese subsidiary of [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV \"DirecTV\") started its services in December 1997\\.{{harvnb\\|Nakamura, 2011\\|p\\= 29}}. With DirecTV retiring from the Japanese market in March 2000, SKY PerfectTV! emerges as one of Japan's largest pay\\-TV platforms, competing with WOWOW, cable company [J:COM](/wiki/J:COM \"COM\") and [Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV \"Hikari TV\")'s [IPTV](/wiki/IPTV \"IPTV\") service.", "### The digital transition and the rise of the Internet", "[thumb\\|[Tokyo Skytree](/wiki/Tokyo_Skytree \"Tokyo Skytree\")](/wiki/File:Tokyo_Sky_Tree_%285%29.JPG \"Tokyo Sky Tree (5).JPG\")\nSince the old MUSE system was not compatible with the new digital standards, Japan developed the [ISDB\\-T](/wiki/ISDB \"ISDB\") in the 2000s for [digital terrestrial television](/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television \"Digital terrestrial television\"), later adopted in other countries in [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\"). The first transmission tests using this new generation standard began in 2003 in the metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.soumu.go.jp/main\\_sosiki/joho\\_tsusin/eng/Releases/Telecommunications/110700\\_a.html\\|title\\=Japan Completed Analog Switch Off in Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Successfully\\|date\\=July 2011\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=23 April 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812224751/http://www.soumu.go.jp/main\\_sosiki/joho\\_tsusin/eng/Releases/Telecommunications/110700\\_a.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{harvnb\\|Song, Yang and Wang, 2015\\|pp\\= 32\\-33}}. In 2006, the [1seg](/wiki/1seg \"1seg\") function was launched, a very popular service that allowed users to watch TV on their mobile phones via digital terrestrial.{{Cite news\\|author\\=Kanako Takahara\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2006/04/01/business/tv\\-programs\\-go\\-mobile\\-as\\-one\\-seg\\-services\\-begin/\\|title\\=TV programs go mobile as One Seg services begin\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=1 April 2006\\|access\\-date\\=23 April 2016\\|language\\=en}}", "From 2010 to 2011 the transition to digital television took place through the [digital switchover](/wiki/Digital_switchover \"Digital switchover\"), the phased switching off on a regional basis of [analog television](/wiki/Analog_television \"Analog television\"). The transition concluded in most of the country on July 24, 2011, except for the prefectures of [Iwate](/wiki/Iwate_Prefecture \"Iwate Prefecture\"), [Miyagi](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture \"Miyagi Prefecture\"), and [Fukushima](/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture \"Fukushima Prefecture\"), on whose switchoff was postponed to the following year due to the [Tōhoku earthquake](/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami \"2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2011/07/25/editorials/tv\\-broadcasts\\-go\\-digital/\\|title\\=TV broadcasts go digital\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=25 July 2011\\|access\\-date\\=23 April 2016\\|language\\=en}} However, the transition was not without problems: the 333m [Tokyo Tower](/wiki/Tokyo_Tower \"Tokyo Tower\") was in fact insufficient to adequately cover the Kantō area with the digital terrestrial signal. For this reason, another 634m high tower was built, the [Tokyo Skytree](/wiki/Tokyo_Skytree \"Tokyo Skytree\"), inaugurated in 2012 in the [Sumida](/wiki/Sumida%2C_Tokyo \"Sumida, Tokyo\") ward.", "The total digitalization of television in Japan radically changed the traditional radio broadcasting model, leading the main private broadcasters, satellite platforms and telecommunications companies to offer their programs via paid services on the [internet](/wiki/Internet_in_Japan \"Internet in Japan\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00091/\\|title\\=Will TV Be Dethroned as Japan's Entertainment King?\\|date\\=28 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2016\\|language\\=en}} GAlready in 2008, NHK inaugurated its subscription service NHK On Demand (now known as NHK\\+) for the online viewing of programs that were previously shown on terrestrial television. In January 2014, Nippon TV launched a free service that allowed viewers to watch programs online up to a week after the original air date. TBS then followed with the launch of a similar service in October 2014\\. In 2015, to counter the entry of [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") and [Amazon Video](/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Video \"Amazon Prime Video\") into the Japanese market,{{harvnb\\|Dentsu, 2016\\|p\\= 10}}. the main commercial networks based in Tokyo struck a deal by jointly launching the free TVer website.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/08/business/japanese\\-broadcasters\\-launch\\-online\\-platform\\-viewing\\-tv\\-shows/\\|title\\=Japanese broadcasters launch online platform for viewing TV shows\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=8 January 2016\\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2016\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109070230/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/08/business/japanese\\-broadcasters\\-launch\\-online\\-platform\\-viewing\\-tv\\-shows/\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-09 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://variety.com/2015/digital/asia/japan\\-tv\\-networks\\-tver\\-online\\-video\\-platform\\-1201543856/\\|title\\=Japan TV Networks to Launch TVer Online Video Platform\\|author\\=Mark Schilling\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|date\\=19 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2016\\|language\\=en}} In the IPTV sector the Japanese [internet service providers](/wiki/Internet_service_provider \"Internet service provider\") have been offering their customers the opportunity to use TV\\-related services via the Internet since the early 2000s,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.itif.org/files/2008BBAppendixD.pdf\\|title\\=Japan\\|publisher\\=Information Technology \\& Innovation Foundation\\|website\\=itif.org\\|date\\=May 2008\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2017}} but it was thanks to the launch of the acTVila portal in 2007 by a consortium formed by [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"), [Panasonic](/wiki/Panasonic \"Panasonic\"), [Sharp](/wiki/Sharp_Corporation \"Sharp Corporation\"), [Toshiba](/wiki/Toshiba \"Toshiba\") and [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi \"Hitachi\") that Japan entered the Internet TV market forcefully.{{harvnb\\|Hjelm, 2008\\|pp\\= 92\\-95}}.", "The large\\-scale diffusion of the Internet has led to the formation of a generation gap in which older people spend more time in front of a television compared to younger people, who spend more time online rather than with any other type of media. Especially among teenagers, [video sharing](/wiki/Video_sharing \"Video sharing\") or [video on demand](/wiki/Video_on_demand \"Video on demand\") services such as [Niconico](/wiki/Niconico \"Niconico\"), [Yahoo! Douga](/wiki/Yahoo%21_Japan \"Yahoo! Japan\") and GyaO.", "" ]
Satellite and IP television --------------------------- The medium\-scale Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental Purposes (BSE) was planned by Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MOPT) and developed by the National Space Development Agency of Japan ([NASDA](/wiki/NASDA "NASDA")) since 1974\. After that, the first Japanese experimental broadcasting satellite, called BSE or [Yuri](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 "Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)"), was launched in 1978\. [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") started experimental broadcasting of TV program using BS\-2a satellite in May 1984\. The satellite BS\-2a was launched in preparation for the start of full scale 2\-channel broadcasts. [Broadcasting Satellite](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 "Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)") BS\-2a was the first national [DBS](/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite "Direct broadcast satellite") (direct broadcasting satellite), transmitting signals directly into the home of TV viewers. Attitude control of the satellite was conducted using the 3\-axial method (zero momentum), and design life was five years. The TV transponder units are designed to sufficiently amplify transmitted signals to enable reception by small, 40 or 60 cm home\-use parabolic [antennas](/wiki/Antenna_%28radio%29 "Antenna (radio)"). The satellite was equipped with three TV transponders (including reserve units). However, one transponder malfunctioned two months after launch (March 23, 1984\) and a second transponder malfunctioned three months after launch (May 3, 1984\). So, the scheduled satellite broadcasting had to be hastily adjusted to test broadcasting on a single channel. Later, NHK started regular service ([NTSC](/wiki/NTSC "NTSC")) and experimental [HDTV](/wiki/HDTV "HDTV") broadcasting using BS\-2b in June 1989\. Some Japanese producers of home electronic consumer devices began to deliver [TV sets](/wiki/Television "Television"), [VCRs](/wiki/VCR "VCR") and even home acoustic systems equipped with built\-in satellite [tuners](/wiki/Antenna_tuner "Antenna tuner") or [receivers](/wiki/Receiver_%28radio%29 "Receiver (radio)"). Such electronic goods had a specific *[BS](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 "Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)")* logo. In April 1991, Japanese company [JSB](/wiki/Japan_Satellite_Broadcasting "Japan Satellite Broadcasting") started a pay TV service while BS\-3 communication satellite was in use. An estimated two million viewers tuned to NHK's two\-channel satellite television broadcasts in 1992\. In 1996, the total number of households that received satellite broadcasting exceeded 10 million. The modern two satellite systems in use in Japan are BSAT and JCSAT; the modern [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW "WOWOW") [Broadcasting Satellite](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 "Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)") digital service uses BSAT satellites, while other systems of digital TV broadcasting such as [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 "SKY PerfecTV!") and [Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV "Hikari TV") uses JCSAT satellites. ### Satellite and IPTV channels #### BS Channels (HD) | Channel Number | Channel Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | |Current channels | BS101 | [NHK BS](/wiki/NHK "NHK") | [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") Programming (HD) | | BS141 | [BS NTV](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") | [Nippon TV](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television")/NNN Programming (HD) | | BS151 | [BS Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi") | [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi")/ANN Programming (HD) | | BS161 | [BS\-TBS](/wiki/BS-TBS "BS-TBS") | [TBS](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System "Tokyo Broadcasting System")/JNN Programming (HD) | | BS171 | [BS TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo") | [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo")/TXN Programming (HD) | | BS181 | [BS Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") | [Fuji Television](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television")/FNN Programming (HD) | | BS191 | [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW "WOWOW") Prime | General Entertainment (HD) | | BS192 | [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW "WOWOW") Live | Sports and Live Performances (HD) | | BS193 | [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW "WOWOW") Cinema | Movies (HD) | | BS200 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 "Star Channel (Japan)") 1 | Movies (HD) | | BS201 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 "Star Channel (Japan)") 2 | Movies (HD) | | BS202 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 "Star Channel (Japan)") 3 | Movies (HD) | | BS211 | [BS11](/wiki/Nippon_BS_Broadcasting "Nippon BS Broadcasting") | General Entertainment (HD) | | BS222 | BS12 TwellV | General Entertainment (HD) | | BS231 | [Open University](/wiki/The_Open_University_of_Japan "The Open University of Japan") BS Campus Ex | Educational (HD) | | BS234 | Green Channel | Horse Racing (HD) | | BS236 | [BS Animax](/wiki/Animax "Animax") | Animation (HD) | | BS241 | BS Sky PerfecTV! | Variety (HD) | | BS242 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 1 | Sports (HD) | | BS243 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 2 | Sports (HD) | | BS244 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 3 | Sports (HD) | | BS245 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 4 | Sports (HD) | | BS251 | BS Tsuri Vision | Fishing (HD) | | BS252 | [Cinefil WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW "WOWOW") | Movies (HD) | | BS255 | Nippon Eiga Senmon Channel | Japanese Movies (HD) | | BS531 | [Open University](/wiki/The_Open_University_of_Japan "The Open University of Japan") BS Radio | Educational (Radio) | #### BS Channels (4K/8K) | Channel Number | Channel Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | 4K\-BS101 | [NHK BS Premium 4K](/wiki/NHK "NHK") | [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") Programming (4K) | | 8K\-BS102 | [NHK BS8K](/wiki/NHK_BS8K "NHK BS8K") | [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") Programming (8K) | | 4K\-BS141 | [BS NTV 4K](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") | [Nippon TV](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television")/NNN Programming (4K) | | 4K\-BS151 | [BS Asahi 4K](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi") | [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi")/ANN Programming (4K) | | 4K\-BS161 | [BS\-TBS 4K](/wiki/BS-TBS "BS-TBS") | [TBS](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System_Television "Tokyo Broadcasting System Television")/JNN Programming (4K) | | 4K\-BS171 | [BS TV Tokyo 4K](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo") | [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo")/TXN Programming (4K) | | 4K\-BS181 | [BS Fuji 4K](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") | [Fuji Television](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television")/FNN Programming (4K) | | 4K\-BS203 | The Cinema 4K | Movies (4K) | | 4K\-BS211 | Shop Channel 4K | Shopping (4K) | | 4K\-BS221 | [4K QVC](/wiki/QVC "QVC") | Shopping (4K) | #### CS Channels ([SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 "SKY PerfecTV!")/[Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV "Hikari TV"), HD) | Channel Number | Channel Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | CS055 | Shop Channel | Shopping (HD) | | CS161 | [QVC](/wiki/QVC "QVC") | Shopping (HD) | | CS218 | Toei Channel | [Toei](/wiki/Toei_Company "Toei Company") Movies and Television Programs (HD) | | CS219 | Eisei Gekijo | [Shochiku](/wiki/Shochiku "Shochiku") Movies, Kabuki and Asian Drama (HD) | | CS223 | Channel Neco | Movies (HD) | | CS227 | The Cinema | Movies (HD) | | CS240 | Movie Plus | Movies (HD) | | CS250 | Sky A | Sports (HD) | | CS254 | Gaora Sports | Sports (HD) | | CS257 | [Nittere G\+](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") | Sports (HD) | | CS262 | Golf Network | Golf (HD) | | CS290 | Takarazuka Sky Stage | [Takarazuka Revue](/wiki/Takarazuka_Revue "Takarazuka Revue")'s Theatre (HD) | | CS292 | Jidaigeki Senmon Channel | Jidaigeki (HD) | | CS293 | [Family Gekijo](/wiki/Family_Gekijo "Family Gekijo") | Variety (HD) | | CS295 | Mondo TV | Variety (HD) | | CS296 | [TBS Channel 1](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System "Tokyo Broadcasting System") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS297 | [TBS Channel 2](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System "Tokyo Broadcasting System") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS298 | [TV Asahi Channel 1](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS299 | [TV Asahi Channel 2](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS300 | [Nittere Plus](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS301 | [EntaMētele](/wiki/Nagoya_Broadcasting_Network "Nagoya Broadcasting Network") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS305 | Channel Ginga | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS307 | [Fuji TV One](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") | Sports and Variety (HD) | | CS308 | [Fuji TV Two](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") | Drama and Animation (HD) | | CS309 | [Fuji TV Next](/wiki/Fuji_Television "Fuji Television") | Sports and Music Live (HD) | | CS310 | Super! Drama TV | Foreign Drama (HD) | | CS312 | [Dlife](/wiki/Dlife "Dlife") | General Entertainment (HD) | | CS314 | Lala TV | Women's Programming (HD) | | CS317 | [KBS World](/wiki/KBS_World_%28Japanese_TV_channel%29 "KBS World (Japanese TV channel)") | Korean Entertainment (HD) | | CS318 | [Mnet Japan](/wiki/Mnet_%28TV_channel%29 "Mnet (TV channel)") | Korean Entertainment (HD) | | CS322 | [Space Shower TV](/wiki/Space_Shower_TV "Space Shower TV") | Music (HD) | | CS323 | [MTV Japan](/wiki/MTV_Japan "MTV Japan") | Music (HD) | | CS325 | [Music On! TV](/wiki/Music_On%21_TV "Music On! TV") | Music (HD) | | CS330 | [Kids Station](/wiki/Kids_Station "Kids Station") | Animation and Children's Programming (HD) | | CS333 | [AT\-X](/wiki/AT-X_%28company%29 "AT-X (company)") | Animation (HD) | | CS339 | [Disney Junior](/wiki/Disney_Junior "Disney Junior") | Family (HD) | | CS342 | [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28American_TV_channel%29 "History (American TV channel)") | History (HD) | | CS343 | [National Geographic](/wiki/National_Geographic_%28American_TV_channel%29 "National Geographic (American TV channel)") | Documentary (HD) | | CS349 | [Nittere News 24](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") | News (HD) | | CS351 | [TBS News](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System "Tokyo Broadcasting System") | News (HD) | | CS566 | [CNNj](/wiki/CNNj "CNNj") | News (HD) | | CS567 | [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN") | News (HD) | | CS570 | [Nikkei CNBC](/wiki/Nikkei_CNBC "Nikkei CNBC") | Business News (HD) | | CS800 | Sports Live\+ | Sports (HD) | | CS801 | Sukachan 1 | Sports (HD) | #### CS Channels ([SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 "SKY PerfecTV!")/[Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV "Hikari TV"), 4K) | Channel Number | Channel Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | 4K\-CS821 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 1 (4K) | Sports (4K) | | 4K\-CS822 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 2 (4K) | Sports (4K) | | 4K\-CS823 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 3 (4K) | Sports (4K) | | 4K\-CS824 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports "J Sports") 4 (4K) | Sports (4K) | | 4K\-CS880 | Nippon Eiga \+ Jidaigeki 4K | Japanese Movies and Jidaigeki (4K) | | 4K\-CS881 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 "Star Channel (Japan)") 4K | Movies (4K) | | 4K\-CS882 | Sukachan 1 4K | [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 "SKY PerfecTV!") Original Programming (4K) | | 4K\-CS883 | Sukachan 2 4K | [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 "SKY PerfecTV!") Original Programming (4K) |
[ "Satellite and IP television\n---------------------------", "The medium\\-scale Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental Purposes (BSE) was planned by Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MOPT) and developed by the National Space Development Agency of Japan ([NASDA](/wiki/NASDA \"NASDA\")) since 1974\\. After that, the first Japanese experimental broadcasting satellite, called BSE or [Yuri](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 \"Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)\"), was launched in 1978\\. [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") started experimental broadcasting of TV program using BS\\-2a satellite in May 1984\\.", "The satellite BS\\-2a was launched in preparation for the start of full scale 2\\-channel broadcasts. [Broadcasting Satellite](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 \"Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)\") BS\\-2a was the first national [DBS](/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite \"Direct broadcast satellite\") (direct broadcasting satellite), transmitting signals directly into the home of TV viewers. Attitude control of the satellite was conducted using the 3\\-axial method (zero momentum), and design life was five years. The TV transponder units are designed to sufficiently amplify transmitted signals to enable reception by small, 40 or 60 cm home\\-use parabolic [antennas](/wiki/Antenna_%28radio%29 \"Antenna (radio)\"). The satellite was equipped with three TV transponders (including reserve units). However, one transponder malfunctioned two months after launch (March 23, 1984\\) and a second transponder malfunctioned three months after launch (May 3, 1984\\). So, the scheduled satellite broadcasting had to be hastily adjusted to test broadcasting on a single channel.", "Later, NHK started regular service ([NTSC](/wiki/NTSC \"NTSC\")) and experimental [HDTV](/wiki/HDTV \"HDTV\") broadcasting using BS\\-2b in June 1989\\. Some Japanese producers of home electronic consumer devices began to deliver [TV sets](/wiki/Television \"Television\"), [VCRs](/wiki/VCR \"VCR\") and even home acoustic systems equipped with built\\-in satellite [tuners](/wiki/Antenna_tuner \"Antenna tuner\") or [receivers](/wiki/Receiver_%28radio%29 \"Receiver (radio)\"). Such electronic goods had a specific *[BS](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 \"Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)\")* logo.", "In April 1991, Japanese company [JSB](/wiki/Japan_Satellite_Broadcasting \"Japan Satellite Broadcasting\") started a pay TV service while BS\\-3 communication satellite was in use.", "An estimated two million viewers tuned to NHK's two\\-channel satellite television broadcasts in 1992\\.", "In 1996, the total number of households that received satellite broadcasting exceeded 10 million.", "The modern two satellite systems in use in Japan are BSAT and JCSAT; the modern [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW \"WOWOW\") [Broadcasting Satellite](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_%28Japanese%29 \"Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)\") digital service uses BSAT satellites, while other systems of digital TV broadcasting such as [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 \"SKY PerfecTV!\") and [Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV \"Hikari TV\") uses JCSAT satellites.", "### Satellite and IPTV channels", "#### BS Channels (HD)", "", "| Channel Number | Channel Name | Description |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n|Current channels", "| BS101 | [NHK BS](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") | [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") Programming (HD) |\n| BS141 | [BS NTV](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") | [Nippon TV](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\")/NNN Programming (HD) |\n| BS151 | [BS Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\") | [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\")/ANN Programming (HD) |\n| BS161 | [BS\\-TBS](/wiki/BS-TBS \"BS-TBS\") | [TBS](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System \"Tokyo Broadcasting System\")/JNN Programming (HD) |\n| BS171 | [BS TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\") | [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\")/TXN Programming (HD) |\n| BS181 | [BS Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") | [Fuji Television](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\")/FNN Programming (HD) |\n| BS191 | [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW \"WOWOW\") Prime | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| BS192 | [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW \"WOWOW\") Live | Sports and Live Performances (HD) |\n| BS193 | [WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW \"WOWOW\") Cinema | Movies (HD) |\n| BS200 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 \"Star Channel (Japan)\") 1 | Movies (HD) |\n| BS201 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 \"Star Channel (Japan)\") 2 | Movies (HD) |\n| BS202 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 \"Star Channel (Japan)\") 3 | Movies (HD) |\n| BS211 | [BS11](/wiki/Nippon_BS_Broadcasting \"Nippon BS Broadcasting\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| BS222 | BS12 TwellV | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| BS231 | [Open University](/wiki/The_Open_University_of_Japan \"The Open University of Japan\") BS Campus Ex | Educational (HD) |\n| BS234 | Green Channel | Horse Racing (HD) |\n| BS236 | [BS Animax](/wiki/Animax \"Animax\") | Animation (HD) |\n| BS241 | BS Sky PerfecTV! | Variety (HD) |\n| BS242 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 1 | Sports (HD) |\n| BS243 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 2 | Sports (HD) |\n| BS244 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 3 | Sports (HD) |\n| BS245 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 4 | Sports (HD) |\n| BS251 | BS Tsuri Vision | Fishing (HD) |\n| BS252 | [Cinefil WOWOW](/wiki/WOWOW \"WOWOW\") | Movies (HD) |\n| BS255 | Nippon Eiga Senmon Channel | Japanese Movies (HD) |\n| BS531 | [Open University](/wiki/The_Open_University_of_Japan \"The Open University of Japan\") BS Radio | Educational (Radio) |", "#### BS Channels (4K/8K)", "", "| Channel Number | Channel Name | Description |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 4K\\-BS101 | [NHK BS Premium 4K](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") | [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") Programming (4K) |\n| 8K\\-BS102 | [NHK BS8K](/wiki/NHK_BS8K \"NHK BS8K\") | [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") Programming (8K) |\n| 4K\\-BS141 | [BS NTV 4K](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") | [Nippon TV](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\")/NNN Programming (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS151 | [BS Asahi 4K](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\") | [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\")/ANN Programming (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS161 | [BS\\-TBS 4K](/wiki/BS-TBS \"BS-TBS\") | [TBS](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System_Television \"Tokyo Broadcasting System Television\")/JNN Programming (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS171 | [BS TV Tokyo 4K](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\") | [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\")/TXN Programming (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS181 | [BS Fuji 4K](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") | [Fuji Television](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\")/FNN Programming (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS203 | The Cinema 4K | Movies (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS211 | Shop Channel 4K | Shopping (4K) |\n| 4K\\-BS221 | [4K QVC](/wiki/QVC \"QVC\") | Shopping (4K) |", "#### CS Channels ([SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 \"SKY PerfecTV!\")/[Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV \"Hikari TV\"), HD)", "", "| Channel Number | Channel Name | Description |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| CS055 | Shop Channel | Shopping (HD) |\n| CS161 | [QVC](/wiki/QVC \"QVC\") | Shopping (HD) |\n| CS218 | Toei Channel | [Toei](/wiki/Toei_Company \"Toei Company\") Movies and Television Programs (HD) |\n| CS219 | Eisei Gekijo | [Shochiku](/wiki/Shochiku \"Shochiku\") Movies, Kabuki and Asian Drama (HD) |\n| CS223 | Channel Neco | Movies (HD) |\n| CS227 | The Cinema | Movies (HD) |\n| CS240 | Movie Plus | Movies (HD) |\n| CS250 | Sky A | Sports (HD) |\n| CS254 | Gaora Sports | Sports (HD) |\n| CS257 | [Nittere G\\+](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") | Sports (HD) |\n| CS262 | Golf Network | Golf (HD) |\n| CS290 | Takarazuka Sky Stage | [Takarazuka Revue](/wiki/Takarazuka_Revue \"Takarazuka Revue\")'s Theatre (HD) |\n| CS292 | Jidaigeki Senmon Channel | Jidaigeki (HD) |\n| CS293 | [Family Gekijo](/wiki/Family_Gekijo \"Family Gekijo\") | Variety (HD) |\n| CS295 | Mondo TV | Variety (HD) |\n| CS296 | [TBS Channel 1](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System \"Tokyo Broadcasting System\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS297 | [TBS Channel 2](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System \"Tokyo Broadcasting System\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS298 | [TV Asahi Channel 1](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS299 | [TV Asahi Channel 2](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS300 | [Nittere Plus](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS301 | [EntaMētele](/wiki/Nagoya_Broadcasting_Network \"Nagoya Broadcasting Network\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS305 | Channel Ginga | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS307 | [Fuji TV One](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") | Sports and Variety (HD) |\n| CS308 | [Fuji TV Two](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") | Drama and Animation (HD) |\n| CS309 | [Fuji TV Next](/wiki/Fuji_Television \"Fuji Television\") | Sports and Music Live (HD) |\n| CS310 | Super! Drama TV | Foreign Drama (HD) |\n| CS312 | [Dlife](/wiki/Dlife \"Dlife\") | General Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS314 | Lala TV | Women's Programming (HD) |\n| CS317 | [KBS World](/wiki/KBS_World_%28Japanese_TV_channel%29 \"KBS World (Japanese TV channel)\") | Korean Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS318 | [Mnet Japan](/wiki/Mnet_%28TV_channel%29 \"Mnet (TV channel)\") | Korean Entertainment (HD) |\n| CS322 | [Space Shower TV](/wiki/Space_Shower_TV \"Space Shower TV\") | Music (HD) |\n| CS323 | [MTV Japan](/wiki/MTV_Japan \"MTV Japan\") | Music (HD) |\n| CS325 | [Music On! TV](/wiki/Music_On%21_TV \"Music On! TV\") | Music (HD) |\n| CS330 | [Kids Station](/wiki/Kids_Station \"Kids Station\") | Animation and Children's Programming (HD) |\n| CS333 | [AT\\-X](/wiki/AT-X_%28company%29 \"AT-X (company)\") | Animation (HD) |\n| CS339 | [Disney Junior](/wiki/Disney_Junior \"Disney Junior\") | Family (HD) |\n| CS342 | [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28American_TV_channel%29 \"History (American TV channel)\") | History (HD) |\n| CS343 | [National Geographic](/wiki/National_Geographic_%28American_TV_channel%29 \"National Geographic (American TV channel)\") | Documentary (HD) |\n| CS349 | [Nittere News 24](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") | News (HD) |\n| CS351 | [TBS News](/wiki/Tokyo_Broadcasting_System \"Tokyo Broadcasting System\") | News (HD) |\n| CS566 | [CNNj](/wiki/CNNj \"CNNj\") | News (HD) |\n| CS567 | [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\") | News (HD) |\n| CS570 | [Nikkei CNBC](/wiki/Nikkei_CNBC \"Nikkei CNBC\") | Business News (HD) |\n| CS800 | Sports Live\\+ | Sports (HD) |\n| CS801 | Sukachan 1 | Sports (HD) |", "#### CS Channels ([SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 \"SKY PerfecTV!\")/[Hikari TV](/wiki/Hikari_TV \"Hikari TV\"), 4K)", "", "| Channel Number | Channel Name | Description |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 4K\\-CS821 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 1 (4K) | Sports (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS822 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 2 (4K) | Sports (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS823 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 3 (4K) | Sports (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS824 | [J Sports](/wiki/J_Sports \"J Sports\") 4 (4K) | Sports (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS880 | Nippon Eiga \\+ Jidaigeki 4K | Japanese Movies and Jidaigeki (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS881 | [Star Channel](/wiki/Star_Channel_%28Japan%29 \"Star Channel (Japan)\") 4K | Movies (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS882 | Sukachan 1 4K | [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 \"SKY PerfecTV!\") Original Programming (4K) |\n| 4K\\-CS883 | Sukachan 2 4K | [SKY PerfecTV!](/wiki/SKY_PerfecTV%21 \"SKY PerfecTV!\") Original Programming (4K) |", "" ]
Programs -------- While TV programs vary from station to station, some generalizations can be made. Most commercial television stations sign on between the hours of 4:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m. every morning. Early morning hours are dominated by [news programs](/wiki/News_programs "News programs"), and these run from around 9:00 to 9:30 a.m. They are then replaced by late morning shows that target wives who have finished their housework. These run to around 1:30 p.m., at which time reruns of [dramas](/wiki/Drama "Drama") and information programs that target the same age group start. On some stations at 4:00 p.m., the young kid\-oriented [anime](/wiki/Anime "Anime") and TV shows start, and end around 7:00 p.m. or 8:00 p.m. Evening news programs air as early as before 4:00 p.m. or before 5:00 p.m. and end at 7:00 p.m., when the "[Golden Hour](/wiki/Prime_time "Prime time")" of TV shows start. 7:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. are the time periods into which TV stations pour the most resources. Appearing in this time slot is a certain sign that an actor or actress is a TV star. After 9:00 they switch over to [Japanese television dramas](/wiki/Japanese_television_drama "Japanese television drama") and programs focusing on older age groups, which run until 10:00 or 11:00 p.m. Stations run their late night news mostly at the 11:00 p.m. hour, and around midnight sports news programs run which target working ages. After these, programs for mature audiences run as well as anime that do not expect enough viewers if they were run earlier. Some commercial stations sign off between 2:00 a.m. and 3:00 a.m. every night; however, most stations affiliated with NNS or JNN broadcast 24 hours a day, with the sign off window replaced by a simulcast of their networks' news channel during the overnight hours. Other stations do filler programming to fill time before the start of early morning news. Commercial stations sometimes sign off on Sunday late nights or other days for technical maintenance. NHK is required to broadcast 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Advertisers sponsor programs rather than buying advertising time during commercial breaks. The advertisers have major power over prime time programs, aiming to the [lowest common denominator](/wiki/Lowest_common_denominator "Lowest common denominator") by having "familiar, tested" celebrities hosting the programs, regardless of genre. None of the foreign programs air on terrestrial television during prime time, even rare outside the prime time hours; instead, locally produced programs dominate the slot, favored by the public. The broadcasters have control over production companies, hence production companies often work with a single TV station and the TV station itself owns the copyright to the completed program. The Japanese have sometimes subdivided television series and dramas into {{nihongo\|''kūru''\|クール}}, from the [French](/wiki/French_language "French language") term "**cours**" (both singular and plural) for "course", which is a three\-month period usually of 13 episodes. Each *kūru* generally has its own opening and ending image sequence and song, recordings of which are often sold. A six\-month period of 26 episodes is also used for subdivision in some television series. ### Drama {{Main\|Japanese television drama}} {{nihongo\|Japanese dramas\|テレビドラマ\|terebi dorama\|television drama}} are a staple of Japanese television and are broadcast daily. All major TV networks in Japan produce a variety of drama series including romance, comedies, detective stories, horror, and many others. With a theme, there may be a one\-episode drama, or two nights, that may be aired on special occasions, such as in 2007 where they had a drama produced as a sixty\-year anniversary from the end of the World War II, with a theme of the atomic bomb. ### Science fiction {{Main\|Science fiction on television\#Japanese television science fiction}} Japan has a long history of producing [science fiction series for TV](/wiki/Science_fiction_on_television "Science fiction on television"). Non\-anime science fiction are still largely unknown to foreign audiences. An exception is *[Power Rangers](/wiki/Power_Rangers "Power Rangers")* and their [subsequent series](/wiki/Power_Rangers "Power Rangers") that used battle sequences from the *[Super Sentai](/wiki/Super_Sentai "Super Sentai")* counterpart and combined them with American actors who acted out entirely original story lines. ### Anime {{Main\|Anime}} {{Nihongo\|Anime\|アニメ}}, taken from half of the Japanese pronunciation of "animation", is the Japanese word for animation in general, but is used more specifically to mean "Japanese animation" in the rest of the world.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.merriam\-webster.com/dictionary/anime \|title\=Anime \- Definition \|publisher\=Merriam\-Webster.com \|date\=2012\-08\-31 \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-11}} Anime dates from about 1917\.{{cite news \|date\=28 March 2008 \|title\=Old anime discovered, restored \|url\=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080328TDY03102\.htm \|newspaper\=Daily Yomiuri Online \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417024443/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080328TDY03102\.htm \|archive\-date\=2008\-04\-17 \|url\-status\=dead}} TV networks regularly broadcast anime programming. In Japan, major national TV networks, such as [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo") broadcast anime regularly. Smaller regional stations broadcast anime on [UHF](/wiki/UHF_anime "UHF anime"). *[Fairy Tail](/wiki/Fairy_Tail "Fairy Tail")*, *[Naruto](/wiki/Naruto "Naruto")*, *[Pokémon](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon "Pokémon")*, *[Bleach](/wiki/Bleach_%28manga%29 "Bleach (manga)")*, *[Dragon Ball](/wiki/Dragon_Ball "Dragon Ball")*, *[Case Closed](/wiki/Case_Closed "Case Closed")* and *[One Piece](/wiki/One_Piece "One Piece")* are examples of anime. While many popular series air during the daytime and evening hours, most air only at night from 12:00 a.m. to 4:00 a.m. These series usually make profits primarily through BD ([Blu\-ray Disc](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc "Blu-ray Disc"))/[DVD](/wiki/DVD "DVD") sales and [merchandising](/wiki/Merchandising "Merchandising") rather than through [television advertising](/wiki/Television_advertising "Television advertising"). Some anime series are original, but most are intended to promote something else, such as an ongoing [manga](/wiki/Manga "Manga"), [light novel](/wiki/Light_novel "Light novel"), or [video game](/wiki/Video_game "Video game") series which they are usually based on.{{Citation needed\|reason\=This claim needs a reliable source. While it is a well known fact that several anime series are created as derivatives of other forms of media, this does not imply that these anime series are created with the goal of promoting those other forms of media.\|date\=September 2020}} ### Variety shows {{Main\|Japanese variety show}} Japanese [variety shows](/wiki/Variety_show "Variety show") (also known as Japanese [game shows](/wiki/Game_show "Game show")) are [television](/wiki/Television "Television") [entertainment](/wiki/Entertainment "Entertainment") made up of a variety of original [stunts](/wiki/Stunt "Stunt"), [musical](/wiki/Music "Music") performances, [comedy](/wiki/Comedy "Comedy") skits, [quiz](/wiki/Quiz "Quiz") contests, and other acts. Japanese television programs such as *[Music Station](/wiki/Music_Station "Music Station")* and *[Utaban](/wiki/Utaban "Utaban")* continue in an almost pristine format from the same variety shows of years before. The only major changes have been the increasing disappearance of live backup music since the 1980s.
[ "Programs\n--------", "While TV programs vary from station to station, some generalizations can be made. Most commercial television stations sign on between the hours of 4:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m. every morning. Early morning hours are dominated by [news programs](/wiki/News_programs \"News programs\"), and these run from around 9:00 to 9:30 a.m. They are then replaced by late morning shows that target wives who have finished their housework. These run to around 1:30 p.m., at which time reruns of [dramas](/wiki/Drama \"Drama\") and information programs that target the same age group start. On some stations at 4:00 p.m., the young kid\\-oriented [anime](/wiki/Anime \"Anime\") and TV shows start, and end around 7:00 p.m. or 8:00 p.m. Evening news programs air as early as before 4:00 p.m. or before 5:00 p.m. and end at 7:00 p.m., when the \"[Golden Hour](/wiki/Prime_time \"Prime time\")\" of TV shows start. 7:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. are the time periods into which TV stations pour the most resources. Appearing in this time slot is a certain sign that an actor or actress is a TV star. After 9:00 they switch over to [Japanese television dramas](/wiki/Japanese_television_drama \"Japanese television drama\") and programs focusing on older age groups, which run until 10:00 or 11:00 p.m. Stations run their late night news mostly at the 11:00 p.m. hour, and around midnight sports news programs run which target working ages. After these, programs for mature audiences run as well as anime that do not expect enough viewers if they were run earlier. Some commercial stations sign off between 2:00 a.m. and 3:00 a.m. every night; however, most stations affiliated with NNS or JNN broadcast 24 hours a day, with the sign off window replaced by a simulcast of their networks' news channel during the overnight hours. Other stations do filler programming to fill time before the start of early morning news. Commercial stations sometimes sign off on Sunday late nights or other days for technical maintenance. NHK is required to broadcast 24 hours a day, seven days a week.", "Advertisers sponsor programs rather than buying advertising time during commercial breaks. The advertisers have major power over prime time programs, aiming to the [lowest common denominator](/wiki/Lowest_common_denominator \"Lowest common denominator\") by having \"familiar, tested\" celebrities hosting the programs, regardless of genre.", "None of the foreign programs air on terrestrial television during prime time, even rare outside the prime time hours; instead, locally produced programs dominate the slot, favored by the public. The broadcasters have control over production companies, hence production companies often work with a single TV station and the TV station itself owns the copyright to the completed program.", "The Japanese have sometimes subdivided television series and dramas into {{nihongo\\|''kūru''\\|クール}}, from the [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") term \"**cours**\" (both singular and plural) for \"course\", which is a three\\-month period usually of 13 episodes. Each *kūru* generally has its own opening and ending image sequence and song, recordings of which are often sold. A six\\-month period of 26 episodes is also used for subdivision in some television series.", "### Drama", "{{Main\\|Japanese television drama}}", "{{nihongo\\|Japanese dramas\\|テレビドラマ\\|terebi dorama\\|television drama}} are a staple of Japanese television and are broadcast daily. All major TV networks in Japan produce a variety of drama series including romance, comedies, detective stories, horror, and many others. With a theme, there may be a one\\-episode drama, or two nights, that may be aired on special occasions, such as in 2007 where they had a drama produced as a sixty\\-year anniversary from the end of the World War II, with a theme of the atomic bomb.", "### Science fiction", "{{Main\\|Science fiction on television\\#Japanese television science fiction}}", "Japan has a long history of producing [science fiction series for TV](/wiki/Science_fiction_on_television \"Science fiction on television\"). Non\\-anime science fiction are still largely unknown to foreign audiences. An exception is *[Power Rangers](/wiki/Power_Rangers \"Power Rangers\")* and their [subsequent series](/wiki/Power_Rangers \"Power Rangers\") that used battle sequences from the *[Super Sentai](/wiki/Super_Sentai \"Super Sentai\")* counterpart and combined them with American actors who acted out entirely original story lines.", "### Anime", "{{Main\\|Anime}}", "{{Nihongo\\|Anime\\|アニメ}}, taken from half of the Japanese pronunciation of \"animation\", is the Japanese word for animation in general, but is used more specifically to mean \"Japanese animation\" in the rest of the world.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.merriam\\-webster.com/dictionary/anime \\|title\\=Anime \\- Definition \\|publisher\\=Merriam\\-Webster.com \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-11}} Anime dates from about 1917\\.{{cite news \\|date\\=28 March 2008 \\|title\\=Old anime discovered, restored \\|url\\=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080328TDY03102\\.htm \\|newspaper\\=Daily Yomiuri Online \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417024443/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080328TDY03102\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} TV networks regularly broadcast anime programming. In Japan, major national TV networks, such as [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\") broadcast anime regularly. Smaller regional stations broadcast anime on [UHF](/wiki/UHF_anime \"UHF anime\"). *[Fairy Tail](/wiki/Fairy_Tail \"Fairy Tail\")*, *[Naruto](/wiki/Naruto \"Naruto\")*, *[Pokémon](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon \"Pokémon\")*, *[Bleach](/wiki/Bleach_%28manga%29 \"Bleach (manga)\")*, *[Dragon Ball](/wiki/Dragon_Ball \"Dragon Ball\")*, *[Case Closed](/wiki/Case_Closed \"Case Closed\")* and *[One Piece](/wiki/One_Piece \"One Piece\")* are examples of anime. While many popular series air during the daytime and evening hours, most air only at night from 12:00 a.m. to 4:00 a.m. These series usually make profits primarily through BD ([Blu\\-ray Disc](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc \"Blu-ray Disc\"))/[DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") sales and [merchandising](/wiki/Merchandising \"Merchandising\") rather than through [television advertising](/wiki/Television_advertising \"Television advertising\"). Some anime series are original, but most are intended to promote something else, such as an ongoing [manga](/wiki/Manga \"Manga\"), [light novel](/wiki/Light_novel \"Light novel\"), or [video game](/wiki/Video_game \"Video game\") series which they are usually based on.{{Citation needed\\|reason\\=This claim needs a reliable source. While it is a well known fact that several anime series are created as derivatives of other forms of media, this does not imply that these anime series are created with the goal of promoting those other forms of media.\\|date\\=September 2020}}", "### Variety shows", "{{Main\\|Japanese variety show}}", "Japanese [variety shows](/wiki/Variety_show \"Variety show\") (also known as Japanese [game shows](/wiki/Game_show \"Game show\")) are [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\") [entertainment](/wiki/Entertainment \"Entertainment\") made up of a variety of original [stunts](/wiki/Stunt \"Stunt\"), [musical](/wiki/Music \"Music\") performances, [comedy](/wiki/Comedy \"Comedy\") skits, [quiz](/wiki/Quiz \"Quiz\") contests, and other acts. Japanese television programs such as *[Music Station](/wiki/Music_Station \"Music Station\")* and *[Utaban](/wiki/Utaban \"Utaban\")* continue in an almost pristine format from the same variety shows of years before. The only major changes have been the increasing disappearance of live backup music since the 1980s.", "" ]
Life in Adelaide ---------------- The date of his (at least second) arrival in Adelaide is not known, but after starting a herbalist business at 181 [Sturt Street, Adelaide](/wiki/Sturt_Street%2C_Adelaide "Sturt Street, Adelaide") in 1938, not far from [Adelaide Mosque](/wiki/Adelaide_Mosque "Adelaide Mosque"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sahistorians.org.au/175/chronology/march/21\-march\-1964\-mahomet\-allum.shtml\|website\=SA Historians\|first\=Alison\|last\=Painter\|title\=21 March 1964 Mahomet Allum\|series\=On this day\|quote\= \[From}} Madeline Brunato, 'Mahomet Allum and "Blackjack"', South Australian Scrapbook, M. Brunato (ed), Rigby, 1979, pp. 21\-24\. he became a well\-known figure in the town.{{\#tag:ref\|Jones says 1920s, but Affifudin (2018\) shows the property transfer dates as 3 October 1938 to 14 April 1953\.\|group\=Note}} He dispensed herbal mixtures and advice on a donations\-only basis. He claimed the healing gift had been handed down in his family for 400 years. The *South Australian Worker* claimed that he saw about 600 people daily at his practice, enjoying popularity and gratitude from his clients, but he was less appreciated by the medical establishment, who took issue with his condemnation of [vaccinations](/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination") and other Western medicine. Described by them as a "quack", he was charged in 1935 with "Imposture as physician” under the *Medical Practitioners Act 1919* and fined £45,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.amust.com.au/2018/09/mahomet\-allum\-australias\-leading\-herbalist\-benefactor/\|website\=AMUST: Australasian Muslim Times\|title\=Mahomet Allum, Australia's leading herbalist\-benefactor\|first\=Daud\|last\=Batchelor\|date\= 22 Sep 2018\|access\-date\=25 November 2019}} with costs amounting to £65,{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article219373037 \|title\=Adelaide's "Wonder\-Man" \|newspaper\=Voice \|volume\=13 \|issue\=10 \|location\=Tasmania \|date\=9 March 1940 \|accessdate\=29 November 2019 \|page\=5 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} despite over 40 witnesses having testified that he had never represented himself as a doctor. One parliamentarian questioned whether Allum’s prosecution was motivated by "persecution" against him.{{cite journal\|last\=Batchelor\|first\=Daud Abdul\-Fattah\|title\=Mahomet Allum: Australia's Leading Herbalist Benefactor?\|journal\=Australian Journal of Islamic Studies\|volume\=3\|issue\=3\|date\=31 December 2018\|pages\=121–138\|issn\=2207\-4414\|publisher\=Centre for Islamic Studies and Civilisation (a collaboration between \[\[Charles Sturt University]] and the \[\[Islamic Sciences and Research Academy of Australia]]\|url\=https://ajis.com.au/index.php/ajis/issue/view/13\|access\-date\=25 November 2019}} Although he was occasionally extreme in his criticism of [Western medicine](/wiki/Western_medicine "Western medicine"), by all accounts his treatments, based on traditional Afghan and/or Islamic medicine, achieved good outcomes for his patients. His challenging of the prevailing view of European racial superiority was also rare at that time. Described as "a generous philanthropist, devout Muslim and stylish dresser", photos of Allum all show him wearing a turban, which is a significant [Pashtun](/wiki/Pashtuns "Pashtuns") tribal identifier.{{\#tag:ref\|As per Affifudin (2018\) p.20, the way that the turban is wrapped shows which tribe the wearer belongs to, but such research has not yet been done on Allum.\|group\=Note}} He attracted huge numbers of patients, with one newspaper reporting "there is not a medical practitioner in Australia today with such a huge army of patients...". He enjoyed an enviable reputation, being referred to as “Humanity’s Benefactor,” “Wonder Man” and Adelaide’s “Uncrowned King". Perth's *[Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_%28Western_Australia%29 "The Sunday Times (Western Australia)")* reported that people called him a "[good Samaritan](/wiki/Good_Samaritan "Good Samaritan")". He frequently travelled to Afghanistan to find particular herbs which he used in his treatments, such as *[Veronica persica](/wiki/Veronica_persica "Veronica persica")* ("Persian speedwell"). One of his remedies was called "Blackjack", which consisted of butter, honey and [senna pods](/wiki/Senna_pod "Senna pod"), for stomach cleansing. On occasion he would distribute his herbal medicines to poor people, including [Aboriginal people](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australian "Aboriginal Australian"). He asked for donations only for all of his consultations and medicines, and donated most of his takings to the needy and charitable institutions. Halimah (Effie?) Schwerdt, Allum’s secretary, became the first European woman in Australia to publicly embrace Islam. She was engaged to Allum in 1935\-37, but there is no record of a wedding. He married Jean Emsley in 1940, whom he had cured of severe [dermatitis](/wiki/Dermatitis "Dermatitis"), and they had a daughter, Bebe Nora, born on 17 August 1941\. "Bebenora" was enrolled for school on 17 February 1947\.{{cite web\|website\=FamilySearch\|title\=Bebenora Allum: Australia, South Australia, School Admission Registers, 1873\-1985\|url\=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:QPHX\-6WD4\|accessdate\=1 December 2019}} Until the mid\-40s, he enjoyed almost unanimous public support. However, after that point, he was criticised in some quarters, being described as “a foreigner, the most discussed man (except Hitler)” (*[The Bunyip](/wiki/The_Bunyip "The Bunyip")*, 1941\) and “Australia’s most bizarre personality” (*[Smith's Weekly](/wiki/Smith%27s_Weekly "Smith's Weekly")*, 1946\). It was around this time that his lifestyle changed somewhat from its previous simplicity; from having no car, he owned an expensive [Daimler](/wiki/Daimler_Company "Daimler Company"), and he possessed expensive jewellery. During the worst years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), he gave away £15,000 in charitable donations. He was upset when the government taxed him £500 on these gifts, and decided to leave Australia. At this, Adelaide’s [Lord Mayor](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Adelaide "Lord Mayor of Adelaide"), Members of Parliament, Christian ministers, police officers of high rank and others numbering 19,000 signed a petition which they presented to him, asking him to reconsider and return as soon as possible. After selling their Sturt Street property on 14 April 1953, at Jean's request the family went to Afghanistan, where Jean converted to [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"). She died of [smallpox](/wiki/Smallpox "Smallpox") after a year, having not been vaccinated and after performing [hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") by visiting [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca"), Allum returned to Adelaide and bought a house at 68 [Anzac Highway](/wiki/Anzac_Highway "Anzac Highway") at [Everard Park](/wiki/Everard_Park "Everard Park"). Here he resumed his practice as a herbalist.
[ "Life in Adelaide\n----------------", "The date of his (at least second) arrival in Adelaide is not known, but after starting a herbalist business at 181 [Sturt Street, Adelaide](/wiki/Sturt_Street%2C_Adelaide \"Sturt Street, Adelaide\") in 1938, not far from [Adelaide Mosque](/wiki/Adelaide_Mosque \"Adelaide Mosque\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sahistorians.org.au/175/chronology/march/21\\-march\\-1964\\-mahomet\\-allum.shtml\\|website\\=SA Historians\\|first\\=Alison\\|last\\=Painter\\|title\\=21 March 1964 Mahomet Allum\\|series\\=On this day\\|quote\\= \\[From}} Madeline Brunato, 'Mahomet Allum and \"Blackjack\"', South Australian Scrapbook, M. Brunato (ed), Rigby, 1979, pp. 21\\-24\\. he became a well\\-known figure in the town.{{\\#tag:ref\\|Jones says 1920s, but Affifudin (2018\\) shows the property transfer dates as 3 October 1938 to 14 April 1953\\.\\|group\\=Note}} He dispensed herbal mixtures and advice on a donations\\-only basis. He claimed the healing gift had been handed down in his family for 400 years. The *South Australian Worker* claimed that he saw about 600 people daily at his practice, enjoying popularity and gratitude from his clients, but he was less appreciated by the medical establishment, who took issue with his condemnation of [vaccinations](/wiki/Vaccination \"Vaccination\") and other Western medicine. Described by them as a \"quack\", he was charged in 1935 with \"Imposture as physician” under the *Medical Practitioners Act 1919* and fined £45,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.amust.com.au/2018/09/mahomet\\-allum\\-australias\\-leading\\-herbalist\\-benefactor/\\|website\\=AMUST: Australasian Muslim Times\\|title\\=Mahomet Allum, Australia's leading herbalist\\-benefactor\\|first\\=Daud\\|last\\=Batchelor\\|date\\= 22 Sep 2018\\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019}} with costs amounting to £65,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article219373037 \\|title\\=Adelaide's \"Wonder\\-Man\" \\|newspaper\\=Voice \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=10 \\|location\\=Tasmania \\|date\\=9 March 1940 \\|accessdate\\=29 November 2019 \\|page\\=5 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} despite over 40 witnesses having testified that he had never represented himself as a doctor. One parliamentarian questioned whether Allum’s prosecution was motivated by \"persecution\" against him.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Batchelor\\|first\\=Daud Abdul\\-Fattah\\|title\\=Mahomet Allum: Australia's Leading Herbalist Benefactor?\\|journal\\=Australian Journal of Islamic Studies\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=3\\|date\\=31 December 2018\\|pages\\=121–138\\|issn\\=2207\\-4414\\|publisher\\=Centre for Islamic Studies and Civilisation (a collaboration between \\[\\[Charles Sturt University]] and the \\[\\[Islamic Sciences and Research Academy of Australia]]\\|url\\=https://ajis.com.au/index.php/ajis/issue/view/13\\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019}}", "Although he was occasionally extreme in his criticism of [Western medicine](/wiki/Western_medicine \"Western medicine\"), by all accounts his treatments, based on traditional Afghan and/or Islamic medicine, achieved good outcomes for his patients. His challenging of the prevailing view of European racial superiority was also rare at that time.", "Described as \"a generous philanthropist, devout Muslim and stylish dresser\", photos of Allum all show him wearing a turban, which is a significant [Pashtun](/wiki/Pashtuns \"Pashtuns\") tribal identifier.{{\\#tag:ref\\|As per Affifudin (2018\\) p.20, the way that the turban is wrapped shows which tribe the wearer belongs to, but such research has not yet been done on Allum.\\|group\\=Note}}", "He attracted huge numbers of patients, with one newspaper reporting \"there is not a medical practitioner in Australia today with such a huge army of patients...\". He enjoyed an enviable reputation, being referred to as “Humanity’s Benefactor,” “Wonder Man” and Adelaide’s “Uncrowned King\". Perth's *[Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_%28Western_Australia%29 \"The Sunday Times (Western Australia)\")* reported that people called him a \"[good Samaritan](/wiki/Good_Samaritan \"Good Samaritan\")\".", "He frequently travelled to Afghanistan to find particular herbs which he used in his treatments, such as *[Veronica persica](/wiki/Veronica_persica \"Veronica persica\")* (\"Persian speedwell\"). One of his remedies was called \"Blackjack\", which consisted of butter, honey and [senna pods](/wiki/Senna_pod \"Senna pod\"), for stomach cleansing. On occasion he would distribute his herbal medicines to poor people, including [Aboriginal people](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australian \"Aboriginal Australian\"). He asked for donations only for all of his consultations and medicines, and donated most of his takings to the needy and charitable institutions.", "Halimah (Effie?) Schwerdt, Allum’s secretary, became the first European woman in Australia to publicly embrace Islam. She was engaged to Allum in 1935\\-37, but there is no record of a wedding.", "He married Jean Emsley in 1940, whom he had cured of severe [dermatitis](/wiki/Dermatitis \"Dermatitis\"), and they had a daughter, Bebe Nora, born on 17 August 1941\\. \"Bebenora\" was enrolled for school on 17 February 1947\\.{{cite web\\|website\\=FamilySearch\\|title\\=Bebenora Allum: Australia, South Australia, School Admission Registers, 1873\\-1985\\|url\\=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:QPHX\\-6WD4\\|accessdate\\=1 December 2019}}", "Until the mid\\-40s, he enjoyed almost unanimous public support. However, after that point, he was criticised in some quarters, being described as “a foreigner, the most discussed man (except Hitler)” (*[The Bunyip](/wiki/The_Bunyip \"The Bunyip\")*, 1941\\) and “Australia’s most bizarre personality” (*[Smith's Weekly](/wiki/Smith%27s_Weekly \"Smith's Weekly\")*, 1946\\). It was around this time that his lifestyle changed somewhat from its previous simplicity; from having no car, he owned an expensive [Daimler](/wiki/Daimler_Company \"Daimler Company\"), and he possessed expensive jewellery.", "During the worst years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), he gave away £15,000 in charitable donations. He was upset when the government taxed him £500 on these gifts, and decided to leave Australia. At this, Adelaide’s [Lord Mayor](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Adelaide \"Lord Mayor of Adelaide\"), Members of Parliament, Christian ministers, police officers of high rank and others numbering 19,000 signed a petition which they presented to him, asking him to reconsider and return as soon as possible.", "After selling their Sturt Street property on 14 April 1953, at Jean's request the family went to Afghanistan, where Jean converted to [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). She died of [smallpox](/wiki/Smallpox \"Smallpox\") after a year, having not been vaccinated and after performing [hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\") by visiting [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\"), Allum returned to Adelaide and bought a house at 68 [Anzac Highway](/wiki/Anzac_Highway \"Anzac Highway\") at [Everard Park](/wiki/Everard_Park \"Everard Park\"). Here he resumed his practice as a herbalist.", "" ]
Design ------ The US 21 is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat "Keelboat"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass"), with wood trim. It has a [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig "Fractional rig") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop") rig; a [raked stem](/wiki/Raked_stem "Raked stem"); an open, walk\-through, [reverse transom](/wiki/Reverse_transom "Reverse transom"); a transom\-hung [rudder](/wiki/Rudder "Rudder") controlled by a [tiller](/wiki/Tiller "Tiller") and a [lifting keel](/wiki/Lifting_keel "Lifting keel"). It displaces {{convert\|1700\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and carries {{convert\|200\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} of ballast. The boat has a draft of {{convert\|4\.58\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the centerboard extended and {{convert\|1\.25\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with it retracted, allowing operation in shallow water, [beaching](/wiki/Beaching_%28nautical%29 "Beaching (nautical)") or ground transportation on a [trailer](/wiki/Boat_trailer "Boat trailer"). The boat is normally fitted with a small {{convert\|3\|to\|6\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} [outboard motor](/wiki/Outboard_motor "Outboard motor") for docking and maneuvering. The design has sleeping accommodation for four people, with a double ["V"\-berth](/wiki/%22V%22-berth) in the bow cabin and a two straight settee berths in the main cabin. The [galley](/wiki/Galley_%28kitchen%29 "Galley (kitchen)") is located on the port side just aft of the bow cabin and is equipped with a sink. The [head](/wiki/Head_%28watercraft%29 "Head (watercraft)") is located in the bow cabin on the port side under the "V"\-berth. Cabin headroom is {{convert\|48\|in\|cm\|0\|abbr\=on}}. The design has a [PHRF](/wiki/Performance_Handicap_Racing_Fleet "Performance Handicap Racing Fleet") racing average handicap of 201 and a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed "Hull speed") of {{convert\|5\.7\|kn\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}.
[ "Design\n------", "The US 21 is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat \"Keelboat\"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\"), with wood trim. It has a [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig \"Fractional rig\") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\") rig; a [raked stem](/wiki/Raked_stem \"Raked stem\"); an open, walk\\-through, [reverse transom](/wiki/Reverse_transom \"Reverse transom\"); a transom\\-hung [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") controlled by a [tiller](/wiki/Tiller \"Tiller\") and a [lifting keel](/wiki/Lifting_keel \"Lifting keel\"). It displaces {{convert\\|1700\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and carries {{convert\\|200\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of ballast.", "The boat has a draft of {{convert\\|4\\.58\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the centerboard extended and {{convert\\|1\\.25\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with it retracted, allowing operation in shallow water, [beaching](/wiki/Beaching_%28nautical%29 \"Beaching (nautical)\") or ground transportation on a [trailer](/wiki/Boat_trailer \"Boat trailer\").", "The boat is normally fitted with a small {{convert\\|3\\|to\\|6\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} [outboard motor](/wiki/Outboard_motor \"Outboard motor\") for docking and maneuvering.", "The design has sleeping accommodation for four people, with a double [\"V\"\\-berth](/wiki/%22V%22-berth) in the bow cabin and a two straight settee berths in the main cabin. The [galley](/wiki/Galley_%28kitchen%29 \"Galley (kitchen)\") is located on the port side just aft of the bow cabin and is equipped with a sink. The [head](/wiki/Head_%28watercraft%29 \"Head (watercraft)\") is located in the bow cabin on the port side under the \"V\"\\-berth. Cabin headroom is {{convert\\|48\\|in\\|cm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "The design has a [PHRF](/wiki/Performance_Handicap_Racing_Fleet \"Performance Handicap Racing Fleet\") racing average handicap of 201 and a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed \"Hull speed\") of {{convert\\|5\\.7\\|kn\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "" ]
Conference ---------- CA CAJE's yearly CAJE conference drew between 350 at the first conference and as many as 2,400 Jewish educators from around the world at later conferences..The first conference was held in August 1976 at [Brown University](/wiki/Brown_University "Brown University"). Around 350 people attended. It was sponsored by NETWORK where Jerry Benjamin was the President. At the end of the conference, the participants voted to have another conference which was held one year later in Rochester, NY where CAJE was officially founded. Due to its size and nature, the CAJE conference was held on a university campus. The CAJE conference was the model for the Limmud Conferences in England and later around the world. Unlike other conferences of its size, the CAJE conference typically offered several hundred [workshops](/wiki/Workshop "Workshop") over the course of only a few days. The workshops were lead for the most part by teachers in the field. The daily workshops were supplemented by evening keynote addresses and performances of the arts including music, storytelling, comedy, dance and art etc.and a choir led by Debbie Friedman. Most importantly, the CAJE definition of teacher included "anyone involved in the transmission of Jewish education and culture. It is a pluralistic organization that included all who worked in Jewish education from any denomination and teaching any age group from birth until adulthood. Many innovations in Jewish education were spread through the conference to Schools around the country and the world. The networking that happened there created a field of Jewish education and gave support to teachers in every setting, both formal and informal. At CAJE 25, CAJE started to advocate for better salaries, higher status, benefits, professional development and other things necessary to create an excellent teaching community to educate Jews living in the Diaspora. In recent years, sub\-conferences such as the "Consortium for the Future of the Jewish Family" ran concurrently with the CAJE conference. For 26 years, Dr. Elliot Spack was the Executive Director of the Organization. There were 11 Presidents of CAJE: Rabbi Dan Syme, Jerry Benjamin, Rabbi Cherie Koller\-Fox, Rabbi Stuart Kelman,Carol Starin, Betsy Dolgin Katz, Rabbi Michael Weinberg, Sylvia Abrams, Alan Wiener, Fran Perlman and Iris Petroff. Each conference had Chairpeople and there were thousands of volunteers who organized and taught at every conference. Special mention should be made to Stuart Kelman, Joel Grishaver and Ron Wolfson who were the founders of the West Coast region that made CAJE a National Organization. CAJE went bankrupt in the Winter of 2008 in part because of the recession that year that stressed the finances of synagogues and schools who paid for educators to attend and partly because of the financial mismanagement on those running the organization. ### Recent and future locations All past program books for NewCAJE are [the NewCAJE Website.](http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/) * 2024 San Diego * 2023 Montclair New Jersey * 2020,2021,2022 The Summer of NewCAJE online Conferences due to the Pandemic * 2019 Portland, Oregon * 2018 Hartford, Conn. * 2017 Moraga California * 2016\-Naperville, Il. * 2015: University of Hartford (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>) * 2014: Sinai Temple and UCLA Hillel (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>) * 2013: Nichols College (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>) * 2012: Montclair State University (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>) * 2011: American Hebrew Academy (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>) * 2010: A new organization called NewCAJE arose, led by founders Cherie Koller\-Fox and Jerry Benjamin. The first conference was held at Gann Academy in Waltham, Massachusetts. It had 350 attendees, most notably 75 young professionals. * 2009 MANAGE Conference at Pearlstone Jewish Retreat Center with 186 participants planned by participants after the fall of CAJE * 2009: CAJE went out of business * 2009: [Trinity University](/wiki/Trinity_University_%28Texas%29 "Trinity University (Texas)") (CAJE 34\) **This conference was canceled due to the economic downturn on 9 January 2009 via email to all CAJE members.** * 2008: [University of Vermont](/wiki/University_of_Vermont "University of Vermont") ([CAJE 33](https://web.archive.org/web/20080731122138/http://www.caje33.org/), chaired by Mel Birger\-Bray and [Joel M. Hoffman](http://www.lashon.net)) * 2007: [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis "Washington University in St. Louis") ([CAJE 32](http://caje32.wordpress.com), chaired by Peter Eckstein, co\-chaired by Iris Schwartz) * 2006: [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") (CAJE 31\) * 2005: [University of Washington](/wiki/University_of_Washington "University of Washington") (CAJE 30\) * 2004: [Hofstra University](/wiki/Hofstra_University "Hofstra University") (CAJE 29\) * 2003: [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University "Ohio State University") (CAJE 28\) * 2002: [Trinity University](/wiki/Trinity_University_%28Texas%29 "Trinity University (Texas)") (CAJE 27\) * 2001: [Colorado State University](/wiki/Colorado_State_University "Colorado State University") (CAJE 26\) * 2000: [Hofstra University](/wiki/Hofstra_University "Hofstra University") (CAJE 25\) * 1999 (Ohio State University) CAJE24 * 1998 ( Trinity University) CAJE 23 San Antonio * 1997 Stanford University, Palo Alto, California\[ * 1996 Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel * 1995 University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA * 1994 Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana * 1993 Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas * 1992 University of Southern California, Los Angeles * 1991 Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York * 1990 University of Washington, Seattle, Washington * 1989 Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel * 1987 West Georgia College, Carrolton, Georgia * 1086 University of Maryland College Park,MD * 1985 Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois * 1984 Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA. * 1983 Trinity University, San Antonio, TX * 1982 Brandeis University, Waltham, MA * 1981 Oberlin, College, Oberlin Ohio * 1980 University of California, Santa Barbara, California * 1979 Rutgers, University, New Brunswick, New Jersey * 1978 University of California at Irvine, California * 1977 Rochester Institute of Technology Rochester, NY * 1976 Brown University Providence Rhode Island
[ "Conference\n----------", "CA\nCAJE's yearly CAJE conference drew between 350 at the first conference and as many as 2,400 Jewish educators from around the world at later conferences..The first conference was held in August 1976 at [Brown University](/wiki/Brown_University \"Brown University\"). Around 350 people attended. It was sponsored by NETWORK where Jerry Benjamin was the President. At the end of the conference, the participants voted to have another conference which was held one year later in Rochester, NY where CAJE was officially founded.", "Due to its size and nature, the CAJE conference was held on a university campus.", "The CAJE conference was the model for the Limmud Conferences in England and later around the world.", "Unlike other conferences of its size, the CAJE conference typically offered several hundred [workshops](/wiki/Workshop \"Workshop\") over the course of only a few days. The workshops were lead for the most part by teachers in the field. The daily workshops were supplemented by evening keynote addresses and performances of the arts including music, storytelling, comedy, dance and art etc.and a choir led by Debbie Friedman. Most importantly, the CAJE definition of teacher included \"anyone involved in the transmission of Jewish education and culture. It is a pluralistic organization that included all who worked in Jewish education from any denomination and teaching any age group from birth until adulthood.", "Many innovations in Jewish education were spread through the conference to Schools around the country and the world. The networking that happened there created a field of Jewish education and gave support to teachers in every setting, both formal and informal. At CAJE 25, CAJE started to advocate for better salaries, higher status, benefits, professional development and other things necessary to create an excellent teaching community to educate Jews living in the Diaspora.", "In recent years, sub\\-conferences such as the \"Consortium for the Future of the Jewish Family\" ran concurrently with the CAJE conference.\nFor 26 years, Dr. Elliot Spack was the Executive Director of the Organization. There were 11 Presidents of CAJE: Rabbi Dan Syme, Jerry Benjamin, Rabbi Cherie Koller\\-Fox, Rabbi Stuart Kelman,Carol Starin, Betsy Dolgin Katz, Rabbi Michael Weinberg, Sylvia Abrams, Alan Wiener, Fran Perlman and Iris Petroff. Each conference had Chairpeople and there were thousands of volunteers who organized and taught at every conference. Special mention should be made to Stuart Kelman, Joel Grishaver and Ron Wolfson who were the founders of the West Coast region that made CAJE a National Organization.", "CAJE went bankrupt in the Winter of 2008 in part because of the recession that year that stressed the finances of synagogues and schools who paid for educators to attend and partly because of the financial mismanagement on those running the organization.", "### Recent and future locations", "", "All past program books for NewCAJE are [the NewCAJE Website.](http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/)\n* 2024 San Diego\n* 2023 Montclair New Jersey\n* 2020,2021,2022 The Summer of NewCAJE online Conferences due to the Pandemic\n* 2019 Portland, Oregon\n* 2018 Hartford, Conn.\n* 2017 Moraga California\n* 2016\\-Naperville, Il.\n* 2015: University of Hartford (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>)\n* 2014: Sinai Temple and UCLA Hillel (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>)\n* 2013: Nichols College (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>)\n* 2012: Montclair State University (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>)\n* 2011: American Hebrew Academy (<http://www.newcaje.org/conferences/past/>)\n* 2010: A new organization called NewCAJE arose, led by founders Cherie Koller\\-Fox and Jerry Benjamin. The first conference was held at Gann Academy in Waltham, Massachusetts. It had 350 attendees, most notably 75 young professionals.\n* 2009 MANAGE Conference at Pearlstone Jewish Retreat Center with 186 participants planned by participants after the fall of CAJE\n* 2009: CAJE went out of business\n* 2009: [Trinity University](/wiki/Trinity_University_%28Texas%29 \"Trinity University (Texas)\") (CAJE 34\\) **This conference was canceled due to the economic downturn on 9 January 2009 via email to all CAJE members.**\n* 2008: [University of Vermont](/wiki/University_of_Vermont \"University of Vermont\") ([CAJE 33](https://web.archive.org/web/20080731122138/http://www.caje33.org/), chaired by Mel Birger\\-Bray and [Joel M. Hoffman](http://www.lashon.net))\n* 2007: [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis \"Washington University in St. Louis\") ([CAJE 32](http://caje32.wordpress.com), chaired by Peter Eckstein, co\\-chaired by Iris Schwartz)\n* 2006: [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\") (CAJE 31\\)\n* 2005: [University of Washington](/wiki/University_of_Washington \"University of Washington\") (CAJE 30\\)\n* 2004: [Hofstra University](/wiki/Hofstra_University \"Hofstra University\") (CAJE 29\\)\n* 2003: [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University \"Ohio State University\") (CAJE 28\\)\n* 2002: [Trinity University](/wiki/Trinity_University_%28Texas%29 \"Trinity University (Texas)\") (CAJE 27\\)\n* 2001: [Colorado State University](/wiki/Colorado_State_University \"Colorado State University\") (CAJE 26\\)\n* 2000: [Hofstra University](/wiki/Hofstra_University \"Hofstra University\") (CAJE 25\\)\n* 1999 (Ohio State University) CAJE24\n* 1998 ( Trinity University) CAJE 23 San Antonio\n* 1997 Stanford University, Palo Alto, California\\[\n* 1996 Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel\n* 1995 University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA\n* 1994 Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana\n* 1993 Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas\n* 1992 University of Southern California, Los Angeles\n* 1991 Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York\n* 1990 University of Washington, Seattle, Washington\n* 1989 Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel\n* 1987 West Georgia College, Carrolton, Georgia\n* 1086 University of Maryland College Park,MD\n* 1985 Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois\n* 1984 Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA.\n* 1983 Trinity University, San Antonio, TX\n* 1982 Brandeis University, Waltham, MA\n* 1981 Oberlin, College, Oberlin Ohio\n* 1980 University of California, Santa Barbara, California\n* 1979 Rutgers, University, New Brunswick, New Jersey\n* 1978 University of California at Irvine, California\n* 1977 Rochester Institute of Technology Rochester, NY\n* 1976 Brown University Providence Rhode Island", "" ]
Early life, family, and education --------------------------------- ### Early life and family Yusril Ihza Mahendra was born in [Manggar](/wiki/Manggar "Manggar"), [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung "Belitung"), on 5 February 1956\. His father was Idris Haji Zainal and his mother was Norsiha.[FreeLists / ppi / \[ppi] \[ppiindia] Yusril Nikahi Gadis Belia](http://www.freelists.org/archives/ppi/09-2006/msg00254.html) His family traced its ancestry from [Johor](/wiki/Johor "Johor") and [West Sumatra](/wiki/West_Sumatra "West Sumatra"). His paternal grandfather Haji Thaib from his father's side was a member of the [Johore royalty](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Johor "Sultanate of Johor"), which likely settled in [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung "Belitung") from Johor in the 19th century. While his mother was a third generation [Minangkabau](/wiki/Minangkabau_people "Minangkabau people") descendant in Belitung. ### Education #### Early education He continued the tradition of Malay intellectuals from his family who studied philosophy, religion, law, art and literature. After completing Belitung Islamic College High School, he left [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung "Belitung") to [Jakarta](/wiki/Jakarta "Jakarta") in 1976\. #### University of Indonesia He attended the [University of Indonesia](/wiki/University_of_Indonesia "University of Indonesia") (UI), becoming close with his lecturer, Professors [Ismail Suny](/wiki/Ismail_Suny "Ismail Suny") and [Osman Raliby](/wiki/Osman_Raliby "Osman Raliby"). Raliby in particular was previously a member of the [Indonesian Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Constitutional_Assembly_of_Indonesia "Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia") during the 1950s.{{Cite web\|title\=Osman Raliby – Masjumi – Profil Anggota\|url\=https://www.konstituante.net/id/profile/MASJUMI\_osman\_raliby\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-13\|website\=Konstituante.Net}} In turn, Raliby would introduce [Mohammad Natsir](/wiki/Mohammad_Natsir "Mohammad Natsir") to Yusril. Natsir was an Islamist politician, former [Prime Minister of Indonesia](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Indonesia "Prime Minister of Indonesia"), and Chairman of the [Masyumi Party](/wiki/Masyumi_Party "Masyumi Party"), a major Muslim Party that had rivaled [Indonesian Communist Party](/wiki/Indonesian_Communist_Party "Indonesian Communist Party") (PKI) in the 1950s. During his time in UI he lived in Jakarta by lodging at various mosques in the city. He also took on part\-time work to fund his studies. He tutored children in reading the [Quran](/wiki/Quran "Quran"), taught martial arts, and sold fish and coconuts.{{Cite web\|date\=2004\-01\-02\|title\=Yusril Ihza Mahendra, Menteri Kehakiman dan HAM {{!}} Ensiklopedi Tokoh Indonesia\|url\=http://tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/y/yusril\-ihza\-mahendra/menkeh.shtml\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040102075025/http://tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/y/yusril\-ihza\-mahendra/menkeh.shtml \|archive\-date\=2004\-01\-02 }} In 1982, Yusril graduated with a Bachelor's Degree in Philosophy and followed it up the next year with a Bachelor's Degree in Governance. #### Further education Following this he became a lecturer at the [Muhammadiyah](/wiki/Muhammadiyah "Muhammadiyah") University in Jakarta (UMJ), and at the Socialization Skills Academy in the Ministry of Justice. In the meantime, Yusril attended postgraduate studies. Yusril then went to Pakistan to attend the [University of Punjab](/wiki/University_of_the_Punjab "University of the Punjab"). In 1984, Yusril graduated with a Master's Degree in Humanities and Social Science. When he returned to Indonesia, Yusril became a lecturer for [University of Indonesia](/wiki/University_of_Indonesia "University of Indonesia") (UI) and UMJ. At UI, Yusril was involved in the law faculty and taught postgraduate courses. In 1993, Yusril graduated from the [University of Science, Malaysia](/wiki/University_of_Science%2C_Malaysia "University of Science, Malaysia") and became a Doctor of Philosophy.
[ "Early life, family, and education\n---------------------------------", "### Early life and family", "Yusril Ihza Mahendra was born in [Manggar](/wiki/Manggar \"Manggar\"), [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung \"Belitung\"), on 5 February 1956\\. His father was Idris Haji Zainal and his mother was Norsiha.[FreeLists / ppi / \\[ppi] \\[ppiindia] Yusril Nikahi Gadis Belia](http://www.freelists.org/archives/ppi/09-2006/msg00254.html) His family traced its ancestry from [Johor](/wiki/Johor \"Johor\") and [West Sumatra](/wiki/West_Sumatra \"West Sumatra\"). His paternal grandfather Haji Thaib from his father's side was a member of the [Johore royalty](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Johor \"Sultanate of Johor\"), which likely settled in [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung \"Belitung\") from Johor in the 19th century. While his mother was a third generation [Minangkabau](/wiki/Minangkabau_people \"Minangkabau people\") descendant in Belitung.", "### Education", "#### Early education", "He continued the tradition of Malay intellectuals from his family who studied philosophy, religion, law, art and literature. After completing Belitung Islamic College High School, he left [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung \"Belitung\") to [Jakarta](/wiki/Jakarta \"Jakarta\") in 1976\\.", "#### University of Indonesia", "He attended the [University of Indonesia](/wiki/University_of_Indonesia \"University of Indonesia\") (UI), becoming close with his lecturer, Professors [Ismail Suny](/wiki/Ismail_Suny \"Ismail Suny\") and [Osman Raliby](/wiki/Osman_Raliby \"Osman Raliby\"). Raliby in particular was previously a member of the [Indonesian Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Constitutional_Assembly_of_Indonesia \"Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia\") during the 1950s.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Osman Raliby – Masjumi – Profil Anggota\\|url\\=https://www.konstituante.net/id/profile/MASJUMI\\_osman\\_raliby\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-13\\|website\\=Konstituante.Net}} In turn, Raliby would introduce [Mohammad Natsir](/wiki/Mohammad_Natsir \"Mohammad Natsir\") to Yusril. Natsir was an Islamist politician, former [Prime Minister of Indonesia](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Indonesia \"Prime Minister of Indonesia\"), and Chairman of the [Masyumi Party](/wiki/Masyumi_Party \"Masyumi Party\"), a major Muslim Party that had rivaled [Indonesian Communist Party](/wiki/Indonesian_Communist_Party \"Indonesian Communist Party\") (PKI) in the 1950s.", "During his time in UI he lived in Jakarta by lodging at various mosques in the city. He also took on part\\-time work to fund his studies. He tutored children in reading the [Quran](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\"), taught martial arts, and sold fish and coconuts.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2004\\-01\\-02\\|title\\=Yusril Ihza Mahendra, Menteri Kehakiman dan HAM {{!}} Ensiklopedi Tokoh Indonesia\\|url\\=http://tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/y/yusril\\-ihza\\-mahendra/menkeh.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040102075025/http://tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/y/yusril\\-ihza\\-mahendra/menkeh.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2004\\-01\\-02 }} In 1982, Yusril graduated with a Bachelor's Degree in Philosophy and followed it up the next year with a Bachelor's Degree in Governance.", "#### Further education", "Following this he became a lecturer at the [Muhammadiyah](/wiki/Muhammadiyah \"Muhammadiyah\") University in Jakarta (UMJ), and at the Socialization Skills Academy in the Ministry of Justice. In the meantime, Yusril attended postgraduate studies. Yusril then went to Pakistan to attend the [University of Punjab](/wiki/University_of_the_Punjab \"University of the Punjab\"). In 1984, Yusril graduated with a Master's Degree in Humanities and Social Science. When he returned to Indonesia, Yusril became a lecturer for [University of Indonesia](/wiki/University_of_Indonesia \"University of Indonesia\") (UI) and UMJ. At UI, Yusril was involved in the law faculty and taught postgraduate courses. In 1993, Yusril graduated from the [University of Science, Malaysia](/wiki/University_of_Science%2C_Malaysia \"University of Science, Malaysia\") and became a Doctor of Philosophy.", "" ]
Political career ---------------- ### Crescent Star Party With Suharto's fall from power, opportunity opened up for Yusril to get himself into politics and air his views. As a politician, Yusril was very much influenced by Natsir and called for the [Jakarta Charter](/wiki/Jakarta_Charter "Jakarta Charter") to be included in the Constitution. In the 1945 Constitution, Article 29 Section 1 originally read "The State is based on the belief in God with the obligation to obey Sharia law for its adherers". However, the Section was edited to "The State is based on the belief in God"[UNDANG – UNDANG DASAR REPUBLIK INDONESIA 1945](http://indonesia.ahrchk.net/news/mainfile.php/Constitution/22) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623154411/http://indonesia.ahrchk.net/news/mainfile.php/Constitution/22 \|date\=June 23, 2007 }} to make it sound more secular. To achieve his political goal, Yusril formed the [Crescent Star Party](/wiki/Crescent_Star_Party_%28Indonesia%29 "Crescent Star Party (Indonesia)") (PBB) on 17 July 1998 and was elected as its first chairman. In June 1999, PBB participated in the 1999 Legislative Elections and came 6th with 2\.84% of the votes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cetro.or.id/pemilu2004/suaradprri2004\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=February 18, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929002414/http://www.cetro.or.id/pemilu2004/suaradprri2004\.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007 }} In the lead up to the [People's Consultative Assembly](/wiki/People%27s_Consultative_Assembly "People's Consultative Assembly") (MPR) General Session, PBB joined forces with the other Muslim Parties to form the Central Axis. As the MPR assembled in 1999, the Central Axis had their support behind [National Awakening Party](/wiki/National_Awakening_Party "National Awakening Party")'s [Abdurrahman Wahid](/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid "Abdurrahman Wahid") with their opponents being [Golkar](/wiki/Golkar "Golkar")'s President Habibie and the [Indonesian Democratic Party\-Struggle](/wiki/Indonesian_Democratic_Party-Struggle "Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle")'s (PDI\-P) [Megawati Sukarnoputri](/wiki/Megawati_Sukarnoputri "Megawati Sukarnoputri"). When Habibie's accountability speech was not accepted, he refused to run and the Presidential race came down to Wahid and Megawati. Yusril, perhaps worried that Wahid might also drop out of the race had himself nominated as a Presidential Candidate.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.nbr.org/publications/briefing/pdf/brief9\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2007\-02\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925021128/http://www.nbr.org/publications/briefing/pdf/brief9\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-25 \|url\-status\=dead }} However, Yusril would drop out of the race with little time to spare before the election process and Wahid would emerge as the President. ### Presidency of Abdurrahman Wahid When Wahid named his [national unity cabinet](/wiki/National_unity_cabinet "National unity cabinet"), Yusril was appointed to the position of Minister of Laws and Legislations. During the Wahid presidency, Yusril had a major policy difference when Wahid threw up the idea of lifting the ban on [Marxism–Leninism](/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism "Marxism–Leninism"). Yusril responded by threatening to resign from his position.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kompas.com/kompas\-cetak/0004/27/UTAMA/yusr01\.htm \|title\=Yusril Ancam Mundur dari Kabinet – Kamis, 27 April 2000 \|access\-date\=February 20, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818163118/http://www.kompas.com/kompas\-cetak/0004/27/UTAMA/yusr01\.htm \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2006 }} A threat that was widely supported by PBB. Nevertheless, Wahid's idea never materialized and despite his differences, Yusril was retained as minister. When political pressure began to put Wahid on the defensive in early 2001, Yusril suggested during a cabinet meeting that Wahid resign. Wahid's response was to remove Yusril from the cabinet. ### Presidency of Megawati Now out of the cabinet, Yusril and PBB threw their weight behind all the other political parties planning to impeach Wahid through a MPR Special Session. This was achieved in July 2001 when the MPR unanimously impeached Wahid and elected Megawati to the presidency. In Megawati's cabinet, Yusril was appointed to the position of Minister of Justice and Human Rights. As Minister of Justice and Human Rights, Yusril worked on the Anti\-Terrorism Bill (Which would become the Anti\-Terrorism Act) after the [2002 Bali bombings](/wiki/2002_Bali_bombings "2002 Bali bombings").[\[Nusantara] Pemerintah Akan Terbitkan Perpu Antiterorisme](http://www.polarhome.com/pipermail/nusantara/2002-October/000522.html) Yusril also sought to improve the quality of Judges in Indonesia.[Yusril Izha Mahendra Tak Ada Ambisi Jadi Presiden \| Ensiklopedi Tokoh Indonesia](https://archive.today/20040225191106/http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/y/yusril-ihza-mahendra/wawancara.shtml) ### 2004 Presidential elections As 2004 approached, Yusril's name began to emerge as a presidential candidate. Yusril said that he was ready to run, provided that PBB finished in the Top 3 in the Legislative Elections. PBB failed to do this, gaining only 2% of the votes in the Legislative Elections. Yusril finally decided to support Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and [Jusuf Kalla](/wiki/Jusuf_Kalla "Jusuf Kalla") in their bid for the Presidency and the Vice Presidency. For his support, Yusril was rewarded with the position of State Secretary. ### Presidency of Yudhoyono In 2005, Yusril was replaced as PBB chairman by [MS Kaban](/wiki/MS_Kaban "MS Kaban") but became the chair of PBB's Advisory Council. He was later reelected into that position on 26 April 2015\.{{cite news \|date\=26 April 2015 \|title\=Terpilih Pimpin PBB, Ini Reaksi Yusril Ihza Mahendra \|url\=https://nasional.sindonews.com/berita/994074/12/terpilih\-pimpin\-pbb\-ini\-reaksi\-yusril\-ihza\-mahendra \|access\-date\=16 October 2017 \|work\=SINDOnews \|language\=id}} On 7 May 2007, Yusril was replaced as State Secretary by [Hatta Rajasa](/wiki/Hatta_Rajasa "Hatta Rajasa").
[ "Political career\n----------------", "### Crescent Star Party", "With Suharto's fall from power, opportunity opened up for Yusril to get himself into politics and air his views. As a politician, Yusril was very much influenced by Natsir and called for the [Jakarta Charter](/wiki/Jakarta_Charter \"Jakarta Charter\") to be included in the Constitution. In the 1945 Constitution, Article 29 Section 1 originally read \"The State is based on the belief in God with the obligation to obey Sharia law for its adherers\". However, the Section was edited to \"The State is based on the belief in God\"[UNDANG – UNDANG DASAR REPUBLIK INDONESIA 1945](http://indonesia.ahrchk.net/news/mainfile.php/Constitution/22) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623154411/http://indonesia.ahrchk.net/news/mainfile.php/Constitution/22 \\|date\\=June 23, 2007 }} to make it sound more secular.", "To achieve his political goal, Yusril formed the [Crescent Star Party](/wiki/Crescent_Star_Party_%28Indonesia%29 \"Crescent Star Party (Indonesia)\") (PBB) on 17 July 1998 and was elected as its first chairman. In June 1999, PBB participated in the 1999 Legislative Elections and came 6th with 2\\.84% of the votes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cetro.or.id/pemilu2004/suaradprri2004\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=February 18, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929002414/http://www.cetro.or.id/pemilu2004/suaradprri2004\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007 }} In the lead up to the [People's Consultative Assembly](/wiki/People%27s_Consultative_Assembly \"People's Consultative Assembly\") (MPR) General Session, PBB joined forces with the other Muslim Parties to form the Central Axis. As the MPR assembled in 1999, the Central Axis had their support behind [National Awakening Party](/wiki/National_Awakening_Party \"National Awakening Party\")'s [Abdurrahman Wahid](/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid \"Abdurrahman Wahid\") with their opponents being [Golkar](/wiki/Golkar \"Golkar\")'s President Habibie and the [Indonesian Democratic Party\\-Struggle](/wiki/Indonesian_Democratic_Party-Struggle \"Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle\")'s (PDI\\-P) [Megawati Sukarnoputri](/wiki/Megawati_Sukarnoputri \"Megawati Sukarnoputri\"). When Habibie's accountability speech was not accepted, he refused to run and the Presidential race came down to Wahid and Megawati. Yusril, perhaps worried that Wahid might also drop out of the race had himself nominated as a Presidential Candidate.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nbr.org/publications/briefing/pdf/brief9\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925021128/http://www.nbr.org/publications/briefing/pdf/brief9\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} However, Yusril would drop out of the race with little time to spare before the election process and Wahid would emerge as the President.", "### Presidency of Abdurrahman Wahid", "When Wahid named his [national unity cabinet](/wiki/National_unity_cabinet \"National unity cabinet\"), Yusril was appointed to the position of Minister of Laws and Legislations. During the Wahid presidency, Yusril had a major policy difference when Wahid threw up the idea of lifting the ban on [Marxism–Leninism](/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism \"Marxism–Leninism\"). Yusril responded by threatening to resign from his position.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kompas.com/kompas\\-cetak/0004/27/UTAMA/yusr01\\.htm \\|title\\=Yusril Ancam Mundur dari Kabinet – Kamis, 27 April 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818163118/http://www.kompas.com/kompas\\-cetak/0004/27/UTAMA/yusr01\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2006 }} A threat that was widely supported by PBB. Nevertheless, Wahid's idea never materialized and despite his differences, Yusril was retained as minister. When political pressure began to put Wahid on the defensive in early 2001, Yusril suggested during a cabinet meeting that Wahid resign. Wahid's response was to remove Yusril from the cabinet.", "### Presidency of Megawati", "Now out of the cabinet, Yusril and PBB threw their weight behind all the other political parties planning to impeach Wahid through a MPR Special Session. This was achieved in July 2001 when the MPR unanimously impeached Wahid and elected Megawati to the presidency. In Megawati's cabinet, Yusril was appointed to the position of Minister of Justice and Human Rights. As Minister of Justice and Human Rights, Yusril worked on the Anti\\-Terrorism Bill (Which would become the Anti\\-Terrorism Act) after the [2002 Bali bombings](/wiki/2002_Bali_bombings \"2002 Bali bombings\").[\\[Nusantara] Pemerintah Akan Terbitkan Perpu Antiterorisme](http://www.polarhome.com/pipermail/nusantara/2002-October/000522.html) Yusril also sought to improve the quality of Judges in Indonesia.[Yusril Izha Mahendra Tak Ada Ambisi Jadi Presiden \\| Ensiklopedi Tokoh Indonesia](https://archive.today/20040225191106/http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/y/yusril-ihza-mahendra/wawancara.shtml)", "### 2004 Presidential elections", "As 2004 approached, Yusril's name began to emerge as a presidential candidate. Yusril said that he was ready to run, provided that PBB finished in the Top 3 in the Legislative Elections. PBB failed to do this, gaining only 2% of the votes in the Legislative Elections. Yusril finally decided to support Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and [Jusuf Kalla](/wiki/Jusuf_Kalla \"Jusuf Kalla\") in their bid for the Presidency and the Vice Presidency. For his support, Yusril was rewarded with the position of State Secretary.", "### Presidency of Yudhoyono", "In 2005, Yusril was replaced as PBB chairman by [MS Kaban](/wiki/MS_Kaban \"MS Kaban\") but became the chair of PBB's Advisory Council. He was later reelected into that position on 26 April 2015\\.{{cite news \\|date\\=26 April 2015 \\|title\\=Terpilih Pimpin PBB, Ini Reaksi Yusril Ihza Mahendra \\|url\\=https://nasional.sindonews.com/berita/994074/12/terpilih\\-pimpin\\-pbb\\-ini\\-reaksi\\-yusril\\-ihza\\-mahendra \\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2017 \\|work\\=SINDOnews \\|language\\=id}} On 7 May 2007, Yusril was replaced as State Secretary by [Hatta Rajasa](/wiki/Hatta_Rajasa \"Hatta Rajasa\").", "" ]
History ------- ### Foundation and development in the Middle Ages Deventer was probably founded around 768 AD by the [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England "Kingdom of England") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") [Lebuinus](/wiki/Lebuinus "Lebuinus"), who built a wooden church on the east bank of the river [IJssel](/wiki/IJssel "IJssel"). In January 772 AD the sack and burning of this church by a Saxon expedition was the cause for the first punitive war waged by Charlemagne to the Saxons, in which, in retribution, the [Irminsul](/wiki/Irminsul "Irminsul") (the Saxon sacred tree, probably near modern [Paderborn](/wiki/Paderborn "Paderborn")) was destroyed. This was not the first human settlement at the location; between 1981 and 2006, remains of a late [Roman Iron Age](/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age "Roman Iron Age") settlement (dated to c.300 AD) were excavated at Colmschate, 4 km east of the current city. [thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|left\|The towers of the [St. Nicholas Church](/wiki/St_Nicholas_Church%2C_Deventer "St Nicholas Church, Deventer"), now deconsecrated, date back to circa 1200](/wiki/File:Bergkerk_Deventer_vanuit_Bergstraat.jpg "Bergkerk Deventer vanuit Bergstraat.jpg") The village of Deventer, already important because of a trading road crossing the river [IJssel](/wiki/IJssel "IJssel"), was looted and burnt down by the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings") in 882\. It was immediately rebuilt and fortified with an earthen wall (in the street *Stenen Wal* remains of this wall have been excavated and restored). Deventer received [city rights](/wiki/City_rights_in_the_Low_Countries "City rights in the Low Countries") in 956, after which fortifications were built or replaced by stone walls around the city for defense. Between 1000 and 1500, Deventer grew to be a flourishing trade city because of its harbour on the river IJssel, which was capable of accommodating large ships. The city eventually joined the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League"). One of the commodities it traded in, dried haddock and cod from Norway, gave the citizens the nickname they carry to this day: "Deventer [Stokvis](/wiki/Stockfish "Stockfish")". In the 15th century, Deventer had a common mint, where coins for the three IJssel cities Deventer, [Zwolle](/wiki/Zwolle "Zwolle"), and [Kampen](/wiki/Kampen_%28Overijssel%29 "Kampen (Overijssel)") were made. Deventer is the birthplace of [Geert Groote](/wiki/Geert_Groote "Geert Groote") and home to his [Brethren of the Common Life](/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Common_Life "Brethren of the Common Life"), a school of religious thought that influenced [Thomas a Kempis](/wiki/Thomas_a_Kempis "Thomas a Kempis") and [Erasmus](/wiki/Erasmus "Erasmus") in later times. Together with Haarlem it was among the first cities to have printing presses, dating back to as early as 1477\. From around 1300, it also housed a Latin School, which became internationally renowned, and remained in service in changing forms until 1971\. Its most well\-known student was the scholar [Desiderius Erasmus](/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus "Desiderius Erasmus"), who was born in 1466 and attended the school from 1475 to 1484\. ### 16th–18th centuries [thumb\|Deventer in circa 1550](/wiki/File:Deventer_1550.jpg "Deventer 1550.jpg") [thumb\|1652 map of Deventer by [Willem](/wiki/Willem_Blaeu "Willem Blaeu") and [Joan Blaeu](/wiki/Joan_Blaeu "Joan Blaeu")](/wiki/File:Blaeu_1652_-_Deventer.jpg "Blaeu 1652 - Deventer.jpg") [thumb\|Map of Deventer at the conquest 1672](/wiki/File:Kungsboken-karta-deventer.jpg "Kungsboken-karta-deventer.jpg") Between 1500 and 1800, the volume of water flowing through the IJssel decreased, decreasing the importance of Deventer's harbour. The competition with trade centres in [Holland](/wiki/Holland "Holland"), as well as the [religious war](/wiki/Dutch_War_of_Independence "Dutch War of Independence") between 1568 and 1648, brought a decline in the city's economy. In the 18th century, the [iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron") industry came to Deventer. East of the town, so\-called "oer", riversand containing iron, was found as early as 900\. From this material, ore was produced and brought to town. The main road of the villages Okkenbroek, Lettele and Schalkhaar is still named Oerdijk (Ore Dyke). ### Modern times [thumb\|The former Binnen\-Vispoort in the 19th century.](/wiki/File:Deventer_Binnen-vispoort.jpg "Deventer Binnen-vispoort.jpg") In the 19th century, Deventer became an industrial town. Bicycles (Burgers), carpets (Koninklijke Deventer Tapijtfabriek), tins and cans for food and drinks (Thomassen \& Drijver), cigars (Horst \& Maas en Bijdendijk \& Ten Hove), foundry and heavy machinery (Nering Bögel), and textiles (Ankersmit)Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/vZ9UNQK_Jqs){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20190920215823/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZ9UNQK_Jqs&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=vZ9UNQK\_Jqs\| title \= OPGEDOEKT, documentaire over Ankersmit Deventer \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} were produced until the mid to late 20th century. Some of these industries are still thriving today, such as beds and accessories (Auping) and publishing ([Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer "Wolters Kluwer"), now headquartered in [Alphen aan den Rijn](/wiki/Alphen_aan_den_Rijn "Alphen aan den Rijn")). The city's trade and industry are still of some importance. The city is host to a factory producing [central heating](/wiki/Central_heating "Central heating") systems, as well as [Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer "Wolters Kluwer"), a global information services and publishing company. The Deventer honey cake (Bussink Deventer Koek), produced in Deventer for over 500 years, is still manufactured locally and sold all over the Netherlands and beyond. #### World War II [thumb\|left\|Shooting a scene from *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%281977_film%29 "A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)")* on location in Deventer, 1977](/wiki/File:Shooting_of_a_scene_from_A_bridge_too_far.jpg "Shooting of a scene from A bridge too far.jpg") Deventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a [garrison](/wiki/Garrison "Garrison") city of the Dutch [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry"). The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944 causing 35 fatalities; on December 15, 1944 killing 33 people; and on February 6, 1945 causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a [war crime](/wiki/War_crime "War crime"). The German army used a [cool warehouse](/wiki/Cool_warehouse "Cool warehouse") in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home "Retirement home") of the *United Foundations*, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.Source: *Klakkende laarzen aan de IJssel (...)* by K.H. Vos, 1995, Arko Editors, ISBN 90\-72047\-26\-5 (in Dutch), pp. 71\-82, 93 The Jewish poet and writer [Etty Hillesum](/wiki/Etty_Hillesum "Etty Hillesum") lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz"). In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for [asylum seekers](/wiki/Asylum_seekers "Asylum seekers"). In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a [V\-1 flying bomb](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb "V-1 flying bomb") launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945\. Some of the 400 V\-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.tracesofwar.nl/sights/1484/V1\-Feuerstellung\-519\-Lettele.htm\|title \= V1 Feuerstellung 519 Lettele \- Lettele \- TracesOfWar.nl}} Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%28film%29 "A Bridge Too Far (film)")*, all of the scenes taking place in nearby [Arnhem](/wiki/Arnhem "Arnhem") were filmed in Deventer \- as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre. By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering. After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so\-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Foundation and development in the Middle Ages", "Deventer was probably founded around 768 AD by the [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England \"Kingdom of England\") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") [Lebuinus](/wiki/Lebuinus \"Lebuinus\"), who built a wooden church on the east bank of the river [IJssel](/wiki/IJssel \"IJssel\"). In January 772 AD the sack and burning of this church by a Saxon expedition was the cause for the first punitive war waged by Charlemagne to the Saxons, in which, in retribution, the [Irminsul](/wiki/Irminsul \"Irminsul\") (the Saxon sacred tree, probably near modern [Paderborn](/wiki/Paderborn \"Paderborn\")) was destroyed. This was not the first human settlement at the location; between 1981 and 2006, remains of a late [Roman Iron Age](/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age \"Roman Iron Age\") settlement (dated to c.300 AD) were excavated at Colmschate, 4 km east of the current city.", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|left\\|The towers of the [St. Nicholas Church](/wiki/St_Nicholas_Church%2C_Deventer \"St Nicholas Church, Deventer\"), now deconsecrated, date back to circa 1200](/wiki/File:Bergkerk_Deventer_vanuit_Bergstraat.jpg \"Bergkerk Deventer vanuit Bergstraat.jpg\")\nThe village of Deventer, already important because of a trading road crossing the river [IJssel](/wiki/IJssel \"IJssel\"), was looted and burnt down by the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\") in 882\\. It was immediately rebuilt and fortified with an earthen wall (in the street *Stenen Wal* remains of this wall have been excavated and restored).", "Deventer received [city rights](/wiki/City_rights_in_the_Low_Countries \"City rights in the Low Countries\") in 956, after which fortifications were built or replaced by stone walls around the city for defense. Between 1000 and 1500, Deventer grew to be a flourishing trade city because of its harbour on the river IJssel, which was capable of accommodating large ships. The city eventually joined the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\").", "One of the commodities it traded in, dried haddock and cod from Norway, gave the citizens the nickname they carry to this day: \"Deventer [Stokvis](/wiki/Stockfish \"Stockfish\")\". In the 15th century, Deventer had a common mint, where coins for the three IJssel cities Deventer, [Zwolle](/wiki/Zwolle \"Zwolle\"), and [Kampen](/wiki/Kampen_%28Overijssel%29 \"Kampen (Overijssel)\") were made.", "Deventer is the birthplace of [Geert Groote](/wiki/Geert_Groote \"Geert Groote\") and home to his [Brethren of the Common Life](/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Common_Life \"Brethren of the Common Life\"), a school of religious thought that influenced [Thomas a Kempis](/wiki/Thomas_a_Kempis \"Thomas a Kempis\") and [Erasmus](/wiki/Erasmus \"Erasmus\") in later times. Together with Haarlem it was among the first cities to have printing presses, dating back to as early as 1477\\. From around 1300, it also housed a Latin School, which became internationally renowned, and remained in service in changing forms until 1971\\. Its most well\\-known student was the scholar [Desiderius Erasmus](/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus \"Desiderius Erasmus\"), who was born in 1466 and attended the school from 1475 to 1484\\.", "### 16th–18th centuries", "[thumb\\|Deventer in circa 1550](/wiki/File:Deventer_1550.jpg \"Deventer 1550.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1652 map of Deventer by [Willem](/wiki/Willem_Blaeu \"Willem Blaeu\") and [Joan Blaeu](/wiki/Joan_Blaeu \"Joan Blaeu\")](/wiki/File:Blaeu_1652_-_Deventer.jpg \"Blaeu 1652 - Deventer.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Map of Deventer at the conquest 1672](/wiki/File:Kungsboken-karta-deventer.jpg \"Kungsboken-karta-deventer.jpg\")\nBetween 1500 and 1800, the volume of water flowing through the IJssel decreased, decreasing the importance of Deventer's harbour. The competition with trade centres in [Holland](/wiki/Holland \"Holland\"), as well as the [religious war](/wiki/Dutch_War_of_Independence \"Dutch War of Independence\") between 1568 and 1648, brought a decline in the city's economy.", "In the 18th century, the [iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\") industry came to Deventer. East of the town, so\\-called \"oer\", riversand containing iron, was found as early as 900\\. From this material, ore was produced and brought to town. The main road of the villages Okkenbroek, Lettele and Schalkhaar is still named Oerdijk (Ore Dyke).", "### Modern times", "[thumb\\|The former Binnen\\-Vispoort in the 19th century.](/wiki/File:Deventer_Binnen-vispoort.jpg \"Deventer Binnen-vispoort.jpg\")\nIn the 19th century, Deventer became an industrial town. Bicycles (Burgers), carpets (Koninklijke Deventer Tapijtfabriek), tins and cans for food and drinks (Thomassen \\& Drijver), cigars (Horst \\& Maas en Bijdendijk \\& Ten Hove), foundry and heavy machinery (Nering Bögel), and textiles (Ankersmit)Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/vZ9UNQK_Jqs){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20190920215823/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZ9UNQK_Jqs&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=vZ9UNQK\\_Jqs\\| title \\= OPGEDOEKT, documentaire over Ankersmit Deventer \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} were produced until the mid to late 20th century. Some of these industries are still thriving today, such as beds and accessories (Auping) and publishing ([Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer \"Wolters Kluwer\"), now headquartered in [Alphen aan den Rijn](/wiki/Alphen_aan_den_Rijn \"Alphen aan den Rijn\")).", "The city's trade and industry are still of some importance. The city is host to a factory producing [central heating](/wiki/Central_heating \"Central heating\") systems, as well as [Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer \"Wolters Kluwer\"), a global information services and publishing company.", "The Deventer honey cake (Bussink Deventer Koek), produced in Deventer for over 500 years, is still manufactured locally and sold all over the Netherlands and beyond.", "#### World War II", "[thumb\\|left\\|Shooting a scene from *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%281977_film%29 \"A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)\")* on location in Deventer, 1977](/wiki/File:Shooting_of_a_scene_from_A_bridge_too_far.jpg \"Shooting of a scene from A bridge too far.jpg\")\nDeventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a [garrison](/wiki/Garrison \"Garrison\") city of the Dutch [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"). The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944 causing 35 fatalities; on December 15, 1944 killing 33 people; and on February 6, 1945 causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a [war crime](/wiki/War_crime \"War crime\"). The German army used a [cool warehouse](/wiki/Cool_warehouse \"Cool warehouse\") in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home \"Retirement home\") of the *United Foundations*, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.Source: *Klakkende laarzen aan de IJssel (...)* by K.H. Vos, 1995, Arko Editors, ISBN 90\\-72047\\-26\\-5 (in Dutch), pp. 71\\-82, 93", "The Jewish poet and writer [Etty Hillesum](/wiki/Etty_Hillesum \"Etty Hillesum\") lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\").", "In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for [asylum seekers](/wiki/Asylum_seekers \"Asylum seekers\").", "In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a [V\\-1 flying bomb](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb \"V-1 flying bomb\") launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945\\. Some of the 400 V\\-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tracesofwar.nl/sights/1484/V1\\-Feuerstellung\\-519\\-Lettele.htm\\|title \\= V1 Feuerstellung 519 Lettele \\- Lettele \\- TracesOfWar.nl}}", "Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%28film%29 \"A Bridge Too Far (film)\")*, all of the scenes taking place in nearby [Arnhem](/wiki/Arnhem \"Arnhem\") were filmed in Deventer \\- as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre.", "By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering.", "After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so\\-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005\\.", "" ]
### Modern times [thumb\|The former Binnen\-Vispoort in the 19th century.](/wiki/File:Deventer_Binnen-vispoort.jpg "Deventer Binnen-vispoort.jpg") In the 19th century, Deventer became an industrial town. Bicycles (Burgers), carpets (Koninklijke Deventer Tapijtfabriek), tins and cans for food and drinks (Thomassen \& Drijver), cigars (Horst \& Maas en Bijdendijk \& Ten Hove), foundry and heavy machinery (Nering Bögel), and textiles (Ankersmit)Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/vZ9UNQK_Jqs){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20190920215823/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZ9UNQK_Jqs&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=vZ9UNQK\_Jqs\| title \= OPGEDOEKT, documentaire over Ankersmit Deventer \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} were produced until the mid to late 20th century. Some of these industries are still thriving today, such as beds and accessories (Auping) and publishing ([Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer "Wolters Kluwer"), now headquartered in [Alphen aan den Rijn](/wiki/Alphen_aan_den_Rijn "Alphen aan den Rijn")). The city's trade and industry are still of some importance. The city is host to a factory producing [central heating](/wiki/Central_heating "Central heating") systems, as well as [Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer "Wolters Kluwer"), a global information services and publishing company. The Deventer honey cake (Bussink Deventer Koek), produced in Deventer for over 500 years, is still manufactured locally and sold all over the Netherlands and beyond. #### World War II [thumb\|left\|Shooting a scene from *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%281977_film%29 "A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)")* on location in Deventer, 1977](/wiki/File:Shooting_of_a_scene_from_A_bridge_too_far.jpg "Shooting of a scene from A bridge too far.jpg") Deventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a [garrison](/wiki/Garrison "Garrison") city of the Dutch [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry"). The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944 causing 35 fatalities; on December 15, 1944 killing 33 people; and on February 6, 1945 causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a [war crime](/wiki/War_crime "War crime"). The German army used a [cool warehouse](/wiki/Cool_warehouse "Cool warehouse") in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home "Retirement home") of the *United Foundations*, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.Source: *Klakkende laarzen aan de IJssel (...)* by K.H. Vos, 1995, Arko Editors, ISBN 90\-72047\-26\-5 (in Dutch), pp. 71\-82, 93 The Jewish poet and writer [Etty Hillesum](/wiki/Etty_Hillesum "Etty Hillesum") lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz"). In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for [asylum seekers](/wiki/Asylum_seekers "Asylum seekers"). In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a [V\-1 flying bomb](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb "V-1 flying bomb") launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945\. Some of the 400 V\-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.tracesofwar.nl/sights/1484/V1\-Feuerstellung\-519\-Lettele.htm\|title \= V1 Feuerstellung 519 Lettele \- Lettele \- TracesOfWar.nl}} Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%28film%29 "A Bridge Too Far (film)")*, all of the scenes taking place in nearby [Arnhem](/wiki/Arnhem "Arnhem") were filmed in Deventer \- as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre. By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering. After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so\-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005\.
[ "### Modern times", "[thumb\\|The former Binnen\\-Vispoort in the 19th century.](/wiki/File:Deventer_Binnen-vispoort.jpg \"Deventer Binnen-vispoort.jpg\")\nIn the 19th century, Deventer became an industrial town. Bicycles (Burgers), carpets (Koninklijke Deventer Tapijtfabriek), tins and cans for food and drinks (Thomassen \\& Drijver), cigars (Horst \\& Maas en Bijdendijk \\& Ten Hove), foundry and heavy machinery (Nering Bögel), and textiles (Ankersmit)Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/vZ9UNQK_Jqs){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20190920215823/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZ9UNQK_Jqs&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=vZ9UNQK\\_Jqs\\| title \\= OPGEDOEKT, documentaire over Ankersmit Deventer \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} were produced until the mid to late 20th century. Some of these industries are still thriving today, such as beds and accessories (Auping) and publishing ([Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer \"Wolters Kluwer\"), now headquartered in [Alphen aan den Rijn](/wiki/Alphen_aan_den_Rijn \"Alphen aan den Rijn\")).", "The city's trade and industry are still of some importance. The city is host to a factory producing [central heating](/wiki/Central_heating \"Central heating\") systems, as well as [Wolters Kluwer](/wiki/Wolters_Kluwer \"Wolters Kluwer\"), a global information services and publishing company.", "The Deventer honey cake (Bussink Deventer Koek), produced in Deventer for over 500 years, is still manufactured locally and sold all over the Netherlands and beyond.", "#### World War II", "[thumb\\|left\\|Shooting a scene from *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%281977_film%29 \"A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)\")* on location in Deventer, 1977](/wiki/File:Shooting_of_a_scene_from_A_bridge_too_far.jpg \"Shooting of a scene from A bridge too far.jpg\")\nDeventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a [garrison](/wiki/Garrison \"Garrison\") city of the Dutch [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"). The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944 causing 35 fatalities; on December 15, 1944 killing 33 people; and on February 6, 1945 causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a [war crime](/wiki/War_crime \"War crime\"). The German army used a [cool warehouse](/wiki/Cool_warehouse \"Cool warehouse\") in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home \"Retirement home\") of the *United Foundations*, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.Source: *Klakkende laarzen aan de IJssel (...)* by K.H. Vos, 1995, Arko Editors, ISBN 90\\-72047\\-26\\-5 (in Dutch), pp. 71\\-82, 93", "The Jewish poet and writer [Etty Hillesum](/wiki/Etty_Hillesum \"Etty Hillesum\") lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\").", "In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for [asylum seekers](/wiki/Asylum_seekers \"Asylum seekers\").", "In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a [V\\-1 flying bomb](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb \"V-1 flying bomb\") launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945\\. Some of the 400 V\\-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tracesofwar.nl/sights/1484/V1\\-Feuerstellung\\-519\\-Lettele.htm\\|title \\= V1 Feuerstellung 519 Lettele \\- Lettele \\- TracesOfWar.nl}}", "Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%28film%29 \"A Bridge Too Far (film)\")*, all of the scenes taking place in nearby [Arnhem](/wiki/Arnhem \"Arnhem\") were filmed in Deventer \\- as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre.", "By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering.", "After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so\\-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005\\.", "" ]
#### World War II [thumb\|left\|Shooting a scene from *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%281977_film%29 "A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)")* on location in Deventer, 1977](/wiki/File:Shooting_of_a_scene_from_A_bridge_too_far.jpg "Shooting of a scene from A bridge too far.jpg") Deventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a [garrison](/wiki/Garrison "Garrison") city of the Dutch [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry"). The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944 causing 35 fatalities; on December 15, 1944 killing 33 people; and on February 6, 1945 causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a [war crime](/wiki/War_crime "War crime"). The German army used a [cool warehouse](/wiki/Cool_warehouse "Cool warehouse") in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home "Retirement home") of the *United Foundations*, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.Source: *Klakkende laarzen aan de IJssel (...)* by K.H. Vos, 1995, Arko Editors, ISBN 90\-72047\-26\-5 (in Dutch), pp. 71\-82, 93 The Jewish poet and writer [Etty Hillesum](/wiki/Etty_Hillesum "Etty Hillesum") lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz"). In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for [asylum seekers](/wiki/Asylum_seekers "Asylum seekers"). In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a [V\-1 flying bomb](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb "V-1 flying bomb") launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945\. Some of the 400 V\-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.tracesofwar.nl/sights/1484/V1\-Feuerstellung\-519\-Lettele.htm\|title \= V1 Feuerstellung 519 Lettele \- Lettele \- TracesOfWar.nl}} Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%28film%29 "A Bridge Too Far (film)")*, all of the scenes taking place in nearby [Arnhem](/wiki/Arnhem "Arnhem") were filmed in Deventer \- as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre. By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering. After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so\-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005\.
[ "#### World War II", "[thumb\\|left\\|Shooting a scene from *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%281977_film%29 \"A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)\")* on location in Deventer, 1977](/wiki/File:Shooting_of_a_scene_from_A_bridge_too_far.jpg \"Shooting of a scene from A bridge too far.jpg\")\nDeventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a [garrison](/wiki/Garrison \"Garrison\") city of the Dutch [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"). The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944 causing 35 fatalities; on December 15, 1944 killing 33 people; and on February 6, 1945 causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a [war crime](/wiki/War_crime \"War crime\"). The German army used a [cool warehouse](/wiki/Cool_warehouse \"Cool warehouse\") in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home \"Retirement home\") of the *United Foundations*, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.Source: *Klakkende laarzen aan de IJssel (...)* by K.H. Vos, 1995, Arko Editors, ISBN 90\\-72047\\-26\\-5 (in Dutch), pp. 71\\-82, 93", "The Jewish poet and writer [Etty Hillesum](/wiki/Etty_Hillesum \"Etty Hillesum\") lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\").", "In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for [asylum seekers](/wiki/Asylum_seekers \"Asylum seekers\").", "In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a [V\\-1 flying bomb](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb \"V-1 flying bomb\") launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945\\. Some of the 400 V\\-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tracesofwar.nl/sights/1484/V1\\-Feuerstellung\\-519\\-Lettele.htm\\|title \\= V1 Feuerstellung 519 Lettele \\- Lettele \\- TracesOfWar.nl}}", "Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film *[A Bridge Too Far](/wiki/A_Bridge_Too_Far_%28film%29 \"A Bridge Too Far (film)\")*, all of the scenes taking place in nearby [Arnhem](/wiki/Arnhem \"Arnhem\") were filmed in Deventer \\- as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre.", "By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering.", "After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so\\-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005\\.", "" ]
Data analysis ------------- ### Introduction Once the autocorrelation data have been generated, different mathematical approaches can be employed to obtain 'information' from it. Analysis of the scattering is facilitated when particles do not interact through collisions or electrostatic forces between ions. Particle\-particle collisions can be suppressed by dilution, and charge effects are reduced by the use of salts to collapse the [electrical double layer](/wiki/Electrical_double_layer "Electrical double layer"). The simplest approach is to treat the first\-order autocorrelation function as a single exponential decay. This is appropriate for a monodisperse population. \\ g^1(q;\\tau)\= \\exp(\-\\Gamma\\tau) \\, where {{math\|Γ}} is the decay rate. The translational diffusion coefficient {{math\|Dt}} may be derived at a single angle or at a range of angles depending on the [wave vector](/wiki/Wave_vector "Wave vector") {{math\|q}}. \\ \\Gamma\=q^2D\_t\\, with \\ q \= \\frac{4\\pi n\_0}{\\lambda}\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\theta}{2}\\right) where {{math\|λ}} is the incident laser wavelength, {{math\|n0}} is the solvent [refractive index](/wiki/Refractive_index "Refractive index") and {{math\|θ}} is the angle at which the detector is located with respect to the sample cell. The refractive index of the solvent plays a crucial role in light scattering and is important to calculate the [Stokes radius](/wiki/Stokes_radius "Stokes radius") from the [Stokes\-Einstein equation](/wiki/Stokes-Einstein_equation "Stokes-Einstein equation").{{Cite journal \|last\=Strutt \|first\=J.W. \|date\=1871\-06\-01 \|title\=LVIII. On the scattering of light by small particles \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/14786447108640507 \|journal\=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \|volume\=41 \|issue\=275 \|pages\=447–454 \|doi\=10\.1080/14786447108640507 \|issn\=1941\-5982}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Strutt \|first\=J.W. \|date\=1871\-04\-01 \|title\=XXXVI. On the light from the sky, its polarization and colour \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/14786447108640479 \|journal\=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \|volume\=41 \|issue\=273 \|pages\=274–279 \|doi\=10\.1080/14786447108640479 \|issn\=1941\-5982}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Stetefeld \|first1\=Jörg \|last2\=McKenna \|first2\=Sean A. \|last3\=Patel \|first3\=Trushar R. \|date\=2016\-12\-01 \|title\=Dynamic light scattering: a practical guide and applications in biomedical sciences \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1007/s12551\-016\-0218\-6 \|journal\=Biophysical Reviews \|language\=en \|volume\=8 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=409–427 \|doi\=10\.1007/s12551\-016\-0218\-6 \|issn\=1867\-2469 \|pmc\=5425802 \|pmid\=28510011}} Therefore, previous refractive index data from the scattering medium should be evaluated with dedicated instruments, known as [refractometers](/wiki/Refractometer "Refractometer"). Alternatively, DLS instruments containing a refractive index measurement module allow a good estimative for this important parameter within ±0\.5%, which is the accuracy defined by ISO 22412:2017{{Cite web \|last\= \|title\=ISO 22412:2017\. Particle size analysis — Dynamic light scattering (DLS) \|url\=https://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/contents/data/standard/06/54/65410\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-31 \|website\=ISO \|language\=en}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Tareq \|first1\=Syed Mohammed \|last2\=Boutchuen \|first2\=Armel \|last3\=Roy \|first3\=Shuvashish \|last4\=Zimmerman \|first4\=Dell \|last5\=Jur \|first5\=Gitapun \|last6\=Bathi \|first6\=Jejal Reddy \|last7\=Palchoudhury \|first7\=Soubantika \|date\=August 2021 \|title\=A Dynamic Light Scattering Approach for Detection of Nanomaterials in Tennessee River \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1029/2020WR028687 \|journal\=Water Resources Research \|language\=en \|volume\=57 \|issue\=8 \|doi\=10\.1029/2020WR028687 \|bibcode\=2021WRR....5728687T \|s2cid\=238831573 \|issn\=0043\-1397}} for refractive index values required for DLS. Besides the refractive index of the medium, the refractive index of the particles is only necessary when analyzing larger particle size (usually above 100 nm) and volume\- or number\-weighted size distributions are needed. In these cases, prior knowledge of the refractive index and absorbance of the material is required in order to apply the [Mie scattering](/wiki/Mie_scattering "Mie scattering").{{Cite web \|title\=White Paper: Understanding the Concept of Dynamic Light Scattering :: Anton\-Paar.com \|url\=https://www.anton\-paar.com/corp\-en/services\-support/document\-finder/application\-reports/white\-paper\-understanding\-the\-concept\-of\-dynamic\-light\-scattering/ \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-31 \|website\=Anton Paar \|language\=en}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Alfano \|first1\=Brigida \|last2\=Barretta \|first2\=Luigi \|last3\=Del Giudice \|first3\=Antonio \|last4\=De Vito \|first4\=Saverio \|last5\=Di Francia \|first5\=Girolamo \|last6\=Esposito \|first6\=Elena \|last7\=Formisano \|first7\=Fabrizio \|last8\=Massera \|first8\=Ettore \|last9\=Miglietta \|first9\=Maria Lucia \|last10\=Polichetti \|first10\=Tiziana \|date\=2020\-11\-29 \|title\=A Review of Low\-Cost Particulate Matter Sensors from the Developers' Perspectives \|journal\=Sensors \|language\=en \|volume\=20 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=6819 \|doi\=10\.3390/s20236819 \|issn\=1424\-8220 \|pmc\=7730878 \|pmid\=33260320\|bibcode\=2020Senso..20\.6819A \|doi\-access\=free }} Depending on the [anisotropy](/wiki/Anisotropy "Anisotropy") and [polydispersity](/wiki/Polydispersity "Polydispersity") of the system, a resulting plot of {{math\|(Γ/q2)}} vs. {{math\|q2}} may or may not show an angular dependence. Small spherical particles will show no angular dependence, hence no anisotropy. A plot of {{math\|(Γ/q2)}} vs. {{math\|q2}} will result in a horizontal line. Particles with a shape other than a sphere will show anisotropy and thus an angular dependence when plotting {{math\|(Γ/q2)}} vs. {{math\|q2}}.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1021/ma0020483\|title\=Water\-Soluble Complexes Formed by Poly(2\-vinylpyridinium)\-block\-poly(ethylene oxide) and Poly(sodium methacrylate)\-block\-poly(ethylene oxide) Copolymers\|year\=2001\|author\=Gohy, Jean\-François\|journal\=Macromolecules\|volume\=34\|pages\=3361\|last2\=Varshney\|first2\=Sunil K.\|last3\=Jérôme\|first3\=Robert\|bibcode \= 2001MaMol..34\.3361G\|issue\=10 }} The intercept will be in any case the Dt. Thus, there is an optimum angle of detection {{math\|θ}} for each particle size. A high\-quality analysis should always be performed at several scattering angles (multiangle DLS). This becomes even more important in a polydisperse sample with an unknown particle size distribution. At certain angles the scattering intensity of some particles will completely overwhelm the weak scattering signal of other particles, thus making them invisible to the data analysis at this angle. DLS instruments which only work at a fixed angle can only deliver good results for some particles. Thus, the indicated precision of a DLS instrument with only one detection angle is only ever true for certain particles. {{math\|Dt}} is often used to calculate the [hydrodynamic radius](/wiki/Hydrodynamic_radius "Hydrodynamic radius") of a sphere through the Stokes–Einstein equation. It is important to note that the size determined by dynamic light scattering is the size of a sphere that moves in the same manner as the scatterer. So, for example, if the scatterer is a random coil polymer, the determined size is not the same as the [radius of gyration](/wiki/Radius_of_gyration "Radius of gyration") determined by [static light scattering](/wiki/Static_light_scattering "Static light scattering"). It is also useful to point out that the obtained size will include any other molecules or solvent molecules that move with the particle. So, for example, [colloidal gold](/wiki/Colloidal_gold "Colloidal gold") with a layer of surfactant will appear larger by dynamic light scattering (which includes the surfactant layer) than by [transmission electron microscopy](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy "Transmission electron microscopy") (which does not "see" the layer due to poor contrast). In most cases, samples are polydisperse. Thus, the autocorrelation function is a sum of the exponential decays corresponding to each of the species in the population. g^1(q;\\tau)\= \\sum\_{i\=1}^n G\_i(\\Gamma\_i)\\exp(\-\\Gamma\_i\\tau) \= \\int G(\\Gamma)\\exp(\-\\Gamma\\tau)\\,d\\Gamma. It is tempting to obtain data for {{math\|g1(q;τ)}} and attempt to invert the above to extract {{math\|G(Γ)}}. Since {{math\|G(Γ)}} is proportional to the relative scattering from each species, it contains information on the distribution of sizes. However, this is known as an [ill\-posed](/wiki/Ill-posed "Ill-posed") problem. The methods described below (and others) have been developed to extract as much useful information as possible from an autocorrelation function. ### Cumulant method One of the most common methods is the [cumulant](/wiki/Cumulant "Cumulant") method,{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.1678153\|title\=Analysis of Macromolecular Polydispersity in Intensity Correlation Spectroscopy: The Method of Cumulants\|year\=1972\|author\=Koppel, Dennis E.\|journal\=The Journal of Chemical Physics\|volume\=57\|pages\=4814–4820\|bibcode \= 1972JChPh..57\.4814K\|issue\=11 }}{{cite journal\|url\=https://www.sfu.ca/biophysics/publications/2001/ApplOpt2001cumulants.pdf\|doi\=10\.1364/AO.40\.004087\|title\=Revisiting the Method of Cumulants for the Analysis of Dynamic Light\-Scattering Data\|year\=2001\|author\=Frisken, Barbara J.\|journal\=Applied Optics\|volume\=40\|pages\=4087–91\|pmid\=18360445\|issue\=24\|bibcode \= 2001ApOpt..40\.4087F }} from which in addition to the sum of the exponentials above, more information can be derived about the [variance](/wiki/Variance "Variance") of the system as follows: \\ g^1(q;\\tau) \= \\exp\\left(\-\\bar{\\Gamma}\\left(\\tau \- \\frac{\\mu\_2}{2!}\\tau^2 \+ \\frac{\\mu\_3}{3!}\\tau^3 \+ \\cdots\\right)\\right) where {{math\|{{overbar\|Γ}}}} is the average decay rate and {{math\|μ2/{{overbar\|Γ}}2}} is the second order polydispersity index (or an indication of the variance). A third\-order [polydispersity](/wiki/Polydispersity "Polydispersity") index may also be derived but this is necessary only if the particles of the system are highly polydisperse. The z\-averaged translational diffusion coefficient {{math\|Dz}} may be derived at a single angle or at a range of angles depending on the wave vector {{math\|'''q'''}}. \\ \\bar{\\Gamma}\=q^2D\_z\\, One must note that the cumulant method is valid for small {{math\|τ}} and sufficiently narrow {{math\|G(Γ)}}.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jcis.2006\.04\.013\|date\=August 2006\|author1\=Hassan, Pa \|author2\=Kulshreshtha, Sk \|title\=Modification to the cumulant analysis of polydispersity in quasielastic light scattering data\|volume\=300\|issue\=2\|pages\=744–8\|issn\=0021\-9797\|pmid\=16790246\|journal\=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science\|bibcode\=2006JCIS..300\..744H}} One should seldom use parameters beyond μ3, because overfitting data with many parameters in a power\-series expansion will render all the parameters, including \\scriptstyle \\bar{\\Gamma} and μ2, less precise.{{cite book\|author\=Chu, B\|title\=Laser Light scattering: Basic Principles and Practice\|publisher\= Academic Press\|year\=1992\|isbn\=978\-0\-12\-174551\-6}} The cumulant method is far less affected by experimental noise than the methods below. ### Size\-distribution function The particle size distribution can also be obtained using the autocorrelation function. However, polydisperse samples are not well resolved by the cumulant fit analysis. Thus, the combination of [non\-negative least squares (NNLS)](/wiki/Non-negative_least_squares "Non-negative least squares") algorithms with regularization methods, such as the [Tikhonov regularization](/wiki/Tikhonov_regularization "Tikhonov regularization"), can be used to resolve multimodal samples. An important feature of the NNLS optimization is the regularization term used to identify specific solutions and minimize the deviation between the measure data and the fit. There is no ideal regularization term that is suitable for all samples. The shape of this term can determine if the solution will represent a general broad distribution with small number of peaks or if narrow and discrete populations will be fit. Alternatively, the calculation of the particle size distribution is performed using the CONTIN algorithm. ### CONTIN algorithm An alternative method for analyzing the autocorrelation function can be achieved through an inverse Laplace transform known as CONTIN developed by Steven Provencher.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/0010\-4655(82\)90174\-6\|url\=http://s\-provencher.com/pub/contin/cpc2\.pdf\|title\=CONTIN: A general purpose constrained regularization program for inverting noisy linear algebraic and integral equations\|year\=1982\|author\=Provencher, S\|journal\=Computer Physics Communications\|volume\=27\|pages\=229–242\|bibcode \= 1982CoPhC..27\..229P\|issue\=3 }}{{cite journal\|url\=http://s\-provencher.com/pub/contin/cpc1\.pdf\|author\=Provencher, S. W.\|title\=A constrained regularization method for inverting data represented by linear algebraic or integral equations\|year\=1982\|journal\=Comput. Phys. Commun.\|volume\=27\|pages\=213–227\|doi\=10\.1016/0010\-4655(82\)90173\-4\|bibcode \= 1982CoPhC..27\..213P\|issue\=3 }} The CONTIN analysis is ideal for [heterodisperse](/wiki/Heterodisperse "Heterodisperse"), [polydisperse](/wiki/Polydisperse "Polydisperse"), and multimodal systems that cannot be resolved with the cumulant method. The resolution for separating two different particle populations is approximately a factor of five or higher and the difference in relative intensities between two different populations should be less than 1:10−5. ### Maximum entropy method The [Maximum entropy](/wiki/Principle_of_maximum_entropy "Principle of maximum entropy") method is an analysis method that has great developmental potential. The method is also used for the quantification of [sedimentation velocity](/wiki/Sedimentation_velocity "Sedimentation velocity") data from [analytical ultracentrifugation](/wiki/Analytical_ultracentrifugation "Analytical ultracentrifugation"). The maximum entropy method involves several iterative steps to minimize the deviation of the fitted data from the experimental data and subsequently reduce the χ2 of the fitted data.
[ "Data analysis\n-------------", "### Introduction", "Once the autocorrelation data have been generated, different mathematical approaches can be employed to obtain 'information' from it. Analysis of the scattering is facilitated when particles do not interact through collisions or electrostatic forces between ions. Particle\\-particle collisions can be suppressed by dilution, and charge effects are reduced by the use of salts to collapse the [electrical double layer](/wiki/Electrical_double_layer \"Electrical double layer\").", "The simplest approach is to treat the first\\-order autocorrelation function as a single exponential decay. This is appropriate for a monodisperse population.", "\\\\ g^1(q;\\\\tau)\\= \\\\exp(\\-\\\\Gamma\\\\tau) \\\\, \nwhere {{math\\|Γ}} is the decay rate. The translational diffusion coefficient {{math\\|Dt}} may be derived at a single angle or at a range of angles depending on the [wave vector](/wiki/Wave_vector \"Wave vector\") {{math\\|q}}.", "\\\\ \\\\Gamma\\=q^2D\\_t\\\\,\nwith", "\\\\ q \\= \\\\frac{4\\\\pi n\\_0}{\\\\lambda}\\\\sin\\\\left(\\\\frac{\\\\theta}{2}\\\\right)\nwhere {{math\\|λ}} is the incident laser wavelength, {{math\\|n0}} is the solvent [refractive index](/wiki/Refractive_index \"Refractive index\") and {{math\\|θ}} is the angle at which the detector is located with respect to the sample cell.", "The refractive index of the solvent plays a crucial role in light scattering and is important to calculate the [Stokes radius](/wiki/Stokes_radius \"Stokes radius\") from the [Stokes\\-Einstein equation](/wiki/Stokes-Einstein_equation \"Stokes-Einstein equation\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Strutt \\|first\\=J.W. \\|date\\=1871\\-06\\-01 \\|title\\=LVIII. On the scattering of light by small particles \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/14786447108640507 \\|journal\\=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=275 \\|pages\\=447–454 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/14786447108640507 \\|issn\\=1941\\-5982}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Strutt \\|first\\=J.W. \\|date\\=1871\\-04\\-01 \\|title\\=XXXVI. On the light from the sky, its polarization and colour \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/14786447108640479 \\|journal\\=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=273 \\|pages\\=274–279 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/14786447108640479 \\|issn\\=1941\\-5982}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Stetefeld \\|first1\\=Jörg \\|last2\\=McKenna \\|first2\\=Sean A. \\|last3\\=Patel \\|first3\\=Trushar R. \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-01 \\|title\\=Dynamic light scattering: a practical guide and applications in biomedical sciences \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1007/s12551\\-016\\-0218\\-6 \\|journal\\=Biophysical Reviews \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=409–427 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s12551\\-016\\-0218\\-6 \\|issn\\=1867\\-2469 \\|pmc\\=5425802 \\|pmid\\=28510011}} Therefore, previous refractive index data from the scattering medium should be evaluated with dedicated instruments, known as [refractometers](/wiki/Refractometer \"Refractometer\"). Alternatively, DLS instruments containing a refractive index measurement module allow a good estimative for this important parameter within ±0\\.5%, which is the accuracy defined by ISO 22412:2017{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|title\\=ISO 22412:2017\\. Particle size analysis — Dynamic light scattering (DLS) \\|url\\=https://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/contents/data/standard/06/54/65410\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-31 \\|website\\=ISO \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Tareq \\|first1\\=Syed Mohammed \\|last2\\=Boutchuen \\|first2\\=Armel \\|last3\\=Roy \\|first3\\=Shuvashish \\|last4\\=Zimmerman \\|first4\\=Dell \\|last5\\=Jur \\|first5\\=Gitapun \\|last6\\=Bathi \\|first6\\=Jejal Reddy \\|last7\\=Palchoudhury \\|first7\\=Soubantika \\|date\\=August 2021 \\|title\\=A Dynamic Light Scattering Approach for Detection of Nanomaterials in Tennessee River \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1029/2020WR028687 \\|journal\\=Water Resources Research \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=57 \\|issue\\=8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2020WR028687 \\|bibcode\\=2021WRR....5728687T \\|s2cid\\=238831573 \\|issn\\=0043\\-1397}} for refractive index values required for DLS. Besides the refractive index of the medium, the refractive index of the particles is only necessary when analyzing larger particle size (usually above 100 nm) and volume\\- or number\\-weighted size distributions are needed. In these cases, prior knowledge of the refractive index and absorbance of the material is required in order to apply the [Mie scattering](/wiki/Mie_scattering \"Mie scattering\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=White Paper: Understanding the Concept of Dynamic Light Scattering :: Anton\\-Paar.com \\|url\\=https://www.anton\\-paar.com/corp\\-en/services\\-support/document\\-finder/application\\-reports/white\\-paper\\-understanding\\-the\\-concept\\-of\\-dynamic\\-light\\-scattering/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-31 \\|website\\=Anton Paar \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Alfano \\|first1\\=Brigida \\|last2\\=Barretta \\|first2\\=Luigi \\|last3\\=Del Giudice \\|first3\\=Antonio \\|last4\\=De Vito \\|first4\\=Saverio \\|last5\\=Di Francia \\|first5\\=Girolamo \\|last6\\=Esposito \\|first6\\=Elena \\|last7\\=Formisano \\|first7\\=Fabrizio \\|last8\\=Massera \\|first8\\=Ettore \\|last9\\=Miglietta \\|first9\\=Maria Lucia \\|last10\\=Polichetti \\|first10\\=Tiziana \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-29 \\|title\\=A Review of Low\\-Cost Particulate Matter Sensors from the Developers' Perspectives \\|journal\\=Sensors \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=6819 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/s20236819 \\|issn\\=1424\\-8220 \\|pmc\\=7730878 \\|pmid\\=33260320\\|bibcode\\=2020Senso..20\\.6819A \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "Depending on the [anisotropy](/wiki/Anisotropy \"Anisotropy\") and [polydispersity](/wiki/Polydispersity \"Polydispersity\") of the system, a resulting plot of {{math\\|(Γ/q2)}} vs. {{math\\|q2}} may or may not show an angular dependence. Small spherical particles will show no angular dependence, hence no anisotropy. A plot of {{math\\|(Γ/q2)}} vs. {{math\\|q2}} will result in a horizontal line. Particles with a shape other than a sphere will show anisotropy and thus an angular dependence when plotting {{math\\|(Γ/q2)}} vs. {{math\\|q2}}.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/ma0020483\\|title\\=Water\\-Soluble Complexes Formed by Poly(2\\-vinylpyridinium)\\-block\\-poly(ethylene oxide) and Poly(sodium methacrylate)\\-block\\-poly(ethylene oxide) Copolymers\\|year\\=2001\\|author\\=Gohy, Jean\\-François\\|journal\\=Macromolecules\\|volume\\=34\\|pages\\=3361\\|last2\\=Varshney\\|first2\\=Sunil K.\\|last3\\=Jérôme\\|first3\\=Robert\\|bibcode \\= 2001MaMol..34\\.3361G\\|issue\\=10 }} The intercept will be in any case the Dt. Thus, there is an optimum angle of detection {{math\\|θ}} for each particle size. A high\\-quality analysis should always be performed at several scattering angles (multiangle DLS). This becomes even more important in a polydisperse sample with an unknown particle size distribution. At certain angles the scattering intensity of some particles will completely overwhelm the weak scattering signal of other particles, thus making them invisible to the data analysis at this angle. DLS instruments which only work at a fixed angle can only deliver good results for some particles. Thus, the indicated precision of a DLS instrument with only one detection angle is only ever true for certain particles.", "{{math\\|Dt}} is often used to calculate the [hydrodynamic radius](/wiki/Hydrodynamic_radius \"Hydrodynamic radius\") of a sphere through the Stokes–Einstein equation. It is important to note that the size determined by dynamic light scattering is the size of a sphere that moves in the same manner as the scatterer. So, for example, if the scatterer is a random coil polymer, the determined size is not the same as the [radius of gyration](/wiki/Radius_of_gyration \"Radius of gyration\") determined by [static light scattering](/wiki/Static_light_scattering \"Static light scattering\"). It is also useful to point out that the obtained size will include any other molecules or solvent molecules that move with the particle. So, for example, [colloidal gold](/wiki/Colloidal_gold \"Colloidal gold\") with a layer of surfactant will appear larger by dynamic light scattering (which includes the surfactant layer) than by [transmission electron microscopy](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy \"Transmission electron microscopy\") (which does not \"see\" the layer due to poor contrast).", "In most cases, samples are polydisperse. Thus, the autocorrelation function is a sum of the exponential decays corresponding to each of the species in the population.", "g^1(q;\\\\tau)\\= \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n G\\_i(\\\\Gamma\\_i)\\\\exp(\\-\\\\Gamma\\_i\\\\tau) \\= \\\\int G(\\\\Gamma)\\\\exp(\\-\\\\Gamma\\\\tau)\\\\,d\\\\Gamma.\nIt is tempting to obtain data for {{math\\|g1(q;τ)}} and attempt to invert the above to extract {{math\\|G(Γ)}}. Since {{math\\|G(Γ)}} is proportional to the relative scattering from each species, it contains information on the distribution of sizes. However, this is known as an [ill\\-posed](/wiki/Ill-posed \"Ill-posed\") problem. The methods described below (and others) have been developed to extract as much useful information as possible from an autocorrelation function.", "### Cumulant method", "One of the most common methods is the [cumulant](/wiki/Cumulant \"Cumulant\") method,{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.1678153\\|title\\=Analysis of Macromolecular Polydispersity in Intensity Correlation Spectroscopy: The Method of Cumulants\\|year\\=1972\\|author\\=Koppel, Dennis E.\\|journal\\=The Journal of Chemical Physics\\|volume\\=57\\|pages\\=4814–4820\\|bibcode \\= 1972JChPh..57\\.4814K\\|issue\\=11 }}{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.sfu.ca/biophysics/publications/2001/ApplOpt2001cumulants.pdf\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/AO.40\\.004087\\|title\\=Revisiting the Method of Cumulants for the Analysis of Dynamic Light\\-Scattering Data\\|year\\=2001\\|author\\=Frisken, Barbara J.\\|journal\\=Applied Optics\\|volume\\=40\\|pages\\=4087–91\\|pmid\\=18360445\\|issue\\=24\\|bibcode \\= 2001ApOpt..40\\.4087F }} from which in addition to the sum of the exponentials above, more information can be derived about the [variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\") of the system as follows:", "\\\\ g^1(q;\\\\tau) \\= \\\\exp\\\\left(\\-\\\\bar{\\\\Gamma}\\\\left(\\\\tau \\- \\\\frac{\\\\mu\\_2}{2!}\\\\tau^2 \\+ \\\\frac{\\\\mu\\_3}{3!}\\\\tau^3 \\+ \\\\cdots\\\\right)\\\\right)\nwhere {{math\\|{{overbar\\|Γ}}}} is the average decay rate and {{math\\|μ2/{{overbar\\|Γ}}2}} is the second order polydispersity index (or an indication of the variance). A third\\-order [polydispersity](/wiki/Polydispersity \"Polydispersity\") index may also be derived but this is necessary only if the particles of the system are highly polydisperse. The z\\-averaged translational diffusion coefficient {{math\\|Dz}} may be derived at a single angle or at a range of angles depending on the wave vector {{math\\|'''q'''}}.", "\\\\ \\\\bar{\\\\Gamma}\\=q^2D\\_z\\\\,\nOne must note that the cumulant method is valid for small {{math\\|τ}} and sufficiently narrow {{math\\|G(Γ)}}.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jcis.2006\\.04\\.013\\|date\\=August 2006\\|author1\\=Hassan, Pa \\|author2\\=Kulshreshtha, Sk \\|title\\=Modification to the cumulant analysis of polydispersity in quasielastic light scattering data\\|volume\\=300\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=744–8\\|issn\\=0021\\-9797\\|pmid\\=16790246\\|journal\\=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science\\|bibcode\\=2006JCIS..300\\..744H}} One should seldom use parameters beyond μ3, because overfitting data with many parameters in a power\\-series expansion will render all the parameters, including \\\\scriptstyle \\\\bar{\\\\Gamma} and μ2, less precise.{{cite book\\|author\\=Chu, B\\|title\\=Laser Light scattering: Basic Principles and Practice\\|publisher\\= Academic Press\\|year\\=1992\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-12\\-174551\\-6}}\nThe cumulant method is far less affected by experimental noise than the methods below.", "### Size\\-distribution function", "The particle size distribution can also be obtained using the autocorrelation function. However, polydisperse samples are not well resolved by the cumulant fit analysis. Thus, the combination of [non\\-negative least squares (NNLS)](/wiki/Non-negative_least_squares \"Non-negative least squares\") algorithms with regularization methods, such as the [Tikhonov regularization](/wiki/Tikhonov_regularization \"Tikhonov regularization\"), can be used to resolve multimodal samples. An important feature of the NNLS optimization is the regularization term used to identify specific solutions and minimize the deviation between the measure data and the fit. There is no ideal regularization term that is suitable for all samples. The shape of this term can determine if the solution will represent a general broad distribution with small number of peaks or if narrow and discrete populations will be fit. Alternatively, the calculation of the particle size distribution is performed using the CONTIN algorithm.", "### CONTIN algorithm", "An alternative method for analyzing the autocorrelation function can be achieved through an inverse Laplace transform known as CONTIN developed by Steven Provencher.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0010\\-4655(82\\)90174\\-6\\|url\\=http://s\\-provencher.com/pub/contin/cpc2\\.pdf\\|title\\=CONTIN: A general purpose constrained regularization program for inverting noisy linear algebraic and integral equations\\|year\\=1982\\|author\\=Provencher, S\\|journal\\=Computer Physics Communications\\|volume\\=27\\|pages\\=229–242\\|bibcode \\= 1982CoPhC..27\\..229P\\|issue\\=3 }}{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://s\\-provencher.com/pub/contin/cpc1\\.pdf\\|author\\=Provencher, S. W.\\|title\\=A constrained regularization method for inverting data represented by linear algebraic or integral equations\\|year\\=1982\\|journal\\=Comput. Phys. Commun.\\|volume\\=27\\|pages\\=213–227\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0010\\-4655(82\\)90173\\-4\\|bibcode \\= 1982CoPhC..27\\..213P\\|issue\\=3 }} The CONTIN analysis is ideal for [heterodisperse](/wiki/Heterodisperse \"Heterodisperse\"), [polydisperse](/wiki/Polydisperse \"Polydisperse\"), and multimodal systems that cannot be resolved with the cumulant method. The resolution for separating two different particle populations is approximately a factor of five or higher and the difference in relative intensities between two different populations should be less than 1:10−5.", "### Maximum entropy method", "The [Maximum entropy](/wiki/Principle_of_maximum_entropy \"Principle of maximum entropy\") method is an analysis method that has great developmental potential. The method is also used for the quantification of [sedimentation velocity](/wiki/Sedimentation_velocity \"Sedimentation velocity\") data from [analytical ultracentrifugation](/wiki/Analytical_ultracentrifugation \"Analytical ultracentrifugation\"). The maximum entropy method involves several iterative steps to minimize the deviation of the fitted data from the experimental data and subsequently reduce the χ2 of the fitted data.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Military service Mendoza was a member of the Royal Service of the *Regimiento de Guardias de Infantería Española* (Spanish Guards Regiment Infantry).[New Mexico history: Gaspar Domingo de Mendoza](http://newmexicohistory.org/people/gaspar-domingo-de-mendoza). Posted by Rick Hendricks. Retrieved January 27, 2014, to 23: 35 pm. In 1708, he became a [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel") of the infantry.Naylor, Thomas H.; Hadley, Diana; Mardith K. Schuetz\-Miller (editors; 1997\). [The Presidio And Militia On The Northern Frontier of New Spain, Volume 2; par II: The Central Corridor and the Texas Corridor, 1700\-1765](https://books.google.com/books?id=Otz-kNm-c_EC&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza&pg=PA283). Volumes 1570\-1700\. The University of Arizona Press. Page 283\. He served as a soldier, *Cabo de esquadra*, and Sergeant. Mendoza fought in the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession "War of the Spanish Succession") of the early 18th century. He fought in the following battles: the [Battle of La Gudina](/wiki/Battle_of_La_Gudina "Battle of La Gudina") (7 May 1709\), the [Battle of Zaragoza](/wiki/Battle_of_Zaragoza "Battle of Zaragoza") (20 August 1710\), the siege and advance on Viruega, the [Battle of Villaviciosa](/wiki/Battle_of_Villaviciosa "Battle of Villaviciosa") (10 December 1710\), the sieges in the Spanish municipalities of Castellón, [Cardona](/wiki/Cardona%2C_Spain "Cardona, Spain"), [Lerida](/wiki/L%C3%A9rida_%28province%29 "Lérida (province)") and [Tortosa](/wiki/Tortosa "Tortosa"), the [Siege of Barcelona (1713–1714\)](/wiki/Siege_of_Barcelona_%281713%E2%80%931714%29 "Siege of Barcelona (1713–1714)"), the blockade of Olivenza, the capture of [Balaguer](/wiki/Balaguer "Balaguer") (in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia")), the detachment of [Arenes](/wiki/Arenes "Arenes"), and the siege and capture of [Estadilla](/wiki/Estadilla "Estadilla") (in the province of [Huesca](/wiki/Huesca_%28province%29 "Huesca (province)"), [Aragon, Spain](/wiki/Aragon%2C_Spain "Aragon, Spain")). He also participated in the capture of Barcelona and all the operations involved in the campaign to [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia "Sardinia") and [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), as well as in the capture of the Castillo de Palermo, the sieges and captures of [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina") and Melazo, and the conquest of [Oran](/wiki/Oran "Oran") and its subsequent restoration. He also participated in the reunions held in the Spanish municipalities Almenara, Castellón and Peñalba. In 1735, Rodrigo was appointed Captain of the armed forces and *Ayudante mayor* of the [town square](/wiki/Town_square "Town square") of [Ciudad Rodrigo](/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo "Ciudad Rodrigo") (in [Province of Salamanca](/wiki/Province_of_Salamanca "Province of Salamanca")) in Spain.On 12 May 1737, King [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain "Philip V of Spain") of Spain appointed Mendoza Governor of New Mexico, although he did not occupy the government of the province (at that time New Mexico was a province) until January 1739\. Twitchell, Ralph Emerson (2007\). [The Leading Facts of New Mexican History, Vol. I (Hardcover)](https://books.google.com/books?id=e4jgfIqd7gIC&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza%2C+governor+of+New+Mexico&pg=PA438). Page 438\. ### Governor of colonial New Mexico Mendoza traveled to the [Viceroyalty of New Spain](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain "Viceroyalty of New Spain") (colonial México) with his wife and children, plus a maid and three servants (one woman and two man). Shortly after he arrived in the province of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico "Santa Fe de Nuevo México") in 1739 to become governor, a small group of armed Frenchmen visited Santa Fe after having left [Taos](/wiki/Taos%2C_New_Mexico "Taos, New Mexico") and the [Jicarilla](/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache "Jicarilla Apache") territory. In 1741, Mendoza issued laws to protect and defend Amerindian women and children in Taos. He issued a law to punish all men who wounded, killed or mistreated "infidel" woman and boys, fining them with 300 silver [pesos](/wiki/Pesos "Pesos") and six years in exile. However, this law was impossible to carry out, especially due to the distance between the capital at Santa Fe and Taos. During Mendoza's administration, many children were captured, especially children who belonged to the [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo_people "Navajo people"), [Utes](/wiki/Ute_people "Ute people"), [Comanche](/wiki/Comanche_people "Comanche people") and [Apache](/wiki/Apache_people "Apache people") peoples. Later, a group of seven Comanches traveled to [Taos Pueblo](/wiki/Taos_Pueblo "Taos Pueblo") to trade tobacco and they explained to Mendoza that their people would visit the valley when the snows abandoned the mountains. However, they also said them the French armed them with muskets and that later they had traveled to some unknown direction beyond their lands (colonial [New France](/wiki/New_France "New France")). However, they indicated also that two French traders would go to visit New Mexico in the spring. When the news reached to Mendoza, he decided to establish a [presidio](/wiki/Presidio "Presidio") (fort) in the north to protect the population of Taos from the possible French invasion, and did so in the Jicarilla Apache's abandoned settlement. The presidio used many shelters that had been built in the place. Despite this (and for some reason), when the French traders visited Santa Fe, Mendoza accepted them and gave them a map showing the Spanish settlements in Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Later, the traders brought the map back to the [French Louisiana](/wiki/French_Louisiana "French Louisiana") colony in New France, where they were based, causing the repentance of Mendoza for having given them the map. The trade with the French traders allowed the Spanish obtain French guns. Dornan, Ellen (2014\). [Wicked Taos](https://books.google.com/books?id=L4LdAgAAQBAJ&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza&pg=PA48). The History Press. Pages 48 \- 49\. Mendoza was replaced by [Joaquín Codallos y Rabal](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Codallos_y_Rabal "Joaquín Codallos y Rabal") as colonial governor of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico "Santa Fe de Nuevo México") province in 1743\.
[ "Career\n------", "### Military service", "Mendoza was a member of the Royal Service of the *Regimiento de Guardias de Infantería Española* (Spanish Guards Regiment Infantry).[New Mexico history: Gaspar Domingo de Mendoza](http://newmexicohistory.org/people/gaspar-domingo-de-mendoza). Posted by Rick Hendricks. Retrieved January 27, 2014, to 23: 35 pm. In 1708, he became a [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\") of the infantry.Naylor, Thomas H.; Hadley, Diana; Mardith K. Schuetz\\-Miller (editors; 1997\\). [The Presidio And Militia On The Northern Frontier of New Spain, Volume 2; par II: The Central Corridor and the Texas Corridor, 1700\\-1765](https://books.google.com/books?id=Otz-kNm-c_EC&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza&pg=PA283). Volumes 1570\\-1700\\. The University of Arizona Press. Page 283\\. He served as a soldier, *Cabo de esquadra*, and Sergeant.", "Mendoza fought in the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession \"War of the Spanish Succession\") of the early 18th century.", "He fought in the following battles: the [Battle of La Gudina](/wiki/Battle_of_La_Gudina \"Battle of La Gudina\") (7 May 1709\\), the [Battle of Zaragoza](/wiki/Battle_of_Zaragoza \"Battle of Zaragoza\") (20 August 1710\\), the siege and advance on Viruega, the [Battle of Villaviciosa](/wiki/Battle_of_Villaviciosa \"Battle of Villaviciosa\") (10 December 1710\\), the sieges in the Spanish municipalities of Castellón, [Cardona](/wiki/Cardona%2C_Spain \"Cardona, Spain\"), [Lerida](/wiki/L%C3%A9rida_%28province%29 \"Lérida (province)\") and [Tortosa](/wiki/Tortosa \"Tortosa\"), the [Siege of Barcelona (1713–1714\\)](/wiki/Siege_of_Barcelona_%281713%E2%80%931714%29 \"Siege of Barcelona (1713–1714)\"), the blockade of Olivenza, the capture of [Balaguer](/wiki/Balaguer \"Balaguer\") (in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\")), the detachment of [Arenes](/wiki/Arenes \"Arenes\"), and the siege and capture of [Estadilla](/wiki/Estadilla \"Estadilla\") (in the province of [Huesca](/wiki/Huesca_%28province%29 \"Huesca (province)\"), [Aragon, Spain](/wiki/Aragon%2C_Spain \"Aragon, Spain\")). He also participated in the capture of Barcelona and all the operations involved in the campaign to [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\") and [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), as well as in the capture of the Castillo de Palermo, the sieges and captures of [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\") and Melazo, and the conquest of [Oran](/wiki/Oran \"Oran\") and its subsequent restoration. He also participated in the reunions held in the Spanish municipalities Almenara, Castellón and Peñalba.", "In 1735, Rodrigo was appointed Captain of the armed forces and *Ayudante mayor* of the [town square](/wiki/Town_square \"Town square\") of [Ciudad Rodrigo](/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo \"Ciudad Rodrigo\") (in [Province of Salamanca](/wiki/Province_of_Salamanca \"Province of Salamanca\")) in Spain.On 12 May 1737, King [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain \"Philip V of Spain\") of Spain appointed Mendoza Governor of New Mexico, although he did not occupy the government of the province (at that time New Mexico was a province) until January 1739\\.\nTwitchell, Ralph Emerson (2007\\). [The Leading Facts of New Mexican History, Vol. I (Hardcover)](https://books.google.com/books?id=e4jgfIqd7gIC&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza%2C+governor+of+New+Mexico&pg=PA438). Page 438\\.", "### Governor of colonial New Mexico", "Mendoza traveled to the [Viceroyalty of New Spain](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain \"Viceroyalty of New Spain\") (colonial México) with his wife and children, plus a maid and three servants (one woman and two man).", "Shortly after he arrived in the province of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico \"Santa Fe de Nuevo México\") in 1739 to become governor, a small group of armed Frenchmen visited Santa Fe after having left [Taos](/wiki/Taos%2C_New_Mexico \"Taos, New Mexico\") and the [Jicarilla](/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache \"Jicarilla Apache\") territory.", "In 1741, Mendoza issued laws to protect and defend Amerindian women and children in Taos. He issued a law to punish all men who wounded, killed or mistreated \"infidel\" woman and boys, fining them with 300 silver [pesos](/wiki/Pesos \"Pesos\") and six years in exile. However, this law was impossible to carry out, especially due to the distance between the capital at Santa Fe and Taos. During Mendoza's administration, many children were captured, especially children who belonged to the [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo_people \"Navajo people\"), [Utes](/wiki/Ute_people \"Ute people\"), [Comanche](/wiki/Comanche_people \"Comanche people\") and [Apache](/wiki/Apache_people \"Apache people\") peoples.", "Later, a group of seven Comanches traveled to [Taos Pueblo](/wiki/Taos_Pueblo \"Taos Pueblo\") to trade tobacco and they explained to Mendoza that their people would visit the valley when the snows abandoned the mountains. However, they also said them the French armed them with muskets and that later they had traveled to some unknown direction beyond their lands (colonial [New France](/wiki/New_France \"New France\")). However, they indicated also that two French traders would go to visit New Mexico in the spring. When the news reached to Mendoza, he decided to establish a [presidio](/wiki/Presidio \"Presidio\") (fort) in the north to protect the population of Taos from the possible French invasion, and did so in the Jicarilla Apache's abandoned settlement. The presidio used many shelters that had been built in the place.", "Despite this (and for some reason), when the French traders visited Santa Fe, Mendoza accepted them and gave them a map showing the Spanish settlements in Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Later, the traders brought the map back to the [French Louisiana](/wiki/French_Louisiana \"French Louisiana\") colony in New France, where they were based, causing the repentance of Mendoza for having given them the map.", "The trade with the French traders allowed the Spanish obtain French guns.\nDornan, Ellen (2014\\). [Wicked Taos](https://books.google.com/books?id=L4LdAgAAQBAJ&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza&pg=PA48). The History Press. Pages 48 \\- 49\\.", "Mendoza was replaced by [Joaquín Codallos y Rabal](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Codallos_y_Rabal \"Joaquín Codallos y Rabal\") as colonial governor of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico \"Santa Fe de Nuevo México\") province in 1743\\.", "" ]
### Governor of colonial New Mexico Mendoza traveled to the [Viceroyalty of New Spain](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain "Viceroyalty of New Spain") (colonial México) with his wife and children, plus a maid and three servants (one woman and two man). Shortly after he arrived in the province of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico "Santa Fe de Nuevo México") in 1739 to become governor, a small group of armed Frenchmen visited Santa Fe after having left [Taos](/wiki/Taos%2C_New_Mexico "Taos, New Mexico") and the [Jicarilla](/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache "Jicarilla Apache") territory. In 1741, Mendoza issued laws to protect and defend Amerindian women and children in Taos. He issued a law to punish all men who wounded, killed or mistreated "infidel" woman and boys, fining them with 300 silver [pesos](/wiki/Pesos "Pesos") and six years in exile. However, this law was impossible to carry out, especially due to the distance between the capital at Santa Fe and Taos. During Mendoza's administration, many children were captured, especially children who belonged to the [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo_people "Navajo people"), [Utes](/wiki/Ute_people "Ute people"), [Comanche](/wiki/Comanche_people "Comanche people") and [Apache](/wiki/Apache_people "Apache people") peoples. Later, a group of seven Comanches traveled to [Taos Pueblo](/wiki/Taos_Pueblo "Taos Pueblo") to trade tobacco and they explained to Mendoza that their people would visit the valley when the snows abandoned the mountains. However, they also said them the French armed them with muskets and that later they had traveled to some unknown direction beyond their lands (colonial [New France](/wiki/New_France "New France")). However, they indicated also that two French traders would go to visit New Mexico in the spring. When the news reached to Mendoza, he decided to establish a [presidio](/wiki/Presidio "Presidio") (fort) in the north to protect the population of Taos from the possible French invasion, and did so in the Jicarilla Apache's abandoned settlement. The presidio used many shelters that had been built in the place. Despite this (and for some reason), when the French traders visited Santa Fe, Mendoza accepted them and gave them a map showing the Spanish settlements in Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Later, the traders brought the map back to the [French Louisiana](/wiki/French_Louisiana "French Louisiana") colony in New France, where they were based, causing the repentance of Mendoza for having given them the map. The trade with the French traders allowed the Spanish obtain French guns. Dornan, Ellen (2014\). [Wicked Taos](https://books.google.com/books?id=L4LdAgAAQBAJ&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza&pg=PA48). The History Press. Pages 48 \- 49\. Mendoza was replaced by [Joaquín Codallos y Rabal](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Codallos_y_Rabal "Joaquín Codallos y Rabal") as colonial governor of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico "Santa Fe de Nuevo México") province in 1743\.
[ "### Governor of colonial New Mexico", "Mendoza traveled to the [Viceroyalty of New Spain](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain \"Viceroyalty of New Spain\") (colonial México) with his wife and children, plus a maid and three servants (one woman and two man).", "Shortly after he arrived in the province of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico \"Santa Fe de Nuevo México\") in 1739 to become governor, a small group of armed Frenchmen visited Santa Fe after having left [Taos](/wiki/Taos%2C_New_Mexico \"Taos, New Mexico\") and the [Jicarilla](/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache \"Jicarilla Apache\") territory.", "In 1741, Mendoza issued laws to protect and defend Amerindian women and children in Taos. He issued a law to punish all men who wounded, killed or mistreated \"infidel\" woman and boys, fining them with 300 silver [pesos](/wiki/Pesos \"Pesos\") and six years in exile. However, this law was impossible to carry out, especially due to the distance between the capital at Santa Fe and Taos. During Mendoza's administration, many children were captured, especially children who belonged to the [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo_people \"Navajo people\"), [Utes](/wiki/Ute_people \"Ute people\"), [Comanche](/wiki/Comanche_people \"Comanche people\") and [Apache](/wiki/Apache_people \"Apache people\") peoples.", "Later, a group of seven Comanches traveled to [Taos Pueblo](/wiki/Taos_Pueblo \"Taos Pueblo\") to trade tobacco and they explained to Mendoza that their people would visit the valley when the snows abandoned the mountains. However, they also said them the French armed them with muskets and that later they had traveled to some unknown direction beyond their lands (colonial [New France](/wiki/New_France \"New France\")). However, they indicated also that two French traders would go to visit New Mexico in the spring. When the news reached to Mendoza, he decided to establish a [presidio](/wiki/Presidio \"Presidio\") (fort) in the north to protect the population of Taos from the possible French invasion, and did so in the Jicarilla Apache's abandoned settlement. The presidio used many shelters that had been built in the place.", "Despite this (and for some reason), when the French traders visited Santa Fe, Mendoza accepted them and gave them a map showing the Spanish settlements in Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Later, the traders brought the map back to the [French Louisiana](/wiki/French_Louisiana \"French Louisiana\") colony in New France, where they were based, causing the repentance of Mendoza for having given them the map.", "The trade with the French traders allowed the Spanish obtain French guns.\nDornan, Ellen (2014\\). [Wicked Taos](https://books.google.com/books?id=L4LdAgAAQBAJ&dq=Gaspar+Domingo+de+Mendoza&pg=PA48). The History Press. Pages 48 \\- 49\\.", "Mendoza was replaced by [Joaquín Codallos y Rabal](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Codallos_y_Rabal \"Joaquín Codallos y Rabal\") as colonial governor of [Santa Fe de Nuevo México](/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico \"Santa Fe de Nuevo México\") province in 1743\\.", "" ]
Mature style ------------ Although critics credited her with growing maturity over the next few decades, Cross rarely departed from an approach that was noted for its spontaneity, sense of fantasy, and good humor. Over the five decades of her professional career she experimented with a variety of techniques and the tone of her work was sometimes light and airy and other times dark and Gothic but, as the critic for the New York Sun pointed out, she was a painter whose work was always recognizably her own, that is one who, he wrote, "has her own signature". During the 1930s, Cross made genre paintings of circus people, African\-Americans, and characters out of fairy tales. She also painted still lifes, particularly flower arrangements. She drew attention to the two\-dimensional area of her canvas through experiments with surface texture and she established a balance between realism and abstraction that favored the latter. Her paintings were often childlike and made to please children. They gave a deceptive appearance of primitivism but were sophisticated in their composition, balance of forms, and use of color contrasts. She became known for the whimsy she displayed and a lighthearted, youthful spirit. Some of her early paintings show racial caricatures that went unremarked at the time, but today appear to be insensitive. In 1933 Cross was awarded first prize for a still life painting in a student exhibition at the [Corcoran Gallery](/wiki/Corcoran_Gallery_of_Art "Corcoran Gallery of Art") and two years later she won first prize in the Greater Washington Independent Art Exhibition, shown in galleries of nine downtown department stores. During the middle years of the 1930s Cross worked for the District of Columbia section of the [Federal Art Project](/wiki/Federal_Art_Project "Federal Art Project"). On commission from that organization she painted a mural in the children's hospital of the District of Columbia [sanitarium at Glenn Dale, Maryland](/wiki/Glenn_Dale_Hospital "Glenn Dale Hospital"). Covering the whole wall above the wainscoting on the left side of the entrance lobby it showed figures out of the Mother Goose nursery rhymes. The mural generated controversy when the District of Columbia's public health officer, calling it grotesque and overly "modern", ordered it to be painted over. After protests by Cross and the Washington arts community, the District's health commissioner employed a panel of children to determine that the mural should remain. During the latter part of the 1930s and throughout the next decade, Cross's work was shown in numerous group and solo exhibitions. Washington, D.C. was the most common location: the Phillips Gallery and its Studio House, the Little Gallery at the Intimate Bookshop, and the Whyte Gallery. She was also given a solo exhibition at the Contemporary Arts Gallery (1938\) and the American British Art Center (1943\), both in New York, and at the Boyer Galleries (1936\) in Philadelphia.See the list of exhibitions that appears below. In 1949 she showed at the Corcoran, Phillips, and Barnett Aden Galleries in Washington, at the Chequire House gallery in Alexandria, Virginia, and in both solo and group exhibitions at the [Bertha Schaefer Gallery](/wiki/Bertha_Schaefer_Gallery "Bertha Schaefer Gallery") in New York. In 1936 a critic praised the subtlety of color in her paintings of this period, the skill she showed in organizing elements, and, in general, her sure touch. The writer appreciated the individual quality with which she invested the figures in her paintings and called attention to the "fantastic world of gay and colorful legend" that they invoked. In 1938 Cross attended classes given by [Karl Knaths](/wiki/Karl_Knaths "Karl Knaths") at the Phillips Gallery School of Art. These were the first of a series of annual classes he would give during the winter session of the school over the next decade. A painting of 1940 called "Little Dove's Stove" shows the influence of Knaths in its restricted palette; use of carefully positioned, bold, outlined shapes; and absence of three\-dimensional illusion. It is nonetheless an entirely original work, the more so since Cross departed from convention by creating it on velvet rather than canvas or board."The Little Dove's Stove", 1940, oil on velvet, {{convert\|18\|x\|10\|in}}, [Phillips Collection](http://www.phillipscollection.org/collection/browse-the-collection?id=0358), Washington, D.C., acquired 1940\. Although she did not continue to paint on velvet, Cross's work in the 1940s continued to show an adventurous experimentation with technique. This mainly manifested in an interest in surface texture. She would leave parts of a surface unpainted to show the bare canvas, use brush and knife to build up layers of pigment and add mica or ordinary sand to her paintings. At the end of the decade, a critic noted the appearance of dark works having a ghostly quality and a mannerist treatment of figures giving them an archaic simplicity. In 1949 this critic summarized the evolution of her painting over the prior 15 years: "In her first exhibited paintings Bernice Cross developed a world of children and for children... She still inclines to fantasy, but the touch is sure and each unit of composition is mobilized effectively to make art of an integrated whole. Which brings us to a seeming paradox; the imagination roams at will, but the painting is disciplined."
[ "Mature style\n------------", "Although critics credited her with growing maturity over the next few decades, Cross rarely departed from an approach that was noted for its spontaneity, sense of fantasy, and good humor. Over the five decades of her professional career she experimented with a variety of techniques and the tone of her work was sometimes light and airy and other times dark and Gothic but, as the critic for the New York Sun pointed out, she was a painter whose work was always recognizably her own, that is one who, he wrote, \"has her own signature\".", "During the 1930s, Cross made genre paintings of circus people, African\\-Americans, and characters out of fairy tales. She also painted still lifes, particularly flower arrangements. She drew attention to the two\\-dimensional area of her canvas through experiments with surface texture and she established a balance between realism and abstraction that favored the latter. Her paintings were often childlike and made to please children. They gave a deceptive appearance of primitivism but were sophisticated in their composition, balance of forms, and use of color contrasts. She became known for the whimsy she displayed and a lighthearted, youthful spirit. Some of her early paintings show racial caricatures that went unremarked at the time, but today appear to be insensitive.", "In 1933 Cross was awarded first prize for a still life painting in a student exhibition at the [Corcoran Gallery](/wiki/Corcoran_Gallery_of_Art \"Corcoran Gallery of Art\") and two years later she won first prize in the Greater Washington Independent Art Exhibition, shown in galleries of nine downtown department stores.", "During the middle years of the 1930s Cross worked for the District of Columbia section of the [Federal Art Project](/wiki/Federal_Art_Project \"Federal Art Project\"). On commission from that organization she painted a mural in the children's hospital of the District of Columbia [sanitarium at Glenn Dale, Maryland](/wiki/Glenn_Dale_Hospital \"Glenn Dale Hospital\"). Covering the whole wall above the wainscoting on the left side of the entrance lobby it showed figures out of the Mother Goose nursery rhymes. The mural generated controversy when the District of Columbia's public health officer, calling it grotesque and overly \"modern\", ordered it to be painted over. After protests by Cross and the Washington arts community, the District's health commissioner employed a panel of children to determine that the mural should remain.", "During the latter part of the 1930s and throughout the next decade, Cross's work was shown in numerous group and solo exhibitions. Washington, D.C. was the most common location: the Phillips Gallery and its Studio House, the Little Gallery at the Intimate Bookshop, and the Whyte Gallery. She was also given a solo exhibition at the Contemporary Arts Gallery (1938\\) and the American British Art Center (1943\\), both in New York, and at the Boyer Galleries (1936\\) in Philadelphia.See the list of exhibitions that appears below. In 1949 she showed at the Corcoran, Phillips, and Barnett Aden Galleries in Washington, at the Chequire House gallery in Alexandria, Virginia, and in both solo and group exhibitions at the [Bertha Schaefer Gallery](/wiki/Bertha_Schaefer_Gallery \"Bertha Schaefer Gallery\") in New York.", "In 1936 a critic praised the subtlety of color in her paintings of this period, the skill she showed in organizing elements, and, in general, her sure touch. The writer appreciated the individual quality with which she invested the figures in her paintings and called attention to the \"fantastic world of gay and colorful legend\" that they invoked.", "In 1938 Cross attended classes given by [Karl Knaths](/wiki/Karl_Knaths \"Karl Knaths\") at the Phillips Gallery School of Art. These were the first of a series of annual classes he would give during the winter session of the school over the next decade. A painting of 1940 called \"Little Dove's Stove\" shows the influence of Knaths in its restricted palette; use of carefully positioned, bold, outlined shapes; and absence of three\\-dimensional illusion. It is nonetheless an entirely original work, the more so since Cross departed from convention by creating it on velvet rather than canvas or board.\"The Little Dove's Stove\", 1940, oil on velvet, {{convert\\|18\\|x\\|10\\|in}}, [Phillips Collection](http://www.phillipscollection.org/collection/browse-the-collection?id=0358), Washington, D.C., acquired 1940\\.", "Although she did not continue to paint on velvet, Cross's work in the 1940s continued to show an adventurous experimentation with technique. This mainly manifested in an interest in surface texture. She would leave parts of a surface unpainted to show the bare canvas, use brush and knife to build up layers of pigment and add mica or ordinary sand to her paintings. At the end of the decade, a critic noted the appearance of dark works having a ghostly quality and a mannerist treatment of figures giving them an archaic simplicity. In 1949 this critic summarized the evolution of her painting over the prior 15 years: \"In her first exhibited paintings Bernice Cross developed a world of children and for children... She still inclines to fantasy, but the touch is sure and each unit of composition is mobilized effectively to make art of an integrated whole. Which brings us to a seeming paradox; the imagination roams at will, but the painting is disciplined.\"", "" ]
NUSTV Broadcast Channel 8 ------------------------- A ceremony to launch the NUS TV broadcast and the NUS lifelong learning initiative was held at the School of Maritime Training in 2019\. It was attended by the Honourable Minister of Education Loau Keneti Sio, the keynote speaker, CEO of Education, CEO of SQA, \-\-and members of the NUS Council. The minister praised the launch as a milestone event in his keynote address. He commented that the launch of the two innovative projects by NUS is indeed quite timely, given the restrictions to education delivery due to the COVID\-19 pandemic. He added that the NUS TV will be another valuable tool in delivering educational programs that will benefit students and staff (teachers) with its broad coverage so that no one is left behind. With the NUS lifelong learning initiative, the minister applauded the joint initiative between NUS and COL, offering much\-needed scholarships or learning opportunities from Google, Coursera, and Udemy for Samoan citizens. In addition, he mentioned, “ We are indeed very fortunate that Samoan citizens will have access to learning from these providers of international standing.” He concluded by congratulating NUS and COL for their vision and foresight and also giving a word of thanks to the people who were the frontrunners in the implementation of both projects.
[ "NUSTV Broadcast Channel 8\n-------------------------", "A ceremony to launch the NUS TV broadcast and the NUS lifelong learning initiative was held at the School of Maritime Training in 2019\\.", "It was attended by the Honourable Minister of Education Loau Keneti Sio, the keynote speaker, CEO of Education, CEO of SQA, \\-\\-and members of the NUS Council.", "The minister praised the launch as a milestone event in his keynote address. He commented that the launch of the two innovative projects by NUS is indeed quite timely, given the restrictions to education delivery due to the COVID\\-19 pandemic.", "He added that the NUS TV will be another valuable tool in delivering educational programs that will benefit students and staff (teachers) with its broad coverage so that no one is left behind.", "With the NUS lifelong learning initiative, the minister applauded the joint initiative between NUS and COL, offering much\\-needed scholarships or learning opportunities from Google, Coursera, and Udemy for Samoan citizens. In addition, he mentioned, “ We are indeed very fortunate that Samoan citizens will have access to learning from these providers of international standing.”", "He concluded by congratulating NUS and COL for their vision and foresight and also giving a word of thanks to the people who were the frontrunners in the implementation of both projects.", "" ]
Cast ---- ### Tip Dr. Dennis "Tip" Wilkin, a relatively new field operative and the only fully human employee of Project Skin Horse, was a decorated former captain of the U.S. Army, a trained [psychologist](/wiki/Psychologist "Psychologist"), a passionate [cross\-dresser](/wiki/Cross-dressing "Cross-dressing") and an almost supernatural seducer. Tip was essentially a research psychologist, but in an emergency he could wield [therapy puppets](/wiki/Play_therapy "Play therapy"). ### Sweetheart Captain's Fancy Valentine Sweetheart was a [genetically modified](/wiki/Genetically_modified "Genetically modified") sapient dog, created by a mad scientist. She came to work for Project Skin Horse as a field operative. She was generally the most clear\-thinking and rational team member, but periodically exhibited feelings of insecurity. ### Unity Unity was a "necrotic" being: dead tissue animated through a secret military process. A field operative for Project Skin Horse, she was Sweetheart's best friend. Unity was developed to be a bio\-weapon, but proved to be too hard to control and was therefore moved to Project Skin Horse. Unity was good\-natured, liked guns, and was inclined to use gratuitously unnecessary violence. Her safety phrase, "Blueberry waffles", to suspend her aggression patterns, was only revealed by Anasigma after Project Skin Horse had spent a fortune on obedience classes. Unity as a creature was actually a nanotechnology ooze that controlled the body it inhabited, as seen in the "Once and Future" story arc. As such, she could be transferred (with help) into another body or creature, although living bodies would reject her after a time, usually by vomiting her out. Her “normal” body was an amalgam of various human corpses of varying ethnicities, and several times throughout the series, she was seen to add, remove, or adapt to new body parts. Unity was also seen to gain intelligence proportional to the amount of brains she consumed, although social graces were not included with this increase. During the story arc "Railway Children," she consumeed a vast quantity of artificially produced brains, and with it gained superhuman intelligence levels. She repeated this during the events of "My brother Sam is Dead," only to use her insight to make comments about her teammates' behavior that left them distrusting of her in this heightened state. ### Gavotte The administrative leader of Project Skin Horse, Gavotte was a [collective being](/wiki/Group_mind_%28science_fiction%29 "Group mind (science fiction)") consisting of a swarm of [bees](/wiki/Bee "Bee") that thought with a single female mind. Most of the other agency employees were nervous around her—Tip in particular since he was fatally allergic to bee stings.[*Skin Horse* February 15, 2008](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=26254#strip5) at WebComics Nation ### Moustachio the Thinkonium A 19th century wind\-up [automaton](/wiki/Automaton "Automaton") of destruction with a [clockwork](/wiki/Clockwork "Clockwork") brain, Moustachio was the [receptionist](/wiki/Receptionist "Receptionist") at Project Skin Horse. He had a limited long\-term memory and needed [wax cylinders](/wiki/Wax_cylinder "Wax cylinder") from [cold storage](/wiki/Refrigeration "Refrigeration") to remember his earlier days. His legs were removed by the [British government](/wiki/British_government "British government") as a safety precaution. He thought and spoke like a 19th\-century gentleman and had little regard for or knowledge of new technology. ### Nick Zerhakker A young adult, introduced in the "I Can Fly" story arc,[*Skin Horse* Chapter 32477](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=32477) at WebComics Nation [video game](/wiki/Video_game "Video game") obsessive Nick was unknowingly co\-opted into "Project Whirligig". The [black](/wiki/Black_project "Black project") military program intended to weaponize him by secretly installing him in a [virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality "Virtual reality"), then removing his brain and implanting it in a [black](/wiki/Black_helicopter "Black helicopter") [V\-22 Osprey](/wiki/V-22_Osprey "V-22 Osprey")–a military [tiltrotor](/wiki/Tiltrotor "Tiltrotor") aircraft–and finally subconsciously training Nick to control the Osprey as if it were his own body. In spite of Nick's love of shooting virtual bad guys, he abhored the thought of killing real people, and so he joined the Skin Horse team. ### Minor characters Konstantin Russian [black ops](/wiki/Black_op "Black op") agent who joined the American police force after "very accidental and surprising death of [Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin "Boris Yeltsin")." He was introduced in the "Cowardly Lion" story arc[*Skin Horse* Chapter 25110](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=25110) at WebComics Nation and later became an Annex One security guard. Dr. Virginia Lee Introduced in the "I Can Fly" story arc[*Skin Horse* Chapter 32982, Strip 2](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=32982#strip2) at WebComics Nation as a mad scientist wannabe and member of a secret organization known only as "Anasigma". She was involved in the creation of both [U.N.I.T.Y.](/wiki/%23Unity "#Unity") and ["Project Whirligig"](/wiki/%23Nick_Zerhakker "#Nick Zerhakker"). Dr. Lee was specifically hired by Anasigma to reverse engineer Mad Scientist technology into "sane" technology, which she could do with moderate success. Unity was her first successful project, but others included the Brain\-O\-Mat that produced brain matter to feed zombies, and prevented them from feeding on living humans. Dr. Lee had an ongoing romantic interest with Nick, but neither party was willing to discuss or admit to this for years — even to themselves. Captain Bram A Canadian mad scientist who created [Sweetheart](/wiki/%23Sweetheart "#Sweetheart") and her pack mates and developed a virus to afflict humans with [lycanthropy](/wiki/Lycanthropy "Lycanthropy"). When his application to the [American Kennel Club](/wiki/American_Kennel_Club "American Kennel Club") to recognize the "Genetically\-Engineered Super Battle Dog" as a recognizable breed was denied, he vowed to force the organization to change its position by conquering the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") using said dogs.[*Skin Horse* July 11, 2009](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=39682#strip6) at WebComics Nation Bram died before accomplishing his goal, however, and his corpse was reluctantly eaten by his creations.[*Skin Horse* June 28, 2008](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=30589#strip6) at WebComics Nation Chris and Marcie Two [nerdy](/wiki/Nerdy "Nerdy") scientists working for the Department of Irradiation in Annex One, Chris and Marcie were often found gaming with (and within) Nick. Tip and Marcie briefly dated until she dumped him for Chris in the "Tin Soldier" story arc.[*Skin Horse* Chapter 41561](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=41561) at WebComics Nation Dr. Berenice "Tigerlily" Jones [Blaxploitation](/wiki/Blaxploitation "Blaxploitation")\-themed [mad scientist](/wiki/Mad_scientist "Mad scientist") brought in on a [work release](/wiki/Work_release "Work release") program to repair Moustachio during the "Brave Little Toasters" story arc.[*Skin Horse* Chapter 43677](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=43677#strip1) at WebComics Nation Gold Bug The mysterious benefactor of Project Skin Horse, who was known to Gavotte.
[ "Cast\n----", "### Tip", "Dr. Dennis \"Tip\" Wilkin, a relatively new field operative and the only fully human employee of Project Skin Horse, was a decorated former captain of the U.S. Army, a trained [psychologist](/wiki/Psychologist \"Psychologist\"), a passionate [cross\\-dresser](/wiki/Cross-dressing \"Cross-dressing\") and an almost supernatural seducer. Tip was essentially a research psychologist, but in an emergency he could wield [therapy puppets](/wiki/Play_therapy \"Play therapy\").", "### Sweetheart", "Captain's Fancy Valentine Sweetheart was a [genetically modified](/wiki/Genetically_modified \"Genetically modified\") sapient dog, created by a mad scientist. She came to work for Project Skin Horse as a field operative. She was generally the most clear\\-thinking and rational team member, but periodically exhibited feelings of insecurity.", "### Unity", "Unity was a \"necrotic\" being: dead tissue animated through a secret military process. A field operative for Project Skin Horse, she was Sweetheart's best friend. Unity was developed to be a bio\\-weapon, but proved to be too hard to control and was therefore moved to Project Skin Horse. Unity was good\\-natured, liked guns, and was inclined to use gratuitously unnecessary violence. Her safety phrase, \"Blueberry waffles\", to suspend her aggression patterns, was only revealed by Anasigma after Project Skin Horse had spent a fortune on obedience classes.", "Unity as a creature was actually a nanotechnology ooze that controlled the body it inhabited, as seen in the \"Once and Future\" story arc. As such, she could be transferred (with help) into another body or creature, although living bodies would reject her after a time, usually by vomiting her out. Her “normal” body was an amalgam of various human corpses of varying ethnicities, and several times throughout the series, she was seen to add, remove, or adapt to new body parts.", "Unity was also seen to gain intelligence proportional to the amount of brains she consumed, although social graces were not included with this increase. During the story arc \"Railway Children,\" she consumeed a vast quantity of artificially produced brains, and with it gained superhuman intelligence levels. She repeated this during the events of \"My brother Sam is Dead,\" only to use her insight to make comments about her teammates' behavior that left them distrusting of her in this heightened state.", "### Gavotte", "The administrative leader of Project Skin Horse, Gavotte was a [collective being](/wiki/Group_mind_%28science_fiction%29 \"Group mind (science fiction)\") consisting of a swarm of [bees](/wiki/Bee \"Bee\") that thought with a single female mind. Most of the other agency employees were nervous around her—Tip in particular since he was fatally allergic to bee stings.[*Skin Horse* February 15, 2008](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=26254#strip5) at WebComics Nation", "### Moustachio the Thinkonium", "A 19th century wind\\-up [automaton](/wiki/Automaton \"Automaton\") of destruction with a [clockwork](/wiki/Clockwork \"Clockwork\") brain, Moustachio was the [receptionist](/wiki/Receptionist \"Receptionist\") at Project Skin Horse. He had a limited long\\-term memory and needed [wax cylinders](/wiki/Wax_cylinder \"Wax cylinder\") from [cold storage](/wiki/Refrigeration \"Refrigeration\") to remember his earlier days. His legs were removed by the [British government](/wiki/British_government \"British government\") as a safety precaution. He thought and spoke like a 19th\\-century gentleman and had little regard for or knowledge of new technology.", "### Nick Zerhakker", "A young adult, introduced in the \"I Can Fly\" story arc,[*Skin Horse* Chapter 32477](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=32477) at WebComics Nation [video game](/wiki/Video_game \"Video game\") obsessive Nick was unknowingly co\\-opted into \"Project Whirligig\". The [black](/wiki/Black_project \"Black project\") military program intended to weaponize him by secretly installing him in a [virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality \"Virtual reality\"), then removing his brain and implanting it in a [black](/wiki/Black_helicopter \"Black helicopter\") [V\\-22 Osprey](/wiki/V-22_Osprey \"V-22 Osprey\")–a military [tiltrotor](/wiki/Tiltrotor \"Tiltrotor\") aircraft–and finally subconsciously training Nick to control the Osprey as if it were his own body. In spite of Nick's love of shooting virtual bad guys, he abhored the thought of killing real people, and so he joined the Skin Horse team.", "### Minor characters", "Konstantin\nRussian [black ops](/wiki/Black_op \"Black op\") agent who joined the American police force after \"very accidental and surprising death of [Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin \"Boris Yeltsin\").\" He was introduced in the \"Cowardly Lion\" story arc[*Skin Horse* Chapter 25110](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=25110) at WebComics Nation and later became an Annex One security guard.\nDr. Virginia Lee\nIntroduced in the \"I Can Fly\" story arc[*Skin Horse* Chapter 32982, Strip 2](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=32982#strip2) at WebComics Nation as a mad scientist wannabe and member of a secret organization known only as \"Anasigma\". She was involved in the creation of both [U.N.I.T.Y.](/wiki/%23Unity \"#Unity\") and [\"Project Whirligig\"](/wiki/%23Nick_Zerhakker \"#Nick Zerhakker\"). Dr. Lee was specifically hired by Anasigma to reverse engineer Mad Scientist technology into \"sane\" technology, which she could do with moderate success. Unity was her first successful project, but others included the Brain\\-O\\-Mat that produced brain matter to feed zombies, and prevented them from feeding on living humans.\nDr. Lee had an ongoing romantic interest with Nick, but neither party was willing to discuss or admit to this for years — even to themselves.\nCaptain Bram\nA Canadian mad scientist who created [Sweetheart](/wiki/%23Sweetheart \"#Sweetheart\") and her pack mates and developed a virus to afflict humans with [lycanthropy](/wiki/Lycanthropy \"Lycanthropy\"). When his application to the [American Kennel Club](/wiki/American_Kennel_Club \"American Kennel Club\") to recognize the \"Genetically\\-Engineered Super Battle Dog\" as a recognizable breed was denied, he vowed to force the organization to change its position by conquering the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") using said dogs.[*Skin Horse* July 11, 2009](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=39682#strip6) at WebComics Nation Bram died before accomplishing his goal, however, and his corpse was reluctantly eaten by his creations.[*Skin Horse* June 28, 2008](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=30589#strip6) at WebComics Nation\nChris and Marcie\nTwo [nerdy](/wiki/Nerdy \"Nerdy\") scientists working for the Department of Irradiation in Annex One, Chris and Marcie were often found gaming with (and within) Nick. Tip and Marcie briefly dated until she dumped him for Chris in the \"Tin Soldier\" story arc.[*Skin Horse* Chapter 41561](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=41561) at WebComics Nation\nDr. Berenice \"Tigerlily\" Jones\n[Blaxploitation](/wiki/Blaxploitation \"Blaxploitation\")\\-themed [mad scientist](/wiki/Mad_scientist \"Mad scientist\") brought in on a [work release](/wiki/Work_release \"Work release\") program to repair Moustachio during the \"Brave Little Toasters\" story arc.[*Skin Horse* Chapter 43677](http://www.webcomicsnation.com/shaenongarrity/skinhorse/series.php?view=archive&chapter=43677#strip1) at WebComics Nation\nGold Bug\nThe mysterious benefactor of Project Skin Horse, who was known to Gavotte." ]
History ------- The festival was founded at the suggestion of Richard Phillips, then music officer of the Yorkshire Arts Association. Richard Steinitz, a composer and lecturer at Huddersfield Polytechnic (later to become the University of Huddersfield),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/nov/21/huddersfield\-hits\-40\-contemporary\-music\-festival\|title\=Huddersfield hits 40 with a broader scope but its spirit undimmed\|last\=Clements\|first\=Andrew\|date\=21 November 2017\|work\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=9 September 2018}} was appointed the festival director. The first concert was held on 13 October 1978\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://frieze.com/article/forty\-years\-of\-huddersfield\-contemporary\-music\-festival\|title\=Forty Years of the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival\|website\=frieze.com\|date\=7 December 2017 \|access\-date\=9 September 2018}} Steinitz was succeeded as director by Susanna Eastburn in 2001{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/music/reviews/huddersfield\-contemporary\-music\-festival\-huddersfield\-9273687\.html\|title\=Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival, Huddersfield\|work\=The Independent\|access\-date\=9 September 2018}} and guest director [Tom Service](/wiki/Tom_Service "Tom Service") in 2005\. The current director is Graham McKenzie, who was appointed in 2006\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.examiner.co.uk/whats\-on/arts\-culture\-news/huddersfield\-contemporary\-music\-festival\-artistic\-10469717\|title\=Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival artistic director Graham McKenzie celebrates 10 years in role\|last\=Glover\|first\=Chloe\|date\=20 November 2015\|work\=Huddersfield Examiner\|access\-date\=9 September 2018}} ### 2005 The festival was held from 17 to 27 November. ### 2006 The festival took place from 17 to 26 November. On the event list was [Kitchen Motors](/wiki/Kitchen_Motors "Kitchen Motors"), and [Psappha](/wiki/Psappha_New_Music_Ensemble "Psappha New Music Ensemble"). ### 2008 The festival ran from 21 to 30 November. A highlight was the performance of several [Frank Zappa](/wiki/Frank_Zappa "Frank Zappa") pieces by the [Ascolta](/wiki/Ascolta "Ascolta") ensemble with guests. ### 2009 The festival ran from 20 to 29 November. [Jonathan Harvey](/wiki/Jonathan_Harvey_%28composer%29 "Jonathan Harvey (composer)") was composer in residence, and the festival also featured the [Arditti Quartet](/wiki/Arditti_Quartet "Arditti Quartet"), [Nieuw Ensemble](/wiki/Nieuw_Ensemble "Nieuw Ensemble"), [Louis Andriessen](/wiki/Louis_Andriessen "Louis Andriessen") and [musikFabrik](/wiki/MusikFabrik "MusikFabrik"). ### 2010 The festival ran from 19 to 28 November. The composer in residence was [Rebecca Saunders](/wiki/Rebecca_Saunders "Rebecca Saunders"). ### 2011 In 2011 [Bent Sørensen](/wiki/Bent_S%C3%B8rensen_%28composer%29 "Bent Sørensen (composer)") was composer in residence. ### 2012 The composer in residence for 2012 was [Maja Ratkje](/wiki/Maja_Ratkje "Maja Ratkje"). ### 2020 The [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") saw the festival realised in a reduced form, with live events restricted by the UK's lockdown of autumn 2020\. The programme included a livestream by [Space Afrika](/wiki/Space_Afrika "Space Afrika"), and [BBC Radio 3](/wiki/BBC_Radio_3 "BBC Radio 3") live broadcasts with [Explore Ensemble](/wiki/Explore_Ensemble "Explore Ensemble"), [GBSR Duo](/wiki/GBSR_Duo "GBSR Duo"), and [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta "London Sinfonietta"), featuring music by [Joanna Bailie](/wiki/Joanna_Bailie "Joanna Bailie"), [Oliver Leith](/wiki/Oliver_Leith "Oliver Leith"), [Cassandra Miller](/wiki/Cassandra_Miller "Cassandra Miller"), [Arne Gieshoff](/wiki/Arne_Gieshoff "Arne Gieshoff"), [Angharad Davies](/wiki/Angharad_Davies "Angharad Davies"), and [James Dillon](/wiki/James_Dillon_%28composer%29 "James Dillon (composer)") . ### 2021 [Chaya Czernowin](/wiki/Chaya_Czernowin "Chaya Czernowin") was composer in residence, and the programme featured composers and artists including [Brigitta Muntendorf](/wiki/Brigitta_Muntendorf "Brigitta Muntendorf"), Georgia Rodgers, [Mauro Lanza](/wiki/Mauro_Lanza "Mauro Lanza") \& [Andrea Valle](/wiki/Andrea_Valle "Andrea Valle"), [Eva Maria Houben](/wiki/Eva_Maria_Houben "Eva Maria Houben"), [James Dillon](/wiki/James_Dillon_%28composer%29 "James Dillon (composer)"), [Enno Poppe](/wiki/Enno_Poppe "Enno Poppe"), Cath Roberts, [Clara Iannotta](/wiki/Clara_Iannotta "Clara Iannotta"), [Bára Gísladóttir](/wiki/B%C3%A1ra_G%C3%ADslad%C3%B3ttir "Bára Gísladóttir"), [Hannah Kendall](/wiki/Hannah_Kendall "Hannah Kendall"), [Laurence Osborn](/wiki/Laurence_Osborn "Laurence Osborn"), [Eva Reiter](/wiki/Eva_Reiter "Eva Reiter"), [John Butcher](/wiki/John_Butcher_%28musician%29 "John Butcher (musician)"), [Laurence Crane](/wiki/Laurence_Crane "Laurence Crane"), [Luke Nickel](/wiki/Luke_Nickel "Luke Nickel"), [Lisa Illean](/wiki/Lisa_Illean "Lisa Illean"). Performer and groups included [Explore Ensemble](/wiki/Explore_Ensemble "Explore Ensemble"), [GBSR duo](/wiki/GBSR_duo "GBSR duo"), [Red Note Ensemble](/wiki/Red_Note_Ensemble "Red Note Ensemble"), [Ensemble Musikfabrik](/wiki/Ensemble_Musikfabrik "Ensemble Musikfabrik"), [The Riot Ensemble](/wiki/The_Riot_Ensemble "The Riot Ensemble"), [Ensemble Klang](/wiki/Ensemble_Klang "Ensemble Klang"), [Arditti Quartet](/wiki/Arditti_Quartet "Arditti Quartet"), [Ictus Ensemble](/wiki/Ictus_Ensemble "Ictus Ensemble"), [Juliet Fraser](/wiki/Juliet_Fraser "Juliet Fraser") \& [Mark Knoop](/wiki/Mark_Knoop "Mark Knoop"), [Zubin Kanga](/wiki/Zubin_Kanga "Zubin Kanga"), [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta "London Sinfonietta") ### 2022 [Lisa Streich](/wiki/Lisa_Streich "Lisa Streich") was composer in residence. The programme featured composers and artists [Jürg Frey](/wiki/J%C3%BCrg_Frey "Jürg Frey"), [Liza Lim](/wiki/Liza_Lim "Liza Lim"), [Philip Venables](/wiki/Philip_Venables "Philip Venables"), [Pat Thomas](/wiki/Pat_Thomas_%28pianist%29 "Pat Thomas (pianist)"), [Jan Hendrickse](/wiki/Jan_Hendrickse "Jan Hendrickse"), [Raven Chacon](/wiki/Raven_Chacon "Raven Chacon"), [Andreas Borregaard](/wiki/Andreas_Borregaard "Andreas Borregaard"), [Tyshawn Sorey](/wiki/Tyshawn_Sorey "Tyshawn Sorey"), [Justė Janulytė](/wiki/Just%C4%97_Janulyt%C4%97 "Justė Janulytė"). Performers and groups included Decibel, [Australian Art Orchestra](/wiki/Australian_Art_Orchestra "Australian Art Orchestra"), [Crash Ensemble](/wiki/Crash_Ensemble "Crash Ensemble"), [Quatuor Diotima](/wiki/Quatuor_Diotima "Quatuor Diotima"), [Riot Ensemble](/wiki/Riot_Ensemble "Riot Ensemble"), [Marco Blaauw](/wiki/Marco_Blaauw "Marco Blaauw"), [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta "London Sinfonietta"), [Red Note Ensemble](/wiki/Red_Note_Ensemble "Red Note Ensemble"), and [Ensemble Intercontemporain](/wiki/Ensemble_Intercontemporain "Ensemble Intercontemporain"). ### 2023 [Jennifer Walshe](/wiki/Jennifer_Walshe "Jennifer Walshe") was composer in residence, and the programme featured composers and artists including [Rebecca Saunders](/wiki/Rebecca_Saunders "Rebecca Saunders"), [Laura Bowler](/wiki/Laura_Bowler "Laura Bowler"), [Angharad Davies](/wiki/Angharad_Davies "Angharad Davies"), [Steven Daverson](/wiki/Steven_Daverson "Steven Daverson"), [Žibuoklė Martinaitytė](/wiki/%C5%BDibuokl%C4%97_Martinaityt%C4%97 "Žibuoklė Martinaitytė"), [Lisa Illean](/wiki/Lisa_Illean "Lisa Illean"), [Nicole Lizée](/wiki/Nicole_Liz%C3%A9e "Nicole Lizée"), [John Butcher](/wiki/John_Butcher_%28musician%29 "John Butcher (musician)"), [Liza Lim](/wiki/Liza_Lim "Liza Lim"), [Michel Chion](/wiki/Michel_Chion "Michel Chion"). [George Lewis](/wiki/George_E._Lewis "George E. Lewis"), [Hans Werner Henze](/wiki/Hans_Werner_Henze "Hans Werner Henze"), Anna Korsun, [Charles Uzor](/wiki/Charles_Uzor "Charles Uzor"), [Tyshawn Sorey](/wiki/Tyshawn_Sorey "Tyshawn Sorey"), [Mariam Rezaei](/wiki/Mariam_Rezaei "Mariam Rezaei"), [Jürg Frey](/wiki/J%C3%BCrg_Frey "Jürg Frey"), and [Bára Gísladóttir](/wiki/B%C3%A1ra_G%C3%ADslad%C3%B3ttir "Bára Gísladóttir"). Performers and groups included [Oslo Sinfonietta](/wiki/Oslo_Sinfonietta "Oslo Sinfonietta"), [GBSR Duo](/wiki/GBSR_Duo "GBSR Duo"), [Nadar Ensemble](/wiki/Nadar_Ensemble "Nadar Ensemble"), [Ensemble Nikel](/wiki/Ensemble_Nikel "Ensemble Nikel") \& [Noa Frenkel](/wiki/Noa_Frenkel "Noa Frenkel"), Ensemble Synaesthesis, Lee Patterson, [Stone Drawn Circles](/wiki/Stone_Drawn_Circles "Stone Drawn Circles"), [Apartment House](/wiki/Apartment_House "Apartment House"), [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta "London Sinfonietta"), [Exaudi](/wiki/Exaudi "Exaudi"), [Quatuor Bozzini](/wiki/Quatuor_Bozzini "Quatuor Bozzini"), [Matmos](/wiki/Matmos "Matmos"), [Éliane Radigue](/wiki/%C3%89liane_Radigue "Éliane Radigue"), and [Riot Ensemble](/wiki/Riot_Ensemble "Riot Ensemble").
[ "History\n-------", "The festival was founded at the suggestion of Richard Phillips, then music officer of the Yorkshire Arts Association. Richard Steinitz, a composer and lecturer at Huddersfield Polytechnic (later to become the University of Huddersfield),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/nov/21/huddersfield\\-hits\\-40\\-contemporary\\-music\\-festival\\|title\\=Huddersfield hits 40 with a broader scope but its spirit undimmed\\|last\\=Clements\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=21 November 2017\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2018}} was appointed the festival director. The first concert was held on 13 October 1978\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://frieze.com/article/forty\\-years\\-of\\-huddersfield\\-contemporary\\-music\\-festival\\|title\\=Forty Years of the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival\\|website\\=frieze.com\\|date\\=7 December 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2018}}", "Steinitz was succeeded as director by Susanna Eastburn in 2001{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/music/reviews/huddersfield\\-contemporary\\-music\\-festival\\-huddersfield\\-9273687\\.html\\|title\\=Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival, Huddersfield\\|work\\=The Independent\\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2018}} and guest director [Tom Service](/wiki/Tom_Service \"Tom Service\") in 2005\\. The current director is Graham McKenzie, who was appointed in 2006\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.examiner.co.uk/whats\\-on/arts\\-culture\\-news/huddersfield\\-contemporary\\-music\\-festival\\-artistic\\-10469717\\|title\\=Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival artistic director Graham McKenzie celebrates 10 years in role\\|last\\=Glover\\|first\\=Chloe\\|date\\=20 November 2015\\|work\\=Huddersfield Examiner\\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2018}}", "### 2005", "The festival was held from 17 to 27 November.", "### 2006", "The festival took place from 17 to 26 November. On the event list was [Kitchen Motors](/wiki/Kitchen_Motors \"Kitchen Motors\"), and [Psappha](/wiki/Psappha_New_Music_Ensemble \"Psappha New Music Ensemble\").", "### 2008", "The festival ran from 21 to 30 November. A highlight was the performance of several [Frank Zappa](/wiki/Frank_Zappa \"Frank Zappa\") pieces by the [Ascolta](/wiki/Ascolta \"Ascolta\") ensemble with guests.", "### 2009", "The festival ran from 20 to 29 November. [Jonathan Harvey](/wiki/Jonathan_Harvey_%28composer%29 \"Jonathan Harvey (composer)\") was composer in residence, and the festival also featured the [Arditti Quartet](/wiki/Arditti_Quartet \"Arditti Quartet\"), [Nieuw Ensemble](/wiki/Nieuw_Ensemble \"Nieuw Ensemble\"), [Louis Andriessen](/wiki/Louis_Andriessen \"Louis Andriessen\") and [musikFabrik](/wiki/MusikFabrik \"MusikFabrik\").", "### 2010", "The festival ran from 19 to 28 November. The composer in residence was [Rebecca Saunders](/wiki/Rebecca_Saunders \"Rebecca Saunders\").", "### 2011", "In 2011 [Bent Sørensen](/wiki/Bent_S%C3%B8rensen_%28composer%29 \"Bent Sørensen (composer)\") was composer in residence.", "### 2012", "The composer in residence for 2012 was [Maja Ratkje](/wiki/Maja_Ratkje \"Maja Ratkje\").", "### 2020", "The [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\") saw the festival realised in a reduced form, with live events restricted by the UK's lockdown of autumn 2020\\. The programme included a livestream by [Space Afrika](/wiki/Space_Afrika \"Space Afrika\"), and [BBC Radio 3](/wiki/BBC_Radio_3 \"BBC Radio 3\") live broadcasts with [Explore Ensemble](/wiki/Explore_Ensemble \"Explore Ensemble\"), [GBSR Duo](/wiki/GBSR_Duo \"GBSR Duo\"), and [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta \"London Sinfonietta\"), featuring music by [Joanna Bailie](/wiki/Joanna_Bailie \"Joanna Bailie\"), [Oliver Leith](/wiki/Oliver_Leith \"Oliver Leith\"), [Cassandra Miller](/wiki/Cassandra_Miller \"Cassandra Miller\"), [Arne Gieshoff](/wiki/Arne_Gieshoff \"Arne Gieshoff\"), [Angharad Davies](/wiki/Angharad_Davies \"Angharad Davies\"), and [James Dillon](/wiki/James_Dillon_%28composer%29 \"James Dillon (composer)\")\n.\n### 2021", "[Chaya Czernowin](/wiki/Chaya_Czernowin \"Chaya Czernowin\") was composer in residence, and the programme featured composers and artists including [Brigitta Muntendorf](/wiki/Brigitta_Muntendorf \"Brigitta Muntendorf\"), Georgia Rodgers, [Mauro Lanza](/wiki/Mauro_Lanza \"Mauro Lanza\") \\& [Andrea Valle](/wiki/Andrea_Valle \"Andrea Valle\"), [Eva Maria Houben](/wiki/Eva_Maria_Houben \"Eva Maria Houben\"), [James Dillon](/wiki/James_Dillon_%28composer%29 \"James Dillon (composer)\"), [Enno Poppe](/wiki/Enno_Poppe \"Enno Poppe\"), Cath Roberts, [Clara Iannotta](/wiki/Clara_Iannotta \"Clara Iannotta\"), [Bára Gísladóttir](/wiki/B%C3%A1ra_G%C3%ADslad%C3%B3ttir \"Bára Gísladóttir\"), [Hannah Kendall](/wiki/Hannah_Kendall \"Hannah Kendall\"), [Laurence Osborn](/wiki/Laurence_Osborn \"Laurence Osborn\"), [Eva Reiter](/wiki/Eva_Reiter \"Eva Reiter\"), [John Butcher](/wiki/John_Butcher_%28musician%29 \"John Butcher (musician)\"), [Laurence Crane](/wiki/Laurence_Crane \"Laurence Crane\"), [Luke Nickel](/wiki/Luke_Nickel \"Luke Nickel\"), [Lisa Illean](/wiki/Lisa_Illean \"Lisa Illean\"). Performer and groups included [Explore Ensemble](/wiki/Explore_Ensemble \"Explore Ensemble\"), [GBSR duo](/wiki/GBSR_duo \"GBSR duo\"), [Red Note Ensemble](/wiki/Red_Note_Ensemble \"Red Note Ensemble\"), [Ensemble Musikfabrik](/wiki/Ensemble_Musikfabrik \"Ensemble Musikfabrik\"), [The Riot Ensemble](/wiki/The_Riot_Ensemble \"The Riot Ensemble\"), [Ensemble Klang](/wiki/Ensemble_Klang \"Ensemble Klang\"), [Arditti Quartet](/wiki/Arditti_Quartet \"Arditti Quartet\"), [Ictus Ensemble](/wiki/Ictus_Ensemble \"Ictus Ensemble\"), [Juliet Fraser](/wiki/Juliet_Fraser \"Juliet Fraser\") \\& [Mark Knoop](/wiki/Mark_Knoop \"Mark Knoop\"), [Zubin Kanga](/wiki/Zubin_Kanga \"Zubin Kanga\"), [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta \"London Sinfonietta\")", "### 2022", "[Lisa Streich](/wiki/Lisa_Streich \"Lisa Streich\") was composer in residence. The programme featured composers and artists [Jürg Frey](/wiki/J%C3%BCrg_Frey \"Jürg Frey\"), [Liza Lim](/wiki/Liza_Lim \"Liza Lim\"), [Philip Venables](/wiki/Philip_Venables \"Philip Venables\"), [Pat Thomas](/wiki/Pat_Thomas_%28pianist%29 \"Pat Thomas (pianist)\"), [Jan Hendrickse](/wiki/Jan_Hendrickse \"Jan Hendrickse\"), [Raven Chacon](/wiki/Raven_Chacon \"Raven Chacon\"), [Andreas Borregaard](/wiki/Andreas_Borregaard \"Andreas Borregaard\"), [Tyshawn Sorey](/wiki/Tyshawn_Sorey \"Tyshawn Sorey\"), [Justė Janulytė](/wiki/Just%C4%97_Janulyt%C4%97 \"Justė Janulytė\"). Performers and groups included Decibel, [Australian Art Orchestra](/wiki/Australian_Art_Orchestra \"Australian Art Orchestra\"), [Crash Ensemble](/wiki/Crash_Ensemble \"Crash Ensemble\"), [Quatuor Diotima](/wiki/Quatuor_Diotima \"Quatuor Diotima\"), [Riot Ensemble](/wiki/Riot_Ensemble \"Riot Ensemble\"), [Marco Blaauw](/wiki/Marco_Blaauw \"Marco Blaauw\"), [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta \"London Sinfonietta\"), [Red Note Ensemble](/wiki/Red_Note_Ensemble \"Red Note Ensemble\"), and [Ensemble Intercontemporain](/wiki/Ensemble_Intercontemporain \"Ensemble Intercontemporain\").", "### 2023", "[Jennifer Walshe](/wiki/Jennifer_Walshe \"Jennifer Walshe\") was composer in residence, and the programme featured composers and artists including [Rebecca Saunders](/wiki/Rebecca_Saunders \"Rebecca Saunders\"), [Laura Bowler](/wiki/Laura_Bowler \"Laura Bowler\"), [Angharad Davies](/wiki/Angharad_Davies \"Angharad Davies\"), [Steven Daverson](/wiki/Steven_Daverson \"Steven Daverson\"), [Žibuoklė Martinaitytė](/wiki/%C5%BDibuokl%C4%97_Martinaityt%C4%97 \"Žibuoklė Martinaitytė\"), [Lisa Illean](/wiki/Lisa_Illean \"Lisa Illean\"), [Nicole Lizée](/wiki/Nicole_Liz%C3%A9e \"Nicole Lizée\"), [John Butcher](/wiki/John_Butcher_%28musician%29 \"John Butcher (musician)\"), [Liza Lim](/wiki/Liza_Lim \"Liza Lim\"), [Michel Chion](/wiki/Michel_Chion \"Michel Chion\"). [George Lewis](/wiki/George_E._Lewis \"George E. Lewis\"), [Hans Werner Henze](/wiki/Hans_Werner_Henze \"Hans Werner Henze\"), Anna Korsun, [Charles Uzor](/wiki/Charles_Uzor \"Charles Uzor\"), [Tyshawn Sorey](/wiki/Tyshawn_Sorey \"Tyshawn Sorey\"), [Mariam Rezaei](/wiki/Mariam_Rezaei \"Mariam Rezaei\"), [Jürg Frey](/wiki/J%C3%BCrg_Frey \"Jürg Frey\"), and [Bára Gísladóttir](/wiki/B%C3%A1ra_G%C3%ADslad%C3%B3ttir \"Bára Gísladóttir\"). Performers and groups included [Oslo Sinfonietta](/wiki/Oslo_Sinfonietta \"Oslo Sinfonietta\"), [GBSR Duo](/wiki/GBSR_Duo \"GBSR Duo\"), [Nadar Ensemble](/wiki/Nadar_Ensemble \"Nadar Ensemble\"), [Ensemble Nikel](/wiki/Ensemble_Nikel \"Ensemble Nikel\") \\& [Noa Frenkel](/wiki/Noa_Frenkel \"Noa Frenkel\"), Ensemble Synaesthesis, Lee Patterson, [Stone Drawn Circles](/wiki/Stone_Drawn_Circles \"Stone Drawn Circles\"), [Apartment House](/wiki/Apartment_House \"Apartment House\"), [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta \"London Sinfonietta\"), [Exaudi](/wiki/Exaudi \"Exaudi\"), [Quatuor Bozzini](/wiki/Quatuor_Bozzini \"Quatuor Bozzini\"), [Matmos](/wiki/Matmos \"Matmos\"), [Éliane Radigue](/wiki/%C3%89liane_Radigue \"Éliane Radigue\"), and [Riot Ensemble](/wiki/Riot_Ensemble \"Riot Ensemble\").", "" ]
Media career ------------ ### Television: 1954–1962 In 1954, Grade was contacted by the manager of singer [Jo Stafford](/wiki/Jo_Stafford "Jo Stafford"), Mike Nidorf,Carl Ellis: [Lew Grade, Part 3: the War and After](http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index3.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905211110/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index3\.php \|date\=5 September 2008 }}, TV Heroes, Transdiffusion. who notified him of an advertisement in *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")* inviting franchise bids for the new, commercial [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)") network. Assembling a consortium that included impresarios Val Parnell and Prince Littler, the Incorporated Television Programme Company (ITP), which soon changed its name to [Incorporated Television Company](/wiki/ITC_Entertainment "ITC Entertainment") (ITC; also known as ITC Entertainment), was formed. ITC's bid to the [Independent Television Authority](/wiki/Independent_Television_Authority "Independent Television Authority") (ITA) was rejected on the grounds of its conflict of interest from its prominence and involvement in artist management.{{cite web \|title \=ATV \|publisher \=\[\[British Film Institute\|BFI]] \|url \=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459509/ \|access\-date \=15 April 2008 \|quote \=the ITA felt that the enormous amount of talent ITC controlled could easily lead it to monopolise the fledgling network \|archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211140307/http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459509/ \|archive\-date \=11 February 2009 \|url\-status \=live \|df \=dmy\-all }} The Associated Broadcasting Development Company (ABD) had gained ITA approval for both the London weekend and [Midlands](/wiki/English_Midlands "English Midlands") weekday contracts, but was undercapitalised; Grade's consortium joined with the ABD to form what became [Associated Television](/wiki/Associated_Television "Associated Television") (ATV). Reflecting his background in variety, Grade's favourite showMichael Palmer and Jeremy Tunstal [*Media Moguls*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XliIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112), Routledge, 1991, p. 112 and a success for the new company was *[Sunday Night at the London Palladium](/wiki/Sunday_Night_at_the_London_Palladium "Sunday Night at the London Palladium")* (1955–1967, 1973–1974\), one of the most popular programmes on British television in its day. Grade did not avoid the other end of the cultural spectrum and in 1958 [Sir Kenneth Clark](/wiki/Kenneth_Clark "Kenneth Clark") began to talk about the history of art on television.Jonathan Bignell ""And the Rest is History: Lew Grade, Creation Narratives and Television Historiography", in Catherine Johnson and Rob Turnock (eds.) [*Itv Cultures: Independent Television Over Fifty Years*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vbLlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60), Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2005, p. 50 Meanwhile, Grade committed the funds for what would become the first trans\-Atlantic success of the ITP subsidiary: *[The Adventures of Robin Hood](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Robin_Hood_%28TV_series%29 "The Adventures of Robin Hood (TV series)")* (1955–1960\), commissioned by UK\-based American producer [Hannah Weinstein](/wiki/Hannah_Weinstein "Hannah Weinstein"). ITC became a wholly owned ATV subsidiary in 1957,Sergio Angelini: [ITC](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/563524/index.html), BFI screenonline. That same year ATV established a music publishing division with [ATV Music](/wiki/Sony/ATV_Music_Publishing "Sony/ATV Music Publishing") and gained a half interest in [Pye Records](/wiki/Pye_Records "Pye Records") in 1959;Louis Barfe [*Where Have All the Good Times Gone? The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AhLwEqh8xlkC&pg=PT134), London: Atlantic Books, 2005, p. 134 later Pye became a wholly owned subsidiary. ### Television: 1962–1968 Grade was deputy managing director of ATV under Val Parnell until 1962, when he became managing director having contrived to have the board oust Parnell.Sergio Angelini ["Grade, Lord Lew (1906–1998\)"](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/482705/index.html), BFI Screenonline Grade soon decided that the Midlands deserved its own regular soap opera as a rival to *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street "Coronation Street")*. *[Crossroads](/wiki/Crossroads_%28soap_opera%29 "Crossroads (soap opera)")*, much derided but ultimately a serious challenge to Granada's series in the ratings, began its initial quarter century run in November 1964\.John Williams ["*Crossroads* – The 1960s"](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/1357782/index.html), BFI Screenonline ITC's success continued and had many internationally successful TV series, leading [Howard Thomas](/wiki/Howard_Thomas_%28producer%29 "Howard Thomas (producer)"), managing director of [ABC Weekend TV](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_TV "ABC Weekend TV"), to complain that Grade distributed programming for "[Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama "Birmingham, Alabama"), rather than [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England".Carl Ellis [Lew Grade, Part 4: Embracing the 1950s](http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index4.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728124700/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index4\.php \|date\=28 July 2011 }}, TV Heroes, Transdiffusion. These series included *[The Saint](/wiki/The_Saint_%28TV_series%29 "The Saint (TV series)")* (1962–1969\), which was sold to over 80 countries,James Chapman [*Saints and Avengers: British Adventure Series of the 1960s*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rW7nJMJ-WloC&pg=PA100), London: I.B Tauris, 2002, p.100 and two featuring [Patrick McGoohan](/wiki/Patrick_McGoohan "Patrick McGoohan"): *[Danger Man](/wiki/Danger_Man "Danger Man")* (1960–1968\) and *[The Prisoner](/wiki/The_Prisoner "The Prisoner")* (1967–1968\). The series, exclusively thrillers, were normally used as summer replacements for American\-made programmes until the mid\-1960s.Stuart Hood ["Export Backlash"](http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/25th-november-1966/12/export-backlash), *The Spectator*, 25 November 1966, p. 12 While many of Grade's series used American actors in lead roles (*[The Baron](/wiki/The_Baron_%28TV_series%29 "The Baron (TV series)")* and *[Man in a Suitcase](/wiki/Man_in_a_Suitcase "Man in a Suitcase")*, for example) it was those series which used an exclusively British cast, such as *The Saint* (and *[The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 "The Avengers (TV series)")*, made by another ITV contractor), which were more successful in the United States.Chapman, *Saints and Avengers*, p. 11 In 1962, [AP Films](/wiki/AP_Films "AP Films") became a subsidiary of ITC. Co\-founded by [Gerry Anderson](/wiki/Gerry_Anderson "Gerry Anderson"), AP Films produced two marionette puppet ("[Supermarionation](/wiki/Supermarionation "Supermarionation")") series for children during the 1960s: *[Thunderbirds](/wiki/Thunderbirds_%28TV_series%29 "Thunderbirds (TV series)")* (1965–1966\) and (as Century 21\) *[Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons](/wiki/Captain_Scarlet_and_the_Mysterons "Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons")* (1967–1968\). After a screening of the pilot for *Thunderbirds* ("[Trapped in the Sky](/wiki/Trapped_in_the_Sky "Trapped in the Sky")", 1964\), Grade insisted that the episodes be lengthened to fill a one\-hour slot.{{Cite journal \|title\=Thunderbirds \|url\=http://www.classictv.info/show/trivia.asp?show\=21 \|website\=Classic TV Info \|access\-date\=12 April 2017}} Unusually for [children's television series](/wiki/Children%27s_television_series "Children's television series"), these [colour](/wiki/Color_television "Color television") programmes were generously budgeted for the time (Grade paid £22,000 per episode), and were successfully repeated internationally.{{Cite news \|last\=Gilhooly \|first\=Rob \|date\=26 December 2001 \|title\=Still F.A.B. after all these years \|work\=The Japan Times \|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2001/12/26/arts/still\-f\-a\-b\-after\-all\-these\-years/\#.WO67dlPyutg \|access\-date\=12 April 2017}} In 1966, Grade's companies were re\-organised again to form the Associated Communications Corporation (ACC). That year, *[The Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times "The Sunday Times")* investigated the interconnected nature of the companies controlled by Grade and his two brothers, Bernard Delfont and Leslie Grade. Their firms, effectively amounting to a "cartel", were agents for most of the major talents in acting as well as entertainment and controlled theatres in both London and the rest of the UK and ATV was a major provider of televised entertainment. ### Later television productions The following year, ATV lost its London franchise to what would become [London Weekend Television](/wiki/London_Weekend_Television "London Weekend Television") (LWT);Richard G. Elen; [ATV](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459509/index.html), BFI screenonline. at the same time, however, ATV's Midlands franchise was expanded to run throughout the week from July 1968\. Through ATV Music, Grade acquired [Northern Songs](/wiki/Northern_Songs "Northern Songs"), gaining control of the [Lennon–McCartney](/wiki/Lennon%E2%80%93McCartney "Lennon–McCartney") song catalogue.Philip Norman [*Shout!: The Beatles in Their Generation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=l2I0twz__BIC&pg=PA422&lpg=PA422), New York: Fireside, 2005, pp. 422–24 Foreign sales remained strong for a time (valued at $30 million in 1970\)[Entrepreneurs: Top Grade](https://web.archive.org/web/20081221205506/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,905454,00.html), *TIME*, 4 October 1971\. and the ACC received the [Queen's Awards for Export](/wiki/Queen%27s_Awards_for_Enterprise "Queen's Awards for Enterprise") in both 1967 and 1969\. Some of the 1970s distributions performed poorly: these included *[The Julie Andrews Hour](/wiki/The_Julie_Andrews_Hour "The Julie Andrews Hour")* (1972–73\), which aired for only one season on the [ABC Television Network](/wiki/ABC_Television_Network "ABC Television Network") in the United States. This received positive reviews and seven [Emmy Awards](/wiki/Emmy_Award "Emmy Award"), including the title of 'Best Variety Series'. The action series *[The Protectors](/wiki/The_Protectors "The Protectors")* (1972–74\) and *[The Persuaders!](/wiki/The_Persuaders%21 "The Persuaders!")* (1971–72\), were not especially successful. Gerry Anderson moved to live action [science fiction](/wiki/British_television_science_fiction "British television science fiction") shows *[UFO](/wiki/UFO_%28British_TV_series%29 "UFO (British TV series)")* (1969–71\) and *[Space: 1999](/wiki/Space:1999 "1999")* (1975–77\). After *Space: 1999*, Anderson made no new series for ITC, but maintained a connection with Grade until Grade lost control of his companies in 1982\. In the mid\-1970s, Grade approached American puppeteer [Jim Henson](/wiki/Jim_Henson "Jim Henson"), who was in need of assistance for his latest television project. Henson wanted to create a new [variety show](/wiki/Variety_show "Variety show") starring his [Muppet](/wiki/The_Muppets "The Muppets") characters, but had been dismissed by American networks on account of his contributions to children's programmes such as *[Sesame Street](/wiki/Sesame_Street "Sesame Street")* (1969–present).{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") came close to agreeing to broadcast *[The Muppet Show](/wiki/The_Muppet_Show "The Muppet Show")*, but only if it was during a [syndicated block](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication "Broadcast syndication") of its programming.{{clarify\|date\=June 2018}} After watching one of Henson's pilots and recalling a special made in one of his studios, Grade allowed Henson to realise his project in Britain (the series was recorded at the [ATV Elstree Studios](/wiki/ATV_Elstree_Studios "ATV Elstree Studios"), later bought by the BBC, primarily used for *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders "EastEnders")*) and distributed internationally by ITC. Grade's action was instrumental in bringing *The Muppet Show* to the screen in 1976 and ensuring its success; it ran until 1981\.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} Grade's other accomplishments in television included the mini\-series *[Jesus of Nazareth](/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth_%28film%29 "Jesus of Nazareth (film)")* (1977\), which was successfully sold to the American market and secured a record\-breaking $12 million in revenue. Several years in preparation, the deal with the Italian broadcaster [RAI](/wiki/RAI "RAI") and director [Franco Zeffirelli](/wiki/Franco_Zeffirelli "Franco Zeffirelli") had been announced three years previously.Martin Sullivan [" A television Jesus"](http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/24th-august-1974/15/religion), *The Spectator*, 23 August 1974, p. 15 ### Film Grade approached [Blake Edwards](/wiki/Blake_Edwards "Blake Edwards") to revive the Pink Panther franchise as a TV series, an option Edwards was not keen on,[Obituary: Blake Edwards](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/film-obituaries/8207853/Blake-Edwards.html), telegraph.co.uk, 16 December 2010 but he did work on developing scripts. Eventually, he persuaded Grade to finance the property as a feature film project with he and [Peter Sellers](/wiki/Peter_Sellers "Peter Sellers") waiving their fees in return for a profit\-sharing arrangement.Julian Upton [*Fallen Stars: Tragic Lives and Lost Careers*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Gb5ci9IF_SMC&pg=RA1-PT28), Manchester, Headpress, 2004, p.28 Both men's careers had not been prospering for a few years.Bob Thomas ["Pink Panther Sequel Spelled Success"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19751117&id=BQ9PAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7275,4848771), *The Blade* (Toledo, Ohio), 17 November 1975, p. 18 Only Grade's second big budget feature, ITC produced the eventual film *[The Return of the Pink Panther](/wiki/The_Return_of_the_Pink_Panther "The Return of the Pink Panther")* (1975\), while [United Artists](/wiki/United_Artists "United Artists") (UA), who had earlier rejected the project themselves, gained distribution rights and a 5% share of the profits.Roger Lewis [*The Life and Death of Peter Sellers*](https://books.google.com/books?id=biKazcH-dXoC&pg=PA845), London: Arrow Books, 2004 \[1994], p. 845n. Distribution in other countries was undertaken by ITC. *The Return of the Pink Panther* was a commercially successful release. It also prompted Grade to move into the film industry, where he had success with *[Farewell My Lovely](/wiki/Farewell%2C_My_Lovely_%281975_film%29 "Farewell, My Lovely (1975 film)")* (1975\)."Sir Lew Grade the new knight in shining armour for British films", *The Irish Times*, Dublin, Ireland, 27 October 1975, p. 14\. Other films of the period made with Grade's involvement include the co\-releases *[The Boys From Brazil](/wiki/The_Boys_from_Brazil_%28film%29 "The Boys from Brazil (film)")* (1978\) with [20th Century Fox](/wiki/20th_Century_Fox "20th Century Fox") and *[Movie Movie](/wiki/Movie_Movie "Movie Movie")* (also 1978\) with [Warner Bros](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros."). He was a producer on the [Ingmar Bergman](/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman "Ingmar Bergman") films *[Autumn Sonata](/wiki/Autumn_Sonata "Autumn Sonata")* (1978\) and *[From the Life of the Marionettes](/wiki/From_the_Life_of_the_Marionettes "From the Life of the Marionettes")* (1980\). Grade was executive producer of *[The Muppet Movie](/wiki/The_Muppet_Movie "The Muppet Movie")* (1979\) and *[The Great Muppet Caper](/wiki/The_Great_Muppet_Caper "The Great Muppet Caper")* (1981\); [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles "Orson Welles") portrayed a studio executive named "Lew Lord" in the first film. One domestic British film made by the ITC subsidiary Black Lion Films, *[The Long Good Friday](/wiki/The_Long_Good_Friday "The Long Good Friday")* (1980\) was purchased and released by [HandMade Films](/wiki/HandMade_Films "HandMade Films") after Grade and his company had effectively disowned it for, in Grade's reputed opinion, seeming to be sympathetic to the [IRA](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army "Provisional Irish Republican Army").Mark Duguid ["*Long Good Friday, The* (1979\)"](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/480130/index.html), BFI Screenonline; accessed 24 December 2015\. Grade's backing of an expensive "all\-star" flop was to prove decisive. Of *[Raise the Titanic](/wiki/Raise_the_Titanic_%28film%29 "Raise the Titanic (film)")* (1980\), an adaptation of [the novel](/wiki/Raise_the_Titanic%21 "Raise the Titanic!") by [Clive Cussler](/wiki/Clive_Cussler "Clive Cussler"), Grade himself observed that "It would have been cheaper to lower the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean")".{{Cite news \|last\=Hoge \|first\=Warren \|date\=14 December 1998 \|title\=Lew Grade, 91, Flamboyant Shaper of British TV and Movies \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/14/nyregion/lew\-grade\-91\-flamboyant\-shaper\-of\-british\-tv\-and\-movies.html \|access\-date\=13 July 2017}} The film was panned by critics and, after costing $36 million, returned only $8 million in rentals. This film along with other expensive box office failures – including *[Saturn 3](/wiki/Saturn_3 "Saturn 3")* (1980\) and *[The Legend of the Lone Ranger](/wiki/The_Legend_of_the_Lone_Ranger "The Legend of the Lone Ranger")* (1981\) – marked the end of Grade's involvement in major film production.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} Despite this, several of the most critically acclaimed films produced by Grade were released after the failure of *Raise the Titanic*: these included *[On Golden Pond](/wiki/On_Golden_Pond_%281981_film%29 "On Golden Pond (1981 film)")* (1981\) and *[Sophie's Choice](/wiki/Sophie%27s_Choice_%28film%29 "Sophie's Choice (film)")* (1982\), both winners of [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Award "Academy Award"), as well as *[The Dark Crystal](/wiki/The_Dark_Crystal "The Dark Crystal")* (1982\), which was Jim Henson's final project created in association with ITC.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Vagg \|first\=Stephen \|date\=10 March 2020 \|title\=Ten Billionaires Who Were Stung by Hollywood \|url\=https://www.filmink.com.au/ten\-billionaires\-stung\-hollywood/ \|magazine\=Filmink}} ### Later years In 1980, Grade's standing in the mass media industry was damaged by two events: the poor reception for *Raise the Titanic*, and a decision that, effective from 1 January 1982 [ATV Midlands](/wiki/ATV_Midlands "ATV Midlands") would be permitted to keep its licence only on the condition that it terminate its association with Grade and ITC (ultimately leading to its re\-branding as [Central Television](/wiki/ITV_Central "ITV Central")). Grade resigned his position in the company while it underwent a series of partnerships and mergers. In 1982, he lost control of ACC to [Robert Holmes à Court](/wiki/Robert_Holmes_%C3%A0_Court "Robert Holmes à Court"), who dismissed him and all his staff. Grade was brought in by American producer [Norman Lear](/wiki/Norman_Lear "Norman Lear") in June 1982 to head the London division of [Embassy Communications International](/wiki/Embassy_Pictures "Embassy Pictures"), to be involved in the production and distribution of films and television programmes.{{Cite news \|last\=Cuff \|first\=Daniel F. \|date\=24 June 1982 \|title\=Lord Grade Joins Norman Lear Team \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/24/business/business\-people\-lord\-grade\-joins\-norman\-lear\-team.html \|access\-date\=13 July 2017}} Subsequently, he became a producer of [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber")'s musical *[Starlight Express](/wiki/Starlight_Express "Starlight Express")*.{{Cite news \|last\=Bennetts \|first\=Leslie \|date\=23 February 1987 \|title\=A Transformed ''Starlight Express'' Strives Towards Broadway Opening \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/23/theater/a\-transformed\-starlight\-express\-strives\-toward\-broadway\-opening.html \|access\-date\=13 July 2017}} After [Coca\-Cola](/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company "The Coca-Cola Company") had bought Embassy, he became the head of a new venture, the Grade Company, in 1985, and was elected a vice\-president of the [Loews Group](/wiki/Loews_Cineplex_Entertainment "Loews Cineplex Entertainment") chain of cinemas in the United States.{{Cite web \|title\=Lew Grade Biography (1906–1998\) \|url\=http://www.filmreference.com/film/54/Lew\-Grade.html \|access\-date\=12 August 2017 \|website\=Film Reference}} The Grade Company produced adaptations for television of works by novelist Dame [Barbara Cartland](/wiki/Barbara_Cartland "Barbara Cartland"); he owned the rights to 450 of her romances. By the early to mid\-1990s, Grade had returned to ITC to head the company one final time until his death in 1998\. Grade was a member of the Founding Council of the [Rothermere American Institute](/wiki/Rothermere_American_Institute "Rothermere American Institute") at the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford").{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}}
[ "Media career\n------------", "### Television: 1954–1962", "In 1954, Grade was contacted by the manager of singer [Jo Stafford](/wiki/Jo_Stafford \"Jo Stafford\"), Mike Nidorf,Carl Ellis: [Lew Grade, Part 3: the War and After](http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index3.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905211110/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index3\\.php \\|date\\=5 September 2008 }}, TV Heroes, Transdiffusion. who notified him of an advertisement in *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* inviting franchise bids for the new, commercial [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") network.", "Assembling a consortium that included impresarios Val Parnell and Prince Littler, the Incorporated Television Programme Company (ITP), which soon changed its name to [Incorporated Television Company](/wiki/ITC_Entertainment \"ITC Entertainment\") (ITC; also known as ITC Entertainment), was formed. ITC's bid to the [Independent Television Authority](/wiki/Independent_Television_Authority \"Independent Television Authority\") (ITA) was rejected on the grounds of its conflict of interest from its prominence and involvement in artist management.{{cite web \\|title \\=ATV \\|publisher \\=\\[\\[British Film Institute\\|BFI]] \\|url \\=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459509/ \\|access\\-date \\=15 April 2008 \\|quote \\=the ITA felt that the enormous amount of talent ITC controlled could easily lead it to monopolise the fledgling network \\|archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211140307/http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459509/ \\|archive\\-date \\=11 February 2009 \\|url\\-status \\=live \\|df \\=dmy\\-all }}", "The Associated Broadcasting Development Company (ABD) had gained ITA approval for both the London weekend and [Midlands](/wiki/English_Midlands \"English Midlands\") weekday contracts, but was undercapitalised; Grade's consortium joined with the ABD to form what became [Associated Television](/wiki/Associated_Television \"Associated Television\") (ATV). Reflecting his background in variety, Grade's favourite showMichael Palmer and Jeremy Tunstal [*Media Moguls*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XliIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112), Routledge, 1991, p. 112 and a success for the new company was *[Sunday Night at the London Palladium](/wiki/Sunday_Night_at_the_London_Palladium \"Sunday Night at the London Palladium\")* (1955–1967, 1973–1974\\), one of the most popular programmes on British television in its day. Grade did not avoid the other end of the cultural spectrum and in 1958 [Sir Kenneth Clark](/wiki/Kenneth_Clark \"Kenneth Clark\") began to talk about the history of art on television.Jonathan Bignell \"\"And the Rest is History: Lew Grade, Creation Narratives and Television Historiography\", in Catherine Johnson and Rob Turnock (eds.) [*Itv Cultures: Independent Television Over Fifty Years*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vbLlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60), Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2005, p. 50", "Meanwhile, Grade committed the funds for what would become the first trans\\-Atlantic success of the ITP subsidiary: *[The Adventures of Robin Hood](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Robin_Hood_%28TV_series%29 \"The Adventures of Robin Hood (TV series)\")* (1955–1960\\), commissioned by UK\\-based American producer [Hannah Weinstein](/wiki/Hannah_Weinstein \"Hannah Weinstein\"). ITC became a wholly owned ATV subsidiary in 1957,Sergio Angelini: [ITC](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/563524/index.html), BFI screenonline. That same year ATV established a music publishing division with [ATV Music](/wiki/Sony/ATV_Music_Publishing \"Sony/ATV Music Publishing\") and gained a half interest in [Pye Records](/wiki/Pye_Records \"Pye Records\") in 1959;Louis Barfe [*Where Have All the Good Times Gone? The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AhLwEqh8xlkC&pg=PT134), London: Atlantic Books, 2005, p. 134 later Pye became a wholly owned subsidiary.", "### Television: 1962–1968", "Grade was deputy managing director of ATV under Val Parnell until 1962, when he became managing director having contrived to have the board oust Parnell.Sergio Angelini [\"Grade, Lord Lew (1906–1998\\)\"](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/482705/index.html), BFI Screenonline Grade soon decided that the Midlands deserved its own regular soap opera as a rival to *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street \"Coronation Street\")*. *[Crossroads](/wiki/Crossroads_%28soap_opera%29 \"Crossroads (soap opera)\")*, much derided but ultimately a serious challenge to Granada's series in the ratings, began its initial quarter century run in November 1964\\.John Williams [\"*Crossroads* – The 1960s\"](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/1357782/index.html), BFI Screenonline", "ITC's success continued and had many internationally successful TV series, leading [Howard Thomas](/wiki/Howard_Thomas_%28producer%29 \"Howard Thomas (producer)\"), managing director of [ABC Weekend TV](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_TV \"ABC Weekend TV\"), to complain that Grade distributed programming for \"[Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama \"Birmingham, Alabama\"), rather than [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England\".Carl Ellis [Lew Grade, Part 4: Embracing the 1950s](http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index4.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728124700/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/tvheroes/lewgrade/index4\\.php \\|date\\=28 July 2011 }}, TV Heroes, Transdiffusion. These series included *[The Saint](/wiki/The_Saint_%28TV_series%29 \"The Saint (TV series)\")* (1962–1969\\), which was sold to over 80 countries,James Chapman [*Saints and Avengers: British Adventure Series of the 1960s*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rW7nJMJ-WloC&pg=PA100), London: I.B Tauris, 2002, p.100 and two featuring [Patrick McGoohan](/wiki/Patrick_McGoohan \"Patrick McGoohan\"): *[Danger Man](/wiki/Danger_Man \"Danger Man\")* (1960–1968\\) and *[The Prisoner](/wiki/The_Prisoner \"The Prisoner\")* (1967–1968\\). The series, exclusively thrillers, were normally used as summer replacements for American\\-made programmes until the mid\\-1960s.Stuart Hood [\"Export Backlash\"](http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/25th-november-1966/12/export-backlash), *The Spectator*, 25 November 1966, p. 12 While many of Grade's series used American actors in lead roles (*[The Baron](/wiki/The_Baron_%28TV_series%29 \"The Baron (TV series)\")* and *[Man in a Suitcase](/wiki/Man_in_a_Suitcase \"Man in a Suitcase\")*, for example) it was those series which used an exclusively British cast, such as *The Saint* (and *[The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 \"The Avengers (TV series)\")*, made by another ITV contractor), which were more successful in the United States.Chapman, *Saints and Avengers*, p. 11", "In 1962, [AP Films](/wiki/AP_Films \"AP Films\") became a subsidiary of ITC. Co\\-founded by [Gerry Anderson](/wiki/Gerry_Anderson \"Gerry Anderson\"), AP Films produced two marionette puppet (\"[Supermarionation](/wiki/Supermarionation \"Supermarionation\")\") series for children during the 1960s: *[Thunderbirds](/wiki/Thunderbirds_%28TV_series%29 \"Thunderbirds (TV series)\")* (1965–1966\\) and (as Century 21\\) *[Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons](/wiki/Captain_Scarlet_and_the_Mysterons \"Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons\")* (1967–1968\\). After a screening of the pilot for *Thunderbirds* (\"[Trapped in the Sky](/wiki/Trapped_in_the_Sky \"Trapped in the Sky\")\", 1964\\), Grade insisted that the episodes be lengthened to fill a one\\-hour slot.{{Cite journal \\|title\\=Thunderbirds \\|url\\=http://www.classictv.info/show/trivia.asp?show\\=21 \\|website\\=Classic TV Info \\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2017}} Unusually for [children's television series](/wiki/Children%27s_television_series \"Children's television series\"), these [colour](/wiki/Color_television \"Color television\") programmes were generously budgeted for the time (Grade paid £22,000 per episode), and were successfully repeated internationally.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gilhooly \\|first\\=Rob \\|date\\=26 December 2001 \\|title\\=Still F.A.B. after all these years \\|work\\=The Japan Times \\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2001/12/26/arts/still\\-f\\-a\\-b\\-after\\-all\\-these\\-years/\\#.WO67dlPyutg \\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2017}}", "In 1966, Grade's companies were re\\-organised again to form the Associated Communications Corporation (ACC). That year, *[The Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times \"The Sunday Times\")* investigated the interconnected nature of the companies controlled by Grade and his two brothers, Bernard Delfont and Leslie Grade. Their firms, effectively amounting to a \"cartel\", were agents for most of the major talents in acting as well as entertainment and controlled theatres in both London and the rest of the UK and ATV was a major provider of televised entertainment.", "### Later television productions", "The following year, ATV lost its London franchise to what would become [London Weekend Television](/wiki/London_Weekend_Television \"London Weekend Television\") (LWT);Richard G. Elen; [ATV](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459509/index.html), BFI screenonline. at the same time, however, ATV's Midlands franchise was expanded to run throughout the week from July 1968\\. Through ATV Music, Grade acquired [Northern Songs](/wiki/Northern_Songs \"Northern Songs\"), gaining control of the [Lennon–McCartney](/wiki/Lennon%E2%80%93McCartney \"Lennon–McCartney\") song catalogue.Philip Norman [*Shout!: The Beatles in Their Generation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=l2I0twz__BIC&pg=PA422&lpg=PA422), New York: Fireside, 2005, pp. 422–24", "Foreign sales remained strong for a time (valued at $30 million in 1970\\)[Entrepreneurs: Top Grade](https://web.archive.org/web/20081221205506/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,905454,00.html), *TIME*, 4 October 1971\\. and the ACC received the [Queen's Awards for Export](/wiki/Queen%27s_Awards_for_Enterprise \"Queen's Awards for Enterprise\") in both 1967 and 1969\\.", "Some of the 1970s distributions performed poorly: these included *[The Julie Andrews Hour](/wiki/The_Julie_Andrews_Hour \"The Julie Andrews Hour\")* (1972–73\\), which aired for only one season on the [ABC Television Network](/wiki/ABC_Television_Network \"ABC Television Network\") in the United States. This received positive reviews and seven [Emmy Awards](/wiki/Emmy_Award \"Emmy Award\"), including the title of 'Best Variety Series'. The action series *[The Protectors](/wiki/The_Protectors \"The Protectors\")* (1972–74\\) and *[The Persuaders!](/wiki/The_Persuaders%21 \"The Persuaders!\")* (1971–72\\), were not especially successful. Gerry Anderson moved to live action [science fiction](/wiki/British_television_science_fiction \"British television science fiction\") shows *[UFO](/wiki/UFO_%28British_TV_series%29 \"UFO (British TV series)\")* (1969–71\\) and *[Space: 1999](/wiki/Space:1999 \"1999\")* (1975–77\\). After *Space: 1999*, Anderson made no new series for ITC, but maintained a connection with Grade until Grade lost control of his companies in 1982\\.", "In the mid\\-1970s, Grade approached American puppeteer [Jim Henson](/wiki/Jim_Henson \"Jim Henson\"), who was in need of assistance for his latest television project. Henson wanted to create a new [variety show](/wiki/Variety_show \"Variety show\") starring his [Muppet](/wiki/The_Muppets \"The Muppets\") characters, but had been dismissed by American networks on account of his contributions to children's programmes such as *[Sesame Street](/wiki/Sesame_Street \"Sesame Street\")* (1969–present).{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}} [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") came close to agreeing to broadcast *[The Muppet Show](/wiki/The_Muppet_Show \"The Muppet Show\")*, but only if it was during a [syndicated block](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication \"Broadcast syndication\") of its programming.{{clarify\\|date\\=June 2018}} After watching one of Henson's pilots and recalling a special made in one of his studios, Grade allowed Henson to realise his project in Britain (the series was recorded at the [ATV Elstree Studios](/wiki/ATV_Elstree_Studios \"ATV Elstree Studios\"), later bought by the BBC, primarily used for *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders \"EastEnders\")*) and distributed internationally by ITC. Grade's action was instrumental in bringing *The Muppet Show* to the screen in 1976 and ensuring its success; it ran until 1981\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}}", "Grade's other accomplishments in television included the mini\\-series *[Jesus of Nazareth](/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth_%28film%29 \"Jesus of Nazareth (film)\")* (1977\\), which was successfully sold to the American market and secured a record\\-breaking $12 million in revenue. Several years in preparation, the deal with the Italian broadcaster [RAI](/wiki/RAI \"RAI\") and director [Franco Zeffirelli](/wiki/Franco_Zeffirelli \"Franco Zeffirelli\") had been announced three years previously.Martin Sullivan [\" A television Jesus\"](http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/24th-august-1974/15/religion), *The Spectator*, 23 August 1974, p. 15", "### Film", "Grade approached [Blake Edwards](/wiki/Blake_Edwards \"Blake Edwards\") to revive the Pink Panther franchise as a TV series, an option Edwards was not keen on,[Obituary: Blake Edwards](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/film-obituaries/8207853/Blake-Edwards.html), telegraph.co.uk, 16 December 2010 but he did work on developing scripts. Eventually, he persuaded Grade to finance the property as a feature film project with he and [Peter Sellers](/wiki/Peter_Sellers \"Peter Sellers\") waiving their fees in return for a profit\\-sharing arrangement.Julian Upton [*Fallen Stars: Tragic Lives and Lost Careers*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Gb5ci9IF_SMC&pg=RA1-PT28), Manchester, Headpress, 2004, p.28 Both men's careers had not been prospering for a few years.Bob Thomas [\"Pink Panther Sequel Spelled Success\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19751117&id=BQ9PAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7275,4848771), *The Blade* (Toledo, Ohio), 17 November 1975, p. 18 Only Grade's second big budget feature, ITC produced the eventual film *[The Return of the Pink Panther](/wiki/The_Return_of_the_Pink_Panther \"The Return of the Pink Panther\")* (1975\\), while [United Artists](/wiki/United_Artists \"United Artists\") (UA), who had earlier rejected the project themselves, gained distribution rights and a 5% share of the profits.Roger Lewis [*The Life and Death of Peter Sellers*](https://books.google.com/books?id=biKazcH-dXoC&pg=PA845), London: Arrow Books, 2004 \\[1994], p. 845n. Distribution in other countries was undertaken by ITC. *The Return of the Pink Panther* was a commercially successful release.", "It also prompted Grade to move into the film industry, where he had success with *[Farewell My Lovely](/wiki/Farewell%2C_My_Lovely_%281975_film%29 \"Farewell, My Lovely (1975 film)\")* (1975\\).\"Sir Lew Grade the new knight in shining armour for British films\", *The Irish Times*, Dublin, Ireland, 27 October 1975, p. 14\\. Other films of the period made with Grade's involvement include the co\\-releases *[The Boys From Brazil](/wiki/The_Boys_from_Brazil_%28film%29 \"The Boys from Brazil (film)\")* (1978\\) with [20th Century Fox](/wiki/20th_Century_Fox \"20th Century Fox\") and *[Movie Movie](/wiki/Movie_Movie \"Movie Movie\")* (also 1978\\) with [Warner Bros](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\"). He was a producer on the [Ingmar Bergman](/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman \"Ingmar Bergman\") films *[Autumn Sonata](/wiki/Autumn_Sonata \"Autumn Sonata\")* (1978\\) and *[From the Life of the Marionettes](/wiki/From_the_Life_of_the_Marionettes \"From the Life of the Marionettes\")* (1980\\). Grade was executive producer of *[The Muppet Movie](/wiki/The_Muppet_Movie \"The Muppet Movie\")* (1979\\) and *[The Great Muppet Caper](/wiki/The_Great_Muppet_Caper \"The Great Muppet Caper\")* (1981\\); [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\") portrayed a studio executive named \"Lew Lord\" in the first film. One domestic British film made by the ITC subsidiary Black Lion Films, *[The Long Good Friday](/wiki/The_Long_Good_Friday \"The Long Good Friday\")* (1980\\) was purchased and released by [HandMade Films](/wiki/HandMade_Films \"HandMade Films\") after Grade and his company had effectively disowned it for, in Grade's reputed opinion, seeming to be sympathetic to the [IRA](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army \"Provisional Irish Republican Army\").Mark Duguid [\"*Long Good Friday, The* (1979\\)\"](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/480130/index.html), BFI Screenonline; accessed 24 December 2015\\.", "Grade's backing of an expensive \"all\\-star\" flop was to prove decisive. Of *[Raise the Titanic](/wiki/Raise_the_Titanic_%28film%29 \"Raise the Titanic (film)\")* (1980\\), an adaptation of [the novel](/wiki/Raise_the_Titanic%21 \"Raise the Titanic!\") by [Clive Cussler](/wiki/Clive_Cussler \"Clive Cussler\"), Grade himself observed that \"It would have been cheaper to lower the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\")\".{{Cite news \\|last\\=Hoge \\|first\\=Warren \\|date\\=14 December 1998 \\|title\\=Lew Grade, 91, Flamboyant Shaper of British TV and Movies \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/14/nyregion/lew\\-grade\\-91\\-flamboyant\\-shaper\\-of\\-british\\-tv\\-and\\-movies.html \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017}} The film was panned by critics and, after costing $36 million, returned only $8 million in rentals. This film along with other expensive box office failures – including *[Saturn 3](/wiki/Saturn_3 \"Saturn 3\")* (1980\\) and *[The Legend of the Lone Ranger](/wiki/The_Legend_of_the_Lone_Ranger \"The Legend of the Lone Ranger\")* (1981\\) – marked the end of Grade's involvement in major film production.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}} Despite this, several of the most critically acclaimed films produced by Grade were released after the failure of *Raise the Titanic*: these included *[On Golden Pond](/wiki/On_Golden_Pond_%281981_film%29 \"On Golden Pond (1981 film)\")* (1981\\) and *[Sophie's Choice](/wiki/Sophie%27s_Choice_%28film%29 \"Sophie's Choice (film)\")* (1982\\), both winners of [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Award \"Academy Award\"), as well as *[The Dark Crystal](/wiki/The_Dark_Crystal \"The Dark Crystal\")* (1982\\), which was Jim Henson's final project created in association with ITC.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Vagg \\|first\\=Stephen \\|date\\=10 March 2020 \\|title\\=Ten Billionaires Who Were Stung by Hollywood \\|url\\=https://www.filmink.com.au/ten\\-billionaires\\-stung\\-hollywood/ \\|magazine\\=Filmink}}", "### Later years", "In 1980, Grade's standing in the mass media industry was damaged by two events: the poor reception for *Raise the Titanic*, and a decision that, effective from 1 January 1982 [ATV Midlands](/wiki/ATV_Midlands \"ATV Midlands\") would be permitted to keep its licence only on the condition that it terminate its association with Grade and ITC (ultimately leading to its re\\-branding as [Central Television](/wiki/ITV_Central \"ITV Central\")). Grade resigned his position in the company while it underwent a series of partnerships and mergers. In 1982, he lost control of ACC to [Robert Holmes à Court](/wiki/Robert_Holmes_%C3%A0_Court \"Robert Holmes à Court\"), who dismissed him and all his staff.", "Grade was brought in by American producer [Norman Lear](/wiki/Norman_Lear \"Norman Lear\") in June 1982 to head the London division of [Embassy Communications International](/wiki/Embassy_Pictures \"Embassy Pictures\"), to be involved in the production and distribution of films and television programmes.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Cuff \\|first\\=Daniel F. \\|date\\=24 June 1982 \\|title\\=Lord Grade Joins Norman Lear Team \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/24/business/business\\-people\\-lord\\-grade\\-joins\\-norman\\-lear\\-team.html \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017}} Subsequently, he became a producer of [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\")'s musical *[Starlight Express](/wiki/Starlight_Express \"Starlight Express\")*.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bennetts \\|first\\=Leslie \\|date\\=23 February 1987 \\|title\\=A Transformed ''Starlight Express'' Strives Towards Broadway Opening \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/23/theater/a\\-transformed\\-starlight\\-express\\-strives\\-toward\\-broadway\\-opening.html \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017}} After [Coca\\-Cola](/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company \"The Coca-Cola Company\") had bought Embassy, he became the head of a new venture, the Grade Company, in 1985, and was elected a vice\\-president of the [Loews Group](/wiki/Loews_Cineplex_Entertainment \"Loews Cineplex Entertainment\") chain of cinemas in the United States.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lew Grade Biography (1906–1998\\) \\|url\\=http://www.filmreference.com/film/54/Lew\\-Grade.html \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2017 \\|website\\=Film Reference}} The Grade Company produced adaptations for television of works by novelist Dame [Barbara Cartland](/wiki/Barbara_Cartland \"Barbara Cartland\"); he owned the rights to 450 of her romances.", "By the early to mid\\-1990s, Grade had returned to ITC to head the company one final time until his death in 1998\\. Grade was a member of the Founding Council of the [Rothermere American Institute](/wiki/Rothermere_American_Institute \"Rothermere American Institute\") at the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}}", "" ]
History and ethnography of the Mijikenda peoples ------------------------------------------------ ### Origins The orthodox view of the Mijikenda's origins is that the Mijikenda peoples originated in [Shungwaya](/wiki/Shungwaya "Shungwaya") (Singwaya) and various other parts of the northern Somali coast, and where pushed south by the Galla ([Oromo](/wiki/Oromo_people "Oromo people")) and reached Kenya around the 16th century. This view of the origins of the Mijikenda people was argued by Thomas Spear in the book *The Kaya Complex*,{{Cite book\|title\=The Kaya Complex\|last\=Spear\|first\=Thomas\|publisher\=Kenya Literature Bureau\|year\=1978}} and was also confirmed by many Mijikenda oral traditions. Furthermore, oral tradition states that the precise reason for the Galla pushing the Mijikenda from Singwaya was the murder of a Galla Tribesman by a Mijikenda youth, and the Mijikenda tribes subsequent refusal to pay compensation to the Galla.Republic of Kenya. NOMINATION DOSSIER FOR INSCRIPTION ON THE WORLD HERITAGE LIST THE SACRED MIJIKENDA KAYA FORESTS. Unesco.org. THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION, Jan. 2008\. Web. 17 Oct. 2016\. Pg. 51 \- Pg. 61 However it has also been theorized that the Mijikenda peoples may have originated in roughly the same places they currently reside.{{Cite journal\|last\=Walsh\|first\=Martin\|title\=MIJIKENDA ORIGINS: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE\|journal\=Transafrican Journal of History\|volume\=21}} One possible explanation for this is that the Mijikenda peoples adopted the Singwaya narrative in order to create an ethnic identity that allowed them to create a relationship to the Swahili who also claimed Singwaya origins.Bresnahan, David P. Sacred Spaces, Political Authority, and the Dynamics of Tradition in Mijikenda History. Thesis. 2010\. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. Oral tradition also states that the Mijikenda peoples split into six separate peoples during this southern migration after they were driven out of Singwaya. These six groups would go on to settle the original six *kaya*. At the turn of the 17th century the Mijikenda settled six fortified hilltop *kaya*, where they made their homesteads. These original six *kaya* were later expanded into nine *kaya*. The origin legend serves as a narrative of a real migration that happened at a specific point in time to a real place, but also serves as a narrative of a mythical migration that took place through a cultural time from a common origin. It promotes a higher unity among the group of the nine individual ethnic groups that makes up the Mijikenda peoples. Singwaya is considered by the Mijikenda to be their common origin point, and the birthplace of their language and traditions. This origin legend also defines some of the relationships of the ethnic groups that make up the Mijikenda peoples, for example one version of the oral tradition states that the Digo were the first to leave Singwaya and thus are accepted as the other groups as senior, then the Ribe left, followed by the Giriama, the Chonyi, and the Jibana. ### Kayas [thumb](/wiki/File:Kaya-skog.jpg "Kaya-skog.jpg") The [*kayas*](/wiki/Kaya_%28Mijikenda%29 "Kaya (Mijikenda)") were the first homesteads of the Mijikenda peoples after their exodus from Singwaya. Oral tradition states that it was the Digo who were the first to migrate southward and establish the first *kaya*. The period after the establishment of the *kaya* and was portrayed as a time of stability by these oral traditions, this period ended in the mid to late 19th century with the rise of colonialism. The *kaya* also represented an important political symbol to the Mijikenda peoples, as well as being an important cultural symbol to the Mijikenda peoples. The political symbolism of the *kaya* also played a part in the resistance to colonialism for the Mijikenda peoples. Sometime during the late 19th century the Mijikenda peoples began leaving their *kaya* homesteads and settling areas elsewhere. The layout of the *kaya* settlements usually had centrally positioned areas devoted to leadership and worship, with other areas devoted to initiation ceremonies, areas for developing magic and medicine, and areas devoted to burials and entertainment placed around them. The forests of the *kaya* surrounding the settlement acted as a buffer between the settlement itself and the outside world. As the populations of these *kaya* grew, security grew which lead to a period of stability which allowed the Mijikenda people to spread outwards along the coasts and southwards along the border of Tanzania. Eventually all nine of the original *kaya* were abandoned as the Mijikenda settled elsewhere, however the importance of these *kaya* did not diminish, and they were still held as sacred sites.{{Cite journal\|last\=Tinga\|first\=Kaingu Kalume\|title\=The Presentation and interpretation of ritual sites: The Mijikenda Kaya Case\|journal\=Museum International\|volume\=56}} ### Slavery During the precolonial period the Mijikenda people were [horticulturalists](/wiki/Horticulture "Horticulture") and [pastoralists](/wiki/Pastoralism "Pastoralism"), And had well established trade with the coastal Swahili peoples. The Hinterland people (The Mijikenda, [Pokomo](/wiki/Pokomo_people "Pokomo people"), and [Segeju](/wiki/Segeju_people "Segeju people") peoples) grew food that the coastal Swahili people depended on. This trade relationship was based on economic, military, and political alliances. The Mijikenda peoples even participated in [Mombasa](/wiki/Mombasa "Mombasa") politics.{{Cite book\|title\=Contesting Identities: The Mijikenda and Their Neighbors in Kenyan Coastal Society\|last\=Gearhard\|first\=Rebecca\|last2\=Giles\|first2\=Linda\|publisher\=African World Press\|year\=2013\|location\=Trenton, New Jersey}} However, during the colonial period under the British power was given to the Coastal Swahili peoples and the Arab peoples of the area. The Coastal strip of land near the Hinterlands was recognized as belonging to the Sultan of Oman, subsequently the Mijikenda people could only go there as squatters and were in danger of expulsion at any time. The colonial power over the coastal areas also extended to the Hinterland regions where the Mijikenda people resided. One group of Mijikenda peoples, Known as the [Giriama](/wiki/Giriama_people "Giriama people") peoples were mistrustful of the British colonial government, as prior to Britain's colonization of the coastal and hinterland areas this group had had its people captured by Arab and Swahili slave traders during the 19th century. Differing accounts of this period exist, with some sources stating that these enslaved Giriama peoples participated in a complex [patron\-client relationship](/wiki/Patron-client_relationship "Patron-client relationship") which was important for the establishment of large scale plantations on the East African coast.{{Cite book\|title\=Plantation Slavery on the East African coast\|last\=Cooper\|first\=Frederick\|publisher\=Pearson Education\|year\=1977}} This account goes on to say that these enslaved Giriama peoples were integrated into Swahili and Arab land owning families and were sometimes referred to as dependents rather than slaves. Overall the treatment of these slaves was not very harsh, due to the ease of escape, the kin\-based patron\-client system, and Islam's prohibition of harsh treatment of slaves. This is contrasted by the treatment of the slaves on the nearby islands such as [Pemba](/wiki/Pemba_Island "Pemba Island") or [Zanzibar](/wiki/Zanzibar "Zanzibar") where slaves were treated more harshly. As slave ownership declined on the East African coast many of the Ex\-slaves moved on to find employment as manual laborers on their former master's plantations and were paid a portion of the crop as compensation in a similar patron\-client relationship as before. However some accounts state that the slavery that the Giriama people endured was harsher than was previously believed.{{Cite book\|title\=Children of Ham: Freed Slaves and Fugitive Slaves on the Kenya Coast, 1873 to 1907\|last\=Morton\|first\=Fred\|publisher\=iUniverse\|year\=2008}} Enslaved Giriama people were known to have fled by the hundreds to any sanctuary they could, in some cases seeking refuge in Christian Missionary stations, in other cases fleeing to runaway slave settlements. Additionally the idea that the transition from ex\-slaves to manual laborers was made difficult due to fear among members of the colonial government that the fugitive and freed slaves would start a rebellion.
[ "History and ethnography of the Mijikenda peoples\n------------------------------------------------", "### Origins", "The orthodox view of the Mijikenda's origins is that the Mijikenda peoples originated in [Shungwaya](/wiki/Shungwaya \"Shungwaya\") (Singwaya) and various other parts of the northern Somali coast, and where pushed south by the Galla ([Oromo](/wiki/Oromo_people \"Oromo people\")) and reached Kenya around the 16th century. This view of the origins of the Mijikenda people was argued by Thomas Spear in the book *The Kaya Complex*,{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Kaya Complex\\|last\\=Spear\\|first\\=Thomas\\|publisher\\=Kenya Literature Bureau\\|year\\=1978}} and was also confirmed by many Mijikenda oral traditions. Furthermore, oral tradition states that the precise reason for the Galla pushing the Mijikenda from Singwaya was the murder of a Galla Tribesman by a Mijikenda youth, and the Mijikenda tribes subsequent refusal to pay compensation to the Galla.Republic of Kenya. NOMINATION DOSSIER FOR INSCRIPTION ON THE WORLD HERITAGE LIST THE SACRED MIJIKENDA KAYA FORESTS. Unesco.org. THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION, Jan. 2008\\. Web. 17 Oct. 2016\\. Pg. 51 \\- Pg. 61 However it has also been theorized that the Mijikenda peoples may have originated in roughly the same places they currently reside.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Walsh\\|first\\=Martin\\|title\\=MIJIKENDA ORIGINS: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE\\|journal\\=Transafrican Journal of History\\|volume\\=21}} One possible explanation for this is that the Mijikenda peoples adopted the Singwaya narrative in order to create an ethnic identity that allowed them to create a relationship to the Swahili who also claimed Singwaya origins.Bresnahan, David P. Sacred Spaces, Political Authority, and the Dynamics of Tradition in Mijikenda History. Thesis. 2010\\. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. Oral tradition also states that the Mijikenda peoples split into six separate peoples during this southern migration after they were driven out of Singwaya. These six groups would go on to settle the original six *kaya*.", "At the turn of the 17th century the Mijikenda settled six fortified hilltop *kaya*, where they made their homesteads. These original six *kaya* were later expanded into nine *kaya*. The origin legend serves as a narrative of a real migration that happened at a specific point in time to a real place, but also serves as a narrative of a mythical migration that took place through a cultural time from a common origin. It promotes a higher unity among the group of the nine individual ethnic groups that makes up the Mijikenda peoples. Singwaya is considered by the Mijikenda to be their common origin point, and the birthplace of their language and traditions.", "This origin legend also defines some of the relationships of the ethnic groups that make up the Mijikenda peoples, for example one version of the oral tradition states that the Digo were the first to leave Singwaya and thus are accepted as the other groups as senior, then the Ribe left, followed by the Giriama, the Chonyi, and the Jibana.\n### Kayas", "[thumb](/wiki/File:Kaya-skog.jpg \"Kaya-skog.jpg\")\nThe [*kayas*](/wiki/Kaya_%28Mijikenda%29 \"Kaya (Mijikenda)\") were the first homesteads of the Mijikenda peoples after their exodus from Singwaya. Oral tradition states that it was the Digo who were the first to migrate southward and establish the first *kaya*. The period after the establishment of the *kaya* and was portrayed as a time of stability by these oral traditions, this period ended in the mid to late 19th century with the rise of colonialism. The *kaya* also represented an important political symbol to the Mijikenda peoples, as well as being an important cultural symbol to the Mijikenda peoples. The political symbolism of the *kaya* also played a part in the resistance to colonialism for the Mijikenda peoples. Sometime during the late 19th century the Mijikenda peoples began leaving their *kaya* homesteads and settling areas elsewhere.", "The layout of the *kaya* settlements usually had centrally positioned areas devoted to leadership and worship, with other areas devoted to initiation ceremonies, areas for developing magic and medicine, and areas devoted to burials and entertainment placed around them. The forests of the *kaya* surrounding the settlement acted as a buffer between the settlement itself and the outside world. As the populations of these *kaya* grew, security grew which lead to a period of stability which allowed the Mijikenda people to spread outwards along the coasts and southwards along the border of Tanzania. Eventually all nine of the original *kaya* were abandoned as the Mijikenda settled elsewhere, however the importance of these *kaya* did not diminish, and they were still held as sacred sites.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Tinga\\|first\\=Kaingu Kalume\\|title\\=The Presentation and interpretation of ritual sites: The Mijikenda Kaya Case\\|journal\\=Museum International\\|volume\\=56}}", "### Slavery", "During the precolonial period the Mijikenda people were [horticulturalists](/wiki/Horticulture \"Horticulture\") and [pastoralists](/wiki/Pastoralism \"Pastoralism\"), And had well established trade with the coastal Swahili peoples. The Hinterland people (The Mijikenda, [Pokomo](/wiki/Pokomo_people \"Pokomo people\"), and [Segeju](/wiki/Segeju_people \"Segeju people\") peoples) grew food that the coastal Swahili people depended on. This trade relationship was based on economic, military, and political alliances. The Mijikenda peoples even participated in [Mombasa](/wiki/Mombasa \"Mombasa\") politics.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Contesting Identities: The Mijikenda and Their Neighbors in Kenyan Coastal Society\\|last\\=Gearhard\\|first\\=Rebecca\\|last2\\=Giles\\|first2\\=Linda\\|publisher\\=African World Press\\|year\\=2013\\|location\\=Trenton, New Jersey}}", "However, during the colonial period under the British power was given to the Coastal Swahili peoples and the Arab peoples of the area. The Coastal strip of land near the Hinterlands was recognized as belonging to the Sultan of Oman, subsequently the Mijikenda people could only go there as squatters and were in danger of expulsion at any time. The colonial power over the coastal areas also extended to the Hinterland regions where the Mijikenda people resided.", "One group of Mijikenda peoples, Known as the [Giriama](/wiki/Giriama_people \"Giriama people\") peoples were mistrustful of the British colonial government, as prior to Britain's colonization of the coastal and hinterland areas this group had had its people captured by Arab and Swahili slave traders during the 19th century.", "Differing accounts of this period exist, with some sources stating that these enslaved Giriama peoples participated in a complex [patron\\-client relationship](/wiki/Patron-client_relationship \"Patron-client relationship\") which was important for the establishment of large scale plantations on the East African coast.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Plantation Slavery on the East African coast\\|last\\=Cooper\\|first\\=Frederick\\|publisher\\=Pearson Education\\|year\\=1977}} This account goes on to say that these enslaved Giriama peoples were integrated into Swahili and Arab land owning families and were sometimes referred to as dependents rather than slaves. Overall the treatment of these slaves was not very harsh, due to the ease of escape, the kin\\-based patron\\-client system, and Islam's prohibition of harsh treatment of slaves. This is contrasted by the treatment of the slaves on the nearby islands such as [Pemba](/wiki/Pemba_Island \"Pemba Island\") or [Zanzibar](/wiki/Zanzibar \"Zanzibar\") where slaves were treated more harshly. As slave ownership declined on the East African coast many of the Ex\\-slaves moved on to find employment as manual laborers on their former master's plantations and were paid a portion of the crop as compensation in a similar patron\\-client relationship as before.", "However some accounts state that the slavery that the Giriama people endured was harsher than was previously believed.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Children of Ham: Freed Slaves and Fugitive Slaves on the Kenya Coast, 1873 to 1907\\|last\\=Morton\\|first\\=Fred\\|publisher\\=iUniverse\\|year\\=2008}} Enslaved Giriama people were known to have fled by the hundreds to any sanctuary they could, in some cases seeking refuge in Christian Missionary stations, in other cases fleeing to runaway slave settlements. Additionally the idea that the transition from ex\\-slaves to manual laborers was made difficult due to fear among members of the colonial government that the fugitive and freed slaves would start a rebellion.", "" ]
Refereeing career ----------------- At age 28, he was selected to serve as a referee for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. He was one of 23 referees selected to officiate the 2006 FIFA World Cup.{{Cite web \|title\=Zurich Referee of the Year, Mark Shield, talks about the World Cup \|url\=http://www.zurich.com.au/zportal/cs/ContentServer?pagename\=GroupSite%2FGSArticle%2FShowGSArticle\&cid\=1148340843317\&p\=991803141588 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623155344/http://www.zurich.com.au/zportal/cs/ContentServer?pagename\=GroupSite%2FGSArticle%2FShowGSArticle\&cid\=1148340843317\&p\=991803141588 \|archive\-date\=23 June 2006 \|access\-date\=13 January 2022 \|publisher\=Zurich Financial Services}} Shield announced his retirement from refereeing on 20 September 2008 and he refereed his last game in [Round 8](/wiki/A-League_2008-09%23Regular_season "A-League 2008-09#Regular season") of the [2008/09](/wiki/A-League_2008-09 "A-League 2008-09") A\-League season in the match between [Queensland Roar](/wiki/Queensland_Roar "Queensland Roar") and [Adelaide United](/wiki/Adelaide_United "Adelaide United").{{Cite web \|last\=Micallef \|first\=Philip \|title\=Shield blows full time \|url\=http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/australia/shield\-blows\-full\-time\-136714/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928104555/http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/australia/shield\-blows\-full\-time\-136714 \|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-28 \|website\=The World Game \|publisher\=Special Broadcasting Service}} ### 2002 World Cup Shield served as an official at the [2002 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup "2002 FIFA World Cup") in [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"). On 10 June 2002 he officiated the 1\-1 draw between [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium_national_football_team "Belgium national football team") and [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia_national_football_team "Tunisia national football team").{{Cite web \|date\=10 June 2002 \|title\=Tunisia hold Belgium \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/worldcup2002/hi/matches\_wallchart/tunisia\_v\_belgium/default.stm\#stats \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=BBC Sport}} ### 2006 World Cup Shield was selected to referee at the [2006 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup "2006 FIFA World Cup") in [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"). He officiated the [Iran](/wiki/Iran_national_football_team "Iran national football team")\-[Angola](/wiki/Angola_national_football_team "Angola national football team") match and the [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_national_football_team "Saudi Arabia national football team")\-[Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia_national_football_team "Tunisia national football team") match, both in group play. Shield was also selected as one of the final 12 [officials](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup_officials "2006 FIFA World Cup officials") eligible to officiate the final eight matches of the tournament.{{Cite news \|date\=30 June 2006 \|title\=Shield gains elite status \|work\=The Advertiser \|url\=http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story\_page/0%2C5936%2C19633486%5E12428%2C00\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060708111730/http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story\_page/0,5936,19633486%5E12428,00\.html \|archive\-date\=8 July 2006}} ### Asian Champions League Final In late 2006, Shield was appointed to referee the second leg of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") final between [Al Karama](/wiki/Al-Karamah_SC "Al-Karamah SC") (Syria) and [Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors](/wiki/Jeonbuk_Hyundai_Motors "Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors") (South Korea) was played on Wednesday 8 November at the Khaled Bin Al Waleed Stadium. Jeonbuk Motors won the AFC Champions League after Brazilian striker Ze Carlo's 88th\-minute header gave them a 3\-2 aggregate victory over Al Karama. Al Karama won the second leg of the final 2\-1 but the Brazilian's late goal made the difference after the Koreans won the first leg 2\-0\. ### Asian Cup 2007 Shield was appointed with fellow Australian referee [Matthew Breeze](/wiki/Matthew_Breeze "Matthew Breeze") to referee at the [2007 Asian Cup](/wiki/Asian_Cup_2007 "Asian Cup 2007"). Australia was the only country with more than one representative on the panel of referees for the tournament. While at the tournament, he was selected for a number of matches including the final between Iraq and Saudi Arabia, whilst Breeze was selected to referee a semi\-final match. Both were fortunate that the Australian team were knocked out in the quarter\-finals because they would not have been able to referee matches involving or affecting their own country in the latter stages. ### Hyundai Club Challenge Shield received creditable reviews for his performance in the one\-off game between [Sydney FC](/wiki/Sydney_FC "Sydney FC") and [Los Angeles Galaxy](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Galaxy "Los Angeles Galaxy") at Sydney's Telstra Stadium on 27 November 2007 (the attendance of 80,295 is Australia's largest for a club game). In an exhibition match won 5\-3 by the home team, Shield sent off LA Galaxy defender Kevin Harmse and also booked Beckham for a retaliatory lunge at Sydney's Robbie Middleby. ### FIFA Club World Cup 2007 Shield officiated in the quarter\-final between [Étoile Sportive du Sahel](/wiki/%C3%89toile_Sportive_du_Sahel "Étoile Sportive du Sahel") and [Pachuca](/wiki/Pachuca "Pachuca") in front of 34,934 fans at the [National Stadium](/wiki/National_Stadium_%28Tokyo%2C_1958%29 "National Stadium (Tokyo, 1958)"), [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"). He was also named as the fourth official in the final between [Boca Juniors](/wiki/Boca_Juniors "Boca Juniors") and [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan "A.C. Milan"). ### National Soccer League (NSL) Shield made his professional debut just a month after his 22nd birthday, refereeing the Sydney United vs West Adelaide match in the old National Soccer League on 8 October 1995 at the Sydney United Sports Centre. He refereed 3 NSL Grand Finals.{{Cite web \|title\=Ref's Room \|url\=http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\=1\&t\=3639 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305090738/http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\=1\&t\=3639 \|archive\-date\=5 March 2016 \|access\-date\=15 December 2010 \|website\=AusRef}} ### A\-League Mark Shield was on the A\-League Referees Panel at the start of the 2008/09 A\-League season. On 19 September 2008, *The Sydney Morning Herald* reported that he was considering retirement. He did not referee in Round 4 of the 2008/09 A\-League season, nor was he scheduled to referee in Round 5 that weekend. He refereed his final match in the Round 8 match between [Queensland Roar](/wiki/Queensland_Roar "Queensland Roar") and [Adelaide United](/wiki/Adelaide_United "Adelaide United").{{Cite web \|last\=Cockerill \|first\=Michael \|date\=19 September 2008 \|title\=Sydney put on Reds alert \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/sport/football/a\-league/sydney\-put\-on\-reds\-alert/2008/09/18/1221331058797\.html \|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald}} Shield Refereed the first three [A\-League](/wiki/A-League "A-League") Finals before retiring (2006, 2007 and 2008\), refereeing a total of six consecutive domestic league finals in Australia.{{Cite web \|title\=Ref's Room \|url\=http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\=1\&t\=3639 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305090738/http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\=1\&t\=3639 \|archive\-date\=5 March 2016 \|access\-date\=15 December 2010}} **A\-League Matches:**{{Cite web \|title\=Mark Shield \|url\=http://ultimatealeague.com/referee\_detail.php?referee\_id\=4 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=Ultimate A\-League}} * 2005/2006 Season: 19 Matches (Including: 2 Pre\-season; Major Semi\-final 2nd Leg; Final: [Sydney FC](/wiki/Sydney_FC "Sydney FC") \- [Central Coast Mariners](/wiki/Central_Coast_Mariners "Central Coast Mariners")) * 2006/2007 Season: 19 Matches (Including: 1 Pre\-season; Major Semi\-final 2nd Leg; Final: [Melbourne Victory](/wiki/Melbourne_Victory "Melbourne Victory") \- [Adelaide United](/wiki/Adelaide_United "Adelaide United")) * 2007/2008 Season: 17 Matches (Including: Minor Semi\-final (both legs); Final: [Central Coast Mariners](/wiki/Central_Coast_Mariners "Central Coast Mariners") \- [Newcastle Jets](/wiki/Newcastle_Jets "Newcastle Jets")) * 2008/2009 Season: 6 Matches (Including: 1 Pre\-season. Shields Last A\-League match was played in Round 8\)
[ "Refereeing career\n-----------------", "At age 28, he was selected to serve as a referee for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. He was one of 23 referees selected to officiate the 2006 FIFA World Cup.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Zurich Referee of the Year, Mark Shield, talks about the World Cup \\|url\\=http://www.zurich.com.au/zportal/cs/ContentServer?pagename\\=GroupSite%2FGSArticle%2FShowGSArticle\\&cid\\=1148340843317\\&p\\=991803141588 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623155344/http://www.zurich.com.au/zportal/cs/ContentServer?pagename\\=GroupSite%2FGSArticle%2FShowGSArticle\\&cid\\=1148340843317\\&p\\=991803141588 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2022 \\|publisher\\=Zurich Financial Services}} Shield announced his retirement from refereeing on 20 September 2008 and he refereed his last game in [Round 8](/wiki/A-League_2008-09%23Regular_season \"A-League 2008-09#Regular season\") of the [2008/09](/wiki/A-League_2008-09 \"A-League 2008-09\") A\\-League season in the match between [Queensland Roar](/wiki/Queensland_Roar \"Queensland Roar\") and [Adelaide United](/wiki/Adelaide_United \"Adelaide United\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Micallef \\|first\\=Philip \\|title\\=Shield blows full time \\|url\\=http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/australia/shield\\-blows\\-full\\-time\\-136714/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928104555/http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/australia/shield\\-blows\\-full\\-time\\-136714 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-28 \\|website\\=The World Game \\|publisher\\=Special Broadcasting Service}}", "### 2002 World Cup", "Shield served as an official at the [2002 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup \"2002 FIFA World Cup\") in [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"). On 10 June 2002 he officiated the 1\\-1 draw between [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium_national_football_team \"Belgium national football team\") and [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia_national_football_team \"Tunisia national football team\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=10 June 2002 \\|title\\=Tunisia hold Belgium \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/worldcup2002/hi/matches\\_wallchart/tunisia\\_v\\_belgium/default.stm\\#stats \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=BBC Sport}}", "### 2006 World Cup", "Shield was selected to referee at the [2006 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup \"2006 FIFA World Cup\") in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"). He officiated the [Iran](/wiki/Iran_national_football_team \"Iran national football team\")\\-[Angola](/wiki/Angola_national_football_team \"Angola national football team\") match and the [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_national_football_team \"Saudi Arabia national football team\")\\-[Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia_national_football_team \"Tunisia national football team\") match, both in group play.", "Shield was also selected as one of the final 12 [officials](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup_officials \"2006 FIFA World Cup officials\") eligible to officiate the final eight matches of the tournament.{{Cite news \\|date\\=30 June 2006 \\|title\\=Shield gains elite status \\|work\\=The Advertiser \\|url\\=http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story\\_page/0%2C5936%2C19633486%5E12428%2C00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060708111730/http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story\\_page/0,5936,19633486%5E12428,00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2006}}", "### Asian Champions League Final", "In late 2006, Shield was appointed to referee the second leg of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") final between [Al Karama](/wiki/Al-Karamah_SC \"Al-Karamah SC\") (Syria) and [Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors](/wiki/Jeonbuk_Hyundai_Motors \"Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors\") (South Korea) was played on Wednesday 8 November at the Khaled Bin Al Waleed Stadium. Jeonbuk Motors won the AFC Champions League after Brazilian striker Ze Carlo's 88th\\-minute header gave them a 3\\-2 aggregate victory over Al Karama. Al Karama won the second leg of the final 2\\-1 but the Brazilian's late goal made the difference after the Koreans won the first leg 2\\-0\\.", "### Asian Cup 2007", "Shield was appointed with fellow Australian referee [Matthew Breeze](/wiki/Matthew_Breeze \"Matthew Breeze\") to referee at the [2007 Asian Cup](/wiki/Asian_Cup_2007 \"Asian Cup 2007\"). Australia was the only country with more than one representative on the panel of referees for the tournament. While at the tournament, he was selected for a number of matches including the final between Iraq and Saudi Arabia, whilst Breeze was selected to referee a semi\\-final match. Both were fortunate that the Australian team were knocked out in the quarter\\-finals because they would not have been able to referee matches involving or affecting their own country in the latter stages.", "### Hyundai Club Challenge", "Shield received creditable reviews for his performance in the one\\-off game between [Sydney FC](/wiki/Sydney_FC \"Sydney FC\") and [Los Angeles Galaxy](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Galaxy \"Los Angeles Galaxy\") at Sydney's Telstra Stadium on 27 November 2007 (the attendance of 80,295 is Australia's largest for a club game). In an exhibition match won 5\\-3 by the home team, Shield sent off LA Galaxy defender Kevin Harmse and also booked Beckham for a retaliatory lunge at Sydney's Robbie Middleby.", "### FIFA Club World Cup 2007", "Shield officiated in the quarter\\-final between [Étoile Sportive du Sahel](/wiki/%C3%89toile_Sportive_du_Sahel \"Étoile Sportive du Sahel\") and [Pachuca](/wiki/Pachuca \"Pachuca\") in front of 34,934 fans at the [National Stadium](/wiki/National_Stadium_%28Tokyo%2C_1958%29 \"National Stadium (Tokyo, 1958)\"), [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"). He was also named as the fourth official in the final between [Boca Juniors](/wiki/Boca_Juniors \"Boca Juniors\") and [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan \"A.C. Milan\").", "### National Soccer League (NSL)", "Shield made his professional debut just a month after his 22nd birthday, refereeing the Sydney United vs West Adelaide match in the old National Soccer League on 8 October 1995 at the Sydney United Sports Centre. He refereed 3 NSL Grand Finals.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ref's Room \\|url\\=http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\\=1\\&t\\=3639 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305090738/http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\\=1\\&t\\=3639 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2010 \\|website\\=AusRef}}", "### A\\-League", "Mark Shield was on the A\\-League Referees Panel at the start of the 2008/09 A\\-League season.", "On 19 September 2008, *The Sydney Morning Herald* reported that he was considering retirement. He did not referee in Round 4 of the 2008/09 A\\-League season, nor was he scheduled to referee in Round 5 that weekend. He refereed his final match in the Round 8 match between [Queensland Roar](/wiki/Queensland_Roar \"Queensland Roar\") and [Adelaide United](/wiki/Adelaide_United \"Adelaide United\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cockerill \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=19 September 2008 \\|title\\=Sydney put on Reds alert \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/sport/football/a\\-league/sydney\\-put\\-on\\-reds\\-alert/2008/09/18/1221331058797\\.html \\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald}} Shield Refereed the first three [A\\-League](/wiki/A-League \"A-League\") Finals before retiring (2006, 2007 and 2008\\), refereeing a total of six consecutive domestic league finals in Australia.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ref's Room \\|url\\=http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\\=1\\&t\\=3639 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305090738/http://refsroom.ausref.com/viewtopic.php?f\\=1\\&t\\=3639 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2010}}", "**A\\-League Matches:**{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mark Shield \\|url\\=http://ultimatealeague.com/referee\\_detail.php?referee\\_id\\=4 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=Ultimate A\\-League}}\n* 2005/2006 Season: 19 Matches (Including: 2 Pre\\-season; Major Semi\\-final 2nd Leg; Final: [Sydney FC](/wiki/Sydney_FC \"Sydney FC\") \\- [Central Coast Mariners](/wiki/Central_Coast_Mariners \"Central Coast Mariners\"))\n* 2006/2007 Season: 19 Matches (Including: 1 Pre\\-season; Major Semi\\-final 2nd Leg; Final: [Melbourne Victory](/wiki/Melbourne_Victory \"Melbourne Victory\") \\- [Adelaide United](/wiki/Adelaide_United \"Adelaide United\"))\n* 2007/2008 Season: 17 Matches (Including: Minor Semi\\-final (both legs); Final: [Central Coast Mariners](/wiki/Central_Coast_Mariners \"Central Coast Mariners\") \\- [Newcastle Jets](/wiki/Newcastle_Jets \"Newcastle Jets\"))\n* 2008/2009 Season: 6 Matches (Including: 1 Pre\\-season. Shields Last A\\-League match was played in Round 8\\)", "" ]
Description ----------- OMeta is a meta\-language used to prototype and create [domain\-specific languages](/wiki/Domain-specific_language "Domain-specific language"). It was introduced as "an object\-oriented language for pattern matching". It uses [parsing expression grammars](/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar "Parsing expression grammar") (descriptions of languages "based on recognizing strings instead of generating them"Mascarenhas, Fabio, Sergio Medeiros, and [Roberto Ierusalimschy](/wiki/Roberto_Ierusalimschy "Roberto Ierusalimschy"). Parsing Expression Grammars for Structured Data. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web.\<[http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/sblp/2011/003\.pdf](http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/sblp/2011/003.pdf)\>.) designed "to handle arbitrary kinds of data", such as characters, numbers, strings, atoms, and lists. This increases its versatility, enabling it to work on both structured and [unstructured data](/wiki/Unstructured_data "Unstructured data"). The language's main advantage over similar languages is its ability to use the same code for all steps of compiling, e.g., lexing and parsing. OMeta also supports the defining of production rules based on arguments; this can be used to add such rules to OMeta, and the host language that OMeta is running in. Also, these rules can use each other as arguments, creating "higher\-order rules", and inheriting each other to gain production rules from existing code. OMeta is capable of using host\-language booleans (True/False) while pattern matching; these are referred to as "semantic predicates". OMeta uses generalized pattern\-matching to allow programmers to more easily implement and extend phases of compilation with a single tool. OMeta uses grammars to determine the rules in which it operates. The grammars are able to hold an indefinite number of variables due to the use of an \_\_init\_\_ function called when a grammar is created. Grammars can inherit and call each other (using the "foreign production invocation mechanism", enabling grammars to "borrow" each other's input streams), much like classes in full programming languages. OMeta also prioritizes options within a given grammar to remove ambiguity, unlike most meta\-languages. After pattern\-matching an input to a given grammar, OMeta then assigns each component of the pattern to a variable, which it then feeds into the host language.Moser, Jeff. "Moserware.": [OMeta\#: Who? What? When? Where? Why?](http://www.moserware.com/2008/06/ometa-who-what-when-where-why.html), Blogger, 24 June 2008\. Web. 30 September 2013\. OMeta uses pattern matching to perform all of the steps of traditional compiling by itself. It first finds patterns in characters to create tokens, then it matches those tokens to its grammar to make syntax trees. Typecheckers then match patterns on the syntax trees to make annotated trees, and visitors do the same to produce other trees. A code generator then pattern\-matches the trees to produce the code. In OMeta, it is easy to "traverse through the parse tree since such functionality is natively supported". The meta\-language is noted for its usability in most programming languages, though it is most commonly used in its language of implementation—OMeta/JS, for example, is used in JavaScript. Because it requires a host language, the creators of OMeta refer to it as a "parasitic language".Warth, Alessandro. "\[Ometa] On OMeta's Syntax." \[Ometa] On OMeta's Syntax. N.p., 4 July 2008\. Web. 16 Oct. 2013\.\<[http://vpri.org/pipermail/ometa/2008\-July/000051\.html](http://vpri.org/pipermail/ometa/2008-July/000051.html)\>. ### Development Alessandro Warth and Ian Piumarta developed OMeta at the Viewpoints Research Institute, an organization intended to improve research systems and personal computing, in 2007\. They first used a Combined Object Lambda Architecture (COLA), a self\-describing language investigated at Viewpoints Research Institute, as OMeta's host language, and later, assisted by Yoshiki Ohshima, ported it to [Squeak](/wiki/Squeak "Squeak") [Smalltalk](/wiki/Smalltalk "Smalltalk") to verify its usability with multiple host languages. OMeta was also used "to implement a nearly complete subset of…JavaScript" as a case study in its introductory paper. ### Use OMeta, like other meta languages, is primarily used to create [domain\-specific languages](/wiki/Domain-specific_language "Domain-specific language") (DSLs); specifically, it is used to quickly prototype DSLs — OMeta's slow running speed and unclear error reports remove much of its function as a full programming language (Heirbaut 73–74\). OMeta is useful thanks to its ability to use one syntax for every phase of compiling, allowing it to be used rather than several separate tools to create a compiler. Also, OMeta is valued both for the speed at which it can be used to create DSLs and the significantly lower amount of code it needs to perform such a task in contrast to vanilla implementations, with reports showing around 26% as many lines of functional code as vanilla. ### Examples The following is an example of a basic calculator language in C\# using OMeta: ``` ometa BasicCalc <: Parser { Digit = super:d -> d.ToDigit(), Number = Number:n Digit:D -> (n * 10 + d) | Digit, AddExpr = AddExpr:x ‘+’ MulExpr:y -> (x + y) | AddExpr:x ‘-’ MulExpr:y -> (x - y) | MulExpr, MulExpr = MulExpr:x ‘*’ primExpr:y -> (x * y) | MulExpr:x ‘/’ primExpr:y -> (x / y) | PrimExpr, PrimExpr = ‘(‘ Expr:x ‘)’ -> x | Number, Expr = AddExpr ``` } It is also possible to create subclasses of languages you have written: ``` ometa ExponentCalc <: BasicCalc { MulExpr = MulExpr:x ‘^’ PrimExpr:e -> Math.pow(x,e) | super ``` } Previously written languages can also be called rather than inherited: ``` ometa ScientificCalc <: Parser { MathFunc :n = Token(n) Spaces, AdvExp = MathFunc(‘sqrt’) AdvExp:x -> Math.Sqrt(x) | FacExp FacExp = PrimExp:x ‘!’ -> { var r = 1; for(; x > 1; x--) { r *= x; } return r; } | PrimExp PrimExp = foreign(ExponentCalc.Expr):x -> x Expr = AdvExp ``` }
[ "Description\n-----------", "OMeta is a meta\\-language used to prototype and create [domain\\-specific languages](/wiki/Domain-specific_language \"Domain-specific language\"). It was introduced as \"an object\\-oriented language for pattern matching\". It uses [parsing expression grammars](/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar \"Parsing expression grammar\") (descriptions of languages \"based on recognizing strings instead of generating them\"Mascarenhas, Fabio, Sergio Medeiros, and [Roberto Ierusalimschy](/wiki/Roberto_Ierusalimschy \"Roberto Ierusalimschy\"). Parsing Expression Grammars for Structured Data. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web.\\<[http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/sblp/2011/003\\.pdf](http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/sblp/2011/003.pdf)\\>.) designed \"to handle arbitrary kinds of data\", such as characters, numbers, strings, atoms, and lists. This increases its versatility, enabling it to work on both structured and [unstructured data](/wiki/Unstructured_data \"Unstructured data\").", "The language's main advantage over similar languages is its ability to use the same code for all steps of compiling, e.g., lexing and parsing. OMeta also supports the defining of production rules based on arguments; this can be used to add such rules to OMeta, and the host language that OMeta is running in. Also, these rules can use each other as arguments, creating \"higher\\-order rules\", and inheriting each other to gain production rules from existing code. OMeta is capable of using host\\-language booleans (True/False) while pattern matching; these are referred to as \"semantic predicates\". OMeta uses generalized pattern\\-matching to allow programmers to more easily implement and extend phases of compilation with a single tool.", "OMeta uses grammars to determine the rules in which it operates. The grammars are able to hold an indefinite number of variables due to the use of an \\_\\_init\\_\\_ function called when a grammar is created. Grammars can inherit and call each other (using the \"foreign production invocation mechanism\", enabling grammars to \"borrow\" each other's input streams), much like classes in full programming languages. OMeta also prioritizes options within a given grammar to remove ambiguity, unlike most meta\\-languages. After pattern\\-matching an input to a given grammar, OMeta then assigns each component of the pattern to a variable, which it then feeds into the host language.Moser, Jeff. \"Moserware.\": [OMeta\\#: Who? What? When? Where? Why?](http://www.moserware.com/2008/06/ometa-who-what-when-where-why.html), Blogger, 24 June 2008\\. Web. 30 September 2013\\.", "OMeta uses pattern matching to perform all of the steps of traditional compiling by itself. It first finds patterns in characters to create tokens, then it matches those tokens to its grammar to make syntax trees. Typecheckers then match patterns on the syntax trees to make annotated trees, and visitors do the same to produce other trees. A code generator then pattern\\-matches the trees to produce the code. In OMeta, it is easy to \"traverse through the parse tree since such functionality is natively supported\".", "The meta\\-language is noted for its usability in most programming languages, though it is most commonly used in its language of implementation—OMeta/JS, for example, is used in JavaScript. Because it requires a host language, the creators of OMeta refer to it as a \"parasitic language\".Warth, Alessandro. \"\\[Ometa] On OMeta's Syntax.\" \\[Ometa] On OMeta's Syntax. N.p., 4 July 2008\\. Web. 16 Oct. 2013\\.\\<[http://vpri.org/pipermail/ometa/2008\\-July/000051\\.html](http://vpri.org/pipermail/ometa/2008-July/000051.html)\\>.", "### Development", "Alessandro Warth and Ian Piumarta developed OMeta at the Viewpoints Research Institute, an organization intended to improve research systems and personal computing, in 2007\\. They first used a Combined Object Lambda Architecture (COLA), a self\\-describing language investigated at Viewpoints Research Institute, as OMeta's host language, and later, assisted by Yoshiki Ohshima, ported it to [Squeak](/wiki/Squeak \"Squeak\") [Smalltalk](/wiki/Smalltalk \"Smalltalk\") to verify its usability with multiple host languages. OMeta was also used \"to implement a nearly complete subset of…JavaScript\" as a case study in its introductory paper.", "### Use", "OMeta, like other meta languages, is primarily used to create [domain\\-specific languages](/wiki/Domain-specific_language \"Domain-specific language\") (DSLs); specifically, it is used to quickly prototype DSLs — OMeta's slow running speed and unclear error reports remove much of its function as a full programming language (Heirbaut 73–74\\). OMeta is useful thanks to its ability to use one syntax for every phase of compiling, allowing it to be used rather than several separate tools to create a compiler. Also, OMeta is valued both for the speed at which it can be used to create DSLs and the significantly lower amount of code it needs to perform such a task in contrast to vanilla implementations, with reports showing around 26% as many lines of functional code as vanilla.", "### Examples", "The following is an example of a basic calculator language in C\\# using OMeta:", "", "```\nometa BasicCalc <: Parser\n{\n Digit = super:d -> d.ToDigit(),\n Number = Number:n Digit:D -> (n * 10 + d)\n | Digit,\n AddExpr = AddExpr:x ‘+’ MulExpr:y -> (x + y)\n | AddExpr:x ‘-’ MulExpr:y -> (x - y)\n | MulExpr,\n MulExpr = MulExpr:x ‘*’ primExpr:y -> (x * y)\n | MulExpr:x ‘/’ primExpr:y -> (x / y)\n | PrimExpr,\nPrimExpr = ‘(‘ Expr:x ‘)’\t\t-> x\n | Number,\n Expr = AddExpr", "```\n }\n \nIt is also possible to create subclasses of languages you have written:", "", "```\nometa ExponentCalc <: BasicCalc\n{\n MulExpr = MulExpr:x ‘^’ PrimExpr:e -> Math.pow(x,e)\n | super", "```\n }", "Previously written languages can also be called rather than inherited:", "", "```\nometa ScientificCalc <: Parser\n{\n MathFunc :n = Token(n) Spaces,\n AdvExp = MathFunc(‘sqrt’) AdvExp:x -> Math.Sqrt(x)\n | FacExp\n FacExp = PrimExp:x ‘!’\n -> {\n var r = 1;\n for(; x > 1; x--)\n {\n r *= x;\n }\n return r;\n }\n | PrimExp\n PrimExp = foreign(ExponentCalc.Expr):x -> x\n Expr = AdvExp", "```\n }", "" ]
Versions -------- OMeta can theoretically be implemented into any host language, but it is used most often as OMeta/JS, a JavaScript implementation. Warth has stated that patterns in "OMeta/X\-\-\-where X is some host language" are better left to be influenced by "X" than standardized within OMeta, due to the fact that different host languages recognize different types of objects. ### MetaCOLA MetaCOLA was the first implementation of OMeta, used in the language's introductory paper. MetaCOLA implemented OMeta's first test codes, and was one of the three forms (the others being OMeta/Squeak and a nearly\-finished OMeta/JS) of the language made prior to its release. ### OMeta/Squeak OMeta/Squeak was a port of OMeta used during the initial demonstration of the system. OMeta/Squeak is used "to experiment with alternative syntaxes for the Squeak EToys system" OMeta/Squeak requires square brackets and "pointy brackets" (braces) in rule operations, unlike OMeta/JS, which requires only square brackets. OMeta/Squeak 2, however, features syntax more similar to that of OMeta/JS.Warth, Alessandro. "OMeta/Squeak 2\." OMeta/Squeak 2\. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Oct. 2013\.\<[http://tinlizzie.org/ometa/ometa2\.html](http://tinlizzie.org/ometa/ometa2.html)\>. Unlike the COLA implementation of OMeta, the Squeak version does not memorize intermediate results (store numbers already used in calculation). ### OMeta/JS OMeta/JS is OMeta in the form of a JavaScript implementation. Language implementations using OMeta/JS are noted to be easier to use and more space\-efficient than those written using only vanilla JavaScript, but the former have been shown to perform much more slowly. Because of this, OMeta/JS is seen as a highly useful tool for prototyping, but is not preferred for production language implementations. #### Vs. JavaScript The use of DSL development tools, such as OMeta, are considered much more maintainable than "vanilla implementations" (i. e. JavaScript) due to their low NCLOC (Non\-Comment Lines of Code) count. This is due in part to the "semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations". OMeta's lack of "context\-free syntax" allows it to be used in both parser and lexer creation at the cost of extra lines of code. Additional factors indicating OMeta's maintainability include a high maintainability index "while Halstead Effort indicate\[s] that the vanilla parser requires three times more development effort compared to the OMeta parser". Like JavaScript, OMeta/JS supports "the complete syntax notation of Waebric". One of the major advantages of OMeta responsible for the difference in NCLOC is OMeta's reuse of its "tree walking mechanism" by allowing the typechecker to inherit the mechanism from the parser, which causes the typechecker to adapt to changes in the OMeta parser, while JavaScript's tree walking mechanism contains more code and must be manually adapted to the changes in the parser. Another is the fact that OMeta's grammars have a "higher abstraction level...than the program code". It can also be considered "the result of the semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations", though the grammar's non\-semantics create a need for relatively many lines of code per function because of explicit whitespace definition—a mechanism implemented to allow OMeta to act as a single tool for DSL creation. In terms of performance, OMeta is found to run at slow speeds in comparison to vanilla implementations. The use of backtracking techniques by OMeta is a potential major cause for this (OMeta's parser "includes seven look\-ahead operators...These operators are necessary to distinguish certain rules from each other and cannot be left out of the grammar"); however, it is more likely that this performance drop is due to OMeta's method of memoization: {{Blockquote\|"The storage of intermediate parsing steps causes the size of the parsing table to be proportional with the number of terminals and non\-terminals (operands) used in the grammar. Since the grammar of the OMeta parser contains 446 operands, it is believed that performance is affected negatively."}} Where OMeta gains time on the vanilla implementation, however, is in lexing. JavaScript's vanilla lexer slows down significantly due to a method by which the implementation converts the entire program into a string through Java before the lexer starts. Despite this, the OMeta implementation runs significantly slower overall. OMeta also falls behind in terms of error reporting. While vanilla implementations return the correct error message in about "92% of the test cases" in terms of error location, OMeta simply returns "Match failed!" to any given error. Finding the source through OMeta requires "manually...counting the newline characters in the semantic action code in order to output at least the line number at which parsing fails". ### OMeta\# OMeta\# is a project by Jeff Moser meant to translate OMeta/JS into a C\# function; as such, the design of OMeta\# is based on Alessandro Warth's OMeta/JS design.. The goal of the project is to give users the ability to make working languages with high simplicity. Specifically, OMeta\# is intended to work as a single tool for [.NET](/wiki/.NET ".NET") language development, reduce the steep learning curve of language development, become a useful teaching resource, and be practical for use in real applications. OMeta\# currently uses C\# 3\.0 as OMeta's host language rather than 4\.0; because C\# 3\.0 is a static language rather than a dynamic one, recognition of the host language within OMeta\# is "two to three times uglier and larger than it might have been" in a dynamically typed language.Moser, Jeff. "Moserware.": [Meta\-FizzBuzz](http://www.moserware.com/2008/08/meta-fizzbuzz.html), Blogger, 25 August 2008\. Web. 30 September 2013\. OMeta\# uses .NET classes, or Types, as grammars and methods for the grammars’ internal "rules". OMeta\# uses braces ( { and } ) to recognize its host language in grammars. The language has a focus on strong, clean, static typing much like that of its host language, though this adds complexity to the creation of the language. New implementations in C\# must also be compatible with the .NET meta\-language, making the creation even more complex. Also, to prevent users from accidentally misusing the metarules in OMeta\#, Moser has opted to implement them as "an explicit interface exposed via a property (e.g. instead of "\_apply", I have "MetaRules.Apply")." Later parts of OMeta\# are written in OMeta\#, though the functions of the language remains fairly tied to C\#.Moser, Jeff. "Moserware.": Building an Object\-Oriented Parasitic Metalanguage Blogger, 31 July 2008\. Web. 30 September 2013\. The OMeta\# source code is posted on Codeplex, and is intended to remain as an open\-source project. However, updates have been on indefinite hiatus since shortly after the project's beginnings, with recommits by the server on October 1, 2012\. ### IronMeta Gordon Tisher created [IronMeta](https://github.com/kulibali/ironmeta) for .NET in 2009, and while similar to OMeta\#, it's a much more supported and robust implementation, distributed under BSD license on GitHub. ### Ohm [Ohm](https://github.com/cdglabs/ohm) is a successor to Ometa that aims to improve on it by (amongst other things) separating the grammar from the semantic actions.{{cite web \|url\=https://github.com/cdglabs/ohm/blob/master/doc/philosophy.md \|title\=Ohm Philosophy \|ref\=ohm}}
[ "Versions\n--------", "OMeta can theoretically be implemented into any host language, but it is used most often as OMeta/JS, a JavaScript implementation. Warth has stated that patterns in \"OMeta/X\\-\\-\\-where X is some host language\" are better left to be influenced by \"X\" than standardized within OMeta, due to the fact that different host languages recognize different types of objects.", "### MetaCOLA", "MetaCOLA was the first implementation of OMeta, used in the language's introductory paper. MetaCOLA implemented OMeta's first test codes, and was one of the three forms (the others being OMeta/Squeak and a nearly\\-finished OMeta/JS) of the language made prior to its release.", "### OMeta/Squeak", "OMeta/Squeak was a port of OMeta used during the initial demonstration of the system. OMeta/Squeak is used \"to experiment with alternative syntaxes for the Squeak EToys system\" OMeta/Squeak requires square brackets and \"pointy brackets\" (braces) in rule operations, unlike OMeta/JS, which requires only square brackets. OMeta/Squeak 2, however, features syntax more similar to that of OMeta/JS.Warth, Alessandro. \"OMeta/Squeak 2\\.\" OMeta/Squeak 2\\. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Oct. 2013\\.\\<[http://tinlizzie.org/ometa/ometa2\\.html](http://tinlizzie.org/ometa/ometa2.html)\\>. Unlike the COLA implementation of OMeta, the Squeak version does not memorize intermediate results (store numbers already used in calculation).", "### OMeta/JS", "OMeta/JS is OMeta in the form of a JavaScript implementation. Language implementations using OMeta/JS are noted to be easier to use and more space\\-efficient than those written using only vanilla JavaScript, but the former have been shown to perform much more slowly. Because of this, OMeta/JS is seen as a highly useful tool for prototyping, but is not preferred for production language implementations.", "#### Vs. JavaScript", "The use of DSL development tools, such as OMeta, are considered much more maintainable than \"vanilla implementations\" (i. e. JavaScript) due to their low NCLOC (Non\\-Comment Lines of Code) count. This is due in part to the \"semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations\". OMeta's lack of \"context\\-free syntax\" allows it to be used in both parser and lexer creation at the cost of extra lines of code. Additional factors indicating OMeta's maintainability include a high maintainability index \"while Halstead Effort indicate\\[s] that the vanilla parser requires three times more development effort compared to the OMeta parser\". Like JavaScript, OMeta/JS supports \"the complete syntax notation of Waebric\".", "One of the major advantages of OMeta responsible for the difference in NCLOC is OMeta's reuse of its \"tree walking mechanism\" by allowing the typechecker to inherit the mechanism from the parser, which causes the typechecker to adapt to changes in the OMeta parser, while JavaScript's tree walking mechanism contains more code and must be manually adapted to the changes in the parser. Another is the fact that OMeta's grammars have a \"higher abstraction level...than the program code\". It can also be considered \"the result of the semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations\", though the grammar's non\\-semantics create a need for relatively many lines of code per function because of explicit whitespace definition—a mechanism implemented to allow OMeta to act as a single tool for DSL creation.", "In terms of performance, OMeta is found to run at slow speeds in comparison to vanilla implementations. The use of backtracking techniques by OMeta is a potential major cause for this (OMeta's parser \"includes seven look\\-ahead operators...These operators are necessary to distinguish certain rules from each other and cannot be left out of the grammar\"); however, it is more likely that this performance drop is due to OMeta's method of memoization:\n{{Blockquote\\|\"The storage of intermediate parsing steps causes the size of the parsing table to be proportional with the number of terminals and non\\-terminals (operands) used in the grammar. Since the grammar of the OMeta parser contains 446 operands, it is believed that performance is affected negatively.\"}}", "Where OMeta gains time on the vanilla implementation, however, is in lexing. JavaScript's vanilla lexer slows down significantly due to a method by which the implementation converts the entire program into a string through Java before the lexer starts. Despite this, the OMeta implementation runs significantly slower overall.", "OMeta also falls behind in terms of error reporting. While vanilla implementations return the correct error message in about \"92% of the test cases\" in terms of error location, OMeta simply returns \"Match failed!\" to any given error. Finding the source through OMeta requires \"manually...counting the newline characters in the semantic action code in order to output at least the line number at which parsing fails\".", "### OMeta\\#", "OMeta\\# is a project by Jeff Moser meant to translate OMeta/JS into a C\\# function; as such, the design of OMeta\\# is based on Alessandro Warth's OMeta/JS design.. The goal of the project is to give users the ability to make working languages with high simplicity. Specifically, OMeta\\# is intended to work as a single tool for [.NET](/wiki/.NET \".NET\") language development, reduce the steep learning curve of language development, become a useful teaching resource, and be practical for use in real applications. OMeta\\# currently uses C\\# 3\\.0 as OMeta's host language rather than 4\\.0; because C\\# 3\\.0 is a static language rather than a dynamic one, recognition of the host language within OMeta\\# is \"two to three times uglier and larger than it might have been\" in a dynamically typed language.Moser, Jeff. \"Moserware.\": [Meta\\-FizzBuzz](http://www.moserware.com/2008/08/meta-fizzbuzz.html), Blogger, 25 August 2008\\. Web. 30 September 2013\\.", "OMeta\\# uses .NET classes, or Types, as grammars and methods for the grammars’ internal \"rules\". OMeta\\# uses braces ( { and } ) to recognize its host language in grammars. The language has a focus on strong, clean, static typing much like that of its host language, though this adds complexity to the creation of the language. New implementations in C\\# must also be compatible with the .NET meta\\-language, making the creation even more complex. Also, to prevent users from accidentally misusing the metarules in OMeta\\#, Moser has opted to implement them as \"an explicit interface exposed via a property (e.g. instead of \"\\_apply\", I have \"MetaRules.Apply\").\" Later parts of OMeta\\# are written in OMeta\\#, though the functions of the language remains fairly tied to C\\#.Moser, Jeff. \"Moserware.\": Building an Object\\-Oriented Parasitic Metalanguage Blogger, 31 July 2008\\. Web. 30 September 2013\\. The OMeta\\# source code is posted on Codeplex, and is intended to remain as an open\\-source project. However, updates have been on indefinite hiatus since shortly after the project's beginnings, with recommits by the server on October 1, 2012\\.", "### IronMeta", "Gordon Tisher created [IronMeta](https://github.com/kulibali/ironmeta) for .NET in 2009, and while similar to OMeta\\#, it's a much more supported and robust implementation, distributed under BSD license on GitHub.", "### Ohm", "[Ohm](https://github.com/cdglabs/ohm) is a successor to Ometa that aims to improve on it by (amongst other things) separating the grammar from the semantic actions.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://github.com/cdglabs/ohm/blob/master/doc/philosophy.md \\|title\\=Ohm Philosophy \\|ref\\=ohm}}", "" ]
### OMeta/JS OMeta/JS is OMeta in the form of a JavaScript implementation. Language implementations using OMeta/JS are noted to be easier to use and more space\-efficient than those written using only vanilla JavaScript, but the former have been shown to perform much more slowly. Because of this, OMeta/JS is seen as a highly useful tool for prototyping, but is not preferred for production language implementations. #### Vs. JavaScript The use of DSL development tools, such as OMeta, are considered much more maintainable than "vanilla implementations" (i. e. JavaScript) due to their low NCLOC (Non\-Comment Lines of Code) count. This is due in part to the "semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations". OMeta's lack of "context\-free syntax" allows it to be used in both parser and lexer creation at the cost of extra lines of code. Additional factors indicating OMeta's maintainability include a high maintainability index "while Halstead Effort indicate\[s] that the vanilla parser requires three times more development effort compared to the OMeta parser". Like JavaScript, OMeta/JS supports "the complete syntax notation of Waebric". One of the major advantages of OMeta responsible for the difference in NCLOC is OMeta's reuse of its "tree walking mechanism" by allowing the typechecker to inherit the mechanism from the parser, which causes the typechecker to adapt to changes in the OMeta parser, while JavaScript's tree walking mechanism contains more code and must be manually adapted to the changes in the parser. Another is the fact that OMeta's grammars have a "higher abstraction level...than the program code". It can also be considered "the result of the semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations", though the grammar's non\-semantics create a need for relatively many lines of code per function because of explicit whitespace definition—a mechanism implemented to allow OMeta to act as a single tool for DSL creation. In terms of performance, OMeta is found to run at slow speeds in comparison to vanilla implementations. The use of backtracking techniques by OMeta is a potential major cause for this (OMeta's parser "includes seven look\-ahead operators...These operators are necessary to distinguish certain rules from each other and cannot be left out of the grammar"); however, it is more likely that this performance drop is due to OMeta's method of memoization: {{Blockquote\|"The storage of intermediate parsing steps causes the size of the parsing table to be proportional with the number of terminals and non\-terminals (operands) used in the grammar. Since the grammar of the OMeta parser contains 446 operands, it is believed that performance is affected negatively."}} Where OMeta gains time on the vanilla implementation, however, is in lexing. JavaScript's vanilla lexer slows down significantly due to a method by which the implementation converts the entire program into a string through Java before the lexer starts. Despite this, the OMeta implementation runs significantly slower overall. OMeta also falls behind in terms of error reporting. While vanilla implementations return the correct error message in about "92% of the test cases" in terms of error location, OMeta simply returns "Match failed!" to any given error. Finding the source through OMeta requires "manually...counting the newline characters in the semantic action code in order to output at least the line number at which parsing fails".
[ "### OMeta/JS", "OMeta/JS is OMeta in the form of a JavaScript implementation. Language implementations using OMeta/JS are noted to be easier to use and more space\\-efficient than those written using only vanilla JavaScript, but the former have been shown to perform much more slowly. Because of this, OMeta/JS is seen as a highly useful tool for prototyping, but is not preferred for production language implementations.", "#### Vs. JavaScript", "The use of DSL development tools, such as OMeta, are considered much more maintainable than \"vanilla implementations\" (i. e. JavaScript) due to their low NCLOC (Non\\-Comment Lines of Code) count. This is due in part to the \"semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations\". OMeta's lack of \"context\\-free syntax\" allows it to be used in both parser and lexer creation at the cost of extra lines of code. Additional factors indicating OMeta's maintainability include a high maintainability index \"while Halstead Effort indicate\\[s] that the vanilla parser requires three times more development effort compared to the OMeta parser\". Like JavaScript, OMeta/JS supports \"the complete syntax notation of Waebric\".", "One of the major advantages of OMeta responsible for the difference in NCLOC is OMeta's reuse of its \"tree walking mechanism\" by allowing the typechecker to inherit the mechanism from the parser, which causes the typechecker to adapt to changes in the OMeta parser, while JavaScript's tree walking mechanism contains more code and must be manually adapted to the changes in the parser. Another is the fact that OMeta's grammars have a \"higher abstraction level...than the program code\". It can also be considered \"the result of the semantic action code which creates the AST objects or performs limited string operations\", though the grammar's non\\-semantics create a need for relatively many lines of code per function because of explicit whitespace definition—a mechanism implemented to allow OMeta to act as a single tool for DSL creation.", "In terms of performance, OMeta is found to run at slow speeds in comparison to vanilla implementations. The use of backtracking techniques by OMeta is a potential major cause for this (OMeta's parser \"includes seven look\\-ahead operators...These operators are necessary to distinguish certain rules from each other and cannot be left out of the grammar\"); however, it is more likely that this performance drop is due to OMeta's method of memoization:\n{{Blockquote\\|\"The storage of intermediate parsing steps causes the size of the parsing table to be proportional with the number of terminals and non\\-terminals (operands) used in the grammar. Since the grammar of the OMeta parser contains 446 operands, it is believed that performance is affected negatively.\"}}", "Where OMeta gains time on the vanilla implementation, however, is in lexing. JavaScript's vanilla lexer slows down significantly due to a method by which the implementation converts the entire program into a string through Java before the lexer starts. Despite this, the OMeta implementation runs significantly slower overall.", "OMeta also falls behind in terms of error reporting. While vanilla implementations return the correct error message in about \"92% of the test cases\" in terms of error location, OMeta simply returns \"Match failed!\" to any given error. Finding the source through OMeta requires \"manually...counting the newline characters in the semantic action code in order to output at least the line number at which parsing fails\".", "" ]
Governance ---------- [thumb\|AAAS officers and senior officials in 1947\. Left to right, standing: [Sinnott](/wiki/Edmund_Ware_Sinnott "Edmund Ware Sinnott"), [Baitsell](/wiki/George_Alfred_Baitsell "George Alfred Baitsell"), [Payne](/wiki/Fernandus_Payne "Fernandus Payne"), [Lark\-Horovitz](/wiki/Karl_Lark-Horovitz "Karl Lark-Horovitz"), [Miles](/wiki/Walter_Richard_Miles "Walter Richard Miles"), [Stakman](/wiki/Elvin_Charles_Stakman "Elvin Charles Stakman"), sitting: [Carlson](/wiki/Anton_Julius_Carlson "Anton Julius Carlson"), [Mather](/wiki/Kirtley_Fletcher_Mather "Kirtley Fletcher Mather"), [Moulton](/wiki/Forest_Ray_Moulton "Forest Ray Moulton"), [Shapley](/wiki/Harlow_Shapley "Harlow Shapley").](/wiki/File:Officials_of_the_AAS_in_1947.jpg "Officials of the AAS in 1947.jpg") The most recent Constitution of the AAAS, enacted on January 1, 1973, establishes that the governance of the AAAS is accomplished through four entities: a President, a group of administrative officers, a Council, and a board of directors. ### Presidents {{Main\|President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science}} Individuals elected to the presidency of the AAAS hold a three\-year term in a unique way. The first year is spent as [president\-elect](/wiki/President-elect "President-elect"), the second as [president](/wiki/President_%28corporate_title%29 "President (corporate title)") and the third as [chairperson](/wiki/Chairperson "Chairperson") of the [board of directors](/wiki/Board_of_directors "Board of directors"). In accordance with the convention followed by the AAAS, presidents are referenced by the year in which they left office. [Geraldine Richmond](/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond "Geraldine L. Richmond") is the president of AAAS for 2015–16; [Phillip Sharp](/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp "Phillip Allen Sharp") is the board chair; and [Barbara A. Schaal](/wiki/Barbara_A._Schaal "Barbara A. Schaal") is the president\-elect.[About AAAS](http://www.aaas.org/about-aaas), *AAAS.org* Each took office on the last day of the 2015 AAAS Annual Meeting in February 2015\.[AAAS Annual Meeting Archives (dates)](http://www.aaas.org/meetings/archives/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506102816/http://www.aaas.org/meetings/archives/ \|date\=2010\-05\-06 }}, *AAAS.org*["Gerald R. Fink Chosen To Serve As AAAS President\-Elect"](http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2013/0125_election_results.shtml), *AAAS.org* On the last day of the 2016 AAAS Annual Meeting, February 15, 2016,[Future AAAS Annual Meetings (dates)](http://www.aaas.org/meetings/future_mtgs/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110418181550/http://www.aaas.org/meetings/future\_mtgs/ \|date\=2011\-04\-18 }}, *AAAS.org* Richmond will become the chair, Schaal will become the president, and a new president\-elect will take office. Past presidents of AAAS have included some of the most important scientific figures of their time. Among them: explorer and geologist [John Wesley Powell](/wiki/John_Wesley_Powell "John Wesley Powell") (1888\); astronomer and physicist [Edward Charles Pickering](/wiki/Edward_Charles_Pickering "Edward Charles Pickering") (1912\); anthropologist [Margaret Mead](/wiki/Margaret_Mead "Margaret Mead") (1975\); and biologist [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould "Stephen Jay Gould") (2000\). **Notable presidents of the AAAS, 1848–2005** {{div col\|colwidth\=22em}} * 1849: Joseph Henry * 1871: [Asa Gray](/wiki/Asa_Gray "Asa Gray") * 1877: [Simon Newcomb](/wiki/Simon_Newcomb "Simon Newcomb") * 1880: [Joseph Lovering](/wiki/Joseph_Lovering "Joseph Lovering") * 1882: [J. William Dawson](/wiki/J._William_Dawson "J. William Dawson") * 1886: [Edward S. Morse](/wiki/Edward_S._Morse "Edward S. Morse") * 1887: [Samuel P. Langley](/wiki/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley "Samuel Pierpont Langley") * 1888: John Wesley Powell * 1901: [Charles Sedgwick Minot](/wiki/Charles_Sedgwick_Minot "Charles Sedgwick Minot") * 1927: [Arthur Amos Noyes](/wiki/Arthur_Amos_Noyes "Arthur Amos Noyes") * 1929: [Robert A. Millikan](/wiki/Robert_Millikan "Robert Millikan") * 1931: [Franz Boas](/wiki/Franz_Boas "Franz Boas") * 1934: [Edward L. Thorndike](/wiki/Edward_Thorndike "Edward Thorndike") * 1942: [Arthur H. Compton](/wiki/Arthur_Compton "Arthur Compton") * 1947: [Harlow Shapley](/wiki/Harlow_Shapley "Harlow Shapley") * 1951: [Kirtley F. Mather](/wiki/Kirtley_F._Mather "Kirtley F. Mather") * 1972: [Glenn T. Seaborg](/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg "Glenn T. Seaborg") * 1975: [Margaret Mead](/wiki/Margaret_Mead "Margaret Mead") * 1992: [Leon M. Lederman](/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman "Leon M. Lederman") * 2000: [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould "Stephen Jay Gould") {{div col end}} ### Administrative officers There are three classifications of high\-level administrative officials that execute the basic, daily functions of the AAAS. These are the [executive officer](/wiki/Executive_officer "Executive officer"), the [treasurer](/wiki/Treasurer "Treasurer") and then each of the AAAS's section secretaries. The current CEO of AAAS and executive publisher of *Science* magazine is Sudip Parikh.[https://www.science.org/content/article/sudip\-parikh\-chosen\-aaas\-ceo](https://www.science.org/content/article/sudip-parikh-chosen-aaas-ceo), 'Ph.D.–turned–policy insider takes over world's largest science society', *Science.org* The current Editor in Chief of Science magazine is Holden Thorp.[https://www.science.org/content/page/leadership\-and\-management](https://www.science.org/content/page/leadership-and-management), 'Leadership and Management of Science and AAAS', *Science.org* #### Sections of the AAAS The AAAS has 24 "sections" with each section being responsible for a particular concern of the AAAS. There are sections for [agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture "Agriculture"), anthropology, [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy"), [atmospheric science](/wiki/Atmospheric_science "Atmospheric science"), [biological science](/wiki/Biological_science "Biological science"), chemistry, [dentistry](/wiki/Dentistry "Dentistry"), [education](/wiki/Education "Education"), engineering, general interest in science and engineering, geology and [geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography"), the [history](/wiki/History_of_science "History of science") and philosophy of science, [technology](/wiki/Technology "Technology"), [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science "Computer science"), linguistics, [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics"), [medical science](/wiki/Medical_science "Medical science"), [neuroscience](/wiki/Neuroscience "Neuroscience"), [pharmaceutical science](/wiki/Pharmaceutical_science "Pharmaceutical science"), [physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics"), [psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology"), science and human rights, [social](/wiki/Social_science "Social science") and [political science](/wiki/Political_science "Political science"), the social impact of science and engineering, and [statistics](/wiki/Statistics "Statistics").[AAAS Sections](http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/organization/sections/index.shtml) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617194612/http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/organization/sections/index.shtml \|date\=2009\-06\-17 }}, *AAAS.org* #### Affiliates AAAS affiliates include 262 societies and [academies of science](/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences "Academy of Sciences"), serving more than 10 million members, from the [Acoustical Society of America](/wiki/Acoustical_Society_of_America "Acoustical Society of America") to the [Wildlife Society](/wiki/Wildlife_Society "Wildlife Society"), as well as non\-mainstream groups like the [Parapsychological Association](/wiki/Parapsychological_Association "Parapsychological Association").[list of affiliates starting with the letter **P**](http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/affiliates/#P). ### The Council {{unreferenced section\|date\=April 2021}} The council is composed of the members of the Board of Directors, the retiring section chairmen, elected delegates and affiliated foreign council members. Among the elected delegates there are always at least two members from the National Academy of Sciences and one from each region of the country. The President of the AAAS serves as the Chairperson of the council. Members serve the council for a term of three years. The council meets annually to discuss matters of importance to the AAAS. They have the power to review all activities of the Association, elect new fellows, adopt resolutions, propose amendments to the Association's constitution and bylaws, create new scientific sections, and organize and aid local chapters of the AAAS. The Council recently{{when\|date\=April 2021}} has new additions to it from different sections which include many youngsters as well. John Kerry of Chicago is the youngest American in the council and Akhil Ennamsetty of India is the youngest foreign council member. ### Board of directors The board of directors is composed of a chairperson, the president, and the president\-elect along with eight elected directors, the executive officer of the association and up to two additional directors appointed by elected officers. Members serve a four\-year term except for directors appointed by elected officers, who serve three\-year terms. The current chairman is [Gerald Fink](/wiki/Gerald_Fink "Gerald Fink"), Margaret and Herman Sokol Professor at Whitehead Institute, MIT. Fink will serve in the post until the end of the 2016 AAAS Annual Meeting,[Board of Directors](http://www.aaas.org/about-aaas), *AAAS.org* 15 February 2016\.[2016 AAAS Annual Meeting](http://meetings.aaas.org//) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928081654/http://meetings.aaas.org/ \|date\=2015\-09\-28 }}, *AAAS.org* (The chairperson is always the immediate past\-president of AAAS.) The board of directors has a variety of powers and responsibilities. It is charged with the administration of all association funds, publication of a budget, appointment of administrators, proposition of amendments, and determining the time and place of meetings of the national association. The board may also speak publicly on behalf of the association. The board must also regularly correspond with the council to discuss their actions.
[ "Governance\n----------", "[thumb\\|AAAS officers and senior officials in 1947\\. Left to right, standing: [Sinnott](/wiki/Edmund_Ware_Sinnott \"Edmund Ware Sinnott\"), [Baitsell](/wiki/George_Alfred_Baitsell \"George Alfred Baitsell\"), [Payne](/wiki/Fernandus_Payne \"Fernandus Payne\"), [Lark\\-Horovitz](/wiki/Karl_Lark-Horovitz \"Karl Lark-Horovitz\"), [Miles](/wiki/Walter_Richard_Miles \"Walter Richard Miles\"), [Stakman](/wiki/Elvin_Charles_Stakman \"Elvin Charles Stakman\"), sitting: [Carlson](/wiki/Anton_Julius_Carlson \"Anton Julius Carlson\"), [Mather](/wiki/Kirtley_Fletcher_Mather \"Kirtley Fletcher Mather\"), [Moulton](/wiki/Forest_Ray_Moulton \"Forest Ray Moulton\"), [Shapley](/wiki/Harlow_Shapley \"Harlow Shapley\").](/wiki/File:Officials_of_the_AAS_in_1947.jpg \"Officials of the AAS in 1947.jpg\")\nThe most recent Constitution of the AAAS, enacted on January 1, 1973, establishes that the governance of the AAAS is accomplished through four entities: a President, a group of administrative officers, a Council, and a board of directors.", "### Presidents", "{{Main\\|President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science}}\nIndividuals elected to the presidency of the AAAS hold a three\\-year term in a unique way. The first year is spent as [president\\-elect](/wiki/President-elect \"President-elect\"), the second as [president](/wiki/President_%28corporate_title%29 \"President (corporate title)\") and the third as [chairperson](/wiki/Chairperson \"Chairperson\") of the [board of directors](/wiki/Board_of_directors \"Board of directors\"). In accordance with the convention followed by the AAAS, presidents are referenced by the year in which they left office.", "[Geraldine Richmond](/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond \"Geraldine L. Richmond\") is the president of AAAS for 2015–16; [Phillip Sharp](/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp \"Phillip Allen Sharp\") is the board chair; and [Barbara A. Schaal](/wiki/Barbara_A._Schaal \"Barbara A. Schaal\") is the president\\-elect.[About AAAS](http://www.aaas.org/about-aaas), *AAAS.org* Each took office on the last day of the 2015 AAAS Annual Meeting in February 2015\\.[AAAS Annual Meeting Archives (dates)](http://www.aaas.org/meetings/archives/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506102816/http://www.aaas.org/meetings/archives/ \\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-06 }}, *AAAS.org*[\"Gerald R. Fink Chosen To Serve As AAAS President\\-Elect\"](http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2013/0125_election_results.shtml), *AAAS.org* On the last day of the 2016 AAAS Annual Meeting, February 15, 2016,[Future AAAS Annual Meetings (dates)](http://www.aaas.org/meetings/future_mtgs/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110418181550/http://www.aaas.org/meetings/future\\_mtgs/ \\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-18 }}, *AAAS.org* Richmond will become the chair, Schaal will become the president, and a new president\\-elect will take office.", "Past presidents of AAAS have included some of the most important scientific figures of their time. Among them: explorer and geologist [John Wesley Powell](/wiki/John_Wesley_Powell \"John Wesley Powell\") (1888\\); astronomer and physicist [Edward Charles Pickering](/wiki/Edward_Charles_Pickering \"Edward Charles Pickering\") (1912\\); anthropologist [Margaret Mead](/wiki/Margaret_Mead \"Margaret Mead\") (1975\\); and biologist [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould \"Stephen Jay Gould\") (2000\\).", "**Notable presidents of the AAAS, 1848–2005**\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=22em}}\n* 1849: Joseph Henry\n* 1871: [Asa Gray](/wiki/Asa_Gray \"Asa Gray\")\n* 1877: [Simon Newcomb](/wiki/Simon_Newcomb \"Simon Newcomb\")\n* 1880: [Joseph Lovering](/wiki/Joseph_Lovering \"Joseph Lovering\")\n* 1882: [J. William Dawson](/wiki/J._William_Dawson \"J. William Dawson\")\n* 1886: [Edward S. Morse](/wiki/Edward_S._Morse \"Edward S. Morse\")\n* 1887: [Samuel P. Langley](/wiki/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley \"Samuel Pierpont Langley\")\n* 1888: John Wesley Powell\n* 1901: [Charles Sedgwick Minot](/wiki/Charles_Sedgwick_Minot \"Charles Sedgwick Minot\")\n* 1927: [Arthur Amos Noyes](/wiki/Arthur_Amos_Noyes \"Arthur Amos Noyes\")\n* 1929: [Robert A. Millikan](/wiki/Robert_Millikan \"Robert Millikan\")\n* 1931: [Franz Boas](/wiki/Franz_Boas \"Franz Boas\")\n* 1934: [Edward L. Thorndike](/wiki/Edward_Thorndike \"Edward Thorndike\")\n* 1942: [Arthur H. Compton](/wiki/Arthur_Compton \"Arthur Compton\")\n* 1947: [Harlow Shapley](/wiki/Harlow_Shapley \"Harlow Shapley\")\n* 1951: [Kirtley F. Mather](/wiki/Kirtley_F._Mather \"Kirtley F. Mather\")\n* 1972: [Glenn T. Seaborg](/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg \"Glenn T. Seaborg\")\n* 1975: [Margaret Mead](/wiki/Margaret_Mead \"Margaret Mead\")\n* 1992: [Leon M. Lederman](/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman \"Leon M. Lederman\")\n* 2000: [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould \"Stephen Jay Gould\")\n{{div col end}}", "### Administrative officers", "There are three classifications of high\\-level administrative officials that execute the basic, daily functions of the AAAS. These are the [executive officer](/wiki/Executive_officer \"Executive officer\"), the [treasurer](/wiki/Treasurer \"Treasurer\") and then each of the AAAS's section secretaries. The current CEO of AAAS and executive publisher of *Science* magazine is Sudip Parikh.[https://www.science.org/content/article/sudip\\-parikh\\-chosen\\-aaas\\-ceo](https://www.science.org/content/article/sudip-parikh-chosen-aaas-ceo), 'Ph.D.–turned–policy insider takes over world's largest science society', *Science.org* The current Editor in Chief of Science magazine is Holden Thorp.[https://www.science.org/content/page/leadership\\-and\\-management](https://www.science.org/content/page/leadership-and-management), 'Leadership and Management of Science and AAAS', *Science.org*", "#### Sections of the AAAS", "The AAAS has 24 \"sections\" with each section being responsible for a particular concern of the AAAS. There are sections for [agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture \"Agriculture\"), anthropology, [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"), [atmospheric science](/wiki/Atmospheric_science \"Atmospheric science\"), [biological science](/wiki/Biological_science \"Biological science\"), chemistry, [dentistry](/wiki/Dentistry \"Dentistry\"), [education](/wiki/Education \"Education\"), engineering, general interest in science and engineering, geology and [geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\"), the [history](/wiki/History_of_science \"History of science\") and philosophy of science, [technology](/wiki/Technology \"Technology\"), [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\"), linguistics, [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), [medical science](/wiki/Medical_science \"Medical science\"), [neuroscience](/wiki/Neuroscience \"Neuroscience\"), [pharmaceutical science](/wiki/Pharmaceutical_science \"Pharmaceutical science\"), [physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\"), [psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\"), science and human rights, [social](/wiki/Social_science \"Social science\") and [political science](/wiki/Political_science \"Political science\"), the social impact of science and engineering, and [statistics](/wiki/Statistics \"Statistics\").[AAAS Sections](http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/organization/sections/index.shtml) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617194612/http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/organization/sections/index.shtml \\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-17 }}, *AAAS.org*", "#### Affiliates", "AAAS affiliates include 262 societies and [academies of science](/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences \"Academy of Sciences\"), serving more than 10 million members, from the [Acoustical Society of America](/wiki/Acoustical_Society_of_America \"Acoustical Society of America\") to the [Wildlife Society](/wiki/Wildlife_Society \"Wildlife Society\"), as well as non\\-mainstream groups like the [Parapsychological Association](/wiki/Parapsychological_Association \"Parapsychological Association\").[list of affiliates starting with the letter **P**](http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/affiliates/#P).", "### The Council", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=April 2021}}\nThe council is composed of the members of the Board of Directors, the retiring section chairmen, elected delegates and affiliated foreign council members. Among the elected delegates there are always at least two members from the National Academy of Sciences and one from each region of the country. The President of the AAAS serves as the Chairperson of the council. Members serve the council for a term of three years.", "The council meets annually to discuss matters of importance to the AAAS. They have the power to review all activities of the Association, elect new fellows, adopt resolutions, propose amendments to the Association's constitution and bylaws, create new scientific sections, and organize and aid local chapters of the AAAS. The Council recently{{when\\|date\\=April 2021}} has new additions to it from different sections which include many youngsters as well. John Kerry of Chicago is the youngest American in the council and Akhil Ennamsetty of India is the youngest foreign council member.", "### Board of directors", "The board of directors is composed of a chairperson, the president, and the president\\-elect along with eight elected directors, the executive officer of the association and up to two additional directors appointed by elected officers. Members serve a four\\-year term except for directors appointed by elected officers, who serve three\\-year terms.", "The current chairman is [Gerald Fink](/wiki/Gerald_Fink \"Gerald Fink\"), Margaret and Herman Sokol Professor at Whitehead Institute, MIT. Fink will serve in the post until the end of the 2016 AAAS Annual Meeting,[Board of Directors](http://www.aaas.org/about-aaas), *AAAS.org* 15 February 2016\\.[2016 AAAS Annual Meeting](http://meetings.aaas.org//) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928081654/http://meetings.aaas.org/ \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-28 }}, *AAAS.org* (The chairperson is always the immediate past\\-president of AAAS.)", "The board of directors has a variety of powers and responsibilities. It is charged with the administration of all association funds, publication of a budget, appointment of administrators, proposition of amendments, and determining the time and place of meetings of the national association. The board may also speak publicly on behalf of the association. The board must also regularly correspond with the council to discuss their actions.", "" ]
History ------- ### Toponymy Worsley is first mentioned in a [Pipe roll](/wiki/Pipe_roll "Pipe roll") of 1195–96 as *Werkesleia*, in the claim of a Hugh Putrell to a part of the fee of two knights in nearby [Barton\-upon\-Irwell](/wiki/Barton-upon-Irwell "Barton-upon-Irwell") and Worsley. There are many variations on the name; Werkesleia, 1195; Wyrkedele, 1212; Whurkedeleye, c. 1220; Worketley, 1254; Worcotesley, Workedesle, 1276; Wrkesley, Wrkedeley, Workedeley, 1292; Wyrkeslegh, Workesley, 1301; Worsley, 1444; and "Workdisley alias Workesley alias Worseley", 1581\. The spelling of the name in early documents, suggests a [Saxon](/wiki/Saxon "Saxon") origin. *Ge\-Weore*, the [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English") form of the name, means "the cleared place which was cultivated or settled." The *[Anglo\-Saxon Chronicle](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle")* contain no references to Worsley.{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|pp\=16–18\.}} ### Early history {{See also\|Worsley baronets}} Two [Roman roads](/wiki/Roman_road "Roman road") run through the area. Connecting [Mamucium](/wiki/Mamucium "Mamucium") (Manchester) with [Coccium](/wiki/Coccium "Coccium") (Wigan), one passes through Worsley near Drywood, and over [Mosley Common](/wiki/Mosley_Common "Mosley Common"). The present\-day [A6 road](/wiki/A6_road_%28England%29 "A6 road (England)") follows part of the course of another Roman road, which passes through the northern part of the area near [Walkden](/wiki/Walkden "Walkden") and [Little Hulton](/wiki/Little_Hulton "Little Hulton").{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|p\=13\.}} In 1947 a hoard of 550 Roman coins was found near a [quarry](/wiki/Quarry "Quarry") in [Boothstown](/wiki/Boothstown "Boothstown"), dated to between [AD](/wiki/Anno_Domini "Anno Domini") 250 and 275,{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|pp\=14–15\.}}{{PastScape\|mnumber\=44272 \|access\-date\=19 March 2008\|mode\=cs2}} and in 1958 the head of a man was found on Worsley Moss. Named "[Worsley man](/wiki/Chat_Moss%23Worsley_Man "Chat Moss#Worsley Man")", and originally thought to be no more than 20 years old, upon the discovery of [Lindow Man](/wiki/Lindow_Man "Lindow Man") it was re\-examined and dated to approximately the 2nd century AD, in the [Romano\-British period](/wiki/Romano-British_culture "Romano-British culture").{{Harvnb\|Menotti\|2004\|p\=111\.}} [thumb\|upright\|[Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater "Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater"), built the [Bridgewater Canal](/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal "Bridgewater Canal") and was directly responsible for much of the economic growth of Worsley through the latter part of the 18th century.](/wiki/File:Line_engraving_of_Francis_Egerton%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater.jpg "Line engraving of Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater.jpg") Worsley later fell under the control of the [Anglo\-Saxons](/wiki/Anglo-Saxons "Anglo-Saxons"), who controlled much of the area around [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester") and who also defeated the British at the [Battle of Chester](/wiki/Battle_of_Chester "Battle of Chester") in AD 615\. [Edward the Elder](/wiki/Edward_the_Elder "Edward the Elder") rebuilt the fortifications at Manchester, and in AD 924 captured all the land between the rivers [Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey "River Mersey") and [Irwell](/wiki/River_Irwell "River Irwell"), making it [demesne](/wiki/Demesne "Demesne") in the [Kingdom of Wessex](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Wessex "Kingdom of Wessex"). During the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") the area was covered with forests and [marshlands](/wiki/Marshland "Marshland"). Thinly populated by craftsmen and [serfs](/wiki/Serf "Serf"), Worsley grew as a settlement adjoining an ancient [corn mill](/wiki/Corn_mill "Corn mill"), close to the location of the present\-day Worsley Road Bridge.{{Citation \| title \= Worsley Village Conservation Area Appraisal \| url \= http://www.salford.gov.uk/worsley\-conservation\-area\-formal\-adoption\-web\-.pdf\| page \= 2\.11 \| publisher \= Salford City Council \| date \= 1 July 2007 \| access\-date \= 13 February 2009 }} Most farms throughout [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire "Lancashire") were small with their tenants dependent upon secondary employment, however in 1719 a John Kay of Worsley had five [stirks](/wiki/Cattle%23Terminology "Cattle#Terminology"), two bulls, 17 cows, "young cattle upon the moors", and a "cow at hire", all valued at £97 5s. [Marl](/wiki/Marl "Marl") was commonly used as a fertiliser, and is recorded in use in 1719\.{{Harvnb\|Thirsk\|1984\|pp\=63, 65\.}} Wheeler's *Manchester: Its Political, Social and Commercial History, Ancient and Modern* (1836\) states that about one\-fifth of the land around Worsley, [Astley](/wiki/Astley%2C_Greater_Manchester "Astley, Greater Manchester") and [Tyldesley](/wiki/Tyldesley "Tyldesley") was in [tillage](/wiki/Tillage "Tillage"), lower on average than the surrounding areas.{{Harvnb\|Wheeler\|1836\|pp\=433–434\.}} ### Bridgewater estates Worsley was, originally, the largest [manor](/wiki/Manorialism "Manorialism") of the seven ancient manors of the Bridgewater Estates. It was created by [William I](/wiki/William_I_of_England "William I of England") and held for him by the Barton family in [thegnage](/wiki/Thegn "Thegn"), and for them by a [Norman](/wiki/Normans "Normans") [knight](/wiki/Knight "Knight") named Elias, who fought in the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades"). On his death in [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes "Rhodes"), the manor remained with Elias' son, whose family had by that time adopted the name of the village as its family name. On 23 June 1311 a substantial part of the Manor of Hulton was granted to the Worsleys. The family held both manors until the late 14th century,{{Harvnb\|Grayling\|1983\|pp\=7–15\.}} whereon they passed to the Massey family of [Tatton](/wiki/Tatton%2C_Cheshire "Tatton, Cheshire"), and then in the 16th century to the Brereton family of [Malpas, Cheshire](/wiki/Malpas%2C_Cheshire "Malpas, Cheshire").{{Harvnb\|Farrer\|Brownbill\|1911b\|pp\=376–392}}. The Brereton family added the Manor of Bedford (a small area of land to the west of Worsley) to the estate. Richard Brereton later married Dorothy Egerton, and upon his death the estates passed into the Egerton family. In 1617 [John Egerton](/wiki/John_Egerton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bridgewater "John Egerton, 1st Earl of Bridgewater"), son of [Sir Thomas Egerton](/wiki/Thomas_Egerton%2C_1st_Viscount_Brackley "Thomas Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley"), became [Earl of Bridgewater](/wiki/Earl_of_Bridgewater "Earl of Bridgewater"). The Egerton family was descended from Sir Richard Egerton of [Ridley, Cheshire](/wiki/Ridley%2C_Cheshire "Ridley, Cheshire"). His illegitimate son, Thomas Egerton, was a prominent lawyer who served as [Master of the Rolls](/wiki/Master_of_the_Rolls "Master of the Rolls") from 1594 to 1603, and [Lord Keeper of the Great Seal](/wiki/Lord_Keeper_of_the_Great_Seal "Lord Keeper of the Great Seal") from 1596 to 1617 and also as [Lord High Chancellor of England](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor "Lord Chancellor").{{Citation \| last \= Baker \| first \= J. H. \| title \= Egerton, Thomas, first Viscount Brackley (1540–1617\) \| url \= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8594 \|url\-access\=registration \| publisher \= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press \| date \= May 2007 \| access\-date \= 22 January 2009 }} John Egerton succeeded to Worsley in 1639, and died in 1649\. He was succeeded by the second and third Earls of Bridgewater. The title of [Duke of Bridgewater](/wiki/Duke_of_Bridgewater "Duke of Bridgewater") was first given to [Scroop Egerton](/wiki/Scroop_Egerton%2C_1st_Duke_of_Bridgewater "Scroop Egerton, 1st Duke of Bridgewater") in 1720\. He devised a navigation system for Worsley which was not carried out. His son, the third Duke of Bridgewater [Francis Egerton](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater "Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater"), was to build the [Bridgewater Canal](/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal "Bridgewater Canal"). The Duke purchased the Manor of [Pemberton](/wiki/Pemberton%2C_Greater_Manchester "Pemberton, Greater Manchester") (near [Wigan](/wiki/Wigan "Wigan")) in 1758, the Manor of [Hindley](/wiki/Hindley%2C_Greater_Manchester "Hindley, Greater Manchester") in 1765, and the Manor of [Cadishead](/wiki/Cadishead "Cadishead") in 1776\. Upon his death in 1803 he was succeeded by [George Leveson\-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland](/wiki/George_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Duke_of_Sutherland "George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland"). In 1833 the estate was inherited by Gower's son, [Francis Leveson\-Gower](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ellesmere "Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere") who changed his surname to Egerton, and in 1846 became the [Earl of Ellesmere](/wiki/Earl_of_Ellesmere "Earl of Ellesmere"). In 1836 he purchased the Manor of Tyldesley. He is recorded as saying that he found Worsley to be "a God\-forsaken place, full of drunken, rude people with deplorable morals".{{Harvnb\|Robinson\|1986\|p\=160\.}} [Worsley New Hall](/wiki/Worsley_New_Hall "Worsley New Hall"), designed by [Edward Blore](/wiki/Edward_Blore "Edward Blore"), was built in 1846 for Francis Egerton the First Earl of Ellesmere. The plans are held at the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum "Victoria and Albert Museum"). [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") visited the hall in 1851 and 1857; [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII "Edward VII") and [Queen Alexandra](/wiki/Queen_Alexandra "Queen Alexandra") visited when Edward was Prince of Wales in 1869, and on 6 July 1909\.{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|p\=77\.}} The hall was used as a hospital in World War I and in World War II housed [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") evacuees, American soldiers preparing for D\-Day and the [Lancashire Fusiliers](/wiki/Lancashire_Fusiliers "Lancashire Fusiliers"). In 1943 the hall was badly damaged by fire and demolished in 1949\.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-england\-manchester\-16527697 \|work\=BBC News \| title\=Plans to bring Worsley Hall back to life \| date\=13 January 2012}} ### Industrial Revolution {{See also\|Bridgewater Canal\|Worsley Navigable Levels\|Bridgewater Collieries}} [right\|thumb\|Worsley Delph as seen by [Arthur Young](/wiki/Arthur_Young_%28writer%29 "Arthur Young (writer)") in his 1771 book, *A Six Months Tour Through the North of England*. At this time there was only a single entrance to the mines.](/wiki/File:Worlsey_delph_1770_arthur_young.png "Worlsey delph 1770 arthur young.png") [right\|thumb\|Worsley Delph in 2009\. A single Starvationer boat can be seen on the left of the image. The grassed area between the two entrances was constructed during a 1960s restoration of the area.](/wiki/File:Worsley_delph_2.jpg "Worsley delph 2.jpg") Coal has been mined around Worsley from as long ago as 1376,{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|p\=47\.}} originally in [bell pits](/wiki/Bell_pit "Bell pit"). The coal seams in the area tend to be fairly thin, slanting downwards from north to south, and so deeper mining became necessary during the 17th century.{{Harvnb\|Cooper\|2005\|p\=50\.}} With the onset of the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") and the growing use of [steam power](/wiki/Steam_engine "Steam engine"), there was a rapid increase in the demand for coal.{{Harvnb\|Parkinson\-Bailey\|2000\|p\=15\.}} The Duke's mines were among those supplying the surrounding districts{{Harvnb\|Chaloner\|1963\|p\=34\.}} but transport was both inefficient and expensive, and the mines also suffered from persistent flooding. His solution to these problems was to build a canal from Worsley to [Salford](/wiki/City_of_Salford "City of Salford"),{{Harvnb\|Priestley\|1831\|p\=89\.}} and an underground canal into the mines from Worsley Delph. The canal boats would carry {{convert\|30\|LT}} at a time,{{Harvnb\|N/A\|1978\|p\=990\.}} – more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart. The Duke and his estate manager obtained an [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Acts_of_Parliament_in_the_United_Kingdom "Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom") empowering them to begin construction on a planned route directly to Salford, avoiding the [River Irwell](/wiki/River_Irwell "River Irwell"). [James Brindley](/wiki/James_Brindley "James Brindley") was brought in for his technical expertise and suggested varying the route of the proposed canal away from Salford and across the Irwell into Manchester.{{Harvnb\|Skempton\|2002\|p\=76\.}} A second Act was secured for this variance, which included an [aqueduct](/wiki/Navigable_aqueduct "Navigable aqueduct") to cross the Irwell. This was built relatively quickly for the time; work commenced in September 1760 and the first boat crossed on 17 July 1761\.{{Harvnb\|Collins\|1812\|p\=213\.}} The canal opened in 1761 and along with the stone aqueduct at [Barton\-upon\-Irwell](/wiki/Barton-upon-Irwell "Barton-upon-Irwell"), was considered a major engineering achievement. One writer said that when finished, it "will be the most extraordanary thing in the kingdom, if not in Europe. The boats in some places are to go underground, and in other places over a navigable river, without communicating with its waters ..."{{Harvnb\|Boughey\|1998\|p\=}} Worsley Delph, now a [scheduled monument](/wiki/Scheduled_monument "Scheduled monument"), was the entrance to the Duke's underground mines. Two entrances, built years apart, allowed access to the Starvationer boats, the largest of which could carry {{convert\|12\|LT}} of coal. The entrances allow access to {{convert\|46\|mi\|km\|0}} of underground canal on four levels, linked by inclined planes. The burgeoning village became a hub of commercial activity. The Duke employed craftsmen to service a wide range of industries including boat\-making, [plastering](/wiki/Plasterer "Plasterer"), [blacksmithing](/wiki/Blacksmithing "Blacksmithing") and mining. A local quarry supplied [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone"), for which a [kiln](/wiki/Kiln "Kiln") was constructed at the junction of Barton Road (B5211\) and Stableford Road. A quarry at the Delph supplied building materials for the region, including the stone used to construct Brindley's aqueduct. To accommodate the workers needed for these industries the Duke built extra housing and cottages. In a diary entry of 1773, [Josiah Wedgwood](/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood "Josiah Wedgwood") wrote of the area "We next visited Worsley which has the appearance of a considerable Seaport Town. His Grace has built some hundreds of houses, \& is every year adding considerably to their number."{{Harvnb\|Meteyard\|1866\|p\=249\.}} Worsley Green became a thriving centre of industry. With the death of the Duke in 1803, his estates were inherited by his nephew, [George Leveson\-Gower](/wiki/George_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Duke_of_Sutherland "George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland"), who later became the [Duke of Sutherland](/wiki/Duke_of_Sutherland "Duke of Sutherland"). The canal and coal estates were placed under the control of the Bridgewater Trust, and in 1833 the rest of the estates were inherited by the Duke of Sutherland's son, [Francis Leveson\-Gower](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ellesmere "Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere") who changed his surname to Egerton, and in 1846 became the [Earl of Ellesmere](/wiki/Earl_of_Ellesmere "Earl of Ellesmere"). The mines ceased production in 1887,{{Harvnb\|Ware\|1989\|p\=11\.}} and with the expiration of the Bridgewater Trust in 1903 the village began to change; the Duke's warehouse and the works on what is now Worsley Green were demolished. Worsley Brook was culverted, and a memorial fountain to the Duke was built from the bricks of the works' chimney. Although much of the industry that dominated Worsley was in decline, in 1937 [Sir Montague Maurice Burton](/wiki/Sir_Montague_Maurice_Burton "Sir Montague Maurice Burton") opened the Burtonville Clothing Works along the [East Lancashire Road](/wiki/A580_road "A580 road"). Built in the [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") style, in 1938 the factory employed 3,000 people.{{Harvnb\|Honeyman\|2000\|pp\=88–90\.}} ### Modern history [left\|thumb\|The M60 motorway bisects Worsley](/wiki/File:M60_motorway_worsley.jpg "M60 motorway worsley.jpg") Under the [Housing Act 1919](/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom "Town and country planning in the United Kingdom"), large [overspill estates](/wiki/Overspill_estate "Overspill estate") were built by the council for veterans of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"),{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|pp\=79–80\.}} but a larger change to the area came after the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), when the [City of Salford](/wiki/County_Borough_of_Salford "County Borough of Salford") was forced to rehouse many of its inhabitants. With little land left, 4,518 new houses were built in the [urban district](/wiki/Urban_district_%28Great_Britain_and_Ireland%29 "Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)") by the Worsley Project. 18,000 people were rehoused under the scheme, which included new facilities, shops and schools.{{Harvnb\|Pratt\|1977\|p\=80\.}} Another housing estate was built during the 1970s to the north of Worsley Green. In 1944, during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), a [flying bomb](/wiki/Flying_bomb "Flying bomb") landed on a house near Worsley Dam.{{Harvnb\|Milliken\|2007\|p\=36\.}} An Anti Aircraft Operations Room (AAOR) was built in the 1950s. Although unused the building still exists, in wooded land to the west of the town, on the site of the former Worsley New Hall.{{Citation \| last \= Catford \| first \= Nick \| title \= Site Records – Worsley \| url \= http://www.subbrit.org.uk/rsg/sites/w/worsley/index.html \| publisher \= subbrit.org.uk \| date \= 11 April 2002 \| access\-date \= 7 July 2009}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Toponymy", "Worsley is first mentioned in a [Pipe roll](/wiki/Pipe_roll \"Pipe roll\") of 1195–96 as *Werkesleia*, in the claim of a Hugh Putrell to a part of the fee of two knights in nearby [Barton\\-upon\\-Irwell](/wiki/Barton-upon-Irwell \"Barton-upon-Irwell\") and Worsley. There are many variations on the name; Werkesleia, 1195; Wyrkedele, 1212; Whurkedeleye, c. 1220; Worketley, 1254; Worcotesley, Workedesle, 1276; Wrkesley, Wrkedeley, Workedeley, 1292; Wyrkeslegh, Workesley, 1301; Worsley, 1444; and \"Workdisley alias Workesley alias Worseley\", 1581\\. The spelling of the name in early documents, suggests a [Saxon](/wiki/Saxon \"Saxon\") origin. *Ge\\-Weore*, the [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\") form of the name, means \"the cleared place which was cultivated or settled.\" The *[Anglo\\-Saxon Chronicle](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\")* contain no references to Worsley.{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|pp\\=16–18\\.}}", "### Early history", "{{See also\\|Worsley baronets}}\nTwo [Roman roads](/wiki/Roman_road \"Roman road\") run through the area. Connecting [Mamucium](/wiki/Mamucium \"Mamucium\") (Manchester) with [Coccium](/wiki/Coccium \"Coccium\") (Wigan), one passes through Worsley near Drywood, and over [Mosley Common](/wiki/Mosley_Common \"Mosley Common\"). The present\\-day [A6 road](/wiki/A6_road_%28England%29 \"A6 road (England)\") follows part of the course of another Roman road, which passes through the northern part of the area near [Walkden](/wiki/Walkden \"Walkden\") and [Little Hulton](/wiki/Little_Hulton \"Little Hulton\").{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|p\\=13\\.}} In 1947 a hoard of 550 Roman coins was found near a [quarry](/wiki/Quarry \"Quarry\") in [Boothstown](/wiki/Boothstown \"Boothstown\"), dated to between [AD](/wiki/Anno_Domini \"Anno Domini\") 250 and 275,{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|pp\\=14–15\\.}}{{PastScape\\|mnumber\\=44272 \\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2008\\|mode\\=cs2}} and in 1958 the head of a man was found on Worsley Moss. Named \"[Worsley man](/wiki/Chat_Moss%23Worsley_Man \"Chat Moss#Worsley Man\")\", and originally thought to be no more than 20 years old, upon the discovery of [Lindow Man](/wiki/Lindow_Man \"Lindow Man\") it was re\\-examined and dated to approximately the 2nd century AD, in the [Romano\\-British period](/wiki/Romano-British_culture \"Romano-British culture\").{{Harvnb\\|Menotti\\|2004\\|p\\=111\\.}}", "[thumb\\|upright\\|[Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater \"Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater\"), built the [Bridgewater Canal](/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal \"Bridgewater Canal\") and was directly responsible for much of the economic growth of Worsley through the latter part of the 18th century.](/wiki/File:Line_engraving_of_Francis_Egerton%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater.jpg \"Line engraving of Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater.jpg\")", "Worsley later fell under the control of the [Anglo\\-Saxons](/wiki/Anglo-Saxons \"Anglo-Saxons\"), who controlled much of the area around [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\") and who also defeated the British at the [Battle of Chester](/wiki/Battle_of_Chester \"Battle of Chester\") in AD 615\\. [Edward the Elder](/wiki/Edward_the_Elder \"Edward the Elder\") rebuilt the fortifications at Manchester, and in AD 924 captured all the land between the rivers [Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey \"River Mersey\") and [Irwell](/wiki/River_Irwell \"River Irwell\"), making it [demesne](/wiki/Demesne \"Demesne\") in the [Kingdom of Wessex](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Wessex \"Kingdom of Wessex\"). During the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") the area was covered with forests and [marshlands](/wiki/Marshland \"Marshland\"). Thinly populated by craftsmen and [serfs](/wiki/Serf \"Serf\"), Worsley grew as a settlement adjoining an ancient [corn mill](/wiki/Corn_mill \"Corn mill\"), close to the location of the present\\-day Worsley Road Bridge.{{Citation \\| title \\= Worsley Village Conservation Area Appraisal \\| url \\= http://www.salford.gov.uk/worsley\\-conservation\\-area\\-formal\\-adoption\\-web\\-.pdf\\| page \\= 2\\.11 \\| publisher \\= Salford City Council \\| date \\= 1 July 2007 \\| access\\-date \\= 13 February 2009 }} Most farms throughout [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire \"Lancashire\") were small with their tenants dependent upon secondary employment, however in 1719 a John Kay of Worsley had five [stirks](/wiki/Cattle%23Terminology \"Cattle#Terminology\"), two bulls, 17 cows, \"young cattle upon the moors\", and a \"cow at hire\", all valued at £97 5s. [Marl](/wiki/Marl \"Marl\") was commonly used as a fertiliser, and is recorded in use in 1719\\.{{Harvnb\\|Thirsk\\|1984\\|pp\\=63, 65\\.}} Wheeler's *Manchester: Its Political, Social and Commercial History, Ancient and Modern* (1836\\) states that about one\\-fifth of the land around Worsley, [Astley](/wiki/Astley%2C_Greater_Manchester \"Astley, Greater Manchester\") and [Tyldesley](/wiki/Tyldesley \"Tyldesley\") was in [tillage](/wiki/Tillage \"Tillage\"), lower on average than the surrounding areas.{{Harvnb\\|Wheeler\\|1836\\|pp\\=433–434\\.}}", "### Bridgewater estates", "Worsley was, originally, the largest [manor](/wiki/Manorialism \"Manorialism\") of the seven ancient manors of the Bridgewater Estates. It was created by [William I](/wiki/William_I_of_England \"William I of England\") and held for him by the Barton family in [thegnage](/wiki/Thegn \"Thegn\"), and for them by a [Norman](/wiki/Normans \"Normans\") [knight](/wiki/Knight \"Knight\") named Elias, who fought in the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\"). On his death in [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes \"Rhodes\"), the manor remained with Elias' son, whose family had by that time adopted the name of the village as its family name. On 23 June 1311 a substantial part of the Manor of Hulton was granted to the Worsleys. The family held both manors until the late 14th century,{{Harvnb\\|Grayling\\|1983\\|pp\\=7–15\\.}} whereon they passed to the Massey family of [Tatton](/wiki/Tatton%2C_Cheshire \"Tatton, Cheshire\"), and then in the 16th century to the Brereton family of [Malpas, Cheshire](/wiki/Malpas%2C_Cheshire \"Malpas, Cheshire\").{{Harvnb\\|Farrer\\|Brownbill\\|1911b\\|pp\\=376–392}}. The Brereton family added the Manor of Bedford (a small area of land to the west of Worsley) to the estate. Richard Brereton later married Dorothy Egerton, and upon his death the estates passed into the Egerton family.", "In 1617 [John Egerton](/wiki/John_Egerton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bridgewater \"John Egerton, 1st Earl of Bridgewater\"), son of [Sir Thomas Egerton](/wiki/Thomas_Egerton%2C_1st_Viscount_Brackley \"Thomas Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley\"), became [Earl of Bridgewater](/wiki/Earl_of_Bridgewater \"Earl of Bridgewater\"). The Egerton family was descended from Sir Richard Egerton of [Ridley, Cheshire](/wiki/Ridley%2C_Cheshire \"Ridley, Cheshire\"). His illegitimate son, Thomas Egerton, was a prominent lawyer who served as [Master of the Rolls](/wiki/Master_of_the_Rolls \"Master of the Rolls\") from 1594 to 1603, and [Lord Keeper of the Great Seal](/wiki/Lord_Keeper_of_the_Great_Seal \"Lord Keeper of the Great Seal\") from 1596 to 1617 and also as [Lord High Chancellor of England](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor \"Lord Chancellor\").{{Citation \\| last \\= Baker \\| first \\= J. H. \\| title \\= Egerton, Thomas, first Viscount Brackley (1540–1617\\) \\| url \\= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8594 \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\| publisher \\= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press \\| date \\= May 2007 \\| access\\-date \\= 22 January 2009 }} John Egerton succeeded to Worsley in 1639, and died in 1649\\. He was succeeded by the second and third Earls of Bridgewater. The title of [Duke of Bridgewater](/wiki/Duke_of_Bridgewater \"Duke of Bridgewater\") was first given to [Scroop Egerton](/wiki/Scroop_Egerton%2C_1st_Duke_of_Bridgewater \"Scroop Egerton, 1st Duke of Bridgewater\") in 1720\\. He devised a navigation system for Worsley which was not carried out. His son, the third Duke of Bridgewater [Francis Egerton](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater \"Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater\"), was to build the [Bridgewater Canal](/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal \"Bridgewater Canal\").", "The Duke purchased the Manor of [Pemberton](/wiki/Pemberton%2C_Greater_Manchester \"Pemberton, Greater Manchester\") (near [Wigan](/wiki/Wigan \"Wigan\")) in 1758, the Manor of [Hindley](/wiki/Hindley%2C_Greater_Manchester \"Hindley, Greater Manchester\") in 1765, and the Manor of [Cadishead](/wiki/Cadishead \"Cadishead\") in 1776\\. Upon his death in 1803 he was succeeded by [George Leveson\\-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland](/wiki/George_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Duke_of_Sutherland \"George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland\"). In 1833 the estate was inherited by Gower's son, [Francis Leveson\\-Gower](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ellesmere \"Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere\") who changed his surname to Egerton, and in 1846 became the [Earl of Ellesmere](/wiki/Earl_of_Ellesmere \"Earl of Ellesmere\"). In 1836 he purchased the Manor of Tyldesley. He is recorded as saying that he found Worsley to be \"a God\\-forsaken place, full of drunken, rude people with deplorable morals\".{{Harvnb\\|Robinson\\|1986\\|p\\=160\\.}}", "[Worsley New Hall](/wiki/Worsley_New_Hall \"Worsley New Hall\"), designed by [Edward Blore](/wiki/Edward_Blore \"Edward Blore\"), was built in 1846 for Francis Egerton the First Earl of Ellesmere. The plans are held at the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum \"Victoria and Albert Museum\"). [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") visited the hall in 1851 and 1857; [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII \"Edward VII\") and [Queen Alexandra](/wiki/Queen_Alexandra \"Queen Alexandra\") visited when Edward was Prince of Wales in 1869, and on 6 July 1909\\.{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|p\\=77\\.}} The hall was used as a hospital in World War I and in World War II housed [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") evacuees, American soldiers preparing for D\\-Day and the [Lancashire Fusiliers](/wiki/Lancashire_Fusiliers \"Lancashire Fusiliers\"). In 1943 the hall was badly damaged by fire and demolished in 1949\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-england\\-manchester\\-16527697 \\|work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Plans to bring Worsley Hall back to life \\| date\\=13 January 2012}}", "### Industrial Revolution", "{{See also\\|Bridgewater Canal\\|Worsley Navigable Levels\\|Bridgewater Collieries}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|Worsley Delph as seen by [Arthur Young](/wiki/Arthur_Young_%28writer%29 \"Arthur Young (writer)\") in his 1771 book, *A Six Months Tour Through the North of England*. At this time there was only a single entrance to the mines.](/wiki/File:Worlsey_delph_1770_arthur_young.png \"Worlsey delph 1770 arthur young.png\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|Worsley Delph in 2009\\. A single Starvationer boat can be seen on the left of the image. The grassed area between the two entrances was constructed during a 1960s restoration of the area.](/wiki/File:Worsley_delph_2.jpg \"Worsley delph 2.jpg\")\nCoal has been mined around Worsley from as long ago as 1376,{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|p\\=47\\.}} originally in [bell pits](/wiki/Bell_pit \"Bell pit\"). The coal seams in the area tend to be fairly thin, slanting downwards from north to south, and so deeper mining became necessary during the 17th century.{{Harvnb\\|Cooper\\|2005\\|p\\=50\\.}}", "With the onset of the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") and the growing use of [steam power](/wiki/Steam_engine \"Steam engine\"), there was a rapid increase in the demand for coal.{{Harvnb\\|Parkinson\\-Bailey\\|2000\\|p\\=15\\.}} The Duke's mines were among those supplying the surrounding districts{{Harvnb\\|Chaloner\\|1963\\|p\\=34\\.}} but transport was both inefficient and expensive, and the mines also suffered from persistent flooding. His solution to these problems was to build a canal from Worsley to [Salford](/wiki/City_of_Salford \"City of Salford\"),{{Harvnb\\|Priestley\\|1831\\|p\\=89\\.}} and an underground canal into the mines from Worsley Delph. The canal boats would carry {{convert\\|30\\|LT}} at a time,{{Harvnb\\|N/A\\|1978\\|p\\=990\\.}} – more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart. The Duke and his estate manager obtained an [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Acts_of_Parliament_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom\") empowering them to begin construction on a planned route directly to Salford, avoiding the [River Irwell](/wiki/River_Irwell \"River Irwell\").", "[James Brindley](/wiki/James_Brindley \"James Brindley\") was brought in for his technical expertise and suggested varying the route of the proposed canal away from Salford and across the Irwell into Manchester.{{Harvnb\\|Skempton\\|2002\\|p\\=76\\.}} A second Act was secured for this variance, which included an [aqueduct](/wiki/Navigable_aqueduct \"Navigable aqueduct\") to cross the Irwell. This was built relatively quickly for the time; work commenced in September 1760 and the first boat crossed on 17 July 1761\\.{{Harvnb\\|Collins\\|1812\\|p\\=213\\.}} The canal opened in 1761 and along with the stone aqueduct at [Barton\\-upon\\-Irwell](/wiki/Barton-upon-Irwell \"Barton-upon-Irwell\"), was considered a major engineering achievement. One writer said that when finished, it \"will be the most extraordanary thing in the kingdom, if not in Europe. The boats in some places are to go underground, and in other places over a navigable river, without communicating with its waters ...\"{{Harvnb\\|Boughey\\|1998\\|p\\=}}", "Worsley Delph, now a [scheduled monument](/wiki/Scheduled_monument \"Scheduled monument\"), was the entrance to the Duke's underground mines. Two entrances, built years apart, allowed access to the Starvationer boats, the largest of which could carry {{convert\\|12\\|LT}} of coal. The entrances allow access to {{convert\\|46\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} of underground canal on four levels, linked by inclined planes.", "The burgeoning village became a hub of commercial activity. The Duke employed craftsmen to service a wide range of industries including boat\\-making, [plastering](/wiki/Plasterer \"Plasterer\"), [blacksmithing](/wiki/Blacksmithing \"Blacksmithing\") and mining. A local quarry supplied [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\"), for which a [kiln](/wiki/Kiln \"Kiln\") was constructed at the junction of Barton Road (B5211\\) and Stableford Road. A quarry at the Delph supplied building materials for the region, including the stone used to construct Brindley's aqueduct. To accommodate the workers needed for these industries the Duke built extra housing and cottages. In a diary entry of 1773, [Josiah Wedgwood](/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood \"Josiah Wedgwood\") wrote of the area \"We next visited Worsley which has the appearance of a considerable Seaport Town. His Grace has built some hundreds of houses, \\& is every year adding considerably to their number.\"{{Harvnb\\|Meteyard\\|1866\\|p\\=249\\.}} Worsley Green became a thriving centre of industry.", "With the death of the Duke in 1803, his estates were inherited by his nephew, [George Leveson\\-Gower](/wiki/George_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Duke_of_Sutherland \"George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland\"), who later became the [Duke of Sutherland](/wiki/Duke_of_Sutherland \"Duke of Sutherland\"). The canal and coal estates were placed under the control of the Bridgewater Trust, and in 1833 the rest of the estates were inherited by the Duke of Sutherland's son, [Francis Leveson\\-Gower](/wiki/Francis_Egerton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ellesmere \"Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere\") who changed his surname to Egerton, and in 1846 became the [Earl of Ellesmere](/wiki/Earl_of_Ellesmere \"Earl of Ellesmere\"). The mines ceased production in 1887,{{Harvnb\\|Ware\\|1989\\|p\\=11\\.}} and with the expiration of the Bridgewater Trust in 1903 the village began to change; the Duke's warehouse and the works on what is now Worsley Green were demolished. Worsley Brook was culverted, and a memorial fountain to the Duke was built from the bricks of the works' chimney.", "Although much of the industry that dominated Worsley was in decline, in 1937 [Sir Montague Maurice Burton](/wiki/Sir_Montague_Maurice_Burton \"Sir Montague Maurice Burton\") opened the Burtonville Clothing Works along the [East Lancashire Road](/wiki/A580_road \"A580 road\"). Built in the [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") style, in 1938 the factory employed 3,000 people.{{Harvnb\\|Honeyman\\|2000\\|pp\\=88–90\\.}}", "### Modern history", "[left\\|thumb\\|The M60 motorway bisects Worsley](/wiki/File:M60_motorway_worsley.jpg \"M60 motorway worsley.jpg\")\nUnder the [Housing Act 1919](/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Town and country planning in the United Kingdom\"), large [overspill estates](/wiki/Overspill_estate \"Overspill estate\") were built by the council for veterans of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"),{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|pp\\=79–80\\.}} but a larger change to the area came after the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), when the [City of Salford](/wiki/County_Borough_of_Salford \"County Borough of Salford\") was forced to rehouse many of its inhabitants. With little land left, 4,518 new houses were built in the [urban district](/wiki/Urban_district_%28Great_Britain_and_Ireland%29 \"Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)\") by the Worsley Project. 18,000 people were rehoused under the scheme, which included new facilities, shops and schools.{{Harvnb\\|Pratt\\|1977\\|p\\=80\\.}} Another housing estate was built during the 1970s to the north of Worsley Green.", "In 1944, during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), a [flying bomb](/wiki/Flying_bomb \"Flying bomb\") landed on a house near Worsley Dam.{{Harvnb\\|Milliken\\|2007\\|p\\=36\\.}} An Anti Aircraft Operations Room (AAOR) was built in the 1950s. Although unused the building still exists, in wooded land to the west of the town, on the site of the former Worsley New Hall.{{Citation \\| last \\= Catford \\| first \\= Nick \\| title \\= Site Records – Worsley \\| url \\= http://www.subbrit.org.uk/rsg/sites/w/worsley/index.html \\| publisher \\= subbrit.org.uk \\| date \\= 11 April 2002 \\| access\\-date \\= 7 July 2009}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|2020\= 207 \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census/decade.html\|title\=Decennial Census by Decade\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=}} 1850–1870{{Cite web\|title\= 1870 Census of Population \- Population of Civil Divisions less than Counties \- California \- Almeda County to Sutter County \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/population/1870a\-12\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}}{{Cite web\|title\= 1870 Census of Population \- Population of Civil Divisions less than Counties \- California \- Tehama County to Yuba County \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/population/1870a\-13\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1880\-1890{{Cite web\|title\= 1890 Census of Population \- Population of California by Minor Civil Divisions \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1890/bulletins/demographics/134\-population\-of\-ca.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1900{{Cite web\|title\= 1900 Census of Population \- Population of California by Counties and Minor Civil Divisions \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1900/bulletins/demographic/10\-population\-ca.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1910{{Cite web\|title\= 1910 Census of Population \- Supplement for California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1910/abstract/supplement\-ca.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1920{{Cite web\|title\= 1920 Census of Population \- Number of Inhabitants \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1920/bulletins/demographics/population\-ca\-number\-of\-inhabitants.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1930{{Cite web\|title\= 1930 Census of Population \- Number and Distribution of Inhabitants \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1930/population\-volume\-1/03815512v1ch03\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1940{{Cite web\|title\= 1940 Census of Population \- Number of Inhabitants \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population\-volume\-1/33973538v1ch03\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1950{{Cite web\|title\= 1950 Census of Population \- Number of Inhabitants \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1950/population\-volume\-1/vol\-01\-08\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1960{{Cite web\|title\= 1960 Census of Population \- General population Characteristics \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/population\-volume\-1/vol\-01\-06\-d.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1970{{Cite web\|title\= 1970 Census of Population \- Number of Inhabitants \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1970a\_ca1\-01\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1980{{Cite web\|title\= 1980 Census of Population \- Number of Inhabitants \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980a\_caAB\-01\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1990{{Cite web\|title\= 1990 Census of Population \- Population and Housing Unit Counts \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/prod2/cen1990/cph2/cph\-2\-6\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 2000{{Cite web\|title\= 2000 Census of Population \- Population and Housing Unit Counts \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/2003/dec/phc\-3\-6\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 2010{{Cite web\|title\= 2010 Census of Population \- Population and Housing Unit Counts \- California \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/2010/cph\-2/cph\-2\-6\.pdf\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} }} The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0611782\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715023959/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0611782\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \- Cassel CDP\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|accessdate\=July 12, 2014}} reported that Cassel had a population of 207\. The population density was {{convert\|98\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Cassel was 194 (93\.7%) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0 (0\.0%) [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 3 (1\.4%) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0 (0\.0%) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0 (0\.0%) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 4 (1\.9%) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 6 (2\.9%) from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 6 persons (2\.9%). The Census reported that 207 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 93 households, out of which 17 (18\.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 65 (69\.9%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2 (2\.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 3 (3\.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2 (2\.2%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 2 (2\.2%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 18 households (19\.4%) were made up of individuals, and 9 (9\.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.23\. There were 70 [families](/wiki/Family_%28U.S._Census%29 "Family (U.S. Census)") (75\.3% of all households); the average family size was 2\.54\. The population was spread out, with 32 people (15\.5%) under the age of 18, 7 people (3\.4%) aged 18 to 24, 29 people (14\.0%) aged 25 to 44, 78 people (37\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 61 people (29\.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 57\.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 105\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\.4 males. There were 140 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|66\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}, of which 81 (87\.1%) were owner\-occupied, and 12 (12\.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 5\.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 20\.0%. 173 people (83\.6% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 34 people (16\.4%) lived in rental housing units.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|2020\\= 207\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census/decade.html\\|title\\=Decennial Census by Decade\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=}} \n1850–1870{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1870 Census of Population \\- Population of Civil Divisions less than Counties \\- California \\- Almeda County to Sutter County \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/population/1870a\\-12\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}}{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1870 Census of Population \\- Population of Civil Divisions less than Counties \\- California \\- Tehama County to Yuba County \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/population/1870a\\-13\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1880\\-1890{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1890 Census of Population \\- Population of California by Minor Civil Divisions \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1890/bulletins/demographics/134\\-population\\-of\\-ca.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} \n 1900{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1900 Census of Population \\- Population of California by Counties and Minor Civil Divisions \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1900/bulletins/demographic/10\\-population\\-ca.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1910{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1910 Census of Population \\- Supplement for California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1910/abstract/supplement\\-ca.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1920{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1920 Census of Population \\- Number of Inhabitants \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1920/bulletins/demographics/population\\-ca\\-number\\-of\\-inhabitants.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} \n 1930{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1930 Census of Population \\- Number and Distribution of Inhabitants \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1930/population\\-volume\\-1/03815512v1ch03\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1940{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1940 Census of Population \\- Number of Inhabitants \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population\\-volume\\-1/33973538v1ch03\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1950{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1950 Census of Population \\- Number of Inhabitants \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1950/population\\-volume\\-1/vol\\-01\\-08\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} \n 1960{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1960 Census of Population \\- General population Characteristics \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/population\\-volume\\-1/vol\\-01\\-06\\-d.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1970{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1970 Census of Population \\- Number of Inhabitants \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1970a\\_ca1\\-01\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 1980{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1980 Census of Population \\- Number of Inhabitants \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980a\\_caAB\\-01\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} \n 1990{{Cite web\\|title\\= 1990 Census of Population \\- Population and Housing Unit Counts \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/cen1990/cph2/cph\\-2\\-6\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}}\n2000{{Cite web\\|title\\= 2000 Census of Population \\- Population and Housing Unit Counts \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/2003/dec/phc\\-3\\-6\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} 2010{{Cite web\\|title\\= 2010 Census of Population \\- Population and Housing Unit Counts \\- California \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/2010/cph\\-2/cph\\-2\\-6\\.pdf\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}}\n}}", "The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0611782\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715023959/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0611782\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \\- Cassel CDP\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=July 12, 2014}} reported that Cassel had a population of 207\\. The population density was {{convert\\|98\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Cassel was 194 (93\\.7%) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0 (0\\.0%) [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 3 (1\\.4%) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0 (0\\.0%) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0 (0\\.0%) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 4 (1\\.9%) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 6 (2\\.9%) from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 6 persons (2\\.9%).", "The Census reported that 207 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.", "There were 93 households, out of which 17 (18\\.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 65 (69\\.9%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2 (2\\.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 3 (3\\.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2 (2\\.2%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 2 (2\\.2%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 18 households (19\\.4%) were made up of individuals, and 9 (9\\.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.23\\. There were 70 [families](/wiki/Family_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Family (U.S. Census)\") (75\\.3% of all households); the average family size was 2\\.54\\.", "The population was spread out, with 32 people (15\\.5%) under the age of 18, 7 people (3\\.4%) aged 18 to 24, 29 people (14\\.0%) aged 25 to 44, 78 people (37\\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 61 people (29\\.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 57\\.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 105\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\\.4 males.", "There were 140 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|66\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}, of which 81 (87\\.1%) were owner\\-occupied, and 12 (12\\.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 5\\.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 20\\.0%. 173 people (83\\.6% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 34 people (16\\.4%) lived in rental housing units.", "" ]
Organization of the UniProt databases ------------------------------------- UniProt provides four core databases: UniProtKB (with sub\-parts Swiss\-Prot and TrEMBL), UniParc, UniRef and Proteome. ### UniProtKB UniProt Knowledgebase (UniProtKB) is a protein database partially curated by experts, consisting of two sections: UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot (containing reviewed, manually annotated entries) and UniProtKB/TrEMBL (containing unreviewed, automatically annotated entries).{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Uniprot \| first1 \= C. \| title \= The Universal Protein Resource (UniProt) in 2010 \| doi \= 10\.1093/nar/gkp846 \| journal \= Nucleic Acids Research \| volume \= 38 \| issue \= Database issue \| pages \= D142–D148 \| year \= 2009 \| pmid \= 19843607 \| pmc \=2808944 }} {{As of\|2023\|02\|22}}, release "2023\_01" of UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot contains 569,213 sequence entries (comprising 205,728,242 amino acids abstracted from 291,046 references) and release "2023\_01" of UniProtKB/TrEMBL contains 245,871,724 sequence entries (comprising 85,739,380,194 amino acids).{{cite web\|url\=https://web.expasy.org/docs/relnotes/relstat.html\|title\=UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot Release 2023\_01 statistics\|website\=web.expasy.org\|access\-date\=31 March 2023}} #### UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot is a manually annotated, non\-redundant protein sequence database. It combines information extracted from scientific literature and [biocurator](/wiki/Biocurator "Biocurator")\-evaluated computational analysis. The aim of UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot is to provide all known relevant information about a particular protein. Annotation is regularly reviewed to keep up with current scientific findings. The manual annotation of an entry involves detailed analysis of the protein sequence and of the scientific literature.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.uniprot.org/faq/45 \|date\=September 21, 2011 \|title\=How do we manually annotate a UniProtKB entry?\|website\=UniProt\|access\-date\=14 April 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20131213073315/https://www.uniprot.org/faq/45 \|archive\-date\= Dec 13, 2013 }} Sequences from the same [gene](/wiki/Gene "Gene") and the same [species](/wiki/Species "Species") are merged into the same database entry. Differences between sequences are identified, and their cause documented (for example [alternative splicing](/wiki/Alternative_splicing "Alternative splicing"), [natural variation](/wiki/Genetic_diversity "Genetic diversity"), incorrect [initiation](/wiki/Eukaryotic_translation%23Initiation "Eukaryotic translation#Initiation") sites, incorrect [exon](/wiki/Exon "Exon") boundaries, [frameshifts](/wiki/Frameshift_mutation "Frameshift mutation"), unidentified conflicts). A range of sequence analysis tools is used in the annotation of UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot entries. Computer\-predictions are manually evaluated, and relevant results selected for inclusion in the entry. These predictions include post\-translational modifications, [transmembrane domains](/wiki/Transmembrane_domain "Transmembrane domain") and [topology](/wiki/Membrane_topology "Membrane topology"), [signal peptides](/wiki/Signal_peptide "Signal peptide"), domain identification, and [protein family](/wiki/Protein_family "Protein family") classification.{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Apweiler \| first1 \= R. \| last2 \= Bairoch \| first2 \= A. \| last3 \= Wu \| first3 \= C. H. \| last4 \= Barker \| first4 \= W. C. \| last5 \= Boeckmann \| first5 \= B. \| last6 \= Ferro \| first6 \= S. \| last7 \= Gasteiger \| first7 \= E. \| last8 \= Huang \| first8 \= H. \| last9 \= Lopez \| first9 \= R. \| last10 \= Magrane \| first10 \= M. \| last11 \= Martin \| first11 \= M. J. \| last12 \= Natale \| first12 \= D. A. \| last13 \= o’Donovan \| first13 \= C. \| last14 \= Redaschi \| first14 \= N. \| last15 \= Yeh \| first15 \= L. S. \| title \= UniProt: The Universal Protein knowledgebase \| doi \= 10\.1093/nar/gkh131 \|doi\-access\=free \| journal \= Nucleic Acids Research \| volume \= 32 \| issue \= 90001 \| pages \= 115D–1119 \| year \= 2004 \| pmid \= 14681372 \| pmc \=308865 }} Relevant publications are identified by searching databases such as [PubMed](/wiki/PubMed "PubMed"). The full text of each paper is read, and information is extracted and added to the entry. Annotation arising from the scientific literature includes, but is not limited to:{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Apweiler \| first1 \= R. \| last2 \= Bairoch \| first2 \= A. \| last3 \= Wu \| first3 \= C. H. \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cbpa.2003\.12\.004 \| title \= Protein sequence databases \| journal \= Current Opinion in Chemical Biology \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 76–80 \| year \= 2004 \| pmid \= 15036160}} * Protein and gene names * Function * [Enzyme](/wiki/Enzyme "Enzyme")\-specific information such as [catalytic activity](/wiki/Catalysis "Catalysis"), [cofactors](/wiki/Cofactor_%28biochemistry%29 "Cofactor (biochemistry)") and [catalytic residues](/wiki/Active_site "Active site") * [Subcellular location](/wiki/Subcellular_localization "Subcellular localization") * [Protein\-protein interactions](/wiki/Protein-protein_interaction "Protein-protein interaction") * Pattern of expression * Locations and roles of significant domains and sites * [Ion](/wiki/Ion "Ion")\-, [substrate](/wiki/Substrate_%28biochemistry%29 "Substrate (biochemistry)")\- and cofactor\-binding sites * Protein variant forms produced by natural genetic variation, [RNA editing](/wiki/RNA_editing "RNA editing"), alternative splicing, [proteolytic](/wiki/Proteolytic "Proteolytic") processing, and post\-translational modification Annotated entries undergo quality assurance before inclusion into UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot. When new data becomes available, entries are updated. #### UniProtKB/TrEMBL UniProtKB/TrEMBL contains high\-quality computationally analyzed records, which are enriched with automatic annotation. It was introduced in response to increased dataflow resulting from genome projects, as the time\- and labour\-consuming manual annotation process of UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot could not be broadened to include all available protein sequences. The translations of annotated coding sequences in the [EMBL\-Bank/GenBank/DDBJ nucleotide sequence database](/wiki/INSDC "INSDC") are automatically processed and entered in UniProtKB/TrEMBL. UniProtKB/TrEMBL also contains sequences from [PDB](/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank "Protein Data Bank"), and from gene prediction, including [Ensembl](/wiki/Ensembl "Ensembl"), [RefSeq](/wiki/RefSeq "RefSeq") and [CCDS](/wiki/Consensus_CDS_Project "Consensus CDS Project").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.uniprot.org/faq/37\|title\=Where do the UniProtKB protein sequences come from?\|website\=UniProt \|date\=September 21, 2011 \|access\-date\=14 April 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215223948/https://www.uniprot.org/faq/37 \|archive\-date\= Dec 15, 2013 }} Since 22 July 2021 it also includes structures predicted with [AlphaFold2](/wiki/AlphaFold "AlphaFold").{{cite web \|title\=Putting the power of AlphaFold into the world's hands \|url\=https://deepmind.com/blog/article/putting\-the\-power\-of\-alphafold\-into\-the\-worlds\-hands \|date\= 22 July 2022 \|first1\= Demis \|last1\=Hassabis \|website\=Deepmind \|access\-date\=24 July 2021 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724034333/https://deepmind.com/blog/article/putting\-the\-power\-of\-alphafold\-into\-the\-worlds\-hands \|archive\-date\= 24 July 2021 }} ### UniParc UniProt Archive (UniParc) is a comprehensive and non\-redundant database, which contains all the protein sequences from the main, publicly available protein sequence databases.{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Leinonen \| first1 \= R. \| last2 \= Diez \| first2 \= F. G. \| last3 \= Binns \| first3 \= D. \| last4 \= Fleischmann \| first4 \= W. \| last5 \= Lopez \| first5 \= R. \| last6 \= Apweiler \| first6 \= R. \| doi \= 10\.1093/bioinformatics/bth191 \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/bioinformatics/article/20/17/3236/185740 \| title \= UniProt archive \| journal \= Bioinformatics \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= 3236–3237 \| year \= 2004 \| pmid \= 15044231 \| doi\-access \= free \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20240330230423/https://watermark.silverchair.com/bioinformatics\_20\_17\_3236\.pdf?token\=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW\_Ercy7Dm3ZL\_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA34wggN6BgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggNrMIIDZwIBADCCA2AGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMP9mu\-T8EUm\-Q6Lf9AgEQgIIDMcbOoJLLoOPgo\-wQyUWIt5mj5BPdBSlnXllqsCHaRfV0xiOcThLWvaWthRcPV7v4ucTNtx1q1tXDoVjKzMG4TWbWC\_3ddH2WTh6auCHEBHAYoJJ\_29joWila6lfpHWCv\-XkLMBBAYQkbNaTZIw\-ywI9qlFkgYz5DIK83PmTio\_xQ6OBES9aqriHeIzRRPDkXU3QzdkfPw\-USBipDF1zAOEtM6J2p7xmjKmW6DQq\-\_3hb7Ju82VNJoLgwtr0oKZG6845mV5MKPvrS7jL0UKYgNtkNwEcEuZ6ojBKkB\_oXPTrRyqyD6kZBeVaxJcgEVmaVaNGMLxXhpC3V8q63SaoJ5DSVlnqIJQTHauFQ6hrQcoBQSOVwT8\-3Yj\-dUuDfopzsdOIDmwYiV71sjabJOuVC60NYR7ieEhQGp0SemDlPAAgtDOml6ivO5PSCPGy7oAlScLAwSgFKvJSci6OpW\-AnhOaNFAA3EBiXj9Wb5eDjKc2\-WZ4lmTDaEnmke07lMzdSaAA6i7o7h0roXIhLkVv5YKIz6kvR1dSNM2sT7LseDdJm0bQpP\-WVGAtRlh6PCmnez8owewKsFxtx35mNfzv\_wZejzS4A\-a1oqtwpMQyYqqsQbHmsJQC\-52scqM8hqOxnpXVlhSFBP\_2sOE4ggiGNWBUFTUnzPc45CJ8f4cddREt5CefFUvccgHq1vbUpbMkmY6LDcsKVJEc2sSv02JnarmMrw1DTKizqGCFN3Vxebv8iI7ApcgLrH2VYd9bSI\_0KbYejDkuIPRTjFd7e8BYdOYAdDLtOmLpDdxw53KJzVkudKBWyAG6vYJYQ16g2h897FN58JYAdCem3uq9FVMWtma840gBmir\-\_uYrbwKudMO7gKEcbWPE9RAaMqLWwhmBRsFnjQUztoR2loO\-iMerIl44k2bjzSM\-\_8Yeo40\-iTuGERBD6A7tPdzOvSp6PFpPGQcNljrqfi3Xf\-tNmL7aiB2HM4yCdIepndC\_v05MNPLUdbS\-SxmsOnuJwRKljCsj2qbyLLpKSSXvh\_GVCJ0BPRJP2c1FCCswrg5Yi\-ywo7K1rhsgr9XdFU9yR0dBTSg6eBb4 \|archive\-date\= Mar 30, 2024 }} Proteins may exist in several different source databases, and in multiple copies in the same database. In order to avoid redundancy, UniParc stores each unique sequence only once. Identical sequences are merged, regardless of whether they are from the same or different species. Each sequence is given a stable and unique identifier (UPI), making it possible to identify the same protein from different source databases. UniParc contains only protein sequences, with no annotation. Database cross\-references in UniParc entries allow further information about the protein to be retrieved from the source databases. When sequences in the source databases change, these changes are tracked by UniParc and history of all changes is archived. #### Source databases Currently UniParc contains protein sequences from the following publicly available databases: * [INSDC](/wiki/INSDC "INSDC") [EMBL](/wiki/EMBL "EMBL")\-Bank/[DDBJ](/wiki/DDBJ "DDBJ")/[GenBank](/wiki/GenBank "GenBank") nucleotide sequence databases * [Ensembl](/wiki/Ensembl "Ensembl") * [European Patent Office](/wiki/European_Patent_Office "European Patent Office") (EPO) * [FlyBase: the primary repository of genetic and molecular data for the insect family Drosophilidae](/wiki/FlyBase "FlyBase") (FlyBase) * [H\-Invitational Database](/wiki/H-Invitational "H-Invitational") (H\-Inv) * [International Protein Index](/wiki/International_Protein_Index "International Protein Index") (IPI) * [Japan Patent Office](/wiki/Japan_Patent_Office "Japan Patent Office") (JPO) * [Protein Information Resource](/wiki/Protein_Information_Resource "Protein Information Resource") (PIR\-PSD) * [Protein Data Bank](/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank "Protein Data Bank") (PDB) * [Protein Research Foundation](/wiki/Protein_Research_Foundation "Protein Research Foundation") (PRF){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.prf.or.jp/index\-e.html\|title\=Protein Research Foundation}} * [RefSeq](/wiki/RefSeq "RefSeq") * [Saccharomyces Genome Database](/wiki/Saccharomyces_Genome_Database "Saccharomyces Genome Database") (SGD) * [The Arabidopsis Information Resource](/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource "The Arabidopsis Information Resource") (TAIR) * [TROME](/wiki/TROME "TROME")[ftp://ftp.isrec.isb\-sib.ch/pub/databases/trome{{Dead link\|date\=February 2022 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](ftp://ftp.isrec.isb-sib.ch/pub/databases/trome{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) * [US Patent Office](/wiki/US_Patent_Office "US Patent Office") (USPTO) * UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot, UniProtKB/Swiss\-Prot protein isoforms, UniProtKB/TrEMBL * [Vertebrate and Genome Annotation Database](/wiki/Vertebrate_and_Genome_Annotation_Database "Vertebrate and Genome Annotation Database") (VEGA) * [WormBase](/wiki/WormBase "WormBase") ### UniRef The UniProt Reference Clusters (UniRef) consist of three databases of clustered sets of protein sequences from UniProtKB and selected UniParc records.{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Suzek \| first1 \= B. E. \| last2 \= Huang \| first2 \= H. \| last3 \= McGarvey \| first3 \= P. \| last4 \= Mazumder \| first4 \= R. \| last5 \= Wu \| first5 \= C. H. \| title \= UniRef: Comprehensive and non\-redundant UniProt reference clusters \| doi \= 10\.1093/bioinformatics/btm098 \| journal \= Bioinformatics \| volume \= 23 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 1282–1288 \| year \= 2007 \| pmid \= 17379688 \| doi\-access \= }} The UniRef100 database combines identical sequences and sequence fragments (from any [organism](/wiki/Organism "Organism")) into a single UniRef entry. The sequence of a representative protein, the [accession numbers](/wiki/Accession_number_%28bioinformatics%29 "Accession number (bioinformatics)") of all the merged entries and links to the corresponding UniProtKB and UniParc records are displayed. UniRef100 sequences are clustered using the CD\-HIT [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm "Algorithm") to build UniRef90 and UniRef50\.{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1093/bioinformatics/17\.3\.282 \| last1 \= Li \| first1 \= W. \| last2 \= Jaroszewski \| first2 \= L. \| last3 \= Godzik \| first3 \= A. \| title \= Clustering of highly homologous sequences to reduce the size of large protein databases \| journal \= Bioinformatics \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 282–283 \| year \= 2001 \| pmid \= 11294794 \| doi\-access \= }} Each cluster is composed of sequences that have at least 90% or 50% sequence identity, respectively, to the longest sequence. Clustering sequences significantly reduces database size, enabling faster sequence searches. UniRef is available from the [UniProt FTP site](http://ftp.uniprot.org/pub/databases/uniprot/current_release/uniref/).
[ "Organization of the UniProt databases\n-------------------------------------", "UniProt provides four core databases: UniProtKB (with sub\\-parts Swiss\\-Prot and TrEMBL), UniParc, UniRef and Proteome.", "### UniProtKB", "UniProt Knowledgebase (UniProtKB) is a protein database partially curated by experts, consisting of two sections: UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot (containing reviewed, manually annotated entries) and UniProtKB/TrEMBL (containing unreviewed, automatically annotated entries).{{Cite journal\n\\| last1 \\= Uniprot \\| first1 \\= C.\n\\| title \\= The Universal Protein Resource (UniProt) in 2010\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/nar/gkp846\n\\| journal \\= Nucleic Acids Research\n\\| volume \\= 38\n\\| issue \\= Database issue\n\\| pages \\= D142–D148\n\\| year \\= 2009\n\\| pmid \\= 19843607\n\\| pmc \\=2808944\n}} {{As of\\|2023\\|02\\|22}}, release \"2023\\_01\" of UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot contains 569,213 sequence entries (comprising 205,728,242 amino acids abstracted from 291,046 references) and release \"2023\\_01\" of UniProtKB/TrEMBL contains 245,871,724 sequence entries (comprising 85,739,380,194 amino acids).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://web.expasy.org/docs/relnotes/relstat.html\\|title\\=UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot Release 2023\\_01 statistics\\|website\\=web.expasy.org\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2023}}", "#### UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot", "UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot is a manually annotated, non\\-redundant protein sequence database. It combines information extracted from scientific literature and [biocurator](/wiki/Biocurator \"Biocurator\")\\-evaluated computational analysis. The aim of UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot is to provide all known relevant information about a particular protein. Annotation is regularly reviewed to keep up with current scientific findings. The manual annotation of an entry involves detailed analysis of the protein sequence and of the scientific literature.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.uniprot.org/faq/45 \\|date\\=September 21, 2011 \\|title\\=How do we manually annotate a UniProtKB entry?\\|website\\=UniProt\\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20131213073315/https://www.uniprot.org/faq/45 \\|archive\\-date\\= Dec 13, 2013 }}", "Sequences from the same [gene](/wiki/Gene \"Gene\") and the same [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") are merged into the same database entry. Differences between sequences are identified, and their cause documented (for example [alternative splicing](/wiki/Alternative_splicing \"Alternative splicing\"), [natural variation](/wiki/Genetic_diversity \"Genetic diversity\"), incorrect [initiation](/wiki/Eukaryotic_translation%23Initiation \"Eukaryotic translation#Initiation\") sites, incorrect [exon](/wiki/Exon \"Exon\") boundaries, [frameshifts](/wiki/Frameshift_mutation \"Frameshift mutation\"), unidentified conflicts). A range of sequence analysis tools is used in the annotation of UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot entries. Computer\\-predictions are manually evaluated, and relevant results selected for inclusion in the entry. These predictions include post\\-translational modifications, [transmembrane domains](/wiki/Transmembrane_domain \"Transmembrane domain\") and [topology](/wiki/Membrane_topology \"Membrane topology\"), [signal peptides](/wiki/Signal_peptide \"Signal peptide\"), domain identification, and [protein family](/wiki/Protein_family \"Protein family\") classification.{{Cite journal\n\\| last1 \\= Apweiler \\| first1 \\= R.\n\\| last2 \\= Bairoch \\| first2 \\= A.\n\\| last3 \\= Wu \\| first3 \\= C. H.\n\\| last4 \\= Barker \\| first4 \\= W. C.\n\\| last5 \\= Boeckmann \\| first5 \\= B.\n\\| last6 \\= Ferro \\| first6 \\= S.\n\\| last7 \\= Gasteiger \\| first7 \\= E.\n\\| last8 \\= Huang \\| first8 \\= H.\n\\| last9 \\= Lopez \\| first9 \\= R.\n\\| last10 \\= Magrane \\| first10 \\= M.\n\\| last11 \\= Martin \\| first11 \\= M. J.\n\\| last12 \\= Natale \\| first12 \\= D. A.\n\\| last13 \\= o’Donovan \\| first13 \\= C.\n\\| last14 \\= Redaschi \\| first14 \\= N.\n\\| last15 \\= Yeh \\| first15 \\= L. S.\n\\| title \\= UniProt: The Universal Protein knowledgebase\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/nar/gkh131\n\\|doi\\-access\\=free\n\\| journal \\= Nucleic Acids Research\n\\| volume \\= 32\n\\| issue \\= 90001\n\\| pages \\= 115D–1119\n\\| year \\= 2004\n\\| pmid \\= 14681372\n\\| pmc \\=308865\n}}", "Relevant publications are identified by searching databases such as [PubMed](/wiki/PubMed \"PubMed\"). The full text of each paper is read, and information is extracted and added to the entry. Annotation arising from the scientific literature includes, but is not limited to:{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Apweiler \\| first1 \\= R. \\| last2 \\= Bairoch \\| first2 \\= A. \\| last3 \\= Wu \\| first3 \\= C. H. \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cbpa.2003\\.12\\.004 \\| title \\= Protein sequence databases \\| journal \\= Current Opinion in Chemical Biology \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 76–80 \\| year \\= 2004 \\| pmid \\= 15036160}}\n* Protein and gene names\n* Function\n* [Enzyme](/wiki/Enzyme \"Enzyme\")\\-specific information such as [catalytic activity](/wiki/Catalysis \"Catalysis\"), [cofactors](/wiki/Cofactor_%28biochemistry%29 \"Cofactor (biochemistry)\") and [catalytic residues](/wiki/Active_site \"Active site\")\n* [Subcellular location](/wiki/Subcellular_localization \"Subcellular localization\")\n* [Protein\\-protein interactions](/wiki/Protein-protein_interaction \"Protein-protein interaction\")\n* Pattern of expression\n* Locations and roles of significant domains and sites\n* [Ion](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\")\\-, [substrate](/wiki/Substrate_%28biochemistry%29 \"Substrate (biochemistry)\")\\- and cofactor\\-binding sites\n* Protein variant forms produced by natural genetic variation, [RNA editing](/wiki/RNA_editing \"RNA editing\"), alternative splicing, [proteolytic](/wiki/Proteolytic \"Proteolytic\") processing, and post\\-translational modification", "Annotated entries undergo quality assurance before inclusion into UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot. When new data becomes available, entries are updated.", "#### UniProtKB/TrEMBL", "UniProtKB/TrEMBL contains high\\-quality computationally analyzed records, which are enriched with automatic annotation. It was introduced in response to increased dataflow resulting from genome projects, as the time\\- and labour\\-consuming manual annotation process of UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot could not be broadened to include all available protein sequences. The translations of annotated coding sequences in the [EMBL\\-Bank/GenBank/DDBJ nucleotide sequence database](/wiki/INSDC \"INSDC\") are automatically processed and entered in UniProtKB/TrEMBL.\nUniProtKB/TrEMBL also contains sequences from [PDB](/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank \"Protein Data Bank\"), and from gene prediction, including [Ensembl](/wiki/Ensembl \"Ensembl\"), [RefSeq](/wiki/RefSeq \"RefSeq\") and [CCDS](/wiki/Consensus_CDS_Project \"Consensus CDS Project\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.uniprot.org/faq/37\\|title\\=Where do the UniProtKB protein sequences come from?\\|website\\=UniProt \\|date\\=September 21, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215223948/https://www.uniprot.org/faq/37 \\|archive\\-date\\= Dec 15, 2013 }} Since 22 July 2021 it also includes structures predicted with [AlphaFold2](/wiki/AlphaFold \"AlphaFold\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Putting the power of AlphaFold into the world's hands \\|url\\=https://deepmind.com/blog/article/putting\\-the\\-power\\-of\\-alphafold\\-into\\-the\\-worlds\\-hands \\|date\\= 22 July 2022 \\|first1\\= Demis \\|last1\\=Hassabis \\|website\\=Deepmind \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724034333/https://deepmind.com/blog/article/putting\\-the\\-power\\-of\\-alphafold\\-into\\-the\\-worlds\\-hands \\|archive\\-date\\= 24 July 2021 }}", "### UniParc", "UniProt Archive (UniParc) is a comprehensive and non\\-redundant database, which contains all the protein sequences from the main, publicly available protein sequence databases.{{Cite journal\n\\| last1 \\= Leinonen \\| first1 \\= R.\n\\| last2 \\= Diez \\| first2 \\= F. G.\n\\| last3 \\= Binns \\| first3 \\= D.\n\\| last4 \\= Fleischmann \\| first4 \\= W.\n\\| last5 \\= Lopez \\| first5 \\= R.\n\\| last6 \\= Apweiler \\| first6 \\= R.\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/bioinformatics/bth191\n\\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/bioinformatics/article/20/17/3236/185740\n\\| title \\= UniProt archive\n\\| journal \\= Bioinformatics\n\\| volume \\= 20\n\\| issue \\= 17\n\\| pages \\= 3236–3237\n\\| year \\= 2004\n\\| pmid \\= 15044231\n\\| doi\\-access \\= free\n\\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20240330230423/https://watermark.silverchair.com/bioinformatics\\_20\\_17\\_3236\\.pdf?token\\=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW\\_Ercy7Dm3ZL\\_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA34wggN6BgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggNrMIIDZwIBADCCA2AGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMP9mu\\-T8EUm\\-Q6Lf9AgEQgIIDMcbOoJLLoOPgo\\-wQyUWIt5mj5BPdBSlnXllqsCHaRfV0xiOcThLWvaWthRcPV7v4ucTNtx1q1tXDoVjKzMG4TWbWC\\_3ddH2WTh6auCHEBHAYoJJ\\_29joWila6lfpHWCv\\-XkLMBBAYQkbNaTZIw\\-ywI9qlFkgYz5DIK83PmTio\\_xQ6OBES9aqriHeIzRRPDkXU3QzdkfPw\\-USBipDF1zAOEtM6J2p7xmjKmW6DQq\\-\\_3hb7Ju82VNJoLgwtr0oKZG6845mV5MKPvrS7jL0UKYgNtkNwEcEuZ6ojBKkB\\_oXPTrRyqyD6kZBeVaxJcgEVmaVaNGMLxXhpC3V8q63SaoJ5DSVlnqIJQTHauFQ6hrQcoBQSOVwT8\\-3Yj\\-dUuDfopzsdOIDmwYiV71sjabJOuVC60NYR7ieEhQGp0SemDlPAAgtDOml6ivO5PSCPGy7oAlScLAwSgFKvJSci6OpW\\-AnhOaNFAA3EBiXj9Wb5eDjKc2\\-WZ4lmTDaEnmke07lMzdSaAA6i7o7h0roXIhLkVv5YKIz6kvR1dSNM2sT7LseDdJm0bQpP\\-WVGAtRlh6PCmnez8owewKsFxtx35mNfzv\\_wZejzS4A\\-a1oqtwpMQyYqqsQbHmsJQC\\-52scqM8hqOxnpXVlhSFBP\\_2sOE4ggiGNWBUFTUnzPc45CJ8f4cddREt5CefFUvccgHq1vbUpbMkmY6LDcsKVJEc2sSv02JnarmMrw1DTKizqGCFN3Vxebv8iI7ApcgLrH2VYd9bSI\\_0KbYejDkuIPRTjFd7e8BYdOYAdDLtOmLpDdxw53KJzVkudKBWyAG6vYJYQ16g2h897FN58JYAdCem3uq9FVMWtma840gBmir\\-\\_uYrbwKudMO7gKEcbWPE9RAaMqLWwhmBRsFnjQUztoR2loO\\-iMerIl44k2bjzSM\\-\\_8Yeo40\\-iTuGERBD6A7tPdzOvSp6PFpPGQcNljrqfi3Xf\\-tNmL7aiB2HM4yCdIepndC\\_v05MNPLUdbS\\-SxmsOnuJwRKljCsj2qbyLLpKSSXvh\\_GVCJ0BPRJP2c1FCCswrg5Yi\\-ywo7K1rhsgr9XdFU9yR0dBTSg6eBb4 \\|archive\\-date\\= Mar 30, 2024\n}} Proteins may exist in several different source databases, and in multiple copies in the same database. In order to avoid redundancy, UniParc stores each unique sequence only once. Identical sequences are merged, regardless of whether they are from the same or different species. Each sequence is given a stable and unique identifier (UPI), making it possible to identify the same protein from different source databases. UniParc contains only protein sequences, with no annotation. Database cross\\-references in UniParc entries allow further information about the protein to be retrieved from the source databases. When sequences in the source databases change, these changes are tracked by UniParc and history of all changes is archived.", "#### Source databases", "Currently UniParc contains protein sequences from the following publicly available databases:\n* [INSDC](/wiki/INSDC \"INSDC\") [EMBL](/wiki/EMBL \"EMBL\")\\-Bank/[DDBJ](/wiki/DDBJ \"DDBJ\")/[GenBank](/wiki/GenBank \"GenBank\") nucleotide sequence databases\n* [Ensembl](/wiki/Ensembl \"Ensembl\")\n* [European Patent Office](/wiki/European_Patent_Office \"European Patent Office\") (EPO)\n* [FlyBase: the primary repository of genetic and molecular data for the insect family Drosophilidae](/wiki/FlyBase \"FlyBase\") (FlyBase)\n* [H\\-Invitational Database](/wiki/H-Invitational \"H-Invitational\") (H\\-Inv)\n* [International Protein Index](/wiki/International_Protein_Index \"International Protein Index\") (IPI)\n* [Japan Patent Office](/wiki/Japan_Patent_Office \"Japan Patent Office\") (JPO)\n* [Protein Information Resource](/wiki/Protein_Information_Resource \"Protein Information Resource\") (PIR\\-PSD)\n* [Protein Data Bank](/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank \"Protein Data Bank\") (PDB)\n* [Protein Research Foundation](/wiki/Protein_Research_Foundation \"Protein Research Foundation\") (PRF){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prf.or.jp/index\\-e.html\\|title\\=Protein Research Foundation}}\n* [RefSeq](/wiki/RefSeq \"RefSeq\")\n* [Saccharomyces Genome Database](/wiki/Saccharomyces_Genome_Database \"Saccharomyces Genome Database\") (SGD)\n* [The Arabidopsis Information Resource](/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource \"The Arabidopsis Information Resource\") (TAIR)\n* [TROME](/wiki/TROME \"TROME\")[ftp://ftp.isrec.isb\\-sib.ch/pub/databases/trome{{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](ftp://ftp.isrec.isb-sib.ch/pub/databases/trome{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})\n* [US Patent Office](/wiki/US_Patent_Office \"US Patent Office\") (USPTO)\n* UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot, UniProtKB/Swiss\\-Prot protein isoforms, UniProtKB/TrEMBL\n* [Vertebrate and Genome Annotation Database](/wiki/Vertebrate_and_Genome_Annotation_Database \"Vertebrate and Genome Annotation Database\") (VEGA)\n* [WormBase](/wiki/WormBase \"WormBase\")", "### UniRef", "The UniProt Reference Clusters (UniRef) consist of three databases of clustered sets of protein sequences from UniProtKB and selected UniParc records.{{Cite journal\n\\| last1 \\= Suzek \\| first1 \\= B. E.\n\\| last2 \\= Huang \\| first2 \\= H.\n\\| last3 \\= McGarvey \\| first3 \\= P.\n\\| last4 \\= Mazumder \\| first4 \\= R.\n\\| last5 \\= Wu \\| first5 \\= C. H.\n\\| title \\= UniRef: Comprehensive and non\\-redundant UniProt reference clusters\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/bioinformatics/btm098\n\\| journal \\= Bioinformatics\n\\| volume \\= 23\n\\| issue \\= 10\n\\| pages \\= 1282–1288\n\\| year \\= 2007\n\\| pmid \\= 17379688\n\\| doi\\-access \\= \n}} The UniRef100 database combines identical sequences and sequence fragments (from any [organism](/wiki/Organism \"Organism\")) into a single UniRef entry. The sequence of a representative protein, the [accession numbers](/wiki/Accession_number_%28bioinformatics%29 \"Accession number (bioinformatics)\") of all the merged entries and links to the corresponding UniProtKB and UniParc records are displayed. UniRef100 sequences are clustered using the CD\\-HIT [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm \"Algorithm\") to build UniRef90 and UniRef50\\.{{Cite journal\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/bioinformatics/17\\.3\\.282\n\\| last1 \\= Li \\| first1 \\= W.\n\\| last2 \\= Jaroszewski \\| first2 \\= L.\n\\| last3 \\= Godzik \\| first3 \\= A.\n\\| title \\= Clustering of highly homologous sequences to reduce the size of large protein databases\n\\| journal \\= Bioinformatics\n\\| volume \\= 17\n\\| issue \\= 3\n\\| pages \\= 282–283\n\\| year \\= 2001\n\\| pmid \\= 11294794\n\\| doi\\-access \\= \n}} Each cluster is composed of sequences that have at least 90% or 50% sequence identity, respectively, to the longest sequence. Clustering sequences significantly reduces database size, enabling faster sequence searches.", "UniRef is available from the [UniProt FTP site](http://ftp.uniprot.org/pub/databases/uniprot/current_release/uniref/).", "" ]
Chinese detachments in service of Soviet state ---------------------------------------------- ### Chinese in the Red Army All of the capitals of the major Soviet republics in the European sphere of the soon\-to\-be USSR (established 1922\) and Petrograd/St. Petersburg had sizable contingents of "others" as Red Guards. "Others" refers to Buryats, Armenians, Cossacks, Tatars, Latvians, Hungarians, Poles, Jews and to some degree Chinese. Of note is the fact that after the October Revolution, Red Guards were organized in state commercial enterprises, factories and plants often at the request of the local or regional workers' Soviet (autonomous workers' council in the plant, factory, etc.). In the Paramonovskii settlement in the Donbas, there were 27 Chinese and 3 Austrian Red Guards. In the Almazno settlement, there were Chinese, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks and Poles in addition to Russians, Ukrainians and Cossacks.{{Cite book \|title\=Red Guards and Workers' Militias in the Russian Revolution\| first\=Rex\|last\=Wade\|year\=1984\|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0804711678\| pages\=317\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=aLOrAAAAIAAJ}} Minsk supposedly had many Chinese Red Guards (but it is believed that "one thousand" the estimate given by Benton is too high). In the Russian Far East, from a total of 330 Red Guards in the city of Nikolsk\-Ussuriisk, 57 were Koreans in May 1918\.\* {{Cite book \|last\=Suh \|first\=Dae\-Sook \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=cONoAAAAMAAJ \|title\=Koreans in the Soviet Union \|date\=1987 \|publisher\=Center for Korean Studies and the Soviet Union in the Pacific\-Asian Region Program of the University of Hawaii \|page\=9\|isbn\=978\-0\-8248\-1126\-6}} The main duties of the Cheka were to fight against counter\-revolution, sabotage and quell internal dissent. They were allowed to use "extra\-legal" means to search, arrest, destroy and torture. In the beginning, there were three main sections which quickly grew into four or more. The first three sections were: information section (information collection and administration), organizational section (executive to determine who and how to fight against the "enemies" of the new state) and the fighting section. Later, the administrative section grew as the Cheka grew to approximately 100,000 by 1920\. There are some who argue that the Cheka had grown to over 200,00 by 1920\. {{Cite book \|title\=The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police\| first\=George \|last\=Leggett\|year\=1981\|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0198225522\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NRUFAQAAIAAJ\| pages\=1–27}} The Cheka grew from 23 men in the beginning to approximately 100,000 plus by 1919\-1920 (a conservative estimate). They took their ranks from the pre\-existing Bolshevik group, the MRC (the Military Revolutionary Committee), the Red Guards (the predecessor to the Soviet police (militsia), the pre\-Revolution, Russian Army, mercenaries and recruits. The Chinese with the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") were recruited from factory workers who had been attracted into Russia before the war and sided with the urban proletariat with whom they worked. Separate Chinese units fought for the Bolsheviks in Ukraine, Transcaucasia and Siberia.{{cite book \|title\=Rostov in the Russian Civil War, 1917\-1920: The Key to Victory \|first\=Brian \|last\=Murphy \|year\=2005 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=0\-415\-34977\-X \|pages\=154}} One estimate suggests that there were hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops in the Red Army. Nonetheless, Brian Murphy asserts that "the number of Chinese troops did not constitute a significant fraction of the Red Army." By summer of 1919, the Red Army comprised over a million men. By November 1920, it comprised over 1\.8 million men.{{cite book \|author\=Krivosheev \|title\=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century \|pages\=11 \|quote\="Personnel Strength\[s] of the Fighting Troops" and "Personnel Strength\[s] of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Republic" (both figures including naval infantry, internal security, etc.): {{bulleted list\|June/July 1918 \- 225,000 and 374,551\|June/July 1919 \- 1,307,376 and 2,320,542\|1 June 1920 \- 1,539,667 and 4,424,317\|On p. 15, Krivosheev shows the strength of the fighting troops at 1,866,313, on 15 November 1920 \- shortly before demobilization began.}}}} Chinese units were involved in virtually every front of the Russian Civil War. Some sincerely sympathized with the Bolsheviks who treated them as "proletarian brothers". Others simply joined the Red Army in order to survive and others wanted to fight their way home to China. The Chinese were one of several foreign contingents dubbed in [Soviet historiography](/wiki/Soviet_historiography "Soviet historiography") as "internationalist detachments" ("отряды интернационалистов").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gov.spb.ru/press/visit/2002/060602\_1 \|title\=Reference about the cooperation of St.Petersburg with the countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation \|work\=Official portal of St. Petersburg Administration \|publisher\=St. Petersburg Administration \|accessdate\=2007\-10\-15 \|quote\="In 1917 there were several thousand of Chinese, mostly industrial workers. In December 1917 the \[\[Union of Chinese Workers in Russia]]. In 1918 the Chinese internationalist Шэн Ченхо formed a Chinese internationalist detachment." \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20120629173025/http://www.gov.spb.ru/press/visit/2002/060602\_1 \|archivedate\=29 June 2012}} Chinese internationalist troops wore the same uniform as the rest of the Red Army.{{cite book \|title\=The Russian Civil War: The Red Army \|url\=https://archive.org/details/ospreymenatarmsr00ospr \|url\-access\=limited \|first\=Mikhail \|last\=Khvostov \|others\=Andrei Karachtchouk (illust.) \|year\=1996 \|publisher\=\[\[Osprey Publishing]] \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/ospreymenatarmsr00ospr/page/n40 41] \|isbn\=0\-415\-34977\-X}} The Chinese Cheka and Chekists typically served in four special category units of the Cheka: CHON (special purpose para military units), VNUS (internal service troops), VOKhR (internal service troops) and the Cheka OOs (Frontier Cheka). VNUS and VOKhR troops served as an internal security force on the military front in times of war. Sometimes, they served as police in rear guard, military areas (policing soldiers). When necessary they fought along Red Army troops. CHON were mainly used to protect key military, political or state buildings, bases and installations, assisting Cheka operations, quelling uprisings and giving combat support to the Red Army. After 1921, several East Asian Cheka formed the Frontier Cheka, Border Guards and or Cheka OOs (standing for Frontier Cheka).{{Sfn\|Leggett\|1981\|pp\=226\-227, passim}} The Bolsheviks found special value in the use of Chinese troops who were considered to be industrious and efficient. In addition, they were seldom able to understand Russian, which kept them insulated from outside influences. The use of Chinese troops by the Bolsheviks was commented on by both White Russian and non\-Russian observers.[Arthur Ransome](/wiki/Arthur_Ransome "Arthur Ransome") (1919\) "Russia in 1919", New York, [B.W.Huebsch](/wiki/B.W.Huebsch "B.W.Huebsch"). [Chapter "Kamenev And The Moscow Soviet"](http://marxists.anu.edu.au/history/archive/ransome/works/1919-russia/ch06.htm): I talked to the Chinaman afterwards. He is president of the Chinese Soviet. He told me they had just about a thousand Chinese workmen in Moscow, and therefore had a right to representation in the government of the town. I asked about the Chinese in the Red Army, and he said there were two or three thousand, not more. * In fact, the Bolsheviks were often derided for their reliance on Chinese and Latvian volunteers.{{cite book \|title\=The Red Conspiracy \|last\=Mereto \|first\=Joseph J. \|year\=1920 \|url\=http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/9/1/5/19150/19150\.htm \|quote\=The Bolsheviki came into power by violence and have sustained themselves in power by violence and terrorism. Their main support, the so\-called Red Army, in which the Chinese and Letts have played a prominent part, is an army of mercenaries... \|access\-date\=16 October 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020084820/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/9/1/5/19150/19150\.htm \|archive\-date\=20 October 2007 \|url\-status\=dead}} [Anti\-Bolshevik](/wiki/Anti-Leninism "Anti-Leninism") propaganda suggested that the Bolsheviks did not have the support of the Russian people and thus had to resort to foreign mercenaries who ran roughshod over the Russian populace.The [British Library](/wiki/British_Library "British Library"), Slavonic and East European Collections, [Russian and Soviet Posters, 1914\-1921](http://www.bl.uk/pdf/russposters.pdf), "Anti\-Bolshevik posters issued by the Counter\-Revolutionary Forces during the Civil War": Poster "Petr and Vasilii", or the Village in "[Sovdepiya](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic%23Early_years_%281917%E2%80%931920%29 "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic#Early years (1917–1920)")": The text reads: "Thus the punitive Bolshevik detachments of Latvians and Chinese take bread by force, destroy villages and shoot peasants." Poster "Even the Sailors...": The text reads, in part, "...then the commissars called in the Chinese, and they, calmly, without trembling, shot priests." * + In 1918, [Dmitri Gavronsky](/wiki/Dmitri_Gavronsky "Dmitri Gavronsky"), a member of the [Russian Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly "Russian Constituent Assembly"), asserted that the Bolsheviks based their power chiefly on foreign support. He asserted that, "in Moscow, they have at their disposal 16,000 well\-armed Lettish soldiers, some detachments of [Finnish Red Guards](/wiki/Red_Guards_%28Finland%29 "Red Guards (Finland)") and a large battalion of Chinese troops." Gavronsky added that "The latter are always used for executions."{{cite news \|work\=The New York Times\|date\=1918\-07\-12 \|title\=Bolshevist Power Waning \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/13/102719129\.pdf}} In his book *Between Red and White*, [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky "Leon Trotsky") makes sarcastic reference to the charge that the Soviets held Petrograd and Moscow "by the aid of 'Lettish, Chinese, German and Bashkir regiments'".{{cite book \|first\=Leon \|last\=Trotsky \|title\=Between Red and White \|year\=1922 \|url\=http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1922/red\-white/intro.htm \|chapter\=Introduction}} The [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") commander [Iona Yakir](/wiki/Iona_Yakir "Iona Yakir") headed a Chinese detachment guarding Lenin and Trotsky. Later he headed a regiment made up of volunteer Chinese workers, which achieved distinction in battle when the Red Army heavily defeated (temporarily) Romanian troops in February 1918 during the Romanian occupation of [Bessarabia](/wiki/Bessarabia "Bessarabia").{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2007}} There was also a Chinese detachment in the "Konarmiya" [1st Cavalry Army](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Army "1st Cavalry Army") of [Semyon Budyonny](/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny "Semyon Budyonny").{{Cite book \|last1\=Benton \|first1\=Gregor \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ejG\_DAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA291 \|title\=The Chinese in Europe \|last2\=Pieke \|first2\=Frank N. \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Springer \|isbn\=978\-1\-349\-26096\-6 \|pages\=291, 297 \|language\=en}} ### Chinese in the Cheka and military guard units Some Chinese volunteers, who had fanatical devotion to the revolution, were allowed to join the Cheka and various military guard detachments. In 1919, there were some 700 Chinese troops in the Cheka. The Cheka utilized them for the arrest and execution of [anti\-Soviet](/wiki/Anti-Soviet "Anti-Soviet") soldiers.
[ "Chinese detachments in service of Soviet state\n----------------------------------------------", "### Chinese in the Red Army", "All of the capitals of the major Soviet republics in the European sphere of the soon\\-to\\-be USSR (established 1922\\) and Petrograd/St. Petersburg had sizable contingents of \"others\" as Red Guards. \"Others\" refers to Buryats, Armenians, Cossacks, Tatars, Latvians, Hungarians, Poles, Jews and to some degree Chinese. Of note is the fact that after the October Revolution, Red Guards were organized in state commercial enterprises, factories and plants often at the request of the local or regional workers' Soviet (autonomous workers' council in the plant, factory, etc.). In the Paramonovskii settlement in the Donbas, there were 27 Chinese and 3 Austrian Red Guards. In the Almazno settlement, there were Chinese, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks and Poles in addition to Russians, Ukrainians and Cossacks.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Red Guards and Workers' Militias in the Russian Revolution\\| first\\=Rex\\|last\\=Wade\\|year\\=1984\\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0804711678\\| pages\\=317\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=aLOrAAAAIAAJ}} Minsk supposedly had many Chinese Red Guards (but it is believed that \"one thousand\" the estimate given by Benton is too high). In the Russian Far East, from a total of 330 Red Guards in the city of Nikolsk\\-Ussuriisk, 57 were Koreans in May 1918\\.\\* {{Cite book \\|last\\=Suh \\|first\\=Dae\\-Sook \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cONoAAAAMAAJ \\|title\\=Koreans in the Soviet Union \\|date\\=1987 \\|publisher\\=Center for Korean Studies and the Soviet Union in the Pacific\\-Asian Region Program of the University of Hawaii \\|page\\=9\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8248\\-1126\\-6}}\nThe main duties of the Cheka were to fight against counter\\-revolution, sabotage and quell internal dissent. They were allowed to use \"extra\\-legal\" means to search, arrest, destroy and torture. In the beginning, there were three main sections which quickly grew into four or more. The first three sections were: information section (information collection and administration), organizational section (executive to determine who and how to fight against the \"enemies\" of the new state) and the fighting section. Later, the administrative section grew as the Cheka grew to approximately 100,000 by 1920\\. There are some who argue that the Cheka had grown to over 200,00 by 1920\\. \n{{Cite book \\|title\\=The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police\\| first\\=George \\|last\\=Leggett\\|year\\=1981\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0198225522\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NRUFAQAAIAAJ\\| pages\\=1–27}} The Cheka grew from 23 men in the beginning to approximately 100,000 plus by 1919\\-1920 (a conservative estimate). They took their ranks from the pre\\-existing Bolshevik group, the MRC (the Military Revolutionary Committee), the Red Guards (the predecessor to the Soviet police (militsia), the pre\\-Revolution, Russian Army, mercenaries and recruits.", "The Chinese with the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") were recruited from factory workers who had been attracted into Russia before the war and sided with the urban proletariat with whom they worked. Separate Chinese units fought for the Bolsheviks in Ukraine, Transcaucasia and Siberia.{{cite book \\|title\\=Rostov in the Russian Civil War, 1917\\-1920: The Key to Victory \\|first\\=Brian \\|last\\=Murphy \\|year\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=0\\-415\\-34977\\-X \\|pages\\=154}}", "One estimate suggests that there were hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops in the Red Army. Nonetheless, Brian Murphy asserts that \"the number of Chinese troops did not constitute a significant fraction of the Red Army.\" By summer of 1919, the Red Army comprised over a million men. By November 1920, it comprised over 1\\.8 million men.{{cite book \\|author\\=Krivosheev \\|title\\=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century \\|pages\\=11 \\|quote\\=\"Personnel Strength\\[s] of the Fighting Troops\" and \"Personnel Strength\\[s] of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Republic\" (both figures including naval infantry, internal security, etc.): {{bulleted list\\|June/July 1918 \\- 225,000 and 374,551\\|June/July 1919 \\- 1,307,376 and 2,320,542\\|1 June 1920 \\- 1,539,667 and 4,424,317\\|On p. 15, Krivosheev shows the strength of the fighting troops at 1,866,313, on 15 November 1920 \\- shortly before demobilization began.}}}}", "", "Chinese units were involved in virtually every front of the Russian Civil War. Some sincerely sympathized with the Bolsheviks who treated them as \"proletarian brothers\". Others simply joined the Red Army in order to survive and others wanted to fight their way home to China.", "The Chinese were one of several foreign contingents dubbed in [Soviet historiography](/wiki/Soviet_historiography \"Soviet historiography\") as \"internationalist detachments\" (\"отряды интернационалистов\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gov.spb.ru/press/visit/2002/060602\\_1 \\|title\\=Reference about the cooperation of St.Petersburg with the countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation \\|work\\=Official portal of St. Petersburg Administration \\|publisher\\=St. Petersburg Administration \\|accessdate\\=2007\\-10\\-15 \\|quote\\=\"In 1917 there were several thousand of Chinese, mostly industrial workers. In December 1917 the \\[\\[Union of Chinese Workers in Russia]]. In 1918 the Chinese internationalist Шэн Ченхо formed a Chinese internationalist detachment.\" \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20120629173025/http://www.gov.spb.ru/press/visit/2002/060602\\_1 \\|archivedate\\=29 June 2012}} Chinese internationalist troops wore the same uniform as the rest of the Red Army.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Russian Civil War: The Red Army \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/ospreymenatarmsr00ospr \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|first\\=Mikhail \\|last\\=Khvostov \\|others\\=Andrei Karachtchouk (illust.) \\|year\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Osprey Publishing]] \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/ospreymenatarmsr00ospr/page/n40 41] \\|isbn\\=0\\-415\\-34977\\-X}}", "The Chinese Cheka and Chekists typically served in four special category units of the Cheka: CHON (special purpose para military units), VNUS (internal service troops), VOKhR (internal service troops) and the Cheka OOs (Frontier Cheka). VNUS and VOKhR troops served as an internal security force on the military front in times of war. Sometimes, they served as police in rear guard, military areas (policing soldiers). When necessary they fought along Red Army troops. CHON were mainly used to protect key military, political or state buildings, bases and installations, assisting Cheka operations, quelling uprisings and giving combat support to the Red Army. After 1921, several East Asian Cheka formed the Frontier Cheka, Border Guards and or Cheka OOs (standing for Frontier Cheka).{{Sfn\\|Leggett\\|1981\\|pp\\=226\\-227, passim}}\nThe Bolsheviks found special value in the use of Chinese troops who were considered to be industrious and efficient. In addition, they were seldom able to understand Russian, which kept them insulated from outside influences.", "The use of Chinese troops by the Bolsheviks was commented on by both White Russian and non\\-Russian observers.[Arthur Ransome](/wiki/Arthur_Ransome \"Arthur Ransome\") (1919\\) \"Russia in 1919\", New York, [B.W.Huebsch](/wiki/B.W.Huebsch \"B.W.Huebsch\"). [Chapter \"Kamenev And The Moscow Soviet\"](http://marxists.anu.edu.au/history/archive/ransome/works/1919-russia/ch06.htm):\n I talked to the Chinaman afterwards. He is president of the Chinese Soviet. He told me they had just about a thousand Chinese workmen in Moscow, and therefore had a right to representation in the government of the town. I asked about the Chinese in the Red Army, and he said there were two or three thousand, not more.", "* In fact, the Bolsheviks were often derided for their reliance on Chinese and Latvian volunteers.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Red Conspiracy \\|last\\=Mereto \\|first\\=Joseph J. \\|year\\=1920 \\|url\\=http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/9/1/5/19150/19150\\.htm \\|quote\\=The Bolsheviki came into power by violence and have sustained themselves in power by violence and terrorism. Their main support, the so\\-called Red Army, in which the Chinese and Letts have played a prominent part, is an army of mercenaries... \\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020084820/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/9/1/5/19150/19150\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=20 October 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n[Anti\\-Bolshevik](/wiki/Anti-Leninism \"Anti-Leninism\") propaganda suggested that the Bolsheviks did not have the support of the Russian people and thus had to resort to foreign mercenaries who ran roughshod over the Russian populace.The [British Library](/wiki/British_Library \"British Library\"), Slavonic and East European Collections, [Russian and Soviet Posters, 1914\\-1921](http://www.bl.uk/pdf/russposters.pdf), \"Anti\\-Bolshevik posters issued by the Counter\\-Revolutionary Forces during the Civil War\":\nPoster \"Petr and Vasilii\", or the Village in \"[Sovdepiya](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic%23Early_years_%281917%E2%80%931920%29 \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic#Early years (1917–1920)\")\": The text reads: \"Thus the punitive Bolshevik detachments of Latvians and Chinese take bread by force, destroy villages and shoot peasants.\"\nPoster \"Even the Sailors...\": The text reads, in part, \"...then the commissars called in the Chinese, and they, calmly, without trembling, shot priests.\"", "* + In 1918, [Dmitri Gavronsky](/wiki/Dmitri_Gavronsky \"Dmitri Gavronsky\"), a member of the [Russian Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly \"Russian Constituent Assembly\"), asserted that the Bolsheviks based their power chiefly on foreign support. He asserted that, \"in Moscow, they have at their disposal 16,000 well\\-armed Lettish soldiers, some detachments of [Finnish Red Guards](/wiki/Red_Guards_%28Finland%29 \"Red Guards (Finland)\") and a large battalion of Chinese troops.\" Gavronsky added that \"The latter are always used for executions.\"{{cite news \\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=1918\\-07\\-12 \\|title\\=Bolshevist Power Waning \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/13/102719129\\.pdf}}", "In his book *Between Red and White*, [Leon Trotsky](/wiki/Leon_Trotsky \"Leon Trotsky\") makes sarcastic reference to the charge that the Soviets held Petrograd and Moscow \"by the aid of 'Lettish, Chinese, German and Bashkir regiments'\".{{cite book \\|first\\=Leon \\|last\\=Trotsky \\|title\\=Between Red and White \\|year\\=1922 \\|url\\=http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1922/red\\-white/intro.htm \\|chapter\\=Introduction}}", "The [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") commander [Iona Yakir](/wiki/Iona_Yakir \"Iona Yakir\") headed a Chinese detachment guarding Lenin and Trotsky. Later he headed a regiment made up of volunteer Chinese workers, which achieved distinction in battle when the Red Army heavily defeated (temporarily) Romanian troops in February 1918 during the Romanian occupation of [Bessarabia](/wiki/Bessarabia \"Bessarabia\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2007}}", "There was also a Chinese detachment in the \"Konarmiya\" [1st Cavalry Army](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Army \"1st Cavalry Army\") of [Semyon Budyonny](/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny \"Semyon Budyonny\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Benton \\|first1\\=Gregor \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ejG\\_DAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA291 \\|title\\=The Chinese in Europe \\|last2\\=Pieke \\|first2\\=Frank N. \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-349\\-26096\\-6 \\|pages\\=291, 297 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Chinese in the Cheka and military guard units", "Some Chinese volunteers, who had fanatical devotion to the revolution, were allowed to join the Cheka and various military guard detachments. In 1919, there were some 700 Chinese troops in the Cheka. The Cheka utilized them for the arrest and execution of [anti\\-Soviet](/wiki/Anti-Soviet \"Anti-Soviet\") soldiers.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life Giovanni da Correggio was born sometime around 1451 to a noble family in Bologna, and was likely the illegitimate son of a certain Antonio da Correggio (not the artist), who died in 1474\.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 102\. Da Correggio is also likely from the same feudal family that produced [Niccolò da Correggio](/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_da_Correggio "Niccolò da Correggio").Kristeller (1993\), pp. 213 He does not appear to have had any formal education in academics, oration, grammar, or rhetoric,Churton (2002\), pp. 45Ruderman (1975\), pp. 314 but nevertheless went on to become a very eloquent wandering preacher. The first account of da Correggio was on 12 November 1481 in Rome, where [Lodovico Lazzarelli](/wiki/Lodovico_Lazzarelli "Lodovico Lazzarelli") encountered him as an apocalyptic preacher trying to gain the attention of the pope ([Sixtus IV](/wiki/Sixtus_IV "Sixtus IV")) and the College of Cardinals. Lazzarelli was so taken in by da Correggio that he decided to become his pupil. This meeting is reported by Lazzarelli to have been a turning point in his life and studies. It is possible that Lazzarelli may have introduced da Correggio to Hermetic philosophy and writings. ### Palm Sunday 1484 On Palm Sunday, 11 April 1484 da Correggio is reported by Lazzarelli to have been in Rome dressed in rich garments and gold with four servants. Lazzarelli reports that da Correggio then exits the city of Rome, and returns riding on a white donkey in imitation of Jesus. He is wearing blood\-stained linen garments, a crown of thorns, on top of which is a silver crescent moon shaped disk. He then travels up to Saint Peter's Basilica and walks right up to the altar. Da Correggio places upon the altar his mystical apparel and a paper entitled *The Eternal Gospel*, knelt to pray, and then left. He proclaimed that he was "Giovanni Mercurio da Correggio" (or the Latin equivalent: "Iohannes Mercurius de Corigio"), "the angel of wisdom," "[Poimandres](/wiki/Poimandres "Poimandres")" (or *Pimander*, a Hermetic manifestation of the mind of God), and "the most perfect manifestation of Jesus Christ."Churton (2002\), pp. 44\. He distributed scrolls that read: "*Ego Joannes Mercurius de Corigio, sapientiae angelus Pimanderque in summo ac maximo spiritus Jesu Chrisi excessu, hanc aquam regni pro paucis, sic super omnes magna voce evangelizo.*"Ruderman (1975\), pp. 313\. According to Lazzarelli da Correggio did all this completely unaccosted.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 102\-103\. The only other account of da Correggio's Palm Sunday appearance in Rome was written by [Abraham Farissol](/wiki/Abraham_Farissol "Abraham Farissol"), an Italian Jewish scholar and scribe, in his *Magen Avraham*, who was in Rome at the time. According to Farissol da Correggio never even made it to the altar, but was arrested for heresy. According to Farissol da Correggio also calls himself "Son of God," "Hermes Trismegistus," "Enoch," and "Methuselah." Later da Correggio escapes from prison, possibly with the assistance of some friends.Ruderman (1975\), pp. 311\-312\. According to both Lazzarelli and Farissol, after leaving Rome, da Correggio returns to Bologna to his wife, Elana Marie,Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 110 and five children. Upon arriving in Bologna da Correggio is arrested again with new charges of heresy, but either escapes from prison in BolognaRuderman (1975\), pp. 312\. or is released.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 103\. ### Later life After 1484, Giovanni da Correggio begins to wander from city to city preaching. Accounts of his appearances throughout Italy are scarce and scattered. The first appearance of da Correggio since Palm Sunday is on 4 July 1486 in Florence while on his way to Naples. Lazzarelli was in the court of [Ferdinand I of Naples](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Naples "Ferdinand I of Naples") at the time, and Ferdinand I requested to meet with da Correggio. While in Florence da Correggio is ordered to be arrested by [Lorenzo de' Medici](/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici "Lorenzo de' Medici") and accosted by a Franciscan inquisitor. It is unclear if da Correggio ever made it to Naples. He is reported to have been in Cesena in 1484,Kristeller (1993\), pp. 112 but it is unclear if this was prior to or after his appearance in Rome on Palm Sunday. It could easily be both, as he would have had to travel through Cesena to get from Rome to Bologna if he did not travel through Florence. Additionally he is reported to have been in Rome again 1492 in hopes of meeting with [Pope Alexander VI](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI "Pope Alexander VI"). In Rome he begins to proclaim himself to be the "Younger Hermes" (implying that he is either the son of Hermes Trismegistus or Hermes Trismegistus reincarnated, hence the adoption of "Mercuio" to his name).Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 103 In 1494 he is reported to be in Lucca vainly trying to get to Florence. He apparently gets to visit Florence again in 1496\. He is reported in Venice in 1497\. In 1499 he is reported in Rome again seeking a meeting with the pope, as well as in Cesena on his way to Milan. While in Cesena he is seen wearing sackcloth and accompanied by his wife and five children. While da Correggio was originally from a noble family, and he seems to have been wealthy given the lavish and rich garments he wore in Rome in 1484 before he paraded around in imitation of Jesus, he appears to be truly destitute beginning in 1499\. From this point forward he is always seen traveling with his entire household, begging on the streets, and dressed in sackcloth. It is possible he could have wasted his fortunes in alchemical pursuits,Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 110\. which was not uncommon in the 15th century. Hanegraaff puts forth the conjecture that Lazzarelli not only introduced da Correggio to Hermeticism, but may have also introduced him to alchemy sometime after 1495\. In 1495 Lazzarelli met [Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis](/wiki/Johannes_Rigaud_de_Branchiis "Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis"), an alchemist, and decided to be de Branchiis' pupil as well. (Lazzarelli dedicated his transcription of Petrus Bonus' *Pretiosa Margarita Novella* to his "teacher *Joannes*," though it is unclear if this dedication was directed toward de Branchiis or da Correggio;Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 111\-112 but it is certain that the *Epistola Enoch*, credited to Lazzarelli, is dedicated to da CorreggioRuderman (1975\), pp. 310). Despite being destitute or impending destitution that same year, 1499, da Correggio published his *Against the Barbarians, the Turks, and the Scyths* (it is unclear if he published this before or after becoming a beggar), which he presented in Lyons to King [Louis XII](/wiki/Louis_XII "Louis XII") in 1501\. Sometime after visiting France he published a plague tract.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 104 It is unclear when da Correggio traveled to Ferrara, but Farissol reports to have seen him in Ferrara. This is appropriate as [Carlo Sosenna](/wiki/Carlo_Sosenna "Carlo Sosenna"), a humanist scholar, poet, and magician at the [University of Ferrara](/wiki/University_of_Ferrara "University of Ferrara"), writes a commentary on a sonnet attributed to da Correggio. It is known that Sosenna was friendly with the Duke of Ferrara, [Ercole I d'Este](/wiki/Ercole_I_d%27Este "Ercole I d'Este"), as both held an interest in astrology and divination. Ruderman speculates that da Correggio may have met the duke through Sosenna.Ruderman (1975\), pp. 314\. Lazzarelli, Farissol, and Sosenna are the only three persons to have written about anything concerning Giovanni da Correggio who also were contemporary with him. There is another notable contemporary to have written about da Correggio, but it is unlikely he ever encountered the man in person. [Johannes Trithemius](/wiki/Johannes_Trithemius "Johannes Trithemius") writes about da Correggio boasting of himself as knowing all the learnings of the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins.Ruderman (1975\), pp. 313 It is unlikely Trithemius ever met da Correggio, or even traveled to Italy. It is more probable that he learned of da Correggio's existence through the writings of Lazzarelli, which were circulated among scholars and alchemists in Germany at that time. It is known that [Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa](/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa "Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa"), a notorious German alchemist, had access to Lazzarelli's Hermetic writings, as he quotes a portion of Lazzarelli's *Crater Hermetiis* in his *The Three Books of Occult Philosophy*.Agrippa, *Three Books*, Book III, Chapter XXXVI, pp. 582\. The last that is ever heard of da Correggio is in 1506 while he was meeting with [Pope Julius II](/wiki/Pope_Julius_II "Pope Julius II") in Rome. Da Correggio had just published his *De Quercu Iulii Pontificis, Sive De Lapide Philosophico* (*On the Oak of Pope Julius, or On the Philosopher's Stone*), and presented it to the pope. Given da Correggio's state of poverty, Hanegraaff conjectures that *De Quercu* was a desperate last attempt by da Correggio to secure a source of funding to provide for himself and his family. He appeals to Julius II by mentioning that they had met before face\-to\-face in Savona (possibly before Julius II was pope), as if attempting to imply a stronger connection between the two men. Mostly da Correggio appeals to Julius II by regularly using the oak tree as an emblem of majesty, protection, power, and beauty (Julius II was formerly Giuliano della Rovere; *Rovere* meaning *oak*), describing the pope's oak as a sort of world tree. He makes use a popular alchemical symbol, the phoenix (often associated with the philosopher's stone), which he says perches on the upper branches of the papal tree. Da Correggio then goes on to discuss the philosopher's stone and quintessence, and all the virtues therein. He implies that he possesses these secrets, if only the pope would give him and his family protection. Da Correggio writes *De Quercu* as if he is the conduit of a divine entity, imploring the pope's help in the third person: "Give our Giovanni Mercurio your help and I will help you." It is uncertain if Julius II ever secured any help for da Correggio, but given that there are no other documentations concerning Giovanni da Correggio after this meeting with the pope, then it can be surmised that Julius did not assist da Correggio and he and his family perished in poverty sometime thereafter.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 104\-110
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life", "Giovanni da Correggio was born sometime around 1451 to a noble family in Bologna, and was likely the illegitimate son of a certain Antonio da Correggio (not the artist), who died in 1474\\.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 102\\. Da Correggio is also likely from the same feudal family that produced [Niccolò da Correggio](/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_da_Correggio \"Niccolò da Correggio\").Kristeller (1993\\), pp. 213 He does not appear to have had any formal education in academics, oration, grammar, or rhetoric,Churton (2002\\), pp. 45Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 314 but nevertheless went on to become a very eloquent wandering preacher.", "The first account of da Correggio was on 12 November 1481 in Rome, where [Lodovico Lazzarelli](/wiki/Lodovico_Lazzarelli \"Lodovico Lazzarelli\") encountered him as an apocalyptic preacher trying to gain the attention of the pope ([Sixtus IV](/wiki/Sixtus_IV \"Sixtus IV\")) and the College of Cardinals. Lazzarelli was so taken in by da Correggio that he decided to become his pupil. This meeting is reported by Lazzarelli to have been a turning point in his life and studies. It is possible that Lazzarelli may have introduced da Correggio to Hermetic philosophy and writings.", "### Palm Sunday 1484", "On Palm Sunday, 11 April 1484 da Correggio is reported by Lazzarelli to have been in Rome dressed in rich garments and gold with four servants. Lazzarelli reports that da Correggio then exits the city of Rome, and returns riding on a white donkey in imitation of Jesus. He is wearing blood\\-stained linen garments, a crown of thorns, on top of which is a silver crescent moon shaped disk. He then travels up to Saint Peter's Basilica and walks right up to the altar. Da Correggio places upon the altar his mystical apparel and a paper entitled *The Eternal Gospel*, knelt to pray, and then left. He proclaimed that he was \"Giovanni Mercurio da Correggio\" (or the Latin equivalent: \"Iohannes Mercurius de Corigio\"), \"the angel of wisdom,\" \"[Poimandres](/wiki/Poimandres \"Poimandres\")\" (or *Pimander*, a Hermetic manifestation of the mind of God), and \"the most perfect manifestation of Jesus Christ.\"Churton (2002\\), pp. 44\\. He distributed scrolls that read: \"*Ego Joannes Mercurius de Corigio, sapientiae angelus Pimanderque in summo ac maximo spiritus Jesu Chrisi excessu, hanc aquam regni pro paucis, sic super omnes magna voce evangelizo.*\"Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 313\\.", "According to Lazzarelli da Correggio did all this completely unaccosted.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 102\\-103\\.", "The only other account of da Correggio's Palm Sunday appearance in Rome was written by [Abraham Farissol](/wiki/Abraham_Farissol \"Abraham Farissol\"), an Italian Jewish scholar and scribe, in his *Magen Avraham*, who was in Rome at the time. According to Farissol da Correggio never even made it to the altar, but was arrested for heresy. According to Farissol da Correggio also calls himself \"Son of God,\" \"Hermes Trismegistus,\" \"Enoch,\" and \"Methuselah.\" Later da Correggio escapes from prison, possibly with the assistance of some friends.Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 311\\-312\\.", "According to both Lazzarelli and Farissol, after leaving Rome, da Correggio returns to Bologna to his wife, Elana Marie,Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 110 and five children. Upon arriving in Bologna da Correggio is arrested again with new charges of heresy, but either escapes from prison in BolognaRuderman (1975\\), pp. 312\\. or is released.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 103\\.", "### Later life", "After 1484, Giovanni da Correggio begins to wander from city to city preaching. Accounts of his appearances throughout Italy are scarce and scattered.", "The first appearance of da Correggio since Palm Sunday is on 4 July 1486 in Florence while on his way to Naples. Lazzarelli was in the court of [Ferdinand I of Naples](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Naples \"Ferdinand I of Naples\") at the time, and Ferdinand I requested to meet with da Correggio. While in Florence da Correggio is ordered to be arrested by [Lorenzo de' Medici](/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici \"Lorenzo de' Medici\") and accosted by a Franciscan inquisitor. It is unclear if da Correggio ever made it to Naples.", "He is reported to have been in Cesena in 1484,Kristeller (1993\\), pp. 112 but it is unclear if this was prior to or after his appearance in Rome on Palm Sunday. It could easily be both, as he would have had to travel through Cesena to get from Rome to Bologna if he did not travel through Florence. Additionally he is reported to have been in Rome again 1492 in hopes of meeting with [Pope Alexander VI](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI \"Pope Alexander VI\"). In Rome he begins to proclaim himself to be the \"Younger Hermes\" (implying that he is either the son of Hermes Trismegistus or Hermes Trismegistus reincarnated, hence the adoption of \"Mercuio\" to his name).Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 103 In 1494 he is reported to be in Lucca vainly trying to get to Florence. He apparently gets to visit Florence again in 1496\\. He is reported in Venice in 1497\\. In 1499 he is reported in Rome again seeking a meeting with the pope, as well as in Cesena on his way to Milan. While in Cesena he is seen wearing sackcloth and accompanied by his wife and five children.", "While da Correggio was originally from a noble family, and he seems to have been wealthy given the lavish and rich garments he wore in Rome in 1484 before he paraded around in imitation of Jesus, he appears to be truly destitute beginning in 1499\\. From this point forward he is always seen traveling with his entire household, begging on the streets, and dressed in sackcloth. It is possible he could have wasted his fortunes in alchemical pursuits,Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 110\\. which was not uncommon in the 15th century. Hanegraaff puts forth the conjecture that Lazzarelli not only introduced da Correggio to Hermeticism, but may have also introduced him to alchemy sometime after 1495\\. In 1495 Lazzarelli met [Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis](/wiki/Johannes_Rigaud_de_Branchiis \"Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis\"), an alchemist, and decided to be de Branchiis' pupil as well. (Lazzarelli dedicated his transcription of Petrus Bonus' *Pretiosa Margarita Novella* to his \"teacher *Joannes*,\" though it is unclear if this dedication was directed toward de Branchiis or da Correggio;Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 111\\-112 but it is certain that the *Epistola Enoch*, credited to Lazzarelli, is dedicated to da CorreggioRuderman (1975\\), pp. 310). Despite being destitute or impending destitution that same year, 1499, da Correggio published his *Against the Barbarians, the Turks, and the Scyths* (it is unclear if he published this before or after becoming a beggar), which he presented in Lyons to King [Louis XII](/wiki/Louis_XII \"Louis XII\") in 1501\\. Sometime after visiting France he published a plague tract.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 104", "It is unclear when da Correggio traveled to Ferrara, but Farissol reports to have seen him in Ferrara. This is appropriate as [Carlo Sosenna](/wiki/Carlo_Sosenna \"Carlo Sosenna\"), a humanist scholar, poet, and magician at the [University of Ferrara](/wiki/University_of_Ferrara \"University of Ferrara\"), writes a commentary on a sonnet attributed to da Correggio. It is known that Sosenna was friendly with the Duke of Ferrara, [Ercole I d'Este](/wiki/Ercole_I_d%27Este \"Ercole I d'Este\"), as both held an interest in astrology and divination. Ruderman speculates that da Correggio may have met the duke through Sosenna.Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 314\\.", "Lazzarelli, Farissol, and Sosenna are the only three persons to have written about anything concerning Giovanni da Correggio who also were contemporary with him. There is another notable contemporary to have written about da Correggio, but it is unlikely he ever encountered the man in person. [Johannes Trithemius](/wiki/Johannes_Trithemius \"Johannes Trithemius\") writes about da Correggio boasting of himself as knowing all the learnings of the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins.Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 313 It is unlikely Trithemius ever met da Correggio, or even traveled to Italy. It is more probable that he learned of da Correggio's existence through the writings of Lazzarelli, which were circulated among scholars and alchemists in Germany at that time. It is known that [Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa](/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa \"Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa\"), a notorious German alchemist, had access to Lazzarelli's Hermetic writings, as he quotes a portion of Lazzarelli's *Crater Hermetiis* in his *The Three Books of Occult Philosophy*.Agrippa, *Three Books*, Book III, Chapter XXXVI, pp. 582\\.", "The last that is ever heard of da Correggio is in 1506 while he was meeting with [Pope Julius II](/wiki/Pope_Julius_II \"Pope Julius II\") in Rome. Da Correggio had just published his *De Quercu Iulii Pontificis, Sive De Lapide Philosophico* (*On the Oak of Pope Julius, or On the Philosopher's Stone*), and presented it to the pope. Given da Correggio's state of poverty, Hanegraaff conjectures that *De Quercu* was a desperate last attempt by da Correggio to secure a source of funding to provide for himself and his family. He appeals to Julius II by mentioning that they had met before face\\-to\\-face in Savona (possibly before Julius II was pope), as if attempting to imply a stronger connection between the two men. Mostly da Correggio appeals to Julius II by regularly using the oak tree as an emblem of majesty, protection, power, and beauty (Julius II was formerly Giuliano della Rovere; *Rovere* meaning *oak*), describing the pope's oak as a sort of world tree. He makes use a popular alchemical symbol, the phoenix (often associated with the philosopher's stone), which he says perches on the upper branches of the papal tree. Da Correggio then goes on to discuss the philosopher's stone and quintessence, and all the virtues therein. He implies that he possesses these secrets, if only the pope would give him and his family protection. Da Correggio writes *De Quercu* as if he is the conduit of a divine entity, imploring the pope's help in the third person: \"Give our Giovanni Mercurio your help and I will help you.\" It is uncertain if Julius II ever secured any help for da Correggio, but given that there are no other documentations concerning Giovanni da Correggio after this meeting with the pope, then it can be surmised that Julius did not assist da Correggio and he and his family perished in poverty sometime thereafter.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 104\\-110", "" ]
### Later life After 1484, Giovanni da Correggio begins to wander from city to city preaching. Accounts of his appearances throughout Italy are scarce and scattered. The first appearance of da Correggio since Palm Sunday is on 4 July 1486 in Florence while on his way to Naples. Lazzarelli was in the court of [Ferdinand I of Naples](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Naples "Ferdinand I of Naples") at the time, and Ferdinand I requested to meet with da Correggio. While in Florence da Correggio is ordered to be arrested by [Lorenzo de' Medici](/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici "Lorenzo de' Medici") and accosted by a Franciscan inquisitor. It is unclear if da Correggio ever made it to Naples. He is reported to have been in Cesena in 1484,Kristeller (1993\), pp. 112 but it is unclear if this was prior to or after his appearance in Rome on Palm Sunday. It could easily be both, as he would have had to travel through Cesena to get from Rome to Bologna if he did not travel through Florence. Additionally he is reported to have been in Rome again 1492 in hopes of meeting with [Pope Alexander VI](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI "Pope Alexander VI"). In Rome he begins to proclaim himself to be the "Younger Hermes" (implying that he is either the son of Hermes Trismegistus or Hermes Trismegistus reincarnated, hence the adoption of "Mercuio" to his name).Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 103 In 1494 he is reported to be in Lucca vainly trying to get to Florence. He apparently gets to visit Florence again in 1496\. He is reported in Venice in 1497\. In 1499 he is reported in Rome again seeking a meeting with the pope, as well as in Cesena on his way to Milan. While in Cesena he is seen wearing sackcloth and accompanied by his wife and five children. While da Correggio was originally from a noble family, and he seems to have been wealthy given the lavish and rich garments he wore in Rome in 1484 before he paraded around in imitation of Jesus, he appears to be truly destitute beginning in 1499\. From this point forward he is always seen traveling with his entire household, begging on the streets, and dressed in sackcloth. It is possible he could have wasted his fortunes in alchemical pursuits,Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 110\. which was not uncommon in the 15th century. Hanegraaff puts forth the conjecture that Lazzarelli not only introduced da Correggio to Hermeticism, but may have also introduced him to alchemy sometime after 1495\. In 1495 Lazzarelli met [Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis](/wiki/Johannes_Rigaud_de_Branchiis "Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis"), an alchemist, and decided to be de Branchiis' pupil as well. (Lazzarelli dedicated his transcription of Petrus Bonus' *Pretiosa Margarita Novella* to his "teacher *Joannes*," though it is unclear if this dedication was directed toward de Branchiis or da Correggio;Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 111\-112 but it is certain that the *Epistola Enoch*, credited to Lazzarelli, is dedicated to da CorreggioRuderman (1975\), pp. 310). Despite being destitute or impending destitution that same year, 1499, da Correggio published his *Against the Barbarians, the Turks, and the Scyths* (it is unclear if he published this before or after becoming a beggar), which he presented in Lyons to King [Louis XII](/wiki/Louis_XII "Louis XII") in 1501\. Sometime after visiting France he published a plague tract.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 104 It is unclear when da Correggio traveled to Ferrara, but Farissol reports to have seen him in Ferrara. This is appropriate as [Carlo Sosenna](/wiki/Carlo_Sosenna "Carlo Sosenna"), a humanist scholar, poet, and magician at the [University of Ferrara](/wiki/University_of_Ferrara "University of Ferrara"), writes a commentary on a sonnet attributed to da Correggio. It is known that Sosenna was friendly with the Duke of Ferrara, [Ercole I d'Este](/wiki/Ercole_I_d%27Este "Ercole I d'Este"), as both held an interest in astrology and divination. Ruderman speculates that da Correggio may have met the duke through Sosenna.Ruderman (1975\), pp. 314\. Lazzarelli, Farissol, and Sosenna are the only three persons to have written about anything concerning Giovanni da Correggio who also were contemporary with him. There is another notable contemporary to have written about da Correggio, but it is unlikely he ever encountered the man in person. [Johannes Trithemius](/wiki/Johannes_Trithemius "Johannes Trithemius") writes about da Correggio boasting of himself as knowing all the learnings of the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins.Ruderman (1975\), pp. 313 It is unlikely Trithemius ever met da Correggio, or even traveled to Italy. It is more probable that he learned of da Correggio's existence through the writings of Lazzarelli, which were circulated among scholars and alchemists in Germany at that time. It is known that [Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa](/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa "Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa"), a notorious German alchemist, had access to Lazzarelli's Hermetic writings, as he quotes a portion of Lazzarelli's *Crater Hermetiis* in his *The Three Books of Occult Philosophy*.Agrippa, *Three Books*, Book III, Chapter XXXVI, pp. 582\. The last that is ever heard of da Correggio is in 1506 while he was meeting with [Pope Julius II](/wiki/Pope_Julius_II "Pope Julius II") in Rome. Da Correggio had just published his *De Quercu Iulii Pontificis, Sive De Lapide Philosophico* (*On the Oak of Pope Julius, or On the Philosopher's Stone*), and presented it to the pope. Given da Correggio's state of poverty, Hanegraaff conjectures that *De Quercu* was a desperate last attempt by da Correggio to secure a source of funding to provide for himself and his family. He appeals to Julius II by mentioning that they had met before face\-to\-face in Savona (possibly before Julius II was pope), as if attempting to imply a stronger connection between the two men. Mostly da Correggio appeals to Julius II by regularly using the oak tree as an emblem of majesty, protection, power, and beauty (Julius II was formerly Giuliano della Rovere; *Rovere* meaning *oak*), describing the pope's oak as a sort of world tree. He makes use a popular alchemical symbol, the phoenix (often associated with the philosopher's stone), which he says perches on the upper branches of the papal tree. Da Correggio then goes on to discuss the philosopher's stone and quintessence, and all the virtues therein. He implies that he possesses these secrets, if only the pope would give him and his family protection. Da Correggio writes *De Quercu* as if he is the conduit of a divine entity, imploring the pope's help in the third person: "Give our Giovanni Mercurio your help and I will help you." It is uncertain if Julius II ever secured any help for da Correggio, but given that there are no other documentations concerning Giovanni da Correggio after this meeting with the pope, then it can be surmised that Julius did not assist da Correggio and he and his family perished in poverty sometime thereafter.Hanegraaff (2007\), pp. 104\-110
[ "### Later life", "After 1484, Giovanni da Correggio begins to wander from city to city preaching. Accounts of his appearances throughout Italy are scarce and scattered.", "The first appearance of da Correggio since Palm Sunday is on 4 July 1486 in Florence while on his way to Naples. Lazzarelli was in the court of [Ferdinand I of Naples](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Naples \"Ferdinand I of Naples\") at the time, and Ferdinand I requested to meet with da Correggio. While in Florence da Correggio is ordered to be arrested by [Lorenzo de' Medici](/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici \"Lorenzo de' Medici\") and accosted by a Franciscan inquisitor. It is unclear if da Correggio ever made it to Naples.", "He is reported to have been in Cesena in 1484,Kristeller (1993\\), pp. 112 but it is unclear if this was prior to or after his appearance in Rome on Palm Sunday. It could easily be both, as he would have had to travel through Cesena to get from Rome to Bologna if he did not travel through Florence. Additionally he is reported to have been in Rome again 1492 in hopes of meeting with [Pope Alexander VI](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI \"Pope Alexander VI\"). In Rome he begins to proclaim himself to be the \"Younger Hermes\" (implying that he is either the son of Hermes Trismegistus or Hermes Trismegistus reincarnated, hence the adoption of \"Mercuio\" to his name).Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 103 In 1494 he is reported to be in Lucca vainly trying to get to Florence. He apparently gets to visit Florence again in 1496\\. He is reported in Venice in 1497\\. In 1499 he is reported in Rome again seeking a meeting with the pope, as well as in Cesena on his way to Milan. While in Cesena he is seen wearing sackcloth and accompanied by his wife and five children.", "While da Correggio was originally from a noble family, and he seems to have been wealthy given the lavish and rich garments he wore in Rome in 1484 before he paraded around in imitation of Jesus, he appears to be truly destitute beginning in 1499\\. From this point forward he is always seen traveling with his entire household, begging on the streets, and dressed in sackcloth. It is possible he could have wasted his fortunes in alchemical pursuits,Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 110\\. which was not uncommon in the 15th century. Hanegraaff puts forth the conjecture that Lazzarelli not only introduced da Correggio to Hermeticism, but may have also introduced him to alchemy sometime after 1495\\. In 1495 Lazzarelli met [Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis](/wiki/Johannes_Rigaud_de_Branchiis \"Johannes Rigaud de Branchiis\"), an alchemist, and decided to be de Branchiis' pupil as well. (Lazzarelli dedicated his transcription of Petrus Bonus' *Pretiosa Margarita Novella* to his \"teacher *Joannes*,\" though it is unclear if this dedication was directed toward de Branchiis or da Correggio;Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 111\\-112 but it is certain that the *Epistola Enoch*, credited to Lazzarelli, is dedicated to da CorreggioRuderman (1975\\), pp. 310). Despite being destitute or impending destitution that same year, 1499, da Correggio published his *Against the Barbarians, the Turks, and the Scyths* (it is unclear if he published this before or after becoming a beggar), which he presented in Lyons to King [Louis XII](/wiki/Louis_XII \"Louis XII\") in 1501\\. Sometime after visiting France he published a plague tract.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 104", "It is unclear when da Correggio traveled to Ferrara, but Farissol reports to have seen him in Ferrara. This is appropriate as [Carlo Sosenna](/wiki/Carlo_Sosenna \"Carlo Sosenna\"), a humanist scholar, poet, and magician at the [University of Ferrara](/wiki/University_of_Ferrara \"University of Ferrara\"), writes a commentary on a sonnet attributed to da Correggio. It is known that Sosenna was friendly with the Duke of Ferrara, [Ercole I d'Este](/wiki/Ercole_I_d%27Este \"Ercole I d'Este\"), as both held an interest in astrology and divination. Ruderman speculates that da Correggio may have met the duke through Sosenna.Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 314\\.", "Lazzarelli, Farissol, and Sosenna are the only three persons to have written about anything concerning Giovanni da Correggio who also were contemporary with him. There is another notable contemporary to have written about da Correggio, but it is unlikely he ever encountered the man in person. [Johannes Trithemius](/wiki/Johannes_Trithemius \"Johannes Trithemius\") writes about da Correggio boasting of himself as knowing all the learnings of the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins.Ruderman (1975\\), pp. 313 It is unlikely Trithemius ever met da Correggio, or even traveled to Italy. It is more probable that he learned of da Correggio's existence through the writings of Lazzarelli, which were circulated among scholars and alchemists in Germany at that time. It is known that [Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa](/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa \"Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa\"), a notorious German alchemist, had access to Lazzarelli's Hermetic writings, as he quotes a portion of Lazzarelli's *Crater Hermetiis* in his *The Three Books of Occult Philosophy*.Agrippa, *Three Books*, Book III, Chapter XXXVI, pp. 582\\.", "The last that is ever heard of da Correggio is in 1506 while he was meeting with [Pope Julius II](/wiki/Pope_Julius_II \"Pope Julius II\") in Rome. Da Correggio had just published his *De Quercu Iulii Pontificis, Sive De Lapide Philosophico* (*On the Oak of Pope Julius, or On the Philosopher's Stone*), and presented it to the pope. Given da Correggio's state of poverty, Hanegraaff conjectures that *De Quercu* was a desperate last attempt by da Correggio to secure a source of funding to provide for himself and his family. He appeals to Julius II by mentioning that they had met before face\\-to\\-face in Savona (possibly before Julius II was pope), as if attempting to imply a stronger connection between the two men. Mostly da Correggio appeals to Julius II by regularly using the oak tree as an emblem of majesty, protection, power, and beauty (Julius II was formerly Giuliano della Rovere; *Rovere* meaning *oak*), describing the pope's oak as a sort of world tree. He makes use a popular alchemical symbol, the phoenix (often associated with the philosopher's stone), which he says perches on the upper branches of the papal tree. Da Correggio then goes on to discuss the philosopher's stone and quintessence, and all the virtues therein. He implies that he possesses these secrets, if only the pope would give him and his family protection. Da Correggio writes *De Quercu* as if he is the conduit of a divine entity, imploring the pope's help in the third person: \"Give our Giovanni Mercurio your help and I will help you.\" It is uncertain if Julius II ever secured any help for da Correggio, but given that there are no other documentations concerning Giovanni da Correggio after this meeting with the pope, then it can be surmised that Julius did not assist da Correggio and he and his family perished in poverty sometime thereafter.Hanegraaff (2007\\), pp. 104\\-110", "" ]
Career ------ Alfonso beat [Newfel Ouatah](/wiki/Newfel_Ouatah "Newfel Ouatah") but lost to Russian [Evgeny Romanov](/wiki/Evgeny_Romanov_%28boxer%29 "Evgeny Romanov (boxer)") at the world junior championships 2004 (semifinal). He was also defeated nationally by compatriot superstar [Odlanier Solis](/wiki/Odlanier_Solis "Odlanier Solis") twice in 2004 at 201 lbs and later went up to super heavy. He became the Cuban \#1 only after Solis (who had gone up in weight, too) defected and he beat veteran [Michel López Núñez](/wiki/Michel_L%C3%B3pez_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez "Michel López Núñez") in the National Championships 2007 and 2008\. He immediately won a major title, in the Pan American Games in Rio, beating Brazilian [Antônio Rogério Nogueira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Rog%C3%A9rio_Nogueira "Antônio Rogério Nogueira") 4:0 in the semis and Colombian [Oscar Rivas](/wiki/Oscar_Rivas "Oscar Rivas") 8:4 in the finals <https://web.archive.org/web/20100708044602/http://old.aiba.org/uploads/results/Pam_Am_Games_summary.pdf>. He qualified for the 2008 Olympics by beating young American [Michael Hunter jr.](/wiki/Michael_Hunter_%28American_boxer%29 "Michael Hunter (American boxer)") in the final of their qualifier 9:1\. He lost his first Olympic bout 3:5 to Ukrainian [Vyacheslav Glazkov](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Glazkov "Vyacheslav Glazkov"). He immigrated to the United States in 2012 to begin his professional career. He fought out of Miami, Florida for three years achieving a professional record of 6\-0 (2 KO). After his late manager Si Stern's passing in 2015, Robert went a full year without a fight. He made a strong comeback on June 25, 2016 with a knockout against Charles Daughtry 0:24 seconds into the first round. He went on to win 3 additional fights from July to September 2016, all by way of unanimous decision. His winning continued into 2017 with a first\-round TKO over Keith Thompson at the BJCC in Birmingham, Alabama on the undercard of Deontay Wilder vs. Gerald Washington on February 25\. His next win came on May 12, 2017 at the inaugural Alabama Boxing Hall of Fame show in [Tuscaloosa, Alabama](/wiki/Tuscaloosa%2C_Alabama "Tuscaloosa, Alabama"). He landed several big hits against opponent Roberto Santos (12\-4\) throughout the first and second rounds, causing Santos to forfeit at the end of the second round. This was the first stoppage of Santos's career as his four losses up to that point had come by unanimous decision. Alfonso earned a shot at his first title fight on August 11, 2017\. The planned opponent was Devon Vargas, the heavyweight that represented the U.S in the 2004 Summer Olympics. A few weeks out, Vargas broke his jaw, and Birmingham's Jason Bergman stepped in as the new opponent. The fight took place in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and the winner was to take home the vacant USBA Southern Region Heavyweight Title sanctioned by the IBF. Robert emerged victorious by unanimous decision after a tough ten\-round battle. He finished the year with a six\-round unanimous decision victory over opponent Ronny Hale in Alexandria, Louisiana. He currently splits his training time between Dallas, TX, and Tuscaloosa, AL.
[ "Career\n------", "Alfonso beat [Newfel Ouatah](/wiki/Newfel_Ouatah \"Newfel Ouatah\") but lost to Russian [Evgeny Romanov](/wiki/Evgeny_Romanov_%28boxer%29 \"Evgeny Romanov (boxer)\") at the world junior championships 2004 (semifinal).", "He was also defeated nationally by compatriot superstar [Odlanier Solis](/wiki/Odlanier_Solis \"Odlanier Solis\") twice in 2004 at 201 lbs and later went up to super heavy.", "He became the Cuban \\#1 only after Solis (who had gone up in weight, too) defected and he beat veteran [Michel López Núñez](/wiki/Michel_L%C3%B3pez_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez \"Michel López Núñez\") in the National Championships 2007 and 2008\\.", "He immediately won a major title, in the Pan American Games in Rio, beating Brazilian [Antônio Rogério Nogueira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Rog%C3%A9rio_Nogueira \"Antônio Rogério Nogueira\") 4:0 in the semis and Colombian [Oscar Rivas](/wiki/Oscar_Rivas \"Oscar Rivas\") 8:4 in the finals <https://web.archive.org/web/20100708044602/http://old.aiba.org/uploads/results/Pam_Am_Games_summary.pdf>.", "He qualified for the 2008 Olympics by beating young American [Michael Hunter jr.](/wiki/Michael_Hunter_%28American_boxer%29 \"Michael Hunter (American boxer)\") in the final of their qualifier 9:1\\.", "He lost his first Olympic bout 3:5 to Ukrainian [Vyacheslav Glazkov](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Glazkov \"Vyacheslav Glazkov\").", "He immigrated to the United States in 2012 to begin his professional career. He fought out of Miami, Florida for three years achieving a professional record of 6\\-0 (2 KO). After his late manager Si Stern's passing in 2015, Robert went a full year without a fight.", "He made a strong comeback on June 25, 2016 with a knockout against Charles Daughtry 0:24 seconds into the first round.", "He went on to win 3 additional fights from July to September 2016, all by way of unanimous decision.", "His winning continued into 2017 with a first\\-round TKO over Keith Thompson at the BJCC in Birmingham, Alabama on the undercard of Deontay Wilder vs. Gerald Washington on February 25\\.", "His next win came on May 12, 2017 at the inaugural Alabama Boxing Hall of Fame show in [Tuscaloosa, Alabama](/wiki/Tuscaloosa%2C_Alabama \"Tuscaloosa, Alabama\"). He landed several big hits against opponent Roberto Santos (12\\-4\\) throughout the first and second rounds, causing Santos to forfeit at the end of the second round. This was the first stoppage of Santos's career as his four losses up to that point had come by unanimous decision.", "Alfonso earned a shot at his first title fight on August 11, 2017\\. The planned opponent was Devon Vargas, the heavyweight that represented the U.S in the 2004 Summer Olympics. A few weeks out, Vargas broke his jaw, and Birmingham's Jason Bergman stepped in as the new opponent. The fight took place in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and the winner was to take home the vacant USBA Southern Region Heavyweight Title sanctioned by the IBF. Robert emerged victorious by unanimous decision after a tough ten\\-round battle.", "He finished the year with a six\\-round unanimous decision victory over opponent Ronny Hale in Alexandria, Louisiana.", "He currently splits his training time between Dallas, TX, and Tuscaloosa, AL.", "" ]
Executive branch ---------------- The [Constitution of Afghanistan](/wiki/Constitution_of_Afghanistan "Constitution of Afghanistan") creates a strong presidency, serving as the [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state "Head of state") and [Commander\-in\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief "Commander-in-Chief") of the [Afghan Armed Forces](/wiki/Afghan_Armed_Forces "Afghan Armed Forces"). A president is elected with two vice\-presidents. The president appoints [cabinet ministers](/wiki/Afghan_Cabinet_of_Ministers "Afghan Cabinet of Ministers") and [provincial governors](/wiki/List_of_current_governors_of_Afghanistan "List of current governors of Afghanistan"), which are to be approved by the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Afghanistan "National Assembly of Afghanistan"). ### Presidency of Hamid Karzai {{Main\|Presidency of Hamid Karzai}} [thumb\|Then\-[U.S. President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") with [Hamid Karzai](/wiki/Hamid_Karzai "Hamid Karzai") in [Kabul](/wiki/Kabul "Kabul") on March 1, 2006\. [United States\-Afghanistan relations](/wiki/Afghanistan_%E2%80%93_United_States_relations "Afghanistan – United States relations") have improved since late 2001, especially after the [Karzai administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai "Presidency of Hamid Karzai") was formed.](/wiki/File:GW_Bush_and_Hamid_Karzai_in_Kabul_2006-03-01.jpg "GW Bush and Hamid Karzai in Kabul 2006-03-01.jpg") Hamid Karzai served as the Chairman of the [Interim Administration](/wiki/Afghan_Interim_Administration "Afghan Interim Administration") from December 2001 to June 2002\. He then served as the Interim President between June 2002 to October 2004\. He officially became the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan after winning the [2004 presidential election](/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election%2C_2004 "Afghan presidential election, 2004"). #### First term The United States is the leading nation in the rebuilding and democratization of Afghanistan. [United States\-Afghanistan relations](/wiki/Afghanistan_%E2%80%93_United_States_relations "Afghanistan – United States relations") have improved since late 2001, especially after the [Karzai administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai "Presidency of Hamid Karzai") was formed. [Foreign relations of Afghanistan](/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Afghanistan "Foreign relations of Afghanistan") with other [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") members and regional countries have also improved under the Karzai administration. After winning the [2004 election](/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election%2C_2004 "Afghan presidential election, 2004") and removing many of the former [Northern Alliance](/wiki/Northern_Alliance "Northern Alliance") warlords from his cabinet, it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005 but he proved to be more cautious. Ever since Karzai's new administration took over in 2004, the [economy of Afghanistan](/wiki/Economy_of_Afghanistan "Economy of Afghanistan") has been growing rapidly for the first time in many years. Government revenue is increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid. During the Karzai administration, public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the fight against the Taliban insurgency. #### Second term Three months after the [2009 election](/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election%2C_2009 "Afghan presidential election, 2009"), President Karzai was officially declared the winner.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/21/world/asia/21afghan.html\|title\=With New Afghan Vote, Path to Stability Is Unclear\|first1\=Sabrina\|last1\=Tavernise\|first2\=Mark\|last2\=Landler\|first3\=Helene\|last3\=Cooper\|date\=October 20, 2009\|via\=NYTimes.com\|access\-date\=February 25, 2017\|archive\-date\=August 14, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814193933/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/21/world/asia/21afghan.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/6389109/Hamid\-Karzai\-agrees\-to\-run\-off\-amid\-fears\-of\-more\-violence\-and\-fraud.html\|title\=Hamid Karzai agrees to run\-off amid fears of more violence and fraud\|website\=www.telegraph.co.uk\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-03\|archive\-date\=2018\-10\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003013841/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/6389109/Hamid\-Karzai\-agrees\-to\-run\-off\-amid\-fears\-of\-more\-violence\-and\-fraud.html\|url\-status\=live}} The [Obama administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama "Presidency of Barack Obama") urged Karzai to exclude ineffective or corrupt officials from the new government, while powerful Afghans who helped deliver his re\-election were demanding positions.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/afghanische\-regierung\-karzai\-haelt\-an\-seinen\-vertrauten\-fest\-a\-668116\.html\|title\=Afghanische Regierung: Karzai hält an seinen Vertrauten fest\|first\=DER\|last\=SPIEGEL\|website\=www.spiegel.de\|access\-date\=2021\-08\-16\|archive\-date\=2016\-02\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203051139/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/afghanische\-regierung\-karzai\-haelt\-an\-seinen\-vertrauten\-fest\-a\-668116\.html\|url\-status\=live}} According to political analysts, the list of ministers Karzai presented to the Parliament was "not encouraging", but it reflected [realpolitik](/wiki/Realpolitik "Realpolitik"). Slightly more than half were ministers who would stay in their current positions or who had served previously in Karzai's government.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/20/world/asia/20afghan.html\|title\=Afghan Cabinet Nominations Show Little Change\|first\=Alissa J.\|last\=Rubin\|date\=December 19, 2009\|via\=NYTimes.com\|access\-date\=February 25, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 24, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924070414/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/20/world/asia/20afghan.html\|url\-status\=live}} In January 2009, the Afghan Parliament rejected 17 of Karzai's 24 cabinet nominees, approving only seven. Relations between US President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") and Karzai were not so great in the beginning but by 2012 they slightly improved, especially after the [death of Osama bin Laden](/wiki/Death_of_Osama_bin_Laden "Death of Osama bin Laden") and the assassination of Karzai's brother, [Ahmed Wali Karzai](/wiki/Ahmed_Wali_Karzai "Ahmed Wali Karzai"). President Obama made two official visits to Afghanistan between 2010 and 2012\. The relations again began to decline in late 2013 after Karzai decided not to sign the [Bilateral Security Agreement](/wiki/U.S.-Afghanistan_Strategic_Partnership_Agreement%23Bilateral_Security_Agreement "U.S.-Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement#Bilateral Security Agreement") (BSA) with the United States. ### Presidency of Ashraf Ghani After a disputed election, [Ashraf Ghani](/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani "Ashraf Ghani") became President of Afghanistan and [Abdullah Abdullah](/wiki/Abdullah_Abdullah "Abdullah Abdullah") became [Chief Executive Officer of Afghanistan](/wiki/Chief_Executive_Officer_of_Afghanistan "Chief Executive Officer of Afghanistan") in September 2014\.{{Cite news \|last\=Raghavan \|first\=Sudarsan \|date\=2014\-09\-29 \|title\=An unlikely pair to lead Afghanistan in historic handover of power \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/afghanistans\-new\-president\-hold\-me\-accountable/2014/09/29/0f229a14\-47c0\-11e4\-b72e\-d60a9229cc10\_story.html \|url\-access\=registration \|access\-date\=2021\-08\-16 \|newspaper\=\[\[Washington Post]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2021\-08\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813214656/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/afghanistans\-new\-president\-hold\-me\-accountable/2014/09/29/0f229a14\-47c0\-11e4\-b72e\-d60a9229cc10\_story.html \|url\-status\=live }} One day later, the new Afghan government signed the Bilateral Security Agreement.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/01/world/asia/afghanistan\-and\-us\-sign\-bilateral\-security\-agreement.html\|title\=Mending Alliance, U.S. and Afghanistan Sign Long\-Term Security Agreement\|first1\=Declan\|last1\=Walsh\|first2\=Azam\|last2\=Ahmed\|date\=September 30, 2014\|via\=NYTimes.com\|access\-date\=February 25, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 23, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923004323/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/01/world/asia/afghanistan\-and\-us\-sign\-bilateral\-security\-agreement.html\|url\-status\=live}} On August 15, 2021, during the [2021 Taliban offensive](/wiki/2021_Taliban_offensive "2021 Taliban offensive"), as the [Fall of Kabul](/wiki/Fall_of_Kabul_%282021%29 "Fall of Kabul (2021)") was occurring, Ashraf Ghani left Afghanistan with his wife to [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") in the UAE. Some unconfirmed reports suggest that Ghani may return to Kabul in the future.
[ "Executive branch\n----------------", "The [Constitution of Afghanistan](/wiki/Constitution_of_Afghanistan \"Constitution of Afghanistan\") creates a strong presidency, serving as the [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\") and [Commander\\-in\\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief \"Commander-in-Chief\") of the [Afghan Armed Forces](/wiki/Afghan_Armed_Forces \"Afghan Armed Forces\"). A president is elected with two vice\\-presidents. The president appoints [cabinet ministers](/wiki/Afghan_Cabinet_of_Ministers \"Afghan Cabinet of Ministers\") and [provincial governors](/wiki/List_of_current_governors_of_Afghanistan \"List of current governors of Afghanistan\"), which are to be approved by the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Afghanistan \"National Assembly of Afghanistan\").", "### Presidency of Hamid Karzai", "{{Main\\|Presidency of Hamid Karzai}}\n[thumb\\|Then\\-[U.S. President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") with [Hamid Karzai](/wiki/Hamid_Karzai \"Hamid Karzai\") in [Kabul](/wiki/Kabul \"Kabul\") on March 1, 2006\\. [United States\\-Afghanistan relations](/wiki/Afghanistan_%E2%80%93_United_States_relations \"Afghanistan – United States relations\") have improved since late 2001, especially after the [Karzai administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai \"Presidency of Hamid Karzai\") was formed.](/wiki/File:GW_Bush_and_Hamid_Karzai_in_Kabul_2006-03-01.jpg \"GW Bush and Hamid Karzai in Kabul 2006-03-01.jpg\")\nHamid Karzai served as the Chairman of the [Interim Administration](/wiki/Afghan_Interim_Administration \"Afghan Interim Administration\") from December 2001 to June 2002\\. He then served as the Interim President between June 2002 to October 2004\\. He officially became the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan after winning the [2004 presidential election](/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election%2C_2004 \"Afghan presidential election, 2004\").", "#### First term", "The United States is the leading nation in the rebuilding and democratization of Afghanistan. [United States\\-Afghanistan relations](/wiki/Afghanistan_%E2%80%93_United_States_relations \"Afghanistan – United States relations\") have improved since late 2001, especially after the [Karzai administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai \"Presidency of Hamid Karzai\") was formed. [Foreign relations of Afghanistan](/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Afghanistan \"Foreign relations of Afghanistan\") with other [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") members and regional countries have also improved under the Karzai administration.", "After winning the [2004 election](/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election%2C_2004 \"Afghan presidential election, 2004\") and removing many of the former [Northern Alliance](/wiki/Northern_Alliance \"Northern Alliance\") warlords from his cabinet, it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005 but he proved to be more cautious. Ever since Karzai's new administration took over in 2004, the [economy of Afghanistan](/wiki/Economy_of_Afghanistan \"Economy of Afghanistan\") has been growing rapidly for the first time in many years. Government revenue is increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid. During the Karzai administration, public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the fight against the Taliban insurgency.", "#### Second term", "Three months after the [2009 election](/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election%2C_2009 \"Afghan presidential election, 2009\"), President Karzai was officially declared the winner.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/21/world/asia/21afghan.html\\|title\\=With New Afghan Vote, Path to Stability Is Unclear\\|first1\\=Sabrina\\|last1\\=Tavernise\\|first2\\=Mark\\|last2\\=Landler\\|first3\\=Helene\\|last3\\=Cooper\\|date\\=October 20, 2009\\|via\\=NYTimes.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814193933/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/21/world/asia/21afghan.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/6389109/Hamid\\-Karzai\\-agrees\\-to\\-run\\-off\\-amid\\-fears\\-of\\-more\\-violence\\-and\\-fraud.html\\|title\\=Hamid Karzai agrees to run\\-off amid fears of more violence and fraud\\|website\\=www.telegraph.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-03\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003013841/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/6389109/Hamid\\-Karzai\\-agrees\\-to\\-run\\-off\\-amid\\-fears\\-of\\-more\\-violence\\-and\\-fraud.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Obama administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama \"Presidency of Barack Obama\") urged Karzai to exclude ineffective or corrupt officials from the new government, while powerful Afghans who helped deliver his re\\-election were demanding positions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/afghanische\\-regierung\\-karzai\\-haelt\\-an\\-seinen\\-vertrauten\\-fest\\-a\\-668116\\.html\\|title\\=Afghanische Regierung: Karzai hält an seinen Vertrauten fest\\|first\\=DER\\|last\\=SPIEGEL\\|website\\=www.spiegel.de\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-16\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203051139/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/afghanische\\-regierung\\-karzai\\-haelt\\-an\\-seinen\\-vertrauten\\-fest\\-a\\-668116\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} According to political analysts, the list of ministers Karzai presented to the Parliament was \"not encouraging\", but it reflected [realpolitik](/wiki/Realpolitik \"Realpolitik\"). Slightly more than half were ministers who would stay in their current positions or who had served previously in Karzai's government.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/20/world/asia/20afghan.html\\|title\\=Afghan Cabinet Nominations Show Little Change\\|first\\=Alissa J.\\|last\\=Rubin\\|date\\=December 19, 2009\\|via\\=NYTimes.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 24, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924070414/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/20/world/asia/20afghan.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In January 2009, the Afghan Parliament rejected 17 of Karzai's 24 cabinet nominees, approving only seven. Relations between US President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") and Karzai were not so great in the beginning but by 2012 they slightly improved, especially after the [death of Osama bin Laden](/wiki/Death_of_Osama_bin_Laden \"Death of Osama bin Laden\") and the assassination of Karzai's brother, [Ahmed Wali Karzai](/wiki/Ahmed_Wali_Karzai \"Ahmed Wali Karzai\"). President Obama made two official visits to Afghanistan between 2010 and 2012\\. The relations again began to decline in late 2013 after Karzai decided not to sign the [Bilateral Security Agreement](/wiki/U.S.-Afghanistan_Strategic_Partnership_Agreement%23Bilateral_Security_Agreement \"U.S.-Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement#Bilateral Security Agreement\") (BSA) with the United States.", "### Presidency of Ashraf Ghani", "After a disputed election, [Ashraf Ghani](/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani \"Ashraf Ghani\") became President of Afghanistan and [Abdullah Abdullah](/wiki/Abdullah_Abdullah \"Abdullah Abdullah\") became [Chief Executive Officer of Afghanistan](/wiki/Chief_Executive_Officer_of_Afghanistan \"Chief Executive Officer of Afghanistan\") in September 2014\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Raghavan \\|first\\=Sudarsan \\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-29 \\|title\\=An unlikely pair to lead Afghanistan in historic handover of power \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/afghanistans\\-new\\-president\\-hold\\-me\\-accountable/2014/09/29/0f229a14\\-47c0\\-11e4\\-b72e\\-d60a9229cc10\\_story.html \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-16 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Washington Post]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813214656/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/afghanistans\\-new\\-president\\-hold\\-me\\-accountable/2014/09/29/0f229a14\\-47c0\\-11e4\\-b72e\\-d60a9229cc10\\_story.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} One day later, the new Afghan government signed the Bilateral Security Agreement.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/01/world/asia/afghanistan\\-and\\-us\\-sign\\-bilateral\\-security\\-agreement.html\\|title\\=Mending Alliance, U.S. and Afghanistan Sign Long\\-Term Security Agreement\\|first1\\=Declan\\|last1\\=Walsh\\|first2\\=Azam\\|last2\\=Ahmed\\|date\\=September 30, 2014\\|via\\=NYTimes.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923004323/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/01/world/asia/afghanistan\\-and\\-us\\-sign\\-bilateral\\-security\\-agreement.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On August 15, 2021, during the [2021 Taliban offensive](/wiki/2021_Taliban_offensive \"2021 Taliban offensive\"), as the [Fall of Kabul](/wiki/Fall_of_Kabul_%282021%29 \"Fall of Kabul (2021)\") was occurring, Ashraf Ghani left Afghanistan with his wife to [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") in the UAE. Some unconfirmed reports suggest that Ghani may return to Kabul in the future.", "" ]
Advantages ---------- ### Solving difficult problems Divide and conquer is a powerful tool for solving conceptually difficult problems: all it requires is a way of breaking the problem into sub\-problems, of solving the trivial cases, and of combining sub\-problems to the original problem. Similarly, decrease and conquer only requires reducing the problem to a single smaller problem, such as the classic [Tower of Hanoi](/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi "Tower of Hanoi") puzzle, which reduces moving a tower of height n to move a tower of height n\-1. ### Algorithm efficiency The divide\-and\-conquer paradigm often helps in the discovery of efficient algorithms. It was the key, for example, to [Karatsuba](/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm "Karatsuba algorithm")'s fast multiplication method, the quicksort and mergesort algorithms, the [Strassen algorithm](/wiki/Strassen_algorithm "Strassen algorithm") for [matrix multiplication](/wiki/Matrix_multiplication "Matrix multiplication"), and fast Fourier transforms. In all these examples, the D\&C approach led to an improvement in the [asymptotic cost](/wiki/Asymptotic_complexity "Asymptotic complexity") of the solution. For example, if (a) the [base cases](/wiki/Recursion_%28computer_science%29 "Recursion (computer science)") have constant\-bounded size, the work of splitting the problem and combining the partial solutions is proportional to the problem's size n, and (b) there is a bounded number p of sub\-problems of size \~ n/p at each stage, then the cost of the divide\-and\-conquer algorithm will be O(n\\log\_{p}n). ### Parallelism Divide\-and\-conquer algorithms are naturally adapted for execution in [multi\-processor](/wiki/Multiprocessing "Multiprocessing") machines, especially [shared\-memory](/wiki/Shared-memory "Shared-memory") systems where the communication of data between [processors](/wiki/Central_processing_unit "Central processing unit") does not need to be planned in advance because distinct sub\-problems can be executed on different processors. ### Memory access Divide\-and\-conquer algorithms naturally tend to make efficient use of [memory caches](/wiki/Memory_cache "Memory cache"). The reason is that once a sub\-problem is small enough, it and all its sub\-problems can, in principle, be solved within the [cache](/wiki/Cache_%28computing%29 "Cache (computing)"), without accessing the slower [main memory](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"). An algorithm designed to exploit the cache in this way is called *[cache\-oblivious](/wiki/Cache-oblivious_algorithm "Cache-oblivious algorithm")*, because it does not contain the cache size as an explicit [parameter](/wiki/Parameter_%28computer_programming%29 "Parameter (computer programming)").{{cite book \| author \= M. Frigo \|author2\=C. E. Leiserson \|author3\=H. Prokop \|title\=40th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (Cat. No.99CB37039\) \|chapter\=Cache\-oblivious algorithms \|pages\=285–297 \| year \= 1999\|chapter\-url\=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721\.1/80568/43558192\-MIT.pdf;sequence\=2\|doi\=10\.1109/SFFCS.1999\.814600 \|isbn\=0\-7695\-0409\-4 \|s2cid\=62758836 }} Moreover, D\&C algorithms can be designed for important algorithms (e.g., sorting, FFTs, and matrix multiplication) to be *optimal* cache\-oblivious algorithms–they use the cache in a probably optimal way, in an asymptotic sense, regardless of the cache size. In contrast, the traditional approach to exploiting the cache is *blocking*, as in [loop nest optimization](/wiki/Loop_nest_optimization "Loop nest optimization"), where the problem is explicitly divided into chunks of the appropriate size—this can also use the cache optimally, but only when the algorithm is tuned for the specific cache sizes of a particular machine. The same advantage exists with regards to other hierarchical storage systems, such as [NUMA](/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access "Non-uniform memory access") or [virtual memory](/wiki/Virtual_memory "Virtual memory"), as well as for multiple levels of cache: once a sub\-problem is small enough, it can be solved within a given level of the hierarchy, without accessing the higher (slower) levels. ### Roundoff control In computations with rounded arithmetic, e.g. with [floating\-point](/wiki/Floating-point "Floating-point") numbers, a divide\-and\-conquer algorithm may yield more accurate results than a superficially equivalent iterative method. For example, one can add *N* numbers either by a simple loop that adds each datum to a single variable, or by a D\&C algorithm called [pairwise summation](/wiki/Pairwise_summation "Pairwise summation") that breaks the data set into two halves, recursively computes the sum of each half, and then adds the two sums. While the second method performs the same number of additions as the first and pays the overhead of the recursive calls, it is usually more accurate.Nicholas J. Higham, "[The accuracy of floating\-point summation](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c17/9d447a27c40a54b2bf8b1b2d6819e63c1a69.pdf)", *SIAM J. Scientific Computing* **14** (4\), 783–799 (1993\).
[ "Advantages\n----------", "### Solving difficult problems", "Divide and conquer is a powerful tool for solving conceptually difficult problems: all it requires is a way of breaking the problem into sub\\-problems, of solving the trivial cases, and of combining sub\\-problems to the original problem. Similarly, decrease and conquer only requires reducing the problem to a single smaller problem, such as the classic [Tower of Hanoi](/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi \"Tower of Hanoi\") puzzle, which reduces moving a tower of height n to move a tower of height n\\-1.", "### Algorithm efficiency", "The divide\\-and\\-conquer paradigm often helps in the discovery of efficient algorithms. It was the key, for example, to [Karatsuba](/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm \"Karatsuba algorithm\")'s fast multiplication method, the quicksort and mergesort algorithms, the [Strassen algorithm](/wiki/Strassen_algorithm \"Strassen algorithm\") for [matrix multiplication](/wiki/Matrix_multiplication \"Matrix multiplication\"), and fast Fourier transforms.", "In all these examples, the D\\&C approach led to an improvement in the [asymptotic cost](/wiki/Asymptotic_complexity \"Asymptotic complexity\") of the solution. For example, if (a) the [base cases](/wiki/Recursion_%28computer_science%29 \"Recursion (computer science)\") have constant\\-bounded size, the work of splitting the problem and combining the partial solutions is proportional to the problem's size n, and (b) there is a bounded number p of sub\\-problems of size \\~ n/p at each stage, then the cost of the divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithm will be O(n\\\\log\\_{p}n).", "### Parallelism", "Divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithms are naturally adapted for execution in [multi\\-processor](/wiki/Multiprocessing \"Multiprocessing\") machines, especially [shared\\-memory](/wiki/Shared-memory \"Shared-memory\") systems where the communication of data between [processors](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\") does not need to be planned in advance because distinct sub\\-problems can be executed on different processors.", "### Memory access", "Divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithms naturally tend to make efficient use of [memory caches](/wiki/Memory_cache \"Memory cache\"). The reason is that once a sub\\-problem is small enough, it and all its sub\\-problems can, in principle, be solved within the [cache](/wiki/Cache_%28computing%29 \"Cache (computing)\"), without accessing the slower [main memory](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"). An algorithm designed to exploit the cache in this way is called *[cache\\-oblivious](/wiki/Cache-oblivious_algorithm \"Cache-oblivious algorithm\")*, because it does not contain the cache size as an explicit [parameter](/wiki/Parameter_%28computer_programming%29 \"Parameter (computer programming)\").{{cite book \\| author \\= M. Frigo \\|author2\\=C. E. Leiserson \\|author3\\=H. Prokop \\|title\\=40th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (Cat. No.99CB37039\\) \\|chapter\\=Cache\\-oblivious algorithms \\|pages\\=285–297 \\| year \\= 1999\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721\\.1/80568/43558192\\-MIT.pdf;sequence\\=2\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/SFFCS.1999\\.814600 \\|isbn\\=0\\-7695\\-0409\\-4 \\|s2cid\\=62758836 }} Moreover, D\\&C algorithms can be designed for important algorithms (e.g., sorting, FFTs, and matrix multiplication) to be *optimal* cache\\-oblivious algorithms–they use the cache in a probably optimal way, in an asymptotic sense, regardless of the cache size. In contrast, the traditional approach to exploiting the cache is *blocking*, as in [loop nest optimization](/wiki/Loop_nest_optimization \"Loop nest optimization\"), where the problem is explicitly divided into chunks of the appropriate size—this can also use the cache optimally, but only when the algorithm is tuned for the specific cache sizes of a particular machine.", "The same advantage exists with regards to other hierarchical storage systems, such as [NUMA](/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access \"Non-uniform memory access\") or [virtual memory](/wiki/Virtual_memory \"Virtual memory\"), as well as for multiple levels of cache: once a sub\\-problem is small enough, it can be solved within a given level of the hierarchy, without accessing the higher (slower) levels.", "### Roundoff control", "In computations with rounded arithmetic, e.g. with [floating\\-point](/wiki/Floating-point \"Floating-point\") numbers, a divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithm may yield more accurate results than a superficially equivalent iterative method. For example, one can add *N* numbers either by a simple loop that adds each datum to a single variable, or by a D\\&C algorithm called [pairwise summation](/wiki/Pairwise_summation \"Pairwise summation\") that breaks the data set into two halves, recursively computes the sum of each half, and then adds the two sums. While the second method performs the same number of additions as the first and pays the overhead of the recursive calls, it is usually more accurate.Nicholas J. Higham, \"[The accuracy of floating\\-point summation](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c17/9d447a27c40a54b2bf8b1b2d6819e63c1a69.pdf)\", *SIAM J. Scientific Computing* **14** (4\\), 783–799 (1993\\).", "" ]
Implementation issues --------------------- ### Recursion Divide\-and\-conquer algorithms are naturally implemented as [recursive procedures](/wiki/Recursion_%28computer_science%29 "Recursion (computer science)"). In that case, the partial sub\-problems leading to the one currently being solved are automatically stored in the [procedure call stack](/wiki/Call_stack "Call stack"). A recursive function is a function that calls itself within its definition. ### Explicit stack Divide\-and\-conquer algorithms can also be implemented by a non\-recursive program that stores the partial sub\-problems in some explicit data structure, such as a [stack](/wiki/Stack_%28data_structure%29 "Stack (data structure)"), [queue](/wiki/Queue_%28data_structure%29 "Queue (data structure)"), or [priority queue](/wiki/Priority_queue "Priority queue"). This approach allows more freedom in the choice of the sub\-problem that is to be solved next, a feature that is important in some applications — e.g. in [breadth\-first recursion](/wiki/Breadth_first_recursion "Breadth first recursion") and the [branch\-and\-bound](/wiki/Branch-and-bound "Branch-and-bound") method for function optimization. This approach is also the standard solution in programming languages that do not provide support for recursive procedures. ### Stack size In recursive implementations of D\&C algorithms, one must make sure that there is sufficient memory allocated for the recursion stack, otherwise, the execution may fail because of [stack overflow](/wiki/Stack_overflow "Stack overflow"). D\&C algorithms that are time\-efficient often have relatively small recursion depth. For example, the quicksort algorithm can be implemented so that it never requires more than \\log\_2 n nested recursive calls to sort n items. Stack overflow may be difficult to avoid when using recursive procedures since many compilers assume that the recursion stack is a contiguous area of memory, and some allocate a fixed amount of space for it. Compilers may also save more information in the recursion stack than is strictly necessary, such as return address, unchanging parameters, and the internal variables of the procedure. Thus, the risk of stack overflow can be reduced by minimizing the parameters and internal variables of the recursive procedure or by using an explicit stack structure. ### Choosing the base cases In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the *base cases*, the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion. Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, a [Fast Fourier Transform](/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform "Fast Fourier transform") algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list\-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples, there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing. On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non\-recursively, resulting in a [hybrid algorithm](/wiki/Hybrid_algorithm "Hybrid algorithm"). This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work and may also allow the use of specialized non\-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is *short\-circuiting the base case*, also known as *[arm's\-length recursion](/wiki/Arm%27s-length_recursion "Arm's-length recursion")*. In this case, whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D\&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub\-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack. Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop\-based [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort "Insertion sort") (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with n entries would entail maximally n quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do\-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function\-call overhead or stack manipulation. Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide\-and\-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely [unrolled](/wiki/Loop_unwinding "Loop unwinding") into code that has no recursion, loops, or [conditionals](/wiki/Conditional_%28programming%29 "Conditional (programming)") (related to the technique of [partial evaluation](/wiki/Partial_evaluation "Partial evaluation")). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide\-and\-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes.{{cite journal \| author \= Frigo, M. \|author2\=Johnson, S. G. \| url \= http://www.fftw.org/fftw\-paper\-ieee.pdf \| title \= The design and implementation of FFTW3 \| journal \= Proceedings of the IEEE \| volume \= 93 \| issue \= 2 \|date\=February 2005 \| pages \= 216–231 \| doi \= 10\.1109/JPROC.2004\.840301\|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.66\.3097 \|s2cid\=6644892 }} [Source\-code generation](/wiki/Source-code_generation "Source-code generation") methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently. The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion "unrolling" or "coarsening", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.Radu Rugina and Martin Rinard, "[Recursion unrolling for divide and conquer programs](http://people.csail.mit.edu/rinard/paper/lcpc00.pdf)" in *Languages and Compilers for Parallel Computing*, chapter 3, pp. 34–48\. *Lecture Notes in Computer Science* vol. 2017 (Berlin: Springer, 2001\). ### Dynamic programming for overlapping subproblems For some problems, the branched recursion may end up evaluating the same sub\-problem many times over. In such cases it may be worth identifying and saving the solutions to these overlapping subproblems, a technique which is commonly known as [memoization](/wiki/Memoization "Memoization"). Followed to the limit, it leads to [bottom\-up](/wiki/Bottom-up_design "Bottom-up design") divide\-and\-conquer algorithms such as [dynamic programming](/wiki/Dynamic_programming "Dynamic programming").
[ "Implementation issues\n---------------------", "### Recursion", "Divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithms are naturally implemented as [recursive procedures](/wiki/Recursion_%28computer_science%29 \"Recursion (computer science)\"). In that case, the partial sub\\-problems leading to the one currently being solved are automatically stored in the [procedure call stack](/wiki/Call_stack \"Call stack\"). A recursive function is a function that calls itself within its definition.", "### Explicit stack", "Divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithms can also be implemented by a non\\-recursive program that stores the partial sub\\-problems in some explicit data structure, such as a [stack](/wiki/Stack_%28data_structure%29 \"Stack (data structure)\"), [queue](/wiki/Queue_%28data_structure%29 \"Queue (data structure)\"), or [priority queue](/wiki/Priority_queue \"Priority queue\"). This approach allows more freedom in the choice of the sub\\-problem that is to be solved next, a feature that is important in some applications — e.g. in [breadth\\-first recursion](/wiki/Breadth_first_recursion \"Breadth first recursion\") and the [branch\\-and\\-bound](/wiki/Branch-and-bound \"Branch-and-bound\") method for function optimization. This approach is also the standard solution in programming languages that do not provide support for recursive procedures.", "### Stack size", "In recursive implementations of D\\&C algorithms, one must make sure that there is sufficient memory allocated for the recursion stack, otherwise, the execution may fail because of [stack overflow](/wiki/Stack_overflow \"Stack overflow\"). D\\&C algorithms that are time\\-efficient often have relatively small recursion depth. For example, the quicksort algorithm can be implemented so that it never requires more than \\\\log\\_2 n nested recursive calls to sort n items.", "Stack overflow may be difficult to avoid when using recursive procedures since many compilers assume that the recursion stack is a contiguous area of memory, and some allocate a fixed amount of space for it. Compilers may also save more information in the recursion stack than is strictly necessary, such as return address, unchanging parameters, and the internal variables of the procedure. Thus, the risk of stack overflow can be reduced by minimizing the parameters and internal variables of the recursive procedure or by using an explicit stack structure.", "### Choosing the base cases", "In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the *base cases*, the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion.", "Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, a [Fast Fourier Transform](/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform \"Fast Fourier transform\") algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list\\-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples, there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing.", "On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non\\-recursively, resulting in a [hybrid algorithm](/wiki/Hybrid_algorithm \"Hybrid algorithm\"). This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work and may also allow the use of specialized non\\-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is *short\\-circuiting the base case*, also known as *[arm's\\-length recursion](/wiki/Arm%27s-length_recursion \"Arm's-length recursion\")*. In this case, whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D\\&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub\\-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack.", "Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop\\-based [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort \"Insertion sort\") (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with n entries would entail maximally n quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do\\-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function\\-call overhead or stack manipulation.", "Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely [unrolled](/wiki/Loop_unwinding \"Loop unwinding\") into code that has no recursion, loops, or [conditionals](/wiki/Conditional_%28programming%29 \"Conditional (programming)\") (related to the technique of [partial evaluation](/wiki/Partial_evaluation \"Partial evaluation\")). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide\\-and\\-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes.{{cite journal \\| author \\= Frigo, M. \\|author2\\=Johnson, S. G. \\| url \\= http://www.fftw.org/fftw\\-paper\\-ieee.pdf \\| title \\= The design and implementation of FFTW3 \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the IEEE \\| volume \\= 93 \\| issue \\= 2 \\|date\\=February 2005 \\| pages \\= 216–231 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/JPROC.2004\\.840301\\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.66\\.3097 \\|s2cid\\=6644892 }} [Source\\-code generation](/wiki/Source-code_generation \"Source-code generation\") methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently.", "The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion \"unrolling\" or \"coarsening\", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.Radu Rugina and Martin Rinard, \"[Recursion unrolling for divide and conquer programs](http://people.csail.mit.edu/rinard/paper/lcpc00.pdf)\" in *Languages and Compilers for Parallel Computing*, chapter 3, pp. 34–48\\. *Lecture Notes in Computer Science* vol. 2017 (Berlin: Springer, 2001\\).", "### Dynamic programming for overlapping subproblems", "For some problems, the branched recursion may end up evaluating the same sub\\-problem many times over. In such cases it may be worth identifying and saving the solutions to these overlapping subproblems, a technique which is commonly known as [memoization](/wiki/Memoization \"Memoization\"). Followed to the limit, it leads to [bottom\\-up](/wiki/Bottom-up_design \"Bottom-up design\") divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithms such as [dynamic programming](/wiki/Dynamic_programming \"Dynamic programming\").", "" ]
### Choosing the base cases In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the *base cases*, the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion. Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, a [Fast Fourier Transform](/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform "Fast Fourier transform") algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list\-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples, there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing. On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non\-recursively, resulting in a [hybrid algorithm](/wiki/Hybrid_algorithm "Hybrid algorithm"). This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work and may also allow the use of specialized non\-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is *short\-circuiting the base case*, also known as *[arm's\-length recursion](/wiki/Arm%27s-length_recursion "Arm's-length recursion")*. In this case, whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D\&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub\-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack. Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop\-based [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort "Insertion sort") (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with n entries would entail maximally n quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do\-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function\-call overhead or stack manipulation. Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide\-and\-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely [unrolled](/wiki/Loop_unwinding "Loop unwinding") into code that has no recursion, loops, or [conditionals](/wiki/Conditional_%28programming%29 "Conditional (programming)") (related to the technique of [partial evaluation](/wiki/Partial_evaluation "Partial evaluation")). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide\-and\-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes.{{cite journal \| author \= Frigo, M. \|author2\=Johnson, S. G. \| url \= http://www.fftw.org/fftw\-paper\-ieee.pdf \| title \= The design and implementation of FFTW3 \| journal \= Proceedings of the IEEE \| volume \= 93 \| issue \= 2 \|date\=February 2005 \| pages \= 216–231 \| doi \= 10\.1109/JPROC.2004\.840301\|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.66\.3097 \|s2cid\=6644892 }} [Source\-code generation](/wiki/Source-code_generation "Source-code generation") methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently. The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion "unrolling" or "coarsening", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.Radu Rugina and Martin Rinard, "[Recursion unrolling for divide and conquer programs](http://people.csail.mit.edu/rinard/paper/lcpc00.pdf)" in *Languages and Compilers for Parallel Computing*, chapter 3, pp. 34–48\. *Lecture Notes in Computer Science* vol. 2017 (Berlin: Springer, 2001\).
[ "### Choosing the base cases", "In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the *base cases*, the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion.", "Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, a [Fast Fourier Transform](/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform \"Fast Fourier transform\") algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list\\-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples, there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing.", "On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non\\-recursively, resulting in a [hybrid algorithm](/wiki/Hybrid_algorithm \"Hybrid algorithm\"). This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work and may also allow the use of specialized non\\-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is *short\\-circuiting the base case*, also known as *[arm's\\-length recursion](/wiki/Arm%27s-length_recursion \"Arm's-length recursion\")*. In this case, whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D\\&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub\\-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack.", "Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop\\-based [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort \"Insertion sort\") (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with n entries would entail maximally n quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do\\-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function\\-call overhead or stack manipulation.", "Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide\\-and\\-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely [unrolled](/wiki/Loop_unwinding \"Loop unwinding\") into code that has no recursion, loops, or [conditionals](/wiki/Conditional_%28programming%29 \"Conditional (programming)\") (related to the technique of [partial evaluation](/wiki/Partial_evaluation \"Partial evaluation\")). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide\\-and\\-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes.{{cite journal \\| author \\= Frigo, M. \\|author2\\=Johnson, S. G. \\| url \\= http://www.fftw.org/fftw\\-paper\\-ieee.pdf \\| title \\= The design and implementation of FFTW3 \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the IEEE \\| volume \\= 93 \\| issue \\= 2 \\|date\\=February 2005 \\| pages \\= 216–231 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/JPROC.2004\\.840301\\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.66\\.3097 \\|s2cid\\=6644892 }} [Source\\-code generation](/wiki/Source-code_generation \"Source-code generation\") methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently.", "The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion \"unrolling\" or \"coarsening\", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.Radu Rugina and Martin Rinard, \"[Recursion unrolling for divide and conquer programs](http://people.csail.mit.edu/rinard/paper/lcpc00.pdf)\" in *Languages and Compilers for Parallel Computing*, chapter 3, pp. 34–48\\. *Lecture Notes in Computer Science* vol. 2017 (Berlin: Springer, 2001\\).", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- ### NBA and CBA Ford played five games in the [1994–95 NBA season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_NBA_season "1994–95 NBA season") for the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers"), who selected him 32nd overall in the [1993 NBA draft](/wiki/1993_NBA_draft "1993 NBA draft"). Before that, he had played six games for the [Seattle SuperSonics](/wiki/Seattle_SuperSonics "Seattle SuperSonics"), in [1993–94](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_NBA_season "1993–94 NBA season"). During both the 1993–94 and 1994–95 NBA seasons, Ford played in the [Continental Basketball Association](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association "Continental Basketball Association") (CBA) for the [Tri\-City Chinook](/wiki/Tri-City_Chinook "Tri-City Chinook"). He averaged 22\.8 points per game in his rookie year with the Chinook and he was selected to the All\-CBA First Team and named [Rookie of the Year](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award "Continental Basketball Association Rookie of the Year Award").{{cite web \|title\=Alphonso Ford minor league basketball statistics \|url\=https://www.statscrew.com/minorbasketball/stats/p\-fordalp001 \|website\=Stats Crew \|access\-date\=March 8, 2024}} Ford averaged 24\.0 points per game during the 1994–95 season with the Chinook. ### Europe #### First steps towards European stardom In the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_ACB_season "1995–96 ACB season"), Ford signed with [Spanish first division](/wiki/Liga_ACB "Liga ACB") club [Peñas Huesca](/wiki/CB_Pe%C3%B1as_Huesca "CB Peñas Huesca"). However, although he played great basketball and averaged 25\.1 points per game in the Spanish League, he could not prevent the team's [relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation "Promotion and relegation"). The next season was for Ford the opportunity to show his skills, in what was at the time Europe's most competitive national domestic league, the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League"). He spent the season with [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. "Papagou B.C."), and led the team to a ninth\-place finish, while also being [the Greek competition's leading scorer](/wiki/List_of_top_scorers_in_Greek_Basket_League_by_season "List of top scorers in Greek Basket League by season"), with 23\.9 points per contest. Nevertheless, glory at the European\-wide level turned out to be a little bit more far away than the great scorer thought. Before the beginning of the 1997–98 season, he was diagnosed with [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia "Leukemia"), thus obliging [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. "Papagou B.C.") to break his contract. The treatment cost Ford the whole season, but he was convinced that he had a lot more to contribute. He signed a one\-year deal with [Sporting](/wiki/Sporting_B.C. "Sporting B.C."), a traditional Greek club that was struggling to remain in Greece's top basketball scene. The gifted [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard "Shooting guard") helped the team finish in a decent eleventh\-place finish, but most importantly, he defied his disease, in an utterly remarkable way. Ford agreed to a two\-year deal with the Greek club [Nikas Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. "Peristeri B.C."), before the [Greek Basket League 1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Greek_Basket_League "1999–2000 Greek Basket League"), experiencing the game, within a team with considerably higher ambitions than any of the ones he had played for in the past. Needless to say, the challenge was accepted by the player, who would become a reference in the club's history. Ford averaged 22\.7 points per game in the Greek League, leading Peristeri to a fifth\-place finish in the league. Also, he made his first appearance in a European\-wide competition, by playing in the [European\-wide 3rd\-tier level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system "European professional club basketball system") [FIBA Korać Cup](/wiki/FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup "FIBA Korać Cup")'s [1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup "1999–2000 FIBA Korać Cup"), where he scored 20\.7 points per game, and reached the competition's top 16 with his team, before they lost to [Adecco Estudiantes](/wiki/CB_Estudiantes "CB Estudiantes"). #### The biggest scorer in EuroLeague's modern era The real breakout season for Ford though, was going to be his second one with [Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. "Peristeri B.C."), in 2000–01\. The team contended for the [Greek Basket League 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Greek_Basket_League "2000–01 Greek Basket League") title, and ended up in the league's third\-place position, while he was named the [league's MVP](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League_MVP "Greek Basket League MVP"). In parallel, the club also took part in [Euroleague Basketball](/wiki/Euroleague_Basketball "Euroleague Basketball")'s [EuroLeague 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague "2000–01 Euroleague"), and Ford shined, while playing for the first time at [the highest European\-wide league level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system "European professional club basketball system"). He was the [EuroLeague Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer "EuroLeague Top Scorer"), averaging 26 points per game, and had a memorable 41\-point outburst against [Tau Ceramica](/wiki/Saski_Baskonia "Saski Baskonia") in the competition's playoffs, scoring more than half of his team's 79 points that night. Tau qualified for the quarterfinals, sweeping the playoff series between the two teams, by two games to none, but Ford's performance is now part of the [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague "EuroLeague") legend. Finally, his nomination to the [All\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague "All-EuroLeague") [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague "2000–01 Euroleague") First Team, was at the same time, a huge recognition, and an official introduction to superstar status. In the 2001–02 season, the Greek EuroLeague powerhouse, [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. "Olympiacos B.C."), offered Ford a $1 million net income single\-year contract. His mission was to bring a team that had not won anything since the [triple crown](/wiki/Triple_Crown_%28basketball%29 "Triple Crown (basketball)") in 1997, back to the top. Ford signed the deal, and the results were immediate: he led the Reds to a [Greek Cup](/wiki/Greek_Basketball_Cup "Greek Basketball Cup") trophy, with 20 points, 7 assists and 3 rebounds, in the cup's semifinal against [Bodiroga](/wiki/Dejan_Bodiroga "Dejan Bodiroga")'s [Panathinaikos](/wiki/Panathinaikos_B.C. "Panathinaikos B.C."), and 24 points, 10 rebounds and 3 assists, in the cup's final game, to defeat [Maroussi](/wiki/Maroussi_B.C. "Maroussi B.C."), by a score of 66–74\. In the [EuroLeague 2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Euroleague "2001–02 Euroleague"), [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. "Olympiacos B.C.") made it to the competition's Top 16 stage, and fell one game short of reaching the [EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/EuroLeague_Final_Four "EuroLeague Final Four"). Ford could actually not prevent an 85–89 home loss to [Olimpija Ljubljana](/wiki/KK_Union_Olimpija "KK Union Olimpija"), although he had a solid performance that night, with 21 points, 9 rebounds and 5 assists. He was once again the EuroLeague's [Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer "EuroLeague Top Scorer"), at 24\.8 points per game, and was selected to the [All\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague "All-EuroLeague") [2001–02](/wiki/2001-02_Euroleague "2001-02 Euroleague") Second Team. The season ended with a loss in the [Greek League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League")'s championship finals series to [AEK](/wiki/AEK_BC "AEK BC"), with Ford missing the last two crucial games of the series, due to an injury. Olympiacos changed for the [EuroLeague 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague "2002-03 Euroleague"). The major Greek EuroLeague clubs were forced to reduce their budgets, due to the renovation of their arenas for the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics "Basketball at the 2004 Summer Olympics"), in [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens"). They therefore became considerably less competitive in the league. Ford's contract with Olympiacos was subsequently not renewed, and he signed a new contract with the [Italian league](/wiki/Lega_Basket_Serie_A "Lega Basket Serie A")'s [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague "EuroLeague") contender, [Mens Sana Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena "Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena"). Ford had a quick adaptation period to his new team, and although his scoring average in the EuroLeague dropped to 17\.9 points per game, he was selected to the [All\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague "All-EuroLeague") [2002–03](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague "2002-03 Euroleague") First Team, after [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena "Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena") qualified to the [2003 EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/2003_EuroLeague_Final_Four "2003 EuroLeague Final Four"). Unfortunately, Ford had one of his worst shooting nights ever, in the semifinal against [Benetton Treviso](/wiki/Pallacanestro_Treviso "Pallacanestro Treviso"): he scored 15 points, making only 5 of his 19 shots. His 7 rebounds and 2 steals did not allow his team to overcome Benetton's obstacle, as they lost 62–65 in a highly intense game. In the [Italian League 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Lega_Basket_Serie_A "2002–03 Lega Basket Serie A"), Ford averaged 19\.1 points per game, and [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena "Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena") finished in fourth place in the league.
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "### NBA and CBA", "Ford played five games in the [1994–95 NBA season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_NBA_season \"1994–95 NBA season\") for the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\"), who selected him 32nd overall in the [1993 NBA draft](/wiki/1993_NBA_draft \"1993 NBA draft\"). Before that, he had played six games for the [Seattle SuperSonics](/wiki/Seattle_SuperSonics \"Seattle SuperSonics\"), in [1993–94](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_NBA_season \"1993–94 NBA season\"). During both the 1993–94 and 1994–95 NBA seasons, Ford played in the [Continental Basketball Association](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association \"Continental Basketball Association\") (CBA) for the [Tri\\-City Chinook](/wiki/Tri-City_Chinook \"Tri-City Chinook\"). He averaged 22\\.8 points per game in his rookie year with the Chinook and he was selected to the All\\-CBA First Team and named [Rookie of the Year](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award \"Continental Basketball Association Rookie of the Year Award\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Alphonso Ford minor league basketball statistics \\|url\\=https://www.statscrew.com/minorbasketball/stats/p\\-fordalp001 \\|website\\=Stats Crew \\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2024}} Ford averaged 24\\.0 points per game during the 1994–95 season with the Chinook.", "### Europe", "#### First steps towards European stardom", "In the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_ACB_season \"1995–96 ACB season\"), Ford signed with [Spanish first division](/wiki/Liga_ACB \"Liga ACB\") club [Peñas Huesca](/wiki/CB_Pe%C3%B1as_Huesca \"CB Peñas Huesca\"). However, although he played great basketball and averaged 25\\.1 points per game in the Spanish League, he could not prevent the team's [relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation \"Promotion and relegation\"). The next season was for Ford the opportunity to show his skills, in what was at the time Europe's most competitive national domestic league, the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\"). He spent the season with [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. \"Papagou B.C.\"), and led the team to a ninth\\-place finish, while also being [the Greek competition's leading scorer](/wiki/List_of_top_scorers_in_Greek_Basket_League_by_season \"List of top scorers in Greek Basket League by season\"), with 23\\.9 points per contest. Nevertheless, glory at the European\\-wide level turned out to be a little bit more far away than the great scorer thought. Before the beginning of the 1997–98 season, he was diagnosed with [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia \"Leukemia\"), thus obliging [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. \"Papagou B.C.\") to break his contract. The treatment cost Ford the whole season, but he was convinced that he had a lot more to contribute. He signed a one\\-year deal with [Sporting](/wiki/Sporting_B.C. \"Sporting B.C.\"), a traditional Greek club that was struggling to remain in Greece's top basketball scene. The gifted [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard \"Shooting guard\") helped the team finish in a decent eleventh\\-place finish, but most importantly, he defied his disease, in an utterly remarkable way.", "Ford agreed to a two\\-year deal with the Greek club [Nikas Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. \"Peristeri B.C.\"), before the [Greek Basket League 1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Greek_Basket_League \"1999–2000 Greek Basket League\"), experiencing the game, within a team with considerably higher ambitions than any of the ones he had played for in the past. Needless to say, the challenge was accepted by the player, who would become a reference in the club's history. Ford averaged 22\\.7 points per game in the Greek League, leading Peristeri to a fifth\\-place finish in the league. Also, he made his first appearance in a European\\-wide competition, by playing in the [European\\-wide 3rd\\-tier level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system \"European professional club basketball system\") [FIBA Korać Cup](/wiki/FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup \"FIBA Korać Cup\")'s [1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup \"1999–2000 FIBA Korać Cup\"), where he scored 20\\.7 points per game, and reached the competition's top 16 with his team, before they lost to [Adecco Estudiantes](/wiki/CB_Estudiantes \"CB Estudiantes\").", "#### The biggest scorer in EuroLeague's modern era", "The real breakout season for Ford though, was going to be his second one with [Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. \"Peristeri B.C.\"), in 2000–01\\. The team contended for the [Greek Basket League 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Greek_Basket_League \"2000–01 Greek Basket League\") title, and ended up in the league's third\\-place position, while he was named the [league's MVP](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League_MVP \"Greek Basket League MVP\"). In parallel, the club also took part in [Euroleague Basketball](/wiki/Euroleague_Basketball \"Euroleague Basketball\")'s [EuroLeague 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague \"2000–01 Euroleague\"), and Ford shined, while playing for the first time at [the highest European\\-wide league level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system \"European professional club basketball system\"). He was the [EuroLeague Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer \"EuroLeague Top Scorer\"), averaging 26 points per game, and had a memorable 41\\-point outburst against [Tau Ceramica](/wiki/Saski_Baskonia \"Saski Baskonia\") in the competition's playoffs, scoring more than half of his team's 79 points that night. Tau qualified for the quarterfinals, sweeping the playoff series between the two teams, by two games to none, but Ford's performance is now part of the [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague \"EuroLeague\") legend. Finally, his nomination to the [All\\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague \"All-EuroLeague\") [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague \"2000–01 Euroleague\") First Team, was at the same time, a huge recognition, and an official introduction to superstar status.", "In the 2001–02 season, the Greek EuroLeague powerhouse, [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. \"Olympiacos B.C.\"), offered Ford a $1 million net income single\\-year contract. His mission was to bring a team that had not won anything since the [triple crown](/wiki/Triple_Crown_%28basketball%29 \"Triple Crown (basketball)\") in 1997, back to the top. Ford signed the deal, and the results were immediate: he led the Reds to a [Greek Cup](/wiki/Greek_Basketball_Cup \"Greek Basketball Cup\") trophy, with 20 points, 7 assists and 3 rebounds, in the cup's semifinal against [Bodiroga](/wiki/Dejan_Bodiroga \"Dejan Bodiroga\")'s [Panathinaikos](/wiki/Panathinaikos_B.C. \"Panathinaikos B.C.\"), and 24 points, 10 rebounds and 3 assists, in the cup's final game, to defeat [Maroussi](/wiki/Maroussi_B.C. \"Maroussi B.C.\"), by a score of 66–74\\. In the [EuroLeague 2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Euroleague \"2001–02 Euroleague\"), [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. \"Olympiacos B.C.\") made it to the competition's Top 16 stage, and fell one game short of reaching the [EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/EuroLeague_Final_Four \"EuroLeague Final Four\"). Ford could actually not prevent an 85–89 home loss to [Olimpija Ljubljana](/wiki/KK_Union_Olimpija \"KK Union Olimpija\"), although he had a solid performance that night, with 21 points, 9 rebounds and 5 assists. He was once again the EuroLeague's [Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer \"EuroLeague Top Scorer\"), at 24\\.8 points per game, and was selected to the [All\\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague \"All-EuroLeague\") [2001–02](/wiki/2001-02_Euroleague \"2001-02 Euroleague\") Second Team. The season ended with a loss in the [Greek League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\")'s championship finals series to [AEK](/wiki/AEK_BC \"AEK BC\"), with Ford missing the last two crucial games of the series, due to an injury.", "Olympiacos changed for the [EuroLeague 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague \"2002-03 Euroleague\"). The major Greek EuroLeague clubs were forced to reduce their budgets, due to the renovation of their arenas for the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics \"Basketball at the 2004 Summer Olympics\"), in [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\"). They therefore became considerably less competitive in the league. Ford's contract with Olympiacos was subsequently not renewed, and he signed a new contract with the [Italian league](/wiki/Lega_Basket_Serie_A \"Lega Basket Serie A\")'s [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague \"EuroLeague\") contender, [Mens Sana Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena \"Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena\"). Ford had a quick adaptation period to his new team, and although his scoring average in the EuroLeague dropped to 17\\.9 points per game, he was selected to the [All\\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague \"All-EuroLeague\") [2002–03](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague \"2002-03 Euroleague\") First Team, after [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena \"Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena\") qualified to the [2003 EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/2003_EuroLeague_Final_Four \"2003 EuroLeague Final Four\"). Unfortunately, Ford had one of his worst shooting nights ever, in the semifinal against [Benetton Treviso](/wiki/Pallacanestro_Treviso \"Pallacanestro Treviso\"): he scored 15 points, making only 5 of his 19 shots. His 7 rebounds and 2 steals did not allow his team to overcome Benetton's obstacle, as they lost 62–65 in a highly intense game. In the [Italian League 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Lega_Basket_Serie_A \"2002–03 Lega Basket Serie A\"), Ford averaged 19\\.1 points per game, and [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena \"Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena\") finished in fourth place in the league.", "" ]
### Europe #### First steps towards European stardom In the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_ACB_season "1995–96 ACB season"), Ford signed with [Spanish first division](/wiki/Liga_ACB "Liga ACB") club [Peñas Huesca](/wiki/CB_Pe%C3%B1as_Huesca "CB Peñas Huesca"). However, although he played great basketball and averaged 25\.1 points per game in the Spanish League, he could not prevent the team's [relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation "Promotion and relegation"). The next season was for Ford the opportunity to show his skills, in what was at the time Europe's most competitive national domestic league, the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League"). He spent the season with [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. "Papagou B.C."), and led the team to a ninth\-place finish, while also being [the Greek competition's leading scorer](/wiki/List_of_top_scorers_in_Greek_Basket_League_by_season "List of top scorers in Greek Basket League by season"), with 23\.9 points per contest. Nevertheless, glory at the European\-wide level turned out to be a little bit more far away than the great scorer thought. Before the beginning of the 1997–98 season, he was diagnosed with [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia "Leukemia"), thus obliging [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. "Papagou B.C.") to break his contract. The treatment cost Ford the whole season, but he was convinced that he had a lot more to contribute. He signed a one\-year deal with [Sporting](/wiki/Sporting_B.C. "Sporting B.C."), a traditional Greek club that was struggling to remain in Greece's top basketball scene. The gifted [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard "Shooting guard") helped the team finish in a decent eleventh\-place finish, but most importantly, he defied his disease, in an utterly remarkable way. Ford agreed to a two\-year deal with the Greek club [Nikas Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. "Peristeri B.C."), before the [Greek Basket League 1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Greek_Basket_League "1999–2000 Greek Basket League"), experiencing the game, within a team with considerably higher ambitions than any of the ones he had played for in the past. Needless to say, the challenge was accepted by the player, who would become a reference in the club's history. Ford averaged 22\.7 points per game in the Greek League, leading Peristeri to a fifth\-place finish in the league. Also, he made his first appearance in a European\-wide competition, by playing in the [European\-wide 3rd\-tier level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system "European professional club basketball system") [FIBA Korać Cup](/wiki/FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup "FIBA Korać Cup")'s [1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup "1999–2000 FIBA Korać Cup"), where he scored 20\.7 points per game, and reached the competition's top 16 with his team, before they lost to [Adecco Estudiantes](/wiki/CB_Estudiantes "CB Estudiantes"). #### The biggest scorer in EuroLeague's modern era The real breakout season for Ford though, was going to be his second one with [Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. "Peristeri B.C."), in 2000–01\. The team contended for the [Greek Basket League 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Greek_Basket_League "2000–01 Greek Basket League") title, and ended up in the league's third\-place position, while he was named the [league's MVP](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League_MVP "Greek Basket League MVP"). In parallel, the club also took part in [Euroleague Basketball](/wiki/Euroleague_Basketball "Euroleague Basketball")'s [EuroLeague 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague "2000–01 Euroleague"), and Ford shined, while playing for the first time at [the highest European\-wide league level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system "European professional club basketball system"). He was the [EuroLeague Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer "EuroLeague Top Scorer"), averaging 26 points per game, and had a memorable 41\-point outburst against [Tau Ceramica](/wiki/Saski_Baskonia "Saski Baskonia") in the competition's playoffs, scoring more than half of his team's 79 points that night. Tau qualified for the quarterfinals, sweeping the playoff series between the two teams, by two games to none, but Ford's performance is now part of the [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague "EuroLeague") legend. Finally, his nomination to the [All\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague "All-EuroLeague") [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague "2000–01 Euroleague") First Team, was at the same time, a huge recognition, and an official introduction to superstar status. In the 2001–02 season, the Greek EuroLeague powerhouse, [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. "Olympiacos B.C."), offered Ford a $1 million net income single\-year contract. His mission was to bring a team that had not won anything since the [triple crown](/wiki/Triple_Crown_%28basketball%29 "Triple Crown (basketball)") in 1997, back to the top. Ford signed the deal, and the results were immediate: he led the Reds to a [Greek Cup](/wiki/Greek_Basketball_Cup "Greek Basketball Cup") trophy, with 20 points, 7 assists and 3 rebounds, in the cup's semifinal against [Bodiroga](/wiki/Dejan_Bodiroga "Dejan Bodiroga")'s [Panathinaikos](/wiki/Panathinaikos_B.C. "Panathinaikos B.C."), and 24 points, 10 rebounds and 3 assists, in the cup's final game, to defeat [Maroussi](/wiki/Maroussi_B.C. "Maroussi B.C."), by a score of 66–74\. In the [EuroLeague 2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Euroleague "2001–02 Euroleague"), [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. "Olympiacos B.C.") made it to the competition's Top 16 stage, and fell one game short of reaching the [EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/EuroLeague_Final_Four "EuroLeague Final Four"). Ford could actually not prevent an 85–89 home loss to [Olimpija Ljubljana](/wiki/KK_Union_Olimpija "KK Union Olimpija"), although he had a solid performance that night, with 21 points, 9 rebounds and 5 assists. He was once again the EuroLeague's [Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer "EuroLeague Top Scorer"), at 24\.8 points per game, and was selected to the [All\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague "All-EuroLeague") [2001–02](/wiki/2001-02_Euroleague "2001-02 Euroleague") Second Team. The season ended with a loss in the [Greek League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League")'s championship finals series to [AEK](/wiki/AEK_BC "AEK BC"), with Ford missing the last two crucial games of the series, due to an injury. Olympiacos changed for the [EuroLeague 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague "2002-03 Euroleague"). The major Greek EuroLeague clubs were forced to reduce their budgets, due to the renovation of their arenas for the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics "Basketball at the 2004 Summer Olympics"), in [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens"). They therefore became considerably less competitive in the league. Ford's contract with Olympiacos was subsequently not renewed, and he signed a new contract with the [Italian league](/wiki/Lega_Basket_Serie_A "Lega Basket Serie A")'s [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague "EuroLeague") contender, [Mens Sana Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena "Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena"). Ford had a quick adaptation period to his new team, and although his scoring average in the EuroLeague dropped to 17\.9 points per game, he was selected to the [All\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague "All-EuroLeague") [2002–03](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague "2002-03 Euroleague") First Team, after [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena "Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena") qualified to the [2003 EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/2003_EuroLeague_Final_Four "2003 EuroLeague Final Four"). Unfortunately, Ford had one of his worst shooting nights ever, in the semifinal against [Benetton Treviso](/wiki/Pallacanestro_Treviso "Pallacanestro Treviso"): he scored 15 points, making only 5 of his 19 shots. His 7 rebounds and 2 steals did not allow his team to overcome Benetton's obstacle, as they lost 62–65 in a highly intense game. In the [Italian League 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Lega_Basket_Serie_A "2002–03 Lega Basket Serie A"), Ford averaged 19\.1 points per game, and [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena "Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena") finished in fourth place in the league.
[ "### Europe", "#### First steps towards European stardom", "In the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_ACB_season \"1995–96 ACB season\"), Ford signed with [Spanish first division](/wiki/Liga_ACB \"Liga ACB\") club [Peñas Huesca](/wiki/CB_Pe%C3%B1as_Huesca \"CB Peñas Huesca\"). However, although he played great basketball and averaged 25\\.1 points per game in the Spanish League, he could not prevent the team's [relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation \"Promotion and relegation\"). The next season was for Ford the opportunity to show his skills, in what was at the time Europe's most competitive national domestic league, the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\"). He spent the season with [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. \"Papagou B.C.\"), and led the team to a ninth\\-place finish, while also being [the Greek competition's leading scorer](/wiki/List_of_top_scorers_in_Greek_Basket_League_by_season \"List of top scorers in Greek Basket League by season\"), with 23\\.9 points per contest. Nevertheless, glory at the European\\-wide level turned out to be a little bit more far away than the great scorer thought. Before the beginning of the 1997–98 season, he was diagnosed with [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia \"Leukemia\"), thus obliging [Papagou](/wiki/Papagou_B.C. \"Papagou B.C.\") to break his contract. The treatment cost Ford the whole season, but he was convinced that he had a lot more to contribute. He signed a one\\-year deal with [Sporting](/wiki/Sporting_B.C. \"Sporting B.C.\"), a traditional Greek club that was struggling to remain in Greece's top basketball scene. The gifted [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard \"Shooting guard\") helped the team finish in a decent eleventh\\-place finish, but most importantly, he defied his disease, in an utterly remarkable way.", "Ford agreed to a two\\-year deal with the Greek club [Nikas Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. \"Peristeri B.C.\"), before the [Greek Basket League 1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Greek_Basket_League \"1999–2000 Greek Basket League\"), experiencing the game, within a team with considerably higher ambitions than any of the ones he had played for in the past. Needless to say, the challenge was accepted by the player, who would become a reference in the club's history. Ford averaged 22\\.7 points per game in the Greek League, leading Peristeri to a fifth\\-place finish in the league. Also, he made his first appearance in a European\\-wide competition, by playing in the [European\\-wide 3rd\\-tier level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system \"European professional club basketball system\") [FIBA Korać Cup](/wiki/FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup \"FIBA Korać Cup\")'s [1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_FIBA_Kora%C4%87_Cup \"1999–2000 FIBA Korać Cup\"), where he scored 20\\.7 points per game, and reached the competition's top 16 with his team, before they lost to [Adecco Estudiantes](/wiki/CB_Estudiantes \"CB Estudiantes\").", "#### The biggest scorer in EuroLeague's modern era", "The real breakout season for Ford though, was going to be his second one with [Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. \"Peristeri B.C.\"), in 2000–01\\. The team contended for the [Greek Basket League 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Greek_Basket_League \"2000–01 Greek Basket League\") title, and ended up in the league's third\\-place position, while he was named the [league's MVP](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League_MVP \"Greek Basket League MVP\"). In parallel, the club also took part in [Euroleague Basketball](/wiki/Euroleague_Basketball \"Euroleague Basketball\")'s [EuroLeague 2000–01 season](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague \"2000–01 Euroleague\"), and Ford shined, while playing for the first time at [the highest European\\-wide league level](/wiki/European_professional_club_basketball_system \"European professional club basketball system\"). He was the [EuroLeague Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer \"EuroLeague Top Scorer\"), averaging 26 points per game, and had a memorable 41\\-point outburst against [Tau Ceramica](/wiki/Saski_Baskonia \"Saski Baskonia\") in the competition's playoffs, scoring more than half of his team's 79 points that night. Tau qualified for the quarterfinals, sweeping the playoff series between the two teams, by two games to none, but Ford's performance is now part of the [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague \"EuroLeague\") legend. Finally, his nomination to the [All\\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague \"All-EuroLeague\") [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Euroleague \"2000–01 Euroleague\") First Team, was at the same time, a huge recognition, and an official introduction to superstar status.", "In the 2001–02 season, the Greek EuroLeague powerhouse, [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. \"Olympiacos B.C.\"), offered Ford a $1 million net income single\\-year contract. His mission was to bring a team that had not won anything since the [triple crown](/wiki/Triple_Crown_%28basketball%29 \"Triple Crown (basketball)\") in 1997, back to the top. Ford signed the deal, and the results were immediate: he led the Reds to a [Greek Cup](/wiki/Greek_Basketball_Cup \"Greek Basketball Cup\") trophy, with 20 points, 7 assists and 3 rebounds, in the cup's semifinal against [Bodiroga](/wiki/Dejan_Bodiroga \"Dejan Bodiroga\")'s [Panathinaikos](/wiki/Panathinaikos_B.C. \"Panathinaikos B.C.\"), and 24 points, 10 rebounds and 3 assists, in the cup's final game, to defeat [Maroussi](/wiki/Maroussi_B.C. \"Maroussi B.C.\"), by a score of 66–74\\. In the [EuroLeague 2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Euroleague \"2001–02 Euroleague\"), [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_B.C. \"Olympiacos B.C.\") made it to the competition's Top 16 stage, and fell one game short of reaching the [EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/EuroLeague_Final_Four \"EuroLeague Final Four\"). Ford could actually not prevent an 85–89 home loss to [Olimpija Ljubljana](/wiki/KK_Union_Olimpija \"KK Union Olimpija\"), although he had a solid performance that night, with 21 points, 9 rebounds and 5 assists. He was once again the EuroLeague's [Top Scorer](/wiki/EuroLeague_Top_Scorer \"EuroLeague Top Scorer\"), at 24\\.8 points per game, and was selected to the [All\\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague \"All-EuroLeague\") [2001–02](/wiki/2001-02_Euroleague \"2001-02 Euroleague\") Second Team. The season ended with a loss in the [Greek League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\")'s championship finals series to [AEK](/wiki/AEK_BC \"AEK BC\"), with Ford missing the last two crucial games of the series, due to an injury.", "Olympiacos changed for the [EuroLeague 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague \"2002-03 Euroleague\"). The major Greek EuroLeague clubs were forced to reduce their budgets, due to the renovation of their arenas for the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics \"Basketball at the 2004 Summer Olympics\"), in [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\"). They therefore became considerably less competitive in the league. Ford's contract with Olympiacos was subsequently not renewed, and he signed a new contract with the [Italian league](/wiki/Lega_Basket_Serie_A \"Lega Basket Serie A\")'s [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague \"EuroLeague\") contender, [Mens Sana Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena \"Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena\"). Ford had a quick adaptation period to his new team, and although his scoring average in the EuroLeague dropped to 17\\.9 points per game, he was selected to the [All\\-EuroLeague](/wiki/All-EuroLeague \"All-EuroLeague\") [2002–03](/wiki/2002-03_Euroleague \"2002-03 Euroleague\") First Team, after [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena \"Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena\") qualified to the [2003 EuroLeague Final Four](/wiki/2003_EuroLeague_Final_Four \"2003 EuroLeague Final Four\"). Unfortunately, Ford had one of his worst shooting nights ever, in the semifinal against [Benetton Treviso](/wiki/Pallacanestro_Treviso \"Pallacanestro Treviso\"): he scored 15 points, making only 5 of his 19 shots. His 7 rebounds and 2 steals did not allow his team to overcome Benetton's obstacle, as they lost 62–65 in a highly intense game. In the [Italian League 2002–03 season](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Lega_Basket_Serie_A \"2002–03 Lega Basket Serie A\"), Ford averaged 19\\.1 points per game, and [Siena](/wiki/Montepaschi_Mens_Sana_Siena \"Montepaschi Mens Sana Siena\") finished in fourth place in the league.", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- ### Pre\-draft {{NFL predraft \| height ft \= 6 \| height in \= 5 1/2 \| weight \= 255 \| dash \= 4\.80 \| ten split \= 1\.64 \| twenty split \= 2\.77 \| shuttle \= 4\.26 \| cone drill \= 6\.92 \| vertical \= 33\.0 \| broad ft \= 10 \| broad in \= 2 \| bench \= 26 \| arm span \= 34 1/2 \| hand span \= 10 1/2 \| wonderlic \= \| note \= All values from \[\[NFL Combine]]{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.nfl.com/prospects/dan\-gronkowski/32004752\-4f13\-2885\-45bf\-d71d9c139bba \|title\=Dan Gronkowski Draft and Combine Prospect Profile \|website\=NFL.com \|access\-date\=October 11, 2022}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://draftscout.com/dsprofile.php?PlayerId\=10935\&DraftYear\=2009 \|title\=2009 Draft Scout Dan Gronkowski, Maryland NFL Draft Scout College Football Profile \|website\=draftscout.com \|access\-date\=October 11, 2022}} }} Draft Countdown assessed him as the 21st\-ranked tight end prospect for the [2009 NFL draft](/wiki/2009_NFL_draft "2009 NFL draft").[2009 NFL Draft, Tight End Rankings](http://www.draftcountdown.com/rankings/te.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201192652/http://draftcountdown.com/rankings/te.php \|date\=February 1, 2009 }}, Draft Countdown, retrieved January 12, 2009\. The NFL Draft Scout ranked him the 11th out of 96 tight end prospects and projected him as a fifth or sixth round selection.[Dan Gronkowski, Maryland, TE](http://www.nfldraftscout.com/ratings/dsprofile.php?pyid=10935&draftyear=2009&genpos=TE), NFL Draft Scout, retrieved April 7, 2009\. ### Detroit Lions Gronkowski was selected 255th overall (2nd to last) by the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") in the [2009 NFL draft](/wiki/2009_NFL_draft "2009 NFL draft").{{Cite web \|title\=2009 NFL Draft Listing \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/years/2009/draft.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-13 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} On June 25, 2009, he signed a three\-year $1\.21 million deal, which included a signing bonus of around $26,000\.{{cite web \|title\=Lions Sign Seventh\-Rounder \|url\=http://det.scout.com/a.z?s\=93\&p\=9\&c\=2\&cid\=875062\&nid\=4327155\&fhn\=1\&refid\=400 \|publisher\=Scout.com \|access\-date\=June 25, 2009}} He was waived on September 5, 2009, and signed to the Lions' practice squad a day later. Gronkowski was promoted to the active roster on December 1, 2009, after tight end [Brandon Pettigrew](/wiki/Brandon_Pettigrew "Brandon Pettigrew") was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve "Injured reserve") due to a knee injury. He caught his first pass against the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens "Baltimore Ravens") on December 13\. He was waived on December 17, and re\-signed to Lions' practice squad on December 20\. After his practice squad contract expired, Gronkowski was signed to a future reserve contract on January 5, 2010\. ### Denver Broncos He was traded to the [Denver Broncos](/wiki/Denver_Broncos "Denver Broncos") on September 4, 2010, for [cornerback](/wiki/Cornerback "Cornerback") [Alphonso Smith](/wiki/Alphonso_Smith "Alphonso Smith").{{cite news \|title\=Broncos trade CB Alphonso Smith to Detroit for TE Gronkowski \|url\=http://www.denverpost.com/broncos/ci\_15993935 \|publisher\=The Denver Post \|access\-date\=September 5, 2010 \|first\=Mike \|last\=Klis \|date\=September 4, 2010}} He was released on September 3, 2011\. ### New England Patriots Gronkowski signed with the [New England Patriots](/wiki/New_England_Patriots "New England Patriots") on September 6, 2011\.{{cite news \|last\=Walker \|first\=Monique \|title\=Dan Gronkowski to join the Patriots \|url\=http://www.boston.com/sports/football/patriots/extra\_points/2011/09/dan\_gronkowski.html \|work\=\[\[The Boston Globe]] \|access\-date\=September 6, 2011}} However, after playing in two games, he was waived on September 23\. He re\-signed with the team on October 10\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://bleacherbumsports.net/reunited\-feels\-so\-good/\|title\=Reunited (And It Feels So Good) \- Bleacher Bum Sports\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-08}} On November 8, 2011, Gronkowski was released for a second time. ### Cleveland Browns After Browns tight end [Alex Smith](/wiki/Alex_Smith_%28tight_end%29 "Alex Smith (tight end)") was placed on the Injured Reserve, the Browns signed Gronkowski to a one\-year contract on December 20, 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/story/2011\-12\-20/concussion\-protocol/52126858/1\|title\=After McCoy concussion, NFL issues new protocol}} On August 31, 2012, he was released by the team but re\-signed on January 3, 2013, to a futures deal.{{cite web \| url\=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2012/08/31/browns\-drop\-one\-of\-the\-brothers\-gronk/ \| title\=Browns drop one of the Brothers Gronk \| work\=profootballtalk.nbcsports.com \| date\=August 31, 2012 \| access\-date\=August 31, 2012}} He was released by the team again on August 30, 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/browns/index.ssf/2013/08/cleveland\_browns\_cut\_seven\_pla.html\|title\=Cleveland Browns cut seven players, including six rookies and TE Dan Gronkowski\|date\=August 31, 2013 }}
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "### Pre\\-draft", "{{NFL predraft\n\\| height ft \\= 6\n\\| height in \\= 5 1/2\n\\| weight \\= 255\n\\| dash \\= 4\\.80\n\\| ten split \\= 1\\.64\n\\| twenty split \\= 2\\.77\n\\| shuttle \\= 4\\.26\n\\| cone drill \\= 6\\.92\n\\| vertical \\= 33\\.0\n\\| broad ft \\= 10\n\\| broad in \\= 2\n\\| bench \\= 26\n\\| arm span \\= 34 1/2\n\\| hand span \\= 10 1/2\n\\| wonderlic \\=\n\\| note \\= All values from \\[\\[NFL Combine]]{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nfl.com/prospects/dan\\-gronkowski/32004752\\-4f13\\-2885\\-45bf\\-d71d9c139bba \\|title\\=Dan Gronkowski Draft and Combine Prospect Profile \\|website\\=NFL.com \\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2022}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://draftscout.com/dsprofile.php?PlayerId\\=10935\\&DraftYear\\=2009 \\|title\\=2009 Draft Scout Dan Gronkowski, Maryland NFL Draft Scout College Football Profile \\|website\\=draftscout.com \\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2022}}\n}}", "Draft Countdown assessed him as the 21st\\-ranked tight end prospect for the [2009 NFL draft](/wiki/2009_NFL_draft \"2009 NFL draft\").[2009 NFL Draft, Tight End Rankings](http://www.draftcountdown.com/rankings/te.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201192652/http://draftcountdown.com/rankings/te.php \\|date\\=February 1, 2009 }}, Draft Countdown, retrieved January 12, 2009\\. The NFL Draft Scout ranked him the 11th out of 96 tight end prospects and projected him as a fifth or sixth round selection.[Dan Gronkowski, Maryland, TE](http://www.nfldraftscout.com/ratings/dsprofile.php?pyid=10935&draftyear=2009&genpos=TE), NFL Draft Scout, retrieved April 7, 2009\\.", "### Detroit Lions", "Gronkowski was selected 255th overall (2nd to last) by the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") in the [2009 NFL draft](/wiki/2009_NFL_draft \"2009 NFL draft\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=2009 NFL Draft Listing \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/years/2009/draft.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-13 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} On June 25, 2009, he signed a three\\-year $1\\.21 million deal, which included a signing bonus of around $26,000\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Lions Sign Seventh\\-Rounder \\|url\\=http://det.scout.com/a.z?s\\=93\\&p\\=9\\&c\\=2\\&cid\\=875062\\&nid\\=4327155\\&fhn\\=1\\&refid\\=400 \\|publisher\\=Scout.com \\|access\\-date\\=June 25, 2009}} He was waived on September 5, 2009, and signed to the Lions' practice squad a day later.", "Gronkowski was promoted to the active roster on December 1, 2009, after tight end [Brandon Pettigrew](/wiki/Brandon_Pettigrew \"Brandon Pettigrew\") was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve \"Injured reserve\") due to a knee injury. He caught his first pass against the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens \"Baltimore Ravens\") on December 13\\. He was waived on December 17, and re\\-signed to Lions' practice squad on December 20\\.", "After his practice squad contract expired, Gronkowski was signed to a future reserve contract on January 5, 2010\\.", "### Denver Broncos", "He was traded to the [Denver Broncos](/wiki/Denver_Broncos \"Denver Broncos\") on September 4, 2010, for [cornerback](/wiki/Cornerback \"Cornerback\") [Alphonso Smith](/wiki/Alphonso_Smith \"Alphonso Smith\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Broncos trade CB Alphonso Smith to Detroit for TE Gronkowski \\|url\\=http://www.denverpost.com/broncos/ci\\_15993935 \\|publisher\\=The Denver Post \\|access\\-date\\=September 5, 2010 \\|first\\=Mike \\|last\\=Klis \\|date\\=September 4, 2010}} He was released on September 3, 2011\\.", "### New England Patriots", "Gronkowski signed with the [New England Patriots](/wiki/New_England_Patriots \"New England Patriots\") on September 6, 2011\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Walker \\|first\\=Monique \\|title\\=Dan Gronkowski to join the Patriots \\|url\\=http://www.boston.com/sports/football/patriots/extra\\_points/2011/09/dan\\_gronkowski.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 6, 2011}} However, after playing in two games, he was waived on September 23\\. He re\\-signed with the team on October 10\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://bleacherbumsports.net/reunited\\-feels\\-so\\-good/\\|title\\=Reunited (And It Feels So Good) \\- Bleacher Bum Sports\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-08}} On November 8, 2011, Gronkowski was released for a second time.", "### Cleveland Browns", "After Browns tight end [Alex Smith](/wiki/Alex_Smith_%28tight_end%29 \"Alex Smith (tight end)\") was placed on the Injured Reserve, the Browns signed Gronkowski to a one\\-year contract on December 20, 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/story/2011\\-12\\-20/concussion\\-protocol/52126858/1\\|title\\=After McCoy concussion, NFL issues new protocol}} On August 31, 2012, he was released by the team but re\\-signed on January 3, 2013, to a futures deal.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2012/08/31/browns\\-drop\\-one\\-of\\-the\\-brothers\\-gronk/ \\| title\\=Browns drop one of the Brothers Gronk \\| work\\=profootballtalk.nbcsports.com \\| date\\=August 31, 2012 \\| access\\-date\\=August 31, 2012}} He was released by the team again on August 30, 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/browns/index.ssf/2013/08/cleveland\\_browns\\_cut\\_seven\\_pla.html\\|title\\=Cleveland Browns cut seven players, including six rookies and TE Dan Gronkowski\\|date\\=August 31, 2013 }}", "" ]
History ------- ### The design challenge and achievement [thumb \|upright\=1\.5\|[Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam")'s first prototype, shown in front of the *already new* for 1940, "light" half\-ton, 4×4 [Dodge VC\-1 Command Car](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940_G505 "Dodge WC series#1940 G505"), graphically shows the radically new {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton concept.{{sfnp \|Thomson\|Mayo\|2003\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\&q\=completely\+new 297]}}](/wiki/File:BantamPilotHaugh_%284%29.jpg "BantamPilotHaugh (4).jpg") By 1940, U.S. policies had caused a stark disadvantage compared to [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany")'s aim, building a standard fleet of [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") (German armed forces) motor vehicles. From 1933, German industry could only produce Wehrmacht\-approved trucks.{{harvp\|Thomson\|Mayo\|2003\|p\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20230908215603/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA269\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U06eDtDJxTdUdKLenUS\_\_u8rFvPGg\&w\=1920 269 (archived)] }} The U.S. Quartermaster's only significant success for standardization, through late September 1939 Army Regulations on tactical trucks,Regulation AR 850\-15, 29 Sep '39, released after Germany had [invaded and conquered Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland") in September 1939\. was that the War Department limited procurement to just five payload chassis types (categories), from {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton to {{frac\|7\|1\|2}}{{nbh}}ton{{harvp\|Thomson\|Mayo\|2003\|p\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20230908222500/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA270\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U1n44yegIV0PnuSalnnq4GM3JlikQ\&w\=1280 270 (archived)] }}—but *only* "models produced commercially by two or more competing companies..." The Army was still to use "commercially standard" trucks and parts, with only minor modifications, like brush\-guards, tow\-hooks, etc. Specially designed vehicles or a standardized truck fleet were still ruled out. "This policy was intended to assure speedy production at the outbreak of war, regardless of the maintenance and spare parts problems that might develop later." The new rules more or less allowed the Army to order in late 1939 the U.S. military's first ever *light, quantity\-produced* 4×4 trucks: the half\-ton [Dodge G\-505 VC\-series trucks](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940VC_VF "Dodge WC series#1940VC VF"), delivered in the first half of 1940, but these were still not light enough for the jobs that both the Infantry and Ordnance branches required it for.{{sfnp\|Ackerson\|2006\|pp\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512015352/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=56uvBIikfrQC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PT17\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U03yyUfgAwOC9VkoBMfQfWznccZZg\&w\=1920 16–17]}}{{cite book \|last\=Risch \|first\=Erna \|title\=The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services \|orig\-year\=1953 \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=\[\[United States Army Center of Military History\|Center of Military History, U.S. Army]] \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|page\=140 \|url\=https://history.army.mil/html/books/010/10\-12/CMH\_Pub\_10\-12\-1\.pdf \|access\-date\=8 September 2023}} By contrast, Germany had already completed a development program to produce [off\-road capable](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle "Off-road vehicle") "Standardized Military Vehicles" (the [Einheits\-PKW der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Einheits-PKW_der_Wehrmacht "Einheits-PKW der Wehrmacht")), from 1933 to 1938, which had already yielded a fleet of tens of thousands of standardized vehicles for the German Army. Moreover, lessons were learned, and a *second* program to develop a cheap, light, nimble multipurpose off\-roader, the [Volkswagen Kübelwagen](/wiki/Volkswagen_K%C3%BCbelwagen "Volkswagen Kübelwagen"), had already started in 1938\. America's military faced a severe catch\-up situation, both in time and knowledge. In June 1940, the race was on to produce a lightweight, four\-wheel\-drive cross\-country vehicle for the U.S. Army, capable of carrying equipment and personnel across rough terrain. The idea of the jeep originated with the infantry, which needed a low\-profile, powerful vehicle with four\-wheel drive and it was turned over to commercial companies (chiefly [Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam"), [Willys](/wiki/Willys "Willys"), and [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company")) to deliver—the development repeatedly being described as a "[design by committee](/wiki/Design_by_committee "Design by committee")."{{harvp \|Ackerson \|2006 \|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=56uvBIikfrQC\&pg\=PT7 7–8]}} "...several military officers who regarded the Jeep as "a universal idea, which no one person invented, created or discovered ... an evolution not an invention ... the fruit of specifications defined by the military over a long period."{{refn \|name\=PPattonCmt \|{{cite web \|url\= http://philpatton.typepad.com/my\_weblog/2012/04/design\-by\-committee\-the\-case\-of\-the\-jeep.html \|title\=Design by Committee: the Case of the Jeep \|last\=Patton \|first\=Phil \|date\=23 April 2012 \|website\=Phil Patton blog \|access\-date\=27 January 2018 }}Phil Patton was a design journalist, curator, and author. He wrote regularly about automobile design for the ''New York Times''.}} In fall 1941, Lt. E.P. Hogan of the [U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 "Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)") wrote: "Credit for the original design of the Army's truck {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4, may not be claimed by any single individual or manufacturer. This vehicle is the result of much research and many tests."{{sfnp\|Hogan\|1941\|p\={{page needed\|date\=October 2023}}}} Hogan credited both military and civilian engineers, especially those working at the [Holabird Quartermaster Depot](/wiki/Holabird_Ordnance_Depot "Holabird Ordnance Depot"). Nevertheless, Bantam is credited with inventing the original {{1/4}}{{nbh}} ton jeep in 1940\.To be distinguished from the U.S. Army's first ever series\-produced, light 4{{nbh}}wheel drive trucks, which were *half\-ton* rated – developed by [Dodge](/wiki/Dodge "Dodge"), and supplied to the Army earlier that same year as the [Dodge VC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%23Half-ton_VC_series "Dodge WC series#Half-ton VC series") – and which were *also* called "jeeps" by soldiers.[House Resolution 382; Regular Session 2015\-2016](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/billInfo/bill_history.cfm?syear=2015&sind=0&body=H&type=R&bn=382) Retrieved 11 July 2022[HOUSE RESOLUTION No. 382 Session of 2015](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=PDF&sessYr=2015&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=R&billNbr=0382&pn=1732/) Retrieved 11 July 2022[Invention of the Jeep Historical Marker](https://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-2F1) Retrieved 16 July 2022[Questions and Answers – Who Invented the Jeep?](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/105519305/questions-and-answers-who-invented/) Retrieved 13 July 2022 However, Willys' advertising and branding during and after the war aimed to make the world recognize Willys as the creator of the jeep.{{cite web \|author\=Walter P. Chrysler Museum \|title\=The Jeep Story, 1940 \- 1970 \|url\=https://fcagroup.pl/wp\-content/uploads/2015/05/The\-Jeep\-Story\-1940\-1970\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Fiat Chrysler Automobiles\|FCA Group]] \|access\-date\=6 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906112731/https://fcagroup.pl/wp\-content/uploads/2015/05/The\-Jeep\-Story\-1940\-1970\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2023\-09\-06 \|date\=2009\|url\-status\=live}} When Willys first applied to trademark the "Jeep" name in February 1943,{{sfnp\|Statham\|1999\|p\=\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=dR3wmKlfnrMC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA26\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U3j4\_fg4IL6Axwge2jUaCXbK3TLDA\&w\=1280 26]}} Bantam, Ford and other companies objected, because of their contributions to the jeep and the war effort. Although many other companies advertised their patriotic efforts to producing the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps—including Ford, featuring their own GPW jeeps in their ads—nobody took their claims as far as Willys\-Overland, and the U.S. [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission "Federal Trade Commission") (FTC) opened a case, charging Willys\-Overland with misrepresentation in their advertising and news claims, on 6 May 1943\.{{sfnp\|Statham\|1999\|p\=\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=dR3wmKlfnrMC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA27\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U0mSjidDVTJi0Y2NYEEdeLKHOEC6w\&w\=1280 27]}} According to the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"),* the FTC ruled that Willys did *not* perform the "spectacular achievement"(Willys advertising wording) of creating, designing and perfecting the "jeep" together with U.S. Army Quartermaster officers, but that: "*The idea of creating a 'jeep' was said by the FTC ... to have been originated by the American Bantam \[Co.] of Butler, PA '\[with U.S. Army officers] and to have been \[conceived and] developed by that company.*"{{cite news \|title\=FTC Says Bantam Company, Not Willys\-Overland Conceived it \|url\= http://www.ewillys.com/wp\-content/uploads2/2022/01/1943\-05\-09\-ny\-times.jpg \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=9 May 1943 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230331225814/http://www.ewillys.com/tag/jeep\-name/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-31 \|via\=ewillys.com, 5 Jan 2022 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-31 \|url\-status\=live}} Willys appealed this ruling, and after a five\-year investigation, in 1948 the FTC again ruled that "Willys was unfairly taking credit for the creation and was thus using unfair methods of competition. The FTC ordered Willys to stop claiming they were the sole creator of the Jeep." Some 70 years later, in a late 2012 article, the Defense Acquisition Research Journal{{refn \|group\=nb \|A scholarly, peer\-reviewed journal published by the \[\[Defense Acquisition University]] (DAU)\[https://www.dau.edu/library/arj/ Defense Acquisition Research Journal], see dynamic banner }} still called the jeep design "...a product of a massive team effort, including all three manufacturers as well as Army engineers, both military and civilian."{{cite journal \|last1\=Duddy \|first1\=Brian J. \|title\=The Jeep at 70: A Defense Acquisition Success Story \|journal\=Defense Acquisition Research Journal \|date\=October 2012 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=4 \|page\=372 \|url\=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA582717\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915222847/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA582717\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2023\-09\-15 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=31 August 2023 \|publisher\=\[\[Defense Acquisition University]] }}{{refn \|group\=nb \|Citing Vanderveen (1971\)'' 'The Jeep','' Wells (1946\)'' 'Hail to the Jeep: A factual and pictorial history of the WWII Jeep','' and Hogan (1941\); pages not given.}} [thumb\|General [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower"), here in his jeep in summer 1944, wrote that the jeep was "one of the six most vital" U.S. vehicles to win the war](/wiki/File:Eisenhower_in_jeep_in_Normandy_orchard.jpg "Eisenhower in jeep in Normandy orchard.jpg") Moreover, in 2015, the [Pennsylvania General Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly "Pennsylvania General Assembly") unanimously adopted a non\-controversial House Resolution (382\): "*...commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Bantam jeep, invented and originally manufactured in Butler, Pennsylvania,*"{{cite act \|type\=resolution \|index\=382 \|date\=9 June 2015 \|access\-date\=30 July 2023 \|legislature\=Pennsylvania General Assembly \|title\=Resolution commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Bantam jeep, invented and originally manufactured in Butler, Pennsylvania \|pages\=1–2 \|url\=https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/billInfo/BillInfo.cfm?syear\=2015\&sind\=0\&body\=H\&type\=R\&bn\=382 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201002755/https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/billInfo/billInfo.cfm?syear\=2015\&sInd\=0\&body\=H\&type\=R\&bn\=382 \|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-01 }} therein explicitly resolving that [Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam") of Butler, PA, invented the jeep, calling it "one of the most famous vehicles in the world," were the only party to deliver a working prototype of a light four\-wheel drive reconnaissance car within the required seven weeks, which withstood 30 days of Army testing at Camp Holabird, then further developed that car, and manufactured 2,675 jeeps, before losing further production contracts to Willys and Ford Motor Company, for fear that Bantam would not be able to ramp up production to 75 jeeps a day, and after the Army handed Ford and Willys the blueprints of Bantam's detailed technical drawings—though Bantam proved highly capable and productive during the war, entrusted with manufacturing [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo")\-motors and more.[General Assembly of Pennsylvania House Resolution No. 382 of 2015](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=HTM&sessYr=2015&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=R&billNbr=0382&pn=1732) (full text; [archived on 30 July 2023](https://web.archive.org/web/20230730011131/https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=HTM&sessYr=2015&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=R&billNbr=0382&pn=1732)). Accessed 30 July 2023 However, on 7 April 1942, U.S. patent 2278450 for the WWII jeep, titled "Military vehicle body" had been awarded to *the U.S. Army*, which had applied for it, listing Colonel [Byron Q. Jones](/wiki/Byron_Q._Jones "Byron Q. Jones") as the inventor on the patent, though he had performed no work on the design of the vehicle.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.ipwatchdog.com/2016/04/07/original\-jeep\-patent/id\=68132/ \|title\=75th Anniversary of the Original Jeep Patent\|date\=7 April 2016}} Filed on 8 October 1941, stating in the application that "The invention described herein, if patented, may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty thereon,"{{cite web \|url\= https://patents.google.com/patent/US2278450 \|title\=Patent 2,278,450: Military Vehicle Body \|access\-date\=30 January 2018}} the patent relates to a "small car vehicle body having convertible features whereby it is rendered particularly desirable for military purposes" and describes the purpose as being "a convertible small car body so arranged that a single vehicle may be interchangeably used as a cargo truck, personnel carrier, emergency ambulance, field beds, radio car, trench mortar unit, mobile anti\-aircraft machine gun unit, or for other purposes." ### First motorizations and World War I For centuries, horses were used for reconnaissance, communications, and pulling loads, whenever wars were fought, but after the start of the 20th century, [motorcycles](/wiki/Motorcycle "Motorcycle") were the first [motor vehicles](/wiki/Motor_vehicle "Motor vehicle") eagerly adopted by the military, either to replace mounted/ridden [cavalry horses](/wiki/Horses_in_warfare "Horses in warfare"), or to [motorize infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry "Motorized infantry"). The armies of World War I relied on marching men, horses, and railways for movement but [its new technologies](/wiki/World_War_I%23Technology "World War I#Technology") introduced motor vehicles: the [first tanks](/wiki/History_of_the_tank "History of the tank"), armoured car, and artillery tractors. Motorcycles were the most prolific motor\-tools in the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I") arsenal. [thumb\|left\|U.S. [Indian motorcycle](/wiki/Indian_motorcycle "Indian motorcycle") and sidecar, with M1914 Colt Machine Gun, 1917\.](/wiki/File:1917_-_Indian_Motorcycle_and_M1914_Colt_Machine_Gun.jpg "1917 - Indian Motorcycle and M1914 Colt Machine Gun.jpg") [thumb\|British military motorcycle dispatch rider, 1914 World War I.](/wiki/File:British_military_motorcycle_dispatch_rider_WW1.jpg "British military motorcycle dispatch rider WW1.jpg") [Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry"), [mounted infantry](/wiki/Mounted_infantry "Mounted infantry"), [scouts](/wiki/Cavalry_scout "Cavalry scout"), and [messengers](/wiki/Despatch_rider "Despatch rider") could now be mobilized in combat with much greater speed, agility, and near tireless machines,[P. Findlay (2006\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep "#Man&Jeep") [*(documentary)*; time \= 3:45–4:18](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=225) exactly what was wanted for relaying critical orders, getting munitions to machine guns, and scouting miles ahead of advancing units. The quick and nimble motorcycle, "ridden hard through shot and shell to secure victory," has made itself irreplaceable in specific roles on the battlefield to this day. But motorcycles also had serious limitations. One could be fast on a decent road, but many roads were still so bad, that the U.S. already had a *[Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement "Good Roads Movement")* in the late 19th century, as increased usage of [bicycles](/wiki/Safety_bicycle "Safety bicycle") required improving the surfaces of existing wagon and carriage trails. The motorcycles of the era were not ideal; only the best motorcyclists could endure a muddy battlefield trail, control the bike and keep it from stalling, damage, or flipping over; and driver training was both costly in terms of time and money.[P. Findlay (2006\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep "#Man&Jeep") [*(documentary)*; time \= 4:00–4:34](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=240){{cite web \|first\=Aaron \|last\=Cortez \|title\=History of Military Motorcycles \|url\= https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\-of\-military\-motorcycles \|website\=bikebandit.com \|date\=4 August 2015 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210711181450/https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\-of\-military\-motorcycles \|archive\-date\=11 July 2021 \|access\-date\=30 July 2022}} They had poor [off\-roading](/wiki/Off-roading "Off-roading") ability and lacked payload capacity. Adding a sidecar provided more stability, but payload and cargo space remained very limited, and having only one powered wheel out of three, still meant the combination got stuck a lot. [Royal Page Davidson](/wiki/Royal_Page_Davidson "Royal Page Davidson") used patents of Charles Duryea to modify chassis, with machine\-guns and armor shield, from 1898\.Davidson was the leading pioneer of armored military vehicles in the U.S. of his time. [thumb\|Colonel Davidson anti\-aircraft semi\-armored Cadillac, 1909](/wiki/File:Davidson_anti-aircraft_military_car_1909.jpg "Davidson anti-aircraft military car 1909.jpg") [thumb\|A convoy of 4×4 U.S. [FWD trucks](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive "Four Wheel Drive") in a mud and ruts road, [1916 Mexican Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition "Pancho Villa Expedition") note FWD logo on grille](/wiki/File:US_convoy_in_Mexico%2C_1916_army.mil-2008-03-28-083643_%28cropped%29.jpg "US convoy in Mexico, 1916 army.mil-2008-03-28-083643 (cropped).jpg") [thumb\|Nash Quad 2{{nbh}}ton [ammunitions](/wiki/Ammunition "Ammunition") truck, 1918](/wiki/File:111-SC-4156_-_Nash_Motor_Company%2C_Kenosha%2C_Wis._Ammunition_truck%2C_2-ton._-_NARA_-_55169618_%28cropped%29.jpg "111-SC-4156 - Nash Motor Company, Kenosha, Wis. Ammunition truck, 2-ton. - NARA - 55169618 (cropped).jpg") At the same time, the arrival and growing use of automobiles led to various individuals pioneering vehicle trips across the U.S., followed by the first transcontinental trips by [convoys](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") of vehicles. After the U.S. Army purchased its first truck in 1907, of 5\-ton payload capacity,{{cite news \|date\=March 19, 1916 \|title\=Truck Makers Supply Both Men and Cars for Army \|url\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1916/03/19/99438897\.pdf \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=2021\-07\-01}} in the late summer of 1913, the Army Medical and Quartermaster Corps (QC) took a {{3/4}}\-ton QC field\-truck, on a {{convert\|922\|mi\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}} multi\-leg experimental trek through Alaska for the state's Road Commission—both to try the truck's bad\-road supply and maintenance abilities as well as test the state of several important overland connections in the rough territory.{{cite news \|date\=January 18, 1914 \|title\=Army Officers Try Alaska Auto Run \|url\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/01/18/100297594\.pdf \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=2021\-07\-01}} 1915 followed the first successful [transcontinental motor convoy](/wiki/Transcontinental_Motor_Convoy%231915_transcontinental_film_convoy "Transcontinental Motor Convoy#1915 transcontinental film convoy"), traveling the entire [Lincoln Highway](/wiki/Lincoln_Highway "Lincoln Highway"), from New York City to the [Panama–Pacific](/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Pacific_International_Exposition "Panama–Pacific International Exposition") [World Exhibition](/wiki/World%27s_fair "World's fair") in San Francisco, taking four months—for making a film about it. Starting in 1916, the Quartermaster Corps was servicing over 100 "motor trucks," of as many as 27 "varieties"; and in March that year, the U.S. Army decided to form its first two motor companies, to be used immediately in the [Pancho Villa Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition "Pancho Villa Expedition") in Mexico, starting 14 March 1916\. One company got 27 four\-wheel drive, 2{{nbh}}ton, [Jeffery](/wiki/Thomas_B._Jeffery_Company "Thomas B. Jeffery Company") [off\-road](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle "Off-road vehicle") [Quad trucks](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad "Jeffery Quad"). The other got 27 heavy\-duty, 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, long wheelbase, rear\-wheel drive [White trucks](/wiki/White_Motor_Company "White Motor Company"). The [U.S. War Department](/wiki/U.S._War_Department "U.S. War Department") procured the vehicles as [rolling chassis](/wiki/Rolling_chassis "Rolling chassis"), which the manufacturers had to expedite to [El Paso, Texas](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas "El Paso, Texas"). The wagon bodies for the chassis came from the Quartermaster Depot. The most suitable truck capacity found by the Quartermaster General for Army use to be 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, matching both the country roads nature, the strength of bridges, as well as the existing troop supply system, at the time also using standard 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, four\-mule wagons. Meanwhile, World War I had been raging in Europe since 1914\. More than five years before, Henry Ford had launched his [Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T "Ford Model T"). "... Its speed, durability, stamina, and ease of maintenance (compared to a horse) had already won over many civilians,"[Six WWI Vehicles That Helped Create Our Modern Mechanical World – Haynes Manuals](https://haynes.com/en-us/tips-tutorials/vehicles-wwi-helped-create-our-modern-world) and British and French forces also wanted them. Ford, an [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist "Isolationist"), would not sign a contract with an overseas government, but local dealers sold over 50,000 Fords to European forces, who militarized them locally, most famously into ambulances. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford sold directly to his country, delivering another 15,000 cars before peace was signed. Britain, France, and Russia were already buying American\-made [four\-wheel\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") trucks from the [Four Wheel Drive Auto Company](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive "Four Wheel Drive"), and [Jeffery/Nash Quads](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad "Jeffery Quad"), because on the muddy roads and European battlefields, they would not get stuck all the time.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo "#PBStoledo") Time \= 2:02–2:40 The United States procured thousands of motor vehicles for its military, including some 12,800 Dodges,{{cite web \|url\= http://www.fourwheeler.com/features/1612\-1943\-dodge\-wc\-51\-weapons\-carrier\-power\-and\-glory\-backward\-glances/ \|title\=1943 Dodge {{nobr\|WC\-51}} Weapons Carrier, Power \& Glory: Backward Glances \|last\=Allen \|first\=Jim \|date\=7 December 2016 \|website\=FourWheeler.com \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-24 \|author\-link\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer)}} plus thousands of four\-wheel\-drive trucks: 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton Nash Quads, and 3\- and 5\-ton FWD trucks. General [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing "John J. Pershing") viewed horses and mules as acceptable for the previous three U.S. wars, but in the new century, his cavalry forces had to move quicker, with more range and more personnel.{{cite web \|last1\=Senefsky \|first1\=Bill \|title\=1916 To 1975 Dodge Diesel Engines – Dodge's First Diesels \|url\=http://www.trucktrend.com/news/0708dp\-1916\-to\-1975\-dodge\-diesel\-engines/ \|website\=Truck Trend \|access\-date\=2 October 2018 \|date\=31 July 2007}} He was the first to deploy motorcycles, in the [Mexican Border War](/wiki/Mexican_Border_War "Mexican Border War"), predominantly a cavalry campaign over wide regions of the Southwest, where [Harley\-Davidson](/wiki/Harley-Davidson "Harley-Davidson") motorcycles provided to the Army gave the U.S. the advantage over the horse\-mounted Mexicans. The U.S. Army was so pleased with further innovations, like a sidecar as a platform to mount machine\-guns, that the U.S. procured many more motorcycles than 4WD trucks for World War I. "Entire infantry units were mobilized on motorcycles, and they also provided an ideal way to rapidly deploy machine gun crews into position. Medical units used them to evacuate wounded on stretcher\-equipped sidecars, and to return medical supplies and ammunition." "By the end of the war, the whole world saw the horse as hopelessly outclassed." Nevertheless—crucially—using four\-wheel drive still remained tied to heavier trucks, of {{nobr\|1{{1/2}}\-ton}} to {{nobr\|5\-ton}} capacity. All through World War I, there were not any *light* four\-wheel\-drive vehicles yet.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo "#PBStoledo") Time \= 2:40–3:00 ### Interbellum tests, and formulating the need for a standardized, 4×4, quarter\-ton {{multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 250 \| header \= Interwar experimental vehicles \| image1 \= Ford\-reconnaissance\-car\-haugh.jpg \| caption1 \= 1923 Ford 4×2 Reconnaissance Car, much tested for cross\-country mobility \| image2 \= Chevrolet\-4x2\-scout\-car\-haugh.jpg \| caption2 \= USMC converted 1929 half\-ton, 4×2 Chevrolet, armed scout one\-off{{cite web \|url\=http://www.warwheels.net/ChevyScoutCarINDEX.html \|title\=U.S. Military Wheeled Vehicles \|last\=Crismon \|first\=Fred \|year\=1983 \|website\=via WarWheels.net \|publisher\=Crestline \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-02 }} \| image3 \= Marmon\-harrington\-ford\-4wd.jpg \| caption3 \= Marmon\-Herrington converted Ford half\-ton truck, c. 1936 – sometimes called the "grandfather of the Jeep" \| image4 \= HowieMGcarrierHAUGH2\.jpg \| caption4 \= Howie\-Wiley machine gun carrier, 1937, Fort Benning Infantry School \| image5 \= Ford\-4x4\-reconnaissance\-car\-haugh.jpg \| caption5 \= 1938 Marmon\-Herrington 4×4 Ford reconnaissance car with two .30\-caliber machine guns }} Immediately after World War I, the further and future use of motor vehicles was considered. In many roles, motorized vehicles had successfully replaced horses and other [draft animals](/wiki/Working_animal "Working animal"), but several roles remained that required better or more specialized vehicles. In 1919 already, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps recommended the acquisition of a new kind of military vehicle, "...{{nbsp}}of light weight and compact size, with a low silhouette and high ground clearance, and possess the ability to carry weapons and men over all sorts of rough terrain." {{sfnp\|Ackerson\|2006\|p\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512004456/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=56uvBIikfrQC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PT8\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U3q6ih4fe6dekWznHcbznnrBlfQZg\&w\=1920 8]}} The U.S. Army started looking for a small vehicle suited for reconnaissance and messaging, while at the same time searching for a light cross\-country weapons carrier.{{cite book \|last\=Foster \|first\=Patrick R. \|date\=15 July 2014 \|title\=Jeep: The History of America's Greatest Vehicle \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Iem\-AwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA22 \|location\=Minneapolis, Minnesota \|publisher\=Motorbooks \|pages\=22–23 \|isbn\=9780760345856 \|access\-date\=27 January 2018}} However, after World War I, the United States had a big [public debt](/wiki/Government_debt "Government debt"), and the military had masses of left\-over war vehicles, so vehicle budgets were drastically cut. During the first half of the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"), the [Roaring Twenties](/wiki/Roaring_Twenties "Roaring Twenties"), despite a booming economy, [United States non\-interventionism](/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism "United States non-interventionism") and [neutrality](/wiki/Neutral_country "Neutral country") policies were supported by both elite and popular opinion, to the point of [isolationism](/wiki/Isolationism "Isolationism"), and no real budgets were allocated. Then, the [Wall Street Crash of 1929](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 "Wall Street Crash of 1929"), and the following [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") resulted in economic [austerity](/wiki/Austerity "Austerity") policies lasting until the end of the 1930s, thus curtailing any development of new military vehicles, like a light 4WD car.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo "#PBStoledo") Jim Allen (4x4 writer) from 3:18–3:35 At the same time, there was a drive for standardization. By the end of World War I, U.S. forces overseas had a total of 216 different makes and models of motor vehicles to operate, both foreign and domestic, and no good supply system to keep them running.{{sfnp\|Hogan\|1941\|p\={{page needed\|date\=October 2023}}}} Various light motor vehicles were tested—at first motorcycles with and without sidecars, and some modified [Ford Model Ts](/wiki/Ford_Model_T "Ford Model T").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.links4jeeps.com/forum/index.php/topic,5258\.0\.html \|title\=The History of Jeep \|date\=24 February 2007 \|website\=links4jeeps \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150717193016/http://www.links4jeeps.com/forum/index.php/topic,5258\.0\.html \|archive\-date\=17 July 2015 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.difflock.com/diffmag/issue7/jeep60/index.shtml \|website\=difflock.com \|title\=Jeep 1941 – 2001 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120415090552/http://www.difflock.com/diffmag/issue7/jeep60/index.shtml \|archive\-date\=15 April 2012 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015}} But what was needed was a very light, small, battlefield utility vehicle to replace motorcycles (with or without sidecar)—more user\-friendly to control, but just as easy to get in and out of. In the early 1930s, the U.S. Army experimented with a bantam weight "midget truck" for scouts and raiders. A {{convert\|1050\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}}, low\-slung mini\-car with a pick\-up body, provided by [American Austin Car Company](/wiki/American_Austin_Car_Company "American Austin Car Company"),[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo "#PBStoledo") Bantam Austin mini truck, like in Popular Mechanics, is shown at 4:00 min. was shown in a 1933 article in *[Popular Mechanics](/wiki/Popular_Mechanics "Popular Mechanics")* magazine.{{cite magazine \|title\=Baby" Truck Aids Army Scouts and Raiders \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-IDAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA664 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511234148/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=P\-IDAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA664 \|archive\-date\=2019\-05\-11 \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=Popular Mechanics \|volume\=60 \|number\=5 \|page\=664 \|date\=November 1933 \|via\=Google Books \|access\-date\=30 July 2022}} One of the pictures showed that the vehicle was light enough to be man\-handled—four soldiers could lift it from the ground entirely. But it was still only rear\-wheel drive. After 1935, when the U.S. Congress declared World War I vehicles obsolete, procurement for "remotorization of the Army" gained more traction, but pre\-war, peacetime budget restrictions still meant that the [U.S. Comptroller General](/wiki/Comptroller_General_of_the_United_States "Comptroller General of the United States") imposed open bidding on every additional, or *even incremental* procurement. Each time, the Army was forced to award the contract to the lowest bid that met requirements and specifications, often different makers. However, saving a small percentage initially, on the procurement, overall proved ["penny wise, pound foolish"](/wiki/Penny_wise_and_pound_foolish "Penny wise and pound foolish") because it led to problematic diversity of the fleet, requiring too much training of operators and mechanics for maintenance and repairs, and an unmanageably large supply of non\-interchangeable spare parts: "The commanding officer at Holabird reported in 1935 that, the 360 different models of vehicles now in the Army ... involve nearly a *million* items of spare parts which neither the War Department nor any other authority can control." This was bad for [logistics](/wiki/Logistics "Logistics") in times of war, both in terms of [supply chains](/wiki/Supply_chain "Supply chain"), as well as hindering troops' mobility by, blocking the ability to repair one vehicle by scavenging parts off another. And the Army could still only get multi\-axle drive on "tactical" trucks, "requiring the greatest battlefield mobility." [thumb\|left\|Japan\-fielded 1935 [Kurogane Type 95](/wiki/Kurogane_Type_95 "Kurogane Type 95") 4×4 scout car (captured at the [1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol](/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol "Battles of Khalkhin Gol"))](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Khalkhin_Gol-Captured_Type_95_scout_car.jpg "Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Captured Type 95 scout car.jpg") Meanwhile, in Asia and the Pacific, Japan had [invaded Manchuria in 1931](/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria "Japanese invasion of Manchuria") and was [at war with China from 1937](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War "Second Sino-Japanese War"). Its Imperial Army used a small, {{cvt\|2,425\|lbs\|kg\|\-1}}, three\-man crew, four\-wheel\-drive car for reconnaissance and troop movements, the [Kurogane Type 95](/wiki/Kurogane_Type_95 "Kurogane Type 95"), produced in limited numbers from 1936\. In 1937 [Marmon\-Herrington](/wiki/Marmon-Herrington "Marmon-Herrington") presented five 4×4 Fords, and [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam") (previously American Austin) once again contributed—delivering three [Austin](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company "Austin Motor Company") derived roadsters in 1938\.{{cite book\|last\=Fowler \|first\=Will \|title\=Jeep Goes to War – a pictorial chronicle \|publisher\=Courage Books \|year\=1993 \|isbn\=9781561382354}}{{cite news \|first\=Lindsey \|last\=Fisher \|title\=Vintage Monday: Marmon\-Herrington Trucks; The Jeep's Grandfather \|url\= https://www.offroadxtreme.com/features/history/vintage\-monday\-marmon\-herrington\-trucks\-jeeps\-grandfather/ \|website\=Off Road Xtreme \|access\-date\=2 October 2018 \|date\=11 August 2014}} The U.S. Army itself had also built an experimental light, low\-profile scout and gun mover, the [Howie\-Wiley machine gun carrier](/wiki/Howie_machine_gun_carrier "Howie machine gun carrier"), ordered by General [Walter Short](/wiki/Walter_Short "Walter Short"), then Assistant Commander of the [Army's Infantry School](/wiki/United_States_Army_Infantry_School "United States Army Infantry School") at Fort Benning, Georgia, and built by Captain Robert G. Howie and Master Sergeant Melvin C. Wiley. Completed in April 1937, with a driver and a gunner laying prone, operating a .30 caliber machine gun, the vehicle was nicknamed the "belly flopper."{{cite journal \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Wendell G. \|journal\=Infantry Journal \|title\=The Howie Machine\-Gun Carrier \|url\= http://willys\-overland.com:80/documents/Original%20Documents/193711\-12%20\-%20The%20Howie%20Machine\-Gun%20Carrier%20\-%20Captain%20Wendell%20G.%20Johnson,%20Infantry%20\-%20Infantry%20Journal.pdf \|via\=Willys\-Overland.com \|publisher\=U.S. Army \|issue\=6: Nov–Dec \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100202084957/http://willys\-overland.com:80/documents/Original%20Documents/193711\-12%20\-%20The%20Howie%20Machine\-Gun%20Carrier%20\-%20Captain%20Wendell%20G.%20Johnson,%20Infantry%20\-%20Infantry%20Journal.pdf \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-02 \|pages\=529–531 \|date\=November 1937 \|url\-status\=live}} In France, the project has already been developed and put into production since 1937\. The [Laffly V15](/wiki/Laffly_V15 "Laffly V15") can be considered the French Jeep. 1,200 of these four\-wheeled vehicles were produced before the debacle of 1940\. By 1939, the U.S. Army began standardizing its general\-purpose truck chassis types by payload rating, initially in five classes from {{convert\|1/2\|to\|7\+1/2 \|ST\|t\|abbr\=on}}. The Quartermaster Corps saw that the Army needed truck chassis to be standardized in crucial basic functional 'types' (body models), and within "payload capacity" classes. Additionally, some crucial features could not be equipped by the QC to commercial trucks after procurement. Cross\-country capabilities, like increased ground clearance and multi\-axle drive, had to be designed and built into the trucks from the factory. The Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee concurred, and in June 1939 requested the Chief of Staff's approval, to start standardizing truck chassis and bodies procured for the Army into five payload classes: {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 2{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4{{nbh}}ton, and 7{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton and all tactical trucks had to have (part\-time) all\-wheel drive capability.{{cite book \|last1\=Blackburn \|first1\=Marc K. \|series\=Contributions in Military Studies Number 163 \|title\=The United States Army and the Motor Truck: 'A Case Study in Standardization' \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=Greenwood Publishing Group \|location\=Westport, CT \|issn\=0883\-6884 \|isbn\=9780313298080 \|pages\=98–99 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uwt0SvCPyAoC\&pg\=PA98}} Furthermore, to achieve the needed level of standardization, the Quartermaster General urged trucks should be bought en masse from there on. Acting Chief of Staff, [George C. Marshall](/wiki/George_C._Marshall "George C. Marshall"), approved the procurement policy in the summer of 1939\. The Quartermaster Corps also wanted to require the truck industry to use dimensionally interchangeable components, but further standardization measures were not approved until 1940\. However, in 1940, the Army revised the categories. For the first time, a quarter\-ton truck tactical (4×4\) chassis class was introduced, at the bottom of the range, and the {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton chassis was supplanted by a {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton payload class.{{sfnp\|Hyde\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA148 147–148]}} By the eve of entering World War II, the [United States Department of War](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War "United States Department of War") had determined it needed a {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, cross\-country reconnaissance vehicle. Although {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton 4×4s had outperformed {{frac\|1\|1\|2}}{{nbh}}ton 4×4 trucks during testing in 1938,{{cite book \|last\=Doyle \|first\=David \|year\=2019 \|title\=Chevrolet G\-506 – 1 1/2{{nbh}}ton 4x4 Development, Production and Variants in WW2 \|url\=https://cdn3\.volusion.com/hrqpw.cruld/v/vspfiles/photos/620\-1000\-5\.jpg \|archive\-date\=2019\-04\-08 \|url\-status\=live \|publisher\=Portrayal Press \|page\=8 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408104402/https://cdn3\.volusion.com/hrqpw.cruld/v/vspfiles/photos/620\-1000\-5\.jpg \|location\=Branchville, New Jersey \|isbn\=9780938242062}} the half\-ton 4×4 trucks—both from Marmon\-Herrington Ford, and the 1940 [Dodge VC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940_%E2%80%94_1%E2%81%842-ton_VC_and_11%E2%81%842-ton_VF_models "Dodge WC series#1940 — 1⁄2-ton VC and 11⁄2-ton VF models")—still proved too large and heavy, and insufficiently agile off\-road.{{sfnp\|Ackerson\|2006\|pp\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512015352/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=56uvBIikfrQC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PT17\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U03yyUfgAwOC9VkoBMfQfWznccZZg\&w\=1920 16–17]}} Anxious to have a quarter\-ton truck in time for America's entry into World War II, the U.S. Army solicited proposals from domestic automobile manufacturers. Recognizing the need to create standard specifications, the Army formalized its requirements on 11 July 1940, and submitted them to 135 U.S. automotive manufacturers.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2021}} ### Development start – Bantam Reconnaissance Car In the early 1930s, the Infantry Board at Fort Benning had become interested in the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army")'s use of the tiny [Austin 7](/wiki/Austin_7 "Austin 7") car in a reconnaissance role, and in 1933 received a car from the [American Austin Car Company](/wiki/American_Austin_Car_Company "American Austin Car Company") in Pennsylvania which built them under license. Ever since then, their devout on\-the\-road salesman and (Washington) lobbyist, ex\-military Harry Payne kept approaching many U.S. Army and Defense branches and officers, hoping to sell the idea of a small, lightweight reconnaissance car to someone Army or Defense, getting some much\-needed government contract business for his company. And Payne kept pushing while American Austin had gone bankrupt and its assets were reincorporated into [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam").{{cite web \|last1\=Carroll \|first1\=John \|title\=Better Late Than Never \|url\=https://www.keymilitary.com/article/better\-late\-never \|website\=Key Military \|publisher\=\[\[Key Publishing]] \|access\-date\=7 September 2023 \|date\=15 February 2018}} In 1938, American Bantam again loaned three much\-improved cars to the Pennsylvania National Guard for trials during summer maneuvers, which were received as reliable, economical and practical.{{sfnp\|Allen \|2004 \|p\=\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA14\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U28oBma4j\-1DoHCIO7KLJUb28kUtg\&w\=1280 14]}} During the first days of September 1939, [World War Two](/wiki/World_War_Two "World War Two") had escalated in Europe, with [Hitler's](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") [invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland"), and the [Nazi German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") forces showed the world a new, highly mobile form of warfare, dubbed ‘[Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg "Blitzkrieg")ʼ, or lightning war, by a coordinated combination of fast moving tanks and [motorized infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry "Motorized infantry"), (self\-propelled) [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery"), and air support. In response, [President Franklin Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt "Franklin Delano Roosevelt"), made an emergency proclamation on September 8, 1939\. It authorized the U.S. an increase in size of both the regular Army and the National Guard. The War Department was also authorized to spend an additional $12 million on motor transport. [thumb\|upright\=1\.35\|The 1940 Dodge G\-505 VC\-series (Command Car shown) were the first *light* U.S. military 4WD vehicles, bought in production quantity,Earlier three\- and four\-figure orders for {{frac\|1\|1\|2}}{{nbh}}ton 4x4 Dodges were all marked as "experimental", but not the orders for the 1940 VC\-series. *during* WWII, and for years nicknamed "jeeps" by the soldiers.](/wiki/File:Dodge_T-202_VC-1%2C_VC-2_Command_Reconnaissance_%28USM-BT-15%29_from_SNL_G-657.jpg "Dodge T-202 VC-1, VC-2 Command Reconnaissance (USM-BT-15) from SNL G-657.jpg") The Army then ordered the U.S. military's first ever production quantity of *light*, {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4 tactical trucks: going on 5,000 [Dodge G\-505 VC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940_G505 "Dodge WC series#1940 G505"), which arrived by the Spring of 1940\. Until that point, only a few third party after\-market modified four\-wheel drive {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton trucks, mainly Marmon\-Herrington derived Fords, had been bought after 1935, for testing, but the prevailing belief amongst military higher\-ups and Congress was, that all the extra four\-wheel\-drive hardware would make any truck lighter than a {{fraction\|1\|1\|2}}{{nbh}}ton payload model, so much heavier that the weight\-gain would cancel out any benefits gained from adding four\-wheel drive. But after the {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton 4×4 Dodges arrived, two decisions were made: greatly more of these {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton Dodges were ordered (some 80,000 for the 1941 model year revisions), but also, in June 1940, the Army's tactical trucks payload categories were revised. For the first time, the Army introduced a quarter\-ton 4×4 truck chassis class, and just above that, the {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton chassis were going to be supplanted by a {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton class.{{sfnp\|Hyde\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA148 147–148]}} Bantam officials met with chiefs of Infantry and Cavalry and suggested a contract to further develop military versions of their light car. But in June 1940—as a collaboration with the Quartermaster Corps (QMC), still responsible for U.S. unarmored tactical military vehicles in 1940—the Ordnance Corps initiated a Technical (sub\-)Committee, for the QMC to formulate comprehensive, exact specification for this new, very lightweight, cross\-country tactical vehicle, capable of carrying personnel and equipment across rough terrain. The committee included the now *major* Robert Howie, invited for his expertise, having actually built an ultra\-light prototype infantry\-support vehicle, officers representing the Quartermaster Corps, and the Army's using arms:{{sfnp\|Thomson \|Mayo \|2003 \|p\=25}} Infantry, Cavalry, and the two Coastguard divisions, as well as civilian engineers, mainly from Camp Holabird and Bantam. To begin with, the committee sent an Army delegation including Howie, and Camp Holabird vehicle testing engineers, to [Butler, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Butler%2C_Pennsylvania "Butler, Pennsylvania"), to visit American Bantam's factory, being invited to an extensive demonstration there, to evaluate their compact cars and production facilities.{{sfnp\|Thomson\|Mayo\|2003\|p\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20230909132510/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA276\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U30kUM730lhIoA3BYhrTq7lXmBy\-A\&w\=1280 276 (archived)]}} Once there, Howie stayed several days, and also Robert Brown, a Camp Holabird civilian engineer, who was instructed to disregard the presentation, but changed his mind after seeing it. Brown also stayed at the Bantam plant where both Howie and he worked out specifications with Crist for the proposed vehicle. [thumb\|Initial {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton truck specifications (Ordnance Technical Committee; 1940\)](/wiki/File:Quarter-ton_reconnaissance_car_Specifications%E2%80%94Ordnance_Tech_Committee_%28cropped%29.jpg "Quarter-ton reconnaissance car Specifications—Ordnance Tech Committee (cropped).jpg") By the end of June 1940, with American Bantam's consultation, the Quartermaster Corps issued their initial specifications.{{cite book \|last\=Allen \|first\=Jim \|author\-link\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer) \|title\=Jeep Collector's Library \|year\=2004 \|publisher\=MotorBooks International \|isbn\=9781610590549 \|pages\=14–15 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\&pg\=PA14 \|via\=Google Books \|access\-date\=30 July 2022}} They specified a part\-time four\-wheel\-drive vehicle, with a two\-speed transfer case, three bucket seats, a fold\-down windshield, and blackout and driving lights, of just {{cvt\|1200\|lbs\|kg\|\-1}}, with a payload up to {{cvt\|600\|lbs\|kg\|\-1}}, on a wheelbase no longer than {{cvt\|75\|in\|m\|2}} (the wheelbase of American Bantam's pickup truck), a maximum (collapsible) height of {{cvt\|36\|in\|cm\|0}} (three inches above the Howie\-Wiley machine\-gun carrier), and an engine and drivetrain, capable of smoothly pulling at speeds ranging from {{convert\|3\|\-\|50\|mph}}. Its body design was to be rectangular in shape, including a sketch drawing, handed to the Ordnance Technical Committee.{{cite magazine \|magazine\=Army Research and Development Magazine \|volume\=19 \|issue\=1 \|title\=20 Years to Develop–The Jeep \|date\=January–February 1978 \|page\=15 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=nmrfAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA15 \|publisher\=Development \& Engineering Directorate of the U.S. Army Materiel Development \& Readiness Command (DARCOM) \|editor\=L. VanLoan Naisawald \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227175830/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=nmrfAAAAMAAJ\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA15\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U2hATQhVT8FnAZRxr1OQnwdpwI\-7A\&w\=1220 \|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|url\-status\=live }}{{sfnp\|Allen \|2004 \|p\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20220228185958/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA15\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U3K\-tuI6ehf9MhGdg6qoE6EP2ky2A\&w\=1280 15]}} [thumb\|American Bantam's first Reconnaissance Car (BRC) prototype, "Old Number One" – note fully rounded front fenders](/wiki/File:BantamPilotHaugh_%282%29.jpg "BantamPilotHaugh (2).jpg") By now the war was underway in Europe, so the Army's need was urgent, but also very demanding. No sooner than July 1940, some 135 manufacturers of automotive or similar equipment were approached by a government letter to submit bids, to be received by 22 July, a span of just eleven days. In the first stage, the winning manufacturer(s) were given just *seven weeks* (49 days), from the moment of awarding the contract, to submit their first *fully functional* [prototype](/wiki/Prototype "Prototype") and 75 days for completing 70 test vehicles in total. The Army's Ordnance Technical Committee specifications were equally stringent: the vehicle would be [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive"), have a crew of three, on a wheelbase no longer than {{convert\|75\|in\|m\|2\|abbr\=on}}, later stretched to {{convert\|80\|in\|m\|2\|abbr\=on}}, and tracks no wider than {{convert\|47\|in\|m\|2\|abbr\=on}}. The height with the windshield folded down was also raised, to {{convert\|40\|in\|m\|2\|abbr\=on}}. The diminutive dimensions were similar in size and weight to American Bantam's compact truck and roadster models.{{cite web \|first\=Curtis \|last\=Redgap \|title\=Austin, Bantam, and Willys: Birth of the Jeep \|url\=https://www.allpar.com/threads/austin\-bantam\-and\-willys\-birth\-of\-the\-jeep.227756/\#post\-1085221854 \|website\=Allpar Forums \|access\-date\=10 January 2021}} It was now to carry a {{convert\|660\|lb\|kg\|\-1 \|abbr\=on}} payload and be powered by an engine capable of {{convert\|85\|lb·ft\|N·m\|0\|abbr\=on}} of torque. The most daunting demand, however, was an empty weight of no more than {{convert\|1275\|–\|1300\|lb\|kg\|\-1\|abbr\=on}}.{{sfnp\|Allen \|2004 \|p\=\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA15\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U3K\-tuI6ehf9MhGdg6qoE6EP2ky2A\&w\=1280 15]}}Sources differ on this. Initially, only American Bantam Car Company and [Willys\-Overland](/wiki/Willys "Willys") entered the competition. And only Bantam provided a proper set of technical drawings. [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") joined later, after being approached directly.{{cite book\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=eq9BAAAAIAAJ\&q\=bantam \|title\=Masters of Mass Production \|last\=Borth \|first\=Christy \|year\=1945 \|page\=220 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015}} Although Willys was the low bidder, Willys was penalized for needing more days to make a prototype, and the dollars penalty per extra day put Willys' price above Bantam's – earning them the contract, as the only company committing to deliver a pilot model in 49 days and 70 more pre\-production units {{nobr\|in 75}} days. [thumb\|The further 70 Bantam Mk\-II prototypes, often called 'BRC\-60',{{refn \|group\=nb \|name\=YDR\_40BRC }} kept a round hood and grille, but square front fenders with short side steps. Shown \#7, nicknamed "Gramps," owned by the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian "Smithsonian") museum.](/wiki/File:Senator_John_Heinz_History_Center_-_IMG_7665.JPG "Senator John Heinz History Center - IMG 7665.JPG") American Bantam's chief engineer and plant manager, [Harold Crist](/wiki/Harold_Crist "Harold Crist"),By Spring 1940, Bantam was virtually bankrupt, most workers had been laid off, and what remained was a respectably sized factory and a skeleton crew of about 15 men, including management. What little business was still going on, was mainly making spare parts and panels for repairs on Bantams still on the road. Thus many of the remaining workers had a wide range of tasks. was an experienced automobile engineer who had early\-on worked on the first [Duesenberg](/wiki/Duesenberg "Duesenberg") and been an engineer at [Stutz Motor Company](/wiki/Stutz_Motor_Company "Stutz Motor Company") of Indianapolis for 18 years, worked a spell for [Marmon](/wiki/Marmon_Motor_Car_Company "Marmon Motor Car Company"), and then for Bantam from 1937 to 1942, drafted freelance Detroit designer [Karl Probst](/wiki/Karl_Probst "Karl Probst") to collaborate. Probst initially turned Bantam down, but agreed to work without pay after an Army request and began work on 17 July 1940\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.everymandriver.com/jeep\-history\-through\-the\-years\-on\-everyman\-driver/ \|title\=Jeep History Through The Years \|work\=Everyman Driver \|date\=8 April 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112164843/http://www.everymandriver.com/jeep\-history\-through\-the\-years\-on\-everyman\-driver/ \|archive\-date\=12 November 2019 \|access\-date\=10 January 2021}} Probst laid out full design drawings for the American Bantam prototype, known as the Bantam Reconnaissance Car, or BRC Pilot, in just two days, and worked up a cost estimate the next day. Bantam's bid was submitted, complete with blueprints, on the 22 July deadline.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cossor.com.au/jeep\_1\.html \|title\=The Military Jeep \|website\=Cossor.com.au \|access\-date\=12 March 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529191027/http://www.cossor.com.au/jeep\_1\.html \|archive\-date\=29 May 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }} American Bantam had purchased the assets of [American Austin Car Company](/wiki/American_Austin_Car_Company "American Austin Car Company") from the bankruptcy court and had developed their own line of small cars and engine technology, free of licenses from the British [Austin Motor Company](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company "Austin Motor Company"). As the only small car manufacturer in the United States at the time, their design concept was initially to leverage their [commercial off\-the\-shelf](/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf "Commercial off-the-shelf") components as much as possible. Bantam adapted front sheetmetal body\-stampings from its car line: the cowl, dashboard, and curvy front fenders. [thumb\|Conforming to specification, [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam") delivered the last eight 1940 Mk. II prototypes with four\-wheel steering.](/wiki/File:Bantam-jeep-2.jpg "Bantam-jeep-2.jpg") However, once Brown returned to Camp Holabird, Crist reviewed their thinking, and realized that the new vehicle would have to be mostly new, rather than simply a modified version of an existing Bantam model. He and others at Bantam immediately set about sourcing the right components: transmission, transfer case, driveshafts and axles. Bantam's own engines made just 22 hp,{{cite web \|url\=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1938\-1941\-american\-bantam.htm \|title\=1938–1941 American Bantam \|author\=content by ''Consumer Guide Automotive'' \|editor\=Damon Bell \|date\=17 July 2007 \|website\=HowStuffWorks.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924190656/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1938\-1941\-american\-bantam.htm \|archive\-date\=24 September 2020 \|access\-date\=10 January 2021}} so a {{convert\|112\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} [Continental](/wiki/Continental_Motors_Company "Continental Motors Company") four\-cylinder, making 45 [horsepower](/wiki/Horsepower "Horsepower") and {{convert\|86\|lb·ft\|N·m\|0\|abbr\=on}} of [torque](/wiki/Torque "Torque") was selected, mated to a [Warner Gear](/wiki/BorgWarner "BorgWarner") transmission. Custom\-built four\-wheel drive\-train components included the [Spicer](/wiki/Dana_Holding_Corporation "Dana Holding Corporation") [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case") to send power to the front and rear axles. They were both Spicer\-made, originally [Studebaker Champion](/wiki/Studebaker_Champion "Studebaker Champion") rear axles, but modified for four\-wheel drive use.{{cite web \|author\=((Auto editors ''Consumer Guide'')) \|title\=1906–1939 Jeep \|url\= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1906\-1939\-jeep.htm\#pt4 \|website\=auto.howstuffworks.com \|date\=13 December 2007 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210112071209/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1906\-1939\-jeep.htm \|archive\-date\=12 January 2021 \|access\-date\=30 July 2022}} Using off\-the\-shelf automotive parts where possible had helped to design the car and draw up its blueprints quickly. By working backwards, Probst and American Bantam's draftsmen converted what Crist and a few other engineers and mechanics had rigged together in the factory, back into drawings. The hand\-built prototype was then completed in [Butler, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Butler%2C_Pennsylvania "Butler, Pennsylvania"),{{cite web\|url\= http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM8NM \|title\=Invention of the Jeep – Pennsylvania Historical Markers \|website\=Waymarking.com \|date\=9 March 2006 \|access\-date\=23 February 2012}} and basically untested, *driven* by Crist and Probst, to the Army vehicle test center at [Camp Holabird](/wiki/Camp_Holabird "Camp Holabird"), Maryland. It was delivered at 4\.30 pm on 23 September 1940, just half an hour within the deadline. The American Bantam Pilot, initially called the "Blitz Buggy."{{sfnp\|American Society of Mechanical Engineers\|1991}} ### Enter Willys and Ford – early production jeeps As the War Department deemed [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam "American Bantam") to not have the production capacity or financial resources to deliver on the scale the Army would need, the other two bidders, Ford and Willys, were encouraged to complete their own pilot models for testing. The contract for the new reconnaissance car would be determined by trials. While Bantam's prototype underwent testing at [Camp Holabird](/wiki/Fort_Holabird "Fort Holabird") from 27 September to 16 October, Ford and Willys' technical representatives were invited and given ample opportunity to observe the vehicle and study its performance. To expedite Ford and Willys' prototypes, the War Department forwarded the Bantam's blueprints to them, claiming the government owned all designs in the proposals submitted to it in the bidding contest. American Bantam chose not to dispute this. {{multiple image \| align \= left \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220 \| header \= Pilot models: Willys "Quad" and Ford "Pygmy" \| image1 \= Willys Quad 4x4 pilot car, ¾ right front (1940\).jpg \| caption1 \= Willys "Quad" pilot car initially copied Bantam's rounded grille and hood. \| image2 \= Ford Pygmy jeep pilot vehicle.JPG \| caption2 \= Ford's first test model, \[\[Ford Pygmy\|the "Pygmy"]] in the U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum. }} Bantam continued building the further 70 prototypes, as per the initial contract.{{refn \|group\=nb \|Sources differ whether Bantam built a further 69 or 70 units. Considering that no. 1 Bantam didn't survive, some sources believe that it suffered so much damage during initial merciless testing, that it was returned to Bantam, and scavenged for parts, to complete the first 70 units. Alternatively, it served as a demo vehicle until it got wrecked in a traffic accident in early 1941, ''then'' sent back to Butler, was disassembled, with its mechanicals likely mounted into a 1941 production Bantam. Legend has it that the unusable body sections were buried along with a pile of scrap on the Bantam grounds. (U.S. Army)\[https://cj3b.info/Poster/Bantam.html 1940 Bantam Pilot Model on CJ\-3B.info] }} Bantam's original no.01 first remained at Holabird for incessant [shake\-down](/wiki/Shakedown_%28testing%29 "Shakedown (testing)") and [breaking point](/wiki/Stress_testing "Stress testing") testing, and ad\-hoc fixes and improvements of weaknesses, while by November 1940, Ford and Willys also submitted their first prototypes to compete in the Army's trials. Exterior changes, mainly mounting flat and square front fenders, instead of the first car's bulbous round ones, identify the BRC (Bantam Reconnaissance Car) Mark IIs, also called the {{nobr\|"BRC 60"}}.{{refn \|group\=nb \|name\=YDR\_40BRC \|But new research into identifying the earliest jeeps indicates that Bantam actually called these the '40 BRC (for 1940\).{{cite news\|url\=https://www.ydr.com/story/news/history/blogs/yorkspast/2015/12/07/earliest\-jeeps/76956416/ \|title\=Earliest Jeeps Built 75\-Years Ago for WWII \|work\= York Daily Record \|first\=Stephen H. \|last\=Smith \|date\=7 December 2015 \|access\-date\=27 January 2018}}}} Both the Willys "Quad" and the [Ford "Pygmy"](/wiki/Ford_Pygmy "Ford Pygmy") prototypes were very similar to the Bantam Pilot and were joined in testing by Bantam's Mark II models. The Willys Quad immediately stood out because of its [strong engine](/wiki/Willys_Go_Devil_engine "Willys Go Devil engine") of 60 [gross Hp](/wiki/Horsepower "Horsepower") ([SAE](/wiki/SAE_International "SAE International")),The U.S. "Society of Automotive Engineers" at the time which the soldiers liked very much, in such a lightweight, open\-top car. Chief engineer Delmar 'Barney' Roos had been working on Willys' four\-cylinder car\-engine for years, and with many detail changes had managed to get it to 60 hp from an initial low forties output. The Ford Pygmy on the other hand was held back by its tractor engine, Ford's only four\-cylinder engine still made in 1940 – despite serious efforts to make it stronger. Dale Roeder was Ford's team leader behind the Pygmy, and his team managed to tune the motor from 30bhp to the specified 40bhp, by using a different camshaft and a bigger carburettor. More importantly, the Ford's front sheetmetal design was the cleverest, fusing all the front lighting behind a straight grille grate, side by side, into one cheap, integrated whole, under a wide, flat, and horizontal hood, useful as a makeshift table. And with its simple [piano hinge](/wiki/Hinge%23Other_types "Hinge#Other types"), it allowed opening the hood all the way to the upright windshield, without even needing a prop\-rod, and giving excellent access to the engine, also because of its wide opening. {{multiple image \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220 \| header \= Pre\-production models: American Bantam Mk II, Ford GP, and Willys MA \| image1 \= These soldiers go up in the air to prove that the Army's new quarter ton truck can take it. \- NARA \- 195336\.jpg \| caption1 \= Vigorous testing was required for Army proving—shown a Ford GP, 1941 \| image2 \= Willys\-MA\-3\.jpg \| caption2 \= Willys MA jeep at the Desert Training Center, Indio, California, June 1942 \| image3 \= The British Army in the United Kingdom 1939\-45 H19947\.jpg \| caption3 \= Allies hastily received interim models—King \[\[George VI]] of the United Kingdom inspects a 1941 \[\[American Bantam\|Bantam]] BRC with an airborne unit in May, 1942\. A \[\[Vickers machine gun]] has been fitted to the bonnet. }} By then, the U.S. armed forces were in such haste, and allies like Britain, France, and USSR wanted to acquire these new "Blitz\-Buggies",Contemporaneous nickname in 1940/1941 British Empire and Canada.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2021}} that after initially considering 1,500 pre\-production units *in total*, all three cars were declared 'acceptable', and orders for 1,500 units *per company* were given for field testing and export. At this time, it was acknowledged the original weight limit (which even Bantam's Mk.II could not meet) was unrealistic, and it was raised to {{convert\|2160\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}. On 22 January 1941, the Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee advised standardization of the jeeps across all manufacturers.{{sfnp \|Hyde \|2013 \|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA150 150]}} For the ensuing pre\-production runs, each maker's vehicles received further revisions, and new names once more. For 1941, Bantam's got called the {{nobr\|"BRC 40"}}{{refn \|group\=nb \|name\=YDR\_41BRC \|But new research into identifying the earliest jeeps indicates that Bantam actually called them '41 BRC (for 1941\).}} Production began on 31 March 1941, with a total of 2,605 built up to 6 December — the number ordered was raised because Britain and the USSR already wanted more of them supplied under [Lend\-Lease](/wiki/Lend-Lease "Lend-Lease").{{cite web \|author\=Warfare History Network \|title\=Why America's Best World War II 'Weapon' Isn't What You Think It Is \|date\=2018\-08\-21 \|website\=The National Interest \|url\= https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/why\-americas\-best\-world\-war\-ii\-weapon\-isnt\-what\-you\-think\-it\-29362 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180821222917/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/why\-americas\-best\-world\-war\-ii\-weapon\-isnt\-what\-you\-think\-it\-29362 \|archive\-date\=21 August 2018 \|access\-date\=30 July 2022}}{{cite book\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=PJftUspIv68C\&pg\=PA28 \|page\=28 \|title\=Jeep \|first\=Jim \|last\=Allen \|publisher\=Motorbooks International \|year\=2003 \|isbn\= 9780760314869 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015 \|author\-link\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer)}} The Bantam BRC\-40 was the lightest and most nimble of the three early production models, and the Army lauded its good suspension, brakes, and high fuel economy. However, as the company could not meet the Army's demand for 75 vehicles a day, production contracts were also awarded to Willys and Ford.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/americandesignad0000pulo \|url\-access\= registration \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/americandesignad0000pulo/page/20 20] \|title\=The American Design Adventure, 1940–1975 \|first\=Arthur J. \|last\=Pulos \|publisher\=MIT Press \|year\=1988 \|isbn\=9780262161060 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015 \|via\=archive.org}} {{external media \|float\=left \|width\=230px \|image1\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20180623195719/https://i.pinimg.com/originals/ba/d6/a5/bad6a52d7042a3f06bad5dbb39835d31\.jpg Four\-wheel steering Willys Quad prototype (archived)] \| image2\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20180722095747/http://image.fourwheeler.com/f/8862610\+q80\+re0\+cr1\+ar0/p26480\_image\_large.jpg Four\-wheel steering Ford GP testing unit (archived) ] \| image3\=\[https://forums.g503\.com/viewtopic.php?t\=202412 Collection of period LIFE photos of 1941 Bantams ''and'' a Ford GP, including 4\-wheel steer] \| image4\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190910195352/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=VCcDAAAAMBAJ\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PA54\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U2gIKM\-H05uma3EEuczcd1QscJgxg\&w\=1920 Mechanical features of the new ''"Bug"'' explained in ''Popular Science'', Oct 1941, page 54 ] }} Ford's pre\-production jeep was named the "GP", with "G" indicating a "Government" contract, and "P" chosen by Ford to designate a car with a [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase") of {{convert\|80\|in\|cm\|0\|abbr\=on}}.Ford's GP designation did not represent "general purpose" – that was a government description, not applied for the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps until ca. 1943\. The Ford GP was not only the most numerous (at about 4,458\) early production jeeps—it was also the first jeep fielded in some numbers to U.S. Army units. Ford's overall design and quality of construction had advantages over the Bantam and Willys models, but the GP's engine, an adaptation of their [Model N tractor engine](/wiki/Ford_N-series_tractor%239N "Ford N-series tractor#9N"), was underpowered and not sufficiently reliable. Ford built fifty units with four\-wheel steering, of which four have survived. [Willys\-Overland](/wiki/Willys "Willys") was the last of the three manufacturers to start early production, waiting until 5 June 1941 to kick\-off production,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.jeepcollection.com/portfolio/1941\-willys\-ma/ \|title\=1941 Willys MA\|date\=2016 \|website\=jeepcollection.com \|access\-date\=16 July 2022}} needing to reduce the Quad's weight by {{convert\|240\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}. After many painstaking detail changes, Willys renamed their vehicle "MA", for "Military" model "A". Only 1,555 MAs were built, most of which went to the Soviet Union under Lend\-Lease. Only 27 units are still known to exist. After enough comparative testing, Willys were also tasked with integrating whatever features were seen as better on the Ford and Bantam, into their design – for instance copying the Ford's front sheetmetal, to arrive at an optimal 'MB' model, for mass\-production. Eventually, virtually all of the [Willys\-Overland](/wiki/Willys "Willys") and most of the American Bantam and Ford GP early production jeeps were provided to Britain and USSR, leaving a few hundred Bantam BRCs and under 1,000 GPs for the home troops. {{clear left}} ### Full production – Willys MB and Ford GPW {{multiple image \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220 \| header \= Standard 1944 cabin and engine \| image1 \= 1944 Willys MB Jeep (18106088301\).jpg \| caption1 \= Three pedals and three sticks—for shifting gears, engaging front\- or four\-wheel drive, and high or low gearing \| image2 \= Willys MB (Bild 6 2008\-06\-14\) Motor.JPG \| caption2 \= Willys "Go Devil" engine }} By July 1941, the War Department desired to standardize and decided to select a single manufacturer to supply them with the next order for 16,000 vehicles. Willys won the contract mostly due to its much more powerful 60 hp engine (the [L134 "Go Devil"](/wiki/Willys_Go_Devil_engine "Willys Go Devil engine")), which soldiers raved about, and its lower cost and silhouette. The design features in the Bantam and Ford entries which represented an improvement over Willys's design were incorporated into the Willys, moving it from an "MA" designation to "MB". Most obvious is the front design from the Ford GP, with a wide, flat hood, and the headlights moved inward from the fenders to under the hood, protected by a single wide, straight front grille and a brush guard. The jeep, once it entered mass production, introduced several new [automotive technologies](/wiki/Automotive_engineering "Automotive engineering"). Having [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") for the first time introduced the need for a [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case"), and the use of [constant\-velocity joints](/wiki/Constant-velocity_joint "Constant-velocity joint") on the driven front wheels and axle, to a regular production car\-sized vehicle. In early October 1941, it became clear that Willys\-Overland could not keep up with procurement needs, and Ford received government contracts to build 30,000 units,{{sfnp\|Hyde\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA150 150–151]}} according to Willys' blueprints, drawings, specifications, and patents, including the more powerful Willys engine.{{sfnp\|Thomson\|Mayo\|2003\|pp\=\[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=uiug.30112055126327;view\=1up;seq\=301;size\=125 277–278]}} When Ford offered to increase the displacement and power of the tractor engine in their GP model, the government declined and insisted that Ford produce jeeps identical to the Willys, both for the much stronger engine,{{Clarify\|date\=September 2022}} and for complete commonality/interchangeability of the components. Willys received no license fees, and Ford complied. The Ford was designated "GPW", with the "W" indicating the "Willys" licensed design and engine. Ford retooled at a cost of $4 million (\~${{Format price\|{{Inflation\|index\=US\-GDP\|value\=4000000\|start\_year\=1942}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US\-GDP}}) to build Willys engines and produced the first GPW as quickly as 2 January 1942\. Just days before, in late December 1941, the Quartermaster Corps had ordered another 63,146 GPWs.{{sfnp\|Hyde\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA150 150–151]}} One extra condition to Ford's jeep orders was to manufacture them in several different Ford assembly plants, in addition to [Ford's primary "River Rouge" plant](/wiki/Ford_River_Rouge_Complex "Ford River Rouge Complex") in Dearborn (Michigan). The QC expressly demanded Ford decentralize their jeep manufacturing to facilitate the Army's [logistics](/wiki/Logistics "Logistics"), shipping from all [three coasts](/wiki/Third_Coast "Third Coast"). Besides [Dearborn](/wiki/Ford_World_Headquarters "Ford World Headquarters"), Ford also assembled jeeps in their [Louisville](/wiki/Louisville_Assembly_Plant "Louisville Assembly Plant"), [Chester (Pennsylvania)](/wiki/Chester_Assembly "Chester Assembly"), [Dallas (Texas)](/wiki/List_of_Ford_factories "List of Ford factories"), and [Richmond (California)](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company_Assembly_Plant "Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant") plants. Ford's [Edgewater (New Jersey) plant](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company_Edgewater_Assembly_Plant "Ford Motor Company Edgewater Assembly Plant") also built jeeps in the first four months of 1943\.{{sfnp\|Hyde\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA150 150–151]}} During World War II, Willys produced 363,000 Jeeps and Ford some 280,000\. Some 50,000 were exported to the USSR under the Lend\-Lease program. Ford's assembly across plants distributed as: River Rouge 21,559; Dallas and Louisville almost tied at 93,748 and 93,364 units respectively; Chester 18,533, and Edgewater just 1,333 units.{{sfnp\|Hyde\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=P\-PCAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA150 150–151]}} Bantam stopped further jeep production and made two\-wheel [jeep trailers](/wiki/Jeep_trailer "Jeep trailer"). This was sufficient to keep the firm going until it was taken over in 1956\.{{cite book \|last\=Georgano \|first\=Nick \|author\-link\= G. N. Georgano\|title\=Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=HMSO \|location\=London \|isbn\=1\-57958\-293\-1}} Ford built jeeps with functionally interchangeable parts and components, in part facilitated by using components from common sources: frames from [Midland Steel](/wiki/Midland_Steel_Products "Midland Steel Products"), wheels from [Kelsey\-Hayes](/wiki/Kelsey-Hayes "Kelsey-Hayes"), and axles and transfer cases from [Spicer](/wiki/Dana_Incorporated%23History "Dana Incorporated#History").{{sfnp\|Thomson\|Mayo\|2003\|pp\=\[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=uiug.30112055126327;view\=1up;seq\=301;size\=125 277–278]}} However, Ford had replaced the welded grate front grille by a single [pressed/stamped](/wiki/Stamping_%28metalworking%29 "Stamping (metalworking)") sheet steel part, with nine vertical open slots to ventilate the radiator, and circular openings in front of the lights, to simplify production, and save costs. Willys also adopted this in their production of the MB after unit 25,808\. Predictably, there were still many minor differences; the Ford chassis had an inverted U\-shaped front cross member instead of a tubular bar, and a Ford script letter "F" was stamped onto many small parts. Many body detail differences remained for as long as January 1944, when a composite body, fabricated by [American Central](/wiki/American_Central_Manufacturing "American Central Manufacturing"), was finally agreed upon by both Ford and Willys. American Central had been making the jeep's bodies from the first 1500 units order for the Willys MA and had also built Ford's jeep bodies for two years already, but until January 1944, Ford and Willys contracts retained detail differences. However, from then on features of both designs were integrated.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/3383/\|title\=Jeeps in Olive Drab\|date\=1 October 1999\|website\=MotorTrend}} Through the chaotic circumstances of war, sometimes peculiar deviations from regular mass\-production came off the assembly line, that are now prized by collectors. For instance, the earliest Ford GPWs had a Willys design frame, and in late 1943, some GPWs came with an unmodified Willys body; while in 1945, Willys produced some MBs with a deep mud exhaust system, vacuum windshield wipers, and a Jeep CJ{{nbh}}style parking brake.[The Jimmy's Ancestry; The CCKW in Detail and The Collector's Syndrome — Bryce Sunderlin in Army Motors \#47, p.19](https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5aa9d8a7d12bef49c22e1473/5ac6c9492c10d16ced41e9a0_47_Jimmy_Ancestry.pdf) ([MVPA](/wiki/Military_Vehicle_Preservation_Association "Military Vehicle Preservation Association")) ### The Ford GPA, the amphibious jeep {{main\|Ford GPA}} [thumb\|[Ford GPA](/wiki/Ford_GPA "Ford GPA") [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle "Amphibious vehicle") jeep](/wiki/File:Ford_GPA_Amphibious_Jeep_pic2.JPG "Ford GPA Amphibious Jeep pic2.JPG") Approximately 13,000 additional [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle "Amphibious vehicle") jeeps were built by Ford as the [Ford GPA](/wiki/Ford_GPA "Ford GPA") (nicknamed "Seep" for "Sea Jeep"). Its design directly inspired by the larger [DUKW](/wiki/DUKW "DUKW"), and by the same designer and company, Rod Stephens Jr. of [Sparkman \& Stephens](/wiki/Sparkman_%26_Stephens "Sparkman & Stephens") yacht designers, the vehicle was produced too quickly,{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2021}} or its operational capability and limitations misunderstood. Although the GPA came out barely heavier, wider or taller than standard jeeps, it was *one third longer,* and proved unwieldy on land. Adding insult to injury, the Seep would often get stuck in mud or when wading, where the MB jeeps would not. In water, its disappointing performance was even more problematic, because contrary to the DUKW, it had insufficient [freeboard](/wiki/Freeboard_%28nautical%29 "Freeboard (nautical)") for [coastal landings](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare "Amphibious warfare") from open sea, leading to mixed success and tragic losses in the [allied Sicily landings](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily") in July 1943\. Many GPAs were passed on under the Lend\-Lease program—some 3,500 (more than a quarter of total production) to the USSR alone. The Soviets, however, were sufficiently pleased with its ability to cross the rivers and swamps in their territories, that they developed their own version of it after the war: the [GAZ\-46](/wiki/GAZ-46 "GAZ-46"). By contrast, [Ferdinand Porsches](/wiki/Ferdinand_Porsche "Ferdinand Porsche") engineering bureau designed an even lighter four\-wheel drive amphibious vehicle, the [VW Type 166 "Schwimmwagen,"](/wiki/Volkswagen_Schwimmwagen "Volkswagen Schwimmwagen") that quickly became popular in the German ranks, because of its excellent off\-road performance, contrary to the limitations of their regular [VW Kübelwagen](/wiki/Volkswagen_K%C3%BCbelwagen "Volkswagen Kübelwagen") without four\-wheel drive – *and* they only used them on inland waters. The U.S. Ford GPA amphibious jeeps thus also became one of the rare allied vehicle types that was numerically outproduced by their direct German counterparts – the 15,000 plus VW Schwimmwagen. ### Accessories and equipment fittings [thumb\|The World War II jeep with Bantam trailer, Potsdam, Germany](/wiki/File:WWII-jeep-with-M100-trailer-potsdam.gif "WWII-jeep-with-M100-trailer-potsdam.gif") {{Unreferenced section\|date\=September 2021}} Unlike the various [Dodge WC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series "Dodge WC series") models of larger, light 4×4 trucks, the Willys and Ford jeeps were all the same from the factory, and specialization happened only through standardized accessories, field kits, and local / in field modifications. Frequently made additions to the standard jeeps were to fit weaponry, communications equipment, Litter carriers, wire cutters, or rudimentary armor. #### Jeep trailer Some 150,000 [{{1/4}}\-ton trailers](/wiki/Jeep_trailer "Jeep trailer") were made by over ten different companies, specifically built to be towed by the jeep – most of them by Bantam and Willys. These doubled the jeeps' nominal payload. #### Radio gear [thumb\|Willys jeep interior with radio](/wiki/File:Jeep_Willys_Radio_WWII_interior_%2838977374854%29.jpg "Jeep Willys Radio WWII interior (38977374854).jpg") The jeep's primary command and reconnaissance roles of course necessitated fitting many kinds of tactical communication equipment. The first standard production fitting was for the [SCR\-193](/wiki/SCR-193 "SCR-193") radio, placed on either side in the rear of a jeep, on top of the rear wheel well. For proper reception, this included [radio interference suppression shielding](/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference%23EMI_in_integrated_circuits "Electromagnetic interference#EMI in integrated circuits"), so indicated by a suffix "S" on the jeep's hood registration number. In 1943/1944, the Army shifted to FM radios, and new fittings were developed for those. At least fourteen [Signal Corps Radio](/wiki/Signal_Corps_Radio "Signal Corps Radio") set fittings were standardized, including for the SCR\-187, [SCR\-284](/wiki/SCR-284 "SCR-284"), [SCR\-499](/wiki/SCR-299%23Specifications "SCR-299#Specifications"), SCR\-506, [SCR\-508](/wiki/SCR-508 "SCR-508"), SCR\-510, SCR\-522, [SCR\-528](/wiki/SCR-508%23Variants "SCR-508#Variants"), SCR\-542, [SCR\-608](/wiki/SCR-508%23Variants "SCR-508#Variants"), SCR\-610, SCR\-619, [SCR\-628](/wiki/SCR-508%23Variants "SCR-508#Variants"), [SCR\-694](/wiki/SCR-694 "SCR-694"), SCR\-808, SCR\-828, and VRC\-l.{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=20–22}} #### Gun mounts [thumb\|British [SAS](/wiki/Special_Air_Service "Special Air Service") jeep, armed with [Vickers K machine gun](/wiki/Vickers_K_machine_gun "Vickers K machine gun") for driver and twin Vickers K for the co\-driver](/wiki/File:Willys_MB.jpeg "Willys MB.jpeg") Two of the original uses of the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton truck were reconnaissance and the support of infantry with machine guns. These roles led to the desire to mount automatic rifles, to be fired from the jeep. To mount either a .30\-caliber [M1919 Browning machine gun](/wiki/M1919_Browning_machine_gun "M1919 Browning machine gun") or .50\-cal (12\.7 mm) [M2 Browning](/wiki/M2_Browning "M2 Browning") heavy machine gun, the M31 pedestal, a tubular pedestal with bracing in three directions, was developed. This was the most common factory jeep machine\-gun mount during the war, with 31,653 produced. It was followed by the improved M31C in March 1945, but this came too late for much combat in World War{{nbsp}}II. Besides these, units often created their own pedestal mounts in the field or adapted other pedestal mounts as available. Additionally, in 1943 the M48 bracket mount was standardized, to attach the .30\-cal. machine gun or .30\-cal. [M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle](/wiki/M1918_Browning_Automatic_Rifle "M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle") in front of the passenger seat. Like with the pedestals, troops improvised many gun\-holding brackets in the field.{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=20–22}} Troops frequently preferred a .30 cal machine gun on a pivot, to fire from the front passenger seat. Aside from actual fielding intentions, the jeep was widely used for various weapons mounts trials during World War{{nbsp}}II, simply because the jeep was a handy platform to test all kinds of ring mounts, multiple gun mounts, as well as different weapons. The widespread adoption of the jeep in other armies also meant many different armaments. The most rigorous efforts were by the British. Perhaps the most well\-known are the jeeps modified by the SAS for the 1942 desert raids in Egypt. These had several armaments, commonly using twin 0\.303\-inch [Vickers K machine guns](/wiki/Vickers_K_machine_gun "Vickers K machine gun") on the passenger side. ### Field kits [thumb\|Jeep with rear baggage rack (Netherlands, 1944\); note that the spare wheel was relocated to the rear right side](/wiki/File:Bevrijding_van_Maastricht%2C_Vrijthof%2C_14_sept_1944_%286%29.jpg "Bevrijding van Maastricht, Vrijthof, 14 sept 1944 (6).jpg") [thumb\|Ambulance jeeps often had racks for two litter patients front and back](/wiki/File:WORLD_WAR_II%3B_Casualty_Evaucation_by_jeep_Wellcome_L0031963.jpg "WORLD WAR II; Casualty Evaucation by jeep Wellcome L0031963.jpg") Many field kits originated as locally made modifications and additions, for which standard kits were later produced by both the U.S. and Britain. Frequently used examples were rear baggage racks, ambulance litters and frames to transport lying wounded on jeeps, and [wire cutters](/wiki/Wire_catcher "Wire catcher"). Soldiers frequently ran into (literally) wires—either inadvertently, inconveniently strung communication wires, or deliberately placed by the enemy, to injure or kill motorcycle and vehicle personnel. The typical countermeasure was to mount a tall vertical steel bar to the front bumper, that would either cut offending strings or deflect them over the heads of the jeep crew. This was first used in Tunisia, 1943, but became frequent in Italy (1943–1945\), and especially necessary in France (1944\).{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=39–41}} More specific kits were created to enhance off\-roading and mechanical capabilities, dealing with extreme climates, and technical support applications, like laying communication cables, or a field arc welder kit.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.portrayalpress.com/product\-p/harger.htm\|title\=Arc Welder Kit for G503\. Installation manual for MB/GPW. 20 pages. \|website\=portrayalpress.com}} [thumb\|WV\-6 snorkel kit for deep water fording, from TM9\-2853 (1945\)](/wiki/File:WV-6_Trucks_deep_water_fording_kit_on_jeep_%E2%80%93_TM9-2853.jpg "WV-6 Trucks deep water fording kit on jeep – TM9-2853.jpg") Many solutions made the jeep run on rails, popular in the [Pacific theater](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War") with U.S., Britain, and [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") troops, especially in [Burma](/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater%23Burma "China Burma India Theater#Burma"). A\-frames on the front bumper enabled two jeeps to tow heavy trailers (for 2{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton trucks) in tandem. For desert cooling, [radiator surge tanks](/wiki/Surge_tank%23Automotive_surge_tanks "Surge tank#Automotive surge tanks") were used in North Africa in 1942\. Equally, there were winterization kits, even snowplows, and the jeep's go\-anywhere capability was further aided with [deep water fording](/wiki/Ford_%28crossing%29 "Ford (crossing)") kits, tire air compressors, and a winch option. For communications, jeeps were modified with rear ditch plows and cable laying reels, such as the RL\-31 reel unit.{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=39–41}} #### Off\-road enhancements To disembark jeeps in [amphibious landings](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare "Amphibious warfare"), in 1943, a deep\-water fording kit for the jeep was produced. This enabled jeeps to be driven off [landing craft](/wiki/Landing_craft "Landing craft") like the [Landing Craft Mechanized](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Mechanized "Landing Craft Mechanized") (LCM), wading into relatively deep water, without flooding the engine or short\-circuiting the electrical system. After several interim kits were issued, the U.S. Army standardized the universal WV\-6 kit (later G9\-5700769\) which served all WWII {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton to 2{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton trucks. The kit contained flexible hoses for both the exhaust and the air intake, as well as proper waterproofing equipment. [Westinghouse](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation "Westinghouse Electric Corporation") developed a T1 air compressor, to be used in conjunction with special tires, to deflate the tires off\-road, in soft mud or snow, and be able to pressurize them again after. It could be fitted under a maintenance work order, from October 1944\. There was even a small capstan winch field kit made for the jeep, driven off the motor, for self\-extracting, or pulling other jeeps trapped in mud or snow.{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=39–41}} The winch was very small and made hand\-cranking of the jeep impossible. The latter two features remained rare. #### Arctic weather measures Willys developed a winterization kit for very cold climates. This included a cold\-starting stove, crankcase ventilator, primer, hood insulation blanket, radiator blanket, a body enclosure kit, defroster/de\-icer, and snow chains. These kits were however frequently unavailable, so units took their own measures in the field, particularly improvising various body enclosures, to protect the crew from extreme weather. In addition, two companies fabricated snowplows for the jeep. Geldhill Road Machinery Company made the 7T1NE plow, an angled single blade, while the JV5\.5E was a V\-shape design. The [Wausau Iron Works](/wiki/Ely_Wright_House%23Description_and_history "Ely Wright House#Description and history") built two similar designs, designated as the J and JB snowplows. Neither of these seem to have been commonly issued in combat. Photos of snowplows in use in the [European theater](/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II "European theatre of World War II") mostly show improvised plows, likely adaptations of snowplows locally found at hand.{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=39–41}} ### Further development of the jeep Although no other light jeeps were taken into production, it was not for lack of trying. Both key military men, who had been championing the development of military vehicle concepts they had formulated for years—sometimes already since World War I—had led to conclusions about the logic of military mechanization, as well as automakers large and small, who now saw that in wartime, all of a sudden there were budgets available to work with. Of course, this was primarily true for the firms involved so far. After losing out on mass\-production of the four\-wheel drive {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, Bantam built the Army one 4×2 quarter\-ton chassis in 1942, but to no further consequence.{{sfnp\|ref\=SRATAM4045\|Summary Report – Tank\-Automotive Materiel\|1945\|page\=55}} [thumb\|left\|Holden\-modified WW II ambulance jeep for the [U.S.M.C.](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") in the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War"). Note the medical supplies locker in place of right front seat. Source: National Archives](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%94National_Archives_fig-1.jpg "Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater—National Archives fig-1.jpg") [thumb\|[Holden](/wiki/Holden "Holden")\-modified MB/GPW jeep field\-ambulance for U.S.M.C. in the Pacific War, series I. Series II and III were made some 6 inches (15 cm) taller.](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%93left%E2%80%93National_Archives_fig-11.jpg "Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater–left–National Archives fig-11.jpg") An exception was an order for a series of some 200 to 500 standardized jeeps to be modified, by [Holden](/wiki/Holden "Holden") (then G.M. of Australia), into field ambulances for the [U.S. Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") in the [Pacific Theater](/wiki/Pacific_Theater_of_World_War_II "Pacific Theater of World War II"), because they found the standard {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\-54 ambulances](/wiki/Dodge_WC-54 "Dodge WC-54") too unwieldy, and even their own {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4 [International M\-1\-4](/wiki/International_M-1-4 "International M-1-4") vehicles both too ponderous *and* too scarce.[2020/2021 Military Trader article](https://www.militarytrader.com/military-vehicles/holden-ambulance) In 1942, Lt. Cmdr. French Moore, MC, a battalion surgeon with the 2nd Marine Division (Camp Elliott, CA) started developing his design for an MB/GPW\-based "light field\-ambulance." He submitted blueprints, and records of performance of his prototype to Marine Corps Commandant Lt. Gen. [Thomas Holcomb](/wiki/Thomas_Holcomb "Thomas Holcomb"). It could carry up to "35 patients 1,000 yards and return, in an hour." Rebuilt to Moore's design, it was approved for fielding in time for the Solomon Island Campaign in 1943\.[WWII Surgeon Develops Light Field Ambulance, André B. Sobocinski, BUMED Historian, 19 February 2017 in Navy Medicine Live (Archived)](https://web.archive.org/web/20170219130511/https://navymedicine.navylive.dodlive.mil/archives/6505) Three series were built in modest numbers but totaling more than the USMC's own ambulance versions of their International M\-1\-4 and M\-2\-4s. #### Lightweight jeeps [thumb\|One of thirty\-six Crosley CT\-3 'Pup' extra\-light, 4WD mini\-jeep prototypes](/wiki/File:Crosley_CT-3_PUP_%281943%29.jpg "Crosley CT-3 PUP (1943).jpg") After the initial design specification of a maximum {{convert\|1275\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} weight had been raised to almost double that in production, to achieve the necessary ruggedness on the main {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, the Army still wanted a truly lightweight model for airborne missions and use in the jungles of the Pacific theaters. In 1942 and 1943, at least five companies proposed designs: Crosley, Chevrolet, Ford, Willys, and Kaiser. The [Crosley CT\-3 "Pup"](/wiki/Crosley%23War-time_production "Crosley#War-time production") prototypes were superlight, one\- or two\-passenger, but still four\-wheel\-drive buggies, that were transportable and air\-droppable from a [Douglas C\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain"). Six of the 2\-cylinder, 13 hp, {{convert\|1125\|lb\|kg\|adj\=on}} Pups were deployed overseas after undergoing tests at [Fort Benning, Georgia](/wiki/Fort_Benning%2C_Georgia "Fort Benning, Georgia"), but the project was discontinued due to several weak components. Seven of 36 Pups built are known to {{nobr\|survive.{{cite web\| author\=Jackson, David D. \|title\=Crosley – American Automobile Industry in World War Two \|url\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/crosley.htm \| access\-date \=2018\-05\-01}}{{cite web\| title \=More on the Crosley "Pup" Jeep \| publisher \=eWillys\| date \=2014\-01\-01 \| url\=http://www.ewillys.com/2014/01/01/more\-on\-the\-crosley\-pup\-jeep/ \| access\-date \=2018\-05\-01}}}} [thumb\|Preparing for the July 1943 [Sicily campaign](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily"): a jeep is loaded onto an American [Waco CG\-4A](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 "Waco CG-4") glider plane.](/wiki/File:Jeep_being_loaded_into_waco_glider.jpg "Jeep being loaded into waco glider.jpg") Most of the competitors' models were more similar to standard jeeps, just lighter and smaller. Willys managed to reduce the weight on their 'MB\-L' (MB Lightweight) to some {{convert\|1570\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} in 1943; and Army engineers were impressed by the Chevrolet and its advanced features: a [single center spar frame](/wiki/Backbone_chassis "Backbone chassis"), and an integrated gearbox and [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case").{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=17–20}} Kaiser created six {{convert\|1300\|\-\|1400\|lb\|kg\|adj\=on}} prototypes with a 42 hp engine but including some unfavorable design trade\-offs. Willys eventually produced even more radical designs. The Willys WAC (Willys Air Cooled) had three seats, built around a centrally mounted 24 hp [Harley Davidson](/wiki/Harley_Davidson "Harley Davidson") engine, weighed only {{convert\|1050\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}}, but was noisy and not user\-friendly. Still, it showed promise, and was further developed, eventually resulting in the Willys JBC, or "Jungle Burden Carrier." By early 1945, this had turned into a mere {{convert\|561\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} motorized wheeled load\-carrying platform, with a single seat, that preceded the 1950s [Willys M274 "Mechanical Mule](/wiki/M274_1/2-ton_4%C3%974_utility_platform_truck "M274 1/2-ton 4×4 utility platform truck")."{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=17–20}} In Britain, [Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanizations_and_Aero "Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero") cut down a Willys MB in length and width, and stripped it for minimum weight, to serve airborne forces. The Airborne Forces Development Centre in Wiltshire oversaw an entire modification program for jeeps in airborne units, involving many modifications to reduce both weight and or size, including to wedge them into [Horsa gliders](/wiki/Horsa_glider "Horsa glider"), for [operation Market Garden](/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden "Operation Market Garden").{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=17–20}} [thumb\|left\|Jeep with a [37mm cannon](/wiki/37_mm_Gun_M3 "37 mm Gun M3") and a belt\-fed, water\-cooled, rapid\-fire [Browning M1917A1 machine gun](/wiki/M1917_Browning_machine_gun%23M1917A1 "M1917 Browning machine gun#M1917A1") in U.S. 3rd Infantry, Newfoundland, 1942](/wiki/File:1942Jeep.jpg "1942Jeep.jpg") #### Antitank jeeps [thumb\|1941 exp. 37mm anti\-tank GMC prototype on a Bantam BRC\-40 T2E1, as the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton car itself was still in development.](/wiki/File:Bantam_BRC_40_T2E1_37mm_antitank_prototype_%281941%29.webp "Bantam BRC 40 T2E1 37mm antitank prototype (1941).webp") Besides towing 37 mm antitank guns, it was also tested mounted directly on the quarter{{nbh}}tons. In early 1941, the US Army's [Tank Destroyer Command](/wiki/Tank_destroyer_battalion_%28United_States%29 "Tank destroyer battalion (United States)") was urgently looking to make their antitank guns more mobile, to better serve their tactical doctrine. One of the first prototypes, the T2 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC), mounted a standard 37 mm gun and [gun shield](/wiki/Gun_shield "Gun shield") on a Bantam BRC\-40, aiming forward over the hood. Seven of these were built and tested, starting in May 1941, but were found awkward. So instead, eleven T2E1 GMC units aimed the 37 mm gun rearwards for trials. Shooting rearwards had advantages, but this configuration also proved difficult to man and operate the gun. The units were all dismantled to regular jeeps. In 1942, the larger {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\-52](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series "Dodge WC series") was converted and standardized as the [M6 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M6_gun_motor_carriage "M6 gun motor carriage"), with a rear\-aiming [37mm M3 gun](/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3 "37 mm gun M3"), but these also worked poorly in the field, and most were rebuilt back to regular WC\-52 trucks. [thumb\|Experimental rocket\-artillery jeep, Inyokern Naval Air Facility, Jan 1945](/wiki/File:Exp.Rocket-Firing_MB-GPW_Inyokern_Naval_Air_facility_Jan%2745_US_Navy%E2%80%94mmu_get_jpeg.jpg "Exp.Rocket-Firing MB-GPW Inyokern Naval Air facility Jan'45 US Navy—mmu get jpeg.jpg") Late in the war, in 1945, the first large\-caliber [recoilless rifles](/wiki/Recoilless_rifle "Recoilless rifle") became available, and the first jeep\-mounted tests were performed, but they only came to fruition after World War{{nbsp}}II. One rare exception was [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity "Operation Varsity"), for which two [75\-mm. recoilless rifles](/wiki/75-mm._recoilless_rifle "75-mm. recoilless rifle") were issued to the [17th U.S. Airborne Division](/wiki/17th_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 "17th Airborne Division (United States)"), that could be mounted on their jeeps, proving useful in anti\-tank fights.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/shop\-talk\-three\-jeeps\|title\=SHOP TALK: Three Jeeps\|website\=The National WWII Museum \| New Orleans\|date\=15 June 2020 }} #### Rocket jeeps The jeep being too light to mount substantial guns, it was more suited later in the war, as a platform for rocket artillery, that didn't have the enormous recoil as conventional tube [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery"). The [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology "California Institute of Technology") developed two different 4\.5\-inch jeep\-based rocket launcher systems for the U.S. Navy. Several other initiatives all used 4\.5\-inch rockets and tubes. Testing was also done by both U.S. Army and Marine Corps, but none of the jeep\-mounted rocket launchers were built in any significant number because it was more efficient to use larger trucks that could carry more rockets. The Soviet Red Army deployed twelve units fitted with 12\-rail [M\-8 82mm rocket](/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher "Katyusha rocket launcher") launchers in the bed of a jeep, from December 1944 in the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains").{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=33–37}} #### Stretched and uprated jeeps [thumb\|Willys T14, rearwards firing 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC)—the first 6×6 "Super\-Jeep"](/wiki/File:Willys_6x6_%27Super-Jeep%27_37mm_T14_Gun_Motor_Carriage_no.2%2C_front_left.jpg "Willys 6x6 'Super-Jeep' 37mm T14 Gun Motor Carriage no.2, front left.jpg") [thumb\|Willys MT\-TUG, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6 Tractor/"Super\-Jeep"; picture from TM10\-1513 manual supplement](/wiki/File:Willys_MT-TUG%2C_%C2%BE-ton_Truck%2C_6x6%2C_Tractor%2C_from_TM10-1513_supplement_%28cropped%29.jpg "Willys MT-TUG, ¾-ton Truck, 6x6, Tractor, from TM10-1513 supplement (cropped).jpg") [thumb\|Willys MLW\-2 pickup, {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4, "Light Jungle" prototype initially rode on 36\-inch (91 cm) wheels and tires, and had a whole new rear, with a "tailgate"](/wiki/File:Willys_MLW-2_rear_%E2%80%93_1%E2%81%842-ton%2C_4x4%2C_pickup%2C_Light_%27Jungle_Jeep%27_prototype.jpg "Willys MLW-2 rear – 1⁄2-ton, 4x4, pickup, Light 'Jungle Jeep' prototype.jpg") To extend the jeep's luggage space, the simplest, and most frequently used method was the addition of a [rear baggage rack](/wiki/%23Field_kits "#Field kits"). In exceptional cases, units would actually stretch both body and frame of a jeep, to give it more passenger and luggage space, but for this usage, a Dodge WC model was available in many cases. Nevertheless, building stretched, 6×6 jeeps with {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton cross\-country payload, was explored with much interest. As early as July 1941, after the unsuccessful testing with the T2 and T2E1 37 mm antitank guns mounted on Bantam jeeps, the [U.S. Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 "Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)") (QMC) thought to lengthen {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps into 6WD for specialized roles, including the 37 mm gun. Willys was contracted that month for both a T13 and a T14 gun motor carriage, based on the Willys MA – one firing forward, and one rearward, like the earlier Bantams. In reality, two models of rearward firing T14 were built, based on Willys *MBs*, one slat grille in late 1941, and one or more stamped grilles, by January 1942\. Nevertheless, the QMC and Willys kept developing the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6, in various versions, as the "Super\-Jeep." By March 1942, the T14 GMC was revised as a cargo / prime mover, named Willys 'MT\-TUG', that could compete in some roles with the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton Dodges. The Army tested these in various configurations, up to a 1{{nbh}}ton rated version, as a light, multi\-purpose tractor truck, cargo, or personnel carrier. For the [United States Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Force "United States Army Air Force") (USAAF), several MT\-Tug units were built with a [fifth\-wheel coupling](/wiki/Fifth-wheel_coupling "Fifth-wheel coupling") on the cargo floor, for various [Fruehauf](/wiki/Fruehauf "Fruehauf") trailers, and loaded with sandbags on the cargo bed, even as [aircraft tugs](/wiki/Aircraft_tug "Aircraft tug"). The Willys MT models had the same {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton rating as the new for 1942 [Dodge WC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series "Dodge WC series"), but weighed only {{convert\|3100\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}}, with a {{convert\|300\|mi\|km}} range, and a top speed of {{convert\|55\|mph\|km/h}}. Willys pointed out that every 6×6 "Super Jeep" would save {{convert\|2000\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} of steel for their construction, as well as 40% in fuel usage, compared to the Dodge trucks.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.armyjeepparts.com/news.aspx?showarticle\=16\|title\=Army Jeep Parts for Sale Online \| Vintage Jeep Parts}}{{failed verification\|reason\=no article at link\|date\=September 2021}} Moreover, it comprised 65% unaltered standard jeep components, and many of the other parts were also just modified standard jeep parts. By January 1943, the Willys MT\-TUG was further evaluated by the Army Transport Command at [Camp Gordon Johnston](/wiki/Camp_Gordon_Johnston "Camp Gordon Johnston"), FL. It was positively reviewed there for its effortless operation in deep sand. Although the Willys {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton's performance was even called 'exemplary' by some.{{Cite web\|title\=Unique Jeeps – The Good, The Bad \& The Goofy \|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/1406\-unique\-jeeps\-the\-good\-bad\-and\-goofy/\|date\=14 May 2014\|website\=MotorTrend}} Fifteen 6×6 Willys MT(\-Tug)s alone were built as "Truck, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton, 6×6, Tractor", under Ordnance production contract W{{nbh}}303{{nbh}}ORD{{nbh}}4623, production order T6620,{{cite magazine \|editor\-first\=Bart \|editor\-last\=Vanderveen \|year\=1992 \|title\=Willys MT\-TUG – 6×6 Super\-Jeep \|url\=https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\_file.php?fid\=508854 \|magazine\=Wheels \& Tracks \|location\=Old Harlow, Essex, UK \|publisher\=Battle of Britain Prints International \|pages\=25–33 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200917122402/https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\_file.php?fid\=508854 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-17 \|via\=karopka.ru \|access\-date\=30 July 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} [Full article at 12\.08\.2012 02:34:41](https://karopka.ru/forum/forum193/topic12953/){{sfnp\|ref\=SRATAM4045\|Summary Report – Tank\-Automotive Materiel\|1945\|page\=62}}{{cite web \|url\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/willys\-overland.htm\|title\=Willys\-Overland Motors in WWII \|website\=usautoindustryworldwartwo.com}} and even a maintenance supplement for the "6×6 Willys MB{{nbh}}Tug" was printed with the 1943 TM10{{nbh}}1513 technical manual. Including miscellaneous test units, a total of 24 units are believed to have been built, with six known survivors. An even smaller number of {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps with a slightly stretched wheelbase were built as the Willys MLW(−1\) through MLW\-4 "Jungle Jeep." LW stood for Long(er) Wheelbase, to accommodate significantly larger wheels and 7\.50–20 tires with a tractor\-like profile, with the objective to serve in the jungles of the Pacific theater, after a September 1943 request from the South West Pacific for a truck with payload and mobility over mud and swamps of jungle terrain, superior to that of the regular jeep.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.milweb.net/features/willys\_jeep.php \|title\=Willys Jeep, Ford jeep \|website\=milweb.net}}Although uprating from {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton to {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton seems like doubling, the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton standard rating is nominal — the real standard jeep rating was {{convert\|1200\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} on road, and {{convert\|800\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} off\-road.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2021}} [thumb\|T28 experimental Willys MT based, half\-track litter\-carrier.](/wiki/File:T28_or_T29_experimental_half-track_WW_II_jeep_litter-carrier_%28cropped%29.jpg "T28 or T29 experimental half-track WW II jeep litter-carrier (cropped).jpg") #### Tracked jeeps Several tracked jeep prototypes were built, because of such a need in Alaska and Canada. After America entered the war, a Japanese attack on the [Aleutians](/wiki/Aleutian_Islands "Aleutian Islands") suddenly made the Alaskan military base a zone of great military importance. The snow\-rich circumstances created a need for tracked, jeep\-like, all\-purpose vehicles, and the Canadian [Bombardier](/wiki/Bombardier_Recreational_Products "Bombardier Recreational Products") company and Willys created the T29 jeep [half\-track](/wiki/Half-track "Half-track") out of one of the existing 6×6 Willys MT chassis. The T\-29 "Snow Tractor" (Jan 1943\) expanded the rear chassis to a total of six wheels: three on each side, with a broad rubber belt serving as a track, running around two Ford model A wheels, followed by a notably larger wheel at each back corner. Instead of front wheels, the rig got skis, and the front\-wheel driveline was omitted, to save cost and weight. It was followed up with the T29E1, on which front wheels returned, but mounted on the front skis, and still non\-driven, just so that the front could now both glide *and* roll.['Jeep modifications (continued)' (in Dutch)](https://www.strijdbewijs.nl/jeep/jeep1a.htm) [thumb\|America tested armoring jeeps for reconnaissance (reenactment car).](/wiki/File:Farbatron.jpg "Farbatron.jpg") Due to Willys' workload, International Harvester helped assemble a further five T29E1 prototypes. Under the steering front wheels, skis could be mounted or removed. An Aberdeen test report critiqued that the T\-29E1 was difficult to steer, as the tracks could not be controlled independently, and that prolonged use caused excessive track component wear. A completely rearranged rear was then proposed, and a T28 litter\-carrier was completed for testing by August 1944\. The only known surviving half\-track WWII jeep is a Willys{{nbsp}}T28 named "Penguin."{{cite web \|last1\=Askew \|first1\=Mark \|title\=The History of the Willys Half\-Track Jeeps\- the T\-29 and T\-29 E1 \|url\= http://www.milweb.net/features/jeep.php \|website\=milweb.net \|access\-date\=24 July 2021 \|date\=2008}} Further (fully) tracked "jeeps" were also armored, and developed for, and by Canada (see [armored jeeps](/wiki/%23Armored_jeeps "#Armored jeeps")). #### Armored jeeps Many jeeps received added armor in the field, especially in Europe in 1944–1945\. Frequently, a rear slanting armor plate was added in front of the grille, and replacing the windshield, as well as the sides, in place of where doors would be. [thumb\|The [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car "T24 Scout Car") was built on a 6×6 Willys MT "Super\-Jeep" chassis.](/wiki/File:T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg "T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg") Since reconnaissance was one of the jeep's primary purposes, there was a demand for some armor from the start of production. Starting April 1942, the second T14 GMC 6×6 Willys MT\-Tug chassis was converted to the [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car "T24 Scout Car"). Though performing well in trials, the T24 was abandoned in the autumn in favor of the [M8 \& M20 Light Armored Car](/wiki/M8_Greyhound "M8 Greyhound"). Concurrently, the Ordnance Corps was pushed to work on a lightly armored reconnaissance design, based on the standard Willys 4×4 jeep. Different armor configurations were tested on the T25 through T25E3 prototypes respectively. Canada created a light, tracked, armored, and armed vehicle using Jeep automotive components. In late 1942, the [Canadian Department of National Defence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_%28Canada%29 "Department of National Defence (Canada)") (DND)'s Directorate of Vehicles and Artillery (DVA) began work at No.1 Proving Ground in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa") on a small tracked vehicle successively named: 'Bantam Armoured Tracked Vehicle', the 'Light Recce Tank', and finally: the 'Tracked Jeep', TJ. [thumb\|left\|The Canadian "Tracked Jeep" Mk.1 in the [Canadian War Museum](/wiki/Canadian_War_Museum "Canadian War Museum").](/wiki/File:Tracked_Jeep_%2824839526376%29.jpg "Tracked Jeep (24839526376).jpg") [thumb\|Canadian WWII poster for [savings certificates](/wiki/Canada_Savings_Bond%23History "Canada Savings Bond#History"). The vehicle resembles a British [Standard Beaverette](/wiki/Standard_Beaverette "Standard Beaverette") armored car](/wiki/File:I0016089.jpg "I0016089.jpg") The Canadian "Tracked Jeep" Mk.1 measured {{convert\|2\.83\|m\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}} long, and {{convert\|1\.70\|m\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}} wide, by {{convert\|1\.28\|m\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}} high; it had a maximum armor of 12 mm ({{1/2}}\-inch), and aimed at top speeds of 56 km/h (35 mph) on land and 8 km/h (5 mph) in the water.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\=jeep\&page\_num\=1\&item\_num\=3\&media\_irn\=5384241 \|title\=Reconnaissance Carrier \|website\=Canadian War Museum \|access\-date\=9 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=9 February 2021 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210209135141/https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\=jeep\&page\_num\=1\&item\_num\=3\&media\_irn\=5384241 \|url\-status\=dead}} The vehicle was intended for taking messages over contested ground, [armored reconnaissance](/wiki/Armored_reconnaissance "Armored reconnaissance"), and engaging unarmored enemy troops in airborne and combined operations.{{Cite web\|url\=https://milart.blog/2014/08/16/canadian\-tracked\-jeep\-willys/\|title\=Canadian Tracked Jeep (Willys)\|date\=16 August 2014}} Willys and Marmon\-Herrington were contracted for five more prototypes, Willys for power train components, and MH for the armored hulls and the Hotchkiss\-type running gear. The Tracked Jeep showed excellent cross\-country performance and uphill mobility was better than other light tracked utility vehicles, while its [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle "Amphibious vehicle") capability was adequate, despite its low freeboard. There were however serious shortcomings with the running\-gear and tracks. Work to fix this delayed testing until late 1944, and British insights demanded such fundamental changes, that a Mk.2 version was developed, of which another six units were fabricated, and not ready until after the war had ended. The problems with tracks and running gear were still not sorted out, and development halted. #### Flying jeep {{unreferenced section\|date\=September 2021}} [thumb\|left\|Hafner Rotabuggy in flight](/wiki/File:Rotabuggy.jpg "Rotabuggy.jpg") The most extreme concept tried was to turn the jeep into a [rotor kite](/wiki/Rotor_kite "Rotor kite") (or gyrokite), similar to an [autogyro](/wiki/Autogyro "Autogyro")—the [Hafner Rotabuggy](/wiki/Hafner_Rotabuggy "Hafner Rotabuggy") (officially Malcolm Rotaplane). Designed by [Raoul Hafner](/wiki/Raoul_Hafner "Raoul Hafner") in 1942 and sponsored by the [Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment](/wiki/Airborne_Forces_Experimental_Establishment "Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment") (AFEE), after their [Rotachute](/wiki/Rotachute "Rotachute") enjoyed some success, a passive rotor assembly was added over the jeep cabin, along with a lightweight tail, for stabilization. This jeep could be towed into the air by a transport or bomber tug. The Rotabuggy would then be towed to the drop zone as a rotary\-wing glider. It took until autumn 1944 to achieve a decent test flight, and other [military gliders](/wiki/Military_glider "Military glider"), (particularly the [Waco Hadrian](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 "Waco CG-4") and [Airspeed Horsa](/wiki/Airspeed_Horsa "Airspeed Horsa")) made the Rotabuggy superfluous. Incidentally, it was first named the "Blitz Buggy," but that was soon dropped for "Rotabuggy". {{break}}
[ "History\n-------", "### The design challenge and achievement", "[thumb \\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|[Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\")'s first prototype, shown in front of the *already new* for 1940, \"light\" half\\-ton, 4×4 [Dodge VC\\-1 Command Car](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940_G505 \"Dodge WC series#1940 G505\"), graphically shows the radically new {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton concept.{{sfnp \\|Thomson\\|Mayo\\|2003\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=completely\\+new 297]}}](/wiki/File:BantamPilotHaugh_%284%29.jpg \"BantamPilotHaugh (4).jpg\")", "By 1940, U.S. policies had caused a stark disadvantage compared to [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\")'s aim, building a standard fleet of [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") (German armed forces) motor vehicles. From 1933, German industry could only produce Wehrmacht\\-approved trucks.{{harvp\\|Thomson\\|Mayo\\|2003\\|p\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20230908215603/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA269\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U06eDtDJxTdUdKLenUS\\_\\_u8rFvPGg\\&w\\=1920 269 (archived)] }} The U.S. Quartermaster's only significant success for standardization, through late September 1939 Army Regulations on tactical trucks,Regulation AR 850\\-15, 29 Sep '39, released after Germany had [invaded and conquered Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\") in September 1939\\. was that the War Department limited procurement to just five payload chassis types (categories), from {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton to {{frac\\|7\\|1\\|2}}{{nbh}}ton{{harvp\\|Thomson\\|Mayo\\|2003\\|p\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20230908222500/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA270\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U1n44yegIV0PnuSalnnq4GM3JlikQ\\&w\\=1280 270 (archived)] }}—but *only* \"models produced commercially by two or more competing companies...\" The Army was still to use \"commercially standard\" trucks and parts, with only minor modifications, like brush\\-guards, tow\\-hooks, etc. Specially designed vehicles or a standardized truck fleet were still ruled out. \"This policy was intended to assure speedy production at the outbreak of war, regardless of the maintenance and spare parts problems that might develop later.\" The new rules more or less allowed the Army to order in late 1939 the U.S. military's first ever *light, quantity\\-produced* 4×4 trucks: the half\\-ton [Dodge G\\-505 VC\\-series trucks](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940VC_VF \"Dodge WC series#1940VC VF\"), delivered in the first half of 1940, but these were still not light enough for the jobs that both the Infantry and Ordnance branches required it for.{{sfnp\\|Ackerson\\|2006\\|pp\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512015352/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=56uvBIikfrQC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PT17\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U03yyUfgAwOC9VkoBMfQfWznccZZg\\&w\\=1920 16–17]}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Risch \\|first\\=Erna \\|title\\=The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services \\|orig\\-year\\=1953 \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Army Center of Military History\\|Center of Military History, U.S. Army]] \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|page\\=140 \\|url\\=https://history.army.mil/html/books/010/10\\-12/CMH\\_Pub\\_10\\-12\\-1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=8 September 2023}} By contrast, Germany had already completed a development program to produce [off\\-road capable](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle \"Off-road vehicle\") \"Standardized Military Vehicles\" (the [Einheits\\-PKW der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Einheits-PKW_der_Wehrmacht \"Einheits-PKW der Wehrmacht\")), from 1933 to 1938, which had already yielded a fleet of tens of thousands of standardized vehicles for the German Army. Moreover, lessons were learned, and a *second* program to develop a cheap, light, nimble multipurpose off\\-roader, the [Volkswagen Kübelwagen](/wiki/Volkswagen_K%C3%BCbelwagen \"Volkswagen Kübelwagen\"), had already started in 1938\\. America's military faced a severe catch\\-up situation, both in time and knowledge. In June 1940, the race was on to produce a lightweight, four\\-wheel\\-drive cross\\-country vehicle for the U.S. Army, capable of carrying equipment and personnel across rough terrain.", "The idea of the jeep originated with the infantry, which needed a low\\-profile, powerful vehicle with four\\-wheel drive and it was turned over to commercial companies (chiefly [Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\"), [Willys](/wiki/Willys \"Willys\"), and [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\")) to deliver—the development repeatedly being described as a \"[design by committee](/wiki/Design_by_committee \"Design by committee\").\"{{harvp \\|Ackerson \\|2006 \\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=56uvBIikfrQC\\&pg\\=PT7 7–8]}} \"...several military officers who regarded the Jeep as \"a universal idea, which no one person invented, created or discovered ... an evolution not an invention ... the fruit of specifications defined by the military over a long period.\"{{refn \\|name\\=PPattonCmt \\|{{cite web \\|url\\= http://philpatton.typepad.com/my\\_weblog/2012/04/design\\-by\\-committee\\-the\\-case\\-of\\-the\\-jeep.html \\|title\\=Design by Committee: the Case of the Jeep \\|last\\=Patton \\|first\\=Phil \\|date\\=23 April 2012 \\|website\\=Phil Patton blog \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2018 }}Phil Patton was a design journalist, curator, and author. He wrote regularly about automobile design for the ''New York Times''.}} In fall 1941, Lt. E.P. Hogan of the [U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 \"Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)\") wrote: \"Credit for the original design of the Army's truck {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4, may not be claimed by any single individual or manufacturer. This vehicle is the result of much research and many tests.\"{{sfnp\\|Hogan\\|1941\\|p\\={{page needed\\|date\\=October 2023}}}} Hogan credited both military and civilian engineers, especially those working at the [Holabird Quartermaster Depot](/wiki/Holabird_Ordnance_Depot \"Holabird Ordnance Depot\"). Nevertheless, Bantam is credited with inventing the original {{1/4}}{{nbh}} ton jeep in 1940\\.To be distinguished from the U.S. Army's first ever series\\-produced, light 4{{nbh}}wheel drive trucks, which were *half\\-ton* rated – developed by [Dodge](/wiki/Dodge \"Dodge\"), and supplied to the Army earlier that same year as the [Dodge VC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%23Half-ton_VC_series \"Dodge WC series#Half-ton VC series\") – and which were *also* called \"jeeps\" by soldiers.[House Resolution 382; Regular Session 2015\\-2016](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/billInfo/bill_history.cfm?syear=2015&sind=0&body=H&type=R&bn=382) Retrieved 11 July 2022[HOUSE RESOLUTION No. 382 Session of 2015](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=PDF&sessYr=2015&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=R&billNbr=0382&pn=1732/) Retrieved 11 July 2022[Invention of the Jeep Historical Marker](https://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-2F1) Retrieved 16 July 2022[Questions and Answers – Who Invented the Jeep?](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/105519305/questions-and-answers-who-invented/) Retrieved 13 July 2022", "However, Willys' advertising and branding during and after the war aimed to make the world recognize Willys as the creator of the jeep.{{cite web \\|author\\=Walter P. Chrysler Museum \\|title\\=The Jeep Story, 1940 \\- 1970 \\|url\\=https://fcagroup.pl/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/05/The\\-Jeep\\-Story\\-1940\\-1970\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fiat Chrysler Automobiles\\|FCA Group]] \\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906112731/https://fcagroup.pl/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/05/The\\-Jeep\\-Story\\-1940\\-1970\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-06 \\|date\\=2009\\|url\\-status\\=live}} When Willys first applied to trademark the \"Jeep\" name in February 1943,{{sfnp\\|Statham\\|1999\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=dR3wmKlfnrMC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA26\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U3j4\\_fg4IL6Axwge2jUaCXbK3TLDA\\&w\\=1280 26]}} Bantam, Ford and other companies objected, because of their contributions to the jeep and the war effort. Although many other companies advertised their patriotic efforts to producing the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps—including Ford, featuring their own GPW jeeps in their ads—nobody took their claims as far as Willys\\-Overland, and the U.S. [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission \"Federal Trade Commission\") (FTC) opened a case, charging Willys\\-Overland with misrepresentation in their advertising and news claims, on 6 May 1943\\.{{sfnp\\|Statham\\|1999\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=dR3wmKlfnrMC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA27\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U0mSjidDVTJi0Y2NYEEdeLKHOEC6w\\&w\\=1280 27]}} According to the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"),* the FTC ruled that Willys did *not* perform the \"spectacular achievement\"(Willys advertising wording) of creating, designing and perfecting the \"jeep\" together with U.S. Army Quartermaster officers, but that: \"*The idea of creating a 'jeep' was said by the FTC ... to have been originated by the American Bantam \\[Co.] of Butler, PA '\\[with U.S. Army officers] and to have been \\[conceived and] developed by that company.*\"{{cite news \\|title\\=FTC Says Bantam Company, Not Willys\\-Overland Conceived it \\|url\\= http://www.ewillys.com/wp\\-content/uploads2/2022/01/1943\\-05\\-09\\-ny\\-times.jpg \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=9 May 1943 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230331225814/http://www.ewillys.com/tag/jeep\\-name/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-31 \\|via\\=ewillys.com, 5 Jan 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-31 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Willys appealed this ruling, and after a five\\-year investigation, in 1948 the FTC again ruled that \"Willys was unfairly taking credit for the creation and was thus using unfair methods of competition. The FTC ordered Willys to stop claiming they were the sole creator of the Jeep.\"", "Some 70 years later, in a late 2012 article, the Defense Acquisition Research Journal{{refn \\|group\\=nb \\|A scholarly, peer\\-reviewed journal published by the \\[\\[Defense Acquisition University]] (DAU)\\[https://www.dau.edu/library/arj/ Defense Acquisition Research Journal], see dynamic banner }} still called the jeep design \"...a product of a massive team effort, including all three manufacturers as well as Army engineers, both military and civilian.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Duddy \\|first1\\=Brian J. \\|title\\=The Jeep at 70: A Defense Acquisition Success Story \\|journal\\=Defense Acquisition Research Journal \\|date\\=October 2012 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=4 \\|page\\=372 \\|url\\=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA582717\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915222847/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA582717\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-15 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Defense Acquisition University]] }}{{refn \\|group\\=nb \\|Citing Vanderveen (1971\\)'' 'The Jeep','' Wells (1946\\)'' 'Hail to the Jeep: A factual and pictorial history of the WWII Jeep','' and Hogan (1941\\); pages not given.}}", "[thumb\\|General [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\"), here in his jeep in summer 1944, wrote that the jeep was \"one of the six most vital\" U.S. vehicles to win the war](/wiki/File:Eisenhower_in_jeep_in_Normandy_orchard.jpg \"Eisenhower in jeep in Normandy orchard.jpg\")\nMoreover, in 2015, the [Pennsylvania General Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly \"Pennsylvania General Assembly\") unanimously adopted a non\\-controversial House Resolution (382\\): \"*...commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Bantam jeep, invented and originally manufactured in Butler, Pennsylvania,*\"{{cite act \\|type\\=resolution \\|index\\=382 \\|date\\=9 June 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2023 \\|legislature\\=Pennsylvania General Assembly \\|title\\=Resolution commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Bantam jeep, invented and originally manufactured in Butler, Pennsylvania \\|pages\\=1–2 \\|url\\=https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/billInfo/BillInfo.cfm?syear\\=2015\\&sind\\=0\\&body\\=H\\&type\\=R\\&bn\\=382 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201002755/https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/billInfo/billInfo.cfm?syear\\=2015\\&sInd\\=0\\&body\\=H\\&type\\=R\\&bn\\=382 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-01 }} therein explicitly resolving that [Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\") of Butler, PA, invented the jeep, calling it \"one of the most famous vehicles in the world,\" were the only party to deliver a working prototype of a light four\\-wheel drive reconnaissance car within the required seven weeks, which withstood 30 days of Army testing at Camp Holabird, then further developed that car, and manufactured 2,675 jeeps, before losing further production contracts to Willys and Ford Motor Company, for fear that Bantam would not be able to ramp up production to 75 jeeps a day, and after the Army handed Ford and Willys the blueprints of Bantam's detailed technical drawings—though Bantam proved highly capable and productive during the war, entrusted with manufacturing [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\")\\-motors and more.[General Assembly of Pennsylvania House Resolution No. 382 of 2015](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=HTM&sessYr=2015&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=R&billNbr=0382&pn=1732) (full text; [archived on 30 July 2023](https://web.archive.org/web/20230730011131/https://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=HTM&sessYr=2015&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=R&billNbr=0382&pn=1732)). Accessed 30 July 2023", "However, on 7 April 1942, U.S. patent 2278450 for the WWII jeep, titled \"Military vehicle body\" had been awarded to *the U.S. Army*, which had applied for it, listing Colonel [Byron Q. Jones](/wiki/Byron_Q._Jones \"Byron Q. Jones\") as the inventor on the patent, though he had performed no work on the design of the vehicle.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.ipwatchdog.com/2016/04/07/original\\-jeep\\-patent/id\\=68132/ \\|title\\=75th Anniversary of the Original Jeep Patent\\|date\\=7 April 2016}} Filed on 8 October 1941, stating in the application that \"The invention described herein, if patented, may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty thereon,\"{{cite web \\|url\\= https://patents.google.com/patent/US2278450 \\|title\\=Patent 2,278,450: Military Vehicle Body \\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2018}} the patent relates to a \"small car vehicle body having convertible features whereby it is rendered particularly desirable for military purposes\" and describes the purpose as being \"a convertible small car body so arranged that a single vehicle may be interchangeably used as a cargo truck, personnel carrier, emergency ambulance, field beds, radio car, trench mortar unit, mobile anti\\-aircraft machine gun unit, or for other purposes.\"", "### First motorizations and World War I", "For centuries, horses were used for reconnaissance, communications, and pulling loads, whenever wars were fought, but after the start of the 20th century, [motorcycles](/wiki/Motorcycle \"Motorcycle\") were the first [motor vehicles](/wiki/Motor_vehicle \"Motor vehicle\") eagerly adopted by the military, either to replace mounted/ridden [cavalry horses](/wiki/Horses_in_warfare \"Horses in warfare\"), or to [motorize infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry \"Motorized infantry\").", "The armies of World War I relied on marching men, horses, and railways for movement but [its new technologies](/wiki/World_War_I%23Technology \"World War I#Technology\") introduced motor vehicles: the [first tanks](/wiki/History_of_the_tank \"History of the tank\"), armoured car, and artillery tractors. Motorcycles were the most prolific motor\\-tools in the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") arsenal.", "[thumb\\|left\\|U.S. [Indian motorcycle](/wiki/Indian_motorcycle \"Indian motorcycle\") and sidecar, with M1914 Colt Machine Gun, 1917\\.](/wiki/File:1917_-_Indian_Motorcycle_and_M1914_Colt_Machine_Gun.jpg \"1917 - Indian Motorcycle and M1914 Colt Machine Gun.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|British military motorcycle dispatch rider, 1914 World War I.](/wiki/File:British_military_motorcycle_dispatch_rider_WW1.jpg \"British military motorcycle dispatch rider WW1.jpg\")\n[Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"), [mounted infantry](/wiki/Mounted_infantry \"Mounted infantry\"), [scouts](/wiki/Cavalry_scout \"Cavalry scout\"), and [messengers](/wiki/Despatch_rider \"Despatch rider\") could now be mobilized in combat with much greater speed, agility, and near tireless machines,[P. Findlay (2006\\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep \"#Man&Jeep\") [*(documentary)*; time \\= 3:45–4:18](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=225) exactly what was wanted for relaying critical orders, getting munitions to machine guns, and scouting miles ahead of advancing units. The quick and nimble motorcycle, \"ridden hard through shot and shell to secure victory,\" has made itself irreplaceable in specific roles on the battlefield to this day.", "But motorcycles also had serious limitations. One could be fast on a decent road, but many roads were still so bad, that the U.S. already had a *[Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement \"Good Roads Movement\")* in the late 19th century, as increased usage of [bicycles](/wiki/Safety_bicycle \"Safety bicycle\") required improving the surfaces of existing wagon and carriage trails. The motorcycles of the era were not ideal; only the best motorcyclists could endure a muddy battlefield trail, control the bike and keep it from stalling, damage, or flipping over; and driver training was both costly in terms of time and money.[P. Findlay (2006\\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep \"#Man&Jeep\") [*(documentary)*; time \\= 4:00–4:34](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=240){{cite web \\|first\\=Aaron \\|last\\=Cortez \\|title\\=History of Military Motorcycles \\|url\\= https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\\-of\\-military\\-motorcycles \\|website\\=bikebandit.com \\|date\\=4 August 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210711181450/https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\\-of\\-military\\-motorcycles \\|archive\\-date\\=11 July 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022}} They had poor [off\\-roading](/wiki/Off-roading \"Off-roading\") ability and lacked payload capacity. Adding a sidecar provided more stability, but payload and cargo space remained very limited, and having only one powered wheel out of three, still meant the combination got stuck a lot. [Royal Page Davidson](/wiki/Royal_Page_Davidson \"Royal Page Davidson\") used patents of Charles Duryea to modify chassis, with machine\\-guns and armor shield, from 1898\\.Davidson was the leading pioneer of armored military vehicles in the U.S. of his time.", "[thumb\\|Colonel Davidson anti\\-aircraft semi\\-armored Cadillac, 1909](/wiki/File:Davidson_anti-aircraft_military_car_1909.jpg \"Davidson anti-aircraft military car 1909.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A convoy of 4×4 U.S. [FWD trucks](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive \"Four Wheel Drive\") in a mud and ruts road, [1916 Mexican Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition \"Pancho Villa Expedition\") note FWD logo on grille](/wiki/File:US_convoy_in_Mexico%2C_1916_army.mil-2008-03-28-083643_%28cropped%29.jpg \"US convoy in Mexico, 1916 army.mil-2008-03-28-083643 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Nash Quad 2{{nbh}}ton [ammunitions](/wiki/Ammunition \"Ammunition\") truck, 1918](/wiki/File:111-SC-4156_-_Nash_Motor_Company%2C_Kenosha%2C_Wis._Ammunition_truck%2C_2-ton._-_NARA_-_55169618_%28cropped%29.jpg \"111-SC-4156 - Nash Motor Company, Kenosha, Wis. Ammunition truck, 2-ton. - NARA - 55169618 (cropped).jpg\")", "At the same time, the arrival and growing use of automobiles led to various individuals pioneering vehicle trips across the U.S., followed by the first transcontinental trips by [convoys](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") of vehicles. After the U.S. Army purchased its first truck in 1907, of 5\\-ton payload capacity,{{cite news \\|date\\=March 19, 1916 \\|title\\=Truck Makers Supply Both Men and Cars for Army \\|url\\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1916/03/19/99438897\\.pdf \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-01}} in the late summer of 1913, the Army Medical and Quartermaster Corps (QC) took a {{3/4}}\\-ton QC field\\-truck, on a {{convert\\|922\\|mi\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} multi\\-leg experimental trek through Alaska for the state's Road Commission—both to try the truck's bad\\-road supply and maintenance abilities as well as test the state of several important overland connections in the rough territory.{{cite news \\|date\\=January 18, 1914 \\|title\\=Army Officers Try Alaska Auto Run \\|url\\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/01/18/100297594\\.pdf \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-01}} 1915 followed the first successful [transcontinental motor convoy](/wiki/Transcontinental_Motor_Convoy%231915_transcontinental_film_convoy \"Transcontinental Motor Convoy#1915 transcontinental film convoy\"), traveling the entire [Lincoln Highway](/wiki/Lincoln_Highway \"Lincoln Highway\"), from New York City to the [Panama–Pacific](/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Pacific_International_Exposition \"Panama–Pacific International Exposition\") [World Exhibition](/wiki/World%27s_fair \"World's fair\") in San Francisco, taking four months—for making a film about it. Starting in 1916, the Quartermaster Corps was servicing over 100 \"motor trucks,\" of as many as 27 \"varieties\"; and in March that year, the U.S. Army decided to form its first two motor companies, to be used immediately in the [Pancho Villa Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition \"Pancho Villa Expedition\") in Mexico, starting 14 March 1916\\. One company got 27 four\\-wheel drive, 2{{nbh}}ton, [Jeffery](/wiki/Thomas_B._Jeffery_Company \"Thomas B. Jeffery Company\") [off\\-road](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle \"Off-road vehicle\") [Quad trucks](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad \"Jeffery Quad\"). The other got 27 heavy\\-duty, 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, long wheelbase, rear\\-wheel drive [White trucks](/wiki/White_Motor_Company \"White Motor Company\"). The [U.S. War Department](/wiki/U.S._War_Department \"U.S. War Department\") procured the vehicles as [rolling chassis](/wiki/Rolling_chassis \"Rolling chassis\"), which the manufacturers had to expedite to [El Paso, Texas](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas \"El Paso, Texas\"). The wagon bodies for the chassis came from the Quartermaster Depot. The most suitable truck capacity found by the Quartermaster General for Army use to be 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, matching both the country roads nature, the strength of bridges, as well as the existing troop supply system, at the time also using standard 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, four\\-mule wagons.", "Meanwhile, World War I had been raging in Europe since 1914\\. More than five years before, Henry Ford had launched his [Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T \"Ford Model T\"). \"... Its speed, durability, stamina, and ease of maintenance (compared to a horse) had already won over many civilians,\"[Six WWI Vehicles That Helped Create Our Modern Mechanical World – Haynes Manuals](https://haynes.com/en-us/tips-tutorials/vehicles-wwi-helped-create-our-modern-world) and British and French forces also wanted them. Ford, an [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist \"Isolationist\"), would not sign a contract with an overseas government, but local dealers sold over 50,000 Fords to European forces, who militarized them locally, most famously into ambulances. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford sold directly to his country, delivering another 15,000 cars before peace was signed.", "Britain, France, and Russia were already buying American\\-made [four\\-wheel\\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") trucks from the [Four Wheel Drive Auto Company](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive \"Four Wheel Drive\"), and [Jeffery/Nash Quads](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad \"Jeffery Quad\"), because on the muddy roads and European battlefields, they would not get stuck all the time.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo \"#PBStoledo\") Time \\= 2:02–2:40", "The United States procured thousands of motor vehicles for its military, including some 12,800 Dodges,{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.fourwheeler.com/features/1612\\-1943\\-dodge\\-wc\\-51\\-weapons\\-carrier\\-power\\-and\\-glory\\-backward\\-glances/ \\|title\\=1943 Dodge {{nobr\\|WC\\-51}} Weapons Carrier, Power \\& Glory: Backward Glances \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=Jim \\|date\\=7 December 2016 \\|website\\=FourWheeler.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-24 \\|author\\-link\\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer)}} plus thousands of four\\-wheel\\-drive trucks: 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton Nash Quads, and 3\\- and 5\\-ton FWD trucks. General [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing \"John J. Pershing\") viewed horses and mules as acceptable for the previous three U.S. wars, but in the new century, his cavalry forces had to move quicker, with more range and more personnel.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Senefsky \\|first1\\=Bill \\|title\\=1916 To 1975 Dodge Diesel Engines – Dodge's First Diesels \\|url\\=http://www.trucktrend.com/news/0708dp\\-1916\\-to\\-1975\\-dodge\\-diesel\\-engines/ \\|website\\=Truck Trend \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2018 \\|date\\=31 July 2007}} He was the first to deploy motorcycles, in the [Mexican Border War](/wiki/Mexican_Border_War \"Mexican Border War\"), predominantly a cavalry campaign over wide regions of the Southwest, where [Harley\\-Davidson](/wiki/Harley-Davidson \"Harley-Davidson\") motorcycles provided to the Army gave the U.S. the advantage over the horse\\-mounted Mexicans. The U.S. Army was so pleased with further innovations, like a sidecar as a platform to mount machine\\-guns, that the U.S. procured many more motorcycles than 4WD trucks for World War I. \"Entire infantry units were mobilized on motorcycles, and they also provided an ideal way to rapidly deploy machine gun crews into position. Medical units used them to evacuate wounded on stretcher\\-equipped sidecars, and to return medical supplies and ammunition.\"", "\"By the end of the war, the whole world saw the horse as hopelessly outclassed.\" Nevertheless—crucially—using four\\-wheel drive still remained tied to heavier trucks, of {{nobr\\|1{{1/2}}\\-ton}} to {{nobr\\|5\\-ton}} capacity. All through World War I, there were not any *light* four\\-wheel\\-drive vehicles yet.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo \"#PBStoledo\") Time \\= 2:40–3:00", "### Interbellum tests, and formulating the need for a standardized, 4×4, quarter\\-ton", "{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| width \\= 250\n\\| header \\= Interwar experimental vehicles\n\\| image1 \\= Ford\\-reconnaissance\\-car\\-haugh.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= 1923 Ford 4×2 Reconnaissance Car, much tested for cross\\-country mobility\n\\| image2 \\= Chevrolet\\-4x2\\-scout\\-car\\-haugh.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= USMC converted 1929 half\\-ton, 4×2 Chevrolet, armed scout one\\-off{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.warwheels.net/ChevyScoutCarINDEX.html \\|title\\=U.S. Military Wheeled Vehicles \\|last\\=Crismon \\|first\\=Fred \\|year\\=1983 \\|website\\=via WarWheels.net \\|publisher\\=Crestline \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-02 }}\n\\| image3 \\= Marmon\\-harrington\\-ford\\-4wd.jpg\n\\| caption3 \\= Marmon\\-Herrington converted Ford half\\-ton truck, c. 1936 – sometimes called the \"grandfather of the Jeep\"\n\\| image4 \\= HowieMGcarrierHAUGH2\\.jpg\n\\| caption4 \\= Howie\\-Wiley machine gun carrier, 1937, Fort Benning Infantry School\n\\| image5 \\= Ford\\-4x4\\-reconnaissance\\-car\\-haugh.jpg\n\\| caption5 \\= 1938 Marmon\\-Herrington 4×4 Ford reconnaissance car with two .30\\-caliber machine guns\n}}", "Immediately after World War I, the further and future use of motor vehicles was considered. In many roles, motorized vehicles had successfully replaced horses and other [draft animals](/wiki/Working_animal \"Working animal\"), but several roles remained that required better or more specialized vehicles. In 1919 already, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps recommended the acquisition of a new kind of military vehicle, \"...{{nbsp}}of light weight and compact size, with a low silhouette and high ground clearance, and possess the ability to carry weapons and men over all sorts of rough terrain.\" {{sfnp\\|Ackerson\\|2006\\|p\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512004456/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=56uvBIikfrQC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PT8\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U3q6ih4fe6dekWznHcbznnrBlfQZg\\&w\\=1920 8]}} The U.S. Army started looking for a small vehicle suited for reconnaissance and messaging, while at the same time searching for a light cross\\-country weapons carrier.{{cite book \\|last\\=Foster \\|first\\=Patrick R. \\|date\\=15 July 2014 \\|title\\=Jeep: The History of America's Greatest Vehicle \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Iem\\-AwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA22 \\|location\\=Minneapolis, Minnesota \\|publisher\\=Motorbooks \\|pages\\=22–23 \\|isbn\\=9780760345856 \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2018}}", "However, after World War I, the United States had a big [public debt](/wiki/Government_debt \"Government debt\"), and the military had masses of left\\-over war vehicles, so vehicle budgets were drastically cut. During the first half of the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"), the [Roaring Twenties](/wiki/Roaring_Twenties \"Roaring Twenties\"), despite a booming economy, [United States non\\-interventionism](/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism \"United States non-interventionism\") and [neutrality](/wiki/Neutral_country \"Neutral country\") policies were supported by both elite and popular opinion, to the point of [isolationism](/wiki/Isolationism \"Isolationism\"), and no real budgets were allocated. Then, the [Wall Street Crash of 1929](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 \"Wall Street Crash of 1929\"), and the following [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") resulted in economic [austerity](/wiki/Austerity \"Austerity\") policies lasting until the end of the 1930s, thus curtailing any development of new military vehicles, like a light 4WD car.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo \"#PBStoledo\") Jim Allen (4x4 writer) from 3:18–3:35", "At the same time, there was a drive for standardization. By the end of World War I, U.S. forces overseas had a total of 216 different makes and models of motor vehicles to operate, both foreign and domestic, and no good supply system to keep them running.{{sfnp\\|Hogan\\|1941\\|p\\={{page needed\\|date\\=October 2023}}}}", "Various light motor vehicles were tested—at first motorcycles with and without sidecars, and some modified [Ford Model Ts](/wiki/Ford_Model_T \"Ford Model T\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.links4jeeps.com/forum/index.php/topic,5258\\.0\\.html \\|title\\=The History of Jeep \\|date\\=24 February 2007 \\|website\\=links4jeeps \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150717193016/http://www.links4jeeps.com/forum/index.php/topic,5258\\.0\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 July 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.difflock.com/diffmag/issue7/jeep60/index.shtml \\|website\\=difflock.com \\|title\\=Jeep 1941 – 2001 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120415090552/http://www.difflock.com/diffmag/issue7/jeep60/index.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015}} But what was needed was a very light, small, battlefield utility vehicle to replace motorcycles (with or without sidecar)—more user\\-friendly to control, but just as easy to get in and out of. In the early 1930s, the U.S. Army experimented with a bantam weight \"midget truck\" for scouts and raiders. A {{convert\\|1050\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}, low\\-slung mini\\-car with a pick\\-up body, provided by [American Austin Car Company](/wiki/American_Austin_Car_Company \"American Austin Car Company\"),[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo \"#PBStoledo\") Bantam Austin mini truck, like in Popular Mechanics, is shown at 4:00 min. was shown in a 1933 article in *[Popular Mechanics](/wiki/Popular_Mechanics \"Popular Mechanics\")* magazine.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Baby\" Truck Aids Army Scouts and Raiders \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-IDAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA664 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511234148/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=P\\-IDAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA664 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=Popular Mechanics \\|volume\\=60 \\|number\\=5 \\|page\\=664 \\|date\\=November 1933 \\|via\\=Google Books \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022}} One of the pictures showed that the vehicle was light enough to be man\\-handled—four soldiers could lift it from the ground entirely. But it was still only rear\\-wheel drive.", "After 1935, when the U.S. Congress declared World War I vehicles obsolete, procurement for \"remotorization of the Army\" gained more traction, but pre\\-war, peacetime budget restrictions still meant that the [U.S. Comptroller General](/wiki/Comptroller_General_of_the_United_States \"Comptroller General of the United States\") imposed open bidding on every additional, or *even incremental* procurement. Each time, the Army was forced to award the contract to the lowest bid that met requirements and specifications, often different makers. However, saving a small percentage initially, on the procurement, overall proved [\"penny wise, pound foolish\"](/wiki/Penny_wise_and_pound_foolish \"Penny wise and pound foolish\") because it led to problematic diversity of the fleet, requiring too much training of operators and mechanics for maintenance and repairs, and an unmanageably large supply of non\\-interchangeable spare parts: \"The commanding officer at Holabird reported in 1935 that, the 360 different models of vehicles now in the Army ... involve nearly a *million* items of spare parts which neither the War Department nor any other authority can control.\" This was bad for [logistics](/wiki/Logistics \"Logistics\") in times of war, both in terms of [supply chains](/wiki/Supply_chain \"Supply chain\"), as well as hindering troops' mobility by, blocking the ability to repair one vehicle by scavenging parts off another. And the Army could still only get multi\\-axle drive on \"tactical\" trucks, \"requiring the greatest battlefield mobility.\"", "[thumb\\|left\\|Japan\\-fielded 1935 [Kurogane Type 95](/wiki/Kurogane_Type_95 \"Kurogane Type 95\") 4×4 scout car (captured at the [1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol](/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol \"Battles of Khalkhin Gol\"))](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Khalkhin_Gol-Captured_Type_95_scout_car.jpg \"Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Captured Type 95 scout car.jpg\") \nMeanwhile, in Asia and the Pacific, Japan had [invaded Manchuria in 1931](/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria \"Japanese invasion of Manchuria\") and was [at war with China from 1937](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\"). Its Imperial Army used a small, {{cvt\\|2,425\\|lbs\\|kg\\|\\-1}}, three\\-man crew, four\\-wheel\\-drive car for reconnaissance and troop movements, the [Kurogane Type 95](/wiki/Kurogane_Type_95 \"Kurogane Type 95\"), produced in limited numbers from 1936\\.", "In 1937 [Marmon\\-Herrington](/wiki/Marmon-Herrington \"Marmon-Herrington\") presented five 4×4 Fords, and [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\") (previously American Austin) once again contributed—delivering three [Austin](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company \"Austin Motor Company\") derived roadsters in 1938\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Fowler \\|first\\=Will \\|title\\=Jeep Goes to War – a pictorial chronicle \\|publisher\\=Courage Books \\|year\\=1993 \\|isbn\\=9781561382354}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Lindsey \\|last\\=Fisher \\|title\\=Vintage Monday: Marmon\\-Herrington Trucks; The Jeep's Grandfather \\|url\\= https://www.offroadxtreme.com/features/history/vintage\\-monday\\-marmon\\-herrington\\-trucks\\-jeeps\\-grandfather/ \\|website\\=Off Road Xtreme \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2018 \\|date\\=11 August 2014}} The U.S. Army itself had also built an experimental light, low\\-profile scout and gun mover, the [Howie\\-Wiley machine gun carrier](/wiki/Howie_machine_gun_carrier \"Howie machine gun carrier\"), ordered by General [Walter Short](/wiki/Walter_Short \"Walter Short\"), then Assistant Commander of the [Army's Infantry School](/wiki/United_States_Army_Infantry_School \"United States Army Infantry School\") at Fort Benning, Georgia, and built by Captain Robert G. Howie and Master Sergeant Melvin C. Wiley. Completed in April 1937, with a driver and a gunner laying prone, operating a .30 caliber machine gun, the vehicle was nicknamed the \"belly flopper.\"{{cite journal \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Wendell G. \\|journal\\=Infantry Journal \\|title\\=The Howie Machine\\-Gun Carrier \\|url\\= http://willys\\-overland.com:80/documents/Original%20Documents/193711\\-12%20\\-%20The%20Howie%20Machine\\-Gun%20Carrier%20\\-%20Captain%20Wendell%20G.%20Johnson,%20Infantry%20\\-%20Infantry%20Journal.pdf \\|via\\=Willys\\-Overland.com \\|publisher\\=U.S. Army \\|issue\\=6: Nov–Dec \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100202084957/http://willys\\-overland.com:80/documents/Original%20Documents/193711\\-12%20\\-%20The%20Howie%20Machine\\-Gun%20Carrier%20\\-%20Captain%20Wendell%20G.%20Johnson,%20Infantry%20\\-%20Infantry%20Journal.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-02 \\|pages\\=529–531 \\|date\\=November 1937 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In France, the project has already been developed and put into production since 1937\\. The [Laffly V15](/wiki/Laffly_V15 \"Laffly V15\") can be considered the French Jeep. 1,200 of these four\\-wheeled vehicles were produced before the debacle of 1940\\.", "By 1939, the U.S. Army began standardizing its general\\-purpose truck chassis types by payload rating, initially in five classes from {{convert\\|1/2\\|to\\|7\\+1/2 \\|ST\\|t\\|abbr\\=on}}. The Quartermaster Corps saw that the Army needed truck chassis to be standardized in crucial basic functional 'types' (body models), and within \"payload capacity\" classes. Additionally, some crucial features could not be equipped by the QC to commercial trucks after procurement. Cross\\-country capabilities, like increased ground clearance and multi\\-axle drive, had to be designed and built into the trucks from the factory. The Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee concurred, and in June 1939 requested the Chief of Staff's approval, to start standardizing truck chassis and bodies procured for the Army into five payload classes: {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 2{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4{{nbh}}ton, and 7{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton and all tactical trucks had to have (part\\-time) all\\-wheel drive capability.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Blackburn \\|first1\\=Marc K. \\|series\\=Contributions in Military Studies Number 163 \\|title\\=The United States Army and the Motor Truck: 'A Case Study in Standardization' \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Publishing Group \\|location\\=Westport, CT \\|issn\\=0883\\-6884 \\|isbn\\=9780313298080 \\|pages\\=98–99 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uwt0SvCPyAoC\\&pg\\=PA98}} Furthermore, to achieve the needed level of standardization, the Quartermaster General urged trucks should be bought en masse from there on. Acting Chief of Staff, [George C. Marshall](/wiki/George_C._Marshall \"George C. Marshall\"), approved the procurement policy in the summer of 1939\\. The Quartermaster Corps also wanted to require the truck industry to use dimensionally interchangeable components, but further standardization measures were not approved until 1940\\.", "However, in 1940, the Army revised the categories. For the first time, a quarter\\-ton truck tactical (4×4\\) chassis class was introduced, at the bottom of the range, and the {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton chassis was supplanted by a {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton payload class.{{sfnp\\|Hyde\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA148 147–148]}}", "By the eve of entering World War II, the [United States Department of War](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\") had determined it needed a {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, cross\\-country reconnaissance vehicle. Although {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton 4×4s had outperformed {{frac\\|1\\|1\\|2}}{{nbh}}ton 4×4 trucks during testing in 1938,{{cite book \\|last\\=Doyle \\|first\\=David \\|year\\=2019 \\|title\\=Chevrolet G\\-506 – 1 1/2{{nbh}}ton 4x4 Development, Production and Variants in WW2 \\|url\\=https://cdn3\\.volusion.com/hrqpw.cruld/v/vspfiles/photos/620\\-1000\\-5\\.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|publisher\\=Portrayal Press \\|page\\=8 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408104402/https://cdn3\\.volusion.com/hrqpw.cruld/v/vspfiles/photos/620\\-1000\\-5\\.jpg \\|location\\=Branchville, New Jersey \\|isbn\\=9780938242062}} the half\\-ton 4×4 trucks—both from Marmon\\-Herrington Ford, and the 1940 [Dodge VC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940_%E2%80%94_1%E2%81%842-ton_VC_and_11%E2%81%842-ton_VF_models \"Dodge WC series#1940 — 1⁄2-ton VC and 11⁄2-ton VF models\")—still proved too large and heavy, and insufficiently agile off\\-road.{{sfnp\\|Ackerson\\|2006\\|pp\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512015352/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=56uvBIikfrQC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PT17\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U03yyUfgAwOC9VkoBMfQfWznccZZg\\&w\\=1920 16–17]}} Anxious to have a quarter\\-ton truck in time for America's entry into World War II, the U.S. Army solicited proposals from domestic automobile manufacturers. Recognizing the need to create standard specifications, the Army formalized its requirements on 11 July 1940, and submitted them to 135 U.S. automotive manufacturers.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}}", "### Development start – Bantam Reconnaissance Car", "In the early 1930s, the Infantry Board at Fort Benning had become interested in the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\")'s use of the tiny [Austin 7](/wiki/Austin_7 \"Austin 7\") car in a reconnaissance role, and in 1933 received a car from the [American Austin Car Company](/wiki/American_Austin_Car_Company \"American Austin Car Company\") in Pennsylvania which built them under license. Ever since then, their devout on\\-the\\-road salesman and (Washington) lobbyist, ex\\-military Harry Payne kept approaching many U.S. Army and Defense branches and officers, hoping to sell the idea of a small, lightweight reconnaissance car to someone Army or Defense, getting some much\\-needed government contract business for his company. And Payne kept pushing while American Austin had gone bankrupt and its assets were reincorporated into [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Carroll \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Better Late Than Never \\|url\\=https://www.keymilitary.com/article/better\\-late\\-never \\|website\\=Key Military \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Key Publishing]] \\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2023 \\|date\\=15 February 2018}} In 1938, American Bantam again loaned three much\\-improved cars to the Pennsylvania National Guard for trials during summer maneuvers, which were received as reliable, economical and practical.{{sfnp\\|Allen \\|2004 \\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA14\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U28oBma4j\\-1DoHCIO7KLJUb28kUtg\\&w\\=1280 14]}}", "During the first days of September 1939, [World War Two](/wiki/World_War_Two \"World War Two\") had escalated in Europe, with [Hitler's](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") [invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\"), and the [Nazi German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") forces showed the world a new, highly mobile form of warfare, dubbed ‘[Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg \"Blitzkrieg\")ʼ, or lightning war, by a coordinated combination of fast moving tanks and [motorized infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry \"Motorized infantry\"), (self\\-propelled) [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\"), and air support. In response, [President Franklin Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt \"Franklin Delano Roosevelt\"), made an emergency proclamation on September 8, 1939\\. It authorized the U.S. an increase in size of both the regular Army and the National Guard. The War Department was also authorized to spend an additional $12 million on motor transport.", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\|The 1940 Dodge G\\-505 VC\\-series (Command Car shown) were the first *light* U.S. military 4WD vehicles, bought in production quantity,Earlier three\\- and four\\-figure orders for {{frac\\|1\\|1\\|2}}{{nbh}}ton 4x4 Dodges were all marked as \"experimental\", but not the orders for the 1940 VC\\-series. *during* WWII, and for years nicknamed \"jeeps\" by the soldiers.](/wiki/File:Dodge_T-202_VC-1%2C_VC-2_Command_Reconnaissance_%28USM-BT-15%29_from_SNL_G-657.jpg \"Dodge T-202 VC-1, VC-2 Command Reconnaissance (USM-BT-15) from SNL G-657.jpg\")\nThe Army then ordered the U.S. military's first ever production quantity of *light*, {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4 tactical trucks: going on 5,000 [Dodge G\\-505 VC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series%231940_G505 \"Dodge WC series#1940 G505\"), which arrived by the Spring of 1940\\. Until that point, only a few third party after\\-market modified four\\-wheel drive {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton trucks, mainly Marmon\\-Herrington derived Fords, had been bought after 1935, for testing, but the prevailing belief amongst military higher\\-ups and Congress was, that all the extra four\\-wheel\\-drive hardware would make any truck lighter than a {{fraction\\|1\\|1\\|2}}{{nbh}}ton payload model, so much heavier that the weight\\-gain would cancel out any benefits gained from adding four\\-wheel drive. But after the {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton 4×4 Dodges arrived, two decisions were made: greatly more of these {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton Dodges were ordered (some 80,000 for the 1941 model year revisions), but also, in June 1940, the Army's tactical trucks payload categories were revised. For the first time, the Army introduced a quarter\\-ton 4×4 truck chassis class, and just above that, the {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton chassis were going to be supplanted by a {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton class.{{sfnp\\|Hyde\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA148 147–148]}}", "Bantam officials met with chiefs of Infantry and Cavalry and suggested a contract to further develop military versions of their light car. But in June 1940—as a collaboration with the Quartermaster Corps (QMC), still responsible for U.S. unarmored tactical military vehicles in 1940—the Ordnance Corps initiated a Technical (sub\\-)Committee, for the QMC to formulate comprehensive, exact specification for this new, very lightweight, cross\\-country tactical vehicle, capable of carrying personnel and equipment across rough terrain. The committee included the now *major* Robert Howie, invited for his expertise, having actually built an ultra\\-light prototype infantry\\-support vehicle, officers representing the Quartermaster Corps, and the Army's using arms:{{sfnp\\|Thomson \\|Mayo \\|2003 \\|p\\=25}} Infantry, Cavalry, and the two Coastguard divisions, as well as civilian engineers, mainly from Camp Holabird and Bantam. To begin with, the committee sent an Army delegation including Howie, and Camp Holabird vehicle testing engineers, to [Butler, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Butler%2C_Pennsylvania \"Butler, Pennsylvania\"), to visit American Bantam's factory, being invited to an extensive demonstration there, to evaluate their compact cars and production facilities.{{sfnp\\|Thomson\\|Mayo\\|2003\\|p\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20230909132510/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=laMaAAAAIAAJ\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA276\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U30kUM730lhIoA3BYhrTq7lXmBy\\-A\\&w\\=1280 276 (archived)]}} Once there, Howie stayed several days, and also Robert Brown, a Camp Holabird civilian engineer, who was instructed to disregard the presentation, but changed his mind after seeing it. Brown also stayed at the Bantam plant where both Howie and he worked out specifications with Crist for the proposed vehicle.", "[thumb\\|Initial {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton truck specifications (Ordnance Technical Committee; 1940\\)](/wiki/File:Quarter-ton_reconnaissance_car_Specifications%E2%80%94Ordnance_Tech_Committee_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Quarter-ton reconnaissance car Specifications—Ordnance Tech Committee (cropped).jpg\")\nBy the end of June 1940, with American Bantam's consultation, the Quartermaster Corps issued their initial specifications.{{cite book \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=Jim \\|author\\-link\\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer) \\|title\\=Jeep Collector's Library \\|year\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=MotorBooks International \\|isbn\\=9781610590549 \\|pages\\=14–15 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\\&pg\\=PA14 \\|via\\=Google Books \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022}} They specified a part\\-time four\\-wheel\\-drive vehicle, with a two\\-speed transfer case, three bucket seats, a fold\\-down windshield, and blackout and driving lights, of just {{cvt\\|1200\\|lbs\\|kg\\|\\-1}}, with a payload up to {{cvt\\|600\\|lbs\\|kg\\|\\-1}}, on a wheelbase no longer than {{cvt\\|75\\|in\\|m\\|2}} (the wheelbase of American Bantam's pickup truck), a maximum (collapsible) height of {{cvt\\|36\\|in\\|cm\\|0}} (three inches above the Howie\\-Wiley machine\\-gun carrier), and an engine and drivetrain, capable of smoothly pulling at speeds ranging from {{convert\\|3\\|\\-\\|50\\|mph}}. Its body design was to be rectangular in shape, including a sketch drawing, handed to the Ordnance Technical Committee.{{cite magazine \\|magazine\\=Army Research and Development Magazine \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=1 \\|title\\=20 Years to Develop–The Jeep \\|date\\=January–February 1978 \\|page\\=15 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=nmrfAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA15 \\|publisher\\=Development \\& Engineering Directorate of the U.S. Army Materiel Development \\& Readiness Command (DARCOM) \\|editor\\=L. VanLoan Naisawald \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227175830/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=nmrfAAAAMAAJ\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA15\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U2hATQhVT8FnAZRxr1OQnwdpwI\\-7A\\&w\\=1220 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{sfnp\\|Allen \\|2004 \\|p\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20220228185958/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA15\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U3K\\-tuI6ehf9MhGdg6qoE6EP2ky2A\\&w\\=1280 15]}}", "[thumb\\|American Bantam's first Reconnaissance Car (BRC) prototype, \"Old Number One\" – note fully rounded front fenders](/wiki/File:BantamPilotHaugh_%282%29.jpg \"BantamPilotHaugh (2).jpg\")\nBy now the war was underway in Europe, so the Army's need was urgent, but also very demanding. No sooner than July 1940, some 135 manufacturers of automotive or similar equipment were approached by a government letter to submit bids, to be received by 22 July, a span of just eleven days. In the first stage, the winning manufacturer(s) were given just *seven weeks* (49 days), from the moment of awarding the contract, to submit their first *fully functional* [prototype](/wiki/Prototype \"Prototype\") and 75 days for completing 70 test vehicles in total. The Army's Ordnance Technical Committee specifications were equally stringent: the vehicle would be [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\"), have a crew of three, on a wheelbase no longer than {{convert\\|75\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|abbr\\=on}}, later stretched to {{convert\\|80\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|abbr\\=on}}, and tracks no wider than {{convert\\|47\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|abbr\\=on}}. The height with the windshield folded down was also raised, to {{convert\\|40\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|abbr\\=on}}. The diminutive dimensions were similar in size and weight to American Bantam's compact truck and roadster models.{{cite web \\|first\\=Curtis \\|last\\=Redgap \\|title\\=Austin, Bantam, and Willys: Birth of the Jeep \\|url\\=https://www.allpar.com/threads/austin\\-bantam\\-and\\-willys\\-birth\\-of\\-the\\-jeep.227756/\\#post\\-1085221854 \\|website\\=Allpar Forums \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2021}} It was now to carry a {{convert\\|660\\|lb\\|kg\\|\\-1 \\|abbr\\=on}} payload and be powered by an engine capable of {{convert\\|85\\|lb·ft\\|N·m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. The most daunting demand, however, was an empty weight of no more than {{convert\\|1275\\|–\\|1300\\|lb\\|kg\\|\\-1\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{sfnp\\|Allen \\|2004 \\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=zTsAbTJB5RIC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA15\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U3K\\-tuI6ehf9MhGdg6qoE6EP2ky2A\\&w\\=1280 15]}}Sources differ on this.", "Initially, only American Bantam Car Company and [Willys\\-Overland](/wiki/Willys \"Willys\") entered the competition. And only Bantam provided a proper set of technical drawings. [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") joined later, after being approached directly.{{cite book\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eq9BAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=bantam \\|title\\=Masters of Mass Production \\|last\\=Borth \\|first\\=Christy \\|year\\=1945 \\|page\\=220 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015}} Although Willys was the low bidder, Willys was penalized for needing more days to make a prototype, and the dollars penalty per extra day put Willys' price above Bantam's – earning them the contract, as the only company committing to deliver a pilot model in 49 days and 70 more pre\\-production units {{nobr\\|in 75}} days.", "[thumb\\|The further 70 Bantam Mk\\-II prototypes, often called 'BRC\\-60',{{refn \\|group\\=nb \\|name\\=YDR\\_40BRC }} kept a round hood and grille, but square front fenders with short side steps. Shown \\#7, nicknamed \"Gramps,\" owned by the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian \"Smithsonian\") museum.](/wiki/File:Senator_John_Heinz_History_Center_-_IMG_7665.JPG \"Senator John Heinz History Center - IMG 7665.JPG\")\nAmerican Bantam's chief engineer and plant manager, [Harold Crist](/wiki/Harold_Crist \"Harold Crist\"),By Spring 1940, Bantam was virtually bankrupt, most workers had been laid off, and what remained was a respectably sized factory and a skeleton crew of about 15 men, including management. What little business was still going on, was mainly making spare parts and panels for repairs on Bantams still on the road. Thus many of the remaining workers had a wide range of tasks. was an experienced automobile engineer who had early\\-on worked on the first [Duesenberg](/wiki/Duesenberg \"Duesenberg\") and been an engineer at [Stutz Motor Company](/wiki/Stutz_Motor_Company \"Stutz Motor Company\") of Indianapolis for 18 years, worked a spell for [Marmon](/wiki/Marmon_Motor_Car_Company \"Marmon Motor Car Company\"), and then for Bantam from 1937 to 1942, drafted freelance Detroit designer [Karl Probst](/wiki/Karl_Probst \"Karl Probst\") to collaborate. Probst initially turned Bantam down, but agreed to work without pay after an Army request and began work on 17 July 1940\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.everymandriver.com/jeep\\-history\\-through\\-the\\-years\\-on\\-everyman\\-driver/ \\|title\\=Jeep History Through The Years \\|work\\=Everyman Driver \\|date\\=8 April 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112164843/http://www.everymandriver.com/jeep\\-history\\-through\\-the\\-years\\-on\\-everyman\\-driver/ \\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2021}} Probst laid out full design drawings for the American Bantam prototype, known as the Bantam Reconnaissance Car, or BRC Pilot, in just two days, and worked up a cost estimate the next day. Bantam's bid was submitted, complete with blueprints, on the 22 July deadline.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cossor.com.au/jeep\\_1\\.html \\|title\\=The Military Jeep \\|website\\=Cossor.com.au \\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529191027/http://www.cossor.com.au/jeep\\_1\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "American Bantam had purchased the assets of [American Austin Car Company](/wiki/American_Austin_Car_Company \"American Austin Car Company\") from the bankruptcy court and had developed their own line of small cars and engine technology, free of licenses from the British [Austin Motor Company](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company \"Austin Motor Company\"). As the only small car manufacturer in the United States at the time, their design concept was initially to leverage their [commercial off\\-the\\-shelf](/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf \"Commercial off-the-shelf\") components as much as possible. Bantam adapted front sheetmetal body\\-stampings from its car line: the cowl, dashboard, and curvy front fenders.", "[thumb\\|Conforming to specification, [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\") delivered the last eight 1940 Mk. II prototypes with four\\-wheel steering.](/wiki/File:Bantam-jeep-2.jpg \"Bantam-jeep-2.jpg\")\nHowever, once Brown returned to Camp Holabird, Crist reviewed their thinking, and realized that the new vehicle would have to be mostly new, rather than simply a modified version of an existing Bantam model. He and others at Bantam immediately set about sourcing the right components: transmission, transfer case, driveshafts and axles. Bantam's own engines made just 22 hp,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1938\\-1941\\-american\\-bantam.htm \\|title\\=1938–1941 American Bantam \\|author\\=content by ''Consumer Guide Automotive'' \\|editor\\=Damon Bell \\|date\\=17 July 2007 \\|website\\=HowStuffWorks.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924190656/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1938\\-1941\\-american\\-bantam.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2021}} so a {{convert\\|112\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} [Continental](/wiki/Continental_Motors_Company \"Continental Motors Company\") four\\-cylinder, making 45 [horsepower](/wiki/Horsepower \"Horsepower\") and {{convert\\|86\\|lb·ft\\|N·m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of [torque](/wiki/Torque \"Torque\") was selected, mated to a [Warner Gear](/wiki/BorgWarner \"BorgWarner\") transmission. Custom\\-built four\\-wheel drive\\-train components included the [Spicer](/wiki/Dana_Holding_Corporation \"Dana Holding Corporation\") [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\") to send power to the front and rear axles. They were both Spicer\\-made, originally [Studebaker Champion](/wiki/Studebaker_Champion \"Studebaker Champion\") rear axles, but modified for four\\-wheel drive use.{{cite web \\|author\\=((Auto editors ''Consumer Guide'')) \\|title\\=1906–1939 Jeep \\|url\\= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1906\\-1939\\-jeep.htm\\#pt4 \\|website\\=auto.howstuffworks.com \\|date\\=13 December 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210112071209/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1906\\-1939\\-jeep.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022}}", "Using off\\-the\\-shelf automotive parts where possible had helped to design the car and draw up its blueprints quickly. By working backwards, Probst and American Bantam's draftsmen converted what Crist and a few other engineers and mechanics had rigged together in the factory, back into drawings. The hand\\-built prototype was then completed in [Butler, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Butler%2C_Pennsylvania \"Butler, Pennsylvania\"),{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM8NM \\|title\\=Invention of the Jeep – Pennsylvania Historical Markers \\|website\\=Waymarking.com \\|date\\=9 March 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2012}} and basically untested, *driven* by Crist and Probst, to the Army vehicle test center at [Camp Holabird](/wiki/Camp_Holabird \"Camp Holabird\"), Maryland. It was delivered at 4\\.30 pm on 23 September 1940, just half an hour within the deadline. The American Bantam Pilot, initially called the \"Blitz Buggy.\"{{sfnp\\|American Society of Mechanical Engineers\\|1991}}", "### Enter Willys and Ford – early production jeeps", "As the War Department deemed [American Bantam](/wiki/American_Bantam \"American Bantam\") to not have the production capacity or financial resources to deliver on the scale the Army would need, the other two bidders, Ford and Willys, were encouraged to complete their own pilot models for testing. The contract for the new reconnaissance car would be determined by trials. While Bantam's prototype underwent testing at [Camp Holabird](/wiki/Fort_Holabird \"Fort Holabird\") from 27 September to 16 October, Ford and Willys' technical representatives were invited and given ample opportunity to observe the vehicle and study its performance. To expedite Ford and Willys' prototypes, the War Department forwarded the Bantam's blueprints to them, claiming the government owned all designs in the proposals submitted to it in the bidding contest. American Bantam chose not to dispute this.", "{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= left\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| width \\= 220\n\\| header \\= Pilot models: Willys \"Quad\" and Ford \"Pygmy\"\n\\| image1 \\= Willys Quad 4x4 pilot car, ¾ right front (1940\\).jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Willys \"Quad\" pilot car initially copied Bantam's rounded grille and hood.\n\\| image2 \\= Ford Pygmy jeep pilot vehicle.JPG\n\\| caption2 \\= Ford's first test model, \\[\\[Ford Pygmy\\|the \"Pygmy\"]] in the U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum.\n}}", "Bantam continued building the further 70 prototypes, as per the initial contract.{{refn \\|group\\=nb \\|Sources differ whether Bantam built a further 69 or 70 units. Considering that no. 1 Bantam didn't survive, some sources believe that it suffered so much damage during initial merciless testing, that it was returned to Bantam, and scavenged for parts, to complete the first 70 units. Alternatively, it served as a demo vehicle until it got wrecked in a traffic accident in early 1941, ''then'' sent back to Butler, was disassembled, with its mechanicals likely mounted into a 1941 production Bantam. Legend has it that the unusable body sections were buried along with a pile of scrap on the Bantam grounds. (U.S. Army)\\[https://cj3b.info/Poster/Bantam.html 1940 Bantam Pilot Model on CJ\\-3B.info] }} Bantam's original no.01 first remained at Holabird for incessant [shake\\-down](/wiki/Shakedown_%28testing%29 \"Shakedown (testing)\") and [breaking point](/wiki/Stress_testing \"Stress testing\") testing, and ad\\-hoc fixes and improvements of weaknesses, while by November 1940, Ford and Willys also submitted their first prototypes to compete in the Army's trials. Exterior changes, mainly mounting flat and square front fenders, instead of the first car's bulbous round ones, identify the BRC (Bantam Reconnaissance Car) Mark IIs, also called the {{nobr\\|\"BRC 60\"}}.{{refn \\|group\\=nb \\|name\\=YDR\\_40BRC \\|But new research into identifying the earliest jeeps indicates that Bantam actually called these the '40 BRC (for 1940\\).{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.ydr.com/story/news/history/blogs/yorkspast/2015/12/07/earliest\\-jeeps/76956416/ \\|title\\=Earliest Jeeps Built 75\\-Years Ago for WWII \\|work\\= York Daily Record \\|first\\=Stephen H. \\|last\\=Smith \\|date\\=7 December 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2018}}}}", "Both the Willys \"Quad\" and the [Ford \"Pygmy\"](/wiki/Ford_Pygmy \"Ford Pygmy\") prototypes were very similar to the Bantam Pilot and were joined in testing by Bantam's Mark II models. The Willys Quad immediately stood out because of its [strong engine](/wiki/Willys_Go_Devil_engine \"Willys Go Devil engine\") of 60 [gross Hp](/wiki/Horsepower \"Horsepower\") ([SAE](/wiki/SAE_International \"SAE International\")),The U.S. \"Society of Automotive Engineers\" at the time which the soldiers liked very much, in such a lightweight, open\\-top car. Chief engineer Delmar 'Barney' Roos had been working on Willys' four\\-cylinder car\\-engine for years, and with many detail changes had managed to get it to 60 hp from an initial low forties output. The Ford Pygmy on the other hand was held back by its tractor engine, Ford's only four\\-cylinder engine still made in 1940 – despite serious efforts to make it stronger. Dale Roeder was Ford's team leader behind the Pygmy, and his team managed to tune the motor from 30bhp to the specified 40bhp, by using a different camshaft and a bigger carburettor. More importantly, the Ford's front sheetmetal design was the cleverest, fusing all the front lighting behind a straight grille grate, side by side, into one cheap, integrated whole, under a wide, flat, and horizontal hood, useful as a makeshift table. And with its simple [piano hinge](/wiki/Hinge%23Other_types \"Hinge#Other types\"), it allowed opening the hood all the way to the upright windshield, without even needing a prop\\-rod, and giving excellent access to the engine, also because of its wide opening.", "{{multiple image\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| width \\= 220\n\\| header \\= Pre\\-production models: American Bantam Mk II, Ford GP, and Willys MA\n\\| image1 \\= These soldiers go up in the air to prove that the Army's new quarter ton truck can take it. \\- NARA \\- 195336\\.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Vigorous testing was required for Army proving—shown a Ford GP, 1941\n\\| image2 \\= Willys\\-MA\\-3\\.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= Willys MA jeep at the Desert Training Center, Indio, California, June 1942\n\\| image3 \\= The British Army in the United Kingdom 1939\\-45 H19947\\.jpg\n\\| caption3 \\= Allies hastily received interim models—King \\[\\[George VI]] of the United Kingdom inspects a 1941 \\[\\[American Bantam\\|Bantam]] BRC with an airborne unit in May, 1942\\. A \\[\\[Vickers machine gun]] has been fitted to the bonnet.\n}}", "By then, the U.S. armed forces were in such haste, and allies like Britain, France, and USSR wanted to acquire these new \"Blitz\\-Buggies\",Contemporaneous nickname in 1940/1941 British Empire and Canada.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}} that after initially considering 1,500 pre\\-production units *in total*, all three cars were declared 'acceptable', and orders for 1,500 units *per company* were given for field testing and export. At this time, it was acknowledged the original weight limit (which even Bantam's Mk.II could not meet) was unrealistic, and it was raised to {{convert\\|2160\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. On 22 January 1941, the Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee advised standardization of the jeeps across all manufacturers.{{sfnp \\|Hyde \\|2013 \\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA150 150]}}", "For the ensuing pre\\-production runs, each maker's vehicles received further revisions, and new names once more. For 1941, Bantam's got called the {{nobr\\|\"BRC 40\"}}{{refn \\|group\\=nb \\|name\\=YDR\\_41BRC \\|But new research into identifying the earliest jeeps indicates that Bantam actually called them '41 BRC (for 1941\\).}} Production began on 31 March 1941, with a total of 2,605 built up to 6 December — the number ordered was raised because Britain and the USSR already wanted more of them supplied under [Lend\\-Lease](/wiki/Lend-Lease \"Lend-Lease\").{{cite web \\|author\\=Warfare History Network \\|title\\=Why America's Best World War II 'Weapon' Isn't What You Think It Is \\|date\\=2018\\-08\\-21 \\|website\\=The National Interest \\|url\\= https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/why\\-americas\\-best\\-world\\-war\\-ii\\-weapon\\-isnt\\-what\\-you\\-think\\-it\\-29362 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180821222917/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/why\\-americas\\-best\\-world\\-war\\-ii\\-weapon\\-isnt\\-what\\-you\\-think\\-it\\-29362 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022}}{{cite book\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PJftUspIv68C\\&pg\\=PA28 \\|page\\=28 \\|title\\=Jeep \\|first\\=Jim \\|last\\=Allen \\|publisher\\=Motorbooks International \\|year\\=2003 \\|isbn\\= 9780760314869 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015 \\|author\\-link\\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer)}}", "The Bantam BRC\\-40 was the lightest and most nimble of the three early production models, and the Army lauded its good suspension, brakes, and high fuel economy. However, as the company could not meet the Army's demand for 75 vehicles a day, production contracts were also awarded to Willys and Ford.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/americandesignad0000pulo \\|url\\-access\\= registration \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/americandesignad0000pulo/page/20 20] \\|title\\=The American Design Adventure, 1940–1975 \\|first\\=Arthur J. \\|last\\=Pulos \\|publisher\\=MIT Press \\|year\\=1988 \\|isbn\\=9780262161060 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015 \\|via\\=archive.org}}", "{{external media \\|float\\=left \\|width\\=230px \n\\|image1\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20180623195719/https://i.pinimg.com/originals/ba/d6/a5/bad6a52d7042a3f06bad5dbb39835d31\\.jpg Four\\-wheel steering Willys Quad prototype (archived)] \n\\| image2\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20180722095747/http://image.fourwheeler.com/f/8862610\\+q80\\+re0\\+cr1\\+ar0/p26480\\_image\\_large.jpg Four\\-wheel steering Ford GP testing unit (archived) ] \n\\| image3\\=\\[https://forums.g503\\.com/viewtopic.php?t\\=202412 Collection of period LIFE photos of 1941 Bantams ''and'' a Ford GP, including 4\\-wheel steer]\n\\| image4\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190910195352/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=VCcDAAAAMBAJ\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PA54\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U2gIKM\\-H05uma3EEuczcd1QscJgxg\\&w\\=1920 Mechanical features of the new ''\"Bug\"'' explained in ''Popular Science'', Oct 1941, page 54 ] }}", "Ford's pre\\-production jeep was named the \"GP\", with \"G\" indicating a \"Government\" contract, and \"P\" chosen by Ford to designate a car with a [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\") of {{convert\\|80\\|in\\|cm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.Ford's GP designation did not represent \"general purpose\" – that was a government description, not applied for the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps until ca. 1943\\. The Ford GP was not only the most numerous (at about 4,458\\) early production jeeps—it was also the first jeep fielded in some numbers to U.S. Army units. Ford's overall design and quality of construction had advantages over the Bantam and Willys models, but the GP's engine, an adaptation of their [Model N tractor engine](/wiki/Ford_N-series_tractor%239N \"Ford N-series tractor#9N\"), was underpowered and not sufficiently reliable. Ford built fifty units with four\\-wheel steering, of which four have survived.", "[Willys\\-Overland](/wiki/Willys \"Willys\") was the last of the three manufacturers to start early production, waiting until 5 June 1941 to kick\\-off production,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jeepcollection.com/portfolio/1941\\-willys\\-ma/ \\|title\\=1941 Willys MA\\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=jeepcollection.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2022}} needing to reduce the Quad's weight by {{convert\\|240\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. After many painstaking detail changes, Willys renamed their vehicle \"MA\", for \"Military\" model \"A\". Only 1,555 MAs were built, most of which went to the Soviet Union under Lend\\-Lease. Only 27 units are still known to exist. After enough comparative testing, Willys were also tasked with integrating whatever features were seen as better on the Ford and Bantam, into their design – for instance copying the Ford's front sheetmetal, to arrive at an optimal 'MB' model, for mass\\-production.", "Eventually, virtually all of the [Willys\\-Overland](/wiki/Willys \"Willys\") and most of the American Bantam and Ford GP early production jeeps were provided to Britain and USSR, leaving a few hundred Bantam BRCs and under 1,000 GPs for the home troops.", "{{clear left}}", "### Full production – Willys MB and Ford GPW", "{{multiple image\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| width \\= 220\n\\| header \\= Standard 1944 cabin and engine\n\\| image1 \\= 1944 Willys MB Jeep (18106088301\\).jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Three pedals and three sticks—for shifting gears, engaging front\\- or four\\-wheel drive, and high or low gearing\n\\| image2 \\= Willys MB (Bild 6 2008\\-06\\-14\\) Motor.JPG\n\\| caption2 \\= Willys \"Go Devil\" engine\n}}", "By July 1941, the War Department desired to standardize and decided to select a single manufacturer to supply them with the next order for 16,000 vehicles. Willys won the contract mostly due to its much more powerful 60 hp engine (the [L134 \"Go Devil\"](/wiki/Willys_Go_Devil_engine \"Willys Go Devil engine\")), which soldiers raved about, and its lower cost and silhouette. The design features in the Bantam and Ford entries which represented an improvement over Willys's design were incorporated into the Willys, moving it from an \"MA\" designation to \"MB\". Most obvious is the front design from the Ford GP, with a wide, flat hood, and the headlights moved inward from the fenders to under the hood, protected by a single wide, straight front grille and a brush guard.", "The jeep, once it entered mass production, introduced several new [automotive technologies](/wiki/Automotive_engineering \"Automotive engineering\"). Having [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") for the first time introduced the need for a [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\"), and the use of [constant\\-velocity joints](/wiki/Constant-velocity_joint \"Constant-velocity joint\") on the driven front wheels and axle, to a regular production car\\-sized vehicle.", "In early October 1941, it became clear that Willys\\-Overland could not keep up with procurement needs, and Ford received government contracts to build 30,000 units,{{sfnp\\|Hyde\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA150 150–151]}} according to Willys' blueprints, drawings, specifications, and patents, including the more powerful Willys engine.{{sfnp\\|Thomson\\|Mayo\\|2003\\|pp\\=\\[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=uiug.30112055126327;view\\=1up;seq\\=301;size\\=125 277–278]}} When Ford offered to increase the displacement and power of the tractor engine in their GP model, the government declined and insisted that Ford produce jeeps identical to the Willys, both for the much stronger engine,{{Clarify\\|date\\=September 2022}} and for complete commonality/interchangeability of the components. Willys received no license fees, and Ford complied. The Ford was designated \"GPW\", with the \"W\" indicating the \"Willys\" licensed design and engine. Ford retooled at a cost of $4 million (\\~${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|index\\=US\\-GDP\\|value\\=4000000\\|start\\_year\\=1942}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US\\-GDP}}) to build Willys engines and produced the first GPW as quickly as 2 January 1942\\. Just days before, in late December 1941, the Quartermaster Corps had ordered another 63,146 GPWs.{{sfnp\\|Hyde\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA150 150–151]}}", "One extra condition to Ford's jeep orders was to manufacture them in several different Ford assembly plants, in addition to [Ford's primary \"River Rouge\" plant](/wiki/Ford_River_Rouge_Complex \"Ford River Rouge Complex\") in Dearborn (Michigan). The QC expressly demanded Ford decentralize their jeep manufacturing to facilitate the Army's [logistics](/wiki/Logistics \"Logistics\"), shipping from all [three coasts](/wiki/Third_Coast \"Third Coast\"). Besides [Dearborn](/wiki/Ford_World_Headquarters \"Ford World Headquarters\"), Ford also assembled jeeps in their [Louisville](/wiki/Louisville_Assembly_Plant \"Louisville Assembly Plant\"), [Chester (Pennsylvania)](/wiki/Chester_Assembly \"Chester Assembly\"), [Dallas (Texas)](/wiki/List_of_Ford_factories \"List of Ford factories\"), and [Richmond (California)](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company_Assembly_Plant \"Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant\") plants. Ford's [Edgewater (New Jersey) plant](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company_Edgewater_Assembly_Plant \"Ford Motor Company Edgewater Assembly Plant\") also built jeeps in the first four months of 1943\\.{{sfnp\\|Hyde\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA150 150–151]}}", "During World War II, Willys produced 363,000 Jeeps and Ford some 280,000\\. Some 50,000 were exported to the USSR under the Lend\\-Lease program. Ford's assembly across plants distributed as: River Rouge 21,559; Dallas and Louisville almost tied at 93,748 and 93,364 units respectively; Chester 18,533, and Edgewater just 1,333 units.{{sfnp\\|Hyde\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P\\-PCAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA150 150–151]}} Bantam stopped further jeep production and made two\\-wheel [jeep trailers](/wiki/Jeep_trailer \"Jeep trailer\"). This was sufficient to keep the firm going until it was taken over in 1956\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Georgano \\|first\\=Nick \\|author\\-link\\= G. N. Georgano\\|title\\=Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=HMSO \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=1\\-57958\\-293\\-1}}", "Ford built jeeps with functionally interchangeable parts and components, in part facilitated by using components from common sources: frames from [Midland Steel](/wiki/Midland_Steel_Products \"Midland Steel Products\"), wheels from [Kelsey\\-Hayes](/wiki/Kelsey-Hayes \"Kelsey-Hayes\"), and axles and transfer cases from [Spicer](/wiki/Dana_Incorporated%23History \"Dana Incorporated#History\").{{sfnp\\|Thomson\\|Mayo\\|2003\\|pp\\=\\[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=uiug.30112055126327;view\\=1up;seq\\=301;size\\=125 277–278]}} However, Ford had replaced the welded grate front grille by a single [pressed/stamped](/wiki/Stamping_%28metalworking%29 \"Stamping (metalworking)\") sheet steel part, with nine vertical open slots to ventilate the radiator, and circular openings in front of the lights, to simplify production, and save costs. Willys also adopted this in their production of the MB after unit 25,808\\. Predictably, there were still many minor differences; the Ford chassis had an inverted U\\-shaped front cross member instead of a tubular bar, and a Ford script letter \"F\" was stamped onto many small parts.", "Many body detail differences remained for as long as January 1944, when a composite body, fabricated by [American Central](/wiki/American_Central_Manufacturing \"American Central Manufacturing\"), was finally agreed upon by both Ford and Willys. American Central had been making the jeep's bodies from the first 1500 units order for the Willys MA and had also built Ford's jeep bodies for two years already, but until January 1944, Ford and Willys contracts retained detail differences. However, from then on features of both designs were integrated.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/3383/\\|title\\=Jeeps in Olive Drab\\|date\\=1 October 1999\\|website\\=MotorTrend}} Through the chaotic circumstances of war, sometimes peculiar deviations from regular mass\\-production came off the assembly line, that are now prized by collectors. For instance, the earliest Ford GPWs had a Willys design frame, and in late 1943, some GPWs came with an unmodified Willys body; while in 1945, Willys produced some MBs with a deep mud exhaust system, vacuum windshield wipers, and a Jeep CJ{{nbh}}style parking brake.[The Jimmy's Ancestry; The CCKW in Detail and The Collector's Syndrome — Bryce Sunderlin in Army Motors \\#47, p.19](https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5aa9d8a7d12bef49c22e1473/5ac6c9492c10d16ced41e9a0_47_Jimmy_Ancestry.pdf) ([MVPA](/wiki/Military_Vehicle_Preservation_Association \"Military Vehicle Preservation Association\"))", "### The Ford GPA, the amphibious jeep", "{{main\\|Ford GPA}}\n[thumb\\|[Ford GPA](/wiki/Ford_GPA \"Ford GPA\") [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle \"Amphibious vehicle\") jeep](/wiki/File:Ford_GPA_Amphibious_Jeep_pic2.JPG \"Ford GPA Amphibious Jeep pic2.JPG\")\nApproximately 13,000 additional [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle \"Amphibious vehicle\") jeeps were built by Ford as the [Ford GPA](/wiki/Ford_GPA \"Ford GPA\") (nicknamed \"Seep\" for \"Sea Jeep\"). Its design directly inspired by the larger [DUKW](/wiki/DUKW \"DUKW\"), and by the same designer and company, Rod Stephens Jr. of [Sparkman \\& Stephens](/wiki/Sparkman_%26_Stephens \"Sparkman & Stephens\") yacht designers, the vehicle was produced too quickly,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}} or its operational capability and limitations misunderstood. Although the GPA came out barely heavier, wider or taller than standard jeeps, it was *one third longer,* and proved unwieldy on land. Adding insult to injury, the Seep would often get stuck in mud or when wading, where the MB jeeps would not.", "In water, its disappointing performance was even more problematic, because contrary to the DUKW, it had insufficient [freeboard](/wiki/Freeboard_%28nautical%29 \"Freeboard (nautical)\") for [coastal landings](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare \"Amphibious warfare\") from open sea, leading to mixed success and tragic losses in the [allied Sicily landings](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\") in July 1943\\. Many GPAs were passed on under the Lend\\-Lease program—some 3,500 (more than a quarter of total production) to the USSR alone. The Soviets, however, were sufficiently pleased with its ability to cross the rivers and swamps in their territories, that they developed their own version of it after the war: the [GAZ\\-46](/wiki/GAZ-46 \"GAZ-46\").", "By contrast, [Ferdinand Porsches](/wiki/Ferdinand_Porsche \"Ferdinand Porsche\") engineering bureau designed an even lighter four\\-wheel drive amphibious vehicle, the [VW Type 166 \"Schwimmwagen,\"](/wiki/Volkswagen_Schwimmwagen \"Volkswagen Schwimmwagen\") that quickly became popular in the German ranks, because of its excellent off\\-road performance, contrary to the limitations of their regular [VW Kübelwagen](/wiki/Volkswagen_K%C3%BCbelwagen \"Volkswagen Kübelwagen\") without four\\-wheel drive – *and* they only used them on inland waters. The U.S. Ford GPA amphibious jeeps thus also became one of the rare allied vehicle types that was numerically outproduced by their direct German counterparts – the 15,000 plus VW Schwimmwagen.", "### Accessories and equipment fittings", "[thumb\\|The World War II jeep with Bantam trailer, Potsdam, Germany](/wiki/File:WWII-jeep-with-M100-trailer-potsdam.gif \"WWII-jeep-with-M100-trailer-potsdam.gif\")", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=September 2021}}\nUnlike the various [Dodge WC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series \"Dodge WC series\") models of larger, light 4×4 trucks, the Willys and Ford jeeps were all the same from the factory, and specialization happened only through standardized accessories, field kits, and local / in field modifications. Frequently made additions to the standard jeeps were to fit weaponry, communications equipment, Litter carriers, wire cutters, or rudimentary armor.", "#### Jeep trailer", "Some 150,000 [{{1/4}}\\-ton trailers](/wiki/Jeep_trailer \"Jeep trailer\") were made by over ten different companies, specifically built to be towed by the jeep – most of them by Bantam and Willys. These doubled the jeeps' nominal payload.", "#### Radio gear", "[thumb\\|Willys jeep interior with radio](/wiki/File:Jeep_Willys_Radio_WWII_interior_%2838977374854%29.jpg \"Jeep Willys Radio WWII interior (38977374854).jpg\")\nThe jeep's primary command and reconnaissance roles of course necessitated fitting many kinds of tactical communication equipment. The first standard production fitting was for the [SCR\\-193](/wiki/SCR-193 \"SCR-193\") radio, placed on either side in the rear of a jeep, on top of the rear wheel well. For proper reception, this included [radio interference suppression shielding](/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference%23EMI_in_integrated_circuits \"Electromagnetic interference#EMI in integrated circuits\"), so indicated by a suffix \"S\" on the jeep's hood registration number. In 1943/1944, the Army shifted to FM radios, and new fittings were developed for those. At least fourteen [Signal Corps Radio](/wiki/Signal_Corps_Radio \"Signal Corps Radio\") set fittings were standardized, including for the SCR\\-187, [SCR\\-284](/wiki/SCR-284 \"SCR-284\"), [SCR\\-499](/wiki/SCR-299%23Specifications \"SCR-299#Specifications\"), SCR\\-506, [SCR\\-508](/wiki/SCR-508 \"SCR-508\"), SCR\\-510, SCR\\-522, [SCR\\-528](/wiki/SCR-508%23Variants \"SCR-508#Variants\"), SCR\\-542, [SCR\\-608](/wiki/SCR-508%23Variants \"SCR-508#Variants\"), SCR\\-610, SCR\\-619, [SCR\\-628](/wiki/SCR-508%23Variants \"SCR-508#Variants\"), [SCR\\-694](/wiki/SCR-694 \"SCR-694\"), SCR\\-808, SCR\\-828, and VRC\\-l.{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=20–22}}", "#### Gun mounts", "[thumb\\|British [SAS](/wiki/Special_Air_Service \"Special Air Service\") jeep, armed with [Vickers K machine gun](/wiki/Vickers_K_machine_gun \"Vickers K machine gun\") for driver and twin Vickers K for the co\\-driver](/wiki/File:Willys_MB.jpeg \"Willys MB.jpeg\")", "Two of the original uses of the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton truck were reconnaissance and the support of infantry with machine guns. These roles led to the desire to mount automatic rifles, to be fired from the jeep. To mount either a .30\\-caliber [M1919 Browning machine gun](/wiki/M1919_Browning_machine_gun \"M1919 Browning machine gun\") or .50\\-cal (12\\.7 mm) [M2 Browning](/wiki/M2_Browning \"M2 Browning\") heavy machine gun, the M31 pedestal, a tubular pedestal with bracing in three directions, was developed. This was the most common factory jeep machine\\-gun mount during the war, with 31,653 produced. It was followed by the improved M31C in March 1945, but this came too late for much combat in World War{{nbsp}}II. Besides these, units often created their own pedestal mounts in the field or adapted other pedestal mounts as available. Additionally, in 1943 the M48 bracket mount was standardized, to attach the .30\\-cal. machine gun or .30\\-cal. [M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle](/wiki/M1918_Browning_Automatic_Rifle \"M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle\") in front of the passenger seat. Like with the pedestals, troops improvised many gun\\-holding brackets in the field.{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=20–22}} Troops frequently preferred a .30 cal machine gun on a pivot, to fire from the front passenger seat.", "Aside from actual fielding intentions, the jeep was widely used for various weapons mounts trials during World War{{nbsp}}II, simply because the jeep was a handy platform to test all kinds of ring mounts, multiple gun mounts, as well as different weapons. The widespread adoption of the jeep in other armies also meant many different armaments. The most rigorous efforts were by the British. Perhaps the most well\\-known are the jeeps modified by the SAS for the 1942 desert raids in Egypt. These had several armaments, commonly using twin 0\\.303\\-inch [Vickers K machine guns](/wiki/Vickers_K_machine_gun \"Vickers K machine gun\") on the passenger side.", "### Field kits", "[thumb\\|Jeep with rear baggage rack (Netherlands, 1944\\); note that the spare wheel was relocated to the rear right side](/wiki/File:Bevrijding_van_Maastricht%2C_Vrijthof%2C_14_sept_1944_%286%29.jpg \"Bevrijding van Maastricht, Vrijthof, 14 sept 1944 (6).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Ambulance jeeps often had racks for two litter patients front and back](/wiki/File:WORLD_WAR_II%3B_Casualty_Evaucation_by_jeep_Wellcome_L0031963.jpg \"WORLD WAR II; Casualty Evaucation by jeep Wellcome L0031963.jpg\")", "Many field kits originated as locally made modifications and additions, for which standard kits were later produced by both the U.S. and Britain. Frequently used examples were rear baggage racks, ambulance litters and frames to transport lying wounded on jeeps, and [wire cutters](/wiki/Wire_catcher \"Wire catcher\"). Soldiers frequently ran into (literally) wires—either inadvertently, inconveniently strung communication wires, or deliberately placed by the enemy, to injure or kill motorcycle and vehicle personnel. The typical countermeasure was to mount a tall vertical steel bar to the front bumper, that would either cut offending strings or deflect them over the heads of the jeep crew. This was first used in Tunisia, 1943, but became frequent in Italy (1943–1945\\), and especially necessary in France (1944\\).{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=39–41}}", "More specific kits were created to enhance off\\-roading and mechanical capabilities, dealing with extreme climates, and technical support applications, like laying communication cables, or a field arc welder kit.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.portrayalpress.com/product\\-p/harger.htm\\|title\\=Arc Welder Kit for G503\\. Installation manual for MB/GPW. 20 pages. \\|website\\=portrayalpress.com}}", "[thumb\\|WV\\-6 snorkel kit for deep water fording, from TM9\\-2853 (1945\\)](/wiki/File:WV-6_Trucks_deep_water_fording_kit_on_jeep_%E2%80%93_TM9-2853.jpg \"WV-6 Trucks deep water fording kit on jeep – TM9-2853.jpg\")", "Many solutions made the jeep run on rails, popular in the [Pacific theater](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\") with U.S., Britain, and [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") troops, especially in [Burma](/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater%23Burma \"China Burma India Theater#Burma\"). A\\-frames on the front bumper enabled two jeeps to tow heavy trailers (for 2{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton trucks) in tandem. For desert cooling, [radiator surge tanks](/wiki/Surge_tank%23Automotive_surge_tanks \"Surge tank#Automotive surge tanks\") were used in North Africa in 1942\\. Equally, there were winterization kits, even snowplows, and the jeep's go\\-anywhere capability was further aided with [deep water fording](/wiki/Ford_%28crossing%29 \"Ford (crossing)\") kits, tire air compressors, and a winch option. For communications, jeeps were modified with rear ditch plows and cable laying reels, such as the RL\\-31 reel unit.{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=39–41}}", "#### Off\\-road enhancements", "To disembark jeeps in [amphibious landings](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare \"Amphibious warfare\"), in 1943, a deep\\-water fording kit for the jeep was produced. This enabled jeeps to be driven off [landing craft](/wiki/Landing_craft \"Landing craft\") like the [Landing Craft Mechanized](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Mechanized \"Landing Craft Mechanized\") (LCM), wading into relatively deep water, without flooding the engine or short\\-circuiting the electrical system. After several interim kits were issued, the U.S. Army standardized the universal WV\\-6 kit (later G9\\-5700769\\) which served all WWII {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton to 2{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton trucks. The kit contained flexible hoses for both the exhaust and the air intake, as well as proper waterproofing equipment. [Westinghouse](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation \"Westinghouse Electric Corporation\") developed a T1 air compressor, to be used in conjunction with special tires, to deflate the tires off\\-road, in soft mud or snow, and be able to pressurize them again after. It could be fitted under a maintenance work order, from October 1944\\. There was even a small capstan winch field kit made for the jeep, driven off the motor, for self\\-extracting, or pulling other jeeps trapped in mud or snow.{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=39–41}} The winch was very small and made hand\\-cranking of the jeep impossible. The latter two features remained rare.", "#### Arctic weather measures", "Willys developed a winterization kit for very cold climates. This included a cold\\-starting stove, crankcase ventilator, primer, hood insulation blanket, radiator blanket, a body enclosure kit, defroster/de\\-icer, and snow chains. These kits were however frequently unavailable, so units took their own measures in the field, particularly improvising various body enclosures, to protect the crew from extreme weather. In addition, two companies fabricated snowplows for the jeep. Geldhill Road Machinery Company made the 7T1NE plow, an angled single blade, while the JV5\\.5E was a V\\-shape design. The [Wausau Iron Works](/wiki/Ely_Wright_House%23Description_and_history \"Ely Wright House#Description and history\") built two similar designs, designated as the J and JB snowplows. Neither of these seem to have been commonly issued in combat. Photos of snowplows in use in the [European theater](/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II \"European theatre of World War II\") mostly show improvised plows, likely adaptations of snowplows locally found at hand.{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=39–41}}", "### Further development of the jeep", "Although no other light jeeps were taken into production, it was not for lack of trying. Both key military men, who had been championing the development of military vehicle concepts they had formulated for years—sometimes already since World War I—had led to conclusions about the logic of military mechanization, as well as automakers large and small, who now saw that in wartime, all of a sudden there were budgets available to work with. Of course, this was primarily true for the firms involved so far.", "After losing out on mass\\-production of the four\\-wheel drive {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, Bantam built the Army one 4×2 quarter\\-ton chassis in 1942, but to no further consequence.{{sfnp\\|ref\\=SRATAM4045\\|Summary Report – Tank\\-Automotive Materiel\\|1945\\|page\\=55}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|Holden\\-modified WW II ambulance jeep for the [U.S.M.C.](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") in the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\"). Note the medical supplies locker in place of right front seat. Source: National Archives](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%94National_Archives_fig-1.jpg \"Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater—National Archives fig-1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Holden](/wiki/Holden \"Holden\")\\-modified MB/GPW jeep field\\-ambulance for U.S.M.C. in the Pacific War, series I. Series II and III were made some 6 inches (15 cm) taller.](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%93left%E2%80%93National_Archives_fig-11.jpg \"Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater–left–National Archives fig-11.jpg\")", "An exception was an order for a series of some 200 to 500 standardized jeeps to be modified, by [Holden](/wiki/Holden \"Holden\") (then G.M. of Australia), into field ambulances for the [U.S. Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") in the [Pacific Theater](/wiki/Pacific_Theater_of_World_War_II \"Pacific Theater of World War II\"), because they found the standard {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\\-54 ambulances](/wiki/Dodge_WC-54 \"Dodge WC-54\") too unwieldy, and even their own {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4 [International M\\-1\\-4](/wiki/International_M-1-4 \"International M-1-4\") vehicles both too ponderous *and* too scarce.[2020/2021 Military Trader article](https://www.militarytrader.com/military-vehicles/holden-ambulance) In 1942, Lt. Cmdr. French Moore, MC, a battalion surgeon with the 2nd Marine Division (Camp Elliott, CA) started developing his design for an MB/GPW\\-based \"light field\\-ambulance.\" He submitted blueprints, and records of performance of his prototype to Marine Corps Commandant Lt. Gen. [Thomas Holcomb](/wiki/Thomas_Holcomb \"Thomas Holcomb\"). It could carry up to \"35 patients 1,000 yards and return, in an hour.\" Rebuilt to Moore's design, it was approved for fielding in time for the Solomon Island Campaign in 1943\\.[WWII Surgeon Develops Light Field Ambulance, André B. Sobocinski, BUMED Historian, 19 February 2017 in Navy Medicine Live (Archived)](https://web.archive.org/web/20170219130511/https://navymedicine.navylive.dodlive.mil/archives/6505) Three series were built in modest numbers but totaling more than the USMC's own ambulance versions of their International M\\-1\\-4 and M\\-2\\-4s.", "#### Lightweight jeeps", "[thumb\\|One of thirty\\-six Crosley CT\\-3 'Pup' extra\\-light, 4WD mini\\-jeep prototypes](/wiki/File:Crosley_CT-3_PUP_%281943%29.jpg \"Crosley CT-3 PUP (1943).jpg\")", "After the initial design specification of a maximum {{convert\\|1275\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} weight had been raised to almost double that in production, to achieve the necessary ruggedness on the main {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, the Army still wanted a truly lightweight model for airborne missions and use in the jungles of the Pacific theaters. In 1942 and 1943, at least five companies proposed designs: Crosley, Chevrolet, Ford, Willys, and Kaiser. The [Crosley CT\\-3 \"Pup\"](/wiki/Crosley%23War-time_production \"Crosley#War-time production\") prototypes were superlight, one\\- or two\\-passenger, but still four\\-wheel\\-drive buggies, that were transportable and air\\-droppable from a [Douglas C\\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\"). Six of the 2\\-cylinder, 13 hp, {{convert\\|1125\\|lb\\|kg\\|adj\\=on}} Pups were deployed overseas after undergoing tests at [Fort Benning, Georgia](/wiki/Fort_Benning%2C_Georgia \"Fort Benning, Georgia\"), but the project was discontinued due to several weak components. Seven of 36 Pups built are known to {{nobr\\|survive.{{cite web\\| author\\=Jackson, David D. \\|title\\=Crosley – American Automobile Industry in World War Two \\|url\\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/crosley.htm \\| access\\-date \\=2018\\-05\\-01}}{{cite web\\| title \\=More on the Crosley \"Pup\" Jeep \\| publisher \\=eWillys\\| date \\=2014\\-01\\-01 \\| url\\=http://www.ewillys.com/2014/01/01/more\\-on\\-the\\-crosley\\-pup\\-jeep/ \\| access\\-date \\=2018\\-05\\-01}}}}", "[thumb\\|Preparing for the July 1943 [Sicily campaign](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\"): a jeep is loaded onto an American [Waco CG\\-4A](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 \"Waco CG-4\") glider plane.](/wiki/File:Jeep_being_loaded_into_waco_glider.jpg \"Jeep being loaded into waco glider.jpg\")", "Most of the competitors' models were more similar to standard jeeps, just lighter and smaller. Willys managed to reduce the weight on their 'MB\\-L' (MB Lightweight) to some {{convert\\|1570\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} in 1943; and Army engineers were impressed by the Chevrolet and its advanced features: a [single center spar frame](/wiki/Backbone_chassis \"Backbone chassis\"), and an integrated gearbox and [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\").{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=17–20}} Kaiser created six {{convert\\|1300\\|\\-\\|1400\\|lb\\|kg\\|adj\\=on}} prototypes with a 42 hp engine but including some unfavorable design trade\\-offs.", "Willys eventually produced even more radical designs. The Willys WAC (Willys Air Cooled) had three seats, built around a centrally mounted 24 hp [Harley Davidson](/wiki/Harley_Davidson \"Harley Davidson\") engine, weighed only {{convert\\|1050\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}, but was noisy and not user\\-friendly. Still, it showed promise, and was further developed, eventually resulting in the Willys JBC, or \"Jungle Burden Carrier.\" By early 1945, this had turned into a mere {{convert\\|561\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} motorized wheeled load\\-carrying platform, with a single seat, that preceded the 1950s [Willys M274 \"Mechanical Mule](/wiki/M274_1/2-ton_4%C3%974_utility_platform_truck \"M274 1/2-ton 4×4 utility platform truck\").\"{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=17–20}}", "In Britain, [Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanizations_and_Aero \"Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero\") cut down a Willys MB in length and width, and stripped it for minimum weight, to serve airborne forces. The Airborne Forces Development Centre in Wiltshire oversaw an entire modification program for jeeps in airborne units, involving many modifications to reduce both weight and or size, including to wedge them into [Horsa gliders](/wiki/Horsa_glider \"Horsa glider\"), for [operation Market Garden](/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden \"Operation Market Garden\").{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=17–20}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|Jeep with a [37mm cannon](/wiki/37_mm_Gun_M3 \"37 mm Gun M3\") and a belt\\-fed, water\\-cooled, rapid\\-fire [Browning M1917A1 machine gun](/wiki/M1917_Browning_machine_gun%23M1917A1 \"M1917 Browning machine gun#M1917A1\") in U.S. 3rd Infantry, Newfoundland, 1942](/wiki/File:1942Jeep.jpg \"1942Jeep.jpg\")", "#### Antitank jeeps", "[thumb\\|1941 exp. 37mm anti\\-tank GMC prototype on a Bantam BRC\\-40 T2E1, as the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton car itself was still in development.](/wiki/File:Bantam_BRC_40_T2E1_37mm_antitank_prototype_%281941%29.webp \"Bantam BRC 40 T2E1 37mm antitank prototype (1941).webp\")\nBesides towing 37 mm antitank guns, it was also tested mounted directly on the quarter{{nbh}}tons. In early 1941, the US Army's [Tank Destroyer Command](/wiki/Tank_destroyer_battalion_%28United_States%29 \"Tank destroyer battalion (United States)\") was urgently looking to make their antitank guns more mobile, to better serve their tactical doctrine. One of the first prototypes, the T2 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC), mounted a standard 37 mm gun and [gun shield](/wiki/Gun_shield \"Gun shield\") on a Bantam BRC\\-40, aiming forward over the hood. Seven of these were built and tested, starting in May 1941, but were found awkward. So instead, eleven T2E1 GMC units aimed the 37 mm gun rearwards for trials. Shooting rearwards had advantages, but this configuration also proved difficult to man and operate the gun. The units were all dismantled to regular jeeps. In 1942, the larger {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\\-52](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series \"Dodge WC series\") was converted and standardized as the [M6 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M6_gun_motor_carriage \"M6 gun motor carriage\"), with a rear\\-aiming [37mm M3 gun](/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3 \"37 mm gun M3\"), but these also worked poorly in the field, and most were rebuilt back to regular WC\\-52 trucks.\n[thumb\\|Experimental rocket\\-artillery jeep, Inyokern Naval Air Facility, Jan 1945](/wiki/File:Exp.Rocket-Firing_MB-GPW_Inyokern_Naval_Air_facility_Jan%2745_US_Navy%E2%80%94mmu_get_jpeg.jpg \"Exp.Rocket-Firing MB-GPW Inyokern Naval Air facility Jan'45 US Navy—mmu get jpeg.jpg\")\nLate in the war, in 1945, the first large\\-caliber [recoilless rifles](/wiki/Recoilless_rifle \"Recoilless rifle\") became available, and the first jeep\\-mounted tests were performed, but they only came to fruition after World War{{nbsp}}II. One rare exception was [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity \"Operation Varsity\"), for which two [75\\-mm. recoilless rifles](/wiki/75-mm._recoilless_rifle \"75-mm. recoilless rifle\") were issued to the [17th U.S. Airborne Division](/wiki/17th_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 \"17th Airborne Division (United States)\"), that could be mounted on their jeeps, proving useful in anti\\-tank fights.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/shop\\-talk\\-three\\-jeeps\\|title\\=SHOP TALK: Three Jeeps\\|website\\=The National WWII Museum \\| New Orleans\\|date\\=15 June 2020 }}", "#### Rocket jeeps", "The jeep being too light to mount substantial guns, it was more suited later in the war, as a platform for rocket artillery, that didn't have the enormous recoil as conventional tube [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\"). The [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology \"California Institute of Technology\") developed two different 4\\.5\\-inch jeep\\-based rocket launcher systems for the U.S. Navy. Several other initiatives all used 4\\.5\\-inch rockets and tubes. Testing was also done by both U.S. Army and Marine Corps, but none of the jeep\\-mounted rocket launchers were built in any significant number because it was more efficient to use larger trucks that could carry more rockets. The Soviet Red Army deployed twelve units fitted with 12\\-rail [M\\-8 82mm rocket](/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher \"Katyusha rocket launcher\") launchers in the bed of a jeep, from December 1944 in the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains \"Carpathian Mountains\").{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=33–37}}", "#### Stretched and uprated jeeps", "[thumb\\|Willys T14, rearwards firing 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC)—the first 6×6 \"Super\\-Jeep\"](/wiki/File:Willys_6x6_%27Super-Jeep%27_37mm_T14_Gun_Motor_Carriage_no.2%2C_front_left.jpg \"Willys 6x6 'Super-Jeep' 37mm T14 Gun Motor Carriage no.2, front left.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Willys MT\\-TUG, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6 Tractor/\"Super\\-Jeep\"; picture from TM10\\-1513 manual supplement](/wiki/File:Willys_MT-TUG%2C_%C2%BE-ton_Truck%2C_6x6%2C_Tractor%2C_from_TM10-1513_supplement_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Willys MT-TUG, ¾-ton Truck, 6x6, Tractor, from TM10-1513 supplement (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Willys MLW\\-2 pickup, {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4, \"Light Jungle\" prototype initially rode on 36\\-inch (91 cm) wheels and tires, and had a whole new rear, with a \"tailgate\"](/wiki/File:Willys_MLW-2_rear_%E2%80%93_1%E2%81%842-ton%2C_4x4%2C_pickup%2C_Light_%27Jungle_Jeep%27_prototype.jpg \"Willys MLW-2 rear – 1⁄2-ton, 4x4, pickup, Light 'Jungle Jeep' prototype.jpg\")\nTo extend the jeep's luggage space, the simplest, and most frequently used method was the addition of a [rear baggage rack](/wiki/%23Field_kits \"#Field kits\"). In exceptional cases, units would actually stretch both body and frame of a jeep, to give it more passenger and luggage space, but for this usage, a Dodge WC model was available in many cases. Nevertheless, building stretched, 6×6 jeeps with {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton cross\\-country payload, was explored with much interest. As early as July 1941, after the unsuccessful testing with the T2 and T2E1 37 mm antitank guns mounted on Bantam jeeps, the [U.S. Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 \"Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)\") (QMC) thought to lengthen {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps into 6WD for specialized roles, including the 37 mm gun. Willys was contracted that month for both a T13 and a T14 gun motor carriage, based on the Willys MA – one firing forward, and one rearward, like the earlier Bantams. In reality, two models of rearward firing T14 were built, based on Willys *MBs*, one slat grille in late 1941, and one or more stamped grilles, by January 1942\\.", "Nevertheless, the QMC and Willys kept developing the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6, in various versions, as the \"Super\\-Jeep.\" By March 1942, the T14 GMC was revised as a cargo / prime mover, named Willys 'MT\\-TUG', that could compete in some roles with the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton Dodges. The Army tested these in various configurations, up to a 1{{nbh}}ton rated version, as a light, multi\\-purpose tractor truck, cargo, or personnel carrier. For the [United States Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Force \"United States Army Air Force\") (USAAF), several MT\\-Tug units were built with a [fifth\\-wheel coupling](/wiki/Fifth-wheel_coupling \"Fifth-wheel coupling\") on the cargo floor, for various [Fruehauf](/wiki/Fruehauf \"Fruehauf\") trailers, and loaded with sandbags on the cargo bed, even as [aircraft tugs](/wiki/Aircraft_tug \"Aircraft tug\").", "The Willys MT models had the same {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton rating as the new for 1942 [Dodge WC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series \"Dodge WC series\"), but weighed only {{convert\\|3100\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}, with a {{convert\\|300\\|mi\\|km}} range, and a top speed of {{convert\\|55\\|mph\\|km/h}}. Willys pointed out that every 6×6 \"Super Jeep\" would save {{convert\\|2000\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} of steel for their construction, as well as 40% in fuel usage, compared to the Dodge trucks.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.armyjeepparts.com/news.aspx?showarticle\\=16\\|title\\=Army Jeep Parts for Sale Online \\| Vintage Jeep Parts}}{{failed verification\\|reason\\=no article at link\\|date\\=September 2021}} Moreover, it comprised 65% unaltered standard jeep components, and many of the other parts were also just modified standard jeep parts. By January 1943, the Willys MT\\-TUG was further evaluated by the Army Transport Command at [Camp Gordon Johnston](/wiki/Camp_Gordon_Johnston \"Camp Gordon Johnston\"), FL. It was positively reviewed there for its effortless operation in deep sand. Although the Willys {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton's performance was even called 'exemplary' by some.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Unique Jeeps – The Good, The Bad \\& The Goofy \\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/1406\\-unique\\-jeeps\\-the\\-good\\-bad\\-and\\-goofy/\\|date\\=14 May 2014\\|website\\=MotorTrend}}", "Fifteen 6×6 Willys MT(\\-Tug)s alone were built as \"Truck, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton, 6×6, Tractor\", under Ordnance production contract W{{nbh}}303{{nbh}}ORD{{nbh}}4623, production order T6620,{{cite magazine \\|editor\\-first\\=Bart \\|editor\\-last\\=Vanderveen \\|year\\=1992 \\|title\\=Willys MT\\-TUG – 6×6 Super\\-Jeep \\|url\\=https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\\_file.php?fid\\=508854 \\|magazine\\=Wheels \\& Tracks \\|location\\=Old Harlow, Essex, UK \\|publisher\\=Battle of Britain Prints International \\|pages\\=25–33 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200917122402/https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\\_file.php?fid\\=508854 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17 \\|via\\=karopka.ru \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Full article at 12\\.08\\.2012 02:34:41](https://karopka.ru/forum/forum193/topic12953/){{sfnp\\|ref\\=SRATAM4045\\|Summary Report – Tank\\-Automotive Materiel\\|1945\\|page\\=62}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/willys\\-overland.htm\\|title\\=Willys\\-Overland Motors in WWII \\|website\\=usautoindustryworldwartwo.com}} and even a maintenance supplement for the \"6×6 Willys MB{{nbh}}Tug\" was printed with the 1943 TM10{{nbh}}1513 technical manual. Including miscellaneous test units, a total of 24 units are believed to have been built, with six known survivors.", "An even smaller number of {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps with a slightly stretched wheelbase were built as the Willys MLW(−1\\) through MLW\\-4 \"Jungle Jeep.\" LW stood for Long(er) Wheelbase, to accommodate significantly larger wheels and 7\\.50–20 tires with a tractor\\-like profile, with the objective to serve in the jungles of the Pacific theater, after a September 1943 request from the South West Pacific for a truck with payload and mobility over mud and swamps of jungle terrain, superior to that of the regular jeep.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.milweb.net/features/willys\\_jeep.php \\|title\\=Willys Jeep, Ford jeep \\|website\\=milweb.net}}Although uprating from {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton to {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton seems like doubling, the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton standard rating is nominal — the real standard jeep rating was {{convert\\|1200\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} on road, and {{convert\\|800\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} off\\-road.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}}", "[thumb\\|T28 experimental Willys MT based, half\\-track litter\\-carrier.](/wiki/File:T28_or_T29_experimental_half-track_WW_II_jeep_litter-carrier_%28cropped%29.jpg \"T28 or T29 experimental half-track WW II jeep litter-carrier (cropped).jpg\")", "#### Tracked jeeps", "Several tracked jeep prototypes were built, because of such a need in Alaska and Canada. After America entered the war, a Japanese attack on the [Aleutians](/wiki/Aleutian_Islands \"Aleutian Islands\") suddenly made the Alaskan military base a zone of great military importance. The snow\\-rich circumstances created a need for tracked, jeep\\-like, all\\-purpose vehicles, and the Canadian [Bombardier](/wiki/Bombardier_Recreational_Products \"Bombardier Recreational Products\") company and Willys created the T29 jeep [half\\-track](/wiki/Half-track \"Half-track\") out of one of the existing 6×6 Willys MT chassis. The T\\-29 \"Snow Tractor\" (Jan 1943\\) expanded the rear chassis to a total of six wheels: three on each side, with a broad rubber belt serving as a track, running around two Ford model A wheels, followed by a notably larger wheel at each back corner. Instead of front wheels, the rig got skis, and the front\\-wheel driveline was omitted, to save cost and weight. It was followed up with the T29E1, on which front wheels returned, but mounted on the front skis, and still non\\-driven, just so that the front could now both glide *and* roll.['Jeep modifications (continued)' (in Dutch)](https://www.strijdbewijs.nl/jeep/jeep1a.htm)\n[thumb\\|America tested armoring jeeps for reconnaissance (reenactment car).](/wiki/File:Farbatron.jpg \"Farbatron.jpg\")\nDue to Willys' workload, International Harvester helped assemble a further five T29E1 prototypes. Under the steering front wheels, skis could be mounted or removed. An Aberdeen test report critiqued that the T\\-29E1 was difficult to steer, as the tracks could not be controlled independently, and that prolonged use caused excessive track component wear. A completely rearranged rear was then proposed, and a T28 litter\\-carrier was completed for testing by August 1944\\. The only known surviving half\\-track WWII jeep is a Willys{{nbsp}}T28 named \"Penguin.\"{{cite web \\|last1\\=Askew \\|first1\\=Mark \\|title\\=The History of the Willys Half\\-Track Jeeps\\- the T\\-29 and T\\-29 E1 \\|url\\= http://www.milweb.net/features/jeep.php \\|website\\=milweb.net \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2021 \\|date\\=2008}} Further (fully) tracked \"jeeps\" were also armored, and developed for, and by Canada (see [armored jeeps](/wiki/%23Armored_jeeps \"#Armored jeeps\")).", "#### Armored jeeps", "Many jeeps received added armor in the field, especially in Europe in 1944–1945\\. Frequently, a rear slanting armor plate was added in front of the grille, and replacing the windshield, as well as the sides, in place of where doors would be.", "[thumb\\|The [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car \"T24 Scout Car\") was built on a 6×6 Willys MT \"Super\\-Jeep\" chassis.](/wiki/File:T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg \"T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg\")", "Since reconnaissance was one of the jeep's primary purposes, there was a demand for some armor from the start of production. Starting April 1942, the second T14 GMC 6×6 Willys MT\\-Tug chassis was converted to the [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car \"T24 Scout Car\"). Though performing well in trials, the T24 was abandoned in the autumn in favor of the [M8 \\& M20 Light Armored Car](/wiki/M8_Greyhound \"M8 Greyhound\"). Concurrently, the Ordnance Corps was pushed to work on a lightly armored reconnaissance design, based on the standard Willys 4×4 jeep. Different armor configurations were tested on the T25 through T25E3 prototypes respectively.", "Canada created a light, tracked, armored, and armed vehicle using Jeep automotive components. In late 1942, the [Canadian Department of National Defence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_%28Canada%29 \"Department of National Defence (Canada)\") (DND)'s Directorate of Vehicles and Artillery (DVA) began work at No.1 Proving Ground in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\") on a small tracked vehicle successively named: 'Bantam Armoured Tracked Vehicle', the 'Light Recce Tank', and finally: the 'Tracked Jeep', TJ.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The Canadian \"Tracked Jeep\" Mk.1 in the [Canadian War Museum](/wiki/Canadian_War_Museum \"Canadian War Museum\").](/wiki/File:Tracked_Jeep_%2824839526376%29.jpg \"Tracked Jeep (24839526376).jpg\") \n[thumb\\|Canadian WWII poster for [savings certificates](/wiki/Canada_Savings_Bond%23History \"Canada Savings Bond#History\"). The vehicle resembles a British [Standard Beaverette](/wiki/Standard_Beaverette \"Standard Beaverette\") armored car](/wiki/File:I0016089.jpg \"I0016089.jpg\")\nThe Canadian \"Tracked Jeep\" Mk.1 measured {{convert\\|2\\.83\\|m\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} long, and {{convert\\|1\\.70\\|m\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} wide, by {{convert\\|1\\.28\\|m\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} high; it had a maximum armor of 12 mm ({{1/2}}\\-inch), and aimed at top speeds of 56 km/h (35 mph) on land and 8 km/h (5 mph) in the water.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\\=jeep\\&page\\_num\\=1\\&item\\_num\\=3\\&media\\_irn\\=5384241 \\|title\\=Reconnaissance Carrier \\|website\\=Canadian War Museum \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210209135141/https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\\=jeep\\&page\\_num\\=1\\&item\\_num\\=3\\&media\\_irn\\=5384241 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The vehicle was intended for taking messages over contested ground, [armored reconnaissance](/wiki/Armored_reconnaissance \"Armored reconnaissance\"), and engaging unarmored enemy troops in airborne and combined operations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://milart.blog/2014/08/16/canadian\\-tracked\\-jeep\\-willys/\\|title\\=Canadian Tracked Jeep (Willys)\\|date\\=16 August 2014}} Willys and Marmon\\-Herrington were contracted for five more prototypes, Willys for power train components, and MH for the armored hulls and the Hotchkiss\\-type running gear. The Tracked Jeep showed excellent cross\\-country performance and uphill mobility was better than other light tracked utility vehicles, while its [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle \"Amphibious vehicle\") capability was adequate, despite its low freeboard. There were however serious shortcomings with the running\\-gear and tracks. Work to fix this delayed testing until late 1944, and British insights demanded such fundamental changes, that a Mk.2 version was developed, of which another six units were fabricated, and not ready until after the war had ended. The problems with tracks and running gear were still not sorted out, and development halted.", "#### Flying jeep", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=September 2021}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Hafner Rotabuggy in flight](/wiki/File:Rotabuggy.jpg \"Rotabuggy.jpg\")\nThe most extreme concept tried was to turn the jeep into a [rotor kite](/wiki/Rotor_kite \"Rotor kite\") (or gyrokite), similar to an [autogyro](/wiki/Autogyro \"Autogyro\")—the [Hafner Rotabuggy](/wiki/Hafner_Rotabuggy \"Hafner Rotabuggy\") (officially Malcolm Rotaplane). Designed by [Raoul Hafner](/wiki/Raoul_Hafner \"Raoul Hafner\") in 1942 and sponsored by the [Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment](/wiki/Airborne_Forces_Experimental_Establishment \"Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment\") (AFEE), after their [Rotachute](/wiki/Rotachute \"Rotachute\") enjoyed some success, a passive rotor assembly was added over the jeep cabin, along with a lightweight tail, for stabilization. This jeep could be towed into the air by a transport or bomber tug. The Rotabuggy would then be towed to the drop zone as a rotary\\-wing glider. It took until autumn 1944 to achieve a decent test flight, and other [military gliders](/wiki/Military_glider \"Military glider\"), (particularly the [Waco Hadrian](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 \"Waco CG-4\") and [Airspeed Horsa](/wiki/Airspeed_Horsa \"Airspeed Horsa\")) made the Rotabuggy superfluous. Incidentally, it was first named the \"Blitz Buggy,\" but that was soon dropped for \"Rotabuggy\".", "{{break}}", "" ]
### First motorizations and World War I For centuries, horses were used for reconnaissance, communications, and pulling loads, whenever wars were fought, but after the start of the 20th century, [motorcycles](/wiki/Motorcycle "Motorcycle") were the first [motor vehicles](/wiki/Motor_vehicle "Motor vehicle") eagerly adopted by the military, either to replace mounted/ridden [cavalry horses](/wiki/Horses_in_warfare "Horses in warfare"), or to [motorize infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry "Motorized infantry"). The armies of World War I relied on marching men, horses, and railways for movement but [its new technologies](/wiki/World_War_I%23Technology "World War I#Technology") introduced motor vehicles: the [first tanks](/wiki/History_of_the_tank "History of the tank"), armoured car, and artillery tractors. Motorcycles were the most prolific motor\-tools in the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I") arsenal. [thumb\|left\|U.S. [Indian motorcycle](/wiki/Indian_motorcycle "Indian motorcycle") and sidecar, with M1914 Colt Machine Gun, 1917\.](/wiki/File:1917_-_Indian_Motorcycle_and_M1914_Colt_Machine_Gun.jpg "1917 - Indian Motorcycle and M1914 Colt Machine Gun.jpg") [thumb\|British military motorcycle dispatch rider, 1914 World War I.](/wiki/File:British_military_motorcycle_dispatch_rider_WW1.jpg "British military motorcycle dispatch rider WW1.jpg") [Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry"), [mounted infantry](/wiki/Mounted_infantry "Mounted infantry"), [scouts](/wiki/Cavalry_scout "Cavalry scout"), and [messengers](/wiki/Despatch_rider "Despatch rider") could now be mobilized in combat with much greater speed, agility, and near tireless machines,[P. Findlay (2006\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep "#Man&Jeep") [*(documentary)*; time \= 3:45–4:18](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=225) exactly what was wanted for relaying critical orders, getting munitions to machine guns, and scouting miles ahead of advancing units. The quick and nimble motorcycle, "ridden hard through shot and shell to secure victory," has made itself irreplaceable in specific roles on the battlefield to this day. But motorcycles also had serious limitations. One could be fast on a decent road, but many roads were still so bad, that the U.S. already had a *[Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement "Good Roads Movement")* in the late 19th century, as increased usage of [bicycles](/wiki/Safety_bicycle "Safety bicycle") required improving the surfaces of existing wagon and carriage trails. The motorcycles of the era were not ideal; only the best motorcyclists could endure a muddy battlefield trail, control the bike and keep it from stalling, damage, or flipping over; and driver training was both costly in terms of time and money.[P. Findlay (2006\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep "#Man&Jeep") [*(documentary)*; time \= 4:00–4:34](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=240){{cite web \|first\=Aaron \|last\=Cortez \|title\=History of Military Motorcycles \|url\= https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\-of\-military\-motorcycles \|website\=bikebandit.com \|date\=4 August 2015 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210711181450/https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\-of\-military\-motorcycles \|archive\-date\=11 July 2021 \|access\-date\=30 July 2022}} They had poor [off\-roading](/wiki/Off-roading "Off-roading") ability and lacked payload capacity. Adding a sidecar provided more stability, but payload and cargo space remained very limited, and having only one powered wheel out of three, still meant the combination got stuck a lot. [Royal Page Davidson](/wiki/Royal_Page_Davidson "Royal Page Davidson") used patents of Charles Duryea to modify chassis, with machine\-guns and armor shield, from 1898\.Davidson was the leading pioneer of armored military vehicles in the U.S. of his time. [thumb\|Colonel Davidson anti\-aircraft semi\-armored Cadillac, 1909](/wiki/File:Davidson_anti-aircraft_military_car_1909.jpg "Davidson anti-aircraft military car 1909.jpg") [thumb\|A convoy of 4×4 U.S. [FWD trucks](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive "Four Wheel Drive") in a mud and ruts road, [1916 Mexican Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition "Pancho Villa Expedition") note FWD logo on grille](/wiki/File:US_convoy_in_Mexico%2C_1916_army.mil-2008-03-28-083643_%28cropped%29.jpg "US convoy in Mexico, 1916 army.mil-2008-03-28-083643 (cropped).jpg") [thumb\|Nash Quad 2{{nbh}}ton [ammunitions](/wiki/Ammunition "Ammunition") truck, 1918](/wiki/File:111-SC-4156_-_Nash_Motor_Company%2C_Kenosha%2C_Wis._Ammunition_truck%2C_2-ton._-_NARA_-_55169618_%28cropped%29.jpg "111-SC-4156 - Nash Motor Company, Kenosha, Wis. Ammunition truck, 2-ton. - NARA - 55169618 (cropped).jpg") At the same time, the arrival and growing use of automobiles led to various individuals pioneering vehicle trips across the U.S., followed by the first transcontinental trips by [convoys](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") of vehicles. After the U.S. Army purchased its first truck in 1907, of 5\-ton payload capacity,{{cite news \|date\=March 19, 1916 \|title\=Truck Makers Supply Both Men and Cars for Army \|url\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1916/03/19/99438897\.pdf \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=2021\-07\-01}} in the late summer of 1913, the Army Medical and Quartermaster Corps (QC) took a {{3/4}}\-ton QC field\-truck, on a {{convert\|922\|mi\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}} multi\-leg experimental trek through Alaska for the state's Road Commission—both to try the truck's bad\-road supply and maintenance abilities as well as test the state of several important overland connections in the rough territory.{{cite news \|date\=January 18, 1914 \|title\=Army Officers Try Alaska Auto Run \|url\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/01/18/100297594\.pdf \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=2021\-07\-01}} 1915 followed the first successful [transcontinental motor convoy](/wiki/Transcontinental_Motor_Convoy%231915_transcontinental_film_convoy "Transcontinental Motor Convoy#1915 transcontinental film convoy"), traveling the entire [Lincoln Highway](/wiki/Lincoln_Highway "Lincoln Highway"), from New York City to the [Panama–Pacific](/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Pacific_International_Exposition "Panama–Pacific International Exposition") [World Exhibition](/wiki/World%27s_fair "World's fair") in San Francisco, taking four months—for making a film about it. Starting in 1916, the Quartermaster Corps was servicing over 100 "motor trucks," of as many as 27 "varieties"; and in March that year, the U.S. Army decided to form its first two motor companies, to be used immediately in the [Pancho Villa Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition "Pancho Villa Expedition") in Mexico, starting 14 March 1916\. One company got 27 four\-wheel drive, 2{{nbh}}ton, [Jeffery](/wiki/Thomas_B._Jeffery_Company "Thomas B. Jeffery Company") [off\-road](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle "Off-road vehicle") [Quad trucks](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad "Jeffery Quad"). The other got 27 heavy\-duty, 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, long wheelbase, rear\-wheel drive [White trucks](/wiki/White_Motor_Company "White Motor Company"). The [U.S. War Department](/wiki/U.S._War_Department "U.S. War Department") procured the vehicles as [rolling chassis](/wiki/Rolling_chassis "Rolling chassis"), which the manufacturers had to expedite to [El Paso, Texas](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas "El Paso, Texas"). The wagon bodies for the chassis came from the Quartermaster Depot. The most suitable truck capacity found by the Quartermaster General for Army use to be 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, matching both the country roads nature, the strength of bridges, as well as the existing troop supply system, at the time also using standard 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, four\-mule wagons. Meanwhile, World War I had been raging in Europe since 1914\. More than five years before, Henry Ford had launched his [Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T "Ford Model T"). "... Its speed, durability, stamina, and ease of maintenance (compared to a horse) had already won over many civilians,"[Six WWI Vehicles That Helped Create Our Modern Mechanical World – Haynes Manuals](https://haynes.com/en-us/tips-tutorials/vehicles-wwi-helped-create-our-modern-world) and British and French forces also wanted them. Ford, an [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist "Isolationist"), would not sign a contract with an overseas government, but local dealers sold over 50,000 Fords to European forces, who militarized them locally, most famously into ambulances. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford sold directly to his country, delivering another 15,000 cars before peace was signed. Britain, France, and Russia were already buying American\-made [four\-wheel\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") trucks from the [Four Wheel Drive Auto Company](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive "Four Wheel Drive"), and [Jeffery/Nash Quads](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad "Jeffery Quad"), because on the muddy roads and European battlefields, they would not get stuck all the time.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo "#PBStoledo") Time \= 2:02–2:40 The United States procured thousands of motor vehicles for its military, including some 12,800 Dodges,{{cite web \|url\= http://www.fourwheeler.com/features/1612\-1943\-dodge\-wc\-51\-weapons\-carrier\-power\-and\-glory\-backward\-glances/ \|title\=1943 Dodge {{nobr\|WC\-51}} Weapons Carrier, Power \& Glory: Backward Glances \|last\=Allen \|first\=Jim \|date\=7 December 2016 \|website\=FourWheeler.com \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-24 \|author\-link\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer)}} plus thousands of four\-wheel\-drive trucks: 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton Nash Quads, and 3\- and 5\-ton FWD trucks. General [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing "John J. Pershing") viewed horses and mules as acceptable for the previous three U.S. wars, but in the new century, his cavalry forces had to move quicker, with more range and more personnel.{{cite web \|last1\=Senefsky \|first1\=Bill \|title\=1916 To 1975 Dodge Diesel Engines – Dodge's First Diesels \|url\=http://www.trucktrend.com/news/0708dp\-1916\-to\-1975\-dodge\-diesel\-engines/ \|website\=Truck Trend \|access\-date\=2 October 2018 \|date\=31 July 2007}} He was the first to deploy motorcycles, in the [Mexican Border War](/wiki/Mexican_Border_War "Mexican Border War"), predominantly a cavalry campaign over wide regions of the Southwest, where [Harley\-Davidson](/wiki/Harley-Davidson "Harley-Davidson") motorcycles provided to the Army gave the U.S. the advantage over the horse\-mounted Mexicans. The U.S. Army was so pleased with further innovations, like a sidecar as a platform to mount machine\-guns, that the U.S. procured many more motorcycles than 4WD trucks for World War I. "Entire infantry units were mobilized on motorcycles, and they also provided an ideal way to rapidly deploy machine gun crews into position. Medical units used them to evacuate wounded on stretcher\-equipped sidecars, and to return medical supplies and ammunition." "By the end of the war, the whole world saw the horse as hopelessly outclassed." Nevertheless—crucially—using four\-wheel drive still remained tied to heavier trucks, of {{nobr\|1{{1/2}}\-ton}} to {{nobr\|5\-ton}} capacity. All through World War I, there were not any *light* four\-wheel\-drive vehicles yet.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo "#PBStoledo") Time \= 2:40–3:00
[ "### First motorizations and World War I", "For centuries, horses were used for reconnaissance, communications, and pulling loads, whenever wars were fought, but after the start of the 20th century, [motorcycles](/wiki/Motorcycle \"Motorcycle\") were the first [motor vehicles](/wiki/Motor_vehicle \"Motor vehicle\") eagerly adopted by the military, either to replace mounted/ridden [cavalry horses](/wiki/Horses_in_warfare \"Horses in warfare\"), or to [motorize infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry \"Motorized infantry\").", "The armies of World War I relied on marching men, horses, and railways for movement but [its new technologies](/wiki/World_War_I%23Technology \"World War I#Technology\") introduced motor vehicles: the [first tanks](/wiki/History_of_the_tank \"History of the tank\"), armoured car, and artillery tractors. Motorcycles were the most prolific motor\\-tools in the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") arsenal.", "[thumb\\|left\\|U.S. [Indian motorcycle](/wiki/Indian_motorcycle \"Indian motorcycle\") and sidecar, with M1914 Colt Machine Gun, 1917\\.](/wiki/File:1917_-_Indian_Motorcycle_and_M1914_Colt_Machine_Gun.jpg \"1917 - Indian Motorcycle and M1914 Colt Machine Gun.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|British military motorcycle dispatch rider, 1914 World War I.](/wiki/File:British_military_motorcycle_dispatch_rider_WW1.jpg \"British military motorcycle dispatch rider WW1.jpg\")\n[Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"), [mounted infantry](/wiki/Mounted_infantry \"Mounted infantry\"), [scouts](/wiki/Cavalry_scout \"Cavalry scout\"), and [messengers](/wiki/Despatch_rider \"Despatch rider\") could now be mobilized in combat with much greater speed, agility, and near tireless machines,[P. Findlay (2006\\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep \"#Man&Jeep\") [*(documentary)*; time \\= 3:45–4:18](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=225) exactly what was wanted for relaying critical orders, getting munitions to machine guns, and scouting miles ahead of advancing units. The quick and nimble motorcycle, \"ridden hard through shot and shell to secure victory,\" has made itself irreplaceable in specific roles on the battlefield to this day.", "But motorcycles also had serious limitations. One could be fast on a decent road, but many roads were still so bad, that the U.S. already had a *[Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement \"Good Roads Movement\")* in the late 19th century, as increased usage of [bicycles](/wiki/Safety_bicycle \"Safety bicycle\") required improving the surfaces of existing wagon and carriage trails. The motorcycles of the era were not ideal; only the best motorcyclists could endure a muddy battlefield trail, control the bike and keep it from stalling, damage, or flipping over; and driver training was both costly in terms of time and money.[P. Findlay (2006\\). Man and Jeep](/wiki/%23Man%26Jeep \"#Man&Jeep\") [*(documentary)*; time \\= 4:00–4:34](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGDfFFy8XNI&t=240){{cite web \\|first\\=Aaron \\|last\\=Cortez \\|title\\=History of Military Motorcycles \\|url\\= https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\\-of\\-military\\-motorcycles \\|website\\=bikebandit.com \\|date\\=4 August 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210711181450/https://www.bikebandit.com/blog/history\\-of\\-military\\-motorcycles \\|archive\\-date\\=11 July 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022}} They had poor [off\\-roading](/wiki/Off-roading \"Off-roading\") ability and lacked payload capacity. Adding a sidecar provided more stability, but payload and cargo space remained very limited, and having only one powered wheel out of three, still meant the combination got stuck a lot. [Royal Page Davidson](/wiki/Royal_Page_Davidson \"Royal Page Davidson\") used patents of Charles Duryea to modify chassis, with machine\\-guns and armor shield, from 1898\\.Davidson was the leading pioneer of armored military vehicles in the U.S. of his time.", "[thumb\\|Colonel Davidson anti\\-aircraft semi\\-armored Cadillac, 1909](/wiki/File:Davidson_anti-aircraft_military_car_1909.jpg \"Davidson anti-aircraft military car 1909.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A convoy of 4×4 U.S. [FWD trucks](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive \"Four Wheel Drive\") in a mud and ruts road, [1916 Mexican Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition \"Pancho Villa Expedition\") note FWD logo on grille](/wiki/File:US_convoy_in_Mexico%2C_1916_army.mil-2008-03-28-083643_%28cropped%29.jpg \"US convoy in Mexico, 1916 army.mil-2008-03-28-083643 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Nash Quad 2{{nbh}}ton [ammunitions](/wiki/Ammunition \"Ammunition\") truck, 1918](/wiki/File:111-SC-4156_-_Nash_Motor_Company%2C_Kenosha%2C_Wis._Ammunition_truck%2C_2-ton._-_NARA_-_55169618_%28cropped%29.jpg \"111-SC-4156 - Nash Motor Company, Kenosha, Wis. Ammunition truck, 2-ton. - NARA - 55169618 (cropped).jpg\")", "At the same time, the arrival and growing use of automobiles led to various individuals pioneering vehicle trips across the U.S., followed by the first transcontinental trips by [convoys](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") of vehicles. After the U.S. Army purchased its first truck in 1907, of 5\\-ton payload capacity,{{cite news \\|date\\=March 19, 1916 \\|title\\=Truck Makers Supply Both Men and Cars for Army \\|url\\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1916/03/19/99438897\\.pdf \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-01}} in the late summer of 1913, the Army Medical and Quartermaster Corps (QC) took a {{3/4}}\\-ton QC field\\-truck, on a {{convert\\|922\\|mi\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} multi\\-leg experimental trek through Alaska for the state's Road Commission—both to try the truck's bad\\-road supply and maintenance abilities as well as test the state of several important overland connections in the rough territory.{{cite news \\|date\\=January 18, 1914 \\|title\\=Army Officers Try Alaska Auto Run \\|url\\= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/01/18/100297594\\.pdf \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-01}} 1915 followed the first successful [transcontinental motor convoy](/wiki/Transcontinental_Motor_Convoy%231915_transcontinental_film_convoy \"Transcontinental Motor Convoy#1915 transcontinental film convoy\"), traveling the entire [Lincoln Highway](/wiki/Lincoln_Highway \"Lincoln Highway\"), from New York City to the [Panama–Pacific](/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Pacific_International_Exposition \"Panama–Pacific International Exposition\") [World Exhibition](/wiki/World%27s_fair \"World's fair\") in San Francisco, taking four months—for making a film about it. Starting in 1916, the Quartermaster Corps was servicing over 100 \"motor trucks,\" of as many as 27 \"varieties\"; and in March that year, the U.S. Army decided to form its first two motor companies, to be used immediately in the [Pancho Villa Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition \"Pancho Villa Expedition\") in Mexico, starting 14 March 1916\\. One company got 27 four\\-wheel drive, 2{{nbh}}ton, [Jeffery](/wiki/Thomas_B._Jeffery_Company \"Thomas B. Jeffery Company\") [off\\-road](/wiki/Off-road_vehicle \"Off-road vehicle\") [Quad trucks](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad \"Jeffery Quad\"). The other got 27 heavy\\-duty, 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, long wheelbase, rear\\-wheel drive [White trucks](/wiki/White_Motor_Company \"White Motor Company\"). The [U.S. War Department](/wiki/U.S._War_Department \"U.S. War Department\") procured the vehicles as [rolling chassis](/wiki/Rolling_chassis \"Rolling chassis\"), which the manufacturers had to expedite to [El Paso, Texas](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas \"El Paso, Texas\"). The wagon bodies for the chassis came from the Quartermaster Depot. The most suitable truck capacity found by the Quartermaster General for Army use to be 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, matching both the country roads nature, the strength of bridges, as well as the existing troop supply system, at the time also using standard 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, four\\-mule wagons.", "Meanwhile, World War I had been raging in Europe since 1914\\. More than five years before, Henry Ford had launched his [Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T \"Ford Model T\"). \"... Its speed, durability, stamina, and ease of maintenance (compared to a horse) had already won over many civilians,\"[Six WWI Vehicles That Helped Create Our Modern Mechanical World – Haynes Manuals](https://haynes.com/en-us/tips-tutorials/vehicles-wwi-helped-create-our-modern-world) and British and French forces also wanted them. Ford, an [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist \"Isolationist\"), would not sign a contract with an overseas government, but local dealers sold over 50,000 Fords to European forces, who militarized them locally, most famously into ambulances. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford sold directly to his country, delivering another 15,000 cars before peace was signed.", "Britain, France, and Russia were already buying American\\-made [four\\-wheel\\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") trucks from the [Four Wheel Drive Auto Company](/wiki/Four_Wheel_Drive \"Four Wheel Drive\"), and [Jeffery/Nash Quads](/wiki/Jeffery_Quad \"Jeffery Quad\"), because on the muddy roads and European battlefields, they would not get stuck all the time.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo \"#PBStoledo\") Time \\= 2:02–2:40", "The United States procured thousands of motor vehicles for its military, including some 12,800 Dodges,{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.fourwheeler.com/features/1612\\-1943\\-dodge\\-wc\\-51\\-weapons\\-carrier\\-power\\-and\\-glory\\-backward\\-glances/ \\|title\\=1943 Dodge {{nobr\\|WC\\-51}} Weapons Carrier, Power \\& Glory: Backward Glances \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=Jim \\|date\\=7 December 2016 \\|website\\=FourWheeler.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-24 \\|author\\-link\\=Jim Allen (4x4 writer)}} plus thousands of four\\-wheel\\-drive trucks: 1{{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton Nash Quads, and 3\\- and 5\\-ton FWD trucks. General [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing \"John J. Pershing\") viewed horses and mules as acceptable for the previous three U.S. wars, but in the new century, his cavalry forces had to move quicker, with more range and more personnel.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Senefsky \\|first1\\=Bill \\|title\\=1916 To 1975 Dodge Diesel Engines – Dodge's First Diesels \\|url\\=http://www.trucktrend.com/news/0708dp\\-1916\\-to\\-1975\\-dodge\\-diesel\\-engines/ \\|website\\=Truck Trend \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2018 \\|date\\=31 July 2007}} He was the first to deploy motorcycles, in the [Mexican Border War](/wiki/Mexican_Border_War \"Mexican Border War\"), predominantly a cavalry campaign over wide regions of the Southwest, where [Harley\\-Davidson](/wiki/Harley-Davidson \"Harley-Davidson\") motorcycles provided to the Army gave the U.S. the advantage over the horse\\-mounted Mexicans. The U.S. Army was so pleased with further innovations, like a sidecar as a platform to mount machine\\-guns, that the U.S. procured many more motorcycles than 4WD trucks for World War I. \"Entire infantry units were mobilized on motorcycles, and they also provided an ideal way to rapidly deploy machine gun crews into position. Medical units used them to evacuate wounded on stretcher\\-equipped sidecars, and to return medical supplies and ammunition.\"", "\"By the end of the war, the whole world saw the horse as hopelessly outclassed.\" Nevertheless—crucially—using four\\-wheel drive still remained tied to heavier trucks, of {{nobr\\|1{{1/2}}\\-ton}} to {{nobr\\|5\\-ton}} capacity. All through World War I, there were not any *light* four\\-wheel\\-drive vehicles yet.[PBS, 2007: *Jeep: Steel Soldier.*](/wiki/%23PBStoledo \"#PBStoledo\") Time \\= 2:40–3:00", "" ]
### Further development of the jeep Although no other light jeeps were taken into production, it was not for lack of trying. Both key military men, who had been championing the development of military vehicle concepts they had formulated for years—sometimes already since World War I—had led to conclusions about the logic of military mechanization, as well as automakers large and small, who now saw that in wartime, all of a sudden there were budgets available to work with. Of course, this was primarily true for the firms involved so far. After losing out on mass\-production of the four\-wheel drive {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, Bantam built the Army one 4×2 quarter\-ton chassis in 1942, but to no further consequence.{{sfnp\|ref\=SRATAM4045\|Summary Report – Tank\-Automotive Materiel\|1945\|page\=55}} [thumb\|left\|Holden\-modified WW II ambulance jeep for the [U.S.M.C.](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") in the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War"). Note the medical supplies locker in place of right front seat. Source: National Archives](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%94National_Archives_fig-1.jpg "Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater—National Archives fig-1.jpg") [thumb\|[Holden](/wiki/Holden "Holden")\-modified MB/GPW jeep field\-ambulance for U.S.M.C. in the Pacific War, series I. Series II and III were made some 6 inches (15 cm) taller.](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%93left%E2%80%93National_Archives_fig-11.jpg "Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater–left–National Archives fig-11.jpg") An exception was an order for a series of some 200 to 500 standardized jeeps to be modified, by [Holden](/wiki/Holden "Holden") (then G.M. of Australia), into field ambulances for the [U.S. Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") in the [Pacific Theater](/wiki/Pacific_Theater_of_World_War_II "Pacific Theater of World War II"), because they found the standard {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\-54 ambulances](/wiki/Dodge_WC-54 "Dodge WC-54") too unwieldy, and even their own {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4 [International M\-1\-4](/wiki/International_M-1-4 "International M-1-4") vehicles both too ponderous *and* too scarce.[2020/2021 Military Trader article](https://www.militarytrader.com/military-vehicles/holden-ambulance) In 1942, Lt. Cmdr. French Moore, MC, a battalion surgeon with the 2nd Marine Division (Camp Elliott, CA) started developing his design for an MB/GPW\-based "light field\-ambulance." He submitted blueprints, and records of performance of his prototype to Marine Corps Commandant Lt. Gen. [Thomas Holcomb](/wiki/Thomas_Holcomb "Thomas Holcomb"). It could carry up to "35 patients 1,000 yards and return, in an hour." Rebuilt to Moore's design, it was approved for fielding in time for the Solomon Island Campaign in 1943\.[WWII Surgeon Develops Light Field Ambulance, André B. Sobocinski, BUMED Historian, 19 February 2017 in Navy Medicine Live (Archived)](https://web.archive.org/web/20170219130511/https://navymedicine.navylive.dodlive.mil/archives/6505) Three series were built in modest numbers but totaling more than the USMC's own ambulance versions of their International M\-1\-4 and M\-2\-4s. #### Lightweight jeeps [thumb\|One of thirty\-six Crosley CT\-3 'Pup' extra\-light, 4WD mini\-jeep prototypes](/wiki/File:Crosley_CT-3_PUP_%281943%29.jpg "Crosley CT-3 PUP (1943).jpg") After the initial design specification of a maximum {{convert\|1275\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} weight had been raised to almost double that in production, to achieve the necessary ruggedness on the main {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, the Army still wanted a truly lightweight model for airborne missions and use in the jungles of the Pacific theaters. In 1942 and 1943, at least five companies proposed designs: Crosley, Chevrolet, Ford, Willys, and Kaiser. The [Crosley CT\-3 "Pup"](/wiki/Crosley%23War-time_production "Crosley#War-time production") prototypes were superlight, one\- or two\-passenger, but still four\-wheel\-drive buggies, that were transportable and air\-droppable from a [Douglas C\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain"). Six of the 2\-cylinder, 13 hp, {{convert\|1125\|lb\|kg\|adj\=on}} Pups were deployed overseas after undergoing tests at [Fort Benning, Georgia](/wiki/Fort_Benning%2C_Georgia "Fort Benning, Georgia"), but the project was discontinued due to several weak components. Seven of 36 Pups built are known to {{nobr\|survive.{{cite web\| author\=Jackson, David D. \|title\=Crosley – American Automobile Industry in World War Two \|url\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/crosley.htm \| access\-date \=2018\-05\-01}}{{cite web\| title \=More on the Crosley "Pup" Jeep \| publisher \=eWillys\| date \=2014\-01\-01 \| url\=http://www.ewillys.com/2014/01/01/more\-on\-the\-crosley\-pup\-jeep/ \| access\-date \=2018\-05\-01}}}} [thumb\|Preparing for the July 1943 [Sicily campaign](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily"): a jeep is loaded onto an American [Waco CG\-4A](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 "Waco CG-4") glider plane.](/wiki/File:Jeep_being_loaded_into_waco_glider.jpg "Jeep being loaded into waco glider.jpg") Most of the competitors' models were more similar to standard jeeps, just lighter and smaller. Willys managed to reduce the weight on their 'MB\-L' (MB Lightweight) to some {{convert\|1570\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} in 1943; and Army engineers were impressed by the Chevrolet and its advanced features: a [single center spar frame](/wiki/Backbone_chassis "Backbone chassis"), and an integrated gearbox and [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case").{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=17–20}} Kaiser created six {{convert\|1300\|\-\|1400\|lb\|kg\|adj\=on}} prototypes with a 42 hp engine but including some unfavorable design trade\-offs. Willys eventually produced even more radical designs. The Willys WAC (Willys Air Cooled) had three seats, built around a centrally mounted 24 hp [Harley Davidson](/wiki/Harley_Davidson "Harley Davidson") engine, weighed only {{convert\|1050\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}}, but was noisy and not user\-friendly. Still, it showed promise, and was further developed, eventually resulting in the Willys JBC, or "Jungle Burden Carrier." By early 1945, this had turned into a mere {{convert\|561\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} motorized wheeled load\-carrying platform, with a single seat, that preceded the 1950s [Willys M274 "Mechanical Mule](/wiki/M274_1/2-ton_4%C3%974_utility_platform_truck "M274 1/2-ton 4×4 utility platform truck")."{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=17–20}} In Britain, [Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanizations_and_Aero "Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero") cut down a Willys MB in length and width, and stripped it for minimum weight, to serve airborne forces. The Airborne Forces Development Centre in Wiltshire oversaw an entire modification program for jeeps in airborne units, involving many modifications to reduce both weight and or size, including to wedge them into [Horsa gliders](/wiki/Horsa_glider "Horsa glider"), for [operation Market Garden](/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden "Operation Market Garden").{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=17–20}} [thumb\|left\|Jeep with a [37mm cannon](/wiki/37_mm_Gun_M3 "37 mm Gun M3") and a belt\-fed, water\-cooled, rapid\-fire [Browning M1917A1 machine gun](/wiki/M1917_Browning_machine_gun%23M1917A1 "M1917 Browning machine gun#M1917A1") in U.S. 3rd Infantry, Newfoundland, 1942](/wiki/File:1942Jeep.jpg "1942Jeep.jpg") #### Antitank jeeps [thumb\|1941 exp. 37mm anti\-tank GMC prototype on a Bantam BRC\-40 T2E1, as the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton car itself was still in development.](/wiki/File:Bantam_BRC_40_T2E1_37mm_antitank_prototype_%281941%29.webp "Bantam BRC 40 T2E1 37mm antitank prototype (1941).webp") Besides towing 37 mm antitank guns, it was also tested mounted directly on the quarter{{nbh}}tons. In early 1941, the US Army's [Tank Destroyer Command](/wiki/Tank_destroyer_battalion_%28United_States%29 "Tank destroyer battalion (United States)") was urgently looking to make their antitank guns more mobile, to better serve their tactical doctrine. One of the first prototypes, the T2 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC), mounted a standard 37 mm gun and [gun shield](/wiki/Gun_shield "Gun shield") on a Bantam BRC\-40, aiming forward over the hood. Seven of these were built and tested, starting in May 1941, but were found awkward. So instead, eleven T2E1 GMC units aimed the 37 mm gun rearwards for trials. Shooting rearwards had advantages, but this configuration also proved difficult to man and operate the gun. The units were all dismantled to regular jeeps. In 1942, the larger {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\-52](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series "Dodge WC series") was converted and standardized as the [M6 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M6_gun_motor_carriage "M6 gun motor carriage"), with a rear\-aiming [37mm M3 gun](/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3 "37 mm gun M3"), but these also worked poorly in the field, and most were rebuilt back to regular WC\-52 trucks. [thumb\|Experimental rocket\-artillery jeep, Inyokern Naval Air Facility, Jan 1945](/wiki/File:Exp.Rocket-Firing_MB-GPW_Inyokern_Naval_Air_facility_Jan%2745_US_Navy%E2%80%94mmu_get_jpeg.jpg "Exp.Rocket-Firing MB-GPW Inyokern Naval Air facility Jan'45 US Navy—mmu get jpeg.jpg") Late in the war, in 1945, the first large\-caliber [recoilless rifles](/wiki/Recoilless_rifle "Recoilless rifle") became available, and the first jeep\-mounted tests were performed, but they only came to fruition after World War{{nbsp}}II. One rare exception was [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity "Operation Varsity"), for which two [75\-mm. recoilless rifles](/wiki/75-mm._recoilless_rifle "75-mm. recoilless rifle") were issued to the [17th U.S. Airborne Division](/wiki/17th_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 "17th Airborne Division (United States)"), that could be mounted on their jeeps, proving useful in anti\-tank fights.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/shop\-talk\-three\-jeeps\|title\=SHOP TALK: Three Jeeps\|website\=The National WWII Museum \| New Orleans\|date\=15 June 2020 }} #### Rocket jeeps The jeep being too light to mount substantial guns, it was more suited later in the war, as a platform for rocket artillery, that didn't have the enormous recoil as conventional tube [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery"). The [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology "California Institute of Technology") developed two different 4\.5\-inch jeep\-based rocket launcher systems for the U.S. Navy. Several other initiatives all used 4\.5\-inch rockets and tubes. Testing was also done by both U.S. Army and Marine Corps, but none of the jeep\-mounted rocket launchers were built in any significant number because it was more efficient to use larger trucks that could carry more rockets. The Soviet Red Army deployed twelve units fitted with 12\-rail [M\-8 82mm rocket](/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher "Katyusha rocket launcher") launchers in the bed of a jeep, from December 1944 in the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains").{{sfnp\|Zaloga\|2011\|p\=33–37}} #### Stretched and uprated jeeps [thumb\|Willys T14, rearwards firing 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC)—the first 6×6 "Super\-Jeep"](/wiki/File:Willys_6x6_%27Super-Jeep%27_37mm_T14_Gun_Motor_Carriage_no.2%2C_front_left.jpg "Willys 6x6 'Super-Jeep' 37mm T14 Gun Motor Carriage no.2, front left.jpg") [thumb\|Willys MT\-TUG, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6 Tractor/"Super\-Jeep"; picture from TM10\-1513 manual supplement](/wiki/File:Willys_MT-TUG%2C_%C2%BE-ton_Truck%2C_6x6%2C_Tractor%2C_from_TM10-1513_supplement_%28cropped%29.jpg "Willys MT-TUG, ¾-ton Truck, 6x6, Tractor, from TM10-1513 supplement (cropped).jpg") [thumb\|Willys MLW\-2 pickup, {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4, "Light Jungle" prototype initially rode on 36\-inch (91 cm) wheels and tires, and had a whole new rear, with a "tailgate"](/wiki/File:Willys_MLW-2_rear_%E2%80%93_1%E2%81%842-ton%2C_4x4%2C_pickup%2C_Light_%27Jungle_Jeep%27_prototype.jpg "Willys MLW-2 rear – 1⁄2-ton, 4x4, pickup, Light 'Jungle Jeep' prototype.jpg") To extend the jeep's luggage space, the simplest, and most frequently used method was the addition of a [rear baggage rack](/wiki/%23Field_kits "#Field kits"). In exceptional cases, units would actually stretch both body and frame of a jeep, to give it more passenger and luggage space, but for this usage, a Dodge WC model was available in many cases. Nevertheless, building stretched, 6×6 jeeps with {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton cross\-country payload, was explored with much interest. As early as July 1941, after the unsuccessful testing with the T2 and T2E1 37 mm antitank guns mounted on Bantam jeeps, the [U.S. Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 "Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)") (QMC) thought to lengthen {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps into 6WD for specialized roles, including the 37 mm gun. Willys was contracted that month for both a T13 and a T14 gun motor carriage, based on the Willys MA – one firing forward, and one rearward, like the earlier Bantams. In reality, two models of rearward firing T14 were built, based on Willys *MBs*, one slat grille in late 1941, and one or more stamped grilles, by January 1942\. Nevertheless, the QMC and Willys kept developing the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6, in various versions, as the "Super\-Jeep." By March 1942, the T14 GMC was revised as a cargo / prime mover, named Willys 'MT\-TUG', that could compete in some roles with the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton Dodges. The Army tested these in various configurations, up to a 1{{nbh}}ton rated version, as a light, multi\-purpose tractor truck, cargo, or personnel carrier. For the [United States Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Force "United States Army Air Force") (USAAF), several MT\-Tug units were built with a [fifth\-wheel coupling](/wiki/Fifth-wheel_coupling "Fifth-wheel coupling") on the cargo floor, for various [Fruehauf](/wiki/Fruehauf "Fruehauf") trailers, and loaded with sandbags on the cargo bed, even as [aircraft tugs](/wiki/Aircraft_tug "Aircraft tug"). The Willys MT models had the same {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton rating as the new for 1942 [Dodge WC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series "Dodge WC series"), but weighed only {{convert\|3100\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}}, with a {{convert\|300\|mi\|km}} range, and a top speed of {{convert\|55\|mph\|km/h}}. Willys pointed out that every 6×6 "Super Jeep" would save {{convert\|2000\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} of steel for their construction, as well as 40% in fuel usage, compared to the Dodge trucks.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.armyjeepparts.com/news.aspx?showarticle\=16\|title\=Army Jeep Parts for Sale Online \| Vintage Jeep Parts}}{{failed verification\|reason\=no article at link\|date\=September 2021}} Moreover, it comprised 65% unaltered standard jeep components, and many of the other parts were also just modified standard jeep parts. By January 1943, the Willys MT\-TUG was further evaluated by the Army Transport Command at [Camp Gordon Johnston](/wiki/Camp_Gordon_Johnston "Camp Gordon Johnston"), FL. It was positively reviewed there for its effortless operation in deep sand. Although the Willys {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton's performance was even called 'exemplary' by some.{{Cite web\|title\=Unique Jeeps – The Good, The Bad \& The Goofy \|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/1406\-unique\-jeeps\-the\-good\-bad\-and\-goofy/\|date\=14 May 2014\|website\=MotorTrend}} Fifteen 6×6 Willys MT(\-Tug)s alone were built as "Truck, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton, 6×6, Tractor", under Ordnance production contract W{{nbh}}303{{nbh}}ORD{{nbh}}4623, production order T6620,{{cite magazine \|editor\-first\=Bart \|editor\-last\=Vanderveen \|year\=1992 \|title\=Willys MT\-TUG – 6×6 Super\-Jeep \|url\=https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\_file.php?fid\=508854 \|magazine\=Wheels \& Tracks \|location\=Old Harlow, Essex, UK \|publisher\=Battle of Britain Prints International \|pages\=25–33 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200917122402/https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\_file.php?fid\=508854 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-17 \|via\=karopka.ru \|access\-date\=30 July 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} [Full article at 12\.08\.2012 02:34:41](https://karopka.ru/forum/forum193/topic12953/){{sfnp\|ref\=SRATAM4045\|Summary Report – Tank\-Automotive Materiel\|1945\|page\=62}}{{cite web \|url\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/willys\-overland.htm\|title\=Willys\-Overland Motors in WWII \|website\=usautoindustryworldwartwo.com}} and even a maintenance supplement for the "6×6 Willys MB{{nbh}}Tug" was printed with the 1943 TM10{{nbh}}1513 technical manual. Including miscellaneous test units, a total of 24 units are believed to have been built, with six known survivors. An even smaller number of {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps with a slightly stretched wheelbase were built as the Willys MLW(−1\) through MLW\-4 "Jungle Jeep." LW stood for Long(er) Wheelbase, to accommodate significantly larger wheels and 7\.50–20 tires with a tractor\-like profile, with the objective to serve in the jungles of the Pacific theater, after a September 1943 request from the South West Pacific for a truck with payload and mobility over mud and swamps of jungle terrain, superior to that of the regular jeep.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.milweb.net/features/willys\_jeep.php \|title\=Willys Jeep, Ford jeep \|website\=milweb.net}}Although uprating from {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton to {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton seems like doubling, the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton standard rating is nominal — the real standard jeep rating was {{convert\|1200\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} on road, and {{convert\|800\|lbs\|kg\|abbr\=on}} off\-road.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2021}} [thumb\|T28 experimental Willys MT based, half\-track litter\-carrier.](/wiki/File:T28_or_T29_experimental_half-track_WW_II_jeep_litter-carrier_%28cropped%29.jpg "T28 or T29 experimental half-track WW II jeep litter-carrier (cropped).jpg") #### Tracked jeeps Several tracked jeep prototypes were built, because of such a need in Alaska and Canada. After America entered the war, a Japanese attack on the [Aleutians](/wiki/Aleutian_Islands "Aleutian Islands") suddenly made the Alaskan military base a zone of great military importance. The snow\-rich circumstances created a need for tracked, jeep\-like, all\-purpose vehicles, and the Canadian [Bombardier](/wiki/Bombardier_Recreational_Products "Bombardier Recreational Products") company and Willys created the T29 jeep [half\-track](/wiki/Half-track "Half-track") out of one of the existing 6×6 Willys MT chassis. The T\-29 "Snow Tractor" (Jan 1943\) expanded the rear chassis to a total of six wheels: three on each side, with a broad rubber belt serving as a track, running around two Ford model A wheels, followed by a notably larger wheel at each back corner. Instead of front wheels, the rig got skis, and the front\-wheel driveline was omitted, to save cost and weight. It was followed up with the T29E1, on which front wheels returned, but mounted on the front skis, and still non\-driven, just so that the front could now both glide *and* roll.['Jeep modifications (continued)' (in Dutch)](https://www.strijdbewijs.nl/jeep/jeep1a.htm) [thumb\|America tested armoring jeeps for reconnaissance (reenactment car).](/wiki/File:Farbatron.jpg "Farbatron.jpg") Due to Willys' workload, International Harvester helped assemble a further five T29E1 prototypes. Under the steering front wheels, skis could be mounted or removed. An Aberdeen test report critiqued that the T\-29E1 was difficult to steer, as the tracks could not be controlled independently, and that prolonged use caused excessive track component wear. A completely rearranged rear was then proposed, and a T28 litter\-carrier was completed for testing by August 1944\. The only known surviving half\-track WWII jeep is a Willys{{nbsp}}T28 named "Penguin."{{cite web \|last1\=Askew \|first1\=Mark \|title\=The History of the Willys Half\-Track Jeeps\- the T\-29 and T\-29 E1 \|url\= http://www.milweb.net/features/jeep.php \|website\=milweb.net \|access\-date\=24 July 2021 \|date\=2008}} Further (fully) tracked "jeeps" were also armored, and developed for, and by Canada (see [armored jeeps](/wiki/%23Armored_jeeps "#Armored jeeps")). #### Armored jeeps Many jeeps received added armor in the field, especially in Europe in 1944–1945\. Frequently, a rear slanting armor plate was added in front of the grille, and replacing the windshield, as well as the sides, in place of where doors would be. [thumb\|The [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car "T24 Scout Car") was built on a 6×6 Willys MT "Super\-Jeep" chassis.](/wiki/File:T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg "T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg") Since reconnaissance was one of the jeep's primary purposes, there was a demand for some armor from the start of production. Starting April 1942, the second T14 GMC 6×6 Willys MT\-Tug chassis was converted to the [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car "T24 Scout Car"). Though performing well in trials, the T24 was abandoned in the autumn in favor of the [M8 \& M20 Light Armored Car](/wiki/M8_Greyhound "M8 Greyhound"). Concurrently, the Ordnance Corps was pushed to work on a lightly armored reconnaissance design, based on the standard Willys 4×4 jeep. Different armor configurations were tested on the T25 through T25E3 prototypes respectively. Canada created a light, tracked, armored, and armed vehicle using Jeep automotive components. In late 1942, the [Canadian Department of National Defence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_%28Canada%29 "Department of National Defence (Canada)") (DND)'s Directorate of Vehicles and Artillery (DVA) began work at No.1 Proving Ground in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa") on a small tracked vehicle successively named: 'Bantam Armoured Tracked Vehicle', the 'Light Recce Tank', and finally: the 'Tracked Jeep', TJ. [thumb\|left\|The Canadian "Tracked Jeep" Mk.1 in the [Canadian War Museum](/wiki/Canadian_War_Museum "Canadian War Museum").](/wiki/File:Tracked_Jeep_%2824839526376%29.jpg "Tracked Jeep (24839526376).jpg") [thumb\|Canadian WWII poster for [savings certificates](/wiki/Canada_Savings_Bond%23History "Canada Savings Bond#History"). The vehicle resembles a British [Standard Beaverette](/wiki/Standard_Beaverette "Standard Beaverette") armored car](/wiki/File:I0016089.jpg "I0016089.jpg") The Canadian "Tracked Jeep" Mk.1 measured {{convert\|2\.83\|m\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}} long, and {{convert\|1\.70\|m\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}} wide, by {{convert\|1\.28\|m\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}} high; it had a maximum armor of 12 mm ({{1/2}}\-inch), and aimed at top speeds of 56 km/h (35 mph) on land and 8 km/h (5 mph) in the water.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\=jeep\&page\_num\=1\&item\_num\=3\&media\_irn\=5384241 \|title\=Reconnaissance Carrier \|website\=Canadian War Museum \|access\-date\=9 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=9 February 2021 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210209135141/https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\=jeep\&page\_num\=1\&item\_num\=3\&media\_irn\=5384241 \|url\-status\=dead}} The vehicle was intended for taking messages over contested ground, [armored reconnaissance](/wiki/Armored_reconnaissance "Armored reconnaissance"), and engaging unarmored enemy troops in airborne and combined operations.{{Cite web\|url\=https://milart.blog/2014/08/16/canadian\-tracked\-jeep\-willys/\|title\=Canadian Tracked Jeep (Willys)\|date\=16 August 2014}} Willys and Marmon\-Herrington were contracted for five more prototypes, Willys for power train components, and MH for the armored hulls and the Hotchkiss\-type running gear. The Tracked Jeep showed excellent cross\-country performance and uphill mobility was better than other light tracked utility vehicles, while its [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle "Amphibious vehicle") capability was adequate, despite its low freeboard. There were however serious shortcomings with the running\-gear and tracks. Work to fix this delayed testing until late 1944, and British insights demanded such fundamental changes, that a Mk.2 version was developed, of which another six units were fabricated, and not ready until after the war had ended. The problems with tracks and running gear were still not sorted out, and development halted. #### Flying jeep {{unreferenced section\|date\=September 2021}} [thumb\|left\|Hafner Rotabuggy in flight](/wiki/File:Rotabuggy.jpg "Rotabuggy.jpg") The most extreme concept tried was to turn the jeep into a [rotor kite](/wiki/Rotor_kite "Rotor kite") (or gyrokite), similar to an [autogyro](/wiki/Autogyro "Autogyro")—the [Hafner Rotabuggy](/wiki/Hafner_Rotabuggy "Hafner Rotabuggy") (officially Malcolm Rotaplane). Designed by [Raoul Hafner](/wiki/Raoul_Hafner "Raoul Hafner") in 1942 and sponsored by the [Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment](/wiki/Airborne_Forces_Experimental_Establishment "Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment") (AFEE), after their [Rotachute](/wiki/Rotachute "Rotachute") enjoyed some success, a passive rotor assembly was added over the jeep cabin, along with a lightweight tail, for stabilization. This jeep could be towed into the air by a transport or bomber tug. The Rotabuggy would then be towed to the drop zone as a rotary\-wing glider. It took until autumn 1944 to achieve a decent test flight, and other [military gliders](/wiki/Military_glider "Military glider"), (particularly the [Waco Hadrian](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 "Waco CG-4") and [Airspeed Horsa](/wiki/Airspeed_Horsa "Airspeed Horsa")) made the Rotabuggy superfluous. Incidentally, it was first named the "Blitz Buggy," but that was soon dropped for "Rotabuggy". {{break}}
[ "### Further development of the jeep", "Although no other light jeeps were taken into production, it was not for lack of trying. Both key military men, who had been championing the development of military vehicle concepts they had formulated for years—sometimes already since World War I—had led to conclusions about the logic of military mechanization, as well as automakers large and small, who now saw that in wartime, all of a sudden there were budgets available to work with. Of course, this was primarily true for the firms involved so far.", "After losing out on mass\\-production of the four\\-wheel drive {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, Bantam built the Army one 4×2 quarter\\-ton chassis in 1942, but to no further consequence.{{sfnp\\|ref\\=SRATAM4045\\|Summary Report – Tank\\-Automotive Materiel\\|1945\\|page\\=55}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|Holden\\-modified WW II ambulance jeep for the [U.S.M.C.](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") in the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\"). Note the medical supplies locker in place of right front seat. Source: National Archives](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%94National_Archives_fig-1.jpg \"Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater—National Archives fig-1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Holden](/wiki/Holden \"Holden\")\\-modified MB/GPW jeep field\\-ambulance for U.S.M.C. in the Pacific War, series I. Series II and III were made some 6 inches (15 cm) taller.](/wiki/File:Holden-modified_WW_II_jeep_field-ambulance_for_the_Pacific_Theater%E2%80%93left%E2%80%93National_Archives_fig-11.jpg \"Holden-modified WW II jeep field-ambulance for the Pacific Theater–left–National Archives fig-11.jpg\")", "An exception was an order for a series of some 200 to 500 standardized jeeps to be modified, by [Holden](/wiki/Holden \"Holden\") (then G.M. of Australia), into field ambulances for the [U.S. Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") in the [Pacific Theater](/wiki/Pacific_Theater_of_World_War_II \"Pacific Theater of World War II\"), because they found the standard {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\\-54 ambulances](/wiki/Dodge_WC-54 \"Dodge WC-54\") too unwieldy, and even their own {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4 [International M\\-1\\-4](/wiki/International_M-1-4 \"International M-1-4\") vehicles both too ponderous *and* too scarce.[2020/2021 Military Trader article](https://www.militarytrader.com/military-vehicles/holden-ambulance) In 1942, Lt. Cmdr. French Moore, MC, a battalion surgeon with the 2nd Marine Division (Camp Elliott, CA) started developing his design for an MB/GPW\\-based \"light field\\-ambulance.\" He submitted blueprints, and records of performance of his prototype to Marine Corps Commandant Lt. Gen. [Thomas Holcomb](/wiki/Thomas_Holcomb \"Thomas Holcomb\"). It could carry up to \"35 patients 1,000 yards and return, in an hour.\" Rebuilt to Moore's design, it was approved for fielding in time for the Solomon Island Campaign in 1943\\.[WWII Surgeon Develops Light Field Ambulance, André B. Sobocinski, BUMED Historian, 19 February 2017 in Navy Medicine Live (Archived)](https://web.archive.org/web/20170219130511/https://navymedicine.navylive.dodlive.mil/archives/6505) Three series were built in modest numbers but totaling more than the USMC's own ambulance versions of their International M\\-1\\-4 and M\\-2\\-4s.", "#### Lightweight jeeps", "[thumb\\|One of thirty\\-six Crosley CT\\-3 'Pup' extra\\-light, 4WD mini\\-jeep prototypes](/wiki/File:Crosley_CT-3_PUP_%281943%29.jpg \"Crosley CT-3 PUP (1943).jpg\")", "After the initial design specification of a maximum {{convert\\|1275\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} weight had been raised to almost double that in production, to achieve the necessary ruggedness on the main {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton, the Army still wanted a truly lightweight model for airborne missions and use in the jungles of the Pacific theaters. In 1942 and 1943, at least five companies proposed designs: Crosley, Chevrolet, Ford, Willys, and Kaiser. The [Crosley CT\\-3 \"Pup\"](/wiki/Crosley%23War-time_production \"Crosley#War-time production\") prototypes were superlight, one\\- or two\\-passenger, but still four\\-wheel\\-drive buggies, that were transportable and air\\-droppable from a [Douglas C\\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\"). Six of the 2\\-cylinder, 13 hp, {{convert\\|1125\\|lb\\|kg\\|adj\\=on}} Pups were deployed overseas after undergoing tests at [Fort Benning, Georgia](/wiki/Fort_Benning%2C_Georgia \"Fort Benning, Georgia\"), but the project was discontinued due to several weak components. Seven of 36 Pups built are known to {{nobr\\|survive.{{cite web\\| author\\=Jackson, David D. \\|title\\=Crosley – American Automobile Industry in World War Two \\|url\\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/crosley.htm \\| access\\-date \\=2018\\-05\\-01}}{{cite web\\| title \\=More on the Crosley \"Pup\" Jeep \\| publisher \\=eWillys\\| date \\=2014\\-01\\-01 \\| url\\=http://www.ewillys.com/2014/01/01/more\\-on\\-the\\-crosley\\-pup\\-jeep/ \\| access\\-date \\=2018\\-05\\-01}}}}", "[thumb\\|Preparing for the July 1943 [Sicily campaign](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\"): a jeep is loaded onto an American [Waco CG\\-4A](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 \"Waco CG-4\") glider plane.](/wiki/File:Jeep_being_loaded_into_waco_glider.jpg \"Jeep being loaded into waco glider.jpg\")", "Most of the competitors' models were more similar to standard jeeps, just lighter and smaller. Willys managed to reduce the weight on their 'MB\\-L' (MB Lightweight) to some {{convert\\|1570\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} in 1943; and Army engineers were impressed by the Chevrolet and its advanced features: a [single center spar frame](/wiki/Backbone_chassis \"Backbone chassis\"), and an integrated gearbox and [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\").{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=17–20}} Kaiser created six {{convert\\|1300\\|\\-\\|1400\\|lb\\|kg\\|adj\\=on}} prototypes with a 42 hp engine but including some unfavorable design trade\\-offs.", "Willys eventually produced even more radical designs. The Willys WAC (Willys Air Cooled) had three seats, built around a centrally mounted 24 hp [Harley Davidson](/wiki/Harley_Davidson \"Harley Davidson\") engine, weighed only {{convert\\|1050\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}, but was noisy and not user\\-friendly. Still, it showed promise, and was further developed, eventually resulting in the Willys JBC, or \"Jungle Burden Carrier.\" By early 1945, this had turned into a mere {{convert\\|561\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} motorized wheeled load\\-carrying platform, with a single seat, that preceded the 1950s [Willys M274 \"Mechanical Mule](/wiki/M274_1/2-ton_4%C3%974_utility_platform_truck \"M274 1/2-ton 4×4 utility platform truck\").\"{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=17–20}}", "In Britain, [Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanizations_and_Aero \"Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero\") cut down a Willys MB in length and width, and stripped it for minimum weight, to serve airborne forces. The Airborne Forces Development Centre in Wiltshire oversaw an entire modification program for jeeps in airborne units, involving many modifications to reduce both weight and or size, including to wedge them into [Horsa gliders](/wiki/Horsa_glider \"Horsa glider\"), for [operation Market Garden](/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden \"Operation Market Garden\").{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=17–20}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|Jeep with a [37mm cannon](/wiki/37_mm_Gun_M3 \"37 mm Gun M3\") and a belt\\-fed, water\\-cooled, rapid\\-fire [Browning M1917A1 machine gun](/wiki/M1917_Browning_machine_gun%23M1917A1 \"M1917 Browning machine gun#M1917A1\") in U.S. 3rd Infantry, Newfoundland, 1942](/wiki/File:1942Jeep.jpg \"1942Jeep.jpg\")", "#### Antitank jeeps", "[thumb\\|1941 exp. 37mm anti\\-tank GMC prototype on a Bantam BRC\\-40 T2E1, as the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton car itself was still in development.](/wiki/File:Bantam_BRC_40_T2E1_37mm_antitank_prototype_%281941%29.webp \"Bantam BRC 40 T2E1 37mm antitank prototype (1941).webp\")\nBesides towing 37 mm antitank guns, it was also tested mounted directly on the quarter{{nbh}}tons. In early 1941, the US Army's [Tank Destroyer Command](/wiki/Tank_destroyer_battalion_%28United_States%29 \"Tank destroyer battalion (United States)\") was urgently looking to make their antitank guns more mobile, to better serve their tactical doctrine. One of the first prototypes, the T2 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC), mounted a standard 37 mm gun and [gun shield](/wiki/Gun_shield \"Gun shield\") on a Bantam BRC\\-40, aiming forward over the hood. Seven of these were built and tested, starting in May 1941, but were found awkward. So instead, eleven T2E1 GMC units aimed the 37 mm gun rearwards for trials. Shooting rearwards had advantages, but this configuration also proved difficult to man and operate the gun. The units were all dismantled to regular jeeps. In 1942, the larger {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton [Dodge WC\\-52](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series \"Dodge WC series\") was converted and standardized as the [M6 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M6_gun_motor_carriage \"M6 gun motor carriage\"), with a rear\\-aiming [37mm M3 gun](/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3 \"37 mm gun M3\"), but these also worked poorly in the field, and most were rebuilt back to regular WC\\-52 trucks.\n[thumb\\|Experimental rocket\\-artillery jeep, Inyokern Naval Air Facility, Jan 1945](/wiki/File:Exp.Rocket-Firing_MB-GPW_Inyokern_Naval_Air_facility_Jan%2745_US_Navy%E2%80%94mmu_get_jpeg.jpg \"Exp.Rocket-Firing MB-GPW Inyokern Naval Air facility Jan'45 US Navy—mmu get jpeg.jpg\")\nLate in the war, in 1945, the first large\\-caliber [recoilless rifles](/wiki/Recoilless_rifle \"Recoilless rifle\") became available, and the first jeep\\-mounted tests were performed, but they only came to fruition after World War{{nbsp}}II. One rare exception was [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity \"Operation Varsity\"), for which two [75\\-mm. recoilless rifles](/wiki/75-mm._recoilless_rifle \"75-mm. recoilless rifle\") were issued to the [17th U.S. Airborne Division](/wiki/17th_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 \"17th Airborne Division (United States)\"), that could be mounted on their jeeps, proving useful in anti\\-tank fights.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/shop\\-talk\\-three\\-jeeps\\|title\\=SHOP TALK: Three Jeeps\\|website\\=The National WWII Museum \\| New Orleans\\|date\\=15 June 2020 }}", "#### Rocket jeeps", "The jeep being too light to mount substantial guns, it was more suited later in the war, as a platform for rocket artillery, that didn't have the enormous recoil as conventional tube [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\"). The [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology \"California Institute of Technology\") developed two different 4\\.5\\-inch jeep\\-based rocket launcher systems for the U.S. Navy. Several other initiatives all used 4\\.5\\-inch rockets and tubes. Testing was also done by both U.S. Army and Marine Corps, but none of the jeep\\-mounted rocket launchers were built in any significant number because it was more efficient to use larger trucks that could carry more rockets. The Soviet Red Army deployed twelve units fitted with 12\\-rail [M\\-8 82mm rocket](/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher \"Katyusha rocket launcher\") launchers in the bed of a jeep, from December 1944 in the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains \"Carpathian Mountains\").{{sfnp\\|Zaloga\\|2011\\|p\\=33–37}}", "#### Stretched and uprated jeeps", "[thumb\\|Willys T14, rearwards firing 37 mm gun motor carriage (GMC)—the first 6×6 \"Super\\-Jeep\"](/wiki/File:Willys_6x6_%27Super-Jeep%27_37mm_T14_Gun_Motor_Carriage_no.2%2C_front_left.jpg \"Willys 6x6 'Super-Jeep' 37mm T14 Gun Motor Carriage no.2, front left.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Willys MT\\-TUG, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6 Tractor/\"Super\\-Jeep\"; picture from TM10\\-1513 manual supplement](/wiki/File:Willys_MT-TUG%2C_%C2%BE-ton_Truck%2C_6x6%2C_Tractor%2C_from_TM10-1513_supplement_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Willys MT-TUG, ¾-ton Truck, 6x6, Tractor, from TM10-1513 supplement (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Willys MLW\\-2 pickup, {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton, 4×4, \"Light Jungle\" prototype initially rode on 36\\-inch (91 cm) wheels and tires, and had a whole new rear, with a \"tailgate\"](/wiki/File:Willys_MLW-2_rear_%E2%80%93_1%E2%81%842-ton%2C_4x4%2C_pickup%2C_Light_%27Jungle_Jeep%27_prototype.jpg \"Willys MLW-2 rear – 1⁄2-ton, 4x4, pickup, Light 'Jungle Jeep' prototype.jpg\")\nTo extend the jeep's luggage space, the simplest, and most frequently used method was the addition of a [rear baggage rack](/wiki/%23Field_kits \"#Field kits\"). In exceptional cases, units would actually stretch both body and frame of a jeep, to give it more passenger and luggage space, but for this usage, a Dodge WC model was available in many cases. Nevertheless, building stretched, 6×6 jeeps with {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton cross\\-country payload, was explored with much interest. As early as July 1941, after the unsuccessful testing with the T2 and T2E1 37 mm antitank guns mounted on Bantam jeeps, the [U.S. Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 \"Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)\") (QMC) thought to lengthen {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps into 6WD for specialized roles, including the 37 mm gun. Willys was contracted that month for both a T13 and a T14 gun motor carriage, based on the Willys MA – one firing forward, and one rearward, like the earlier Bantams. In reality, two models of rearward firing T14 were built, based on Willys *MBs*, one slat grille in late 1941, and one or more stamped grilles, by January 1942\\.", "Nevertheless, the QMC and Willys kept developing the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton 6×6, in various versions, as the \"Super\\-Jeep.\" By March 1942, the T14 GMC was revised as a cargo / prime mover, named Willys 'MT\\-TUG', that could compete in some roles with the {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton Dodges. The Army tested these in various configurations, up to a 1{{nbh}}ton rated version, as a light, multi\\-purpose tractor truck, cargo, or personnel carrier. For the [United States Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Force \"United States Army Air Force\") (USAAF), several MT\\-Tug units were built with a [fifth\\-wheel coupling](/wiki/Fifth-wheel_coupling \"Fifth-wheel coupling\") on the cargo floor, for various [Fruehauf](/wiki/Fruehauf \"Fruehauf\") trailers, and loaded with sandbags on the cargo bed, even as [aircraft tugs](/wiki/Aircraft_tug \"Aircraft tug\").", "The Willys MT models had the same {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton rating as the new for 1942 [Dodge WC series](/wiki/Dodge_WC_series \"Dodge WC series\"), but weighed only {{convert\\|3100\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}, with a {{convert\\|300\\|mi\\|km}} range, and a top speed of {{convert\\|55\\|mph\\|km/h}}. Willys pointed out that every 6×6 \"Super Jeep\" would save {{convert\\|2000\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} of steel for their construction, as well as 40% in fuel usage, compared to the Dodge trucks.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.armyjeepparts.com/news.aspx?showarticle\\=16\\|title\\=Army Jeep Parts for Sale Online \\| Vintage Jeep Parts}}{{failed verification\\|reason\\=no article at link\\|date\\=September 2021}} Moreover, it comprised 65% unaltered standard jeep components, and many of the other parts were also just modified standard jeep parts. By January 1943, the Willys MT\\-TUG was further evaluated by the Army Transport Command at [Camp Gordon Johnston](/wiki/Camp_Gordon_Johnston \"Camp Gordon Johnston\"), FL. It was positively reviewed there for its effortless operation in deep sand. Although the Willys {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton's performance was even called 'exemplary' by some.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Unique Jeeps – The Good, The Bad \\& The Goofy \\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/1406\\-unique\\-jeeps\\-the\\-good\\-bad\\-and\\-goofy/\\|date\\=14 May 2014\\|website\\=MotorTrend}}", "Fifteen 6×6 Willys MT(\\-Tug)s alone were built as \"Truck, {{3/4}}{{nbh}}ton, 6×6, Tractor\", under Ordnance production contract W{{nbh}}303{{nbh}}ORD{{nbh}}4623, production order T6620,{{cite magazine \\|editor\\-first\\=Bart \\|editor\\-last\\=Vanderveen \\|year\\=1992 \\|title\\=Willys MT\\-TUG – 6×6 Super\\-Jeep \\|url\\=https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\\_file.php?fid\\=508854 \\|magazine\\=Wheels \\& Tracks \\|location\\=Old Harlow, Essex, UK \\|publisher\\=Battle of Britain Prints International \\|pages\\=25–33 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200917122402/https://karopka.ru/bitrix/components/bitrix/forum.interface/show\\_file.php?fid\\=508854 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17 \\|via\\=karopka.ru \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Full article at 12\\.08\\.2012 02:34:41](https://karopka.ru/forum/forum193/topic12953/){{sfnp\\|ref\\=SRATAM4045\\|Summary Report – Tank\\-Automotive Materiel\\|1945\\|page\\=62}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/willys\\-overland.htm\\|title\\=Willys\\-Overland Motors in WWII \\|website\\=usautoindustryworldwartwo.com}} and even a maintenance supplement for the \"6×6 Willys MB{{nbh}}Tug\" was printed with the 1943 TM10{{nbh}}1513 technical manual. Including miscellaneous test units, a total of 24 units are believed to have been built, with six known survivors.", "An even smaller number of {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton jeeps with a slightly stretched wheelbase were built as the Willys MLW(−1\\) through MLW\\-4 \"Jungle Jeep.\" LW stood for Long(er) Wheelbase, to accommodate significantly larger wheels and 7\\.50–20 tires with a tractor\\-like profile, with the objective to serve in the jungles of the Pacific theater, after a September 1943 request from the South West Pacific for a truck with payload and mobility over mud and swamps of jungle terrain, superior to that of the regular jeep.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.milweb.net/features/willys\\_jeep.php \\|title\\=Willys Jeep, Ford jeep \\|website\\=milweb.net}}Although uprating from {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton to {{1/2}}{{nbh}}ton seems like doubling, the {{1/4}}{{nbh}}ton standard rating is nominal — the real standard jeep rating was {{convert\\|1200\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} on road, and {{convert\\|800\\|lbs\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} off\\-road.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}}", "[thumb\\|T28 experimental Willys MT based, half\\-track litter\\-carrier.](/wiki/File:T28_or_T29_experimental_half-track_WW_II_jeep_litter-carrier_%28cropped%29.jpg \"T28 or T29 experimental half-track WW II jeep litter-carrier (cropped).jpg\")", "#### Tracked jeeps", "Several tracked jeep prototypes were built, because of such a need in Alaska and Canada. After America entered the war, a Japanese attack on the [Aleutians](/wiki/Aleutian_Islands \"Aleutian Islands\") suddenly made the Alaskan military base a zone of great military importance. The snow\\-rich circumstances created a need for tracked, jeep\\-like, all\\-purpose vehicles, and the Canadian [Bombardier](/wiki/Bombardier_Recreational_Products \"Bombardier Recreational Products\") company and Willys created the T29 jeep [half\\-track](/wiki/Half-track \"Half-track\") out of one of the existing 6×6 Willys MT chassis. The T\\-29 \"Snow Tractor\" (Jan 1943\\) expanded the rear chassis to a total of six wheels: three on each side, with a broad rubber belt serving as a track, running around two Ford model A wheels, followed by a notably larger wheel at each back corner. Instead of front wheels, the rig got skis, and the front\\-wheel driveline was omitted, to save cost and weight. It was followed up with the T29E1, on which front wheels returned, but mounted on the front skis, and still non\\-driven, just so that the front could now both glide *and* roll.['Jeep modifications (continued)' (in Dutch)](https://www.strijdbewijs.nl/jeep/jeep1a.htm)\n[thumb\\|America tested armoring jeeps for reconnaissance (reenactment car).](/wiki/File:Farbatron.jpg \"Farbatron.jpg\")\nDue to Willys' workload, International Harvester helped assemble a further five T29E1 prototypes. Under the steering front wheels, skis could be mounted or removed. An Aberdeen test report critiqued that the T\\-29E1 was difficult to steer, as the tracks could not be controlled independently, and that prolonged use caused excessive track component wear. A completely rearranged rear was then proposed, and a T28 litter\\-carrier was completed for testing by August 1944\\. The only known surviving half\\-track WWII jeep is a Willys{{nbsp}}T28 named \"Penguin.\"{{cite web \\|last1\\=Askew \\|first1\\=Mark \\|title\\=The History of the Willys Half\\-Track Jeeps\\- the T\\-29 and T\\-29 E1 \\|url\\= http://www.milweb.net/features/jeep.php \\|website\\=milweb.net \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2021 \\|date\\=2008}} Further (fully) tracked \"jeeps\" were also armored, and developed for, and by Canada (see [armored jeeps](/wiki/%23Armored_jeeps \"#Armored jeeps\")).", "#### Armored jeeps", "Many jeeps received added armor in the field, especially in Europe in 1944–1945\\. Frequently, a rear slanting armor plate was added in front of the grille, and replacing the windshield, as well as the sides, in place of where doors would be.", "[thumb\\|The [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car \"T24 Scout Car\") was built on a 6×6 Willys MT \"Super\\-Jeep\" chassis.](/wiki/File:T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg \"T24-scout-car-haugh.jpg\")", "Since reconnaissance was one of the jeep's primary purposes, there was a demand for some armor from the start of production. Starting April 1942, the second T14 GMC 6×6 Willys MT\\-Tug chassis was converted to the [T24 Scout Car](/wiki/T24_Scout_Car \"T24 Scout Car\"). Though performing well in trials, the T24 was abandoned in the autumn in favor of the [M8 \\& M20 Light Armored Car](/wiki/M8_Greyhound \"M8 Greyhound\"). Concurrently, the Ordnance Corps was pushed to work on a lightly armored reconnaissance design, based on the standard Willys 4×4 jeep. Different armor configurations were tested on the T25 through T25E3 prototypes respectively.", "Canada created a light, tracked, armored, and armed vehicle using Jeep automotive components. In late 1942, the [Canadian Department of National Defence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_%28Canada%29 \"Department of National Defence (Canada)\") (DND)'s Directorate of Vehicles and Artillery (DVA) began work at No.1 Proving Ground in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\") on a small tracked vehicle successively named: 'Bantam Armoured Tracked Vehicle', the 'Light Recce Tank', and finally: the 'Tracked Jeep', TJ.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The Canadian \"Tracked Jeep\" Mk.1 in the [Canadian War Museum](/wiki/Canadian_War_Museum \"Canadian War Museum\").](/wiki/File:Tracked_Jeep_%2824839526376%29.jpg \"Tracked Jeep (24839526376).jpg\") \n[thumb\\|Canadian WWII poster for [savings certificates](/wiki/Canada_Savings_Bond%23History \"Canada Savings Bond#History\"). The vehicle resembles a British [Standard Beaverette](/wiki/Standard_Beaverette \"Standard Beaverette\") armored car](/wiki/File:I0016089.jpg \"I0016089.jpg\")\nThe Canadian \"Tracked Jeep\" Mk.1 measured {{convert\\|2\\.83\\|m\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} long, and {{convert\\|1\\.70\\|m\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} wide, by {{convert\\|1\\.28\\|m\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} high; it had a maximum armor of 12 mm ({{1/2}}\\-inch), and aimed at top speeds of 56 km/h (35 mph) on land and 8 km/h (5 mph) in the water.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\\=jeep\\&page\\_num\\=1\\&item\\_num\\=3\\&media\\_irn\\=5384241 \\|title\\=Reconnaissance Carrier \\|website\\=Canadian War Museum \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210209135141/https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1053237/?q\\=jeep\\&page\\_num\\=1\\&item\\_num\\=3\\&media\\_irn\\=5384241 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The vehicle was intended for taking messages over contested ground, [armored reconnaissance](/wiki/Armored_reconnaissance \"Armored reconnaissance\"), and engaging unarmored enemy troops in airborne and combined operations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://milart.blog/2014/08/16/canadian\\-tracked\\-jeep\\-willys/\\|title\\=Canadian Tracked Jeep (Willys)\\|date\\=16 August 2014}} Willys and Marmon\\-Herrington were contracted for five more prototypes, Willys for power train components, and MH for the armored hulls and the Hotchkiss\\-type running gear. The Tracked Jeep showed excellent cross\\-country performance and uphill mobility was better than other light tracked utility vehicles, while its [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle \"Amphibious vehicle\") capability was adequate, despite its low freeboard. There were however serious shortcomings with the running\\-gear and tracks. Work to fix this delayed testing until late 1944, and British insights demanded such fundamental changes, that a Mk.2 version was developed, of which another six units were fabricated, and not ready until after the war had ended. The problems with tracks and running gear were still not sorted out, and development halted.", "#### Flying jeep", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=September 2021}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Hafner Rotabuggy in flight](/wiki/File:Rotabuggy.jpg \"Rotabuggy.jpg\")\nThe most extreme concept tried was to turn the jeep into a [rotor kite](/wiki/Rotor_kite \"Rotor kite\") (or gyrokite), similar to an [autogyro](/wiki/Autogyro \"Autogyro\")—the [Hafner Rotabuggy](/wiki/Hafner_Rotabuggy \"Hafner Rotabuggy\") (officially Malcolm Rotaplane). Designed by [Raoul Hafner](/wiki/Raoul_Hafner \"Raoul Hafner\") in 1942 and sponsored by the [Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment](/wiki/Airborne_Forces_Experimental_Establishment \"Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment\") (AFEE), after their [Rotachute](/wiki/Rotachute \"Rotachute\") enjoyed some success, a passive rotor assembly was added over the jeep cabin, along with a lightweight tail, for stabilization. This jeep could be towed into the air by a transport or bomber tug. The Rotabuggy would then be towed to the drop zone as a rotary\\-wing glider. It took until autumn 1944 to achieve a decent test flight, and other [military gliders](/wiki/Military_glider \"Military glider\"), (particularly the [Waco Hadrian](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 \"Waco CG-4\") and [Airspeed Horsa](/wiki/Airspeed_Horsa \"Airspeed Horsa\")) made the Rotabuggy superfluous. Incidentally, it was first named the \"Blitz Buggy,\" but that was soon dropped for \"Rotabuggy\".", "{{break}}", "" ]
Post\-war --------- [thumb\|right\|Willys MB used by former Philippine President [Ramon Magsaysay](/wiki/Ramon_Magsaysay "Ramon Magsaysay")](/wiki/File:Willys_MB_Jeep_displayed_at_the_Ramon_Magsaysay_Ancestral_House.jpg "Willys MB Jeep displayed at the Ramon Magsaysay Ancestral House.jpg") Willys\-Overland filed to trademark the "Jeep" name in 1943\.{{cite web\|title\=JEEP Trademark of WILLYS\-OVERLAND MOTORS, INC. – Registration Number 0526175 – Serial Number 71458520 \|url\=https://trademarks.justia.com/714/58/jeep\-71458520\.html \|website\=Justia Trademarks \|access\-date\=28 January 2018}} From 1945 onwards, Willys marketed its four\-wheel drive vehicle to the public with its [CJ (*Civilian Jeep*)](/wiki/Jeep_CJ "Jeep CJ") versions, making these the world's first mass\-produced 4WD civilian cars. Even before actual civilian purpose jeeps had been created, 3 January 1944 issue of *[Life](/wiki/Life_magazine "Life magazine")* magazine featured a story titled: 'U.S. Civilians Buy Their First Jeeps'. A mayor from Kansas had bought a Ford GP in Chicago in 1943, and it performed invaluable work on his 2,000\-acre farm.{{sfnp\|Ackerson\|2006 \|p\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512101019/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\=56uvBIikfrQC\&hl\=nl\&pg\=PT52\&img\=1\&zoom\=3\&sig\=ACfU3U0SIB6m6iVGRBD4\_gNTUNH8WROqeQ\&w\=1280 52]}} Already in 1942 industrial designer [Brooks Stevens](/wiki/Brooks_Stevens "Brooks Stevens") came up with an idea on how to make a civilian car called Victory Car on the jeep chassis.{{Cite web\|url\=http://blog.modernmechanix.com/your\-victory\-car/\|title\=Your Victory Car\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-31\|website\=Modern Mechanix\|last\=Stevens\|first\=Brooks\|year\=2011\|orig\-year\=1942\|pages\=82–85; 162\|author\-link\=Brooks Stevens\|archive\-date\=25 February 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225142106/http://blog.modernmechanix.com/your\-victory\-car/\|url\-status\=dead}} It never went into production, but Willys liked the idea and gave Brook Stevens notable design jobs, including the 1946 [Willys Jeep Station Wagon](/wiki/Willys_Jeep_Station_Wagon "Willys Jeep Station Wagon"), 1947 [Willys Jeep Truck](/wiki/Willys_Jeep_Truck "Willys Jeep Truck"), and 1948 [Willys\-Overland Jeepster](/wiki/Willys-Overland_Jeepster "Willys-Overland Jeepster"), as well as the 1963–1993 [Jeep Wagoneer](/wiki/Jeep_Wagoneer "Jeep Wagoneer").{{cite web \|last1\=Carlsson \|first1\=Mårten \|title\=Stevens segerbil \|url\=https://www.klassiker.nu/reportage/stevens\-segerbil \|website\=Klassiker \|date\=15 October 2019 \|access\-date\=15 October 2019}} {{multiple image \|direction\=vertical \|width\=220 \|image1\=Willys CJ\-2A 1946 (14168649288\).jpg \|caption1\=1946 Willys \[\[Jeep CJ\#CJ\-2A\|Jeep {{nobr\|CJ\-2A}}]] \|image2\=Willys M606 Jeep.jpg \|caption2\=U.S. marked M606 jeep \|image3\=Mitsubishi 1955 Jeep.JPG \|caption3\=The Mitsubishi Jeep started as a license\-produced \[\[Jeep CJ\#CJ\-3B\|{{nobr\|CJ\-3B}}]] \|image4\=Willys jeep.jpg \|caption4\=The NEKAF M38A1 jeeps served the Dutch Army for more than 40 years }} In 1948, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission agreed with American Bantam that the idea of creating the Jeep was originated and developed by American Bantam in collaboration with the U.S. Army as well as Ford and Spicer.{{cite news\|last\=Linkhorn \|first\=Tyrel \|title\=Original Jeep designed by many minds \|url\= http://www.toledoblade.com/automotive/2016/08/07/Original\-Jeep\-designed\-by\-many\-minds.html \|newspaper\=The Blade \|location\=Toledo, Ohio \|date\=7 August 2016 \|access\-date\=28 January 2018}} The commission forbade Willys from claiming, directly or by implication, that it had created or designed the jeep, and allowed it only to claim that it contributed to the development of the vehicle. The trademark lawsuit initiated and won by Bantam was a hollow victory: American Bantam went bankrupt by 1950 and Willys was granted the "Jeep" [trademark](/wiki/Trademark "Trademark") the same year.{{cite journal\|last\=Zubritzky \|first\=Peter C. \|title\=Pittsburgh, the steel and (once) motor city \|url\=https://journals.psu.edu/wph/article/download/7564/7337 \|journal\=Western Pennsylvania History \|date\=Winter 2003–2004 \|access\-date\=28 January 2018}} The first CJs were essentially the same as the MB, except for such alterations as vacuum\-powered windshield wipers, a [tailgate](/wiki/Trunk_%28automobile%29%23Tailgate "Trunk (automobile)#Tailgate") (and therefore a side\-mounted spare tire), and civilian lighting. Also, the civilian jeeps had amenities like [naugahyde](/wiki/Naugahyde "Naugahyde") seats, chrome trim, and were available in a variety of colors. Mechanically, a heftier T\-90 [transmission](/wiki/Transmission_%28mechanics%29 "Transmission (mechanics)") replaced the Willys MB's T84 in order to appeal to the originally considered rural buyer demographic. In Britain, [Rover](/wiki/Rover_Company "Rover Company") were also inspired to build their own, very jeep\-like vehicle. Their first testing prototype was actually built on the chassis of a war\-surplus jeep, on the Welsh farm of then Rover chief engineer [Maurice Wilks](/wiki/Maurice_Wilks "Maurice Wilks") and by his older brother, managing director [Spencer Wilks](/wiki/Spencer_Wilks "Spencer Wilks"). Production of their ["Land Rover"](/wiki/Land_Rover_series "Land Rover series") started after its presentation model was well received at the first post\-war [Amsterdam International Auto show](/wiki/AutoRAI "AutoRAI") or "AutoRAI" in 1948\. Willys\-Overland and its successors, [Willys Motors](/wiki/Willys_Motors "Willys Motors") and [Kaiser Jeep](/wiki/Kaiser_Jeep "Kaiser Jeep") continued to supply the U.S. military, as well as many allied nations with military jeeps through the late 1960s. In 1950, the first post\-war military jeep, the [M38](/wiki/Willys_M38 "Willys M38") (or MC), was launched, based on the 1949 CJ{{nbh}}3A. In 1953, it was quickly followed by the [M38A1](/wiki/Willys_M38A1 "Willys M38A1") (or MD), featuring an all\-new "round\-fendered" body in order to clear the also new, taller, [Willys Hurricane engine](/wiki/Willys_Hurricane_engine "Willys Hurricane engine"). This jeep was later developed into the civilian {{nobr\|CJ\-5}} launched in 1955\. Similarly, its ambulance version, the M170 (or MDA), featuring a 20\-inch wheelbase stretch, was later turned into the civilian {{nobr\|CJ\-6}}. Before the CJ\-5, Willys offered the public a cheaper alternative with the taller F\-head, overhead\-valve engine, in the form of the 1953 [{{nobr\|CJ\-3B}}](/wiki/Jeep_CJ%23CJ-3B "Jeep CJ#CJ-3B"), simply using a {{nobr\|CJ\-3A}} body with a taller hood. This was quickly turned into the *M606* jeep (mostly used for export, through 1968\) by equipping it with the available heavy\-duty options such as larger tires and springs, and by adding black\-out lighting, [olive drab](/wiki/Olive_drab "Olive drab") paint, and a trailer hitch. After 1968, M606A2, and \-A3 versions of the {{nobr\|CJ\-5}} were created in a similar way for friendly foreign governments.In the early 1980s, the Canadian Army took delivery of 195 militarized units of the {{nobr\|CJ\-7}}. These were put into service as a stopgap measure between the retirement of the M38A1 and the introduction of the [Volkswagen Iltis](/wiki/Volkswagen_Iltis "Volkswagen Iltis"). They were codified by the Canadian Forces with the Equipment Configuration Code (ECC) Number 121526\.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2018}} In 1976, after more than two decades, Jeep complemented the {{nobr\|CJ\-5}} with a new CJ model, the {{nobr\|CJ\-7}}. Though still a direct evolution of the round\-fendered CJ{{nbh}}5, it had a {{convert\|10\|in\|cm\|0\|abbr\=on}} longer wheelbase. And, for the first time, a CJ had doors, as well as an available hardtop. Since then, new evolutions were derived from the {{nobr\|CJ\-7}} – from 1987 onwards as Jeep "Wranglers". Nevertheless, these are considered direct descendants of the WWII jeep.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1123517\_heres\-how\-the\-military\-jeep\-became\-todays\-jeep\-wrangler \|title\=How the military jeep became today's Jeep Wrangler \|date\=2019\-06\-11 \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-01 \|website\=Motor Authority \|last\=Bell \|first\=Kirk \|quote\=The Jeep Wrangler has \[...] its ancestry back to its lowercase\-"jeep" forefathers, \[...] back to before America entered World War II, \[...] that share its uncomplicated, irreplaceable DNA.}} The 2018 Wranglers still have a separate, open\-topped body and ladder\-frame, solid live axles front and rear, with part\-time four\-wheel drive, and high and low gearing. The compact body retains the Jeep grille and profile and can even still be driven with the doors off, and the windshield folded forward. Licenses to produce jeeps, especially for {{nobr\|CJ\-3Bs,}} were issued to manufacturers in many different countries, starting almost straight after WWII, with the Willys MB pattern. Some firms, like [Mahindra and Mahindra Limited](/wiki/Mahindra_and_Mahindra_Limited "Mahindra and Mahindra Limited") in India, continue to produce them in [some form](/wiki/Mahindra_Thar "Mahindra Thar") or another to this day. [Chinkara Motors](/wiki/Chinkara_Motors "Chinkara Motors") of India produces the [Jeepster](/wiki/Chinkara_Motors%23Jeepster "Chinkara Motors#Jeepster"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://lh4\.googleusercontent.com/\-GiNDnhs1gcQ/UOg\_DJNbIAI/AAAAAAABieA/QpQSFyCAbaw/s800/Chinkara\_Jeepster\_01\.jpg\|title\=Chinkara Jeepster photo}} with [FRP](/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic "Fibre-reinforced plastic") body. The Jeepster can be delivered a diesel engine or the 1\.8L Isuzu petrol.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chinkara.co.in/AutoOthers.html\|title\=Welcome to Chinkara Motors\|access\-date\=3 April 2019\|archive\-date\=8 January 2013\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130108084530/http://www.chinkara.co.in/AutoOthers.html\|url\-status\=dead}} In France, the army used [Hotchkiss M201](/wiki/Hotchkiss_M201 "Hotchkiss M201") jeeps – essentially licensed Willys MBs, and in the former Yugoslavia, the arms manufacturer [Zastava](/wiki/Zastava_Automobiles "Zastava Automobiles") rebooted their car building branch, making 162 Willys jeeps. In Japan, [Mitsubishi's first jeeps](/wiki/Jeep_CJ%23Mitsubishi_Jeep "Jeep CJ#Mitsubishi Jeep") were versions of the {{nobr\|CJ\-3B}}, and in 1950 Toyota Motors was given an order by U.S. forces to build a vehicle to Jeep specifications, resulting in [Toyota's BJ and FJ series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser%23BJ_and_FJ_%281951%29 "Toyota Land Cruiser#BJ and FJ (1951)") of utility vehicles, slightly bigger and more powerful jeep\-type vehicles. After the {{nobr\|CJ\-3B}}, several countries also built the Willys MD / M38A1 under license. For instance, the Dutch built some 8,000 ["NEKAF" jeeps](/wiki/Willys_M38A1%23Dutch:NEKAF_jeeps "NEKAF jeeps"), which remained in service for some 40 years. In Israel, [AIL](/wiki/Automotive_Industries "Automotive Industries") continues building military derivatives of Jeep Wrangler models for the [Israeli Security Forces](/wiki/Israeli_Security_Forces "Israeli Security Forces"), ongoing since 1991\. Their current [AIL {{nobr\|Storm III}}](/wiki/AIL_Storm "AIL Storm") models are based on Africa Automotive Distribution Services (AADS) of Gibraltar's [Jeep J8 model](/wiki/Jeep_J8 "Jeep J8"). The compact military jeep continued to be used in the [Korean](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") and [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") Wars. In Korea, it was mostly deployed in the form of the MB, as well as the [M38](/wiki/Willys_M38 "Willys M38") and [M38A1](/wiki/M38A1 "M38A1") (introduced in 1952 and 1953\), its direct descendants. In Vietnam, the most used jeep was the then newly designed [Ford M151](/wiki/M151 "M151"), which featured such state\-of\-the\-art technologies as a [unibody](/wiki/Monocoque "Monocoque") construction and all\-around independent suspension with coil springs. The [M151](/wiki/M151 "M151") jeep remained in U.S. military service into the 1990s, and many other countries still use small, jeep\-like vehicles in their militaries. Apart from the mainstream of—by today's standards—relatively small jeeps, an even smaller vehicle was developed for the U.S. Marine Corps, suitable for helicopter airlifting and manhandling, the [M422 "Mighty Mite"](/wiki/M422 "M422"). Eventually, the U.S. military decided on a fundamentally different concept, choosing a much larger vehicle that not only took over the role of the jeep, but also replaced all its other light\-wheeled vehicles: the [HMMWV](/wiki/Humvee "Humvee") ("Humvee").The HMMWV was generally very successful, but a few U.S. military units kept a small number of M151s in reserve for applications where the Humvee was simply too large or too heavy In 1991, the Willys\-Overland Jeep MB was designated an International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.{{sfnp\|American Society of Mechanical Engineers\|1991}}
[ "Post\\-war\n---------", "[thumb\\|right\\|Willys MB used by former Philippine President [Ramon Magsaysay](/wiki/Ramon_Magsaysay \"Ramon Magsaysay\")](/wiki/File:Willys_MB_Jeep_displayed_at_the_Ramon_Magsaysay_Ancestral_House.jpg \"Willys MB Jeep displayed at the Ramon Magsaysay Ancestral House.jpg\")\nWillys\\-Overland filed to trademark the \"Jeep\" name in 1943\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=JEEP Trademark of WILLYS\\-OVERLAND MOTORS, INC. – Registration Number 0526175 – Serial Number 71458520 \\|url\\=https://trademarks.justia.com/714/58/jeep\\-71458520\\.html \\|website\\=Justia Trademarks \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2018}} From 1945 onwards, Willys marketed its four\\-wheel drive vehicle to the public with its [CJ (*Civilian Jeep*)](/wiki/Jeep_CJ \"Jeep CJ\") versions, making these the world's first mass\\-produced 4WD civilian cars. Even before actual civilian purpose jeeps had been created, 3 January 1944 issue of *[Life](/wiki/Life_magazine \"Life magazine\")* magazine featured a story titled: 'U.S. Civilians Buy Their First Jeeps'. A mayor from Kansas had bought a Ford GP in Chicago in 1943, and it performed invaluable work on his 2,000\\-acre farm.{{sfnp\\|Ackerson\\|2006\n\\|p\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20190512101019/https://books.google.nl/books/content?id\\=56uvBIikfrQC\\&hl\\=nl\\&pg\\=PT52\\&img\\=1\\&zoom\\=3\\&sig\\=ACfU3U0SIB6m6iVGRBD4\\_gNTUNH8WROqeQ\\&w\\=1280 52]}}", "Already in 1942 industrial designer [Brooks Stevens](/wiki/Brooks_Stevens \"Brooks Stevens\") came up with an idea on how to make a civilian car called Victory Car on the jeep chassis.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://blog.modernmechanix.com/your\\-victory\\-car/\\|title\\=Your Victory Car\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-31\\|website\\=Modern Mechanix\\|last\\=Stevens\\|first\\=Brooks\\|year\\=2011\\|orig\\-year\\=1942\\|pages\\=82–85; 162\\|author\\-link\\=Brooks Stevens\\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225142106/http://blog.modernmechanix.com/your\\-victory\\-car/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} It never went into production, but Willys liked the idea and gave Brook Stevens notable design jobs, including the 1946 [Willys Jeep Station Wagon](/wiki/Willys_Jeep_Station_Wagon \"Willys Jeep Station Wagon\"), 1947 [Willys Jeep Truck](/wiki/Willys_Jeep_Truck \"Willys Jeep Truck\"), and 1948 [Willys\\-Overland Jeepster](/wiki/Willys-Overland_Jeepster \"Willys-Overland Jeepster\"), as well as the 1963–1993 [Jeep Wagoneer](/wiki/Jeep_Wagoneer \"Jeep Wagoneer\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Carlsson \\|first1\\=Mårten \\|title\\=Stevens segerbil \\|url\\=https://www.klassiker.nu/reportage/stevens\\-segerbil \\|website\\=Klassiker \\|date\\=15 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2019}}", "{{multiple image \\|direction\\=vertical \\|width\\=220\n\\|image1\\=Willys CJ\\-2A 1946 (14168649288\\).jpg \\|caption1\\=1946 Willys \\[\\[Jeep CJ\\#CJ\\-2A\\|Jeep {{nobr\\|CJ\\-2A}}]]\n\\|image2\\=Willys M606 Jeep.jpg \\|caption2\\=U.S. marked M606 jeep\n\\|image3\\=Mitsubishi 1955 Jeep.JPG \\|caption3\\=The Mitsubishi Jeep started as a license\\-produced \\[\\[Jeep CJ\\#CJ\\-3B\\|{{nobr\\|CJ\\-3B}}]]\n\\|image4\\=Willys jeep.jpg \\|caption4\\=The NEKAF M38A1 jeeps served the Dutch Army for more than 40 years\n}}", "In 1948, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission agreed with American Bantam that the idea of creating the Jeep was originated and developed by American Bantam in collaboration with the U.S. Army as well as Ford and Spicer.{{cite news\\|last\\=Linkhorn \\|first\\=Tyrel \\|title\\=Original Jeep designed by many minds \\|url\\= http://www.toledoblade.com/automotive/2016/08/07/Original\\-Jeep\\-designed\\-by\\-many\\-minds.html \\|newspaper\\=The Blade \\|location\\=Toledo, Ohio \\|date\\=7 August 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2018}} The commission forbade Willys from claiming, directly or by implication, that it had created or designed the jeep, and allowed it only to claim that it contributed to the development of the vehicle. The trademark lawsuit initiated and won by Bantam was a hollow victory: American Bantam went bankrupt by 1950 and Willys was granted the \"Jeep\" [trademark](/wiki/Trademark \"Trademark\") the same year.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Zubritzky \\|first\\=Peter C. \\|title\\=Pittsburgh, the steel and (once) motor city \\|url\\=https://journals.psu.edu/wph/article/download/7564/7337 \\|journal\\=Western Pennsylvania History \\|date\\=Winter 2003–2004 \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2018}}", "The first CJs were essentially the same as the MB, except for such alterations as vacuum\\-powered windshield wipers, a [tailgate](/wiki/Trunk_%28automobile%29%23Tailgate \"Trunk (automobile)#Tailgate\") (and therefore a side\\-mounted spare tire), and civilian lighting. Also, the civilian jeeps had amenities like [naugahyde](/wiki/Naugahyde \"Naugahyde\") seats, chrome trim, and were available in a variety of colors. Mechanically, a heftier T\\-90 [transmission](/wiki/Transmission_%28mechanics%29 \"Transmission (mechanics)\") replaced the Willys MB's T84 in order to appeal to the originally considered rural buyer demographic.", "In Britain, [Rover](/wiki/Rover_Company \"Rover Company\") were also inspired to build their own, very jeep\\-like vehicle. Their first testing prototype was actually built on the chassis of a war\\-surplus jeep, on the Welsh farm of then Rover chief engineer [Maurice Wilks](/wiki/Maurice_Wilks \"Maurice Wilks\") and by his older brother, managing director [Spencer Wilks](/wiki/Spencer_Wilks \"Spencer Wilks\"). Production of their [\"Land Rover\"](/wiki/Land_Rover_series \"Land Rover series\") started after its presentation model was well received at the first post\\-war [Amsterdam International Auto show](/wiki/AutoRAI \"AutoRAI\") or \"AutoRAI\" in 1948\\.", "Willys\\-Overland and its successors, [Willys Motors](/wiki/Willys_Motors \"Willys Motors\") and [Kaiser Jeep](/wiki/Kaiser_Jeep \"Kaiser Jeep\") continued to supply the U.S. military, as well as many allied nations with military jeeps through the late 1960s. In 1950, the first post\\-war military jeep, the [M38](/wiki/Willys_M38 \"Willys M38\") (or MC), was launched, based on the 1949 CJ{{nbh}}3A. In 1953, it was quickly followed by the [M38A1](/wiki/Willys_M38A1 \"Willys M38A1\") (or MD), featuring an all\\-new \"round\\-fendered\" body in order to clear the also new, taller, [Willys Hurricane engine](/wiki/Willys_Hurricane_engine \"Willys Hurricane engine\"). This jeep was later developed into the civilian {{nobr\\|CJ\\-5}} launched in 1955\\. Similarly, its ambulance version, the M170 (or MDA), featuring a 20\\-inch wheelbase stretch, was later turned into the civilian {{nobr\\|CJ\\-6}}.", "Before the CJ\\-5, Willys offered the public a cheaper alternative with the taller F\\-head, overhead\\-valve engine, in the form of the 1953 [{{nobr\\|CJ\\-3B}}](/wiki/Jeep_CJ%23CJ-3B \"Jeep CJ#CJ-3B\"), simply using a {{nobr\\|CJ\\-3A}} body with a taller hood. This was quickly turned into the *M606* jeep (mostly used for export, through 1968\\) by equipping it with the available heavy\\-duty options such as larger tires and springs, and by adding black\\-out lighting, [olive drab](/wiki/Olive_drab \"Olive drab\") paint, and a trailer hitch. After 1968, M606A2, and \\-A3 versions of the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-5}} were created in a similar way for friendly foreign governments.In the early 1980s, the Canadian Army took delivery of 195 militarized units of the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-7}}. These were put into service as a stopgap measure between the retirement of the M38A1 and the introduction of the [Volkswagen Iltis](/wiki/Volkswagen_Iltis \"Volkswagen Iltis\"). They were codified by the Canadian Forces with the Equipment Configuration Code (ECC) Number 121526\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2018}}", "In 1976, after more than two decades, Jeep complemented the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-5}} with a new CJ model, the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-7}}. Though still a direct evolution of the round\\-fendered CJ{{nbh}}5, it had a {{convert\\|10\\|in\\|cm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} longer wheelbase. And, for the first time, a CJ had doors, as well as an available hardtop. Since then, new evolutions were derived from the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-7}} – from 1987 onwards as Jeep \"Wranglers\". Nevertheless, these are considered direct descendants of the WWII jeep.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1123517\\_heres\\-how\\-the\\-military\\-jeep\\-became\\-todays\\-jeep\\-wrangler \\|title\\=How the military jeep became today's Jeep Wrangler \\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-01 \\|website\\=Motor Authority \\|last\\=Bell \\|first\\=Kirk \\|quote\\=The Jeep Wrangler has \\[...] its ancestry back to its lowercase\\-\"jeep\" forefathers, \\[...] back to before America entered World War II, \\[...] that share its uncomplicated, irreplaceable DNA.}} The 2018 Wranglers still have a separate, open\\-topped body and ladder\\-frame, solid live axles front and rear, with part\\-time four\\-wheel drive, and high and low gearing. The compact body retains the Jeep grille and profile and can even still be driven with the doors off, and the windshield folded forward.", "Licenses to produce jeeps, especially for {{nobr\\|CJ\\-3Bs,}} were issued to manufacturers in many different countries, starting almost straight after WWII, with the Willys MB pattern. Some firms, like [Mahindra and Mahindra Limited](/wiki/Mahindra_and_Mahindra_Limited \"Mahindra and Mahindra Limited\") in India, continue to produce them in [some form](/wiki/Mahindra_Thar \"Mahindra Thar\") or another to this day. [Chinkara Motors](/wiki/Chinkara_Motors \"Chinkara Motors\") of India produces the [Jeepster](/wiki/Chinkara_Motors%23Jeepster \"Chinkara Motors#Jeepster\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lh4\\.googleusercontent.com/\\-GiNDnhs1gcQ/UOg\\_DJNbIAI/AAAAAAABieA/QpQSFyCAbaw/s800/Chinkara\\_Jeepster\\_01\\.jpg\\|title\\=Chinkara Jeepster photo}} with [FRP](/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic \"Fibre-reinforced plastic\") body. The Jeepster can be delivered a diesel engine or the 1\\.8L Isuzu petrol.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chinkara.co.in/AutoOthers.html\\|title\\=Welcome to Chinkara Motors\\|access\\-date\\=3 April 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130108084530/http://www.chinkara.co.in/AutoOthers.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "In France, the army used [Hotchkiss M201](/wiki/Hotchkiss_M201 \"Hotchkiss M201\") jeeps – essentially licensed Willys MBs, and in the former Yugoslavia, the arms manufacturer [Zastava](/wiki/Zastava_Automobiles \"Zastava Automobiles\") rebooted their car building branch, making 162 Willys jeeps. In Japan, [Mitsubishi's first jeeps](/wiki/Jeep_CJ%23Mitsubishi_Jeep \"Jeep CJ#Mitsubishi Jeep\") were versions of the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-3B}}, and in 1950 Toyota Motors was given an order by U.S. forces to build a vehicle to Jeep specifications, resulting in [Toyota's BJ and FJ series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser%23BJ_and_FJ_%281951%29 \"Toyota Land Cruiser#BJ and FJ (1951)\") of utility vehicles, slightly bigger and more powerful jeep\\-type vehicles. After the {{nobr\\|CJ\\-3B}}, several countries also built the Willys MD / M38A1 under license. For instance, the Dutch built some 8,000 [\"NEKAF\" jeeps](/wiki/Willys_M38A1%23Dutch:NEKAF_jeeps \"NEKAF jeeps\"), which remained in service for some 40 years. In Israel, [AIL](/wiki/Automotive_Industries \"Automotive Industries\") continues building military derivatives of Jeep Wrangler models for the [Israeli Security Forces](/wiki/Israeli_Security_Forces \"Israeli Security Forces\"), ongoing since 1991\\. Their current [AIL {{nobr\\|Storm III}}](/wiki/AIL_Storm \"AIL Storm\") models are based on Africa Automotive Distribution Services (AADS) of Gibraltar's [Jeep J8 model](/wiki/Jeep_J8 \"Jeep J8\").", "The compact military jeep continued to be used in the [Korean](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") and [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") Wars. In Korea, it was mostly deployed in the form of the MB, as well as the [M38](/wiki/Willys_M38 \"Willys M38\") and [M38A1](/wiki/M38A1 \"M38A1\") (introduced in 1952 and 1953\\), its direct descendants. In Vietnam, the most used jeep was the then newly designed [Ford M151](/wiki/M151 \"M151\"), which featured such state\\-of\\-the\\-art technologies as a [unibody](/wiki/Monocoque \"Monocoque\") construction and all\\-around independent suspension with coil springs. The [M151](/wiki/M151 \"M151\") jeep remained in U.S. military service into the 1990s, and many other countries still use small, jeep\\-like vehicles in their militaries.", "Apart from the mainstream of—by today's standards—relatively small jeeps, an even smaller vehicle was developed for the U.S. Marine Corps, suitable for helicopter airlifting and manhandling, the [M422 \"Mighty Mite\"](/wiki/M422 \"M422\").", "Eventually, the U.S. military decided on a fundamentally different concept, choosing a much larger vehicle that not only took over the role of the jeep, but also replaced all its other light\\-wheeled vehicles: the [HMMWV](/wiki/Humvee \"Humvee\") (\"Humvee\").The HMMWV was generally very successful, but a few U.S. military units kept a small number of M151s in reserve for applications where the Humvee was simply too large or too heavy", "In 1991, the Willys\\-Overland Jeep MB was designated an International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.{{sfnp\\|American Society of Mechanical Engineers\\|1991}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Early years WLVY [signed on](/wiki/Sign-on "Sign-on") the air on {{start date and age\|1956\|7\|4}} with the call sign WEHH.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1957 page 182](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1957/Radio-NE-Ter-1957-BC-YB.pdf) Its original frequency was [1590 AM](/wiki/1590_AM "1590 AM"). WEHH was the third [AM](/wiki/Amplitude_modulation "Amplitude modulation") [radio station](/wiki/Radio_station "Radio station") in [Chemung County](/wiki/Chemung_County%2C_New_York "Chemung County, New York") and the fifth in the [Elmira\-Corning market](/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_New_York_State%23Elmira.2FCorning_area "List of radio stations in New York State#Elmira.2FCorning area") in [New York state](/wiki/New_York_state "New York state"). Testing on the frequency may have begun as early as 1952, according to documents at the original transmitter site found by former station engineer Jim Appleton. It originally broadcast at 500 [watts](/wiki/Watt "Watt"), with a [non\-directional pattern](/wiki/Omnidirectional_antenna "Omnidirectional antenna"), only on the air during [daylight hours](/wiki/Daytimer "Daytimer"). The studios were over Oldroyd's Grocery Store on Hanover Square in Horseheads. Later, a new studio facility was constructed on Latta Brook Road east of [Route 17](/wiki/Interstate_86_%28east%29 "Interstate 86 (east)") in the town of Horseheads. When an [overpass](/wiki/Overpass "Overpass") was built on Latta Brook Road at Route 17, the new studio was in the construction area and demolished. Another facility was built just east of the Route 17 overpass (Latta Brook Road has no interchange with the highway). For years, the studio location was identified on\-air as Latta Brook Park and during weather reports the forecast was always ended with "the current temperature is ... in beautiful Latta Brook Park." The single tower non\-directional antenna was fed by a Collins 550A transmitter in a field across the highway from the station. It stood until a [storm](/wiki/Storm "Storm") in the early 2000s blew it down across Latta Brook Road, according to Appleton. ### Top 40 and oldies years The station, founded by Frank P. Saia, was owned by the Elmira Heights\-Horseheads Broadcasting Company (family owned) for many years and was the first [rock'n'roll](/wiki/Rock%27n%27roll "Rock'n'roll") station in the market. In the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s, area teenagers listened to RadioActive WEHH, Superhit Radio WEHH, and finally Rainbow Radio WEHH. Ed "Knucklehead" Knowles was the station's leading personality in the late '50s and early '60s. He did many Record Hops in the area with his engineer [Rod Denson](/wiki/Rod_Denson "Rod Denson"). Other DJs during that time were Bob Welch and Lou Coughlin. In the 1950s and 1960s, students rushed to the nearest drugstore for their free copy of the WEHH Fabulous 50, which detailed the 50 top hit songs of the day. A stack of the Fabulous 50s was found in the basement of the Latta Brook Road studio when the station moved out in the early 2000s. By the early 1970s, the format had changed to [easy listening](/wiki/Easy_listening "Easy listening") with Frank at the helm. In the 1980s, Ray Ross bought the station and switched the format to [oldies](/wiki/Oldies "Oldies"). The station also broadcast [Elmira Pioneers](/wiki/Elmira_Pioneers "Elmira Pioneers")' [minor league](/wiki/Minor_league_baseball "Minor league baseball") and local [Little League](/wiki/Little_League "Little League") [baseball](/wiki/Baseball "Baseball") games, as well as [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") [football](/wiki/American_football "American football") and [Elmira College](/wiki/Elmira_College "Elmira College") [hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey") games. Under Ross' ownership, the station's broadcast day expanded to midnight, then to 24 hours a day, but at very low power after sunset. Among personalities on\-air during this time were Norm Stull, Chris Sando, Scott Iddings, Jane MacNett, James Wilson, Pam Kauffman, Russ Ross, Ray Smith, Mike Owens, as well as owner Ray Ross. Nationally syndicated programs hosted by Cousin' Brucie and Kasey Kasem were also highlighted on WEHH during the '80s. Seeking to fill a [niche](/wiki/Niche_market "Niche market") in the market in the early 1990s, Ross switched the format to [adult standards](/wiki/Adult_standards "Adult standards"). By the end of the decade, the station was being operated at the WELM and WLVY studios by the Pembrook Pines Media Group under a [local marketing agreement](/wiki/Local_marketing_agreement "Local marketing agreement"). ### Adding an FM signal WEHH was a standalone AM station for much of its existence until Frank Saia decided to put an FM station on the air in the mid\-1960s. Frank Saia believed in the future of FM broadcasting and was responsible for WEHH\-FM, which signed on at 94\.3 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz "Megahertz") in 1964, with Elmira as its city of license. Studios were co\-located with WEHH in Latta Brook Park. The transmitter was located at a private site on East Hill in Elmira. The station broadcast mainly easy listening and [classical music](/wiki/Classical_music "Classical music") along with a bit of [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") in the mornings, "The Ralph Emery Show." In the 1970s, WEHH\-FM broadcast Elmira City Council meetings live with Tony Volino handling the remote duties from the Council Chambers. Frank Saia, before the founding of [WENY\-TV](/wiki/WENY-TV "WENY-TV"), also had the first crack at UHF TV channel 36 and at one time considered putting a WEHH\-TV on channel 36\. But those plans did not materialize. The FM station later was sold to crosstown rival WELM and changed to the [call sign](/wiki/Call_sign "Call sign") [WLVY](/wiki/WCIH_%28FM%29 "WCIH (FM)"). In 1990, Ross also was instrumental in getting a new station on\-the\-air on 96\.9 MHz. That station—then known as WMKB—was never owned by Ross, but later was signed on as [contemporary Christian](/wiki/Contemporary_Christian "Contemporary Christian") station WREQ. For a brief time, WMKB simulcast the WEHH signal. Ross formally sold WEHH to Pembrook Pines in 1999, after which it went [dark](/wiki/Dark_%28broadcasting%29 "Dark (broadcasting)") for several months. ### Adding a translator It returned to the air in 2000 24/7 with reduced nighttime power, directional at 1600 kHz, using a satellite\-delivered adult standards format. The station now uses three towers off Lake Street in Elmira. A translator station was added to [simulcast](/wiki/Simulcast "Simulcast") the programming on FM. From September 2013 until some time in spring 2014, WEHH simulcast on [WGGO](/wiki/WGGO "WGGO") and [WOEN](/wiki/WOEN "WOEN"), two sister stations in [Cattaraugus County](/wiki/Cattaraugus_County "Cattaraugus County"), as Sound Communications prepared to buy the Pembrook Pines station cluster. Antitrust concerns were raised about the sale. (Sound already owned a large number of stations in Elmira.) As a result, WEHH was spun off to a different owner, forcing the end of the trimulcast. Tower Broadcasting is the current owner of WLVY. The company is led by Gordon Ishikawa, who, as his company name implies, specializes mainly in ownership of broadcast towers. WLVY is one of a handful of broadcast stations in the U.S. to carry a dual [city of license](/wiki/City_of_license "City of license"). The station is licensed to both [Elmira Heights](/wiki/Elmira_Heights%2C_New_York "Elmira Heights, New York") and [Horseheads](/wiki/Horseheads_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Horseheads (town), New York"). ### WLVY simulcast and call sign change On January 2, 2023, WEHH changed their format from adult standards to a simulcast of Top 40/CHR\-formatted [WLVY](/wiki/WCIH_%28FM%29 "WCIH (FM)") 94\.3 FM Elmira.[94 ROCK ON THE MOVE IN ELMIRA](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/246807/94-rock-on-the-move-in-elmira/) Radioinsight \- January 2, 2023 The programming moved to WEHH full time and the simulcast ended shortly afterward, following the consummation of the sale of WLVY to Family Life Ministries and its switch to a Christian radio format as [WCIH](/wiki/WCIH_%28FM%29 "WCIH (FM)"). WEHH assumed the WLVY call sign on January 20, 2023\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Early years", "WLVY [signed on](/wiki/Sign-on \"Sign-on\") the air on {{start date and age\\|1956\\|7\\|4}} with the call sign WEHH.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1957 page 182](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1957/Radio-NE-Ter-1957-BC-YB.pdf) Its original frequency was [1590 AM](/wiki/1590_AM \"1590 AM\"). WEHH was the third [AM](/wiki/Amplitude_modulation \"Amplitude modulation\") [radio station](/wiki/Radio_station \"Radio station\") in [Chemung County](/wiki/Chemung_County%2C_New_York \"Chemung County, New York\") and the fifth in the [Elmira\\-Corning market](/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_New_York_State%23Elmira.2FCorning_area \"List of radio stations in New York State#Elmira.2FCorning area\") in [New York state](/wiki/New_York_state \"New York state\"). Testing on the frequency may have begun as early as 1952, according to documents at the original transmitter site found by former station engineer Jim Appleton.", "It originally broadcast at 500 [watts](/wiki/Watt \"Watt\"), with a [non\\-directional pattern](/wiki/Omnidirectional_antenna \"Omnidirectional antenna\"), only on the air during [daylight hours](/wiki/Daytimer \"Daytimer\"). The studios were over Oldroyd's Grocery Store on Hanover Square in Horseheads. Later, a new studio facility was constructed on Latta Brook Road east of [Route 17](/wiki/Interstate_86_%28east%29 \"Interstate 86 (east)\") in the town of Horseheads. When an [overpass](/wiki/Overpass \"Overpass\") was built on Latta Brook Road at Route 17, the new studio was in the construction area and demolished. Another facility was built just east of the Route 17 overpass (Latta Brook Road has no interchange with the highway). For years, the studio location was identified on\\-air as Latta Brook Park and during weather reports the forecast was always ended with \"the current temperature is ... in beautiful Latta Brook Park.\" The single tower non\\-directional antenna was fed by a Collins 550A transmitter in a field across the highway from the station. It stood until a [storm](/wiki/Storm \"Storm\") in the early 2000s blew it down across Latta Brook Road, according to Appleton.", "### Top 40 and oldies years", "The station, founded by Frank P. Saia, was owned by the Elmira Heights\\-Horseheads Broadcasting Company (family owned) for many years and was the first [rock'n'roll](/wiki/Rock%27n%27roll \"Rock'n'roll\") station in the market. In the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s, area teenagers listened to RadioActive WEHH, Superhit Radio WEHH, and finally Rainbow Radio WEHH. Ed \"Knucklehead\" Knowles was the station's leading personality in the late '50s and early '60s. He did many Record Hops in the area with his engineer [Rod Denson](/wiki/Rod_Denson \"Rod Denson\"). Other DJs during that time were Bob Welch and Lou Coughlin. In the 1950s and 1960s, students rushed to the nearest drugstore for their free copy of the WEHH Fabulous 50, which detailed the 50 top hit songs of the day. A stack of the Fabulous 50s was found in the basement of the Latta Brook Road studio when the station moved out in the early 2000s.", "By the early 1970s, the format had changed to [easy listening](/wiki/Easy_listening \"Easy listening\") with Frank at the helm. In the 1980s, Ray Ross bought the station and switched the format to [oldies](/wiki/Oldies \"Oldies\"). The station also broadcast [Elmira Pioneers](/wiki/Elmira_Pioneers \"Elmira Pioneers\")' [minor league](/wiki/Minor_league_baseball \"Minor league baseball\") and local [Little League](/wiki/Little_League \"Little League\") [baseball](/wiki/Baseball \"Baseball\") games, as well as [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") [football](/wiki/American_football \"American football\") and [Elmira College](/wiki/Elmira_College \"Elmira College\") [hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") games. Under Ross' ownership, the station's broadcast day expanded to midnight, then to 24 hours a day, but at very low power after sunset. Among personalities on\\-air during this time were Norm Stull, Chris Sando, Scott Iddings, Jane MacNett, James Wilson, Pam Kauffman, Russ Ross, Ray Smith, Mike Owens, as well as owner Ray Ross. Nationally syndicated programs hosted by Cousin' Brucie and Kasey Kasem were also highlighted on WEHH during the '80s.", "Seeking to fill a [niche](/wiki/Niche_market \"Niche market\") in the market in the early 1990s, Ross switched the format to [adult standards](/wiki/Adult_standards \"Adult standards\"). By the end of the decade, the station was being operated at the WELM and WLVY studios by the Pembrook Pines Media Group under a [local marketing agreement](/wiki/Local_marketing_agreement \"Local marketing agreement\").", "### Adding an FM signal", "WEHH was a standalone AM station for much of its existence until Frank Saia decided to put an FM station on the air in the mid\\-1960s. Frank Saia believed in the future of FM broadcasting and was responsible for WEHH\\-FM, which signed on at 94\\.3 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz \"Megahertz\") in 1964, with Elmira as its city of license. Studios were co\\-located with WEHH in Latta Brook Park. The transmitter was located at a private site on East Hill in Elmira. The station broadcast mainly easy listening and [classical music](/wiki/Classical_music \"Classical music\") along with a bit of [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") in the mornings, \"The Ralph Emery Show.\" In the 1970s, WEHH\\-FM broadcast Elmira City Council meetings live with Tony Volino handling the remote duties from the Council Chambers. Frank Saia, before the founding of [WENY\\-TV](/wiki/WENY-TV \"WENY-TV\"), also had the first crack at UHF TV channel 36 and at one time considered putting a WEHH\\-TV on channel 36\\. But those plans did not materialize.", "The FM station later was sold to crosstown rival WELM and changed to the [call sign](/wiki/Call_sign \"Call sign\") [WLVY](/wiki/WCIH_%28FM%29 \"WCIH (FM)\"). In 1990, Ross also was instrumental in getting a new station on\\-the\\-air on 96\\.9 MHz. That station—then known as WMKB—was never owned by Ross, but later was signed on as [contemporary Christian](/wiki/Contemporary_Christian \"Contemporary Christian\") station WREQ. For a brief time, WMKB simulcast the WEHH signal. Ross formally sold WEHH to Pembrook Pines in 1999, after which it went [dark](/wiki/Dark_%28broadcasting%29 \"Dark (broadcasting)\") for several months.", "### Adding a translator", "It returned to the air in 2000 24/7 with reduced nighttime power, directional at 1600 kHz, using a satellite\\-delivered adult standards format. The station now uses three towers off Lake Street in Elmira. A translator station was added to [simulcast](/wiki/Simulcast \"Simulcast\") the programming on FM.", "From September 2013 until some time in spring 2014, WEHH simulcast on [WGGO](/wiki/WGGO \"WGGO\") and [WOEN](/wiki/WOEN \"WOEN\"), two sister stations in [Cattaraugus County](/wiki/Cattaraugus_County \"Cattaraugus County\"), as Sound Communications prepared to buy the Pembrook Pines station cluster. Antitrust concerns were raised about the sale. (Sound already owned a large number of stations in Elmira.) As a result, WEHH was spun off to a different owner, forcing the end of the trimulcast. Tower Broadcasting is the current owner of WLVY. The company is led by Gordon Ishikawa, who, as his company name implies, specializes mainly in ownership of broadcast towers.", "WLVY is one of a handful of broadcast stations in the U.S. to carry a dual [city of license](/wiki/City_of_license \"City of license\"). The station is licensed to both [Elmira Heights](/wiki/Elmira_Heights%2C_New_York \"Elmira Heights, New York\") and [Horseheads](/wiki/Horseheads_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Horseheads (town), New York\").", "### WLVY simulcast and call sign change", "On January 2, 2023, WEHH changed their format from adult standards to a simulcast of Top 40/CHR\\-formatted [WLVY](/wiki/WCIH_%28FM%29 \"WCIH (FM)\") 94\\.3 FM Elmira.[94 ROCK ON THE MOVE IN ELMIRA](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/246807/94-rock-on-the-move-in-elmira/) Radioinsight \\- January 2, 2023 The programming moved to WEHH full time and the simulcast ended shortly afterward, following the consummation of the sale of WLVY to Family Life Ministries and its switch to a Christian radio format as [WCIH](/wiki/WCIH_%28FM%29 \"WCIH (FM)\"). WEHH assumed the WLVY call sign on January 20, 2023\\.", "" ]
Construction and career ----------------------- *Chitose* was [laid down](/wiki/Keel_laying "Keel laying") on 7 October 1970 at [Hitachi Zosen Corporation](/wiki/Hitachi_Zosen_Corporation "Hitachi Zosen Corporation"), [Maizuru](/wiki/Maizuru "Maizuru") and [launched](/wiki/Ceremonial_ship_launching "Ceremonial ship launching") on 25 January 1973\. The vessel was [commissioned](/wiki/Commissioned_%28ship%29 "Commissioned (ship)") on 31 August 1973 into the 35th Escort Corps of the [Ominato District Force](/wiki/%C5%8Cminato_Guard_District "Ōminato Guard District"). On March 27, 1982, the 37th Escort Corps was newly formed under the control of the Yokosuka District Force and incorporated with [JDS Ayase](/wiki/JDS_Ayase "JDS Ayase"), and the home port was transferred to [Yokosuka](/wiki/Yokosuka "Yokosuka"). Engaged in disaster dispatch activities due to the [Miyakejima eruption](/wiki/Miyake-jima "Miyake-jima") in October 1983\. Engaged in disaster relief activities due to the eruption of [Mt. Mihara](/wiki/Mt._Mihara "Mt. Mihara"), [Izu Oshima](/wiki/Izu_%C5%8Cshima "Izu Ōshima") in November 1986\. Participated in the 57th Shimoda Kurofune Festival held on May 16, 1996, with [USS *Curts*](/wiki/USS_Curts_%28FFG-38%29 "USS Curts (FFG-38)").  Transferred to the 33rd Escort Corps of the Yokosuka District Force on August 1, 1996\. On February 4, 1997, she was involved in the search for a ship in distress off the coast of [Inubōsaki](/wiki/Inub%C5%8Dsaki_Lighthouse "Inubōsaki Lighthouse"), [Chiba Prefecture](/wiki/Chiba_Prefecture "Chiba Prefecture"), along with [JS Amagiri](/wiki/JS_Amagiri "JS Amagiri"). Removed from the register on April 13, 1999\. During his 25 years and 7 months commissioning, she participated in surveillance missions 32 times, [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam")\-[Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") maritime training 6 times, and the Self\-Defense Forces observing ceremony 4 times. The total itinerary was about 532,700 nautical miles, about 25 laps of the Earth, and about one and a half round trips when converted to the distance to the Moon.{{Cite news\|date\=May 14, 1999\|title\=Glorious ship history closed, ship flag returned\|page\=2\|work\=Maritime Self\-Defense Force Newspaper}}
[ "Construction and career\n-----------------------", "*Chitose* was [laid down](/wiki/Keel_laying \"Keel laying\") on 7 October 1970 at [Hitachi Zosen Corporation](/wiki/Hitachi_Zosen_Corporation \"Hitachi Zosen Corporation\"), [Maizuru](/wiki/Maizuru \"Maizuru\") and [launched](/wiki/Ceremonial_ship_launching \"Ceremonial ship launching\") on 25 January 1973\\. The vessel was [commissioned](/wiki/Commissioned_%28ship%29 \"Commissioned (ship)\") on 31 August 1973 into the 35th Escort Corps of the [Ominato District Force](/wiki/%C5%8Cminato_Guard_District \"Ōminato Guard District\").", "On March 27, 1982, the 37th Escort Corps was newly formed under the control of the Yokosuka District Force and incorporated with [JDS Ayase](/wiki/JDS_Ayase \"JDS Ayase\"), and the home port was transferred to [Yokosuka](/wiki/Yokosuka \"Yokosuka\").", "Engaged in disaster dispatch activities due to the [Miyakejima eruption](/wiki/Miyake-jima \"Miyake-jima\") in October 1983\\.", "Engaged in disaster relief activities due to the eruption of [Mt. Mihara](/wiki/Mt._Mihara \"Mt. Mihara\"), [Izu Oshima](/wiki/Izu_%C5%8Cshima \"Izu Ōshima\") in November 1986\\.", "Participated in the 57th Shimoda Kurofune Festival held on May 16, 1996, with [USS *Curts*](/wiki/USS_Curts_%28FFG-38%29 \"USS Curts (FFG-38)\").", "Transferred to the 33rd Escort Corps of the Yokosuka District Force on August 1, 1996\\.", "On February 4, 1997, she was involved in the search for a ship in distress off the coast of [Inubōsaki](/wiki/Inub%C5%8Dsaki_Lighthouse \"Inubōsaki Lighthouse\"), [Chiba Prefecture](/wiki/Chiba_Prefecture \"Chiba Prefecture\"), along with [JS Amagiri](/wiki/JS_Amagiri \"JS Amagiri\").", "Removed from the register on April 13, 1999\\. During his 25 years and 7 months commissioning, she participated in surveillance missions 32 times, [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\")\\-[Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") maritime training 6 times, and the Self\\-Defense Forces observing ceremony 4 times. The total itinerary was about 532,700 nautical miles, about 25 laps of the Earth, and about one and a half round trips when converted to the distance to the Moon.{{Cite news\\|date\\=May 14, 1999\\|title\\=Glorious ship history closed, ship flag returned\\|page\\=2\\|work\\=Maritime Self\\-Defense Force Newspaper}}", "" ]
Organizational history ---------------------- ### Establishment The founding meeting was held in New York City in December 1924 and the initial mission of the organization was to raise money to fund [Jewish collective farms in Crimea](/wiki/Jewish_collective_farms_in_Crimea "Jewish collective farms in Crimea") and to provide a humanitarian alternative for Jews facing anti\-Semitism in Europe. ICOR was motivated by the situation of the Jews of Eastern Europe who had faced decades of pogroms and turmoil (including almost a decade of war) in the Pale of Settlement and constant threat of anti\-Semitism in their countries of refuge in Central and Western Europe. Alternatively, the relative safety and welcome in the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") yielded what many saw as a trend towards the dissipation of Jewish culture, language, and "nationality".Ch. 2, 3\. Gessen, Masha (2016\). "Where the Jews Aren't: The Sad and Absurd Story of Birobidzhan, Russia's Jewish Autonomous Region". New York, NY: Schocken Books. Originally, the committee worked in partnership with its American contributors and Soviet authorities in order to support the newly founded large Jewish collective farms in the former [Pale of Settlement](/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement "Pale of Settlement"), notably Southern Ukraine and the Crimea. These "kolkhozes" (collective farms) attracted many former [shtetl](/wiki/Shtetl "Shtetl") Jews from Ukraine and Belorussia who had previously fled to larger cities for safety, as well as those whose livelihoods had been disrupted in the requisitions and economic restructuring of the early period of Soviet consolidation. When, in 1928, the Soviet Union abandoned the idea of Jewish settlement in Crimea and endorsed instead the eventual formation of a [Jewish Autonomous Republic](/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Republic "Jewish Autonomous Republic") in the eastern USSR, ICOR followed suit. ICOR worked closely with the [Komzet](/wiki/Komzet "Komzet"), the Soviet agency facilitating Jewish settlement, and its partner, the [OZET](/wiki/OZET "OZET"). One of ICOR's initial patrons was [Julius Rosenwald](/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald "Julius Rosenwald"), president of [Sears, Roebuck and Company](/wiki/Sears%2C_Roebuck_and_Company "Sears, Roebuck and Company") who contributed more than $2 million to ICOR.Oakton Community College, ["Biro\-Bidjan and American Support,"](http://www.oakton.edu/museum/biroamer.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528041617/http://www.oakton.edu/museum/biroamer.html \|date\=2010\-05\-28 }} *A Gift to Biro\-Bidjan: Chicago, 1937: From Despair to New Hope.* oakton.edu/ Retrieved October 16, 2010\. Rosenwald and many other prominent and wealthy American Jews contributed to ICOR's efforts, and their contributions were supplemented by those of working and middle class readers of the Yiddish press in the United States that carried appeals for funding and support. ### Expansion [thumb\|right\|320px\|Yiddish was regarded as the national language of the Jewish people by the Soviet Union and some American ICOR literature was published in bilingual English and Yiddish editions.](/wiki/File:Zhitlovsky-icor-pamphlet.jpg "Zhitlovsky-icor-pamphlet.jpg") The Canadian wing became a separate organization in 1935\. The ICOR was active among first and second generation [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish "Yiddish")\-speaking Jewish immigrants and was intended as a rival to the [Zionist](/wiki/Zionism "Zionism") movement and its agitation for a Jewish homeland in [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)"). In the 1930s the organization was also involved in protests against Nazi Germany and encouraged a boycott of German goods and also fundraised for the [International Brigades](/wiki/International_Brigades "International Brigades") fighting in the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War"). ICOR was associated with the [Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Communist_Party%2C_USA "Communist Party, USA") and the [Communist Party of Canada](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Canada "Communist Party of Canada") and generally followed the [Comintern](/wiki/Comintern "Comintern")'s party line. The organization declined following the signing of the [Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact](/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact "Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact"). ### Ambidjan The American Committee for the Settlement of Jews in Birobidjan (Ambidjan) was established on February 27, 1934, at a meeting held in the [Ritz\-Carlton Hotel](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton_Hotel_Company "Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").Henry Felix Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood: American Jewish Communists and the Soviet Birobidzhan Project, 1924\-1951\.* Brighton, MA: Academic Studies Press, 2010; pg. 33\. The meeting was addressed by Lord Marley, [Dudley Leigh Aman](/wiki/Dudley_Aman%2C_1st_Baron_Marley "Dudley Aman, 1st Baron Marley"), a [British Labour Party](/wiki/British_Labour_Party "British Labour Party") [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") and leading spokesman for the Birobidzhan project in the United Kingdom. The chief American behind the establishment of the new organization was [William W. Cohen](/wiki/William_W._Cohen "William W. Cohen"), a banker and stockbroker who had been a [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") from New York's 17th Congressional District from 1926 to 1928\. Cohen saw the establishment of a Jewish Autonomous Region in the USSR as providing an important "haven for the salvage and rehabilitation of many thousands of Jews suffering in the infernos of central and eastern Europe" and supported the establishment of Ambidjan with his money, time, and effort. Ambidjan began formal operations in September 1935 with the establishment of an office located at 285 Madison Avenue in New York City. Lord Marley was named honorary president with Cohen the president of the organization. A key figure behind the scenes at Ambidjan was [Jacob M. Budish](/wiki/Jacob_M._Budish "Jacob M. Budish"), a member of the [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") and employee of [Amtorg](/wiki/Amtorg "Amtorg"), the New York\-based Soviet foreign trade office in the United States.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 36\. Budish's close ties with Soviet Ambassador [Alexander Troyanovsky](/wiki/Alexander_Troyanovsky "Alexander Troyanovsky") and position in the Communist Party apparatus made him the ideal conduit for information to Ambidjan regarding developments in the Soviet Union. In the summer of 1935 Budish travelled to Birobidzhan to tour the region and conduct talks with government officials regarding the future role of Ambidjan.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 37\. Following Budish's 1935 talks, Soviet authorities gave Ambidjan permission to proceed with its efforts to subsidize the emigration of European Jews to Birobidzhan. Selection of settlers, primarily from [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), was to be made by Ambidjan in consultation with Soviet officials. Ambidjan would provide a grant of $350 per family selected to aid in the costs of relocation. Ambidjan's efforts attracted a wide spectrum of Americans to membership in its ranks, including a substantial contingent from the middle and upper classes, some of whom were [non\-Jews](/wiki/Gentiles "Gentiles").Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 34\. Dues in the organization cost $5\. In 1946 ICOR and Ambijan merged to form a unified organization. ### Dissolution The organization was unable to withstand the anti\-Communism of the [McCarthy](/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy "Joseph McCarthy") era; moreover, the creation of [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") in 1948 greatly increased the attractiveness of [Zionism](/wiki/Zionism "Zionism") as offering an alternative for "Jewish Colonization". The organization was dissolved in 1951\.
[ "Organizational history\n----------------------", "### Establishment", "The founding meeting was held in New York City in December 1924 and the initial mission of the organization was to raise money to fund [Jewish collective farms in Crimea](/wiki/Jewish_collective_farms_in_Crimea \"Jewish collective farms in Crimea\") and to provide a humanitarian alternative for Jews facing anti\\-Semitism in Europe. ICOR was motivated by the situation of the Jews of Eastern Europe who had faced decades of pogroms and turmoil (including almost a decade of war) in the Pale of Settlement and constant threat of anti\\-Semitism in their countries of refuge in Central and Western Europe. Alternatively, the relative safety and welcome in the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") yielded what many saw as a trend towards the dissipation of Jewish culture, language, and \"nationality\".Ch. 2, 3\\. Gessen, Masha (2016\\). \"Where the Jews Aren't: The Sad and Absurd Story of Birobidzhan, Russia's Jewish Autonomous Region\". New York, NY: Schocken Books. Originally, the committee worked in partnership with its American contributors and Soviet authorities in order to support the newly founded large Jewish collective farms in the former [Pale of Settlement](/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement \"Pale of Settlement\"), notably Southern Ukraine and the Crimea. These \"kolkhozes\" (collective farms) attracted many former [shtetl](/wiki/Shtetl \"Shtetl\") Jews from Ukraine and Belorussia who had previously fled to larger cities for safety, as well as those whose livelihoods had been disrupted in the requisitions and economic restructuring of the early period of Soviet consolidation.", "When, in 1928, the Soviet Union abandoned the idea of Jewish settlement in Crimea and endorsed instead the eventual formation of a [Jewish Autonomous Republic](/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Republic \"Jewish Autonomous Republic\") in the eastern USSR, ICOR followed suit. ICOR worked closely with the [Komzet](/wiki/Komzet \"Komzet\"), the Soviet agency facilitating Jewish settlement, and its partner, the [OZET](/wiki/OZET \"OZET\").", "One of ICOR's initial patrons was [Julius Rosenwald](/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald \"Julius Rosenwald\"), president of [Sears, Roebuck and Company](/wiki/Sears%2C_Roebuck_and_Company \"Sears, Roebuck and Company\") who contributed more than $2 million to ICOR.Oakton Community College, [\"Biro\\-Bidjan and American Support,\"](http://www.oakton.edu/museum/biroamer.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528041617/http://www.oakton.edu/museum/biroamer.html \\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-28 }} *A Gift to Biro\\-Bidjan: Chicago, 1937: From Despair to New Hope.* oakton.edu/ Retrieved October 16, 2010\\. Rosenwald and many other prominent and wealthy American Jews contributed to ICOR's efforts, and their contributions were supplemented by those of working and middle class readers of the Yiddish press in the United States that carried appeals for funding and support.", "### Expansion", "[thumb\\|right\\|320px\\|Yiddish was regarded as the national language of the Jewish people by the Soviet Union and some American ICOR literature was published in bilingual English and Yiddish editions.](/wiki/File:Zhitlovsky-icor-pamphlet.jpg \"Zhitlovsky-icor-pamphlet.jpg\")", "The Canadian wing became a separate organization in 1935\\. The ICOR was active among first and second generation [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish \"Yiddish\")\\-speaking Jewish immigrants and was intended as a rival to the [Zionist](/wiki/Zionism \"Zionism\") movement and its agitation for a Jewish homeland in [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\"). In the 1930s the organization was also involved in protests against Nazi Germany and encouraged a boycott of German goods and also fundraised for the [International Brigades](/wiki/International_Brigades \"International Brigades\") fighting in the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\").", "ICOR was associated with the [Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Communist_Party%2C_USA \"Communist Party, USA\") and the [Communist Party of Canada](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Canada \"Communist Party of Canada\") and generally followed the [Comintern](/wiki/Comintern \"Comintern\")'s party line. The organization declined following the signing of the [Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact](/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact \"Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact\").", "### Ambidjan", "The American Committee for the Settlement of Jews in Birobidjan (Ambidjan) was established on February 27, 1934, at a meeting held in the [Ritz\\-Carlton Hotel](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton_Hotel_Company \"Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").Henry Felix Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood: American Jewish Communists and the Soviet Birobidzhan Project, 1924\\-1951\\.* Brighton, MA: Academic Studies Press, 2010; pg. 33\\. The meeting was addressed by Lord Marley, [Dudley Leigh Aman](/wiki/Dudley_Aman%2C_1st_Baron_Marley \"Dudley Aman, 1st Baron Marley\"), a [British Labour Party](/wiki/British_Labour_Party \"British Labour Party\") [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") and leading spokesman for the Birobidzhan project in the United Kingdom.", "The chief American behind the establishment of the new organization was [William W. Cohen](/wiki/William_W._Cohen \"William W. Cohen\"), a banker and stockbroker who had been a [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") from New York's 17th Congressional District from 1926 to 1928\\. Cohen saw the establishment of a Jewish Autonomous Region in the USSR as providing an important \"haven for the salvage and rehabilitation of many thousands of Jews suffering in the infernos of central and eastern Europe\" and supported the establishment of Ambidjan with his money, time, and effort.", "Ambidjan began formal operations in September 1935 with the establishment of an office located at 285 Madison Avenue in New York City. Lord Marley was named honorary president with Cohen the president of the organization.", "A key figure behind the scenes at Ambidjan was [Jacob M. Budish](/wiki/Jacob_M._Budish \"Jacob M. Budish\"), a member of the [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") and employee of [Amtorg](/wiki/Amtorg \"Amtorg\"), the New York\\-based Soviet foreign trade office in the United States.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 36\\. Budish's close ties with Soviet Ambassador [Alexander Troyanovsky](/wiki/Alexander_Troyanovsky \"Alexander Troyanovsky\") and position in the Communist Party apparatus made him the ideal conduit for information to Ambidjan regarding developments in the Soviet Union. In the summer of 1935 Budish travelled to Birobidzhan to tour the region and conduct talks with government officials regarding the future role of Ambidjan.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 37\\.", "Following Budish's 1935 talks, Soviet authorities gave Ambidjan permission to proceed with its efforts to subsidize the emigration of European Jews to Birobidzhan. Selection of settlers, primarily from [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), was to be made by Ambidjan in consultation with Soviet officials. Ambidjan would provide a grant of $350 per family selected to aid in the costs of relocation.", "Ambidjan's efforts attracted a wide spectrum of Americans to membership in its ranks, including a substantial contingent from the middle and upper classes, some of whom were [non\\-Jews](/wiki/Gentiles \"Gentiles\").Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 34\\. Dues in the organization cost $5\\.", "In 1946 ICOR and Ambijan merged to form a unified organization.", "### Dissolution", "The organization was unable to withstand the anti\\-Communism of the [McCarthy](/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy \"Joseph McCarthy\") era; moreover, the creation of [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") in 1948 greatly increased the attractiveness of [Zionism](/wiki/Zionism \"Zionism\") as offering an alternative for \"Jewish Colonization\". The organization was dissolved in 1951\\.", "" ]
### Ambidjan The American Committee for the Settlement of Jews in Birobidjan (Ambidjan) was established on February 27, 1934, at a meeting held in the [Ritz\-Carlton Hotel](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton_Hotel_Company "Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").Henry Felix Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood: American Jewish Communists and the Soviet Birobidzhan Project, 1924\-1951\.* Brighton, MA: Academic Studies Press, 2010; pg. 33\. The meeting was addressed by Lord Marley, [Dudley Leigh Aman](/wiki/Dudley_Aman%2C_1st_Baron_Marley "Dudley Aman, 1st Baron Marley"), a [British Labour Party](/wiki/British_Labour_Party "British Labour Party") [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") and leading spokesman for the Birobidzhan project in the United Kingdom. The chief American behind the establishment of the new organization was [William W. Cohen](/wiki/William_W._Cohen "William W. Cohen"), a banker and stockbroker who had been a [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") from New York's 17th Congressional District from 1926 to 1928\. Cohen saw the establishment of a Jewish Autonomous Region in the USSR as providing an important "haven for the salvage and rehabilitation of many thousands of Jews suffering in the infernos of central and eastern Europe" and supported the establishment of Ambidjan with his money, time, and effort. Ambidjan began formal operations in September 1935 with the establishment of an office located at 285 Madison Avenue in New York City. Lord Marley was named honorary president with Cohen the president of the organization. A key figure behind the scenes at Ambidjan was [Jacob M. Budish](/wiki/Jacob_M._Budish "Jacob M. Budish"), a member of the [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") and employee of [Amtorg](/wiki/Amtorg "Amtorg"), the New York\-based Soviet foreign trade office in the United States.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 36\. Budish's close ties with Soviet Ambassador [Alexander Troyanovsky](/wiki/Alexander_Troyanovsky "Alexander Troyanovsky") and position in the Communist Party apparatus made him the ideal conduit for information to Ambidjan regarding developments in the Soviet Union. In the summer of 1935 Budish travelled to Birobidzhan to tour the region and conduct talks with government officials regarding the future role of Ambidjan.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 37\. Following Budish's 1935 talks, Soviet authorities gave Ambidjan permission to proceed with its efforts to subsidize the emigration of European Jews to Birobidzhan. Selection of settlers, primarily from [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), was to be made by Ambidjan in consultation with Soviet officials. Ambidjan would provide a grant of $350 per family selected to aid in the costs of relocation. Ambidjan's efforts attracted a wide spectrum of Americans to membership in its ranks, including a substantial contingent from the middle and upper classes, some of whom were [non\-Jews](/wiki/Gentiles "Gentiles").Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 34\. Dues in the organization cost $5\. In 1946 ICOR and Ambijan merged to form a unified organization.
[ "### Ambidjan", "The American Committee for the Settlement of Jews in Birobidjan (Ambidjan) was established on February 27, 1934, at a meeting held in the [Ritz\\-Carlton Hotel](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton_Hotel_Company \"Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").Henry Felix Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood: American Jewish Communists and the Soviet Birobidzhan Project, 1924\\-1951\\.* Brighton, MA: Academic Studies Press, 2010; pg. 33\\. The meeting was addressed by Lord Marley, [Dudley Leigh Aman](/wiki/Dudley_Aman%2C_1st_Baron_Marley \"Dudley Aman, 1st Baron Marley\"), a [British Labour Party](/wiki/British_Labour_Party \"British Labour Party\") [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") and leading spokesman for the Birobidzhan project in the United Kingdom.", "The chief American behind the establishment of the new organization was [William W. Cohen](/wiki/William_W._Cohen \"William W. Cohen\"), a banker and stockbroker who had been a [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") from New York's 17th Congressional District from 1926 to 1928\\. Cohen saw the establishment of a Jewish Autonomous Region in the USSR as providing an important \"haven for the salvage and rehabilitation of many thousands of Jews suffering in the infernos of central and eastern Europe\" and supported the establishment of Ambidjan with his money, time, and effort.", "Ambidjan began formal operations in September 1935 with the establishment of an office located at 285 Madison Avenue in New York City. Lord Marley was named honorary president with Cohen the president of the organization.", "A key figure behind the scenes at Ambidjan was [Jacob M. Budish](/wiki/Jacob_M._Budish \"Jacob M. Budish\"), a member of the [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") and employee of [Amtorg](/wiki/Amtorg \"Amtorg\"), the New York\\-based Soviet foreign trade office in the United States.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 36\\. Budish's close ties with Soviet Ambassador [Alexander Troyanovsky](/wiki/Alexander_Troyanovsky \"Alexander Troyanovsky\") and position in the Communist Party apparatus made him the ideal conduit for information to Ambidjan regarding developments in the Soviet Union. In the summer of 1935 Budish travelled to Birobidzhan to tour the region and conduct talks with government officials regarding the future role of Ambidjan.Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 37\\.", "Following Budish's 1935 talks, Soviet authorities gave Ambidjan permission to proceed with its efforts to subsidize the emigration of European Jews to Birobidzhan. Selection of settlers, primarily from [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), was to be made by Ambidjan in consultation with Soviet officials. Ambidjan would provide a grant of $350 per family selected to aid in the costs of relocation.", "Ambidjan's efforts attracted a wide spectrum of Americans to membership in its ranks, including a substantial contingent from the middle and upper classes, some of whom were [non\\-Jews](/wiki/Gentiles \"Gentiles\").Srebrnik, *Dreams of Nationhood,* pg. 34\\. Dues in the organization cost $5\\.", "In 1946 ICOR and Ambijan merged to form a unified organization.", "" ]
Practice disciplines -------------------- Freestyle BMX riders participate in several well\-established disciplines. As in the other forms of freestyle riding, there are no specific rules; style/aesthetics, skills, and creativity are emphasised. ### Street Street riders make use of urban and public spaces to perform tricks. These tricks can be performed on curbs, handrails, stairs, ledges, banks, and other obstacles. Styles among street riders vary, as riders often depend upon their urban surroundings. BMX street rose to prominence as an increasingly defined discipline in the late 1980s. In modern BMX, the progression of more technical tricks on street obstacles has led to this discipline becoming more divided from other freestyle disciplines. BMX bikes aimed at street riding typically have steeper angles and shorter wheelbases, making them easier to maneuver, but less stable at the higher speeds associated with ramp and dirt riding. Within street BMX there are a handful of competitions, however, the majority of professional street riders tend to focus on making videos for DVDs and [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") videos on behalf of their sponsors. Only a handful of riders tend to focus on both, with competition courses and corporate sponsorships not considered 'core' street riding by many riders. One rider who has succeeded in both competitions and video projects is Garret Reynolds. Garret has won 13 [X Games](/wiki/Xgames "Xgames") medals, as well as Ride BMX Nora Cup Awards for Video Part of The Year and Street Rider of the Year, and is largely considered one of the best BMX Street riders ever. ### Park Park denotes the BMX discipline of exclusively riding skateparks, often with an emphasis on riding bowl transitions or jump boxes. [Skateparks](/wiki/Skatepark "Skatepark") are used by BMX riders as well as skateboarders, inline skaters and freestyle scooter\-riders. Skateparks themselves can be made of [wood](/wiki/Wood "Wood"), [concrete](/wiki/Concrete "Concrete") or [metal](/wiki/Metal "Metal"). Styles of riding will depend on the style of the parks. Wood is more suited to a flowing style, with riders searching for gaps and aiming to get the highest airs from the [coping](/wiki/Coping_%28architecture%29 "Coping (architecture)"). Concrete parks usually tend to contain bowls and pools. However, it is not unusual for riders to merge the two styles in either type of park. Concrete parks are commonly built outdoors due to their ability to withstand years of exposure to the elements of conditions. Concrete parks are also often publicly funded due to their permanent and low\-cost nature in comparison to wood parks. Parks made from wood are popular with commercial skateparks, but harder to maintain, as the wood can start to decompose over time, or the features can be damaged through extensive use. Wooden parks are often considered safer than concrete, as during an impact, the wooden surface deflects by a small amount, in contrast to concrete, which is inelastic. Parks designed with BMX use in mind will typically have steel coping along the side that is less prone to damage than concrete or pool coping. There are a number of competitions that focus on the BMX park discipline, with [X Games](/wiki/X_Games "X Games") typically focusing on progressive tricks and large jumps, and other competitions such as the [Vans](/wiki/Vans "Vans") BMX Pro Cup focusing more on flowing and stylish riding on bowl style courses. In June 2017, the [Olympic Committee](/wiki/Olympic_Committee "Olympic Committee") announced that BMX freestyle park would be featured at the [Summer 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics "2020 Summer Olympics"). ### Vert Ramp [thumb\|Vert ramp](/wiki/Image:Half-Pipe_Vert_Ramp.svg "Half-Pipe Vert Ramp.svg") Vert is a freestyle BMX discipline performed in a [half pipe](/wiki/Half_pipe "Half pipe") consisting of two [quarter pipes](/wiki/Quarter_pipe "Quarter pipe") set facing each other (much like a [mini ramp](/wiki/Mini_ramp "Mini ramp")), but at around 10–15 feet tall (around 2\.5 to 3\.5 meters high). The biggest ramp ever used in competition is the [X\-Games](/wiki/X-Games "X-Games") big air ramp at {{convert\|27\|ft\|m}} tall. Both ‘faces’ of the ramp have an extension to the transition that is vertical, hence the name. Coping is a round metal tube at the lip of the vert that helps freestyle BMXers do grinds, and stalls on the lip of the vert. Riders go up each jump, performing air tricks before landing into the transition having turned 180 degrees. A typical run involves going from one side to the other, airing above the coping each side. Also possible are 'lip tricks' \- tricks on the platform at the top of the ramps before dropping into the ramp. Many tricks consist of the rider grabbing a part of the bike or removing body parts off the bike. ### Trails [thumb\|Freshly faced dirt jumps at a set of BMX trails in Indiana.](/wiki/File:BMX_Trails.jpg "BMX Trails.jpg") Trails are paths that lead to jumps made of heavily compacted dirt. Jumps in the same path, or "line", are sometimes referred to as packs, such as a four pack, a six pack, or an eight pack, which would have two, three, and four jumps respectively. A dirt jump consists of a steep take off, called a lip, with an often slightly less steep landing. The lip and landing are usually built as separate mounds, divided by a gap. The gap is measured from the topmost part of the lip, horizontally to the topmost part of the far side of the landing. Gaps typically range from only a couple of feet to over twenty feet. A moderate gap is around twelve feet. Trails riding is sometimes also referred to as "[dirt jumping](/wiki/Dirt_jumping "Dirt jumping")". Most trails riders maintain that a subtle difference exists in the style and flow of "dirt jumps" and "trails"; trails riders focus more on a flowing smooth style from one jump to the next while performing other stylish tricks, while dirt jumpers try to perform the craziest tricks they can over larger, less flow\-oriented jumps. Trails riders usually run a rear brake only as they have no use for a front brake, and usually a rotor (gyro) to make it easier to do barspins, so they do not have to spin the bars back the other way to untangle them, which is hard to do on trails. In general, trail/dirt jumping bikes have longer [wheelbases](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase") ([chainstays](/wiki/Chainstay "Chainstay")) than other BMX bikes to aid with stability in mid\-air. ### Flatland {{main\|Flatland BMX}} [thumb\|BMX Flatland rider Caleb Rider at Santa Monica beach.](/wiki/Image:Bmx_santa_monica_beach.jpg "Bmx santa monica beach.jpg") Flatland BMX occupies a position somewhat removed from the rest of freestyle BMX. People who ride in the above disciplines will generally take part in at least one of the others, but flatlanders tend to only ride flatland. They are often very dedicated and will spend several hours a day perfecting their technique. Flatland also differs from the others in that the terrain used is nothing but a smooth, flat surface (e.g. an asphalt parking lot, basketball courts, etc.). Tricks are performed by spinning and balancing in a variety of body and bicycle positions. Riders almost always use knurled aluminum pegs to stand on to manipulate the bike into even stranger positions. Flatland bikes typically have a shorter wheelbase than other freestyle bikes. Flatland bikes differ from dirt jumping bikes and freestyle bikes in one way. The frames are often more heavily reinforced because the people riding flatland often stand on the frames. This shorter wheelbase requires less effort to make the bike spin or to position the bike on one wheel. One of the primary reasons flat landers often ride only on flatland is the decreased stability of a shorter bike on ramps, dirt courses and streets. A variety of options are commonly found on flatland bikes, because it is in an open space. The most unifying feature of flatland bikes is the use of four pegs, one on the end of each wheel axle. Flatland riders will choose to run either a front brake, a rear brake, both brakes, or no brakes at all, depending on stylistic preference.
[ "Practice disciplines\n--------------------", "Freestyle BMX riders participate in several well\\-established disciplines. As in the other forms of freestyle riding, there are no specific rules; style/aesthetics, skills, and creativity are emphasised.", "### Street", "Street riders make use of urban and public spaces to perform tricks. These tricks can be performed on curbs, handrails, stairs, ledges, banks, and other obstacles. Styles among street riders vary, as riders often depend upon their urban surroundings. BMX street rose to prominence as an increasingly defined discipline in the late 1980s.", "In modern BMX, the progression of more technical tricks on street obstacles has led to this discipline becoming more divided from other freestyle disciplines. BMX bikes aimed at street riding typically have steeper angles and shorter wheelbases, making them easier to maneuver, but less stable at the higher speeds associated with ramp and dirt riding.", "Within street BMX there are a handful of competitions, however, the majority of professional street riders tend to focus on making videos for DVDs and [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") videos on behalf of their sponsors. Only a handful of riders tend to focus on both, with competition courses and corporate sponsorships not considered 'core' street riding by many riders. One rider who has succeeded in both competitions and video projects is Garret Reynolds. Garret has won 13 [X Games](/wiki/Xgames \"Xgames\") medals, as well as Ride BMX Nora Cup Awards for Video Part of The Year and Street Rider of the Year, and is largely considered one of the best BMX Street riders ever.", "### Park", "Park denotes the BMX discipline of exclusively riding skateparks, often with an emphasis on riding bowl transitions or jump boxes.", "[Skateparks](/wiki/Skatepark \"Skatepark\") are used by BMX riders as well as skateboarders, inline skaters and freestyle scooter\\-riders. Skateparks themselves can be made of [wood](/wiki/Wood \"Wood\"), [concrete](/wiki/Concrete \"Concrete\") or [metal](/wiki/Metal \"Metal\"). Styles of riding will depend on the style of the parks. Wood is more suited to a flowing style, with riders searching for gaps and aiming to get the highest airs from the [coping](/wiki/Coping_%28architecture%29 \"Coping (architecture)\"). Concrete parks usually tend to contain bowls and pools. However, it is not unusual for riders to merge the two styles in either type of park.", "Concrete parks are commonly built outdoors due to their ability to withstand years of exposure to the elements of conditions. Concrete parks are also often publicly funded due to their permanent and low\\-cost nature in comparison to wood parks. Parks made from wood are popular with commercial skateparks, but harder to maintain, as the wood can start to decompose over time, or the features can be damaged through extensive use. Wooden parks are often considered safer than concrete, as during an impact, the wooden surface deflects by a small amount, in contrast to concrete, which is inelastic. Parks designed with BMX use in mind will typically have steel coping along the side that is less prone to damage than concrete or pool coping.", "There are a number of competitions that focus on the BMX park discipline, with [X Games](/wiki/X_Games \"X Games\") typically focusing on progressive tricks and large jumps, and other competitions such as the [Vans](/wiki/Vans \"Vans\") BMX Pro Cup focusing more on flowing and stylish riding on bowl style courses.", "In June 2017, the [Olympic Committee](/wiki/Olympic_Committee \"Olympic Committee\") announced that BMX freestyle park would be featured at the [Summer 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics \"2020 Summer Olympics\").", "### Vert Ramp", "[thumb\\|Vert ramp](/wiki/Image:Half-Pipe_Vert_Ramp.svg \"Half-Pipe Vert Ramp.svg\")\nVert is a freestyle BMX discipline performed in a [half pipe](/wiki/Half_pipe \"Half pipe\") consisting of two [quarter pipes](/wiki/Quarter_pipe \"Quarter pipe\") set facing each other (much like a [mini ramp](/wiki/Mini_ramp \"Mini ramp\")), but at around 10–15 feet tall (around 2\\.5 to 3\\.5 meters high). The biggest ramp ever used in competition is the [X\\-Games](/wiki/X-Games \"X-Games\") big air ramp at {{convert\\|27\\|ft\\|m}} tall. Both ‘faces’ of the ramp have an extension to the transition that is vertical, hence the name. Coping is a round metal tube at the lip of the vert that helps freestyle BMXers do grinds, and stalls on the lip of the vert.", "Riders go up each jump, performing air tricks before landing into the transition having turned 180 degrees. A typical run involves going from one side to the other, airing above the coping each side. Also possible are 'lip tricks' \\- tricks on the platform at the top of the ramps before dropping into the ramp. Many tricks consist of the rider grabbing a part of the bike or removing body parts off the bike.", "### Trails", "[thumb\\|Freshly faced dirt jumps at a set of BMX trails in Indiana.](/wiki/File:BMX_Trails.jpg \"BMX Trails.jpg\")\nTrails are paths that lead to jumps made of heavily compacted dirt. Jumps in the same path, or \"line\", are sometimes referred to as packs, such as a four pack, a six pack, or an eight pack, which would have two, three, and four jumps respectively. A dirt jump consists of a steep take off, called a lip, with an often slightly less steep landing. The lip and landing are usually built as separate mounds, divided by a gap. The gap is measured from the topmost part of the lip, horizontally to the topmost part of the far side of the landing. Gaps typically range from only a couple of feet to over twenty feet. A moderate gap is around twelve feet.", "Trails riding is sometimes also referred to as \"[dirt jumping](/wiki/Dirt_jumping \"Dirt jumping\")\". Most trails riders maintain that a subtle difference exists in the style and flow of \"dirt jumps\" and \"trails\"; trails riders focus more on a flowing smooth style from one jump to the next while performing other stylish tricks, while dirt jumpers try to perform the craziest tricks they can over larger, less flow\\-oriented jumps.", "Trails riders usually run a rear brake only as they have no use for a front brake, and usually a rotor (gyro) to make it easier to do barspins, so they do not have to spin the bars back the other way to untangle them, which is hard to do on trails. In general, trail/dirt jumping bikes have longer [wheelbases](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\") ([chainstays](/wiki/Chainstay \"Chainstay\")) than other BMX bikes to aid with stability in mid\\-air.", "### Flatland", "{{main\\|Flatland BMX}}\n[thumb\\|BMX Flatland rider Caleb Rider at Santa Monica beach.](/wiki/Image:Bmx_santa_monica_beach.jpg \"Bmx santa monica beach.jpg\")\nFlatland BMX occupies a position somewhat removed from the rest of freestyle BMX. People who ride in the above disciplines will generally take part in at least one of the others, but flatlanders tend to only ride flatland. They are often very dedicated and will spend several hours a day perfecting their technique.", "Flatland also differs from the others in that the terrain used is nothing but a smooth, flat surface (e.g. an asphalt parking lot, basketball courts, etc.). Tricks are performed by spinning and balancing in a variety of body and bicycle positions. Riders almost always use knurled aluminum pegs to stand on to manipulate the bike into even stranger positions.", "Flatland bikes typically have a shorter wheelbase than other freestyle bikes. Flatland bikes differ from dirt jumping bikes and freestyle bikes in one way. The frames are often more heavily reinforced because the people riding flatland often stand on the frames. This shorter wheelbase requires less effort to make the bike spin or to position the bike on one wheel. One of the primary reasons flat landers often ride only on flatland is the decreased stability of a shorter bike on ramps, dirt courses and streets.", "A variety of options are commonly found on flatland bikes, because it is in an open space. The most unifying feature of flatland bikes is the use of four pegs, one on the end of each wheel axle. Flatland riders will choose to run either a front brake, a rear brake, both brakes, or no brakes at all, depending on stylistic preference.", "" ]
Early life ---------- Carlo was born as the youngest son of the Boszhard family, he is the brother of [Ron Boszhard](/wiki/Ron_Boszhard "Ron Boszhard"). He spent his childhood in Amsterdam and had a predilection for theater and hamsters, show and entertainment in primary school. At the age of thirteen het started performing in theater *De Engelenbak* in Amsterdam. One of his teachers there was Dutch TV host [Paul de Leeuw](/wiki/Paul_de_Leeuw "Paul de Leeuw"). After completing the Agricultural and Horticultural school, he became a caretaker. He nursed elderly people suffering from dementia. Yet, Boszhard still wanted to be a presenter. So he chose to perform as an extra in late 1980s television shows such as the *Ep Oorklep Show* (with [André van Duin](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_van_Duin "André van Duin")), *{{ill\|Pisa (TV program)\|lt\=Pisa\|nl\|Pisa (televisieprogramma)}}* (with [Henk Spaan](/wiki/Henk_Paanen "Henk Paanen") and Harry Vermeegen), and in the film *Dutch Treat* with the [Dolly Dots](/wiki/Dolly_Dots "Dolly Dots"). In 1989 Boszhard responded to an advertisement from the AVRO and got himself hired as a host for the 1st time.
[ "Early life\n----------", "Carlo was born as the youngest son of the Boszhard family, he is the brother of [Ron Boszhard](/wiki/Ron_Boszhard \"Ron Boszhard\").", "He spent his childhood in Amsterdam and had a predilection for theater and hamsters, show and entertainment in primary school. At the age of thirteen het started performing in theater *De Engelenbak* in Amsterdam. One of his teachers there was Dutch TV host [Paul de Leeuw](/wiki/Paul_de_Leeuw \"Paul de Leeuw\").", "After completing the Agricultural and Horticultural school, he became a caretaker. He nursed elderly people suffering from dementia.", "Yet, Boszhard still wanted to be a presenter. So he chose to perform as an extra in late 1980s television shows such as the *Ep Oorklep Show* (with [André van Duin](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_van_Duin \"André van Duin\")), *{{ill\\|Pisa (TV program)\\|lt\\=Pisa\\|nl\\|Pisa (televisieprogramma)}}* (with [Henk Spaan](/wiki/Henk_Paanen \"Henk Paanen\") and Harry Vermeegen), and in the film *Dutch Treat* with the [Dolly Dots](/wiki/Dolly_Dots \"Dolly Dots\").", "In 1989 Boszhard responded to an advertisement from the AVRO and got himself hired as a host for the 1st time.", "" ]
Final rounds ------------ Bracket {{6TeamBracket\-with class \| RD1\=Quarterfinals \| RD2\=Semifinals \| RD3\=Gold medal match \| RD4\=Bronze medal match \| RD5\=5th–6th \| team\-width\=11em \| score\-width\=2em \| RD1\-seed1\=A3 \| RD1\-team1\={{wpw\|CHN}} \| RD1\-score1\=11 \| RD1\-seed2\=B2 \| RD1\-team2\='''{{wpw\|AUS}}''' \| RD1\-score2\='''12''' \| RD1\-seed3\=A2 \| RD1\-team3\={{wpw\|ITA}} \| RD1\-score3\=11 \| RD1\-seed4\=B3 \| RD1\-team4\='''{{wpw\|NED}}''' \| RD1\-score4\='''13''' \| RD2\-seed1\=A1 \| RD2\-team1\='''{{wpw\|USA}}''' \| RD2\-score1\='''9''' \| RD2\-seed2\=B2 \| RD2\-team2\={{wpw\|AUS}} \| RD2\-score2\=8 \| RD2\-seed3\=B1 \| RD2\-team3\={{wpw\|HUN}} \| RD2\-score3\=7 \| RD2\-seed4\=B3 \| RD2\-team4\='''{{wpw\|NED}}''' \| RD2\-score4\='''8''' \| RD3\-seed1\=\[\[Image:silver medal icon.svg]] \| RD3\-team1\={{wpw\|USA}} \| RD3\-score1\=8 \| RD3\-seed2\=\[\[Image:gold medal icon.svg]] \| RD3\-team2\='''{{wpw\|NED}}''' \| RD3\-score2\='''9''' \| RD4\-seed1\=\[\[Image:bronze medal icon.svg]] \| RD4\-team1\='''{{wpw\|AUS}}''' \| RD4\-score1\='''12''' \| RD4\-seed2\=4 \| RD4\-team2\={{wpw\|HUN}} \| RD4\-score2\=11 \| RD5\-seed1\=5 \| RD5\-team1\='''{{wpw\|CHN}}''' \| RD5\-score1\='''10''' \| RD5\-seed2\=6 \| RD5\-team2\={{wpw\|ITA}} \| RD5\-score2\=7 }} ### 7th place match All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time "China Standard Time") ([UTC\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 "UTC+8")). {{waterpolobox \| date\= 17 August 2008 \| time\= 13:00 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400104\.shtml\#WPW400104 Report] \| team1\= '''{{wpw\-rt\|RUS}}''' \| score1\= '''12''' \| team2\= {{wpw\|GRE}} \| score2\= 6 \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Stephen Knights (NZL), Guy Pinker (RSA) \| Q1\= '''3'''–2 \| Q2\= '''4'''–1 \| Q3\= '''3'''–1 \| Q4\= 2–2 \| OT\= \| goals1\= \[\[Natalia Shepelina\|Shepelina]] 3, \[\[Sofia Konukh\|Konukh]] 3, \[\[Ekaterina Pantyulina\|Pantyulina]] 2, \[\[Olga Belyaeva\|Belyaeva]] 2 \| goals2\= \[\[Antigoni Roumpesi\|Roumpesi]] 4 }} ### Quarterfinals All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time "China Standard Time") ([UTC\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 "UTC+8")). {{waterpolobox \| date\= 17 August 2008 \| time\= 14:20 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400301\.shtml\#WPW400301 Report] \| team1\= {{wpw\-rt\|CHN}} \| score1\= 11 \| team2\= '''{{wpw\|AUS}}''' \| score2\= '''12''' \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Decio Jr Patelli (BRA), Jaime Moliner Molins (ESP) \| Q1\= 4–4 \| Q2\= 2–2 \| Q3\= 2–'''4''' \| Q4\= '''3'''–2 \| OT\= \| goals1\= \[\[Ma Huanhuan\|Ma]] 3, \[\[Sun Huizi\|Sun H.]] 2 \| goals2\= \[\[Kate Gynther\|Gynther]] 5, \[\[Nikita Cuffe\|Cuffe]] 2, \[\[Melissa Rippon\|M. Rippon]] 2 }} {{waterpolobox \| date\= 17 August 2008 \| time\= 15:40 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400302\.shtml\#WPW400302 Report] \| team1\= {{wpw\-rt\|ITA}} \| score1\= 11 \| team2\= '''{{wpw\|NED}}''' \| score2\= '''13''' \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Torsten Bock (GER), Nikolaos Argyros (GRE) \| Q1\= 2–2 \| Q2\= 1–'''3''' \| Q3\= '''3'''–2 \| Q4\= '''2'''–1 \| OT\= 0–0, 0–0 \| PS\= 3\-'''5''' \| goals1\= \[\[Manuela Zanchi\|Zanchi]] 4, \[\[Martina Miceli\|Miceli]] 2, \[\[Silvia Bosurgi\|Bosurgi]] 2 \| goals2\= \[\[Mieke Cabout\|Cabout]] 4, \[\[Daniëlle de Bruijn\|de Bruijn]] 3, \[\[Yasemin Smit\|Smit]] 2, \[\[Iefke van Belkum\|van Belkum]] 2 }} ### 5th place match All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time "China Standard Time") ([UTC\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 "UTC+8")). {{waterpolobox \| date\= 19 August 2008 \| time\= 13:00 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400103\.shtml\#WPW400103 Report] \| team1\= '''{{wpw\-rt\|CHN}}''' \| score1\= '''10''' \| team2\= {{wpw\|ITA}} \| score2\= 7 \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Ahmet Erhan Tulga (TUR), Gaetan Turcotte (CAN) \| Q1\= '''3'''–1 \| Q2\= 2–'''3''' \| Q3\= 1–'''3''' \| Q4\= '''4'''–0 \| OT\= \| goals1\= \[\[Gao Ao\|Gao]] 4, \[\[Sun Huizi\|Sun H.]] 2 \| goals2\= \[\[Tania di Mario\|di Mario]] 3, \[\[Manuela Zanchi\|Zanchi]] 2 }} ### Semifinals All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time "China Standard Time") ([UTC\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 "UTC+8")). {{waterpolobox \| date\= {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2008\|8\|19}} \| time\= 14:20 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400201\.shtml\#WPW400201 Report] \| team1\= '''{{wpw\-rt\|USA}}''' \| score1\= '''9''' \| team2\= {{wpw\|AUS}} \| score2\= 8 \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Boris Margeta (SLO), Massimiliano Caputi (ITA) \| Q1\= 2–2 \| Q2\= 2–2 \| Q3\= '''4'''–1 \| Q4\= 1–'''3''' \| OT\= \| goals1\= \[\[Brenda Villa\|Villa]] 3 \[\[Brittany Hayes\|Hayes]] 2 \[\[Natalie Golda\|Golda]], \[\[Jessica Steffens\|Steffens]], \[\[Alison Gregorka\|Gregorka]], \[\[Kami Craig\|Craig]] 1 \| goals2\= \[\[Kate Gynther\|Gynther]] 3 \[\[Rebecca Rippon\|R. Rippon]] 2 \[\[Gemma Beadsworth\|Beadsworth]], \[\[Bronwen Knox\|Knox]], \[\[Melissa Rippon\|M. Rippon]] 1 }} {{waterpolobox \| date\= 19 August 2008 \| time\= 15:40 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400202\.shtml\#WPW400202 Report] \| team1\= {{wpw\-rt\|HUN}} \| score1\= 7 \| team2\= '''{{wpw\|NED}}''' \| score2\= '''8''' \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Mario Brguljan (MNE), Sergey Antsiferov (RUS) \| Q1\= '''2'''–1 \| Q2\= 1–'''3''' \| Q3\= 3–3 \| Q4\= 1–1 \| OT\= \| goals1\= \[\[Anikó Pelle\|Pelle]] 3 \[\[Rita Drávucz\|Drávucz]], \[\[Ágnes Primász\|Primász]] 2 \| goals2\= \[\[Marieke van den Ham\|van den Ham]], \[\[Iefke van Belkum\|van Belkum]] 3 \[\[Mieke Cabout\|Cabout]], \[\[Alette Sijbring\|Sijbring]] 1 }} ### Bronze medal match All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time "China Standard Time") ([UTC\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 "UTC+8")). {{waterpolobox \| date\= 21 August 2008 \| time\= 17:00 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400102\.shtml\#WPW400102 Report] \| team1\= {{bronze3}} '''{{wpw\-rt\|AUS}}''' \| score1\= '''12''' \| team2\= {{wpw\|HUN}} \| score2\= 11 \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Sergey Antsiferov (RUS), Mladen Rak (CRO) \| Q1\= 2–2 \| Q2\= 1–'''3''' \| Q3\= '''3'''–1 \| Q4\= 1–1 \| OT\= '''2'''–1, 0–'''1''' \| PS\= '''3'''–2 \| goals1\= \[\[Bronwen Knox\|Knox]], \[\[Kate Gynther\|Gynther]] 3 \[\[Suzie Fraser\|Fraser]] 2 \[\[Gemma Beadsworth\|Beadsworth]], \[\[Rebecca Rippon\|R. Rippon]], \[\[Mia Santoromito\|Santoromito]], \[\[Melissa Rippon\|M. Rippon]] 1 \| goals2\= \[\[Dóra Kisteleki\|Kisteleki]] 4 \[\[Ágnes Valkai\|Valkai]] 3 \[\[Rita Drávucz\|Drávucz]] 2 \[\[Krisztina Zantleitner\|Zantleitner]], \[\[Anikó Pelle\|Pelle]] 1 }} ### Gold medal match All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time "China Standard Time") ([UTC\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 "UTC+8")). {{waterpolobox \| date\= {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2008\|8\|21}} \| time\= 18:20 \| report\= \[http://results.beijing2008\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400101\.shtml\#WPW400101 Report] \| team1\= {{silver2}} {{wpw\-rt\|USA}} \| score1\= 8 \| team2\= '''{{wpw\|NED}}''' {{gold1}} \| score2\= '''9''' \| location\= \[\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing \| attendance\= \| referees\= Gabor Kiszelly (HUN), Massimiliano Caputi (ITA) \| Q1\= 2–'''4''' \| Q2\= '''3'''–1 \| Q3\= 1–'''2''' \| Q4\= 2–2 \| OT\= \| goals1\= \[\[Jessica Steffens\|Steffens]] 2 \[\[Brittany Hayes\|Hayes]], \[\[Brenda Villa\|Villa]], \[\[Natalie Golda\|Golda]], \[\[Alison Gregorka\|Gregorka]], \[\[Moriah van Norman\|van Norman]], \[\[Kami Craig\|Craig]] 1 \| goals2\= \[\[Daniëlle de Bruijn\|de Bruijn]] 7 \[\[Iefke van Belkum\|van Belkum]], \[\[Marieke van den Ham\|van den Ham]] 1 }}
[ "Final rounds\n------------", "Bracket\n{{6TeamBracket\\-with class\n\\| RD1\\=Quarterfinals\n\\| RD2\\=Semifinals\n\\| RD3\\=Gold medal match\n\\| RD4\\=Bronze medal match\n\\| RD5\\=5th–6th\n\\| team\\-width\\=11em\n\\| score\\-width\\=2em\n\\| RD1\\-seed1\\=A3\n\\| RD1\\-team1\\={{wpw\\|CHN}}\n\\| RD1\\-score1\\=11\n\\| RD1\\-seed2\\=B2\n\\| RD1\\-team2\\='''{{wpw\\|AUS}}'''\n\\| RD1\\-score2\\='''12'''\n\\| RD1\\-seed3\\=A2\n\\| RD1\\-team3\\={{wpw\\|ITA}}\n\\| RD1\\-score3\\=11\n\\| RD1\\-seed4\\=B3\n\\| RD1\\-team4\\='''{{wpw\\|NED}}'''\n\\| RD1\\-score4\\='''13'''\n\\| RD2\\-seed1\\=A1\n\\| RD2\\-team1\\='''{{wpw\\|USA}}'''\n\\| RD2\\-score1\\='''9'''\n\\| RD2\\-seed2\\=B2\n\\| RD2\\-team2\\={{wpw\\|AUS}}\n\\| RD2\\-score2\\=8\n\\| RD2\\-seed3\\=B1\n\\| RD2\\-team3\\={{wpw\\|HUN}}\n\\| RD2\\-score3\\=7\n\\| RD2\\-seed4\\=B3\n\\| RD2\\-team4\\='''{{wpw\\|NED}}'''\n\\| RD2\\-score4\\='''8'''\n\\| RD3\\-seed1\\=\\[\\[Image:silver medal icon.svg]]\n\\| RD3\\-team1\\={{wpw\\|USA}}\n\\| RD3\\-score1\\=8\n\\| RD3\\-seed2\\=\\[\\[Image:gold medal icon.svg]]\n\\| RD3\\-team2\\='''{{wpw\\|NED}}'''\n\\| RD3\\-score2\\='''9'''\n\\| RD4\\-seed1\\=\\[\\[Image:bronze medal icon.svg]]\n\\| RD4\\-team1\\='''{{wpw\\|AUS}}'''\n\\| RD4\\-score1\\='''12'''\n\\| RD4\\-seed2\\=4\n\\| RD4\\-team2\\={{wpw\\|HUN}}\n\\| RD4\\-score2\\=11\n\\| RD5\\-seed1\\=5\n\\| RD5\\-team1\\='''{{wpw\\|CHN}}'''\n\\| RD5\\-score1\\='''10'''\n\\| RD5\\-seed2\\=6\n\\| RD5\\-team2\\={{wpw\\|ITA}}\n\\| RD5\\-score2\\=7\n}}\n### 7th place match", "All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time \"China Standard Time\") ([UTC\\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 \"UTC+8\")).", "{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= 17 August 2008\n\\| time\\= 13:00\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400104\\.shtml\\#WPW400104 Report]\n\\| team1\\= '''{{wpw\\-rt\\|RUS}}'''\n\\| score1\\= '''12'''\n\\| team2\\= {{wpw\\|GRE}}\n\\| score2\\= 6\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Stephen Knights (NZL), Guy Pinker (RSA)\n\\| Q1\\= '''3'''–2\n\\| Q2\\= '''4'''–1\n\\| Q3\\= '''3'''–1\n\\| Q4\\= 2–2\n\\| OT\\=\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Natalia Shepelina\\|Shepelina]] 3, \\[\\[Sofia Konukh\\|Konukh]] 3, \\[\\[Ekaterina Pantyulina\\|Pantyulina]] 2, \\[\\[Olga Belyaeva\\|Belyaeva]] 2\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Antigoni Roumpesi\\|Roumpesi]] 4\n}}", "### Quarterfinals", "All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time \"China Standard Time\") ([UTC\\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 \"UTC+8\")).", "{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= 17 August 2008\n\\| time\\= 14:20\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400301\\.shtml\\#WPW400301 Report]\n\\| team1\\= {{wpw\\-rt\\|CHN}}\n\\| score1\\= 11\n\\| team2\\= '''{{wpw\\|AUS}}'''\n\\| score2\\= '''12'''\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Decio Jr Patelli (BRA), Jaime Moliner Molins (ESP)\n\\| Q1\\= 4–4\n\\| Q2\\= 2–2\n\\| Q3\\= 2–'''4'''\n\\| Q4\\= '''3'''–2\n\\| OT\\=\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Ma Huanhuan\\|Ma]] 3, \\[\\[Sun Huizi\\|Sun H.]] 2\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Kate Gynther\\|Gynther]] 5, \\[\\[Nikita Cuffe\\|Cuffe]] 2, \\[\\[Melissa Rippon\\|M. Rippon]] 2\n}}\n{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= 17 August 2008\n\\| time\\= 15:40\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400302\\.shtml\\#WPW400302 Report]\n\\| team1\\= {{wpw\\-rt\\|ITA}}\n\\| score1\\= 11\n\\| team2\\= '''{{wpw\\|NED}}'''\n\\| score2\\= '''13'''\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Torsten Bock (GER), Nikolaos Argyros (GRE)\n\\| Q1\\= 2–2\n\\| Q2\\= 1–'''3'''\n\\| Q3\\= '''3'''–2\n\\| Q4\\= '''2'''–1\n\\| OT\\= 0–0, 0–0\n\\| PS\\= 3\\-'''5'''\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Manuela Zanchi\\|Zanchi]] 4, \\[\\[Martina Miceli\\|Miceli]] 2, \\[\\[Silvia Bosurgi\\|Bosurgi]] 2\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Mieke Cabout\\|Cabout]] 4, \\[\\[Daniëlle de Bruijn\\|de Bruijn]] 3, \\[\\[Yasemin Smit\\|Smit]] 2, \\[\\[Iefke van Belkum\\|van Belkum]] 2\n}}", "### 5th place match", "All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time \"China Standard Time\") ([UTC\\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 \"UTC+8\")).", "{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= 19 August 2008\n\\| time\\= 13:00\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400103\\.shtml\\#WPW400103 Report]\n\\| team1\\= '''{{wpw\\-rt\\|CHN}}'''\n\\| score1\\= '''10'''\n\\| team2\\= {{wpw\\|ITA}}\n\\| score2\\= 7\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Ahmet Erhan Tulga (TUR), Gaetan Turcotte (CAN)\n\\| Q1\\= '''3'''–1\n\\| Q2\\= 2–'''3'''\n\\| Q3\\= 1–'''3'''\n\\| Q4\\= '''4'''–0\n\\| OT\\=\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Gao Ao\\|Gao]] 4, \\[\\[Sun Huizi\\|Sun H.]] 2\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Tania di Mario\\|di Mario]] 3, \\[\\[Manuela Zanchi\\|Zanchi]] 2\n}}", "### Semifinals", "All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time \"China Standard Time\") ([UTC\\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 \"UTC+8\")).", "{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|8\\|19}}\n\\| time\\= 14:20\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400201\\.shtml\\#WPW400201 Report]\n\\| team1\\= '''{{wpw\\-rt\\|USA}}'''\n\\| score1\\= '''9'''\n\\| team2\\= {{wpw\\|AUS}}\n\\| score2\\= 8\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Boris Margeta (SLO), Massimiliano Caputi (ITA)\n\\| Q1\\= 2–2\n\\| Q2\\= 2–2\n\\| Q3\\= '''4'''–1\n\\| Q4\\= 1–'''3'''\n\\| OT\\=\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Brenda Villa\\|Villa]] 3 \n\\[\\[Brittany Hayes\\|Hayes]] 2 \n\\[\\[Natalie Golda\\|Golda]], \\[\\[Jessica Steffens\\|Steffens]], \\[\\[Alison Gregorka\\|Gregorka]], \\[\\[Kami Craig\\|Craig]] 1\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Kate Gynther\\|Gynther]] 3 \n\\[\\[Rebecca Rippon\\|R. Rippon]] 2 \n\\[\\[Gemma Beadsworth\\|Beadsworth]], \\[\\[Bronwen Knox\\|Knox]], \\[\\[Melissa Rippon\\|M. Rippon]] 1\n}}\n{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= 19 August 2008\n\\| time\\= 15:40\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400202\\.shtml\\#WPW400202 Report]\n\\| team1\\= {{wpw\\-rt\\|HUN}}\n\\| score1\\= 7\n\\| team2\\= '''{{wpw\\|NED}}'''\n\\| score2\\= '''8'''\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Mario Brguljan (MNE), Sergey Antsiferov (RUS)\n\\| Q1\\= '''2'''–1\n\\| Q2\\= 1–'''3'''\n\\| Q3\\= 3–3\n\\| Q4\\= 1–1\n\\| OT\\=\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Anikó Pelle\\|Pelle]] 3 \n\\[\\[Rita Drávucz\\|Drávucz]], \\[\\[Ágnes Primász\\|Primász]] 2", "\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Marieke van den Ham\\|van den Ham]], \\[\\[Iefke van Belkum\\|van Belkum]] 3 \n\\[\\[Mieke Cabout\\|Cabout]], \\[\\[Alette Sijbring\\|Sijbring]] 1\n}}", "### Bronze medal match", "All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time \"China Standard Time\") ([UTC\\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 \"UTC+8\")).", "{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= 21 August 2008\n\\| time\\= 17:00\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400102\\.shtml\\#WPW400102 Report]\n\\| team1\\= {{bronze3}} '''{{wpw\\-rt\\|AUS}}'''\n\\| score1\\= '''12'''\n\\| team2\\= {{wpw\\|HUN}}\n\\| score2\\= 11\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Sergey Antsiferov (RUS), Mladen Rak (CRO)\n\\| Q1\\= 2–2\n\\| Q2\\= 1–'''3'''\n\\| Q3\\= '''3'''–1\n\\| Q4\\= 1–1\n\\| OT\\= '''2'''–1, 0–'''1'''\n\\| PS\\= '''3'''–2\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Bronwen Knox\\|Knox]], \\[\\[Kate Gynther\\|Gynther]] 3 \n\\[\\[Suzie Fraser\\|Fraser]] 2 \n\\[\\[Gemma Beadsworth\\|Beadsworth]], \\[\\[Rebecca Rippon\\|R. Rippon]], \\[\\[Mia Santoromito\\|Santoromito]], \\[\\[Melissa Rippon\\|M. Rippon]] 1\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Dóra Kisteleki\\|Kisteleki]] 4 \n \\[\\[Ágnes Valkai\\|Valkai]] 3 \n\\[\\[Rita Drávucz\\|Drávucz]] 2 \n\\[\\[Krisztina Zantleitner\\|Zantleitner]], \\[\\[Anikó Pelle\\|Pelle]] 1\n}}", "### Gold medal match", "All times are [CST](/wiki/China_Standard_Time \"China Standard Time\") ([UTC\\+8](/wiki/UTC%2B8 \"UTC+8\")).", "{{waterpolobox\n\\| date\\= {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|8\\|21}}\n\\| time\\= 18:20\n\\| report\\= \\[http://results.beijing2008\\.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/WP/C73/WPW400101\\.shtml\\#WPW400101 Report]\n\\| team1\\= {{silver2}} {{wpw\\-rt\\|USA}}\n\\| score1\\= 8\n\\| team2\\= '''{{wpw\\|NED}}''' {{gold1}}\n\\| score2\\= '''9'''\n\\| location\\= \\[\\[Ying Tung Natatorium]], Beijing\n\\| attendance\\= \n\\| referees\\= Gabor Kiszelly (HUN), Massimiliano Caputi (ITA)\n\\| Q1\\= 2–'''4'''\n\\| Q2\\= '''3'''–1\n\\| Q3\\= 1–'''2'''\n\\| Q4\\= 2–2\n\\| OT\\=\n\\| goals1\\= \\[\\[Jessica Steffens\\|Steffens]] 2 \n\\[\\[Brittany Hayes\\|Hayes]], \\[\\[Brenda Villa\\|Villa]], \\[\\[Natalie Golda\\|Golda]], \\[\\[Alison Gregorka\\|Gregorka]], \\[\\[Moriah van Norman\\|van Norman]], \\[\\[Kami Craig\\|Craig]] 1\n\\| goals2\\= \\[\\[Daniëlle de Bruijn\\|de Bruijn]] 7 \n\\[\\[Iefke van Belkum\\|van Belkum]], \\[\\[Marieke van den Ham\\|van den Ham]] 1\n}}", "" ]
{{anchor\|J31}} First generation (J31; 2003\) --------------------------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= First generation \| image \= NISSAN TEANA.jpg \| model\_code \= J31 \| aka \= \[\[Nissan Maxima]] \[\[Nissan Cefiro]] \[\[Renault Samsung SM7]]/\[\[Renault Samsung SM5\|SM5]] \[\[Renault Safrane\#2008 (A34R)\|Renault Safrane]] \| production \= 2003–2008 2004–2009 (Thailand) \| assembly \= Japan: \[\[Kanda, Fukuoka]] (\[\[Nissan Shatai]]) China: \[\[Xiangfan]]{{cite web \|url\=http://car\-cat.com/firm\-1001\.html \|title\=Nissan. Nissan in China \|publisher\=Car\-cat.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418124934/http://car\-cat.com/firm\-1001\.html \|archive\-date\=18 April 2012}} South Korea: \[\[Busan]] (\[\[Renault Samsung Motors\|RSM]]) Taiwan: \[\[Miaoli]] (\[\[Yulon Motors]]) Thailand: \[\[Samut Prakan Province\|Samut Prakan]]{{cite web \|url\=http://car\-cat.com/firm\-1139\.html \|title\=Nissan. Nissan in Thailand \|publisher\=Car\-cat.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222045414/http://car\-cat.com/firm\-1139\.html \|archive\-date\=22 December 2010}} \| platform \= \[\[Nissan FF\-L platform]] \| engine \= '''\[\[Petrol engine\|Petrol]]:''' 2\.0 L ''\[\[Nissan QR engine\#QR20DE\|QR20DE]]'' \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]] {{refimprove section\|date\=June 2020}} The J31 series Teana was first introduced in February 2003 to the Japanese market as a sedan companion to the [Murano](/wiki/Nissan_Murano "Nissan Murano") with both vehicles exclusive to Japanese Nissan dealerships called *[Nissan Red Stage](/wiki/Nissan_Motor_Company%23Japan "Nissan Motor Company#Japan")*. It replaced the [Bluebird](/wiki/Nissan_Bluebird "Nissan Bluebird") and [Cefiro](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro "Nissan Cefiro") in Japan, along with the [Laurel](/wiki/Nissan_Laurel "Nissan Laurel"). It was considered one level below the [Skyline](/wiki/Nissan_Skyline "Nissan Skyline"). The Teana was designed around a cosseting, homelike interior with colours and materials inspired by interior design rather than the technological style used in most cars at the time.{{citation \| work \= Car and Driver Hong Kong \| title \= 雅舍靜躺 \| trans\-title \= An elegant rest \| language \= zh \| url \= http://www.caranddriver.com.hk/article\_content.php?articleid\=23 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20050302171532/http://www.caranddriver.com.hk/article\_content.php?articleid\=23 \| archive\-date \= 2005\-03\-02 \| publisher \= Hachette Filipacchi Medias \| date \= April 2004 }} It was introduced with an optionally available internet\-based, telematics and GPS navigation system called [CarWings](/wiki/CarWings "CarWings") to Japanese drivers only. The J31 Teana follows the same chassis number pattern as the [Maxima (J30\)](/wiki/Nissan_Maxima%23J30 "Nissan Maxima#J30"). Despite being largely unrelated to its longrunning [Cefiro](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro "Nissan Cefiro") line, Nissan marketed the Teana using the *Cefiro* nameplate in Hong Kong, Singapore, Mauritius, Brunei, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Latin America and Caribbean while it was sold under the name of Teana in Japan, Thailand, Philippines, India, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia and China. The car was marketed as the Maxima in Australia and New Zealand. In most of the world, the Teana was Nissan's largest front\-wheel drive sedan, while the Skyline and [Fuga](/wiki/Nissan_Fuga "Nissan Fuga") are rear\-wheel drive, with optional all\-wheel drive. It was introduced a month later to other Asian markets like Singapore. In 2004 the car arrived on European shores, replacing the [Maxima QX](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro "Nissan Cefiro"). Powering the Teana was either a 1998 cc, 2349 cc or 3498 cc engine matched to automatic transmissions. Power outputs vary somewhat between the different markets. Trim levels were 200JK, 230JK, 230JM and 350JM. The car was based on the [Nissan FF\-L platform](/wiki/Nissan_FF-L_platform "Nissan FF-L platform"). In December 2005, the Teana received new headlights and taillights, chrome trimming on the bumpers, enlarged foglights, front legrests and newly designed gauges. The car was also shortened slightly, and the clear rear turn signals were replaced by amber ones. XTronic CVT was also mated to all the engines. In mainland China, the Teana was manufactured by the [Dongfeng Motor Company](/wiki/Dongfeng_Motor_Company "Dongfeng Motor Company"), a joint venture with Nissan. In Taiwan, it was manufactured by [Yulon Motor](/wiki/Yulon_Motor "Yulon Motor"). In the neighbouring country of Pakistan, the Teana was known as the [Cefiro](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro "Nissan Cefiro") and was assembled in Karachi. Additionally, it was sold in India, Russia, Ukraine as well as in New Zealand and Australia where it competes with the locally produced [Mitsubishi 380](/wiki/Mitsubishi_380 "Mitsubishi 380") and [Toyota Aurion](/wiki/Toyota_Aurion "Toyota Aurion") under the Maxima badge. The first generation Teana was also assembled in Thailand for sale in the Southeast Asian market. A restyled version was sold in South Korea as the [Renault Samsung SM7](/wiki/Renault_Samsung_SM7 "Renault Samsung SM7"). In January 2005, Renault Samsung announced a lower\-specification version of the Teana which it sold as the second generation (A34R) [Renault Samsung SM5](/wiki/Renault_Samsung_SM5 "Renault Samsung SM5") and, from 2008, as the [Renault Safrane](/wiki/Renault_Safrane "Renault Safrane"). In some countries, the 200JK was not sold. This was replaced by the 230JK, basically a 230JM with less equipment. In Australia, the Maxima was sold in ST\-L, Ti and Ti\-L trim levels. The Ti\-L trim was dropped after the facelift in 2005\. In 2008, Nissan stopped production of the J31 but production continued in Thailand until 2009\. ### Engines and specifications The first generation Teana utilized a number of engines, namely the QR20DE, VQ23DE and a slightly detuned version of the VQ35DE. | Trim level | 0–100 km/h (0\-62 mph) | Curb weight | Engine code | Capacity | Compr. ratio | Max. Power kW (PS/bhp) at rpm | Torque at rpm | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 200JK | 12\.1 seconds | {{convert\|1450\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} | [QR20DE](/wiki/Nissan_QR_engine "Nissan QR engine") | 1997 cc | 10\.0:1 | {{convert\|100\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5,200 rpm | {{convert\|189\|Nm\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} at 4,400 rpm | | 230JK/JM | 9\.3 seconds | {{convert\|1540\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} | VQ23DE V6 | 2349 cc | 9\.8:1 | {{convert\|127\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 6,000 rpm | {{convert\|221\|Nm\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} at 4,400 rpm | | 350JM (Ti) | 7\.6 seconds | {{convert\|1585\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} | [VQ35DE V6](/wiki/Nissan_VQ_engine "Nissan VQ engine") | 3498 cc | 10\.3:1 | {{convert\|180\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 6,000 rpm | {{convert\|318\|Nm\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{clear}}
[ "{{anchor\\|J31}} First generation (J31; 2003\\)\n---------------------------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= First generation \n\\| image \\= NISSAN TEANA.jpg\n\\| model\\_code \\= J31\n\\| aka \\= \\[\\[Nissan Maxima]] \n\\[\\[Nissan Cefiro]] \n\\[\\[Renault Samsung SM7]]/\\[\\[Renault Samsung SM5\\|SM5]] \n\\[\\[Renault Safrane\\#2008 (A34R)\\|Renault Safrane]]\n\\| production \\= 2003–2008 \n2004–2009 (Thailand)\n\\| assembly \\= Japan: \\[\\[Kanda, Fukuoka]] (\\[\\[Nissan Shatai]]) \nChina: \\[\\[Xiangfan]]{{cite web \\|url\\=http://car\\-cat.com/firm\\-1001\\.html \\|title\\=Nissan. Nissan in China \\|publisher\\=Car\\-cat.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418124934/http://car\\-cat.com/firm\\-1001\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=18 April 2012}} \nSouth Korea: \\[\\[Busan]] (\\[\\[Renault Samsung Motors\\|RSM]]) \nTaiwan: \\[\\[Miaoli]] (\\[\\[Yulon Motors]]) \nThailand: \\[\\[Samut Prakan Province\\|Samut Prakan]]{{cite web \\|url\\=http://car\\-cat.com/firm\\-1139\\.html \\|title\\=Nissan. Nissan in Thailand \\|publisher\\=Car\\-cat.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222045414/http://car\\-cat.com/firm\\-1139\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2010}}\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[Nissan FF\\-L platform]]\n\\| engine \\= '''\\[\\[Petrol engine\\|Petrol]]:''' \n2\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Nissan QR engine\\#QR20DE\\|QR20DE]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]]", "{{refimprove section\\|date\\=June 2020}}", "The J31 series Teana was first introduced in February 2003 to the Japanese market as a sedan companion to the [Murano](/wiki/Nissan_Murano \"Nissan Murano\") with both vehicles exclusive to Japanese Nissan dealerships called *[Nissan Red Stage](/wiki/Nissan_Motor_Company%23Japan \"Nissan Motor Company#Japan\")*. It replaced the [Bluebird](/wiki/Nissan_Bluebird \"Nissan Bluebird\") and [Cefiro](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro \"Nissan Cefiro\") in Japan, along with the [Laurel](/wiki/Nissan_Laurel \"Nissan Laurel\"). It was considered one level below the [Skyline](/wiki/Nissan_Skyline \"Nissan Skyline\"). The Teana was designed around a cosseting, homelike interior with colours and materials inspired by interior design rather than the technological style used in most cars at the time.{{citation \\| work \\= Car and Driver Hong Kong \\| title \\= 雅舍靜躺 \\| trans\\-title \\= An elegant rest \\| language \\= zh \\| url \\= http://www.caranddriver.com.hk/article\\_content.php?articleid\\=23 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20050302171532/http://www.caranddriver.com.hk/article\\_content.php?articleid\\=23 \\| archive\\-date \\= 2005\\-03\\-02 \\| publisher \\= Hachette Filipacchi Medias \\| date \\= April 2004 }} It was introduced with an optionally available internet\\-based, telematics and GPS navigation system called [CarWings](/wiki/CarWings \"CarWings\") to Japanese drivers only.", "The J31 Teana follows the same chassis number pattern as the [Maxima (J30\\)](/wiki/Nissan_Maxima%23J30 \"Nissan Maxima#J30\").", "Despite being largely unrelated to its longrunning [Cefiro](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro \"Nissan Cefiro\") line, Nissan marketed the Teana using the *Cefiro* nameplate in Hong Kong, Singapore, Mauritius, Brunei, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Latin America and Caribbean while it was sold under the name of Teana in Japan, Thailand, Philippines, India, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia and China. The car was marketed as the Maxima in Australia and New Zealand.", "In most of the world, the Teana was Nissan's largest front\\-wheel drive sedan, while the Skyline and [Fuga](/wiki/Nissan_Fuga \"Nissan Fuga\") are rear\\-wheel drive, with optional all\\-wheel drive.", "It was introduced a month later to other Asian markets like Singapore. In 2004 the car arrived on European shores, replacing the [Maxima QX](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro \"Nissan Cefiro\").", "Powering the Teana was either a 1998 cc, 2349 cc or 3498 cc engine matched to automatic transmissions. Power outputs vary somewhat between the different markets. Trim levels were 200JK, 230JK, 230JM and 350JM. The car was based on the [Nissan FF\\-L platform](/wiki/Nissan_FF-L_platform \"Nissan FF-L platform\"). In December 2005, the Teana received new headlights and taillights, chrome trimming on the bumpers, enlarged foglights, front legrests and newly designed gauges. The car was also shortened slightly, and the clear rear turn signals were replaced by amber ones. XTronic CVT was also mated to all the engines.", "In mainland China, the Teana was manufactured by the [Dongfeng Motor Company](/wiki/Dongfeng_Motor_Company \"Dongfeng Motor Company\"), a joint venture with Nissan. In Taiwan, it was manufactured by [Yulon Motor](/wiki/Yulon_Motor \"Yulon Motor\"). In the neighbouring country of Pakistan, the Teana was known as the [Cefiro](/wiki/Nissan_Cefiro \"Nissan Cefiro\") and was assembled in Karachi. Additionally, it was sold in India, Russia, Ukraine as well as in New Zealand and Australia where it competes with the locally produced [Mitsubishi 380](/wiki/Mitsubishi_380 \"Mitsubishi 380\") and [Toyota Aurion](/wiki/Toyota_Aurion \"Toyota Aurion\") under the Maxima badge. The first generation Teana was also assembled in Thailand for sale in the Southeast Asian market.", "A restyled version was sold in South Korea as the [Renault Samsung SM7](/wiki/Renault_Samsung_SM7 \"Renault Samsung SM7\"). In January 2005, Renault Samsung announced a lower\\-specification version of the Teana which it sold as the second generation (A34R) [Renault Samsung SM5](/wiki/Renault_Samsung_SM5 \"Renault Samsung SM5\") and, from 2008, as the [Renault Safrane](/wiki/Renault_Safrane \"Renault Safrane\").", "In some countries, the 200JK was not sold. This was replaced by the 230JK, basically a 230JM with less equipment. In Australia, the Maxima was sold in ST\\-L, Ti and Ti\\-L trim levels. The Ti\\-L trim was dropped after the facelift in 2005\\.", "In 2008, Nissan stopped production of the J31 but production continued in Thailand until 2009\\.", "### Engines and specifications", "The first generation Teana utilized a number of engines, namely the QR20DE, VQ23DE and a slightly detuned version of the VQ35DE.", "", "| Trim level | 0–100 km/h (0\\-62 mph) | Curb weight | Engine code | Capacity | Compr. ratio | Max. Power kW (PS/bhp) at rpm | Torque at rpm |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 200JK | 12\\.1 seconds | {{convert\\|1450\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | [QR20DE](/wiki/Nissan_QR_engine \"Nissan QR engine\") | 1997 cc | 10\\.0:1 | {{convert\\|100\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5,200 rpm | {{convert\\|189\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,400 rpm |\n| 230JK/JM | 9\\.3 seconds | {{convert\\|1540\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | VQ23DE V6 | 2349 cc | 9\\.8:1 | {{convert\\|127\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 6,000 rpm | {{convert\\|221\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,400 rpm |\n| 350JM (Ti) | 7\\.6 seconds | {{convert\\|1585\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | [VQ35DE V6](/wiki/Nissan_VQ_engine \"Nissan VQ engine\") | 3498 cc | 10\\.3:1 | {{convert\\|180\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 6,000 rpm | {{convert\\|318\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm |", "{{clear}}", "" ]
Language summary ---------------- The language is designed to be all things to all programmers.{{Vague\|date\=February 2023}}{{cite book\|last\=Vowels\|first\=Robin \|title\=Introduction to PL/I \|year\=2001\|isbn\=978\-0\-9596384\-9\-3\|page\=x\|publisher\=R.A. Vowels \|quote\="PL/I is the first language to provide adequate facilities for scientific computations, business data processing and systems programming in a single language" \- \[\[Jean Sammet]], ''Some Approaches to, and Illustrations of, Programming Language History''}} The summary is extracted from the ANSI PL/I StandardANS Programming Language PL/I. X3\.53\-1976 and the ANSI PL/I General\-Purpose Subset Standard. A PL/I program consists of a set of procedures, each of which is written as a sequence of statements. The `%INCLUDE` construct is used to include text from other sources during program translation. All of the statement types are summarized here in groupings which give an overview of the language (the Standard uses this organization). | | Category | Statement | | --- | --- | | Structural | `PROCEDURE` (or `PROC`) `ENTRY` `BEGIN` `DO` `END` | | Declarative | `DECLARE` (or `DCL`) `DEFAULT` (or `DFT`) `FORMAT` | | Flow of control | `CALL` `IF` `SELECT``GO TO` `RETURN` `STOP` Null statement | | | | Category | Statement | | --- | --- | | Interrupt handling | `ON` `SIGNAL` `REVERT` | | Storage | `ALLOCATE` (or `ALLOC`) `FREE` Assignment statement | | Input/Output | `OPEN` `CLOSE` | | Stream input/output | `GET` `PUT` | | Record input/output | `READ` `WRITE` `REWRITE` `LOCATE` `DELETE` | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | (Features such as [multi\-tasking](/wiki/Computer_multitasking "Computer multitasking") and the [PL/I preprocessor](/wiki/PL/I_preprocessor "PL/I preprocessor") are not in the Standard but are supported in the PL/I F compiler and some other implementations are discussed in the Language evolution section.) Names may be declared to represent data of the following types, either as single values, or as aggregates in the form of arrays, with a lower\-bound and upper\-bound per dimension, or structures (comprising nested structure, array and scalar variables): | `Arithmetic` (expanded below) `CHARACTER` `PICTURE for Arithmetic data` `PICTURE for Character data` | `AREA` `BIT` `ENTRY` `FILE` | `FORMAT` `LABEL` `OFFSET` `POINTER` | | --- | --- | --- | * + - * + - * + - * + - The `arithmetic` type comprises these attributes: | a base (`BINARY` or `DECIMAL`), and a scale (`FIXED` or `FLOAT`), and a mode (`REAL` or `COMPLEX`), and a `PRECISION` (`number of digits`, and for fixed point numbers, a `scale factor`) | | --- | * The base, scale, precision and [scale factor](/wiki/Scale_factor "Scale factor") of the `Picture-for-arithmetic` type is encoded within the `picture-specification`. The mode is specified separately, with the `picture specification` applied to both the real and the imaginary parts. Values are computed by expressions written using a specific set of operations and builtin functions, most of which may be applied to aggregates as well as to single values, together with user\-defined procedures which, likewise, may operate on and return aggregate as well as single values. The assignment statement assigns values to one or more variables. There are no reserved words in PL/I. A statement is terminated by a semi\-colon. The maximum length of a statement is implementation defined. A comment may appear anywhere in a program where a space is permitted and is preceded by the characters forward slash, asterisk and is terminated by the characters asterisk, forward slash (i.e. {{code\|/\* This is a comment. \*/}}). Statements may have a label\-prefix introducing an entry name (`ENTRY` and `PROCEDURE` statements) or label name, and a condition prefix enabling or disabling a computational condition{{snd}} e.g. `(NOSIZE)`). Entry and label names may be single identifiers or identifiers followed by a subscript list of constants (as in `L(12,2):A=0;`). A sequence of statements becomes a *group* when preceded by a `DO` statement and followed by an `END` statement. Groups may include nested groups and begin blocks. The `IF` statement specifies a group or a single statement as the `THEN` part and the `ELSE` part (see the sample program). The group is the unit of iteration. The begin *block* (`BEGIN; stmt-list END;`) may contain declarations for names and internal procedures local to the block. A *procedure* starts with a `PROCEDURE` statement and is terminated syntactically by an `END` statement. The body of a procedure is a sequence of blocks, groups, and statements and contains declarations for names and procedures local to the procedure or `EXTERNAL` to the procedure. An *ON\-unit* is a single statement or block of statements written to be executed when one or more of these *conditions* occur: a *computational condition*, | `CONVERSION (CONV)` `FIXEDOVERFLOW (FOFL)` `OVERFLOW (OFL)` `SIZE` | `STRINGRANGE (STRG)` `STRINGSIZE (STRZ)` `SUBSCRIPTRANGE (SUBRG)` `UNDERFLOW (UFL)` | `ZERODIVIDE (ZDIV)` | | --- | --- | --- | * + - * + - * + - * + - or an *Input/Output* condition, | `ENDFILE(file)` `ENDPAGE(file)` `KEY(file)` `NAME(file)` | `RECORD(file)` `TRANSMIT(file)` `UNDEFINEDFILE(file) (UNDF)` | | --- | --- | + or one of the conditions: * `AREA`, `CONDITION (identifier)`, `ERROR`, `FINISH` A declaration of an identifier may contain one or more of the following attributes (but they need to be mutually consistent): | Data attributes | Input/output attributes | Other attributes | | --- | --- | --- | | `ALIGNED` | `DIRECT` | `AUTOMATIC or AUTO` | | `AREA[(area-size)]` | `ENVIRONMENT(options) or ENV...` | `BASED[(reference)]` | | `BINARY [(precision)] or BIN...` | `INPUT` | `BUILTIN` | | `BIT [(maximum-length)]` | `KEYED` | `CONDITION or COND` | | `CHARACTER[(maximum-length)] or CHAR...` | `OUTPUT` | `CONSTANT` | | `COMPLEX [(precision)] or CPLX...` | `PRINT` | `CONTROLLED or CTL` | | `DECIMAL [(precision)] or DEC...` | `SEQUENTIAL or SEQL` | `DEFINED[(reference)] or DEF...` | | `(dimension-attribute)` | `STREAM` | `EXTERNAL or EXT` | | `ENTRY[(parameter descriptor list]` | `UPDATE` | `GENERIC(criteria list)` | | `FILE` | `RECORD` | `INITIAL(value-list) or INIT...` | | `FIXED [(precision)]` | | `INTERNAL or INT` | | `FLOAT [(number of digits)]` | | `LIKE unsubscripted reference` | | `FORMAT` | | `LOCAL` | | `LABEL` | | `OPTIONS(options)` | | `MEMBER` | | `PARAMETER or PARM` | | `NONVARYING or NONVAR` | | `POSITION [(expression)] or POS...` | | `OFFSET[(reference)]` | | `STATIC` | | `PICTURE picture-specification or PIC...` | | `VARIABLE` | | `POINTER or PTR` | | | | `STRUCTURE` | | | | `UNALIGNED or UNAL` | | | | `VARYING or VAR` | | | Current compilers from [Micro Focus](/wiki/Micro_Focus "Micro Focus"), and particularly that from IBM implement many extensions over the standardized version of the language. The IBM extensions are summarised in the Implementation sub\-section for the compiler later. Although there are some extensions common to these compilers the lack of a current standard means that compatibility is not guaranteed.
[ "Language summary\n----------------", "The language is designed to be all things to all programmers.{{Vague\\|date\\=February 2023}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Vowels\\|first\\=Robin \\|title\\=Introduction to PL/I \\|year\\=2001\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9596384\\-9\\-3\\|page\\=x\\|publisher\\=R.A. Vowels \\|quote\\=\"PL/I is the first language to provide adequate facilities for scientific computations, business data processing and systems programming in a single language\" \\- \\[\\[Jean Sammet]], ''Some Approaches to, and Illustrations of, Programming Language History''}} The summary is extracted from the ANSI PL/I StandardANS Programming Language PL/I. X3\\.53\\-1976\nand the ANSI PL/I General\\-Purpose Subset Standard.", "A PL/I program consists of a set of procedures, each of which is written as a sequence of statements. The `%INCLUDE` construct is used to include text from other sources during program translation. All of the statement types are summarized here in groupings which give an overview of the language (the Standard uses this organization).", "| | Category | Statement | | --- | --- | | Structural | `PROCEDURE` (or `PROC`) `ENTRY` `BEGIN` `DO` `END` | | Declarative | `DECLARE` (or `DCL`) `DEFAULT` (or `DFT`) `FORMAT` | | Flow of control | `CALL` `IF` `SELECT``GO TO` `RETURN` `STOP` Null statement | | | | Category | Statement | | --- | --- | | Interrupt handling | `ON` `SIGNAL` `REVERT` | | Storage | `ALLOCATE` (or `ALLOC`) `FREE` Assignment statement | | Input/Output | `OPEN` `CLOSE` | | Stream input/output | `GET` `PUT` | | Record input/output | `READ` `WRITE` `REWRITE` `LOCATE` `DELETE` | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |", "(Features such as [multi\\-tasking](/wiki/Computer_multitasking \"Computer multitasking\") and the [PL/I preprocessor](/wiki/PL/I_preprocessor \"PL/I preprocessor\") are not in the Standard but are supported in the PL/I F compiler and some other implementations are discussed in the Language evolution section.)", "Names may be declared to represent data of the following types, either as single values, or as aggregates in the form of arrays, with a lower\\-bound and upper\\-bound per dimension, or structures (comprising nested structure, array and scalar variables):", "| `Arithmetic` (expanded below) `CHARACTER` `PICTURE for Arithmetic data` `PICTURE for Character data` | `AREA` `BIT` `ENTRY` `FILE` | `FORMAT` `LABEL` `OFFSET` `POINTER` |\n| --- | --- | --- |", "", "* + - * + - * + - * + - The `arithmetic` type comprises these attributes:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t| a base (`BINARY` or `DECIMAL`), and a scale (`FIXED` or `FLOAT`), and a mode (`REAL` or `COMPLEX`), and a `PRECISION` (`number of digits`, and for fixed point numbers, a `scale factor`) |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t| --- |\n\t\t\t* The base, scale, precision and [scale factor](/wiki/Scale_factor \"Scale factor\") of the `Picture-for-arithmetic` type is encoded within the `picture-specification`. The mode is specified separately, with the `picture specification` applied to both the real and the imaginary parts.", "Values are computed by expressions written using a specific set of operations and builtin functions, most of which may be applied to aggregates as well as to single values, together with user\\-defined procedures which, likewise, may operate on and return aggregate as well as single values. The assignment statement assigns values to one or more variables.", "There are no reserved words in PL/I. A statement is terminated by a semi\\-colon. The maximum length of a statement is implementation defined. A comment may appear anywhere in a program where a space is permitted and is preceded by the characters forward slash, asterisk and is terminated by the characters asterisk, forward slash (i.e. {{code\\|/\\* This is a comment. \\*/}}). Statements may have a label\\-prefix introducing an entry name (`ENTRY` and `PROCEDURE` statements) or label name, and a condition prefix enabling or disabling a computational condition{{snd}} e.g. `(NOSIZE)`). Entry and label names may be single identifiers or identifiers followed by a subscript list of constants (as in `L(12,2):A=0;`).", "A sequence of statements becomes a *group* when preceded by a `DO` statement and followed by an `END` statement. Groups may include nested groups and begin blocks. The `IF` statement specifies a group or a single statement as the `THEN` part and the `ELSE` part (see the sample program). The group is the unit of iteration. The begin *block* (`BEGIN; stmt-list END;`) may contain declarations for names and internal procedures local to the block. A *procedure* starts with a `PROCEDURE` statement and is terminated syntactically by an `END` statement. The body of a procedure is a sequence of blocks, groups, and statements and contains declarations for names and procedures local to the procedure or `EXTERNAL` to the procedure.", "An *ON\\-unit* is a single statement or block of statements written to be executed when one or more of these *conditions* occur:", "a *computational condition*,", "| `CONVERSION (CONV)` `FIXEDOVERFLOW (FOFL)` `OVERFLOW (OFL)` `SIZE` | `STRINGRANGE (STRG)` `STRINGSIZE (STRZ)` `SUBSCRIPTRANGE (SUBRG)` `UNDERFLOW (UFL)` | `ZERODIVIDE (ZDIV)` |\n| --- | --- | --- |", "* + - * + - * + - * + - or an *Input/Output* condition,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t| `ENDFILE(file)` `ENDPAGE(file)` `KEY(file)` `NAME(file)` | `RECORD(file)` `TRANSMIT(file)` `UNDEFINEDFILE(file) (UNDF)` |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t| --- | --- |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ or one of the conditions:\n* `AREA`, `CONDITION (identifier)`, `ERROR`, `FINISH`", "A declaration of an identifier may contain one or more of the following attributes (but they need to be mutually consistent):", "| Data attributes | Input/output attributes | Other attributes |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| `ALIGNED` | `DIRECT` | `AUTOMATIC or AUTO` |\n| `AREA[(area-size)]` | `ENVIRONMENT(options) or ENV...` | `BASED[(reference)]` |\n| `BINARY [(precision)] or BIN...` | `INPUT` | `BUILTIN` |\n| `BIT [(maximum-length)]` | `KEYED` | `CONDITION or COND` |\n| `CHARACTER[(maximum-length)] or CHAR...` | `OUTPUT` | `CONSTANT` |\n| `COMPLEX [(precision)] or CPLX...` | `PRINT` | `CONTROLLED or CTL` |\n| `DECIMAL [(precision)] or DEC...` | `SEQUENTIAL or SEQL` | `DEFINED[(reference)] or DEF...` |\n| `(dimension-attribute)` | `STREAM` | `EXTERNAL or EXT` |\n| `ENTRY[(parameter descriptor list]` | `UPDATE` | `GENERIC(criteria list)` |\n| `FILE` | `RECORD` | `INITIAL(value-list) or INIT...` |\n| `FIXED [(precision)]` | | `INTERNAL or INT` |\n| `FLOAT [(number of digits)]` | | `LIKE unsubscripted reference` |\n| `FORMAT` | | `LOCAL` |\n| `LABEL` | | `OPTIONS(options)` |\n| `MEMBER` | | `PARAMETER or PARM` |\n| `NONVARYING or NONVAR` | | `POSITION [(expression)] or POS...` |\n| `OFFSET[(reference)]` | | `STATIC` |\n| `PICTURE picture-specification or PIC...` | | `VARIABLE` |\n| `POINTER or PTR` | | |\n| `STRUCTURE` | | |\n| `UNALIGNED or UNAL` | | |\n| `VARYING or VAR` | | |", "Current compilers from [Micro Focus](/wiki/Micro_Focus \"Micro Focus\"), and particularly that from IBM implement many extensions over the standardized version of the language. The IBM extensions are summarised in the Implementation sub\\-section for the compiler later. Although there are some extensions common to these compilers the lack of a current standard means that compatibility is not guaranteed.", "" ]
Implementations --------------- ### IBM PL/I F and D compilers PL/I was first implemented by IBM, at its [Hursley Laboratories](/wiki/Hursley_Laboratories "Hursley Laboratories") in the United Kingdom, as part of the development of [System/360](/wiki/System/360 "System/360"). The first production PL/I [compiler](/wiki/Compiler "Compiler") was the PL/I F compiler for the [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360 "OS/360") Operating System, built by John Nash's team at Hursley in the UK: the runtime library team was managed by I.M. (Nobby) Clarke. The PL/I F compiler was written entirely in System/360 assembly language.{{cite web\|last\=Krasun\|first\=Andy\|title\=The first 35\+ years of Hursley software 1958\-1993 with some hardware asides, a personal account\|url\=https://apsg.bcs.org/materials/presentations/20061026krasun.pdf\|access\-date\=May 5, 2020}} Release 1 shipped in 1966\. OS/360 is a real\-memory environment and the compiler was designed for systems with as little as 64 kilobytes of real storage – F being 64 kB in S/360 parlance. To fit a large compiler into the 44 kilobytes of memory available on a 64\-kilobyte machine, the compiler consists of a control phase and a large number of compiler phases (approaching 100\). The phases are brought into memory from disk, one at a time, to handle particular language features and aspects of compilation. Each phase makes a single pass over the partially\-compiled program, usually held in memory.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/Y28\-6800\-1\_PL1(F)\_PLM\_Sep66\.pdf\|title\=IBM System/360 Operating System PL/I (F) Compiler Program Logic Manual\|id\=Y28\-6800\-1\|date\=December 1966\|publisher\=IBM\|at\=SECTION 2: COMPILER PHASES}} Aspects of the language were still being designed as PL/I F was implemented, so some were omitted until later releases. PL/I RECORD I/O was shipped with PL/I F Release 2\. The [list processing](/wiki/List_processing "List processing") functionsThese were designed in 1966 for an early Optimizing compiler, written in PL/I and to be bootstrapped starting with the PL/I F compiler{{snd}} Based Variables, Pointers, Areas and Offsets and [LOCATE\-mode I/O](/wiki/LOCATE-mode_I/O "LOCATE-mode I/O"){{snd}} were first shipped in Release 4\. In a major attempt to speed up PL/I code to compete with Fortran object code, PL/I F Release 5 does substantial [program optimization](/wiki/Program_optimization "Program optimization") of DO\-loops facilitated by the REORDER option on procedures. A version of PL/I F was released on the [TSS/360](/wiki/TSS/360 "TSS/360") timesharing operating system for the [System/360 Model 67](/wiki/System/360_Model_67 "System/360 Model 67"), adapted at the IBM Mohansic Lab. The IBM La Gaude Lab in France developed "Language Conversion Programs"There were many delays in shipping these, so a common PL/I joke at the time was that [Gen de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle") forbade La Gaude from shipping them until the [Concorde](/wiki/Concorde "Concorde") had its first flight to convert Fortran, Cobol, and Algol programs to the PL/I F level of PL/I. The PL/I D compiler, using 16 kilobytes of memory, was developed by IBM Germany for the [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 "DOS/360") low end operating system. It implements a subset of the PL/I language requiring all strings and arrays to have fixed extents, thus simplifying the run\-time environment. Reflecting the underlying operating system, it lacks dynamic storage allocation and the *controlled* storage class.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/C28\-8202\-0\_PLIsubsetRM\_1967\.pdf\|title\=IBM System/360 PL/I Subset Reference Manual\|id\=C28\-8202\-0\|date\=1967\|publisher\=IBM}} It was shipped within a year of PL/I F. ### Multics PL/I and derivatives Compilers were implemented by several groups in the early 1960s. The [Multics](/wiki/Multics "Multics") project at [MIT](/wiki/MIT "MIT"), one of the first to develop an operating system in a [high\-level language](/wiki/High-level_programming_language "High-level programming language"), used Early PL/I (EPL), a subset dialect of PL/I, as their implementation language in 1964\. EPL was developed at [Bell Labs](/wiki/Bell_Labs "Bell Labs") and MIT by [Douglas McIlroy](/wiki/Douglas_McIlroy "Douglas McIlroy"), [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28cryptographer%29 "Robert Morris (cryptographer)"), and others. Initially, it was developed using the [TMG](/wiki/TMG_%28language%29 "TMG (language)") compiler\-compiler.{{cite web \|editor\=Tom Van Vleck \|editor\-link\=Tom Van Vleck \|url\=https://multicians.org/pl1\.html\#EPL \|title\=The Choice of PL/I \|website\=Multicians.org}} The influential Multics PL/I compiler{{cite web\|url\=http://www.multicians.org/pl1\-raf.html\|title\=The Multics PL/1 Compiler\|author\=R. A. Frieburghouse\|website\=Multicians.org}} was the source of compiler technology used by a number of manufacturers and software groups. EPL was a system programming language and a dialect of PL/I that had some capabilities absent in the original PL/I. The Honeywell PL/I compiler (for Series 60\) is an implementation of the full ANSI X3J1 standard.{{cite book\|publisher\=\[\[Honeywell]]\|title\=Series 60 (Level 66\)/6000 PL/I Reference Manual\|id\=Order No. DE05\|year\=1976}} ### IBM PL/I optimizing and checkout compilers The PL/I Optimizer and Checkout compilers produced in Hursley support a common level of PL/I language{{cite book\|url\=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/GC33\-0009\-4\_PLI\_Checkout\_And\_Opt\_Compiler\_Lang\_Ref\_Oct76\.pdf\|title\=OS PL/I Checkout and Optimizing Compilers: Language Reference Manual\|id\=GC33\-0009\-04\|date\=October 1976\|publisher\=IBM}} and aimed to replace the PL/I F compiler. The checkout compiler is a rewrite of PL/I F in BSL, IBM's PL/I\-like proprietary implementation language (later [PL/S](/wiki/PL/S "PL/S")). The performance objectives set for the compilers are shown in an IBM presentation to the BCS. The compilers had to produce identical results{{snd}} the Checkout Compiler is used to debug programs that would then be submitted to the Optimizer. Given that the compilers had entirely different designs and were handling the full PL/I language this goal was challenging: it was achieved. IBM introduced new attributes and syntax including {{tt\|BUILTIN}}, case statements ({{tt\|SELECT}}/{{tt\|WHEN}}/{{tt\|OTHERWISE}}), loop controls ({{tt\|ITERATE}} and {{tt\|LEAVE}}) and null argument lists to disambiguate, e.g., `DATE()`. The PL/I optimizing compiler took over from the PL/I F compiler and was IBM's workhorse compiler from the 1970s to the 1990s. Like PL/I F, it is a multiple pass compiler with a 44 kilobyte design point, but it is an entirely new design. Unlike the F compiler, it has to perform compile time evaluation of constant expressions using the run\-time library, reducing the maximum memory for a compiler phase to 28 kilobytes. A second\-time around design, it succeeded in eliminating the annoyances of PL/I F such as cascading diagnostics. It was written in S/360 Macro Assembler by a team, led by Tony Burbridge, most of whom had worked on PL/I F. Macros were defined to automate common compiler services and to shield the compiler writers from the task of managing real\-mode storage, allowing the compiler to be moved easily to other memory models. The gamut of program optimization techniques developed for the contemporary IBM Fortran H compiler were deployed: the Optimizer equaled Fortran execution speeds in the hands of good programmers. Announced with IBM S/370 in 1970, it shipped first for the [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 "DOS/360") operating system in August 1971, and shortly afterward for OS/360, and the first virtual memory IBM operating systems [OS/VS1](/wiki/OS/VS1 "OS/VS1"), [MVS](/wiki/MVS "MVS"), and [VM/CMS](/wiki/VM/CMS "VM/CMS"). (The developers were unaware that while they were shoehorning the code into 28 kb sections, IBM Poughkeepsie was finally ready to ship virtual memory support in OS/360\). It supported the batch programming environments and, under TSO and CMS, it could be run interactively. This compiler went through many versions covering all mainframe operating systems including the operating systems of the Japanese [plug\-compatible machines](/wiki/Plug_compatible "Plug compatible") (PCMs). The compiler has been superseded by "IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS" below. The PL/I checkout compiler,{{cite journal\|title\=A Conversational Compiler for Full PL/I\|author\=R. N. Cuff\|journal\=\[\[The Computer Journal]]\|date\=May 1972\|volume\=15\|issue\=2\|pages\=99–104\|doi\=10\.1093/comjnl/15\.2\.99\|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite journal\|title\=The design of a checkout compiler\|author\=B. L. Marks\|journal\=\[\[IBM Systems Journal]]\|volume\=12\|issue\=3\|pages\=315–327\|date\=1973\|doi\=10\.1147/sj.123\.0315}} (colloquially "The Checker") announced in August 1970 was designed to speed and improve the debugging of PL/I programs. The team was led by Brian Marks. The three\-pass design cut the time to compile a program to 25% of that taken by the F Compiler. It can be run from an interactive terminal, converting PL/I programs into an internal format, "H\-text". This format is interpreted by the Checkout compiler at run\-time, detecting virtually all types of errors. Pointers are represented in 16 bytes, containing the target address and a description of the referenced item, thus permitting "bad" pointer use to be diagnosed. In a conversational environment when an error is detected, control is passed to the user who can inspect any variables, introduce debugging statements and edit the source program. Over time the debugging capability of mainframe programming environments developed most of the functions offered by this compiler and it was withdrawn (in the 1990s?) ### DEC PL/I Perhaps the most commercially successful implementation aside from IBM's was Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX\-11 PL/I, later known as VAX PL/I, then DEC PL/I. The implementation is "a strict superset of the ANSI X3\.4\-1981 PL/I General Purpose Subset and provides most of the features of the new ANSI X3\.74\-1987 PL/I General Purpose Subset", and was first released in 1980\.{{cite web\|url\=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/vax/lang/pl1/AE\-J971B\-TE\_VAX\-11\_PLI\_1\.0\_SPD\_198010\.pdf\|title\=VAX\-11 PL/I, Version 1\.0\|date\=October 1980\|publisher\=Digital\|access\-date\=2023\-10\-31}}*Uniprise PL/I for UNIX Reference Manual,* Uniprise Systems, Inc., Irvine, California, 1995, p. xxi. It originally used a compiler backend named the VAX Code Generator (VCG) created by a team led by [Dave Cutler](/wiki/Dave_Cutler "Dave Cutler").{{cite newsgroup\|url\=http://compgroups.net/comp.os.vms/re\-dave\-cutler\-and\-vms\-2/514577\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614015421/https://compgroups.net/comp.os.vms/re\-dave\-cutler\-and\-vms\-2/514577\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=June 14, 2021\|title\=RE: Dave Cutler and VMS \#2\|date\=2004\-05\-21\|author\=Tom Linden\|newsgroup\=comp.os.vms\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26}} The front end was designed by Robert Freiburghouse, and was ported to [VAX/VMS](/wiki/VAX/VMS "VAX/VMS") from [Multics](/wiki/Multics "Multics").{{cite interview \|last\=Cutler\|first\=Dave\|subject\-link\=Dave Cutler\|interviewer\=Grant Saviers\|title\=Dave Cutler Oral History\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=29RkHH\-psrY \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/29RkHH\-psrY\| archive\-date\=2021\-12\-11 \|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=Computer History Museum\|date\=2016\-02\-25\|website\=youtube.com\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26}}{{cbignore}} It runs on VMS on [VAX](/wiki/VAX "VAX") and [Alpha](/wiki/DEC_Alpha "DEC Alpha"), and on [Tru64](/wiki/Tru64 "Tru64"). During the 1990s, Digital sold the compiler to [UniPrise Systems](/wiki/UniPrise_Systems "UniPrise Systems"), who later sold it to a company named Kednos.{{cite newsgroup\|url\=https://comp.answers.narkive.com/t33zEl7i/pl\-i\-frequently\-asked\-questions\-faq\|title\=PL/I Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\|author\=Robin Vowels\|date\=2010\-04\-01\|newsgroup\=comp.answers}} Kednos marketed the compiler as Kednos PL/I until October 2016 when the company ceased trading.{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314190741/https://www.kednos.com/\|archive\-date\=2021\-03\-14\|url\=https://www.kednos.com/\|title\=Kednos PL/I for OpenVMS and Tru64\|date\=2016\-11\-02\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-30\|website\=kednos.com}} ### Teaching subset compilers In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many US and Canadian universities were establishing time\-sharing services on campus and needed conversational compiler/interpreters for use in teaching science, mathematics, engineering, and computer science. [Dartmouth](/wiki/Dartmouth_College "Dartmouth College") was developing [BASIC](/wiki/BASIC "BASIC"), but PL/I was a popular choice, as it was concise and easy to teach. As the IBM offerings were unsuitable,{{cite web\|url\=http://plg.uwaterloo.ca/\~holt/papers/fatal\_disease.html\|title\=Teaching the Fatal Disease (or) Introductory Computer Programming Using PL/I\|author\=Richard C. Holt\|date\=November 5, 1972\|access\-date\=May 30, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415025435/http://plg.uwaterloo.ca/\~holt/papers/fatal\_disease.html\|archive\-date\=April 15, 2011\|url\-status\=live}} a number of schools built their own subsets of PL/I and their own interactive support. Examples are: In the 1960s and early 1970s, [Allen\-Babcock](/wiki/Allen-Babcock "Allen-Babcock") implemented the Remote Users of Shared Hardware (RUSH) time sharing system for an [IBM System/360 Model 50](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_50 "IBM System/360 Model 50") with custom [microcode](/wiki/Microcode "Microcode") and subsequently implemented IBM's **[CPS](/wiki/Conversational_Programming_System "Conversational Programming System")**, an interactive time\-sharing system for [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360 "OS/360") aimed at teaching computer science basics, offered a limited subset of the PL/I language in addition to BASIC and a remote job entry facility. **[PL/C](/wiki/PL/C "PL/C")**, a dialect for teaching, a compiler developed at [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University"), had the unusual capability of never failing to compile any program through the use of extensive automatic correction of many syntax errors and by converting any remaining syntax errors to output statements. The language was almost all of PL/I as implemented by IBM.Department of Computer Science, *User's Guide to PL/C \- The Cornell Compiler for PL/I,* Cornell University, Ithaca, 1977\. PL/C was a very fast compiler. **{{visible anchor\|SL/1}}** (Student Language/1, Student Language/One or Subset Language/1\){{cite web \|url\=http://teampli.net/plifamily.html\#sli \|title\=SL/1 (Student Language/One)}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bobspixels.com/kaibab.org/bob/ibm1130\.htm \|title\=The IBM 1130 \|website\=BobsPixels.com}} was a PL/I subset, initially available late 1960s, that ran interpretively on the [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 "IBM 1130"); instructional use was its strong point. **PLAGO**, created at the [Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn](/wiki/Polytechnic_Institute_of_Brooklyn "Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn"), used a simplified subset of the PL/I language*PLAGO/360 User's Manual,* Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. and focused on good diagnostic error messages and fast compilation times. The Computer Systems Research Group of the University of Toronto produced the **[SP/k](/wiki/SP/k "SP/k")** compilers which supported a sequence of subsets of PL/I called SP/1, SP/2, SP/3, ..., SP/8 for teaching programming. Programs that ran without errors under the SP/k compilers produced the same results under other contemporary PL/I compilers such as IBM's PL/I F compiler, IBM's checkout compiler or Cornell University's PL/C compiler.J. N. P. Hume and R. C. Holt, *Structured Programming using PL/I and SP/k,* Reston, Reston, 1975\. Other examples are **PL0** by P. Grouse at the University of New South Wales, **PLUM** by [Marvin Victor Zelkowitz](/wiki/Marvin_Victor_Zelkowitz "Marvin Victor Zelkowitz") at the University of Maryland.,[Marvin Victor Zelkowitz](/wiki/Marvin_Victor_Zelkowitz "Marvin Victor Zelkowitz"), *PL/I Programming with PLUM,* 2nd Ed., Paladin House, Geneva (Ill.), 1978\. and **PLUTO** from the University of Toronto. ### IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS In a major revamp of PL/I, IBM Santa Teresa in California launched an entirely new compiler in 1992\. The initial shipment was for OS/2 and included most ANSI\-G features and many new PL/I features.{{cite journal\|title\=PL/I for OS/2\|author\=Robin A. Vowels\|journal\=ACM SIGPLAN Notices\|volume\=31\|issue\=3\|date\=March 1996\|pages\=22–27\|doi\=10\.1145/227717\.227724\|publisher\=\[\[Association for Computing Machinery]]\|s2cid\=24441291\|doi\-access\=free}} Subsequent releases provided additional platforms ([MVS](/wiki/MVS "MVS"), [VM](/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29 "VM (operating system)"), [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 "OS/390"), [AIX](/wiki/IBM_AIX "IBM AIX") and [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows")), but as of 2021, the only supported platforms are [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS "Z/OS") and AIX.{{cite web \|title\=IBM PL/I Compiler Family \|website\=\[\[IBM]] \|url\=https://www.ibm.com/products/pli\-compiler\-family \|access\-date\=5 July 2021}} IBM continued to add functions to make PL/I fully competitive with other languages (particularly C and C\+\+) in areas where it had been overtaken. The corresponding "IBM Language Environment" supports inter\-operation of PL/I programs with Database and Transaction systems, and with programs written in C, C\+\+, and COBOL, the compiler supports all the data types needed for intercommunication with these languages. The PL/I design principles were retained and withstood this major extension, comprising several new data types, new statements and statement options, new exception conditions, and new organisations of program source. The resulting language is a compatible super\-set of the PL/I Standard and of the earlier IBM compilers. Major topics added to PL/I were: * New attributes for better support of user\-defined data types – the `DEFINE ALIAS`, `ORDINAL`, and `DEFINE STRUCTURE` statement to introduce user\-defined types, the `HANDLE` locator data type, the `TYPE` data type itself, the `UNION` data type, and built\-in functions for manipulating the new types. * Additional data types and attributes corresponding to common PC data types (e.g. `UNSIGNED`, `VARYINGZ`). * Improvements in readability of programs – often rendering implied usages explicit (e.g. `BYVALUE` attribute for parameters) * Additional structured programming constructs. * Interrupt handling additions. * Compile time preprocessor extended to offer almost all PL/I string handling features and to interface with the Application Development Environment The latest series of PL/I compilers for z/OS, called Enterprise PL/I for z/OS, leverage code generation for the latest z/Architecture processors (z14, z13, zEC12, zBC12, z196, z114\) via the use of ARCHLVL parm control passed during compilation, and was the second High level language supported by z/OS Language Environment to do so (XL C/C\+\+ being the first, and Enterprise COBOL v5 the last.) #### Data types {{tt\|ORDINAL}} is a new computational data type. The ordinal facilities are like those in [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 "Pascal (programming language)"), e.g. {{code\|DEFINE ORDINAL Colour (red, yellow, green, blue, violet);}} but in addition the name and internal values are accessible via built\-in functions. Built\-in functions provide access to an ordinal value's predecessor and successor. The {{tt\|DEFINE}}\-statement (see below) allows additional {{tt\|TYPE}}s to be declared composed from PL/I's built\-in attributes. The `HANDLE(data structure)` locator data type is similar to the {{tt\|POINTER}} data type, but strongly typed to bind only to a particular data structure. The `=>` operator is used to select a data structure using a handle. The {{tt\|UNION}} attribute (equivalent to {{tt\|CELL}} in early PL/I specifications) permits several scalar variables, arrays, or structures to share the same storage in a unit that occupies the amount of storage needed for the largest alternative. #### Competitiveness on PC and with C These attributes were added: * The string attributes `VARYINGZ` (for zero\-terminated character strings), `HEXADEC`, `WIDECHAR`, and `GRAPHIC`. * The optional arithmetic attributes `UNSIGNED` and `SIGNED`, `BIGENDIAN` and `LITTLEENDIAN`. `UNSIGNED` necessitated the `UPTHRU` and `DOWNTHRU` option on iterative groups enabling a counter\-controlled loop to be executed without exceeding the limit value (also essential for `ORDINAL`s and good for documenting loops). * The `DATE(pattern)` attribute for controlling date representations and additions to bring time and date to best current practice. New functions for manipulating dates include{{snd}} `DAYS` and `DAYSTODATE` for converting between dates and number of days, and a general `DATETIME` function for changing date formats. New string\-handling functions were added{{snd}} to centre text, to edit using a picture format, and to trim blanks or selected characters from the head or tail of text, `VERIFYR` to `VERIFY` from the right. and `SEARCH` and `TALLY` functions. Compound assignment operators a la C e.g. `+=`, `&=`, `-=`, `||=` were added. `A+=1` is equivalent to `A=A+1`. Additional parameter [descriptors](/wiki/Data_descriptor "Data descriptor") and attributes were added for omitted arguments and variable length argument lists. #### Program readability – making intentions explicit The {{tt\|VALUE}} attribute declares an identifier as a constant (derived from a specific literal value or restricted expression). Parameters can have the {{tt\|BYADDR}} (pass by address) or {{tt\|BYVALUE}} (pass by value) attributes. The {{tt\|ASSIGNABLE}} and {{tt\|NONASSIGNABLE}} attributes prevent unintended assignments. `DO FOREVER;` obviates the need for the contrived construct {{code\|DO WHILE ( '1'B );\|rexx}}. The {{tt\|DEFINE}}\-statement introduces user\-specified names (e.g. {{tt\|INTEGER}}) for combinations of built\-in attributes (e.g. `FIXED BINARY(31,0)`). Thus `DEFINE ALIAS INTEGER FIXED BINARY(31.0)` creates the {{tt\|TYPE}} name {{tt\|INTEGER}} as an alias for the set of built\-in attributes FIXED BINARY(31\.0\). `DEFINE STRUCTURE` applies to structures and their members; it provides a {{tt\|TYPE}} name for a set of structure attributes and corresponding substructure member declarations for use in a structure declaration (a generalisation of the {{tt\|LIKE}} attribute). #### Structured programming additions A {{tt\|LEAVE}} statement to exit a loop, and an {{tt\|ITERATE}} to continue with the next iteration of a loop. {{tt\|UPTHRU}} and {{tt\|DOWNTHRU}} options on iterative groups. The package construct consisting of a set of procedures and declarations for use as a unit. Variables declared outside of the procedures are local to the package, and can use {{tt\|STATIC}}, {{tt\|BASED}} or {{tt\|CONTROLLED}} storage. Procedure names used in the package also are local, but can be made external by means of the {{tt\|EXPORTS}} option of the {{tt\|PACKAGE}}\-statement. #### Interrupt handling The {{tt\|RESIGNAL}}\-statement executed in an ON\-unit terminates execution of the ON\-unit, and raises the condition again in the procedure that called the current one (thus passing control to the corresponding ON\-unit for that procedure). The {{tt\|INVALIDOP}} condition handles invalid operation codes detected by the PC processor, as well as illegal arithmetic operations such as subtraction of two infinite values. The {{tt\|ANYCONDITION}} condition is provided to intercept conditions for which no specific ON\-unit has been provided in the current procedure. The {{tt\|STORAGE}} condition is raised when an {{tt\|ALLOCATE}} statement is unable to obtain sufficient storage. ### Other mainframe and minicomputer compilers A number of vendors produced compilers to compete with IBM PL/I F or Optimizing compiler on mainframes and minicomputers in the 1970s. In the 1980s the target was usually the emerging ANSI\-G subset. * In 1974 [Burroughs Corporation](/wiki/Burroughs_Corporation "Burroughs Corporation") announced PL/I for the B6700 and B7700\.Burroughs Corporation, *B 6700/B 7700: PL/I Language Reference Manual,* Reference 5001530, Detroit, 1977\. * [UNIVAC](/wiki/UNIVAC "UNIVAC") released a UNIVAC PL/I,Sperry\-Univac Computer Systems, *SPERRY UNIVAC 1100 Series PL/I Programmer Reference,* Reference UP\-8277, 1976\. and in the 1970s also used a variant of PL/I, PL/I PLUS, for system programming. * From 1978 [Data General](/wiki/Data_General "Data General") provided PL/I on its [Eclipse](/wiki/Data_General_Eclipse "Data General Eclipse") and [Eclipse MV](/wiki/Data_General_Eclipse "Data General Eclipse") platforms running the [AOS](/wiki/Data_General_AOS "Data General AOS"), [AOS/VS](/wiki/AOS/VS "AOS/VS") \& [AOS/VS II](/wiki/AOS/VS_II "AOS/VS II") operating systems.Data General Corporation, *AOS PL/I Reference Manual,* Order No. 093\-000204, c. 1978\. A number of operating system utility programs were written in the language. * Paul Abrahams of NYU's Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences wrote CIMS PL/I in 1972 in PL/I, bootstrapping via PL/I F. It supported "about 70%" of PL/I compiling to the CDC 6600{{cite conference\|title\=The CIMS PL/I compiler\|author\=Paul W. Abrahams\|conference\=1979 SIGPLAN symposium on Compiler construction\|pages\=107–116\|doi\=10\.1145/800229\.806960\|isbn\=0\-89791\-002\-8\|doi\-access\=free}} * [CDC](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation "Control Data Corporation") delivered an optimizing subset PL/I compiler for Cyber 70, 170 and 6000 series.Control Data Corporation, *PL/I Reference Manual,* 1978, Publication No. 60388100A. * Fujitsu delivered a PL/I compiler equivalent to the PL/I Optimizer. * Stratus Technologies PL/I is an ANSI G implementation for the [VOS](/wiki/Stratus_VOS "Stratus VOS") operating system.{{cite book\|title\=OpenVOS PL/I Language Manual (R009\)\|publisher\=\[\[Stratus Computer\|Stratus Computer, Inc.]]\|location\=\[\[Marlboro, Massachusetts]]\|year\=1995\|url\=http://stratadoc.stratus.com/vos/19\.0\.0/r009\-05/index.html?context\=r009\-05\&file\=ch1r009\-05\.html\|at\=OpenVOS PL/I}} * [IBM Series/1](/wiki/IBM_Series/1 "IBM Series/1") PL/I{{cite book \| title \= IBM Series/1 PL/I Introduction Program Numbers 5719\-PL1 5719\-PL3 \| id \= GC34\-0084\-0 \| date \= February 1977 \| edition \= First \| url \= http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/series1/GC34\-0084\-0\_PL\_I\_Introduction\_Feb77\.pdf \| publisher \= IBM }} {{cite book \| title \= IBM Series/1 PL/I: Language Reference Manual \| id \= GC34\-0085\-0 \| publisher \= IBM }} is an extended subset of ANSI Programming Language PL/I (ANSI X3\.53\-1976\) for the IBM Series/1 Realtime Programming System. ### PL/I compilers for Microsoft .NET * In 2011, Raincode designed a full legacy compiler for the [Microsoft .NET](/wiki/Microsoft_.NET "Microsoft .NET") and [.NET Core](/wiki/.NET_Core ".NET Core") platforms, named The Raincode PL/I compiler. ### PL/I compilers for personal computers and Unix * {{anchor\|PL/I\-80\|PL/I\-86}}In the 1970s and 1980s [Digital Research](/wiki/Digital_Research "Digital Research") sold a PL/I compiler for [CP/M](/wiki/CP/M "CP/M") (PL/I\-80\), [CP/M\-86](/wiki/CP/M-86 "CP/M-86") (PL/I\-86\) and Personal Computers with [DOS](/wiki/DOS "DOS").{{cite magazine\|title\=The Norton chronicles\|author\=Peter Norton\|author\-link\=Peter Norton\|magazine\=\[\[PC Magazine]]\|date\=May 15, 1984\|url\=http://members.dodo.com.au/\~robin51/norton.htm\|access\-date\=January 25, 2010\|archive\-date\=July 6, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706103943/http://members.dodo.com.au/\~robin51/norton.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} It was based on Subset G of PL/I and was written in [PL/M](/wiki/PL/M "PL/M"). * [Micro Focus](/wiki/Micro_Focus "Micro Focus") implemented Open PL/I for Windows{{cite web\|url\=https://www.microfocus.com/media/brochure/whats\-new\-in\-studio\-and\-server\_tcm6\-8231\.pdf\|title\=What's New in Studio and Server Enterprise Edition 6\.0 Service Pack 2 \- Wrap Pack 1\|page\=1\|website\=\[\[Micro Focus]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025457/https://www.microfocus.com/media/brochure/whats\-new\-in\-studio\-and\-server\_tcm6\-8231\.pdf\|archive\-date\=November 7, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} and UNIX/Linux systems,{{cite web\|url\=http://documentation.microfocus.com/help/topic/com.microfocus.eclipse.infocenter.studee60ux/GUID\-D3FC9AD2\-25B7\-47E6\-8011\-B67644AE987D.html?cp\=3\_15\_0\_2\_0\_0\_0\|title\=Enterprise \> Micro Focus Studio Enterprise Edition for UNIX \> Welcome \> Product Information \> Installing Studio Enterprise Edition for UNIX \> System Requirements\|website\=Micro Focus\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014253/http://documentation.microfocus.com/help/topic/com.microfocus.eclipse.infocenter.studee60ux/GUID\-D3FC9AD2\-25B7\-47E6\-8011\-B67644AE987D.html?cp\=3\_15\_0\_2\_0\_0\_0\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-07\|url\-status\=dead}} which they acquired from Liant. * IBM delivered PL/I for [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 "OS/2") in 1994, and PL/I for AIX in 1995\.{{cite web \|title\=IBM PL/I Set for AIX Version 1 \| date\=19 September 1995 \|url\=https://www\-01\.ibm.com/common/ssi/ShowDoc.wss?docURL\=/common/ssi/rep\_ca/4/897/ENUS295\-394/index.html⟨\=en\&request\_locale\=en \|access\-date\=13 May 2019}} * Iron Spring PL/I for [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 "OS/2") and later [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux") was introduced in 2007\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.iron\-spring.com/prog\_guide.html\|title\=Iron Spring PL/I Compiler \- Programming Guide\|date\=2020\-09\-15\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=ironspring.com}}
[ "Implementations\n---------------", "### IBM PL/I F and D compilers", "PL/I was first implemented by IBM, at its [Hursley Laboratories](/wiki/Hursley_Laboratories \"Hursley Laboratories\") in the United Kingdom, as part of the development of [System/360](/wiki/System/360 \"System/360\"). The first production PL/I [compiler](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\") was the PL/I F compiler for the [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360 \"OS/360\") Operating System, built by John Nash's team at Hursley in the UK: the runtime library team was managed by I.M. (Nobby) Clarke. The PL/I F compiler was written entirely in System/360 assembly language.{{cite web\\|last\\=Krasun\\|first\\=Andy\\|title\\=The first 35\\+ years of Hursley software 1958\\-1993 with some hardware asides, a personal account\\|url\\=https://apsg.bcs.org/materials/presentations/20061026krasun.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2020}} Release 1 shipped in 1966\\. OS/360 is a real\\-memory environment and the compiler was designed for systems with as little as 64 kilobytes of real storage – F being 64 kB in S/360 parlance. To fit a large compiler into the 44 kilobytes of memory available on a 64\\-kilobyte machine, the compiler consists of a control phase and a large number of compiler phases (approaching 100\\). The phases are brought into memory from disk, one at a time, to handle particular language features and aspects of compilation. Each phase makes a single pass over the partially\\-compiled program, usually held in memory.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/Y28\\-6800\\-1\\_PL1(F)\\_PLM\\_Sep66\\.pdf\\|title\\=IBM System/360 Operating System PL/I (F) Compiler Program Logic Manual\\|id\\=Y28\\-6800\\-1\\|date\\=December 1966\\|publisher\\=IBM\\|at\\=SECTION 2: COMPILER PHASES}}", "Aspects of the language were still being designed as PL/I F was implemented, so some were omitted until later releases. PL/I RECORD I/O was shipped with PL/I F Release 2\\. The [list processing](/wiki/List_processing \"List processing\") functionsThese were designed in 1966 for an early Optimizing compiler, written in PL/I and to be bootstrapped starting with the PL/I F compiler{{snd}} Based Variables, Pointers, Areas and Offsets and [LOCATE\\-mode I/O](/wiki/LOCATE-mode_I/O \"LOCATE-mode I/O\"){{snd}} were first shipped in Release 4\\. In a major attempt to speed up PL/I code to compete with Fortran object code, PL/I F Release 5 does substantial [program optimization](/wiki/Program_optimization \"Program optimization\") of DO\\-loops facilitated by the REORDER option on procedures.", "A version of PL/I F was released on the [TSS/360](/wiki/TSS/360 \"TSS/360\") timesharing operating system for the [System/360 Model 67](/wiki/System/360_Model_67 \"System/360 Model 67\"), adapted at the IBM Mohansic Lab. The IBM La Gaude Lab in France developed \"Language Conversion Programs\"There were many delays in shipping these, so a common PL/I joke at the time was that [Gen de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\") forbade La Gaude from shipping them until the [Concorde](/wiki/Concorde \"Concorde\") had its first flight to convert Fortran, Cobol, and Algol programs to the PL/I F level of PL/I.", "The PL/I D compiler, using 16 kilobytes of memory, was developed by IBM Germany for the [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 \"DOS/360\") low end operating system. It implements a subset of the PL/I language requiring all strings and arrays to have fixed extents, thus simplifying the run\\-time environment. Reflecting the underlying operating system, it lacks dynamic storage allocation and the *controlled* storage class.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/C28\\-8202\\-0\\_PLIsubsetRM\\_1967\\.pdf\\|title\\=IBM System/360 PL/I Subset Reference Manual\\|id\\=C28\\-8202\\-0\\|date\\=1967\\|publisher\\=IBM}} It was shipped within a year of PL/I F.", "### Multics PL/I and derivatives", "Compilers were implemented by several groups in the early 1960s. The [Multics](/wiki/Multics \"Multics\") project at [MIT](/wiki/MIT \"MIT\"), one of the first to develop an operating system in a [high\\-level language](/wiki/High-level_programming_language \"High-level programming language\"), used Early PL/I (EPL), a subset dialect of PL/I, as their implementation language in 1964\\. EPL was developed at [Bell Labs](/wiki/Bell_Labs \"Bell Labs\") and MIT by [Douglas McIlroy](/wiki/Douglas_McIlroy \"Douglas McIlroy\"), [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28cryptographer%29 \"Robert Morris (cryptographer)\"), and others. Initially, it was developed using the [TMG](/wiki/TMG_%28language%29 \"TMG (language)\") compiler\\-compiler.{{cite web \\|editor\\=Tom Van Vleck \\|editor\\-link\\=Tom Van Vleck \\|url\\=https://multicians.org/pl1\\.html\\#EPL \\|title\\=The Choice of PL/I \\|website\\=Multicians.org}} The influential Multics PL/I compiler{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.multicians.org/pl1\\-raf.html\\|title\\=The Multics PL/1 Compiler\\|author\\=R. A. Frieburghouse\\|website\\=Multicians.org}} was the source of compiler technology used by a number of manufacturers and software groups. EPL was a system programming language and a dialect of PL/I that had some capabilities absent in the original PL/I.", "The Honeywell PL/I compiler (for Series 60\\) is an implementation of the full ANSI X3J1 standard.{{cite book\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Honeywell]]\\|title\\=Series 60 (Level 66\\)/6000 PL/I Reference Manual\\|id\\=Order No. DE05\\|year\\=1976}}", "### IBM PL/I optimizing and checkout compilers", "The PL/I Optimizer and Checkout compilers produced in Hursley support a common level of PL/I language{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/GC33\\-0009\\-4\\_PLI\\_Checkout\\_And\\_Opt\\_Compiler\\_Lang\\_Ref\\_Oct76\\.pdf\\|title\\=OS PL/I Checkout and Optimizing Compilers: Language Reference Manual\\|id\\=GC33\\-0009\\-04\\|date\\=October 1976\\|publisher\\=IBM}} and aimed to replace the PL/I F compiler. The checkout compiler is a rewrite of PL/I F in BSL, IBM's PL/I\\-like proprietary implementation language (later [PL/S](/wiki/PL/S \"PL/S\")). The performance objectives set for the compilers are shown in an IBM presentation to the BCS. The compilers had to produce identical results{{snd}} the Checkout Compiler is used to debug programs that would then be submitted to the Optimizer. Given that the compilers had entirely different designs and were handling the full PL/I language this goal was challenging: it was achieved.", "IBM introduced new attributes and syntax including {{tt\\|BUILTIN}}, case statements ({{tt\\|SELECT}}/{{tt\\|WHEN}}/{{tt\\|OTHERWISE}}), loop controls ({{tt\\|ITERATE}} and {{tt\\|LEAVE}}) and null argument lists to disambiguate, e.g., `DATE()`.", "The PL/I optimizing compiler took over from the PL/I F compiler and was IBM's workhorse compiler from the 1970s to the 1990s. Like PL/I F, it is a multiple pass compiler with a 44 kilobyte design point, but it is an entirely new design. Unlike the F compiler, it has to perform compile time evaluation of constant expressions using the run\\-time library, reducing the maximum memory for a compiler phase to 28 kilobytes. A second\\-time around design, it succeeded in eliminating the annoyances of PL/I F such as cascading diagnostics. It was written in S/360 Macro Assembler by a team, led by Tony Burbridge, most of whom had worked on PL/I F. Macros were defined to automate common compiler services and to shield the compiler writers from the task of managing real\\-mode storage, allowing the compiler to be moved easily to other memory models. The gamut of program optimization techniques developed for the contemporary IBM Fortran H compiler were deployed: the Optimizer equaled Fortran execution speeds in the hands of good programmers. Announced with IBM S/370 in 1970, it shipped first for the [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 \"DOS/360\") operating system in August 1971, and shortly afterward for OS/360, and the first virtual memory IBM operating systems [OS/VS1](/wiki/OS/VS1 \"OS/VS1\"), [MVS](/wiki/MVS \"MVS\"), and [VM/CMS](/wiki/VM/CMS \"VM/CMS\"). (The developers were unaware that while they were shoehorning the code into 28 kb sections, IBM Poughkeepsie was finally ready to ship virtual memory support in OS/360\\). It supported the batch programming environments and, under TSO and CMS, it could be run interactively. This compiler went through many versions covering all mainframe operating systems including the operating systems of the Japanese [plug\\-compatible machines](/wiki/Plug_compatible \"Plug compatible\") (PCMs).", "The compiler has been superseded by \"IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS\" below.", "The PL/I checkout compiler,{{cite journal\\|title\\=A Conversational Compiler for Full PL/I\\|author\\=R. N. Cuff\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Computer Journal]]\\|date\\=May 1972\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=99–104\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/comjnl/15\\.2\\.99\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=The design of a checkout compiler\\|author\\=B. L. Marks\\|journal\\=\\[\\[IBM Systems Journal]]\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=315–327\\|date\\=1973\\|doi\\=10\\.1147/sj.123\\.0315}} (colloquially \"The Checker\") announced in August 1970 was designed to speed and improve the debugging of PL/I programs. The team was led by Brian Marks. The three\\-pass design cut the time to compile a program to 25% of that taken by the F Compiler. It can be run from an interactive terminal, converting PL/I programs into an internal format, \"H\\-text\". This format is interpreted by the Checkout compiler at run\\-time, detecting virtually all types of errors. Pointers are represented in 16 bytes, containing the target address and a description of the referenced item, thus permitting \"bad\" pointer use to be diagnosed. In a conversational environment when an error is detected, control is passed to the user who can inspect any variables, introduce debugging statements and edit the source program. Over time the debugging capability of mainframe programming environments developed most of the functions offered by this compiler and it was withdrawn (in the 1990s?)", "### DEC PL/I", "Perhaps the most commercially successful implementation aside from IBM's was Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX\\-11 PL/I, later known as VAX PL/I, then DEC PL/I. The implementation is \"a strict superset of the ANSI X3\\.4\\-1981 PL/I General Purpose Subset and provides most of the features of the new ANSI X3\\.74\\-1987 PL/I General Purpose Subset\", and was first released in 1980\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/vax/lang/pl1/AE\\-J971B\\-TE\\_VAX\\-11\\_PLI\\_1\\.0\\_SPD\\_198010\\.pdf\\|title\\=VAX\\-11 PL/I, Version 1\\.0\\|date\\=October 1980\\|publisher\\=Digital\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-31}}*Uniprise PL/I for UNIX Reference Manual,* Uniprise Systems, Inc., Irvine, California, 1995, p. xxi. It originally used a compiler backend named the VAX Code Generator (VCG) created by a team led by [Dave Cutler](/wiki/Dave_Cutler \"Dave Cutler\").{{cite newsgroup\\|url\\=http://compgroups.net/comp.os.vms/re\\-dave\\-cutler\\-and\\-vms\\-2/514577\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614015421/https://compgroups.net/comp.os.vms/re\\-dave\\-cutler\\-and\\-vms\\-2/514577\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=June 14, 2021\\|title\\=RE: Dave Cutler and VMS \\#2\\|date\\=2004\\-05\\-21\\|author\\=Tom Linden\\|newsgroup\\=comp.os.vms\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26}} The front end was designed by Robert Freiburghouse, and was ported to [VAX/VMS](/wiki/VAX/VMS \"VAX/VMS\") from [Multics](/wiki/Multics \"Multics\").{{cite interview \\|last\\=Cutler\\|first\\=Dave\\|subject\\-link\\=Dave Cutler\\|interviewer\\=Grant Saviers\\|title\\=Dave Cutler Oral History\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=29RkHH\\-psrY \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/29RkHH\\-psrY\\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=Computer History Museum\\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-25\\|website\\=youtube.com\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26}}{{cbignore}} It runs on VMS on [VAX](/wiki/VAX \"VAX\") and [Alpha](/wiki/DEC_Alpha \"DEC Alpha\"), and on [Tru64](/wiki/Tru64 \"Tru64\"). During the 1990s, Digital sold the compiler to [UniPrise Systems](/wiki/UniPrise_Systems \"UniPrise Systems\"), who later sold it to a company named Kednos.{{cite newsgroup\\|url\\=https://comp.answers.narkive.com/t33zEl7i/pl\\-i\\-frequently\\-asked\\-questions\\-faq\\|title\\=PL/I Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\\|author\\=Robin Vowels\\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-01\\|newsgroup\\=comp.answers}} Kednos marketed the compiler as Kednos PL/I until October 2016 when the company ceased trading.{{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314190741/https://www.kednos.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-14\\|url\\=https://www.kednos.com/\\|title\\=Kednos PL/I for OpenVMS and Tru64\\|date\\=2016\\-11\\-02\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-30\\|website\\=kednos.com}}", "### Teaching subset compilers", "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many US and Canadian universities were establishing time\\-sharing services on campus and needed conversational compiler/interpreters for use in teaching science, mathematics, engineering, and computer science. [Dartmouth](/wiki/Dartmouth_College \"Dartmouth College\") was developing [BASIC](/wiki/BASIC \"BASIC\"), but PL/I was a popular choice, as it was concise and easy to teach. As the IBM offerings were unsuitable,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://plg.uwaterloo.ca/\\~holt/papers/fatal\\_disease.html\\|title\\=Teaching the Fatal Disease (or) Introductory Computer Programming Using PL/I\\|author\\=Richard C. Holt\\|date\\=November 5, 1972\\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415025435/http://plg.uwaterloo.ca/\\~holt/papers/fatal\\_disease.html\\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live}} a number of schools built their own subsets of PL/I and their own interactive support. Examples are:", "In the 1960s and early 1970s, [Allen\\-Babcock](/wiki/Allen-Babcock \"Allen-Babcock\") implemented the Remote Users of Shared Hardware (RUSH) time sharing system for an [IBM System/360 Model 50](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_50 \"IBM System/360 Model 50\") with custom [microcode](/wiki/Microcode \"Microcode\") and subsequently implemented IBM's **[CPS](/wiki/Conversational_Programming_System \"Conversational Programming System\")**, an interactive time\\-sharing system for [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360 \"OS/360\") aimed at teaching computer science basics, offered a limited subset of the PL/I language in addition to BASIC and a remote job entry facility.", "**[PL/C](/wiki/PL/C \"PL/C\")**, a dialect for teaching, a compiler developed at [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\"), had the unusual capability of never failing to compile any program through the use of extensive automatic correction of many syntax errors and by converting any remaining syntax errors to output statements. The language was almost all of PL/I as implemented by IBM.Department of Computer Science, *User's Guide to PL/C \\- The Cornell Compiler for PL/I,* Cornell University, Ithaca, 1977\\. PL/C was a very fast compiler.", "**{{visible anchor\\|SL/1}}** (Student Language/1, Student Language/One or Subset Language/1\\){{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://teampli.net/plifamily.html\\#sli\n \\|title\\=SL/1 (Student Language/One)}}{{cite web \n\\|url\\=http://www.bobspixels.com/kaibab.org/bob/ibm1130\\.htm \n\\|title\\=The IBM 1130 \\|website\\=BobsPixels.com}} was a PL/I subset, initially available late 1960s, that ran interpretively on the [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"); instructional use was its strong point.", "**PLAGO**, created at the [Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn](/wiki/Polytechnic_Institute_of_Brooklyn \"Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn\"), used a simplified subset of the PL/I language*PLAGO/360 User's Manual,* Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. and focused on good diagnostic error messages and fast compilation times.", "The Computer Systems Research Group of the University of Toronto produced the **[SP/k](/wiki/SP/k \"SP/k\")** compilers which supported a sequence of subsets of PL/I called SP/1, SP/2, SP/3, ..., SP/8 for teaching programming. Programs that ran without errors under the SP/k compilers produced the same results under other contemporary PL/I compilers such as IBM's PL/I F compiler, IBM's checkout compiler or Cornell University's PL/C compiler.J. N. P. Hume and R. C. Holt, *Structured Programming using PL/I and SP/k,* Reston, Reston, 1975\\.", "Other examples are **PL0** by P. Grouse at the University of New South Wales, **PLUM** by [Marvin Victor Zelkowitz](/wiki/Marvin_Victor_Zelkowitz \"Marvin Victor Zelkowitz\") at the University of Maryland.,[Marvin Victor Zelkowitz](/wiki/Marvin_Victor_Zelkowitz \"Marvin Victor Zelkowitz\"), *PL/I Programming with PLUM,* 2nd Ed., Paladin House, Geneva (Ill.), 1978\\. and **PLUTO** from the University of Toronto.", "### IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS", "In a major revamp of PL/I, IBM Santa Teresa in California launched an entirely new compiler in 1992\\. The initial shipment was for OS/2 and included most ANSI\\-G features and many new PL/I features.{{cite journal\\|title\\=PL/I for OS/2\\|author\\=Robin A. Vowels\\|journal\\=ACM SIGPLAN Notices\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=3\\|date\\=March 1996\\|pages\\=22–27\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/227717\\.227724\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Association for Computing Machinery]]\\|s2cid\\=24441291\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Subsequent releases provided additional platforms ([MVS](/wiki/MVS \"MVS\"), [VM](/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29 \"VM (operating system)\"), [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 \"OS/390\"), [AIX](/wiki/IBM_AIX \"IBM AIX\") and [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\")), but as of 2021, the only supported platforms are [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS \"Z/OS\") and AIX.{{cite web \\|title\\=IBM PL/I Compiler Family \\|website\\=\\[\\[IBM]] \\|url\\=https://www.ibm.com/products/pli\\-compiler\\-family \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2021}} IBM continued to add functions to make PL/I fully competitive with other languages (particularly C and C\\+\\+) in areas where it had been overtaken. The corresponding \"IBM Language Environment\" supports inter\\-operation of PL/I programs with Database and Transaction systems, and with programs written in C, C\\+\\+, and COBOL, the compiler supports all the data types needed for intercommunication with these languages.", "The PL/I design principles were retained and withstood this major extension, comprising several new data types, new statements and statement options, new exception conditions, and new organisations of program source. The resulting language is a compatible super\\-set of the PL/I Standard and of the earlier IBM compilers. Major topics added to PL/I were:", "* New attributes for better support of user\\-defined data types – the `DEFINE ALIAS`, `ORDINAL`, and `DEFINE STRUCTURE` statement to introduce user\\-defined types, the `HANDLE` locator data type, the `TYPE` data type itself, the `UNION` data type, and built\\-in functions for manipulating the new types.\n* Additional data types and attributes corresponding to common PC data types (e.g. `UNSIGNED`, `VARYINGZ`).\n* Improvements in readability of programs – often rendering implied usages explicit (e.g. `BYVALUE` attribute for parameters)\n* Additional structured programming constructs.\n* Interrupt handling additions.\n* Compile time preprocessor extended to offer almost all PL/I string handling features and to interface with the Application Development Environment", "The latest series of PL/I compilers for z/OS, called Enterprise PL/I for z/OS, leverage code generation for the latest z/Architecture processors (z14, z13, zEC12, zBC12, z196, z114\\) via the use of ARCHLVL parm control passed during compilation, and was the second High level language supported by z/OS Language Environment to do so (XL C/C\\+\\+ being the first, and Enterprise COBOL v5 the last.)", "#### Data types", "{{tt\\|ORDINAL}} is a new computational data type. The ordinal facilities are like those in [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\"),\ne.g. {{code\\|DEFINE ORDINAL Colour (red, yellow, green, blue, violet);}}\nbut in addition the name and internal values are accessible via built\\-in functions. Built\\-in functions provide access to an ordinal value's predecessor and successor.", "The {{tt\\|DEFINE}}\\-statement (see below) allows additional {{tt\\|TYPE}}s to be declared composed from PL/I's built\\-in attributes.", "The `HANDLE(data structure)` locator data type is similar to the {{tt\\|POINTER}} data type, but strongly typed to bind only to a particular data structure. The `=>` operator is used to select a data structure using a handle.", "The {{tt\\|UNION}} attribute (equivalent to {{tt\\|CELL}} in early PL/I specifications) permits several scalar variables, arrays, or structures to share the same storage in a unit that occupies the amount of storage needed for the largest alternative.", "#### Competitiveness on PC and with C", "These attributes were added:", "* The string attributes `VARYINGZ` (for zero\\-terminated character strings), `HEXADEC`, `WIDECHAR`, and `GRAPHIC`.\n* The optional arithmetic attributes `UNSIGNED` and `SIGNED`, `BIGENDIAN` and `LITTLEENDIAN`. `UNSIGNED` necessitated the `UPTHRU` and `DOWNTHRU` option on iterative groups enabling a counter\\-controlled loop to be executed without exceeding the limit value (also essential for `ORDINAL`s and good for documenting loops).\n* The `DATE(pattern)` attribute for controlling date representations and additions to bring time and date to best current practice. New functions for manipulating dates include{{snd}} `DAYS` and `DAYSTODATE` for converting between dates and number of days, and a general `DATETIME` function for changing date formats.\nNew string\\-handling functions were added{{snd}} to centre text, to edit using a picture format, and to trim blanks or selected characters from the head or tail of text, `VERIFYR` to `VERIFY` from the right. and `SEARCH` and `TALLY` functions.", "Compound assignment operators a la C e.g. `+=`, `&=`, `-=`, `||=` were added. `A+=1` is equivalent to `A=A+1`.", "Additional parameter [descriptors](/wiki/Data_descriptor \"Data descriptor\") and attributes were added for omitted arguments and variable length argument lists.", "#### Program readability – making intentions explicit", "The {{tt\\|VALUE}} attribute declares an identifier as a constant (derived from a specific literal value or restricted expression).", "Parameters can have the {{tt\\|BYADDR}} (pass by address) or {{tt\\|BYVALUE}} (pass by value) attributes.", "The {{tt\\|ASSIGNABLE}} and {{tt\\|NONASSIGNABLE}} attributes prevent unintended assignments.", "`DO FOREVER;` obviates the need for the contrived construct {{code\\|DO WHILE ( '1'B );\\|rexx}}.", "The {{tt\\|DEFINE}}\\-statement introduces user\\-specified names (e.g. {{tt\\|INTEGER}}) for combinations of built\\-in attributes (e.g. `FIXED BINARY(31,0)`). Thus `DEFINE ALIAS INTEGER FIXED BINARY(31.0)` creates the {{tt\\|TYPE}} name {{tt\\|INTEGER}} as an alias for the set of built\\-in attributes FIXED BINARY(31\\.0\\). `DEFINE STRUCTURE` applies to structures and their members; it provides a {{tt\\|TYPE}} name for a set of structure attributes and corresponding substructure member declarations for use in a structure declaration (a generalisation of the {{tt\\|LIKE}} attribute).", "#### Structured programming additions", "A {{tt\\|LEAVE}} statement to exit a loop, and an {{tt\\|ITERATE}} to continue with the next iteration of a loop.", "{{tt\\|UPTHRU}} and {{tt\\|DOWNTHRU}} options on iterative groups.", "The package construct consisting of a set of procedures and declarations for use as a unit. Variables declared outside of the procedures are local to the package, and can use {{tt\\|STATIC}}, {{tt\\|BASED}} or {{tt\\|CONTROLLED}} storage. Procedure names used in the package also are local, but can be made external by means of the {{tt\\|EXPORTS}} option of the {{tt\\|PACKAGE}}\\-statement.", "#### Interrupt handling", "The {{tt\\|RESIGNAL}}\\-statement executed in an ON\\-unit terminates execution of the ON\\-unit, and raises the condition again in the procedure that called the current one (thus passing control to the corresponding ON\\-unit for that procedure).", "The {{tt\\|INVALIDOP}} condition handles invalid operation codes detected by the PC processor, as well as illegal arithmetic operations such as subtraction of two infinite values.", "The {{tt\\|ANYCONDITION}} condition is provided to intercept conditions for which no specific ON\\-unit has been provided in the current procedure.", "The {{tt\\|STORAGE}} condition is raised when an {{tt\\|ALLOCATE}} statement is unable to obtain sufficient storage.", "### Other mainframe and minicomputer compilers", "A number of vendors produced compilers to compete with IBM PL/I F or Optimizing compiler on mainframes and minicomputers in the 1970s. In the 1980s the target was usually the emerging ANSI\\-G subset.", "* In 1974 [Burroughs Corporation](/wiki/Burroughs_Corporation \"Burroughs Corporation\") announced PL/I for the B6700 and B7700\\.Burroughs Corporation, *B 6700/B 7700: PL/I Language Reference Manual,* Reference 5001530, Detroit, 1977\\.\n* [UNIVAC](/wiki/UNIVAC \"UNIVAC\") released a UNIVAC PL/I,Sperry\\-Univac Computer Systems, *SPERRY UNIVAC 1100 Series PL/I Programmer Reference,* Reference UP\\-8277, 1976\\. and in the 1970s also used a variant of PL/I, PL/I PLUS, for system programming.\n* From 1978 [Data General](/wiki/Data_General \"Data General\") provided PL/I on its [Eclipse](/wiki/Data_General_Eclipse \"Data General Eclipse\") and [Eclipse MV](/wiki/Data_General_Eclipse \"Data General Eclipse\") platforms running the [AOS](/wiki/Data_General_AOS \"Data General AOS\"), [AOS/VS](/wiki/AOS/VS \"AOS/VS\") \\& [AOS/VS II](/wiki/AOS/VS_II \"AOS/VS II\") operating systems.Data General Corporation, *AOS PL/I Reference Manual,* Order No. 093\\-000204, c. 1978\\. A number of operating system utility programs were written in the language.\n* Paul Abrahams of NYU's Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences wrote CIMS PL/I in 1972 in PL/I, bootstrapping via PL/I F. It supported \"about 70%\" of PL/I compiling to the CDC 6600{{cite conference\\|title\\=The CIMS PL/I compiler\\|author\\=Paul W. Abrahams\\|conference\\=1979 SIGPLAN symposium on Compiler construction\\|pages\\=107–116\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/800229\\.806960\\|isbn\\=0\\-89791\\-002\\-8\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}\n* [CDC](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation \"Control Data Corporation\") delivered an optimizing subset PL/I compiler for Cyber 70, 170 and 6000 series.Control Data Corporation, *PL/I Reference Manual,* 1978, Publication No. 60388100A.\n* Fujitsu delivered a PL/I compiler equivalent to the PL/I Optimizer.\n* Stratus Technologies PL/I is an ANSI G implementation for the [VOS](/wiki/Stratus_VOS \"Stratus VOS\") operating system.{{cite book\\|title\\=OpenVOS PL/I Language Manual (R009\\)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Stratus Computer\\|Stratus Computer, Inc.]]\\|location\\=\\[\\[Marlboro, Massachusetts]]\\|year\\=1995\\|url\\=http://stratadoc.stratus.com/vos/19\\.0\\.0/r009\\-05/index.html?context\\=r009\\-05\\&file\\=ch1r009\\-05\\.html\\|at\\=OpenVOS PL/I}}\n* [IBM Series/1](/wiki/IBM_Series/1 \"IBM Series/1\") PL/I{{cite book\n \\| title \\= IBM Series/1 PL/I Introduction Program Numbers 5719\\-PL1 5719\\-PL3 \n \\| id \\= GC34\\-0084\\-0\n \\| date \\= February 1977\n \\| edition \\= First\n \\| url \\= http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/series1/GC34\\-0084\\-0\\_PL\\_I\\_Introduction\\_Feb77\\.pdf\n \\| publisher \\= IBM\n }}\n{{cite book\n \\| title \\= IBM Series/1 PL/I: Language Reference Manual\n \\| id \\= GC34\\-0085\\-0\n \\| publisher \\= IBM\n }}\n is an extended subset of ANSI Programming Language PL/I (ANSI X3\\.53\\-1976\\) for the IBM Series/1 Realtime Programming System.", "### PL/I compilers for Microsoft .NET", "* In 2011, Raincode designed a full legacy compiler for the [Microsoft .NET](/wiki/Microsoft_.NET \"Microsoft .NET\") and [.NET Core](/wiki/.NET_Core \".NET Core\") platforms, named The Raincode PL/I compiler.", "### PL/I compilers for personal computers and Unix", "* {{anchor\\|PL/I\\-80\\|PL/I\\-86}}In the 1970s and 1980s [Digital Research](/wiki/Digital_Research \"Digital Research\") sold a PL/I compiler for [CP/M](/wiki/CP/M \"CP/M\") (PL/I\\-80\\), [CP/M\\-86](/wiki/CP/M-86 \"CP/M-86\") (PL/I\\-86\\) and Personal Computers with [DOS](/wiki/DOS \"DOS\").{{cite magazine\\|title\\=The Norton chronicles\\|author\\=Peter Norton\\|author\\-link\\=Peter Norton\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[PC Magazine]]\\|date\\=May 15, 1984\\|url\\=http://members.dodo.com.au/\\~robin51/norton.htm\\|access\\-date\\=January 25, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=July 6, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706103943/http://members.dodo.com.au/\\~robin51/norton.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} It was based on Subset G of PL/I and was written in [PL/M](/wiki/PL/M \"PL/M\").\n* [Micro Focus](/wiki/Micro_Focus \"Micro Focus\") implemented Open PL/I for Windows{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.microfocus.com/media/brochure/whats\\-new\\-in\\-studio\\-and\\-server\\_tcm6\\-8231\\.pdf\\|title\\=What's New in Studio and Server Enterprise Edition 6\\.0 Service Pack 2 \\- Wrap Pack 1\\|page\\=1\\|website\\=\\[\\[Micro Focus]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025457/https://www.microfocus.com/media/brochure/whats\\-new\\-in\\-studio\\-and\\-server\\_tcm6\\-8231\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=November 7, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and UNIX/Linux systems,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://documentation.microfocus.com/help/topic/com.microfocus.eclipse.infocenter.studee60ux/GUID\\-D3FC9AD2\\-25B7\\-47E6\\-8011\\-B67644AE987D.html?cp\\=3\\_15\\_0\\_2\\_0\\_0\\_0\\|title\\=Enterprise \\> Micro Focus Studio Enterprise Edition for UNIX \\> Welcome \\> Product Information \\> Installing Studio Enterprise Edition for UNIX \\> System Requirements\\|website\\=Micro Focus\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014253/http://documentation.microfocus.com/help/topic/com.microfocus.eclipse.infocenter.studee60ux/GUID\\-D3FC9AD2\\-25B7\\-47E6\\-8011\\-B67644AE987D.html?cp\\=3\\_15\\_0\\_2\\_0\\_0\\_0\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} which they acquired from Liant.\n* IBM delivered PL/I for [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 \"OS/2\") in 1994, and PL/I for AIX in 1995\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=IBM PL/I Set for AIX Version 1 \\| date\\=19 September 1995 \\|url\\=https://www\\-01\\.ibm.com/common/ssi/ShowDoc.wss?docURL\\=/common/ssi/rep\\_ca/4/897/ENUS295\\-394/index.html⟨\\=en\\&request\\_locale\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2019}}\n* Iron Spring PL/I for [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 \"OS/2\") and later [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\") was introduced in 2007\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iron\\-spring.com/prog\\_guide.html\\|title\\=Iron Spring PL/I Compiler \\- Programming Guide\\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-15\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=ironspring.com}}" ]
### IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS In a major revamp of PL/I, IBM Santa Teresa in California launched an entirely new compiler in 1992\. The initial shipment was for OS/2 and included most ANSI\-G features and many new PL/I features.{{cite journal\|title\=PL/I for OS/2\|author\=Robin A. Vowels\|journal\=ACM SIGPLAN Notices\|volume\=31\|issue\=3\|date\=March 1996\|pages\=22–27\|doi\=10\.1145/227717\.227724\|publisher\=\[\[Association for Computing Machinery]]\|s2cid\=24441291\|doi\-access\=free}} Subsequent releases provided additional platforms ([MVS](/wiki/MVS "MVS"), [VM](/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29 "VM (operating system)"), [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 "OS/390"), [AIX](/wiki/IBM_AIX "IBM AIX") and [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows")), but as of 2021, the only supported platforms are [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS "Z/OS") and AIX.{{cite web \|title\=IBM PL/I Compiler Family \|website\=\[\[IBM]] \|url\=https://www.ibm.com/products/pli\-compiler\-family \|access\-date\=5 July 2021}} IBM continued to add functions to make PL/I fully competitive with other languages (particularly C and C\+\+) in areas where it had been overtaken. The corresponding "IBM Language Environment" supports inter\-operation of PL/I programs with Database and Transaction systems, and with programs written in C, C\+\+, and COBOL, the compiler supports all the data types needed for intercommunication with these languages. The PL/I design principles were retained and withstood this major extension, comprising several new data types, new statements and statement options, new exception conditions, and new organisations of program source. The resulting language is a compatible super\-set of the PL/I Standard and of the earlier IBM compilers. Major topics added to PL/I were: * New attributes for better support of user\-defined data types – the `DEFINE ALIAS`, `ORDINAL`, and `DEFINE STRUCTURE` statement to introduce user\-defined types, the `HANDLE` locator data type, the `TYPE` data type itself, the `UNION` data type, and built\-in functions for manipulating the new types. * Additional data types and attributes corresponding to common PC data types (e.g. `UNSIGNED`, `VARYINGZ`). * Improvements in readability of programs – often rendering implied usages explicit (e.g. `BYVALUE` attribute for parameters) * Additional structured programming constructs. * Interrupt handling additions. * Compile time preprocessor extended to offer almost all PL/I string handling features and to interface with the Application Development Environment The latest series of PL/I compilers for z/OS, called Enterprise PL/I for z/OS, leverage code generation for the latest z/Architecture processors (z14, z13, zEC12, zBC12, z196, z114\) via the use of ARCHLVL parm control passed during compilation, and was the second High level language supported by z/OS Language Environment to do so (XL C/C\+\+ being the first, and Enterprise COBOL v5 the last.) #### Data types {{tt\|ORDINAL}} is a new computational data type. The ordinal facilities are like those in [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 "Pascal (programming language)"), e.g. {{code\|DEFINE ORDINAL Colour (red, yellow, green, blue, violet);}} but in addition the name and internal values are accessible via built\-in functions. Built\-in functions provide access to an ordinal value's predecessor and successor. The {{tt\|DEFINE}}\-statement (see below) allows additional {{tt\|TYPE}}s to be declared composed from PL/I's built\-in attributes. The `HANDLE(data structure)` locator data type is similar to the {{tt\|POINTER}} data type, but strongly typed to bind only to a particular data structure. The `=>` operator is used to select a data structure using a handle. The {{tt\|UNION}} attribute (equivalent to {{tt\|CELL}} in early PL/I specifications) permits several scalar variables, arrays, or structures to share the same storage in a unit that occupies the amount of storage needed for the largest alternative. #### Competitiveness on PC and with C These attributes were added: * The string attributes `VARYINGZ` (for zero\-terminated character strings), `HEXADEC`, `WIDECHAR`, and `GRAPHIC`. * The optional arithmetic attributes `UNSIGNED` and `SIGNED`, `BIGENDIAN` and `LITTLEENDIAN`. `UNSIGNED` necessitated the `UPTHRU` and `DOWNTHRU` option on iterative groups enabling a counter\-controlled loop to be executed without exceeding the limit value (also essential for `ORDINAL`s and good for documenting loops). * The `DATE(pattern)` attribute for controlling date representations and additions to bring time and date to best current practice. New functions for manipulating dates include{{snd}} `DAYS` and `DAYSTODATE` for converting between dates and number of days, and a general `DATETIME` function for changing date formats. New string\-handling functions were added{{snd}} to centre text, to edit using a picture format, and to trim blanks or selected characters from the head or tail of text, `VERIFYR` to `VERIFY` from the right. and `SEARCH` and `TALLY` functions. Compound assignment operators a la C e.g. `+=`, `&=`, `-=`, `||=` were added. `A+=1` is equivalent to `A=A+1`. Additional parameter [descriptors](/wiki/Data_descriptor "Data descriptor") and attributes were added for omitted arguments and variable length argument lists. #### Program readability – making intentions explicit The {{tt\|VALUE}} attribute declares an identifier as a constant (derived from a specific literal value or restricted expression). Parameters can have the {{tt\|BYADDR}} (pass by address) or {{tt\|BYVALUE}} (pass by value) attributes. The {{tt\|ASSIGNABLE}} and {{tt\|NONASSIGNABLE}} attributes prevent unintended assignments. `DO FOREVER;` obviates the need for the contrived construct {{code\|DO WHILE ( '1'B );\|rexx}}. The {{tt\|DEFINE}}\-statement introduces user\-specified names (e.g. {{tt\|INTEGER}}) for combinations of built\-in attributes (e.g. `FIXED BINARY(31,0)`). Thus `DEFINE ALIAS INTEGER FIXED BINARY(31.0)` creates the {{tt\|TYPE}} name {{tt\|INTEGER}} as an alias for the set of built\-in attributes FIXED BINARY(31\.0\). `DEFINE STRUCTURE` applies to structures and their members; it provides a {{tt\|TYPE}} name for a set of structure attributes and corresponding substructure member declarations for use in a structure declaration (a generalisation of the {{tt\|LIKE}} attribute). #### Structured programming additions A {{tt\|LEAVE}} statement to exit a loop, and an {{tt\|ITERATE}} to continue with the next iteration of a loop. {{tt\|UPTHRU}} and {{tt\|DOWNTHRU}} options on iterative groups. The package construct consisting of a set of procedures and declarations for use as a unit. Variables declared outside of the procedures are local to the package, and can use {{tt\|STATIC}}, {{tt\|BASED}} or {{tt\|CONTROLLED}} storage. Procedure names used in the package also are local, but can be made external by means of the {{tt\|EXPORTS}} option of the {{tt\|PACKAGE}}\-statement. #### Interrupt handling The {{tt\|RESIGNAL}}\-statement executed in an ON\-unit terminates execution of the ON\-unit, and raises the condition again in the procedure that called the current one (thus passing control to the corresponding ON\-unit for that procedure). The {{tt\|INVALIDOP}} condition handles invalid operation codes detected by the PC processor, as well as illegal arithmetic operations such as subtraction of two infinite values. The {{tt\|ANYCONDITION}} condition is provided to intercept conditions for which no specific ON\-unit has been provided in the current procedure. The {{tt\|STORAGE}} condition is raised when an {{tt\|ALLOCATE}} statement is unable to obtain sufficient storage.
[ "### IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS", "In a major revamp of PL/I, IBM Santa Teresa in California launched an entirely new compiler in 1992\\. The initial shipment was for OS/2 and included most ANSI\\-G features and many new PL/I features.{{cite journal\\|title\\=PL/I for OS/2\\|author\\=Robin A. Vowels\\|journal\\=ACM SIGPLAN Notices\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=3\\|date\\=March 1996\\|pages\\=22–27\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/227717\\.227724\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Association for Computing Machinery]]\\|s2cid\\=24441291\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Subsequent releases provided additional platforms ([MVS](/wiki/MVS \"MVS\"), [VM](/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29 \"VM (operating system)\"), [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 \"OS/390\"), [AIX](/wiki/IBM_AIX \"IBM AIX\") and [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\")), but as of 2021, the only supported platforms are [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS \"Z/OS\") and AIX.{{cite web \\|title\\=IBM PL/I Compiler Family \\|website\\=\\[\\[IBM]] \\|url\\=https://www.ibm.com/products/pli\\-compiler\\-family \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2021}} IBM continued to add functions to make PL/I fully competitive with other languages (particularly C and C\\+\\+) in areas where it had been overtaken. The corresponding \"IBM Language Environment\" supports inter\\-operation of PL/I programs with Database and Transaction systems, and with programs written in C, C\\+\\+, and COBOL, the compiler supports all the data types needed for intercommunication with these languages.", "The PL/I design principles were retained and withstood this major extension, comprising several new data types, new statements and statement options, new exception conditions, and new organisations of program source. The resulting language is a compatible super\\-set of the PL/I Standard and of the earlier IBM compilers. Major topics added to PL/I were:", "* New attributes for better support of user\\-defined data types – the `DEFINE ALIAS`, `ORDINAL`, and `DEFINE STRUCTURE` statement to introduce user\\-defined types, the `HANDLE` locator data type, the `TYPE` data type itself, the `UNION` data type, and built\\-in functions for manipulating the new types.\n* Additional data types and attributes corresponding to common PC data types (e.g. `UNSIGNED`, `VARYINGZ`).\n* Improvements in readability of programs – often rendering implied usages explicit (e.g. `BYVALUE` attribute for parameters)\n* Additional structured programming constructs.\n* Interrupt handling additions.\n* Compile time preprocessor extended to offer almost all PL/I string handling features and to interface with the Application Development Environment", "The latest series of PL/I compilers for z/OS, called Enterprise PL/I for z/OS, leverage code generation for the latest z/Architecture processors (z14, z13, zEC12, zBC12, z196, z114\\) via the use of ARCHLVL parm control passed during compilation, and was the second High level language supported by z/OS Language Environment to do so (XL C/C\\+\\+ being the first, and Enterprise COBOL v5 the last.)", "#### Data types", "{{tt\\|ORDINAL}} is a new computational data type. The ordinal facilities are like those in [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\"),\ne.g. {{code\\|DEFINE ORDINAL Colour (red, yellow, green, blue, violet);}}\nbut in addition the name and internal values are accessible via built\\-in functions. Built\\-in functions provide access to an ordinal value's predecessor and successor.", "The {{tt\\|DEFINE}}\\-statement (see below) allows additional {{tt\\|TYPE}}s to be declared composed from PL/I's built\\-in attributes.", "The `HANDLE(data structure)` locator data type is similar to the {{tt\\|POINTER}} data type, but strongly typed to bind only to a particular data structure. The `=>` operator is used to select a data structure using a handle.", "The {{tt\\|UNION}} attribute (equivalent to {{tt\\|CELL}} in early PL/I specifications) permits several scalar variables, arrays, or structures to share the same storage in a unit that occupies the amount of storage needed for the largest alternative.", "#### Competitiveness on PC and with C", "These attributes were added:", "* The string attributes `VARYINGZ` (for zero\\-terminated character strings), `HEXADEC`, `WIDECHAR`, and `GRAPHIC`.\n* The optional arithmetic attributes `UNSIGNED` and `SIGNED`, `BIGENDIAN` and `LITTLEENDIAN`. `UNSIGNED` necessitated the `UPTHRU` and `DOWNTHRU` option on iterative groups enabling a counter\\-controlled loop to be executed without exceeding the limit value (also essential for `ORDINAL`s and good for documenting loops).\n* The `DATE(pattern)` attribute for controlling date representations and additions to bring time and date to best current practice. New functions for manipulating dates include{{snd}} `DAYS` and `DAYSTODATE` for converting between dates and number of days, and a general `DATETIME` function for changing date formats.\nNew string\\-handling functions were added{{snd}} to centre text, to edit using a picture format, and to trim blanks or selected characters from the head or tail of text, `VERIFYR` to `VERIFY` from the right. and `SEARCH` and `TALLY` functions.", "Compound assignment operators a la C e.g. `+=`, `&=`, `-=`, `||=` were added. `A+=1` is equivalent to `A=A+1`.", "Additional parameter [descriptors](/wiki/Data_descriptor \"Data descriptor\") and attributes were added for omitted arguments and variable length argument lists.", "#### Program readability – making intentions explicit", "The {{tt\\|VALUE}} attribute declares an identifier as a constant (derived from a specific literal value or restricted expression).", "Parameters can have the {{tt\\|BYADDR}} (pass by address) or {{tt\\|BYVALUE}} (pass by value) attributes.", "The {{tt\\|ASSIGNABLE}} and {{tt\\|NONASSIGNABLE}} attributes prevent unintended assignments.", "`DO FOREVER;` obviates the need for the contrived construct {{code\\|DO WHILE ( '1'B );\\|rexx}}.", "The {{tt\\|DEFINE}}\\-statement introduces user\\-specified names (e.g. {{tt\\|INTEGER}}) for combinations of built\\-in attributes (e.g. `FIXED BINARY(31,0)`). Thus `DEFINE ALIAS INTEGER FIXED BINARY(31.0)` creates the {{tt\\|TYPE}} name {{tt\\|INTEGER}} as an alias for the set of built\\-in attributes FIXED BINARY(31\\.0\\). `DEFINE STRUCTURE` applies to structures and their members; it provides a {{tt\\|TYPE}} name for a set of structure attributes and corresponding substructure member declarations for use in a structure declaration (a generalisation of the {{tt\\|LIKE}} attribute).", "#### Structured programming additions", "A {{tt\\|LEAVE}} statement to exit a loop, and an {{tt\\|ITERATE}} to continue with the next iteration of a loop.", "{{tt\\|UPTHRU}} and {{tt\\|DOWNTHRU}} options on iterative groups.", "The package construct consisting of a set of procedures and declarations for use as a unit. Variables declared outside of the procedures are local to the package, and can use {{tt\\|STATIC}}, {{tt\\|BASED}} or {{tt\\|CONTROLLED}} storage. Procedure names used in the package also are local, but can be made external by means of the {{tt\\|EXPORTS}} option of the {{tt\\|PACKAGE}}\\-statement.", "#### Interrupt handling", "The {{tt\\|RESIGNAL}}\\-statement executed in an ON\\-unit terminates execution of the ON\\-unit, and raises the condition again in the procedure that called the current one (thus passing control to the corresponding ON\\-unit for that procedure).", "The {{tt\\|INVALIDOP}} condition handles invalid operation codes detected by the PC processor, as well as illegal arithmetic operations such as subtraction of two infinite values.", "The {{tt\\|ANYCONDITION}} condition is provided to intercept conditions for which no specific ON\\-unit has been provided in the current procedure.", "The {{tt\\|STORAGE}} condition is raised when an {{tt\\|ALLOCATE}} statement is unable to obtain sufficient storage.", "" ]
Usage ----- PL/I implementations were developed for mainframes from the late 1960s, mini computers in the 1970s, and personal computers in the 1980s and 1990s. Although its main use has been on [mainframes](/wiki/Mainframe_computer "Mainframe computer"), there are PL/I versions for [DOS](/wiki/DOS "DOS"), [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows"), [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 "OS/2"), [AIX](/wiki/AIX_operating_system "AIX operating system"), [OpenVMS](/wiki/OpenVMS "OpenVMS"), and [Unix](/wiki/Unix "Unix"). It has been widely used in business data processing{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-17813799\.html\|title\=Open PL/I: Liant addresses PL/I legacy applications\|last\=Pearkins\|first\=Jon E.\|date\=December 1, 1995\|magazine\=Enterprise Systems Journal\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103013230/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-17813799\.html\|archive\-date\=November 3, 2012\|quote\=Open PL/I estimated that in 1995 20% of mainframe legacy applications were in PL/I, with 60% in COBOL: there were 300,000 PL/I programmers worldwide\|accessdate\=February 3, 2010\|url\-status\=dead}} and for system use for writing operating systems on certain platforms. Very complex and powerful systems have been built with PL/I: * The [SAS System](/wiki/SAS_System "SAS System") was initially written in PL/I; the SAS data step is still modeled on PL/I syntax. * The pioneering online airline reservation system [Sabre](/wiki/Sabre_%28computer_system%29 "Sabre (computer system)") was originally written for the IBM 7090 in assembler. The S/360 version was largely written using [SabreTalk](/wiki/SabreTalk "SabreTalk"), a purpose\-built subset PL/I compiler for a dedicated control program. * The [Multics](/wiki/Multics "Multics") operating system was largely written in PL/I. * PL/I was used to write an executable formal definition{{cite journal\| doi\=10\.1109/TCOM.1980\.1094695\| title\=Executable description and validation of SNA\| last\=Schultz\| first\=G. \|author2\=D.Rose \|author3\=C.West \|author4\=J.Gray\|date\=April 1980\| pages\=661–677\| volume\=28\| journal\=\[\[IEEE Transactions on Communications]]\| issue\=4}} to interpret IBM's [System Network Architecture](/wiki/System_Network_Architecture "System Network Architecture"). * Some components of the [OpenVMS](/wiki/OpenVMS "OpenVMS") operating system were originally written in PL/I, but were later rewritten in C during the port of VMS to the [IA64](/wiki/IA64 "IA64") architecture.{{cite journal\|url\=http://www.decus.de/events/alphamigration/vortraege/porting\_openvms\_to\_integrity.pdf\|title\=Porting OpenVMS to HP Integrity Servers\|author\=Clair Grant\|journal\=OpenVMS Technical Journal\|volume\=6\|date\=June 2005}} PL/I did not fulfill its supporters' hopes that it would displace Fortran and COBOL and become the major player on mainframes. It remained a minority but significant player. There cannot be a definitive explanation for this, but some trends in the 1970s and 1980s militated against its success by progressively reducing the territory on which PL/I enjoyed a competitive advantage. First, the nature of the mainframe software environment changed. Application subsystems for [database](/wiki/Database "Database") and [transaction processing](/wiki/Transaction_processing "Transaction processing") ([CICS](/wiki/CICS "CICS") and [IMS](/wiki/Information_Management_System "Information Management System") and [Oracle](/wiki/Oracle_Database "Oracle Database") on System 370\) and application generators became the focus of mainframe users' application development. Significant parts of the language became irrelevant because of the need to use the corresponding native features of the subsystems (such as tasking and much of input/output). Fortran was not used in these application areas, confining PL/I to COBOL's territory; most users stayed with COBOL. But as the PC became the dominant environment for program development, Fortran, COBOL and PL/I all became minority languages overtaken by [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++"), [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 "Java (programming language)") and the like. Second, PL/I was overtaken in the system programming field. The IBM system programming community was not ready to use PL/I; instead, IBM developed and adopted a proprietary dialect of PL/I for system programming. – [PL/S](/wiki/PL/S "PL/S").In his slides on *IBM Operating System/360* [Fred Brooks](/wiki/Fred_Brooks "Fred Brooks") says OS/360 should have been written in PL/I not PL/S and Assembler. The article is a great summary of the OS/360 program. ["The /360 Architecture and Its Operating System"](http://extras.springer.com/2002/978-3-642-59413-7/2/rom/pdf/Brooks_new.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728071740/http://extras.springer.com/2002/978\-3\-642\-59413\-7/2/rom/pdf/Brooks\_new.pdf \|date\=2020\-07\-28 }}, 2001\. With the success of PL/S inside IBM, and of C outside IBM, the unique PL/I strengths for system programming became less valuable. Third, the development environments grew capabilities for interactive software development that, again, made the unique PL/I interactive and debugging strengths less valuable. Fourth, features such as structured programming, character string operations, and object orientation were added to COBOL and Fortran, which further reduced PL/I's relative advantages. On mainframes there were substantial business issues at stake too. IBM's hardware competitors had little to gain and much to lose from success of PL/I. Compiler development was expensive, and the IBM compiler groups had an in\-built competitive advantage. Many IBM users wished to avoid being locked into proprietary solutions. With no early support for PL/I by other vendors it was best to avoid PL/I.
[ "Usage\n-----", "PL/I implementations were developed for mainframes from the late 1960s, mini computers in the 1970s, and personal computers in the 1980s and 1990s. Although its main use has been on [mainframes](/wiki/Mainframe_computer \"Mainframe computer\"), there are PL/I versions for [DOS](/wiki/DOS \"DOS\"), [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\"), [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 \"OS/2\"), [AIX](/wiki/AIX_operating_system \"AIX operating system\"), [OpenVMS](/wiki/OpenVMS \"OpenVMS\"), and [Unix](/wiki/Unix \"Unix\").", "It has been widely used in business data processing{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-17813799\\.html\\|title\\=Open PL/I: Liant addresses PL/I legacy applications\\|last\\=Pearkins\\|first\\=Jon E.\\|date\\=December 1, 1995\\|magazine\\=Enterprise Systems Journal\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103013230/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-17813799\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 3, 2012\\|quote\\=Open PL/I estimated that in 1995 20% of mainframe legacy applications were in PL/I, with 60% in COBOL: there were 300,000 PL/I programmers worldwide\\|accessdate\\=February 3, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and for system use for writing operating systems on certain platforms. Very complex and powerful systems have been built with PL/I:", "* The [SAS System](/wiki/SAS_System \"SAS System\") was initially written in PL/I; the SAS data step is still modeled on PL/I syntax.\n* The pioneering online airline reservation system [Sabre](/wiki/Sabre_%28computer_system%29 \"Sabre (computer system)\") was originally written for the IBM 7090 in assembler. The S/360 version was largely written using [SabreTalk](/wiki/SabreTalk \"SabreTalk\"), a purpose\\-built subset PL/I compiler for a dedicated control program.\n* The [Multics](/wiki/Multics \"Multics\") operating system was largely written in PL/I.\n* PL/I was used to write an executable formal definition{{cite journal\\| doi\\=10\\.1109/TCOM.1980\\.1094695\\| title\\=Executable description and validation of SNA\\| last\\=Schultz\\| first\\=G. \\|author2\\=D.Rose \\|author3\\=C.West \\|author4\\=J.Gray\\|date\\=April 1980\\| pages\\=661–677\\| volume\\=28\\| journal\\=\\[\\[IEEE Transactions on Communications]]\\| issue\\=4}} to interpret IBM's [System Network Architecture](/wiki/System_Network_Architecture \"System Network Architecture\").\n* Some components of the [OpenVMS](/wiki/OpenVMS \"OpenVMS\") operating system were originally written in PL/I, but were later rewritten in C during the port of VMS to the [IA64](/wiki/IA64 \"IA64\") architecture.{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://www.decus.de/events/alphamigration/vortraege/porting\\_openvms\\_to\\_integrity.pdf\\|title\\=Porting OpenVMS to HP Integrity Servers\\|author\\=Clair Grant\\|journal\\=OpenVMS Technical Journal\\|volume\\=6\\|date\\=June 2005}}", "PL/I did not fulfill its supporters' hopes that it would displace Fortran and COBOL and become the major player on mainframes. It remained a minority but significant player. There cannot be a definitive explanation for this, but some trends in the 1970s and 1980s militated against its success by progressively reducing the territory on which PL/I enjoyed a competitive advantage.", "First, the nature of the mainframe software environment changed. Application subsystems for [database](/wiki/Database \"Database\") and [transaction processing](/wiki/Transaction_processing \"Transaction processing\") ([CICS](/wiki/CICS \"CICS\") and [IMS](/wiki/Information_Management_System \"Information Management System\") and [Oracle](/wiki/Oracle_Database \"Oracle Database\") on System 370\\) and application generators became the focus of mainframe users' application development. Significant parts of the language became irrelevant because of the need to use the corresponding native features of the subsystems (such as tasking and much of input/output). Fortran was not used in these application areas, confining PL/I to COBOL's territory; most users stayed with COBOL. But as the PC became the dominant environment for program development, Fortran, COBOL and PL/I all became minority languages overtaken by [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\") and the like.", "Second, PL/I was overtaken in the system programming field. The IBM system programming community was not ready to use PL/I; instead, IBM developed and adopted a proprietary dialect of PL/I for system programming. – [PL/S](/wiki/PL/S \"PL/S\").In his slides on *IBM Operating System/360* [Fred Brooks](/wiki/Fred_Brooks \"Fred Brooks\") says OS/360 should have been written in PL/I not PL/S and Assembler. The article is a great summary of the OS/360 program. [\"The /360 Architecture and Its Operating System\"](http://extras.springer.com/2002/978-3-642-59413-7/2/rom/pdf/Brooks_new.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728071740/http://extras.springer.com/2002/978\\-3\\-642\\-59413\\-7/2/rom/pdf/Brooks\\_new.pdf \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-28 }}, 2001\\. With the success of PL/S inside IBM, and of C outside IBM, the unique PL/I strengths for system programming became less valuable.", "Third, the development environments grew capabilities for interactive software development that, again, made the unique PL/I interactive and debugging strengths less valuable.", "Fourth, features such as structured programming, character string operations, and object orientation were added to COBOL and Fortran, which further reduced PL/I's relative advantages.", "On mainframes there were substantial business issues at stake too. IBM's hardware competitors had little to gain and much to lose from success of PL/I. Compiler development was expensive, and the IBM compiler groups had an in\\-built competitive advantage. Many IBM users wished to avoid being locked into proprietary solutions. With no early support for PL/I by other vendors it was best to avoid PL/I.", "" ]
Evolution of the PL/I language ------------------------------ This article uses the PL/I standard as the reference point for language features. But a number of features of significance in the early implementations were not in the Standard; and some were offered by non\-IBM compilers. And the de facto language continued to grow after the standard, ultimately driven by developments on the Personal Computer. ### Significant features omitted from the standard #### Multithreading [Multithreading](/wiki/Thread_%28computing%29 "Thread (computing)"), under the name "multitasking", was implemented by PL/I F,{{cite book\|url\=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/GC28\-8201\-4\_PLI\_F\_Language\_Reference\_Dec72\.pdf\|title\=IBM System/360 Operating System PL/I (F) Language Reference Manual\|edition\=Fifth\|id\=GC28\-8201\-4\|at\=Chapter 15: Multitasking\|date\=December 1972}} the PL/I Checkout and Optimizing compilers,{{cite book\|url\=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/GC33\-0009\-4\_PLI\_Checkout\_And\_Opt\_Compiler\_Lang\_Ref\_Oct76\.pdf\|title\=OS PL/I Checkout and Optimizing Compilers: Language Reference Manual\|edition\=Fifth\|id\=GC33\-0009\-4\|at\=Chapter 17: Multitasking\|date\=October 1976}} and the newer AIX and Z/OS compilers. It comprised the data types {{tt\|EVENT}} and {{tt\|TASK}}, the {{tt\|TASK}}\-option on the {{tt\|CALL}}\-statement ([Fork](/wiki/Fork%E2%80%93join_model "Fork–join model")), the {{tt\|WAIT}}\-statement ([Join](/wiki/Fork%E2%80%93join_model "Fork–join model")), the `DELAY(delay-time)`, {{tt\|EVENT}}\-options on the record I/O statements and the {{tt\|UNLOCK}} statement to unlock locked records on {{tt\|EXCLUSIVE}} files. Event data identify a particular event and indicate whether it is complete ('1'B) or incomplete ('0'B): task data items identify a particular task (or [process](/wiki/Process_%28computing%29 "Process (computing)")) and indicate its priority relative to other tasks. #### Preprocessor {{Further\|PL/I preprocessor}} The first IBM *Compile time [preprocessor](/wiki/Preprocessor "Preprocessor")* was built by the IBM Boston Advanced Programming Center located in Cambridge, Mass, and shipped with the PL/I F compiler. The `%INCLUDE` statement was in the Standard, but the rest of the features were not. The DEC and Kednos PL/I compilers implemented much the same set of features as IBM, with some additions of their own. IBM has continued to add preprocessor features to its compilers. The preprocessor treats the written source program as a sequence of tokens, copying them to an output source file or acting on them. When a % token is encountered the following compile time statement is executed: when an identifier token is encountered and the identifier has been {{tt\|DECLARE}}d, {{tt\|ACTIVATE}}d, and assigned a compile time value, the identifier is replaced by this value. Tokens are added to the output stream if they do not require action (e.g. `+`), as are the values of ACTIVATEd compile time expressions. Thus a compile time variable {{tt\|PI}} could be declared, activated, and assigned using `%PI='3.14159265'`. Subsequent occurrences of {{tt\|PI}} would be replaced by `3.14159265`. The data type supported are `FIXED DECIMAL` integers and {{tt\|CHARACTER}} strings of varying length with no maximum length. The structure statements are: * {{code\|%\[label\_list:]DO iteration: statements; %\[label\_list:]END;\|rexx}} * `%procedure_name: PROCEDURE (parameter list) RETURNS (type); statements...; %[label_list:]END;` * {{code\|%\[label\_list:]IF...%THEN...%ELSE..\|rexx}} and the simple statements, which also may have a {{code\|\[label\_list:]}} * {{code\|%ACTIVATE(identifier\_list)}} and {{code\|%DEACTIVATE}} * *assignment* statement * `%DECLARE identifier_attribute_list` * `%GO TO label` * `%INCLUDE` * *null* statement The feature allowed programmers to use identifiers for constants{{snd}} e.g. product part numbers or mathematical constants{{snd}} and was superseded in the standard by named constants for computational data. Conditional compiling and iterative generation of source code, possible with compile\-time facilities, was not supported by the standard. Several manufacturers implemented these facilities. #### Structured programming additions Structured programming additions were made to PL/I during standardization but were not accepted into the standard. These features were the {{tt\|LEAVE}}\-statement to exit from an iterative {{tt\|DO}}, the {{tt\|UNTIL}}\-option and {{tt\|REPEAT}}\-option added to {{tt\|DO}}, and a [case statement](/wiki/Case_statement "Case statement") of the general form: {{pre\|SELECT (expression) {WHEN (expression) group}... OTHERWISE group}} These features were all included in IBM's PL/I Checkout and Optimizing compilers and in DEC PL/I.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.kednos.com/pli/docs/REFERENCE\_MANUAL/6291pro.html\|title\=Kednos PL/I for OpenVMS Systems Reference Manual\|date\=January 2007\|chapter\-url\=http://www.kednos.com/pli/docs/REFERENCE\_MANUAL/6291pro\_contents\_003\.html\#toc\_chapter\_8\|chapter\=Chapter 8: Program Control\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-05\|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-18\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818141039/http://www.kednos.com/pli/docs/REFERENCE\_MANUAL/6291pro.html\|url\-status\=dead}} #### Debug facilities PL/I F had offered some debug facilities that were not put forward for the standard but were implemented by others{{snd}} notably the CHECK(variable\-list) condition prefix, `CHECK` on\-condition and the `SNAP` option. The IBM Optimizing and Checkout compilers added additional features appropriate to the conversational mainframe programming environment (e.g. an `ATTENTION` condition). ### Significant features developed since the standard Several attempts had been made to design a structure member type that could have one of several datatypes (`CELL` in early IBM). With the growth of [classes](/wiki/Class_%28computer_programming%29 "Class (computer programming)") in programming theory, approaches to this became possible on a PL/I base{{snd}} `UNION`, `TYPE` etc. have been added by several compilers. PL/I had been conceived in a single\-byte character world. With support for Japanese and Chinese language becoming essential, and the developments on International Code Pages, the character string concept was expanded to accommodate wide non\-ASCII/EBCDIC strings. Time and date handling were overhauled to deal with the [millennium problem](/wiki/Y2K_problem "Y2K problem"), with the introduction of the DATETIME function that returned the date and time in one of about 35 different formats. Several other date functions deal with conversions to and from days and seconds.
[ "Evolution of the PL/I language\n------------------------------", "This article uses the PL/I standard as the reference point for language features. But a number of features of significance in the early implementations were not in the Standard; and some were offered by non\\-IBM compilers. And the de facto language continued to grow after the standard, ultimately driven by developments on the Personal Computer.", "### Significant features omitted from the standard", "#### Multithreading", "[Multithreading](/wiki/Thread_%28computing%29 \"Thread (computing)\"), under the name \"multitasking\", was implemented by PL/I F,{{cite book\\|url\\=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/GC28\\-8201\\-4\\_PLI\\_F\\_Language\\_Reference\\_Dec72\\.pdf\\|title\\=IBM System/360 Operating System PL/I (F) Language Reference Manual\\|edition\\=Fifth\\|id\\=GC28\\-8201\\-4\\|at\\=Chapter 15: Multitasking\\|date\\=December 1972}} the PL/I Checkout and Optimizing compilers,{{cite book\\|url\\=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/pli/GC33\\-0009\\-4\\_PLI\\_Checkout\\_And\\_Opt\\_Compiler\\_Lang\\_Ref\\_Oct76\\.pdf\\|title\\=OS PL/I Checkout and Optimizing Compilers: Language Reference Manual\\|edition\\=Fifth\\|id\\=GC33\\-0009\\-4\\|at\\=Chapter 17: Multitasking\\|date\\=October 1976}} and the newer AIX and Z/OS compilers. It comprised the data types {{tt\\|EVENT}} and {{tt\\|TASK}}, the {{tt\\|TASK}}\\-option on the {{tt\\|CALL}}\\-statement ([Fork](/wiki/Fork%E2%80%93join_model \"Fork–join model\")), the {{tt\\|WAIT}}\\-statement ([Join](/wiki/Fork%E2%80%93join_model \"Fork–join model\")), the `DELAY(delay-time)`, {{tt\\|EVENT}}\\-options on the record I/O statements and the {{tt\\|UNLOCK}} statement to unlock locked records on {{tt\\|EXCLUSIVE}} files. Event data identify a particular event and indicate whether it is complete ('1'B) or incomplete ('0'B): task data items identify a particular task (or [process](/wiki/Process_%28computing%29 \"Process (computing)\")) and indicate its priority relative to other tasks.", "#### Preprocessor", "{{Further\\|PL/I preprocessor}}\nThe first IBM *Compile time [preprocessor](/wiki/Preprocessor \"Preprocessor\")* was built by the IBM Boston Advanced Programming Center located in Cambridge, Mass, and shipped with the PL/I F compiler. The `%INCLUDE` statement was in the Standard, but the rest of the features were not. The DEC and Kednos PL/I compilers implemented much the same set of features as IBM, with some additions of their own. IBM has continued to add preprocessor features to its compilers. The preprocessor treats the written source program as a sequence of tokens, copying them to an output source file or acting on them. When a % token is encountered the following compile time statement is executed: when an identifier token is encountered and the identifier has been {{tt\\|DECLARE}}d, {{tt\\|ACTIVATE}}d, and assigned a compile time value, the identifier is replaced by this value. Tokens are added to the output stream if they do not require action (e.g. `+`), as are the values of ACTIVATEd compile time expressions. Thus a compile time variable {{tt\\|PI}} could be declared, activated, and assigned using `%PI='3.14159265'`. Subsequent occurrences of {{tt\\|PI}} would be replaced by `3.14159265`.", "The data type supported are `FIXED DECIMAL` integers and {{tt\\|CHARACTER}} strings of varying length with no maximum length. The structure statements are:", "* {{code\\|%\\[label\\_list:]DO iteration: statements; %\\[label\\_list:]END;\\|rexx}}\n* `%procedure_name: PROCEDURE (parameter list) RETURNS (type); statements...; %[label_list:]END;`\n* {{code\\|%\\[label\\_list:]IF...%THEN...%ELSE..\\|rexx}}\nand the simple statements, which also may have a {{code\\|\\[label\\_list:]}}\n* {{code\\|%ACTIVATE(identifier\\_list)}} and {{code\\|%DEACTIVATE}}\n* *assignment* statement\n* `%DECLARE identifier_attribute_list`\n* `%GO TO label`\n* `%INCLUDE`\n* *null* statement", "The feature allowed programmers to use identifiers for constants{{snd}} e.g. product part numbers or mathematical constants{{snd}} and was superseded in the standard by named constants for computational data. Conditional compiling and iterative generation of source code, possible with compile\\-time facilities, was not supported by the standard. Several manufacturers implemented these facilities.", "#### Structured programming additions", "Structured programming additions were made to PL/I during standardization but were not accepted into the standard. These features were the {{tt\\|LEAVE}}\\-statement to exit from an iterative {{tt\\|DO}}, the {{tt\\|UNTIL}}\\-option and {{tt\\|REPEAT}}\\-option added to {{tt\\|DO}}, and a [case statement](/wiki/Case_statement \"Case statement\") of the general form:\n{{pre\\|SELECT (expression) {WHEN (expression) group}... OTHERWISE group}}\nThese features were all included in IBM's PL/I Checkout and Optimizing compilers and in DEC PL/I.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.kednos.com/pli/docs/REFERENCE\\_MANUAL/6291pro.html\\|title\\=Kednos PL/I for OpenVMS Systems Reference Manual\\|date\\=January 2007\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.kednos.com/pli/docs/REFERENCE\\_MANUAL/6291pro\\_contents\\_003\\.html\\#toc\\_chapter\\_8\\|chapter\\=Chapter 8: Program Control\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-18\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818141039/http://www.kednos.com/pli/docs/REFERENCE\\_MANUAL/6291pro.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "#### Debug facilities", "PL/I F had offered some debug facilities that were not put forward for the standard but were implemented by others{{snd}} notably the CHECK(variable\\-list) condition prefix, `CHECK` on\\-condition and the `SNAP` option. The IBM Optimizing and Checkout compilers added additional features appropriate to the conversational mainframe programming environment (e.g. an `ATTENTION` condition).", "### Significant features developed since the standard", "Several attempts had been made to design a structure member type that could have one of several datatypes (`CELL` in early IBM). With the growth of [classes](/wiki/Class_%28computer_programming%29 \"Class (computer programming)\") in programming theory, approaches to this became possible on a PL/I base{{snd}} `UNION`, `TYPE` etc. have been added by several compilers.", "PL/I had been conceived in a single\\-byte character world. With support for Japanese and Chinese language becoming essential, and the developments on International Code Pages, the character string concept was expanded to accommodate wide non\\-ASCII/EBCDIC strings.", "Time and date handling were overhauled to deal with the [millennium problem](/wiki/Y2K_problem \"Y2K problem\"), with the introduction of the DATETIME function that returned the date and time in one of about 35 different formats. Several other date functions deal with conversions to and from days and seconds.", "" ]
Criticisms ---------- ### Implementation issues Though the language is easy to learn and use, implementing a PL/I compiler is difficult and time\-consuming. A language as large as PL/I needed subsets that most vendors could produce and most users master. This was not resolved until "ANSI G" was published. The compile time facilities, unique to PL/I, took added implementation effort and additional compiler passes. A PL/I compiler was two to four times as large as comparable Fortran or COBOL compilers, and also that much slower—supposedly offset by gains in programmer productivity. This was anticipated in IBM before the first compilers were written. Some argue that PL/I is unusually hard to parse.The compiler cannot tell whether a statement is a declaration or a multiple assignment statement until encountering the "\=" of the assignment or ";" of the DECLARE—which can be several lines later. The fact that DECLARE/DCL were not reserved is the proximate cause in this example{{snd}} consider the fragment `DECLARE(I,J,K),L=` vs `DECLARE(I,J,K),L;`. The PL/I *keywords* are not reserved so programmers can use them as variable or procedure names in programs. Because the original PL/I(F) compiler attempts *auto\-correction* when it encounters a keyword used in an incorrect context, it often assumes it is a variable name. This leads to "cascading diagnostics",{{cite web \|url\=https://atlas.ion.uwplatt.edu/bitbucket/projects/SB/repos/buildscripts/raw/DotnetCore/sdk/NuGetFallbackFolder/microsoft.codeanalysis.csharp/2\.3\.1%2Flib%2Fnetstandard1\.3%2FMicrosoft.CodeAnalysis.CSharp.xml?at\=b1dc21b912b5570ba5f46c5733a261496f6cbf7d \|title\=Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.CSharp A Binder converts names }}{{Dead link\|date\=May 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} a problem solved by later compilers. The effort needed to produce good object code was perhaps underestimated during the initial design of the language. [Program optimization](/wiki/Program_optimization "Program optimization") (needed to compete with the excellent program optimization carried out by available Fortran compilers) is unusually complex owing to [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect_%28computer_science%29 "Side effect (computer science)") and pervasive problems with [aliasing](/wiki/Aliasing_%28computing%29 "Aliasing (computing)") of variables. Unpredictable modification can occur asynchronously in [exception handlers](/wiki/Exception_handling "Exception handling"), which may be provided by "{{tt\|ON}} statements" in (unseen) callers. Together, these make it difficult to reliably predict when a program's variables might be modified at runtime. In typical use, however, user\-written error handlers (the {{tt\|ON}}\-unit) often do not make assignments to variables. In spite of the aforementioned difficulties, IBM produced the PL/I Optimizing Compiler in 1971\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/an/2013/04/man2013040018/13rRUxBrGiQ \|title\=Early Language and Compiler Developments at IBM Europe \|author\=A. Endres \|year\=2013}} PL/I contains many rarely used features, such as [multitasking](/wiki/Computer_multitasking "Computer multitasking") support (an IBM extension to the language) which add cost and complexity to the compiler, and its co\-processing facilities require a multi\-programming environment with support for non\-blocking multiple threads for processes by the [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system "Operating system"). Compiler writers were free to select whether to implement these features. An undeclared variable is, by default, declared by first occurrence—thus misspelling might lead to unpredictable results. This "implicit declaration" is no different from FORTRAN programs. For PL/I(F), however, an attribute listing enables the programmer to detect any misspelled or undeclared variable. ### Programmer issues Many programmers were slow to move from [COBOL](/wiki/COBOL "COBOL") or [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran "Fortran") due to a perceived complexity of the language and immaturity of the PL/I F compiler. Programmers were sharply divided into scientific programmers (who used Fortran) and business programmers (who used COBOL), with significant tension and even dislike between the groups. PL/I syntax borrowed from both COBOL and Fortran syntax. So instead of noticing features that would make their job easier, Fortran programmers of the time noticed COBOL syntax and had the opinion that it was a business language, while COBOL programmers noticed Fortran syntax and looked upon it as a scientific language. Both COBOL and Fortran programmers viewed it as a "bigger" version of their own language, and both were somewhat intimidated by the language and disinclined to adopt it. Another factor was *pseudo*\-similarities to COBOL, Fortran, and ALGOL. These were PL/I elements that looked similar to one of those languages, but worked differently in PL/I. Such frustrations left many experienced programmers with a jaundiced view of PL/I, and often an active dislike for the language. An early UNIX fortune file contained the following tongue\-in\-cheek description of the language:{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2022}} > Speaking as someone who has delved into the intricacies of PL/I, I am sure that only Real Men could have written such a machine\-hogging, cycle\-grabbing, all\-encompassing monster. Allocate an array and free the middle third? Sure! Why not? Multiply a character string times a bit string and assign the result to a float decimal? Go ahead! Free a controlled variable procedure parameter and reallocate it before passing it back? Overlay three different types of variable on the same memory location? Anything you say! Write a recursive macro? Well, no, but Real Men use rescan. How could a language so obviously designed and written by Real Men not be intended for Real Man use? On the positive side, full support for [pointers](/wiki/Pointer_%28computer_programming%29 "Pointer (computer programming)") to all data types (including pointers to structures), [recursion](/wiki/Recursion "Recursion"), [multitasking](/wiki/Computer_multitasking "Computer multitasking"), string handling, and extensive built\-in [functions](/wiki/Function_%28computer_science%29 "Function (computer science)") meant PL/I was indeed quite a leap forward compared to the programming languages of its time. However, these were not enough to persuade a majority of programmers or shops to switch to PL/I. The PL/I F compiler's compile time [preprocessor](/wiki/Preprocessor "Preprocessor") was unusual (outside the [Lisp](/wiki/Lisp_programming_language "Lisp programming language") world{{cite periodical \|first\=Timothy P.\|last\=Hart \|title\=MACRO Definitions for LISP \|periodical\=Artificial Intelligence Memos \|number\=57 \|date\=October 1963 \|hdl\=1721\.1/6111 \|hdl\-access\=free}}) in using its target language's syntax and semantics (*e.g.* as compared to the [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor "C preprocessor")'s "\#" directives).
[ "Criticisms\n----------", "### Implementation issues", "Though the language is easy to learn and use, implementing a PL/I compiler is difficult and time\\-consuming. A language as large as PL/I needed subsets that most vendors could produce and most users master. This was not resolved until \"ANSI G\" was published. The compile time facilities, unique to PL/I, took added implementation effort and additional compiler passes. A PL/I compiler was two to four times as large as comparable Fortran or COBOL compilers, and also that much slower—supposedly offset by gains in programmer productivity. This was anticipated in IBM before the first compilers were written.", "Some argue that PL/I is unusually hard to parse.The compiler cannot tell whether a statement is a declaration or a multiple assignment statement until encountering the \"\\=\" of the assignment or \";\" of the DECLARE—which can be several lines later. The fact that DECLARE/DCL were not reserved is the proximate cause in this example{{snd}} consider the fragment `DECLARE(I,J,K),L=` vs `DECLARE(I,J,K),L;`. The PL/I *keywords* are not reserved so programmers can use them as variable or procedure names in programs. Because the original PL/I(F) compiler attempts *auto\\-correction* when it encounters a keyword used in an incorrect context, it often assumes it is a variable name. This leads to \"cascading diagnostics\",{{cite web\n\\|url\\=https://atlas.ion.uwplatt.edu/bitbucket/projects/SB/repos/buildscripts/raw/DotnetCore/sdk/NuGetFallbackFolder/microsoft.codeanalysis.csharp/2\\.3\\.1%2Flib%2Fnetstandard1\\.3%2FMicrosoft.CodeAnalysis.CSharp.xml?at\\=b1dc21b912b5570ba5f46c5733a261496f6cbf7d\n\\|title\\=Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.CSharp A Binder converts names\n}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=May 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} a problem solved by later compilers.", "The effort needed to produce good object code was perhaps underestimated during the initial design of the language. [Program optimization](/wiki/Program_optimization \"Program optimization\") (needed to compete with the excellent program optimization carried out by available Fortran compilers) is unusually complex owing to [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect_%28computer_science%29 \"Side effect (computer science)\") and pervasive problems with [aliasing](/wiki/Aliasing_%28computing%29 \"Aliasing (computing)\") of variables. Unpredictable modification can occur asynchronously in [exception handlers](/wiki/Exception_handling \"Exception handling\"), which may be provided by \"{{tt\\|ON}} statements\" in (unseen) callers. Together, these make it difficult to reliably predict when a program's variables might be modified at runtime. In typical use, however, user\\-written error handlers (the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit) often do not make assignments to variables. In spite of the aforementioned difficulties, IBM produced the PL/I Optimizing Compiler in 1971\\.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/an/2013/04/man2013040018/13rRUxBrGiQ\n \\|title\\=Early Language and Compiler Developments at IBM Europe\n \\|author\\=A. Endres \\|year\\=2013}}", "PL/I contains many rarely used features, such as [multitasking](/wiki/Computer_multitasking \"Computer multitasking\") support (an IBM extension to the language) which add cost and complexity to the compiler, and its co\\-processing facilities require a multi\\-programming environment with support for non\\-blocking multiple threads for processes by the [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\"). Compiler writers were free to select whether to implement these features.", "An undeclared variable is, by default, declared by first occurrence—thus misspelling might lead to unpredictable results. This \"implicit declaration\" is no different from FORTRAN programs. For PL/I(F), however, an attribute listing enables the programmer to detect any misspelled or undeclared variable.", "### Programmer issues", "Many programmers were slow to move from [COBOL](/wiki/COBOL \"COBOL\") or [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\") due to a perceived complexity of the language and immaturity of the PL/I F compiler. Programmers were sharply divided into scientific programmers (who used Fortran) and business programmers (who used COBOL), with significant tension and even dislike between the groups. PL/I syntax borrowed from both COBOL and Fortran syntax. So instead of noticing features that would make their job easier, Fortran programmers of the time noticed COBOL syntax and had the opinion that it was a business language, while COBOL programmers noticed Fortran syntax and looked upon it as a scientific language.", "Both COBOL and Fortran programmers viewed it as a \"bigger\" version of their own language, and both were somewhat intimidated by the language and disinclined to adopt it. Another factor was *pseudo*\\-similarities to COBOL, Fortran, and ALGOL. These were PL/I elements that looked similar to one of those languages, but worked differently in PL/I. Such frustrations left many experienced programmers with a jaundiced view of PL/I, and often an active dislike for the language. An early UNIX fortune file contained the following tongue\\-in\\-cheek description of the language:{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "", "> Speaking as someone who has delved into the intricacies of PL/I, I am sure that only Real Men could have written such a machine\\-hogging, cycle\\-grabbing, all\\-encompassing monster. Allocate an array and free the middle third? Sure! Why not? Multiply a character string times a bit string and assign the result to a float decimal? Go ahead! Free a controlled variable procedure parameter and reallocate it before passing it back? Overlay three different types of variable on the same memory location? Anything you say! Write a recursive macro? Well, no, but Real Men use rescan. How could a language so obviously designed and written by Real Men not be intended for Real Man use?", "On the positive side, full support for [pointers](/wiki/Pointer_%28computer_programming%29 \"Pointer (computer programming)\") to all data types (including pointers to structures), [recursion](/wiki/Recursion \"Recursion\"), [multitasking](/wiki/Computer_multitasking \"Computer multitasking\"), string handling, and extensive built\\-in [functions](/wiki/Function_%28computer_science%29 \"Function (computer science)\") meant PL/I was indeed quite a leap forward compared to the programming languages of its time. However, these were not enough to persuade a majority of programmers or shops to switch to PL/I.", "The PL/I F compiler's compile time [preprocessor](/wiki/Preprocessor \"Preprocessor\") was unusual (outside the [Lisp](/wiki/Lisp_programming_language \"Lisp programming language\") world{{cite periodical \\|first\\=Timothy P.\\|last\\=Hart \\|title\\=MACRO Definitions for LISP \\|periodical\\=Artificial Intelligence Memos \\|number\\=57 \\|date\\=October 1963 \\|hdl\\=1721\\.1/6111 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}) in using its target language's syntax and semantics (*e.g.* as compared to the [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor \"C preprocessor\")'s \"\\#\" directives).", "" ]
Special topics in PL/I ---------------------- ### Storage classes PL/I provides several 'storage classes' to indicate how the lifetime of variables' storage is to be managed{{snd}} `STATIC`, `AUTOMATIC`, `CONTROLLED`, and `BASED`, and `AREA`. `STATIC` data is allocated and initialized at load\-time, as is done in [COBOL](/wiki/COBOL "COBOL") "working\-storage" and early [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran "Fortran"). This is the default for `EXTERNAL` variables (similar to C “extern” or Fortran “named common"), `AUTOMATIC` is PL/I's default storage class for `INTERNAL` variables, similar to that of other block\-structured languages influenced by [ALGOL](/wiki/ALGOL "ALGOL"), like the "auto" storage class in the [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)") language, the default storage allocation in [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 "Pascal (programming language)"), and "local\-storage" in IBM COBOL. Storage for `AUTOMATIC` variables is allocated upon entry into the procedure, `BEGIN`\-block, or `ON`\-unit in which they are declared. The compiler and runtime system allocate memory for a [stack frame](/wiki/Stack_frame "Stack frame") to contain them and other housekeeping information. If a variable is declared with an `INITIAL`\-attribute, code to set it to an initial value is executed at this time. Care is required to manage the use of initialization properly. Large amounts of code can be executed to initialize variables every time a scope is entered, especially if the variable is an array or structure. Storage for `AUTOMATIC` variables is freed at block exit. `STATIC`, `CONTROLLED`, or `BASED` variables are used to retain variables' contents between invocations of a procedure or block. `CONTROLLED` storage is managed using a stack, but the pushing and popping of allocations on the stack is managed by the programmer, using `ALLOCATE` and `FREE` statements. Storage for `BASED` variables is also managed using `ALLOCATE`/`FREE`, but instead of a stack these allocations have independent lifetimes and are addressed through `OFFSET` or `POINTER` variables. `BASED` variables can also be used to address arbitrary storage areas by setting the associated `POINTER` variable, for example following a [linked list](/wiki/Linked_list "Linked list"). The `AREA` attribute is used to declare programmer\-defined [heaps](/wiki/Heap_%28programming%29 "Heap (programming)"). Data can be allocated and freed within a specific area, and the area can be deleted, read, and written as a unit.{{cite book \|publisher\=IBM \|title\=Enterprise PL/I for z/OS PL/I for AIX Rational Developer for System z PL/I for Windows: Language Reference \|date\=September 2012 \|edition\=Third \|id\=SC14\-7285\-02 \|url\=https://publibfp.dhe.ibm.com/epubs/pdf/ibm4lr02\.pdf \|access\-date\=July 9, 2023}}{{rp\|pp.235– 274}} ### Storage type sharing There are several ways of accessing allocated storage through different data declarations. Some of these are well defined and safe, some can be used safely with careful programming, and some are inherently unsafe or machine dependent.{{rp\|pp.262–267,178–180}} Passing a variable as an argument to a parameter by reference allows the argument's allocated storage to be referenced using the parameter. The {{tt\|DEFINED}} attribute (e.g. `DCL A(10,10), B(2:9,2:9) DEFINED A`) allows part or all of a variable's storage to be used with a different, but consistent, declaration. The language definition includes a {{tt\|CELL}} attribute (later renamed {{tt\|UNION}}) to allow different definitions of data to share the same storage. This was not supported by many early IBM compilers. These usages are safe and machine independent. Record I/O and list processing produce situations where the programmer needs to fit a declaration to the storage of the next record or item, before knowing what type of data structure it has. Based variables and pointers are key to such programs. The data structures must be designed appropriately, typically using fields in a data structure to encode information about its type and size. The fields can be held in the preceding structure or, with some constraints, in the current one. Where the encoding is in the preceding structure, the program needs to allocate a based variable with a declaration that matches the current item (using expressions for extents where needed). Where the type and size information are to be kept in the current structure ("self defining structures") the type\-defining fields must be ahead of the type dependent items and in the same place in every version of the data structure. The {{tt\|REFER}}\-option is used for self\-defining extents (e.g. string lengths as in `DCL 1 A BASED, 2 N BINARY, 2 B CHAR(LENGTH REFER A.N.)`, etc {{snd}} where {{tt\|LENGTH}} is used to allocate instances of the data structure. For self\-defining structures, any typing and {{tt\|REFER}}ed fields are placed ahead of the "real" data. If the records in a data set, or the items in a list of data structures, are organised this way they can be handled safely in a machine independent way. PL/I implementations do not (except for the PL/I Checkout compiler) keep track of the data structure used when storage is first allocated. Any {{tt\|BASED}} declaration can be used with a pointer into the storage to access the storage{{snd}} inherently unsafe and machine dependent. However, this usage has become important for "pointer arithmetic" (typically adding a certain amount to a known address). This has been a contentious subject in computer science. In addition to the problem of wild references and buffer overruns, issues arise due to the alignment and length for data types used with particular machines and compilers. Many cases where pointer arithmetic might be needed involve finding a pointer to an element inside a larger data structure. The {{tt\|ADDR}} function computes such pointers, safely and machine independently. Pointer arithmetic may be accomplished by aliasing a binary variable with a pointer as in ``` DCL P POINTER, N FIXED BINARY(31) BASED(ADDR(P)); N=N+255; ``` It relies on pointers being the same length as `FIXED BINARY(31)` integers and aligned on the same boundaries. With the prevalence of C and its free and easy attitude to pointer arithmetic, recent IBM PL/I compilers allow pointers to be used with the addition and subtraction operators to giving the simplest syntax (but compiler options can disallow these practices where safety and machine independence are paramount). ### ON\-units and exception handling When PL/I was designed, programs only ran in batch mode, with no possible intervention from the programmer at a terminal. An exceptional condition such as division by zero would abort the program yielding only a hexadecimal core dump. PL/I exception handling, via {{tt\|ON}}\-units, allowed the program to stay in control in the face of hardware or operating system exceptions and to recover debugging information before closing down more gracefully. As a program became properly debugged, most of the exception handling could be removed or disabled: this level of control became less important when conversational execution became commonplace. Computational exception handling is enabled and disabled by condition prefixes on statements, blocks (including {{tt\|ON}}\-units) and procedures. – e.g. `(SIZE, NOSUBSCRIPTRANGE): A(I)=B(I)*C;` . Operating system exceptions for Input/Output and storage management are always enabled. The {{tt\|ON}}\-unit is a single statement or {{tt\|BEGIN}}\-block introduced by an {{tt\|ON}}\-statement. Executing the {{tt\|ON}} statement enables the condition specified, e.g., `ON ZERODIVIDE ON`\-unit. When the exception for this condition occurs and the condition is enabled, the {{tt\|ON}}\-unit for the condition is executed. {{tt\|ON}}\-units are inherited down the call chain. When a block, procedure or {{tt\|ON}}\-unit is activated, the {{tt\|ON}}\-units established by the invoking activation are inherited by the new activation. They may be over\-ridden by another {{tt\|ON}}\-statement and can be reestablished by the {{tt\|REVERT}}\-statement. The exception can be simulated using the {{tt\|SIGNAL}}\-statement – e.g. to help debug the exception handlers. The dynamic inheritance principle for {{tt\|ON}}\-units allows a routine to handle the exceptions occurring within the subroutines it uses. If no {{tt\|ON}}\-unit is in effect when a condition is raised a standard system action is taken (often this is to raise the {{tt\|ERROR}} condition). The system action can be reestablished using the {{tt\|SYSTEM}} option of the {{tt\|ON}}\-statement. With some conditions it is possible to complete executing an ON\-unit and return to the point of interrupt (e.g., the {{tt\|STRINGRANGE}}, {{tt\|UNDERFLOW}}, {{tt\|CONVERSION}}, {{tt\|OVERFLOW}}, {{tt\|AREA}}, and {{tt\|FILE}} conditions) and resume normal execution. With other conditions such as `(SUBSCRIPTRANGE)`, the {{tt\|ERROR}} condition is raised when this is attempted. An ON\-unit may be terminated with a `GO TO` preventing a return to the point of interrupt, but permitting the program to continue execution elsewhere as determined by the programmer. An {{tt\|ON}}\-unit needs to be designed to deal with exceptions that occur in the {{tt\|ON}}\-unit itself. The `ON ERROR SYSTEM;` statement allows a nested error trap; if an error occurs within an {{tt\|ON}}\-unit, control might pass to the operating system where a system dump might be produced, or, for some computational conditions, continue execution (as mentioned above). The PL/I {{tt\|RECORD}} I/O statements have relatively simple syntax as they do not offer options for the many situations from end\-of\-file to record transmission errors that can occur when a record is read or written. Instead, these complexities are handled in the {{tt\|ON}}\-units for the various file conditions. The same approach was adopted for {{tt\|AREA}} sub\-allocation and the {{tt\|AREA}} condition. The existence of exception handling {{tt\|ON}}\-units can have an effect on optimization, because variables can be inspected or altered in {{tt\|ON}}\-units. Values of variables that might otherwise be kept in registers between statements, may need to be returned to storage between statements. This is discussed in the section on Implementation Issues above.{{rp\|pp.249–376}} ### GO TO with a non\-fixed target PL/I has counterparts for COBOL and FORTRAN's specialized GO TO statements. Syntax for both COBOL and FORTRAN exist for coding two special two types of {{mono\|GO TO}}, each of which has a target that is not always the same. * {{tt\|ALTER}} (COBOL), {{tt\|ASSIGN}} (FORTRAN): + {{code\|ALTER paragraph\_name\_xxx TO PROCEED TO para\_name\_zzz\|cobolfree}} (“altered go to”).{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS6SG3\_4\.2\.0/com.ibm.entcobol.doc\_4\.2/PGandLR/ref/rlpsalte.htm \|title\=ALTER statement\|website\=\[\[IBM]] \|date\=24 September 2021 }} + There are other/helpful restrictions on these, especially "in programs ... {{tt\|RECURSIVE}} attribute, in methods, or .. {{tt\|THREAD}} option." + {{code\|ASSIGN 1860 TO IGOTTAGO\|fortran}} (“assigned go to”){{cite web \|url\=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19957\-01/805\-4939/6j4m0vn9j/index.html \|title\=GO TO (Assigned)}} {{code\|GO TO IGOTTAGO}} + One enhancement, which adds built\-in documentation, is {{code\|GO TO IGOTTAGO (1860, 1914, 1939\)}} * + (which restricts the variable's value to "one of the labels in the list.") * {{tt\|GO TO}} ... based on a variable's subscript\-like value. + {{code\|GO TO (1914, 1939, 2140\), MYCHOICE}} (“computed go to”){{cite web \|url\=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19957\-01/805\-4939/6j4m0vn9l/index.html \|title\=GO TO (Computed)}} + {{code\|GO TO para\_One para\_Two para\_Three DEPENDING ON IDECIDE\|cobol}} (“go to depending on”).{{cite web \|url\=https://www.tutorialride.com/cobol/go\-to\-statement\-in\-cobol.htm \|title\=GO TO Statement in COBOL}} PL/I has statement label variables (with the {{tt\|LABEL}} attribute), which can store the value of a statement label, and later be used in a {{tt\|GOTO}} statement.{{cite book \|title\=Digital Research PL/I Language Programmer's Guide \|page\=103}}{{rp\|54}}{{rp\|23}} ``` LABL1: .... . . LABL2: ... . . . MY_DEST = LABL1; . GO TO MY_DEST; ``` The programmer can also create an array of static label constants by subscripting the statement labels. ``` GO TO HERE(LUCKY_NUMBER); /* minus 1, zero, or ... */ ``` ``` HERE(-1): PUT LIST ("I O U"); GO TO Lottery; HERE(0): PUT LIST ("No Cash"); GO TO Lottery; HERE(1): PUT LIST ("Dollar Bill"); GO TO Lottery; HERE(2): PUT LIST ("TWO DOLLARS"); GO TO Lottery; ``` Statement label variables can be passed to called procedures, and used to return to a different statement in the calling routine.
[ "Special topics in PL/I\n----------------------", "### Storage classes", "PL/I provides several 'storage classes' to indicate how the lifetime of variables' storage is to be managed{{snd}} `STATIC`, `AUTOMATIC`, `CONTROLLED`, and `BASED`, and `AREA`.", "`STATIC` data is allocated and initialized at load\\-time, as is done in [COBOL](/wiki/COBOL \"COBOL\") \"working\\-storage\" and early [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\"). This is the default for `EXTERNAL` variables (similar to C “extern” or Fortran “named common\"),", "`AUTOMATIC` is PL/I's default storage class for `INTERNAL` variables, similar to that of other block\\-structured languages influenced by [ALGOL](/wiki/ALGOL \"ALGOL\"), like the \"auto\" storage class in the [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") language, the default storage allocation in [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\"), and \"local\\-storage\" in IBM COBOL. Storage for `AUTOMATIC` variables is allocated upon entry into the procedure, `BEGIN`\\-block, or `ON`\\-unit in which they are declared. The compiler and runtime system allocate memory for a [stack frame](/wiki/Stack_frame \"Stack frame\") to contain them and other housekeeping information. If a variable is declared with an `INITIAL`\\-attribute, code to set it to an initial value is executed at this time. Care is required to manage the use of initialization properly. Large amounts of code can be executed to initialize variables every time a scope is entered, especially if the variable is an array or structure. Storage for `AUTOMATIC` variables is freed at block exit.", "`STATIC`, `CONTROLLED`, or `BASED` variables are used to retain variables' contents between invocations of a procedure or block.", "`CONTROLLED` storage is managed using a stack, but the pushing and popping of allocations on the stack is managed by the programmer, using `ALLOCATE` and `FREE` statements.", "Storage for `BASED` variables is also managed using `ALLOCATE`/`FREE`, but instead of a stack these allocations have independent lifetimes and are addressed through `OFFSET` or `POINTER` variables. `BASED` variables can also be used to address arbitrary storage areas by setting the associated `POINTER` variable, for example following a [linked list](/wiki/Linked_list \"Linked list\").", "The `AREA` attribute is used to declare programmer\\-defined [heaps](/wiki/Heap_%28programming%29 \"Heap (programming)\"). Data can be allocated and freed within a specific area, and the area can be deleted, read, and written as a unit.{{cite book \\|publisher\\=IBM \\|title\\=Enterprise PL/I for z/OS PL/I for AIX Rational Developer for System z PL/I for Windows: Language Reference \\|date\\=September 2012 \\|edition\\=Third \\|id\\=SC14\\-7285\\-02 \\|url\\=https://publibfp.dhe.ibm.com/epubs/pdf/ibm4lr02\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2023}}{{rp\\|pp.235– 274}}", "### Storage type sharing", "There are several ways of accessing allocated storage through different data declarations. Some of these are well defined and safe, some can be used safely with careful programming, and some are inherently unsafe or machine dependent.{{rp\\|pp.262–267,178–180}}", "Passing a variable as an argument to a parameter by reference allows the argument's allocated storage to be referenced using the parameter. The {{tt\\|DEFINED}} attribute (e.g. `DCL A(10,10), B(2:9,2:9) DEFINED A`) allows part or all of a variable's storage to be used with a different, but consistent, declaration. The language definition includes a {{tt\\|CELL}} attribute (later renamed {{tt\\|UNION}}) to allow different definitions of data to share the same storage. This was not supported by many early IBM compilers. These usages are safe and machine independent.", "Record I/O and list processing produce situations where the programmer needs to fit a declaration to the storage of the next record or item, before knowing what type of data structure it has. Based variables and pointers are key to such programs. The data structures must be designed appropriately, typically using fields in a data structure to encode information about its type and size. The fields can be held in the preceding structure or, with some constraints, in the current one. Where the encoding is in the preceding structure, the program needs to allocate a based variable with a declaration that matches the current item (using expressions for extents where needed). Where the type and size information are to be kept in the current structure (\"self defining structures\") the type\\-defining fields must be ahead of the type dependent items and in the same place in every version of the data structure. The {{tt\\|REFER}}\\-option is used for self\\-defining extents (e.g. string lengths as in `DCL 1 A BASED, 2 N BINARY, 2 B CHAR(LENGTH REFER A.N.)`, etc {{snd}} where {{tt\\|LENGTH}} is used to allocate instances of the data structure. For self\\-defining structures, any typing and {{tt\\|REFER}}ed fields are placed ahead of the \"real\" data. If the records in a data set, or the items in a list of data structures, are organised this way they can be handled safely in a machine independent way.", "PL/I implementations do not (except for the PL/I Checkout compiler) keep track of the data structure used when storage is first allocated. Any {{tt\\|BASED}} declaration can be used with a pointer into the storage to access the storage{{snd}} inherently unsafe and machine dependent. However, this usage has become important for \"pointer arithmetic\" (typically adding a certain amount to a known address). This has been a contentious subject in computer science. In addition to the problem of wild references and buffer overruns, issues arise due to the alignment and length for data types used with particular machines and compilers. Many cases where pointer arithmetic might be needed involve finding a pointer to an element inside a larger data structure. The {{tt\\|ADDR}} function computes such pointers, safely and machine independently.", "Pointer arithmetic may be accomplished by aliasing a binary variable with a pointer as in", "```\nDCL P POINTER, N FIXED BINARY(31) BASED(ADDR(P));\nN=N+255;\n```", "It relies on pointers being the same length as `FIXED BINARY(31)` integers and aligned on the same boundaries.", "With the prevalence of C and its free and easy attitude to pointer arithmetic, recent IBM PL/I compilers allow pointers to be used with the addition and subtraction operators to giving the simplest syntax (but compiler options can disallow these practices where safety and machine independence are paramount).", "### ON\\-units and exception handling", "When PL/I was designed, programs only ran in batch mode, with no possible intervention from the programmer at a terminal. An exceptional condition such as division by zero would abort the program yielding only a hexadecimal core dump. PL/I exception handling, via {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units, allowed the program to stay in control in the face of hardware or operating system exceptions and to recover debugging information before closing down more gracefully. As a program became properly debugged, most of the exception handling could be removed or disabled: this level of control became less important when conversational execution became commonplace.", "Computational exception handling is enabled and disabled by condition prefixes on statements, blocks (including {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units) and procedures. – e.g. `(SIZE, NOSUBSCRIPTRANGE): A(I)=B(I)*C;` . Operating system exceptions for Input/Output and storage management are always enabled.", "The {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit is a single statement or {{tt\\|BEGIN}}\\-block introduced by an {{tt\\|ON}}\\-statement. Executing the {{tt\\|ON}} statement enables the condition specified, e.g., `ON ZERODIVIDE ON`\\-unit. When the exception for this condition occurs and the condition is enabled, the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit for the condition is executed. {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units are inherited down the call chain. When a block, procedure or {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit is activated, the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units established by the invoking activation are inherited by the new activation. They may be over\\-ridden by another {{tt\\|ON}}\\-statement and can be reestablished by the {{tt\\|REVERT}}\\-statement. The exception can be simulated using the {{tt\\|SIGNAL}}\\-statement – e.g. to help debug the exception handlers. The dynamic inheritance principle for {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units allows a routine to handle the exceptions occurring within the subroutines it uses.", "If no {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit is in effect when a condition is raised a standard system action is taken (often this is to raise the {{tt\\|ERROR}} condition). The system action can be reestablished using the {{tt\\|SYSTEM}} option of the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-statement. With some conditions it is possible to complete executing an ON\\-unit and return to the point of interrupt (e.g., the {{tt\\|STRINGRANGE}}, {{tt\\|UNDERFLOW}}, {{tt\\|CONVERSION}}, {{tt\\|OVERFLOW}}, {{tt\\|AREA}}, and {{tt\\|FILE}} conditions) and resume normal execution. With other conditions such as `(SUBSCRIPTRANGE)`, the {{tt\\|ERROR}} condition is raised when this is attempted. An ON\\-unit may be terminated with a `GO TO` preventing a return to the point of interrupt, but permitting the program to continue execution elsewhere as determined by the programmer.", "An {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit needs to be designed to deal with exceptions that occur in the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit itself. The `ON ERROR SYSTEM;` statement allows a nested error trap; if an error occurs within an {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit, control might pass to the operating system where a system dump might be produced, or, for some computational conditions, continue execution (as mentioned above).", "The PL/I {{tt\\|RECORD}} I/O statements have relatively simple syntax as they do not offer options for the many situations from end\\-of\\-file to record transmission errors that can occur when a record is read or written. Instead, these complexities are handled in the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units for the various file conditions. The same approach was adopted for {{tt\\|AREA}} sub\\-allocation and the {{tt\\|AREA}} condition.", "The existence of exception handling {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units can have an effect on optimization, because variables can be inspected or altered in {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units. Values of variables that might otherwise be kept in registers between statements, may need to be returned to storage between statements. This is discussed in the section on Implementation Issues above.{{rp\\|pp.249–376}}", "### GO TO with a non\\-fixed target", "PL/I has counterparts for COBOL and FORTRAN's specialized GO TO statements.", "Syntax for both COBOL and FORTRAN exist for coding two special two types of {{mono\\|GO TO}}, each of which has a target that is not always the same.\n* {{tt\\|ALTER}} (COBOL), {{tt\\|ASSIGN}} (FORTRAN):\n\t+ {{code\\|ALTER paragraph\\_name\\_xxx TO PROCEED TO para\\_name\\_zzz\\|cobolfree}} (“altered go to”).{{cite web\n\t \\|url\\=https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS6SG3\\_4\\.2\\.0/com.ibm.entcobol.doc\\_4\\.2/PGandLR/ref/rlpsalte.htm\n\t \\|title\\=ALTER statement\\|website\\=\\[\\[IBM]] \\|date\\=24 September 2021 }}\n\t+ There are other/helpful restrictions on these, especially \"in programs ... {{tt\\|RECURSIVE}} attribute, in methods, or .. {{tt\\|THREAD}} option.\"\n\t+ {{code\\|ASSIGN 1860 TO IGOTTAGO\\|fortran}} (“assigned go to”){{cite web\n\t \\|url\\=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19957\\-01/805\\-4939/6j4m0vn9j/index.html\n\t \\|title\\=GO TO (Assigned)}} \n\t{{code\\|GO TO IGOTTAGO}}\n\t+ One enhancement, which adds built\\-in documentation, is \n\t{{code\\|GO TO IGOTTAGO (1860, 1914, 1939\\)}}\n* + (which restricts the variable's value to \"one of the labels in the list.\")\n* {{tt\\|GO TO}} ... based on a variable's subscript\\-like value.\n\t+ {{code\\|GO TO (1914, 1939, 2140\\), MYCHOICE}} (“computed go to”){{cite web\n\t \\|url\\=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19957\\-01/805\\-4939/6j4m0vn9l/index.html\n\t \\|title\\=GO TO (Computed)}}\n\t+ {{code\\|GO TO para\\_One para\\_Two para\\_Three DEPENDING ON IDECIDE\\|cobol}} (“go to depending on”).{{cite web\n\t \\|url\\=https://www.tutorialride.com/cobol/go\\-to\\-statement\\-in\\-cobol.htm\n\t \\|title\\=GO TO Statement in COBOL}}", "PL/I has statement label variables (with the {{tt\\|LABEL}} attribute), which can store the value of a statement label, and later be used in a {{tt\\|GOTO}} statement.{{cite book\n \\|title\\=Digital Research PL/I Language Programmer's Guide\n \\|page\\=103}}{{rp\\|54}}{{rp\\|23}}", "```", "LABL1: ....\n.\n.\nLABL2: ...\n.\n.\n.\nMY_DEST = LABL1;\n.\nGO TO MY_DEST;", "```", "", "The programmer can also create an array of static label constants by subscripting the statement labels.", "```\nGO TO HERE(LUCKY_NUMBER); /* minus 1, zero, or ... */", "```", "```\nHERE(-1): PUT LIST (\"I O U\"); GO TO Lottery;\nHERE(0): PUT LIST (\"No Cash\"); GO TO Lottery;\nHERE(1): PUT LIST (\"Dollar Bill\"); GO TO Lottery;\nHERE(2): PUT LIST (\"TWO DOLLARS\"); GO TO Lottery;", "```", "Statement label variables can be passed to called procedures, and used to return to a different statement in the calling routine.", "" ]
### Storage type sharing There are several ways of accessing allocated storage through different data declarations. Some of these are well defined and safe, some can be used safely with careful programming, and some are inherently unsafe or machine dependent.{{rp\|pp.262–267,178–180}} Passing a variable as an argument to a parameter by reference allows the argument's allocated storage to be referenced using the parameter. The {{tt\|DEFINED}} attribute (e.g. `DCL A(10,10), B(2:9,2:9) DEFINED A`) allows part or all of a variable's storage to be used with a different, but consistent, declaration. The language definition includes a {{tt\|CELL}} attribute (later renamed {{tt\|UNION}}) to allow different definitions of data to share the same storage. This was not supported by many early IBM compilers. These usages are safe and machine independent. Record I/O and list processing produce situations where the programmer needs to fit a declaration to the storage of the next record or item, before knowing what type of data structure it has. Based variables and pointers are key to such programs. The data structures must be designed appropriately, typically using fields in a data structure to encode information about its type and size. The fields can be held in the preceding structure or, with some constraints, in the current one. Where the encoding is in the preceding structure, the program needs to allocate a based variable with a declaration that matches the current item (using expressions for extents where needed). Where the type and size information are to be kept in the current structure ("self defining structures") the type\-defining fields must be ahead of the type dependent items and in the same place in every version of the data structure. The {{tt\|REFER}}\-option is used for self\-defining extents (e.g. string lengths as in `DCL 1 A BASED, 2 N BINARY, 2 B CHAR(LENGTH REFER A.N.)`, etc {{snd}} where {{tt\|LENGTH}} is used to allocate instances of the data structure. For self\-defining structures, any typing and {{tt\|REFER}}ed fields are placed ahead of the "real" data. If the records in a data set, or the items in a list of data structures, are organised this way they can be handled safely in a machine independent way. PL/I implementations do not (except for the PL/I Checkout compiler) keep track of the data structure used when storage is first allocated. Any {{tt\|BASED}} declaration can be used with a pointer into the storage to access the storage{{snd}} inherently unsafe and machine dependent. However, this usage has become important for "pointer arithmetic" (typically adding a certain amount to a known address). This has been a contentious subject in computer science. In addition to the problem of wild references and buffer overruns, issues arise due to the alignment and length for data types used with particular machines and compilers. Many cases where pointer arithmetic might be needed involve finding a pointer to an element inside a larger data structure. The {{tt\|ADDR}} function computes such pointers, safely and machine independently. Pointer arithmetic may be accomplished by aliasing a binary variable with a pointer as in ``` DCL P POINTER, N FIXED BINARY(31) BASED(ADDR(P)); N=N+255; ``` It relies on pointers being the same length as `FIXED BINARY(31)` integers and aligned on the same boundaries. With the prevalence of C and its free and easy attitude to pointer arithmetic, recent IBM PL/I compilers allow pointers to be used with the addition and subtraction operators to giving the simplest syntax (but compiler options can disallow these practices where safety and machine independence are paramount).
[ "### Storage type sharing", "There are several ways of accessing allocated storage through different data declarations. Some of these are well defined and safe, some can be used safely with careful programming, and some are inherently unsafe or machine dependent.{{rp\\|pp.262–267,178–180}}", "Passing a variable as an argument to a parameter by reference allows the argument's allocated storage to be referenced using the parameter. The {{tt\\|DEFINED}} attribute (e.g. `DCL A(10,10), B(2:9,2:9) DEFINED A`) allows part or all of a variable's storage to be used with a different, but consistent, declaration. The language definition includes a {{tt\\|CELL}} attribute (later renamed {{tt\\|UNION}}) to allow different definitions of data to share the same storage. This was not supported by many early IBM compilers. These usages are safe and machine independent.", "Record I/O and list processing produce situations where the programmer needs to fit a declaration to the storage of the next record or item, before knowing what type of data structure it has. Based variables and pointers are key to such programs. The data structures must be designed appropriately, typically using fields in a data structure to encode information about its type and size. The fields can be held in the preceding structure or, with some constraints, in the current one. Where the encoding is in the preceding structure, the program needs to allocate a based variable with a declaration that matches the current item (using expressions for extents where needed). Where the type and size information are to be kept in the current structure (\"self defining structures\") the type\\-defining fields must be ahead of the type dependent items and in the same place in every version of the data structure. The {{tt\\|REFER}}\\-option is used for self\\-defining extents (e.g. string lengths as in `DCL 1 A BASED, 2 N BINARY, 2 B CHAR(LENGTH REFER A.N.)`, etc {{snd}} where {{tt\\|LENGTH}} is used to allocate instances of the data structure. For self\\-defining structures, any typing and {{tt\\|REFER}}ed fields are placed ahead of the \"real\" data. If the records in a data set, or the items in a list of data structures, are organised this way they can be handled safely in a machine independent way.", "PL/I implementations do not (except for the PL/I Checkout compiler) keep track of the data structure used when storage is first allocated. Any {{tt\\|BASED}} declaration can be used with a pointer into the storage to access the storage{{snd}} inherently unsafe and machine dependent. However, this usage has become important for \"pointer arithmetic\" (typically adding a certain amount to a known address). This has been a contentious subject in computer science. In addition to the problem of wild references and buffer overruns, issues arise due to the alignment and length for data types used with particular machines and compilers. Many cases where pointer arithmetic might be needed involve finding a pointer to an element inside a larger data structure. The {{tt\\|ADDR}} function computes such pointers, safely and machine independently.", "Pointer arithmetic may be accomplished by aliasing a binary variable with a pointer as in", "```\nDCL P POINTER, N FIXED BINARY(31) BASED(ADDR(P));\nN=N+255;\n```", "It relies on pointers being the same length as `FIXED BINARY(31)` integers and aligned on the same boundaries.", "With the prevalence of C and its free and easy attitude to pointer arithmetic, recent IBM PL/I compilers allow pointers to be used with the addition and subtraction operators to giving the simplest syntax (but compiler options can disallow these practices where safety and machine independence are paramount).", "" ]
### ON\-units and exception handling When PL/I was designed, programs only ran in batch mode, with no possible intervention from the programmer at a terminal. An exceptional condition such as division by zero would abort the program yielding only a hexadecimal core dump. PL/I exception handling, via {{tt\|ON}}\-units, allowed the program to stay in control in the face of hardware or operating system exceptions and to recover debugging information before closing down more gracefully. As a program became properly debugged, most of the exception handling could be removed or disabled: this level of control became less important when conversational execution became commonplace. Computational exception handling is enabled and disabled by condition prefixes on statements, blocks (including {{tt\|ON}}\-units) and procedures. – e.g. `(SIZE, NOSUBSCRIPTRANGE): A(I)=B(I)*C;` . Operating system exceptions for Input/Output and storage management are always enabled. The {{tt\|ON}}\-unit is a single statement or {{tt\|BEGIN}}\-block introduced by an {{tt\|ON}}\-statement. Executing the {{tt\|ON}} statement enables the condition specified, e.g., `ON ZERODIVIDE ON`\-unit. When the exception for this condition occurs and the condition is enabled, the {{tt\|ON}}\-unit for the condition is executed. {{tt\|ON}}\-units are inherited down the call chain. When a block, procedure or {{tt\|ON}}\-unit is activated, the {{tt\|ON}}\-units established by the invoking activation are inherited by the new activation. They may be over\-ridden by another {{tt\|ON}}\-statement and can be reestablished by the {{tt\|REVERT}}\-statement. The exception can be simulated using the {{tt\|SIGNAL}}\-statement – e.g. to help debug the exception handlers. The dynamic inheritance principle for {{tt\|ON}}\-units allows a routine to handle the exceptions occurring within the subroutines it uses. If no {{tt\|ON}}\-unit is in effect when a condition is raised a standard system action is taken (often this is to raise the {{tt\|ERROR}} condition). The system action can be reestablished using the {{tt\|SYSTEM}} option of the {{tt\|ON}}\-statement. With some conditions it is possible to complete executing an ON\-unit and return to the point of interrupt (e.g., the {{tt\|STRINGRANGE}}, {{tt\|UNDERFLOW}}, {{tt\|CONVERSION}}, {{tt\|OVERFLOW}}, {{tt\|AREA}}, and {{tt\|FILE}} conditions) and resume normal execution. With other conditions such as `(SUBSCRIPTRANGE)`, the {{tt\|ERROR}} condition is raised when this is attempted. An ON\-unit may be terminated with a `GO TO` preventing a return to the point of interrupt, but permitting the program to continue execution elsewhere as determined by the programmer. An {{tt\|ON}}\-unit needs to be designed to deal with exceptions that occur in the {{tt\|ON}}\-unit itself. The `ON ERROR SYSTEM;` statement allows a nested error trap; if an error occurs within an {{tt\|ON}}\-unit, control might pass to the operating system where a system dump might be produced, or, for some computational conditions, continue execution (as mentioned above). The PL/I {{tt\|RECORD}} I/O statements have relatively simple syntax as they do not offer options for the many situations from end\-of\-file to record transmission errors that can occur when a record is read or written. Instead, these complexities are handled in the {{tt\|ON}}\-units for the various file conditions. The same approach was adopted for {{tt\|AREA}} sub\-allocation and the {{tt\|AREA}} condition. The existence of exception handling {{tt\|ON}}\-units can have an effect on optimization, because variables can be inspected or altered in {{tt\|ON}}\-units. Values of variables that might otherwise be kept in registers between statements, may need to be returned to storage between statements. This is discussed in the section on Implementation Issues above.{{rp\|pp.249–376}}
[ "### ON\\-units and exception handling", "When PL/I was designed, programs only ran in batch mode, with no possible intervention from the programmer at a terminal. An exceptional condition such as division by zero would abort the program yielding only a hexadecimal core dump. PL/I exception handling, via {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units, allowed the program to stay in control in the face of hardware or operating system exceptions and to recover debugging information before closing down more gracefully. As a program became properly debugged, most of the exception handling could be removed or disabled: this level of control became less important when conversational execution became commonplace.", "Computational exception handling is enabled and disabled by condition prefixes on statements, blocks (including {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units) and procedures. – e.g. `(SIZE, NOSUBSCRIPTRANGE): A(I)=B(I)*C;` . Operating system exceptions for Input/Output and storage management are always enabled.", "The {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit is a single statement or {{tt\\|BEGIN}}\\-block introduced by an {{tt\\|ON}}\\-statement. Executing the {{tt\\|ON}} statement enables the condition specified, e.g., `ON ZERODIVIDE ON`\\-unit. When the exception for this condition occurs and the condition is enabled, the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit for the condition is executed. {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units are inherited down the call chain. When a block, procedure or {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit is activated, the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units established by the invoking activation are inherited by the new activation. They may be over\\-ridden by another {{tt\\|ON}}\\-statement and can be reestablished by the {{tt\\|REVERT}}\\-statement. The exception can be simulated using the {{tt\\|SIGNAL}}\\-statement – e.g. to help debug the exception handlers. The dynamic inheritance principle for {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units allows a routine to handle the exceptions occurring within the subroutines it uses.", "If no {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit is in effect when a condition is raised a standard system action is taken (often this is to raise the {{tt\\|ERROR}} condition). The system action can be reestablished using the {{tt\\|SYSTEM}} option of the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-statement. With some conditions it is possible to complete executing an ON\\-unit and return to the point of interrupt (e.g., the {{tt\\|STRINGRANGE}}, {{tt\\|UNDERFLOW}}, {{tt\\|CONVERSION}}, {{tt\\|OVERFLOW}}, {{tt\\|AREA}}, and {{tt\\|FILE}} conditions) and resume normal execution. With other conditions such as `(SUBSCRIPTRANGE)`, the {{tt\\|ERROR}} condition is raised when this is attempted. An ON\\-unit may be terminated with a `GO TO` preventing a return to the point of interrupt, but permitting the program to continue execution elsewhere as determined by the programmer.", "An {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit needs to be designed to deal with exceptions that occur in the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit itself. The `ON ERROR SYSTEM;` statement allows a nested error trap; if an error occurs within an {{tt\\|ON}}\\-unit, control might pass to the operating system where a system dump might be produced, or, for some computational conditions, continue execution (as mentioned above).", "The PL/I {{tt\\|RECORD}} I/O statements have relatively simple syntax as they do not offer options for the many situations from end\\-of\\-file to record transmission errors that can occur when a record is read or written. Instead, these complexities are handled in the {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units for the various file conditions. The same approach was adopted for {{tt\\|AREA}} sub\\-allocation and the {{tt\\|AREA}} condition.", "The existence of exception handling {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units can have an effect on optimization, because variables can be inspected or altered in {{tt\\|ON}}\\-units. Values of variables that might otherwise be kept in registers between statements, may need to be returned to storage between statements. This is discussed in the section on Implementation Issues above.{{rp\\|pp.249–376}}", "" ]
History ------- Biblical [Nazareth](/wiki/Nazareth "Nazareth") was one of the major sees of the [Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem](/wiki/Latin_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem "Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem") during the [crusades](/wiki/Crusade "Crusade"). After capturing [Nazareth](/wiki/Nazareth "Nazareth"), the leaders of the [First Crusade](/wiki/First_Crusade "First Crusade") moved there the [Metropolitan see](/wiki/Metropolitan_see "Metropolitan see") of [Scythopolis](/wiki/Scythopolis_%28see%29 "Scythopolis (see)"), while the [Greek Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church") continued to maintain two separate dioceses. Nazareth thus became a [Latin Church](/wiki/Latin_Church "Latin Church") Metropolitan Archdiocese circa 1100\. Among its [suffragans](/wiki/Suffragan "Suffragan") were the [Bishopric of Tiberias](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Tiberias "Bishopric of Tiberias") and the Abbot of [Mount Tabor](/wiki/Mount_Tabor "Mount Tabor"). Following the [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") conquest in the [Holy Land](/wiki/Holy_Land "Holy Land"), the Archbishops of Nazareth took refuge in [Barletta](/wiki/Barletta "Barletta") ([Apulia](/wiki/Apulia "Apulia"), southern [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy")), and moved permanently there in 1327\. It began the long line of Metropolitan Archbishops of Nazareth residing in Barletta, which was called the see of **Nazareth in Barletta**. On June 27, 1818, with the [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull "Papal bull") *De ulteriori* of [Pope Pius VII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII "Pope Pius VII"), the Archdiocese of Nazareth was suppressed. On 22 October 1828, with the Bull *Multis quidem* of [Pope Leo XII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XII "Pope Leo XII"), the title of Archbishop of Nazareth was granted to the Archbishops of [Trani](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani"). By mergers, the title passed again to the restyled Archbishops of [Trani\-Barletta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta") (1860\) and then to the [Archbishops of Trani\-Barletta\-Bisceglie](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie") (1986\).
[ "History\n-------", "Biblical [Nazareth](/wiki/Nazareth \"Nazareth\") was one of the major sees of the [Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem](/wiki/Latin_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem \"Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem\") during the [crusades](/wiki/Crusade \"Crusade\"). After capturing [Nazareth](/wiki/Nazareth \"Nazareth\"), the leaders of the [First Crusade](/wiki/First_Crusade \"First Crusade\") moved there the [Metropolitan see](/wiki/Metropolitan_see \"Metropolitan see\") of [Scythopolis](/wiki/Scythopolis_%28see%29 \"Scythopolis (see)\"), while the [Greek Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\") continued to maintain two separate dioceses.", "Nazareth thus became a [Latin Church](/wiki/Latin_Church \"Latin Church\") Metropolitan Archdiocese circa 1100\\. Among its [suffragans](/wiki/Suffragan \"Suffragan\") were the [Bishopric of Tiberias](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Tiberias \"Bishopric of Tiberias\") and the Abbot of [Mount Tabor](/wiki/Mount_Tabor \"Mount Tabor\").", "Following the [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\") conquest in the [Holy Land](/wiki/Holy_Land \"Holy Land\"), the Archbishops of Nazareth took refuge in [Barletta](/wiki/Barletta \"Barletta\") ([Apulia](/wiki/Apulia \"Apulia\"), southern [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\")), and moved permanently there in 1327\\. It began the long line of Metropolitan Archbishops of Nazareth residing in Barletta, which was called the see of **Nazareth in Barletta**.", "On June 27, 1818, with the [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") *De ulteriori* of [Pope Pius VII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII \"Pope Pius VII\"), the Archdiocese of Nazareth was suppressed.", "On 22 October 1828, with the Bull *Multis quidem* of [Pope Leo XII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XII \"Pope Leo XII\"), the title of Archbishop of Nazareth was granted to the Archbishops of [Trani](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani\").", "By mergers, the title passed again to the restyled Archbishops of [Trani\\-Barletta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta\") (1860\\) and then to the [Archbishops of Trani\\-Barletta\\-Bisceglie](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie\") (1986\\).", "" ]
Titular successor sees ---------------------- ### Latin Titular Archbishopric of Nazareth (all [Roman Rite](/wiki/Roman_Rite "Roman Rite")) On 21 April 1860, the archdiocese was nominally restored as Metropolitan [Titular archbishopric](/wiki/Titular_archbishopric "Titular archbishopric") of Nazareth. In 1925 it was suppressed, only to be restored in 1929 and finally united with (i.e. merged into) the residential Metropolitan [Archdiocese of Trani–Barletta–Bisceglie](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie"), also territorial heir to the former Apulian see in exile. It has had the following archiepiscopal incumbents, apparently all of the highest (Metropolitan) rank : * Giuseppe de' Bianchi Dottula (1860\.04\.21 – 1892\.09\.22\) * [Domenico Marinangeli](/wiki/Domenico_Marinangeli "Domenico Marinangeli") (1893\.01\.16 – 1898\.01\.08\), as former Bishop of [Foggia](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Foggia "Roman Catholic Diocese of Foggia") (Italy) (1882\.03\.27 – 1893\.01\.16\) and Metropolitan Archbishop of [Trani e Barletta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie") (Italy) (1893\.01\.16 – 1898\.01\.08\), later [Latin Titular Patriarch of Alexandria](/wiki/Latin_Titular_Patriarch_of_Alexandria "Latin Titular Patriarch of Alexandria") (1898\.01\.08 – 1921\.03\.06\) * Tommaso de Stefano (1898\.03\.24 – 1906\.05\.19\) * Francesco Paolo Carrano (1906\.09\.01 – 1915\.03\.18\) * Giovanni Régine (1915\.12\.06 – 1918\.10\.04\) * Giuseppe Maria Leo (1920\.01\.17 – 1925\) * Paul Auad (1941\.06\.14 – 1944\.06\.28\) * Reginaldo Giuseppe Maria Addazi, [Dominican Order](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") (O.P.) (1947\.11\.10 – 1971\.07\.03\) * Giuseppe Carata (1971\.08\.28 – 1989\). ### Maronite Titular (Arch)Bishopric of Nazareth ([Antiochian Rite](/wiki/Antiochian_Rite "Antiochian Rite")) It was established in the late 19th century as a [Titular bishopric](/wiki/Titular_bishopric "Titular bishopric") of the lowest (episcopal) rank, but suppressed in 1911, having had a single incumbent : * Titular Bishop Youhanna Habib (1889 – 1894\.06\.04\). In 1926 it was restored, now as a [Titular archbishopric](/wiki/Titular_archbishopric "Titular archbishopric") of the intermediate (non\-Metropolitan) rank. In 1939 it was again suppressed, having had the following incumbents : * Titular Archbishop Paul Auad (1896\.09\.24 – 1911\.02\.11\) * Titular Archbishop Elias Richa (1926\.06\.21 – 1937\.10\.10\).
[ "Titular successor sees\n----------------------", "### Latin Titular Archbishopric of Nazareth", "(all [Roman Rite](/wiki/Roman_Rite \"Roman Rite\"))", "On 21 April 1860, the archdiocese was nominally restored as Metropolitan [Titular archbishopric](/wiki/Titular_archbishopric \"Titular archbishopric\") of Nazareth.", "In 1925 it was suppressed, only to be restored in 1929 and finally united with (i.e. merged into) the residential Metropolitan [Archdiocese of Trani–Barletta–Bisceglie](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie\"), also territorial heir to the former Apulian see in exile.", "It has had the following archiepiscopal incumbents, apparently all of the highest (Metropolitan) rank :\n* Giuseppe de' Bianchi Dottula (1860\\.04\\.21 – 1892\\.09\\.22\\)\n* [Domenico Marinangeli](/wiki/Domenico_Marinangeli \"Domenico Marinangeli\") (1893\\.01\\.16 – 1898\\.01\\.08\\), as former Bishop of [Foggia](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Foggia \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Foggia\") (Italy) (1882\\.03\\.27 – 1893\\.01\\.16\\) and Metropolitan Archbishop of [Trani e Barletta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trani-Barletta-Bisceglie\") (Italy) (1893\\.01\\.16 – 1898\\.01\\.08\\), later [Latin Titular Patriarch of Alexandria](/wiki/Latin_Titular_Patriarch_of_Alexandria \"Latin Titular Patriarch of Alexandria\") (1898\\.01\\.08 – 1921\\.03\\.06\\)\n* Tommaso de Stefano (1898\\.03\\.24 – 1906\\.05\\.19\\)\n* Francesco Paolo Carrano (1906\\.09\\.01 – 1915\\.03\\.18\\)\n* Giovanni Régine (1915\\.12\\.06 – 1918\\.10\\.04\\)\n* Giuseppe Maria Leo (1920\\.01\\.17 – 1925\\)\n* Paul Auad (1941\\.06\\.14 – 1944\\.06\\.28\\)\n* Reginaldo Giuseppe Maria Addazi, [Dominican Order](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") (O.P.) (1947\\.11\\.10 – 1971\\.07\\.03\\)\n* Giuseppe Carata (1971\\.08\\.28 – 1989\\).", "### Maronite Titular (Arch)Bishopric of Nazareth", "([Antiochian Rite](/wiki/Antiochian_Rite \"Antiochian Rite\"))", "It was established in the late 19th century as a [Titular bishopric](/wiki/Titular_bishopric \"Titular bishopric\") of the lowest (episcopal) rank, but suppressed in 1911, having had a single incumbent :\n* Titular Bishop Youhanna Habib (1889 – 1894\\.06\\.04\\).", "In 1926 it was restored, now as a [Titular archbishopric](/wiki/Titular_archbishopric \"Titular archbishopric\") of the intermediate (non\\-Metropolitan) rank. In 1939 it was again suppressed, having had the following incumbents :\n* Titular Archbishop Paul Auad (1896\\.09\\.24 – 1911\\.02\\.11\\)\n* Titular Archbishop Elias Richa (1926\\.06\\.21 – 1937\\.10\\.10\\).", "" ]
Musical career -------------- One of Kershaw's demonstration tapes made its way to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records"), which released his debut album *[Don't Go Near the Water](/wiki/Don%27t_Go_Near_the_Water_%28album%29 "Don't Go Near the Water (album)")* in 1991\. This album was certified [platinum](/wiki/Platinum_album "Platinum album") by the [RIAA](/wiki/RIAA "RIAA"), and it produced four hit singles. The lead\-off, "[Cadillac Style](/wiki/Cadillac_Style "Cadillac Style")", went to No. 3 in late 1991 and early 1992, followed by the [title track](/wiki/Don%27t_Go_Near_the_Water_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "Don't Go Near the Water (Sammy Kershaw song)") at No. 12, "[Yard Sale](/wiki/Yard_Sale_%28song%29 "Yard Sale (song)")" at No. 17, and "[Anywhere but Here](/wiki/Anywhere_but_Here_%28song%29 "Anywhere but Here (song)")" at No. 10\. Kershaw was initially reluctant to release "Cadillac Style" because he felt that it was not suitable for his style; however, his co\-producer, [Buddy Cannon](/wiki/Buddy_Cannon "Buddy Cannon"), convinced him to give the song a chance. Kershaw's often [honky\-tonk](/wiki/Honky-tonk "Honky-tonk") material and singing voice led to critical comparisons to [George Jones](/wiki/George_Jones "George Jones"), and he covered one of Jones's early singles, "What Am I Worth", on his debut as well. In 1993, Kershaw received an initial nomination for the [Academy of Country Music Award for New Male Vocalist of the Year](/wiki/Academy_of_Country_Music_Award_for_New_Male_Artist_of_the_Year "Academy of Country Music Award for New Male Artist of the Year"). He was nominated alongside [Billy Ray Cyrus](/wiki/Billy_Ray_Cyrus "Billy Ray Cyrus"), [Tracy Lawrence](/wiki/Tracy_Lawrence "Tracy Lawrence"), [Chris LeDoux](/wiki/Chris_LeDoux "Chris LeDoux") and [Collin Raye](/wiki/Collin_Raye "Collin Raye"); Cyrus, Lawrence and Raye would make the final three.{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-All\-Music/Cash\-Box/90s/1993/CB\-1993\-02\-13\.pdf\|title\=ACM Announces Nominations\|magazine\=\[\[Cashbox (magazine)\|Cashbox]]\|pages\=21\|date\=February 13, 1993}} Kershaw's second album, *[Haunted Heart](/wiki/Haunted_Heart_%28Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 "Haunted Heart (Sammy Kershaw album)")*, followed in 1993\. Its lead\-off single, "[She Don't Know She's Beautiful](/wiki/She_Don%27t_Know_She%27s_Beautiful "She Don't Know She's Beautiful")", became his only Number One hit, in April of that year. Following it were the [title track](/wiki/Haunted_Heart_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "Haunted Heart (Sammy Kershaw song)"), the [Dennis Linde](/wiki/Dennis_Linde "Dennis Linde")–penned "[Queen of My Double\-Wide Trailer](/wiki/Queen_of_My_Double-Wide_Trailer "Queen of My Double-Wide Trailer")", and "[I Can't Reach Her Anymore](/wiki/I_Can%27t_Reach_Her_Anymore "I Can't Reach Her Anymore")", all of which hit the Top 10 as well. Although Kershaw had been told by others that radio audiences might not identify with the subject matter on "Queen of My Double\-Wide Trailer", Kershaw wanted to release the song because he had an experience similar to its story line. Like his debut, *Haunted Heart* was a platinum album. In mid\-1994, Kershaw also covered the [Lynyrd Skynyrd](/wiki/Lynyrd_Skynyrd "Lynyrd Skynyrd") song "[I Know a Little](/wiki/I_Know_a_Little "I Know a Little")" on the tribute album *[Skynyrd Frynds](/wiki/Skynyrd_Frynds "Skynyrd Frynds")*, which included country music covers of Skynyrd songs. Also in 1994, Kershaw contributed the song "[Fire and Rain](/wiki/Fire_and_Rain_%28song%29 "Fire and Rain (song)")" to the [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS") benefit album *[Red Hot \+ Country](/wiki/Red_Hot_%2B_Country "Red Hot + Country")*, produced by the [Red Hot Organization](/wiki/Red_Hot_Organization "Red Hot Organization"). *[Feelin' Good Train](/wiki/Feelin%27_Good_Train "Feelin' Good Train")* was Kershaw's third album, released later in 1994\. This album also produced four hits, including two consecutive No. 2's in "[National Working Woman's Holiday](/wiki/National_Working_Woman%27s_Holiday "National Working Woman's Holiday")" and "[Third Rate Romance](/wiki/Third_Rate_Romance "Third Rate Romance")" (the latter a cover of the [Amazing Rhythm Aces](/wiki/Amazing_Rhythm_Aces "Amazing Rhythm Aces") hit from 1975\), with the No. 27 "[Southbound](/wiki/Southbound_%28Mac_McAnally_song%29 "Southbound (Mac McAnally song)")" and No. 18 "[If You're Gonna Walk, I'm Gonna Crawl](/wiki/If_You%27re_Gonna_Walk%2C_I%27m_Gonna_Crawl "If You're Gonna Walk, I'm Gonna Crawl")" following in 1995\. The album included a duet with George Jones on "Never Bit a Bullet Like This", which had previously been released on Jones's 1993 album *[High\-Tech Redneck](/wiki/High-Tech_Redneck "High-Tech Redneck")*. *Feelin' Good Train* was certified gold. It was followed by a Christmas album, *[Christmas Time's A\-Comin'](/wiki/Christmas_Time%27s_A-Comin%27_%28album%29 "Christmas Time's A-Comin' (album)")*, and Kershaw's first greatest\-hits package, *Greatest Hits, Volume 1*, both in 1995\. The latter produced a No. 47 single in "Your Tattoo" (written by [Kostas](/wiki/Kostas_Lazarides "Kostas Lazarides") and [Jack Tempchin](/wiki/Jack_Tempchin "Jack Tempchin")), the first single of Kershaw's career not to reach the Top 40\. ### Mid\-late 1990s Kershaw's fourth studio album, the gold\-certified *[Politics, Religion and Her](/wiki/Politics%2C_Religion_and_Her "Politics, Religion and Her")*, was issued in 1996\. It produced Top 10 hits in "[Meant to Be](/wiki/Meant_to_Be_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "Meant to Be (Sammy Kershaw song)")" and "[Vidalia](/wiki/Vidalia_%28song%29 "Vidalia (song)")", the latter of which Kershaw also considered a risky song, saying, "If radio will play this one more than twice—so people can get the story and learn what a [Vidalia onion](/wiki/Vidalia_onion "Vidalia onion") is—it'll be a smash." These songs were followed by "[Fit to Be Tied Down](/wiki/Fit_to_Be_Tied_Down_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "Fit to Be Tied Down (Sammy Kershaw song)")" and the [title track](/wiki/Politics%2C_Religion_and_Her_%28song%29 "Politics, Religion and Her (song)"), both of which hit the Top 30\. Also included on *Politics, Religion and Her* were covers of [Chuck Berry](/wiki/Chuck_Berry "Chuck Berry")'s "[Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee_%28song%29 "Memphis, Tennessee (song)")" and [Sammy Johns](/wiki/Sammy_Johns "Sammy Johns")' "[Chevy Van](/wiki/Chevy_Van_%28song%29 "Chevy Van (song)")". The same year, Kershaw briefly took ownership of a [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") Busch series team (now Xfinity Series). *[Labor of Love](/wiki/Labor_of_Love_%28Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 "Labor of Love (Sammy Kershaw album)")* was issued later in 1997 as his fifth album. Unlike his previous albums, this one was predominantly composed of ballads. It produced a No. 2 (and final US Top 10 hit) in "[Love of My Life](/wiki/Love_of_My_Life_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "Love of My Life (Sammy Kershaw song)")", and although none of the other three singles ("[Matches](/wiki/Matches_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "Matches (Sammy Kershaw song)")", "[Honky Tonk America](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_America "Honky Tonk America")" and "[One Day Left to Live](/wiki/One_Day_Left_to_Live "One Day Left to Live")") reached higher than No. 22, the album was nonetheless certified platinum. His next album, *[Maybe Not Tonight](/wiki/Maybe_Not_Tonight "Maybe Not Tonight")*, brought a Top 20 duet with [Lorrie Morgan](/wiki/Lorrie_Morgan "Lorrie Morgan"). Kershaw stated that he enjoyed working with Morgan on the song, telling *[Country Weekly](/wiki/Country_Weekly "Country Weekly")* magazine, "I knew our vocals would match up… Plus, we have fun together. We're friends and we have been friends for a long time." "[Maybe Not Tonight](/wiki/Maybe_Not_Tonight_%28song%29 "Maybe Not Tonight (song)")" was commercially less successful than its predecessors, however, and it became the first album of Kershaw's career not to achieve an RIAA certification. Following "Maybe Not Tonight" were the singles "[When You Love Someone](/wiki/When_You_Love_Someone_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 "When You Love Someone (Sammy Kershaw song)")" and "[Me and Maxine](/wiki/Me_and_Maxine "Me and Maxine")", both of which peaked in the thirties. "[Louisiana Hot Sauce](/wiki/Louisiana_Hot_Sauce "Louisiana Hot Sauce")", the final release from *[Maybe Not Tonight](/wiki/Maybe_Not_Tonight "Maybe Not Tonight")*, was also the first single of his career not to enter the charts. In 2000, Kershaw released an album of [cover songs](/wiki/Cover_song "Cover song"), *[Covers the Hits](/wiki/Covers_the_Hits "Covers the Hits")*. This album comprised 10 cover songs that Kershaw had recorded in his career. Some of the songs on it, such as the single "Third Rate Romance", were previously found on Kershaw's studio albums, while others came from various tribute albums (such as *Skynyrd Frynds*) to which he had contributed. *Covers the Hits* also included a rendition of [Dr. Hook](/wiki/Dr._Hook "Dr. Hook")'s "Little Bit More", a previously unreleased cover which Kershaw had recorded during the sessions for *Labor of Love*. ### 2000s By 2001, Kershaw and Morgan had married. The two recorded a vocal duet album in 2001 entitled *[I Finally Found Someone](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone_%28Lorrie_Morgan_and_Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 "I Finally Found Someone (Lorrie Morgan and Sammy Kershaw album)")* (the [title track](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone "I Finally Found Someone") being a cover of the [Barbra Streisand](/wiki/Barbra_Streisand "Barbra Streisand")/[Bryan Adams](/wiki/Bryan_Adams "Bryan Adams") duet). This album was less successful commercially, with its only Top 40 hit being the No. 39 "He Drinks Tequila". Shortly afterward, a second 'greatest hits' package was released, and Kershaw left Mercury's roster. In 2003, Kershaw signed to [Audium Entertainment](/wiki/Audium_Entertainment "Audium Entertainment") to release the album *[I Want My Money Back](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back "I Want My Money Back")*. This album produced a No. 33\-peaking in its [title track](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back_%28song%29 "I Want My Money Back (song)"), but the second single "I've Never Been Anywhere" fell short of the Top 40\. The third and final single, "Beer, Bait \& Ammo" (which failed to chart), was previously recorded and written by [Kevin Fowler](/wiki/Kevin_Fowler "Kevin Fowler") on his 2000 debut album [of the same name](/wiki/Beer%2C_Bait_%26_Ammo "Beer, Bait & Ammo"), and would later be recorded by [Mark Chesnutt](/wiki/Mark_Chesnutt "Mark Chesnutt") on his 2004 album *[Savin' the Honky Tonk](/wiki/Savin%27_the_Honky_Tonk "Savin' the Honky Tonk")*. After Audium closed its Nashville division, Kershaw signed to [Category 5 Records](/wiki/Category_5_Records "Category 5 Records"), then a newly established independent label, in 2006\. His first release for the label and first chart single in three years, "Tennessee Girl", fell three spaces short of the Top 40 that year. It was the first release from his 2006 album *[Honky Tonk Boots](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_Boots "Honky Tonk Boots")*. The album's only other single, a cover of [Mel McDaniel](/wiki/Mel_McDaniel "Mel McDaniel")'s Number One hit "[Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On](/wiki/Baby%27s_Got_Her_Blue_Jeans_On "Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On")", failed to chart, and financial difficulties caused the label to close in 2007\. In 2008, Sammy Kershaw was inducted into The [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Louisiana Music Hall of Fame") in honor of his career achievements and was also inducted into the Louisiana Songwriters Association Hall Of Fame in 2010\. Kershaw's first single in two years, "[Real People](/wiki/Real_People_%28song%29 "Real People (song)")", was released in late 2008 in the Boomerville/Big Hit label. However, the single failed to chart. His tenth studio album, *[Better Than I Used to Be](/wiki/Better_Than_I_Used_to_Be "Better Than I Used to Be")*, was released on August 31, 2010\. ### Political activity Kershaw had become increasingly interested in politics. On June 13, 2007, he announced his candidacy for [lieutenant governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_governor "Lieutenant governor") of Louisiana in the October 20 [jungle primary](/wiki/Jungle_primary "Jungle primary"). The position was held by the incumbent [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)"), [Mitch Landrieu](/wiki/Mitch_Landrieu "Mitch Landrieu"). Kershaw also faced a second Republican candidate, [State Representative](/wiki/Louisiana_State_Legislature "Louisiana State Legislature") Gary Beard of [Baton Rouge](/wiki/Baton_Rouge "Baton Rouge"), an [engineer](/wiki/Engineer "Engineer") first elected to the State House in a 2001 [special election](/wiki/Special_election "Special election"). Kershaw finished second with 30 percent of the vote, but Landrieu won re\-election with a majority on the first ballot. Watching his state embroiled in the [Gulf Oil Spill](/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill "Deepwater Horizon oil spill") in April 2010, Kershaw, a Lafayette resident, became the official spokesperson for Protect Our Coastline, a non\-profit dedicated to providing relief to the fishermen and shrimpers affected most by the spill. On August 28, 2010, Kershaw announced his second bid for lieutenant governor in the October 2 [special election](/wiki/Special_election "Special election") to replace Mitch Landrieu, who left office in May after being elected [mayor](/wiki/Mayor "Mayor") of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"). Kershaw's intraparty rivals included state Republican chair Roger F. Villere Jr. of [Metairie](/wiki/Metairie%2C_Louisiana "Metairie, Louisiana"), [St. Tammany Parish](/wiki/St._Tammany_Parish "St. Tammany Parish") president Kevin Davis of [Slidell](/wiki/Slidell%2C_Louisiana "Slidell, Louisiana"), and Secretary of State [Jay Dardenne](/wiki/Jay_Dardenne "Jay Dardenne") of Baton Rouge. Kershaw polled 19 percent and carried 31 of the 64 parishes (more than any other candidate).{{cite news \|url \= http://www.bayoubuzz.com/buzz/latest\-buzz/item/520\-louisiana\-lt\-governors\-race\-dardenne\-vs\-fayard\-is\-gender\-party\-region\-showdown \|newspaper \= BayouBuzz News \|first \= Christopher \|last \= Tidmore \|title \= Louisiana Lt. Governor's Race: Dardenne Vs. Fayard Is Gender, Party, Region Showdown \|date \= 2010\-10\-11 \|access\-date \= 2010\-10\-17 }} Tidmore argues that Kershaw attracted most of the [Tea Party](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement "Tea Party movement") voters. But he finished third in overall votes behind Dardenne and [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") Caroline Fayard. Kershaw endorsed fellow Republican Dardenne in the [runoff election](/wiki/Runoff_election "Runoff election"),{{cite news \|first \= Ed \|last \= Anderson \|url \= http://www.nola.com/news/t\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\-8/128651950998280\.xml\&coll\=1 \|archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20130104074600/http://www.nola.com/news/t\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\-8/128651950998280\.xml\&coll\=1 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-date \= 2013\-01\-04 \|title \= Dardenne, Fayard garner ex\-rivals' endorsements: Two left in race for lieutenant governor \|newspaper \= Times\-Picayune \|issue \= Saint Tammany Edition \|date \= 2010\-10\-08 \|page \= A3 \|access\-date \= 2010\-10\-08 }} joining him at campaign events, and giving Dardenne a "bear hug" at his victory celebration.{{cite news \|title \= Dardenne tops Fayard in lieutenant governor race: He rolls up big victory after intense campaign \|first \= Ed \|url \= http://www.nola.com/news/t\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\-8/128876582934530\.xml\&coll\=1 \|archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20130130092142/http://www.nola.com/news/t\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\-8/128876582934530\.xml\&coll\=1 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-date \= 2013\-01\-30 \|newspaper \= Times\-Picayune \|page \= A14 \|issue \= Metro Edition \|date \= 2010\-11\-03 \|access\-date \= 2010\-11\-03 \|last \= Anderson }} {{Clear}} In the 2011 race for lieutenant governor, Kershaw endorsed Dardenne's opponent, fellow Republican [Billy Nungesser](/wiki/Billy_Nungesser "Billy Nungesser"). Dardenne ultimately defeated Nungesser 53%\-47%.[http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20111023/NEWS01/110230338/In\-brutalest\-races\-Dardenne\-survives](http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20111023/NEWS01/110230338/In-brutalest-races-Dardenne-survives) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20111025230724/http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20111023/NEWS01/110230338/In\-brutalest\-races\-Dardenne\-survives\|date\=October 25, 2011}} ### 2010s and Beyond Kershaw continues touring throughout the year with his band, as well as performances with his often sold\-out acoustic "Roots and Boots" tour, which has featured himself onstage with other artists including [Aaron Tippin](/wiki/Aaron_Tippin "Aaron Tippin"), [Joe Diffie](/wiki/Joe_Diffie "Joe Diffie"), [Pam Tillis](/wiki/Pam_Tillis "Pam Tillis"), [Darryl Worley](/wiki/Darryl_Worley "Darryl Worley") and [Collin Raye](/wiki/Collin_Raye "Collin Raye"). [thumb\|Sammy Kershaw live in concert, with band members Steve Farmer (piano) and Robert Wright (bass guitar), Norway, Michigan \- July 3, 2016](/wiki/File:Sammy_Kershaw_onstage%2C_July_3%2C_2016_Norway%2C_Michigan.jpg "Sammy Kershaw onstage, July 3, 2016 Norway, Michigan.jpg")
[ "Musical career\n--------------", "One of Kershaw's demonstration tapes made its way to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records \"Mercury Records\"), which released his debut album *[Don't Go Near the Water](/wiki/Don%27t_Go_Near_the_Water_%28album%29 \"Don't Go Near the Water (album)\")* in 1991\\. This album was certified [platinum](/wiki/Platinum_album \"Platinum album\") by the [RIAA](/wiki/RIAA \"RIAA\"), and it produced four hit singles. The lead\\-off, \"[Cadillac Style](/wiki/Cadillac_Style \"Cadillac Style\")\", went to No. 3 in late 1991 and early 1992, followed by the [title track](/wiki/Don%27t_Go_Near_the_Water_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"Don't Go Near the Water (Sammy Kershaw song)\") at No. 12, \"[Yard Sale](/wiki/Yard_Sale_%28song%29 \"Yard Sale (song)\")\" at No. 17, and \"[Anywhere but Here](/wiki/Anywhere_but_Here_%28song%29 \"Anywhere but Here (song)\")\" at No. 10\\. Kershaw was initially reluctant to release \"Cadillac Style\" because he felt that it was not suitable for his style; however, his co\\-producer, [Buddy Cannon](/wiki/Buddy_Cannon \"Buddy Cannon\"), convinced him to give the song a chance. Kershaw's often [honky\\-tonk](/wiki/Honky-tonk \"Honky-tonk\") material and singing voice led to critical comparisons to [George Jones](/wiki/George_Jones \"George Jones\"), and he covered one of Jones's early singles, \"What Am I Worth\", on his debut as well.", "In 1993, Kershaw received an initial nomination for the [Academy of Country Music Award for New Male Vocalist of the Year](/wiki/Academy_of_Country_Music_Award_for_New_Male_Artist_of_the_Year \"Academy of Country Music Award for New Male Artist of the Year\"). He was nominated alongside [Billy Ray Cyrus](/wiki/Billy_Ray_Cyrus \"Billy Ray Cyrus\"), [Tracy Lawrence](/wiki/Tracy_Lawrence \"Tracy Lawrence\"), [Chris LeDoux](/wiki/Chris_LeDoux \"Chris LeDoux\") and [Collin Raye](/wiki/Collin_Raye \"Collin Raye\"); Cyrus, Lawrence and Raye would make the final three.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-All\\-Music/Cash\\-Box/90s/1993/CB\\-1993\\-02\\-13\\.pdf\\|title\\=ACM Announces Nominations\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Cashbox (magazine)\\|Cashbox]]\\|pages\\=21\\|date\\=February 13, 1993}}", "Kershaw's second album, *[Haunted Heart](/wiki/Haunted_Heart_%28Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 \"Haunted Heart (Sammy Kershaw album)\")*, followed in 1993\\. Its lead\\-off single, \"[She Don't Know She's Beautiful](/wiki/She_Don%27t_Know_She%27s_Beautiful \"She Don't Know She's Beautiful\")\", became his only Number One hit, in April of that year. Following it were the [title track](/wiki/Haunted_Heart_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"Haunted Heart (Sammy Kershaw song)\"), the [Dennis Linde](/wiki/Dennis_Linde \"Dennis Linde\")–penned \"[Queen of My Double\\-Wide Trailer](/wiki/Queen_of_My_Double-Wide_Trailer \"Queen of My Double-Wide Trailer\")\", and \"[I Can't Reach Her Anymore](/wiki/I_Can%27t_Reach_Her_Anymore \"I Can't Reach Her Anymore\")\", all of which hit the Top 10 as well. Although Kershaw had been told by others that radio audiences might not identify with the subject matter on \"Queen of My Double\\-Wide Trailer\", Kershaw wanted to release the song because he had an experience similar to its story line. Like his debut, *Haunted Heart* was a platinum album. In mid\\-1994, Kershaw also covered the [Lynyrd Skynyrd](/wiki/Lynyrd_Skynyrd \"Lynyrd Skynyrd\") song \"[I Know a Little](/wiki/I_Know_a_Little \"I Know a Little\")\" on the tribute album *[Skynyrd Frynds](/wiki/Skynyrd_Frynds \"Skynyrd Frynds\")*, which included country music covers of Skynyrd songs. Also in 1994, Kershaw contributed the song \"[Fire and Rain](/wiki/Fire_and_Rain_%28song%29 \"Fire and Rain (song)\")\" to the [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\") benefit album *[Red Hot \\+ Country](/wiki/Red_Hot_%2B_Country \"Red Hot + Country\")*, produced by the [Red Hot Organization](/wiki/Red_Hot_Organization \"Red Hot Organization\").", "*[Feelin' Good Train](/wiki/Feelin%27_Good_Train \"Feelin' Good Train\")* was Kershaw's third album, released later in 1994\\. This album also produced four hits, including two consecutive No. 2's in \"[National Working Woman's Holiday](/wiki/National_Working_Woman%27s_Holiday \"National Working Woman's Holiday\")\" and \"[Third Rate Romance](/wiki/Third_Rate_Romance \"Third Rate Romance\")\" (the latter a cover of the [Amazing Rhythm Aces](/wiki/Amazing_Rhythm_Aces \"Amazing Rhythm Aces\") hit from 1975\\), with the No. 27 \"[Southbound](/wiki/Southbound_%28Mac_McAnally_song%29 \"Southbound (Mac McAnally song)\")\" and No. 18 \"[If You're Gonna Walk, I'm Gonna Crawl](/wiki/If_You%27re_Gonna_Walk%2C_I%27m_Gonna_Crawl \"If You're Gonna Walk, I'm Gonna Crawl\")\" following in 1995\\. The album included a duet with George Jones on \"Never Bit a Bullet Like This\", which had previously been released on Jones's 1993 album *[High\\-Tech Redneck](/wiki/High-Tech_Redneck \"High-Tech Redneck\")*. *Feelin' Good Train* was certified gold. It was followed by a Christmas album, *[Christmas Time's A\\-Comin'](/wiki/Christmas_Time%27s_A-Comin%27_%28album%29 \"Christmas Time's A-Comin' (album)\")*, and Kershaw's first greatest\\-hits package, *Greatest Hits, Volume 1*, both in 1995\\. The latter produced a No. 47 single in \"Your Tattoo\" (written by [Kostas](/wiki/Kostas_Lazarides \"Kostas Lazarides\") and [Jack Tempchin](/wiki/Jack_Tempchin \"Jack Tempchin\")), the first single of Kershaw's career not to reach the Top 40\\.", "### Mid\\-late 1990s", "Kershaw's fourth studio album, the gold\\-certified *[Politics, Religion and Her](/wiki/Politics%2C_Religion_and_Her \"Politics, Religion and Her\")*, was issued in 1996\\. It produced Top 10 hits in \"[Meant to Be](/wiki/Meant_to_Be_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"Meant to Be (Sammy Kershaw song)\")\" and \"[Vidalia](/wiki/Vidalia_%28song%29 \"Vidalia (song)\")\", the latter of which Kershaw also considered a risky song, saying, \"If radio will play this one more than twice—so people can get the story and learn what a [Vidalia onion](/wiki/Vidalia_onion \"Vidalia onion\") is—it'll be a smash.\" These songs were followed by \"[Fit to Be Tied Down](/wiki/Fit_to_Be_Tied_Down_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"Fit to Be Tied Down (Sammy Kershaw song)\")\" and the [title track](/wiki/Politics%2C_Religion_and_Her_%28song%29 \"Politics, Religion and Her (song)\"), both of which hit the Top 30\\. Also included on *Politics, Religion and Her* were covers of [Chuck Berry](/wiki/Chuck_Berry \"Chuck Berry\")'s \"[Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee_%28song%29 \"Memphis, Tennessee (song)\")\" and [Sammy Johns](/wiki/Sammy_Johns \"Sammy Johns\")' \"[Chevy Van](/wiki/Chevy_Van_%28song%29 \"Chevy Van (song)\")\". The same year, Kershaw briefly took ownership of a [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") Busch series team (now Xfinity Series).", "*[Labor of Love](/wiki/Labor_of_Love_%28Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 \"Labor of Love (Sammy Kershaw album)\")* was issued later in 1997 as his fifth album. Unlike his previous albums, this one was predominantly composed of ballads. It produced a No. 2 (and final US Top 10 hit) in \"[Love of My Life](/wiki/Love_of_My_Life_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"Love of My Life (Sammy Kershaw song)\")\", and although none of the other three singles (\"[Matches](/wiki/Matches_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"Matches (Sammy Kershaw song)\")\", \"[Honky Tonk America](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_America \"Honky Tonk America\")\" and \"[One Day Left to Live](/wiki/One_Day_Left_to_Live \"One Day Left to Live\")\") reached higher than No. 22, the album was nonetheless certified platinum. His next album, *[Maybe Not Tonight](/wiki/Maybe_Not_Tonight \"Maybe Not Tonight\")*, brought a Top 20 duet with [Lorrie Morgan](/wiki/Lorrie_Morgan \"Lorrie Morgan\").", "Kershaw stated that he enjoyed working with Morgan on the song, telling *[Country Weekly](/wiki/Country_Weekly \"Country Weekly\")* magazine, \"I knew our vocals would match up… Plus, we have fun together. We're friends and we have been friends for a long time.\" \"[Maybe Not Tonight](/wiki/Maybe_Not_Tonight_%28song%29 \"Maybe Not Tonight (song)\")\" was commercially less successful than its predecessors, however, and it became the first album of Kershaw's career not to achieve an RIAA certification. Following \"Maybe Not Tonight\" were the singles \"[When You Love Someone](/wiki/When_You_Love_Someone_%28Sammy_Kershaw_song%29 \"When You Love Someone (Sammy Kershaw song)\")\" and \"[Me and Maxine](/wiki/Me_and_Maxine \"Me and Maxine\")\", both of which peaked in the thirties. \"[Louisiana Hot Sauce](/wiki/Louisiana_Hot_Sauce \"Louisiana Hot Sauce\")\", the final release from *[Maybe Not Tonight](/wiki/Maybe_Not_Tonight \"Maybe Not Tonight\")*, was also the first single of his career not to enter the charts.", "In 2000, Kershaw released an album of [cover songs](/wiki/Cover_song \"Cover song\"), *[Covers the Hits](/wiki/Covers_the_Hits \"Covers the Hits\")*. This album comprised 10 cover songs that Kershaw had recorded in his career. Some of the songs on it, such as the single \"Third Rate Romance\", were previously found on Kershaw's studio albums, while others came from various tribute albums (such as *Skynyrd Frynds*) to which he had contributed. *Covers the Hits* also included a rendition of [Dr. Hook](/wiki/Dr._Hook \"Dr. Hook\")'s \"Little Bit More\", a previously unreleased cover which Kershaw had recorded during the sessions for *Labor of Love*.", "### 2000s", "By 2001, Kershaw and Morgan had married. The two recorded a vocal duet album in 2001 entitled *[I Finally Found Someone](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone_%28Lorrie_Morgan_and_Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 \"I Finally Found Someone (Lorrie Morgan and Sammy Kershaw album)\")* (the [title track](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone \"I Finally Found Someone\") being a cover of the [Barbra Streisand](/wiki/Barbra_Streisand \"Barbra Streisand\")/[Bryan Adams](/wiki/Bryan_Adams \"Bryan Adams\") duet). This album was less successful commercially, with its only Top 40 hit being the No. 39 \"He Drinks Tequila\". Shortly afterward, a second 'greatest hits' package was released, and Kershaw left Mercury's roster.", "In 2003, Kershaw signed to [Audium Entertainment](/wiki/Audium_Entertainment \"Audium Entertainment\") to release the album *[I Want My Money Back](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back \"I Want My Money Back\")*. This album produced a No. 33\\-peaking in its [title track](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back_%28song%29 \"I Want My Money Back (song)\"), but the second single \"I've Never Been Anywhere\" fell short of the Top 40\\. The third and final single, \"Beer, Bait \\& Ammo\" (which failed to chart), was previously recorded and written by [Kevin Fowler](/wiki/Kevin_Fowler \"Kevin Fowler\") on his 2000 debut album [of the same name](/wiki/Beer%2C_Bait_%26_Ammo \"Beer, Bait & Ammo\"), and would later be recorded by [Mark Chesnutt](/wiki/Mark_Chesnutt \"Mark Chesnutt\") on his 2004 album *[Savin' the Honky Tonk](/wiki/Savin%27_the_Honky_Tonk \"Savin' the Honky Tonk\")*.", "After Audium closed its Nashville division, Kershaw signed to [Category 5 Records](/wiki/Category_5_Records \"Category 5 Records\"), then a newly established independent label, in 2006\\. His first release for the label and first chart single in three years, \"Tennessee Girl\", fell three spaces short of the Top 40 that year. It was the first release from his 2006 album *[Honky Tonk Boots](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_Boots \"Honky Tonk Boots\")*. The album's only other single, a cover of [Mel McDaniel](/wiki/Mel_McDaniel \"Mel McDaniel\")'s Number One hit \"[Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On](/wiki/Baby%27s_Got_Her_Blue_Jeans_On \"Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On\")\", failed to chart, and financial difficulties caused the label to close in 2007\\.", "In 2008, Sammy Kershaw was inducted into The [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame \"Louisiana Music Hall of Fame\") in honor of his career achievements and was also inducted into the Louisiana Songwriters Association Hall Of Fame in 2010\\.", "Kershaw's first single in two years, \"[Real People](/wiki/Real_People_%28song%29 \"Real People (song)\")\", was released in late 2008 in the Boomerville/Big Hit label. However, the single failed to chart. His tenth studio album, *[Better Than I Used to Be](/wiki/Better_Than_I_Used_to_Be \"Better Than I Used to Be\")*, was released on August 31, 2010\\.", "### Political activity", "Kershaw had become increasingly interested in politics. On June 13, 2007, he announced his candidacy for [lieutenant governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_governor \"Lieutenant governor\") of Louisiana in the October 20 [jungle primary](/wiki/Jungle_primary \"Jungle primary\"). The position was held by the incumbent [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\"), [Mitch Landrieu](/wiki/Mitch_Landrieu \"Mitch Landrieu\"). Kershaw also faced a second Republican candidate, [State Representative](/wiki/Louisiana_State_Legislature \"Louisiana State Legislature\") Gary Beard of [Baton Rouge](/wiki/Baton_Rouge \"Baton Rouge\"), an [engineer](/wiki/Engineer \"Engineer\") first elected to the State House in a 2001 [special election](/wiki/Special_election \"Special election\"). Kershaw finished second with 30 percent of the vote, but Landrieu won re\\-election with a majority on the first ballot.", "Watching his state embroiled in the [Gulf Oil Spill](/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill \"Deepwater Horizon oil spill\") in April 2010, Kershaw, a Lafayette resident, became the official spokesperson for Protect Our Coastline, a non\\-profit dedicated to providing relief to the fishermen and shrimpers affected most by the spill.", "On August 28, 2010, Kershaw announced his second bid for lieutenant governor in the October 2 [special election](/wiki/Special_election \"Special election\") to replace Mitch Landrieu, who left office in May after being elected [mayor](/wiki/Mayor \"Mayor\") of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"). Kershaw's intraparty rivals included state Republican chair Roger F. Villere Jr. of [Metairie](/wiki/Metairie%2C_Louisiana \"Metairie, Louisiana\"), [St. Tammany Parish](/wiki/St._Tammany_Parish \"St. Tammany Parish\") president Kevin Davis of [Slidell](/wiki/Slidell%2C_Louisiana \"Slidell, Louisiana\"), and Secretary of State [Jay Dardenne](/wiki/Jay_Dardenne \"Jay Dardenne\") of Baton Rouge. Kershaw polled 19 percent and carried 31 of the 64 parishes (more than any other candidate).{{cite news\n\\|url \\= http://www.bayoubuzz.com/buzz/latest\\-buzz/item/520\\-louisiana\\-lt\\-governors\\-race\\-dardenne\\-vs\\-fayard\\-is\\-gender\\-party\\-region\\-showdown\n\\|newspaper \\= BayouBuzz News\n\\|first \\= Christopher \n\\|last \\= Tidmore \n\\|title \\= Louisiana Lt. Governor's Race: Dardenne Vs. Fayard Is Gender, Party, Region Showdown \n\\|date \\= 2010\\-10\\-11\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-10\\-17\n}} Tidmore argues that Kershaw attracted most of the [Tea Party](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement \"Tea Party movement\") voters. But he finished third in overall votes behind Dardenne and [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") Caroline Fayard. Kershaw endorsed fellow Republican Dardenne in the [runoff election](/wiki/Runoff_election \"Runoff election\"),{{cite news\n \\|first \\= Ed\n \\|last \\= Anderson\n \\|url \\= http://www.nola.com/news/t\\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\\-8/128651950998280\\.xml\\&coll\\=1\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20130104074600/http://www.nola.com/news/t\\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\\-8/128651950998280\\.xml\\&coll\\=1\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2013\\-01\\-04\n \\|title \\= Dardenne, Fayard garner ex\\-rivals' endorsements: Two left in race for lieutenant governor\n \\|newspaper \\= Times\\-Picayune\n \\|issue \\= Saint Tammany Edition\n \\|date \\= 2010\\-10\\-08\n \\|page \\= A3\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-10\\-08\n}} joining him at campaign events, and giving Dardenne a \"bear hug\" at his victory celebration.{{cite news\n \\|title \\= Dardenne tops Fayard in lieutenant governor race: He rolls up big victory after intense campaign\n \\|first \\= Ed\n \\|url \\= http://www.nola.com/news/t\\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\\-8/128876582934530\\.xml\\&coll\\=1\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20130130092142/http://www.nola.com/news/t\\-p/capital/index.ssf?/base/news\\-8/128876582934530\\.xml\\&coll\\=1\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2013\\-01\\-30\n \\|newspaper \\= Times\\-Picayune\n \\|page \\= A14\n \\|issue \\= Metro Edition\n \\|date \\= 2010\\-11\\-03\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-11\\-03\n \\|last \\= Anderson\n}}\n{{Clear}}", "In the 2011 race for lieutenant governor, Kershaw endorsed Dardenne's opponent, fellow Republican [Billy Nungesser](/wiki/Billy_Nungesser \"Billy Nungesser\"). Dardenne ultimately defeated Nungesser 53%\\-47%.[http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20111023/NEWS01/110230338/In\\-brutalest\\-races\\-Dardenne\\-survives](http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20111023/NEWS01/110230338/In-brutalest-races-Dardenne-survives) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20111025230724/http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20111023/NEWS01/110230338/In\\-brutalest\\-races\\-Dardenne\\-survives\\|date\\=October 25, 2011}}", "### 2010s and Beyond", "Kershaw continues touring throughout the year with his band, as well as performances with his often sold\\-out acoustic \"Roots and Boots\" tour, which has featured himself onstage with other artists including [Aaron Tippin](/wiki/Aaron_Tippin \"Aaron Tippin\"), [Joe Diffie](/wiki/Joe_Diffie \"Joe Diffie\"), [Pam Tillis](/wiki/Pam_Tillis \"Pam Tillis\"), [Darryl Worley](/wiki/Darryl_Worley \"Darryl Worley\") and [Collin Raye](/wiki/Collin_Raye \"Collin Raye\"). \n[thumb\\|Sammy Kershaw live in concert, with band members Steve Farmer (piano) and Robert Wright (bass guitar), Norway, Michigan \\- July 3, 2016](/wiki/File:Sammy_Kershaw_onstage%2C_July_3%2C_2016_Norway%2C_Michigan.jpg \"Sammy Kershaw onstage, July 3, 2016 Norway, Michigan.jpg\")", "" ]
### 2000s By 2001, Kershaw and Morgan had married. The two recorded a vocal duet album in 2001 entitled *[I Finally Found Someone](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone_%28Lorrie_Morgan_and_Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 "I Finally Found Someone (Lorrie Morgan and Sammy Kershaw album)")* (the [title track](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone "I Finally Found Someone") being a cover of the [Barbra Streisand](/wiki/Barbra_Streisand "Barbra Streisand")/[Bryan Adams](/wiki/Bryan_Adams "Bryan Adams") duet). This album was less successful commercially, with its only Top 40 hit being the No. 39 "He Drinks Tequila". Shortly afterward, a second 'greatest hits' package was released, and Kershaw left Mercury's roster. In 2003, Kershaw signed to [Audium Entertainment](/wiki/Audium_Entertainment "Audium Entertainment") to release the album *[I Want My Money Back](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back "I Want My Money Back")*. This album produced a No. 33\-peaking in its [title track](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back_%28song%29 "I Want My Money Back (song)"), but the second single "I've Never Been Anywhere" fell short of the Top 40\. The third and final single, "Beer, Bait \& Ammo" (which failed to chart), was previously recorded and written by [Kevin Fowler](/wiki/Kevin_Fowler "Kevin Fowler") on his 2000 debut album [of the same name](/wiki/Beer%2C_Bait_%26_Ammo "Beer, Bait & Ammo"), and would later be recorded by [Mark Chesnutt](/wiki/Mark_Chesnutt "Mark Chesnutt") on his 2004 album *[Savin' the Honky Tonk](/wiki/Savin%27_the_Honky_Tonk "Savin' the Honky Tonk")*. After Audium closed its Nashville division, Kershaw signed to [Category 5 Records](/wiki/Category_5_Records "Category 5 Records"), then a newly established independent label, in 2006\. His first release for the label and first chart single in three years, "Tennessee Girl", fell three spaces short of the Top 40 that year. It was the first release from his 2006 album *[Honky Tonk Boots](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_Boots "Honky Tonk Boots")*. The album's only other single, a cover of [Mel McDaniel](/wiki/Mel_McDaniel "Mel McDaniel")'s Number One hit "[Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On](/wiki/Baby%27s_Got_Her_Blue_Jeans_On "Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On")", failed to chart, and financial difficulties caused the label to close in 2007\. In 2008, Sammy Kershaw was inducted into The [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Louisiana Music Hall of Fame") in honor of his career achievements and was also inducted into the Louisiana Songwriters Association Hall Of Fame in 2010\. Kershaw's first single in two years, "[Real People](/wiki/Real_People_%28song%29 "Real People (song)")", was released in late 2008 in the Boomerville/Big Hit label. However, the single failed to chart. His tenth studio album, *[Better Than I Used to Be](/wiki/Better_Than_I_Used_to_Be "Better Than I Used to Be")*, was released on August 31, 2010\.
[ "### 2000s", "By 2001, Kershaw and Morgan had married. The two recorded a vocal duet album in 2001 entitled *[I Finally Found Someone](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone_%28Lorrie_Morgan_and_Sammy_Kershaw_album%29 \"I Finally Found Someone (Lorrie Morgan and Sammy Kershaw album)\")* (the [title track](/wiki/I_Finally_Found_Someone \"I Finally Found Someone\") being a cover of the [Barbra Streisand](/wiki/Barbra_Streisand \"Barbra Streisand\")/[Bryan Adams](/wiki/Bryan_Adams \"Bryan Adams\") duet). This album was less successful commercially, with its only Top 40 hit being the No. 39 \"He Drinks Tequila\". Shortly afterward, a second 'greatest hits' package was released, and Kershaw left Mercury's roster.", "In 2003, Kershaw signed to [Audium Entertainment](/wiki/Audium_Entertainment \"Audium Entertainment\") to release the album *[I Want My Money Back](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back \"I Want My Money Back\")*. This album produced a No. 33\\-peaking in its [title track](/wiki/I_Want_My_Money_Back_%28song%29 \"I Want My Money Back (song)\"), but the second single \"I've Never Been Anywhere\" fell short of the Top 40\\. The third and final single, \"Beer, Bait \\& Ammo\" (which failed to chart), was previously recorded and written by [Kevin Fowler](/wiki/Kevin_Fowler \"Kevin Fowler\") on his 2000 debut album [of the same name](/wiki/Beer%2C_Bait_%26_Ammo \"Beer, Bait & Ammo\"), and would later be recorded by [Mark Chesnutt](/wiki/Mark_Chesnutt \"Mark Chesnutt\") on his 2004 album *[Savin' the Honky Tonk](/wiki/Savin%27_the_Honky_Tonk \"Savin' the Honky Tonk\")*.", "After Audium closed its Nashville division, Kershaw signed to [Category 5 Records](/wiki/Category_5_Records \"Category 5 Records\"), then a newly established independent label, in 2006\\. His first release for the label and first chart single in three years, \"Tennessee Girl\", fell three spaces short of the Top 40 that year. It was the first release from his 2006 album *[Honky Tonk Boots](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_Boots \"Honky Tonk Boots\")*. The album's only other single, a cover of [Mel McDaniel](/wiki/Mel_McDaniel \"Mel McDaniel\")'s Number One hit \"[Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On](/wiki/Baby%27s_Got_Her_Blue_Jeans_On \"Baby's Got Her Blue Jeans On\")\", failed to chart, and financial difficulties caused the label to close in 2007\\.", "In 2008, Sammy Kershaw was inducted into The [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame \"Louisiana Music Hall of Fame\") in honor of his career achievements and was also inducted into the Louisiana Songwriters Association Hall Of Fame in 2010\\.", "Kershaw's first single in two years, \"[Real People](/wiki/Real_People_%28song%29 \"Real People (song)\")\", was released in late 2008 in the Boomerville/Big Hit label. However, the single failed to chart. His tenth studio album, *[Better Than I Used to Be](/wiki/Better_Than_I_Used_to_Be \"Better Than I Used to Be\")*, was released on August 31, 2010\\.", "" ]
Appearances ----------- ### In *The Addams Family* media {{quote\|"The Thing is often observed watching the family through the balustrades of the balcony over the living room. We don't know quite who or what he is, but, whatever, he's the soul of good nature—at least, he grins perpetually and may occasionally whimper." — Charles Addams{{Cite web\|last\=Miserocchi\|first\=H. Kevin\|date\=March 31, 2010\|title\=''The Addams Family: An Evilution''\|url\=https://www.pomegranate.com/products/the\-addams\-family\-an\-evilution\|publisher\=\[\[Pomegranate (publisher)\|Pomegranate]]}}}} (The) Thing was the creation of [Charles Addams](/wiki/Charles_Addams "Charles Addams"), who drew the Addams Family cartoons in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker "The New Yorker")* magazine, beginning in the 1930s. The Thing first appeared in Addams's 1954 book *Homebodies*. According to Phil Hore, Addams was inspired by Phil Harris's 1950 novelty song "The Thing". One of Addams' cartoons introduced a mysterious entity known only as The Thing, who was said to be too horrifying to be seen by human eyes. Compared to the adaptations, The Thing is actually a person of unknown origin, observing the household through slightly\-opened doors and the balustrades, from around corners, and even beneath window sills with his face and hands clearly seen by the reader. The [1964 television series](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%281964_TV_series%29 "The Addams Family (1964 TV series)") greatly expanded Thing's role compared to the cartoons.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sauer \|first\=Patrick J. \|date\=2019\-10\-11 \|title\=The Cultural History of 'The Addams Family' \|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts\-culture/cultural\-history\-addams\-family\-180973315/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-28 \|magazine\=Smithsonian \|language\=en}} Thing was [retconned](/wiki/Retroactive_continuity "Retroactive continuity") as a disembodied forearm, since he occasionally emerged from his box at near\-elbow length, and was usually played by [Ted Cassidy](/wiki/Ted_Cassidy "Ted Cassidy"), who also played the lugubrious butler [Lurch](/wiki/Lurch_%28The_Addams_Family%29 "Lurch (The Addams Family)").{{cite book \|last1\=Clute \|first1\=John \|last2\=Grant \|first2\=John \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \|date\=February 1999 \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|location\=United Kingdom \|isbn\=0312198698 \|page\=6 \|edition\=First \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mfjAjibERF0C\&dq\=ted\+cassidy\+addams\+family\&pg\=PA6 \|access\-date\=11 January 2024}} The two characters occasionally appeared in the same scene (in which case Thing would be played by a crew member, notably assistant director Jack Voglin). Thing customarily emerged from a series of boxes, one in each room in the Addams' mansion, and the mailbox outside. He occasionally emerged from behind a curtain, within a plant pot, the family wall safe, or elsewhere. Since Cassidy was {{convert\|6\|ft\|9\|in\|m}} tall,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0144252/bio\|title\=Ted Cassidy\|website\=IMDb\|accessdate\=October 13, 2020}} using him to depict Thing caused great technical difficulties on the set of *The Addams Family*. In many scenes he lay on his back on a wheeled trolley, below the line of sight of the cameras, and inserted his arm through the bottom of the box. Thing was usually a right hand, but Cassidy sometimes played him as left, simply to see if anyone would notice. Thing is credited as "Itself" at the end of each episode. In the later films, thanks to advances in [special effects](/wiki/Special_effects "Special effects"), Thing (played by [Christopher Hart](/wiki/Christopher_Hart_%28actor%29 "Christopher Hart (actor)")'s hand) is able to emerge and run on his fingertips, much like a [spider](/wiki/Spider "Spider"). In *Addams Family Values*, Thing is shown driving a car into Debbie in order to rescue [Uncle Fester](/wiki/Uncle_Fester "Uncle Fester"). After this, Fester gets into the car and Thing drives them off to the Addams Family Mansion, albeit erratically, frightening Fester in the process. This is also true for the 1998 series *The New Addams Family* where Thing was played by the hand of Canadian magician/actor Steven Fox. His classic box only appears in one episode of the series (the remake of "Thing's Romance"); in others, he lives in a closet that has been modified as his own "house\-within\-a\-house". In the [musical](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29 "The Addams Family (musical)"), Thing only appears in the beginning, when he opens the curtain. He is played by a member of the ensemble. In the tour version, [Pugsley](/wiki/Pugsley_Addams "Pugsley Addams") carries Thing on a pillow at [Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_Addams "Wednesday Addams") and Lucas's wedding while Thing holds the ring. Thing appears in the [2019 animated film](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%282019_film%29 "The Addams Family (2019 film)"). He appears as a disembodied hand and wears a watch with an eye on it (perhaps used to see) in some scenes, he is also shown to have a [foot fetish](/wiki/Foot_fetishism "Foot fetishism"). Thing also appears in the [2021 animated film sequel](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_2 "The Addams Family 2"), again with a "watch" with an eye, which is used at various times to express Thing's feelings, such as exasperation with an [eye roll](/wiki/Eye-rolling "Eye-rolling"). Thing appears in the 2022 live\-action [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") original series *[Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_%28TV_series%29 "Wednesday (TV series)")*, portrayed by Victor Dorobantu. Makeup was used to enhance Thing's appearance with stitches and marks.{{cite web \|last1\=Gibbons \|first1\=Ben \|title\=Whose Hand Is That? Wednesday's Thing Actor Explained \|url\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-thing\-hand\-actor\-explained/ \|website\=\[\[Screen Rant]] \|access\-date\=October 28, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828024947/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-thing\-hand\-actor\-explained/ \|archive\-date\=August 28, 2023 \|date\=December 1, 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} During filming, Dorobantu would be hidden while wearing a blue suit. Thing's language was made up on the day of filming. A stand\-in hand was used instead of Dorobantu for certain times.{{cite web \|last1\=Halloran \|first1\=Amy \|title\=Jenna Ortega Shares How The Wednesday Team Made Up Thing Language \|url\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-show\-thing\-language\-creation\-ortega/ \|website\=\[\[Screen Rant]] \|access\-date\=October 28, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141204/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-show\-thing\-language\-creation\-ortega/ \|archive\-date\=December 13, 2022 \|date\=November 30, 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} After each take, [CGI](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery "Computer-generated imagery") was added to Thing and editors removed Dorobantu's body and created a skin to cover the top of Thing's wrist. [Gomez](/wiki/Gomez_Addams "Gomez Addams") puts him in charge of watching over Wednesday while she attends Nevermore Academy, only for Wednesday to force him to help her with solving the mysteries of the school and the town of Jericho. ### In other media In December 2021, Thing appeared in advertisements for British furniture retailer [DFS](/wiki/DFS_Furniture "DFS Furniture"), as part of their "find your thing" campaign.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/pablo\-reveals\-first\-dfs\-creative\-help\-nation\-find\-thing/1735571\|title\=Pablo reveals first DFS creative to help nation find their 'thing'\|last\=Small\|first\=Jennifer\|date\=December 13, 2021\|work\=\[\[Campaign (magazine)\|Campaign]]\|accessdate\=December 30, 2021}}
[ "Appearances\n-----------", "### In *The Addams Family* media", "{{quote\\|\"The Thing is often observed watching the family through the balustrades of the balcony over the living room. We don't know quite who or what he is, but, whatever, he's the soul of good nature—at least, he grins perpetually and may occasionally whimper.\"", "— Charles Addams{{Cite web\\|last\\=Miserocchi\\|first\\=H. Kevin\\|date\\=March 31, 2010\\|title\\=''The Addams Family: An Evilution''\\|url\\=https://www.pomegranate.com/products/the\\-addams\\-family\\-an\\-evilution\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Pomegranate (publisher)\\|Pomegranate]]}}}}", "(The) Thing was the creation of [Charles Addams](/wiki/Charles_Addams \"Charles Addams\"), who drew the Addams Family cartoons in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")* magazine, beginning in the 1930s. The Thing first appeared in Addams's 1954 book *Homebodies*. According to Phil Hore, Addams was inspired by Phil Harris's 1950 novelty song \"The Thing\". One of Addams' cartoons introduced a mysterious entity known only as The Thing, who was said to be too horrifying to be seen by human eyes. Compared to the adaptations, The Thing is actually a person of unknown origin, observing the household through slightly\\-opened doors and the balustrades, from around corners, and even beneath window sills with his face and hands clearly seen by the reader.", "The [1964 television series](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%281964_TV_series%29 \"The Addams Family (1964 TV series)\") greatly expanded Thing's role compared to the cartoons.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sauer \\|first\\=Patrick J. \\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-11 \\|title\\=The Cultural History of 'The Addams Family' \\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts\\-culture/cultural\\-history\\-addams\\-family\\-180973315/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-28 \\|magazine\\=Smithsonian \\|language\\=en}} Thing was [retconned](/wiki/Retroactive_continuity \"Retroactive continuity\") as a disembodied forearm, since he occasionally emerged from his box at near\\-elbow length, and was usually played by [Ted Cassidy](/wiki/Ted_Cassidy \"Ted Cassidy\"), who also played the lugubrious butler [Lurch](/wiki/Lurch_%28The_Addams_Family%29 \"Lurch (The Addams Family)\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Clute \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Grant \\|first2\\=John \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \\|date\\=February 1999 \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|location\\=United Kingdom \\|isbn\\=0312198698 \\|page\\=6 \\|edition\\=First \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mfjAjibERF0C\\&dq\\=ted\\+cassidy\\+addams\\+family\\&pg\\=PA6 \\|access\\-date\\=11 January 2024}} The two characters occasionally appeared in the same scene (in which case Thing would be played by a crew member, notably assistant director Jack Voglin). Thing customarily emerged from a series of boxes, one in each room in the Addams' mansion, and the mailbox outside. He occasionally emerged from behind a curtain, within a plant pot, the family wall safe, or elsewhere.", "Since Cassidy was {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|9\\|in\\|m}} tall,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0144252/bio\\|title\\=Ted Cassidy\\|website\\=IMDb\\|accessdate\\=October 13, 2020}} using him to depict Thing caused great technical difficulties on the set of *The Addams Family*. In many scenes he lay on his back on a wheeled trolley, below the line of sight of the cameras, and inserted his arm through the bottom of the box. Thing was usually a right hand, but Cassidy sometimes played him as left, simply to see if anyone would notice. Thing is credited as \"Itself\" at the end of each episode.", "In the later films, thanks to advances in [special effects](/wiki/Special_effects \"Special effects\"), Thing (played by [Christopher Hart](/wiki/Christopher_Hart_%28actor%29 \"Christopher Hart (actor)\")'s hand) is able to emerge and run on his fingertips, much like a [spider](/wiki/Spider \"Spider\"). In *Addams Family Values*, Thing is shown driving a car into Debbie in order to rescue [Uncle Fester](/wiki/Uncle_Fester \"Uncle Fester\"). After this, Fester gets into the car and Thing drives them off to the Addams Family Mansion, albeit erratically, frightening Fester in the process. This is also true for the 1998 series *The New Addams Family* where Thing was played by the hand of Canadian magician/actor Steven Fox. His classic box only appears in one episode of the series (the remake of \"Thing's Romance\"); in others, he lives in a closet that has been modified as his own \"house\\-within\\-a\\-house\".", "In the [musical](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29 \"The Addams Family (musical)\"), Thing only appears in the beginning, when he opens the curtain. He is played by a member of the ensemble. In the tour version, [Pugsley](/wiki/Pugsley_Addams \"Pugsley Addams\") carries Thing on a pillow at [Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_Addams \"Wednesday Addams\") and Lucas's wedding while Thing holds the ring.", "Thing appears in the [2019 animated film](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%282019_film%29 \"The Addams Family (2019 film)\"). He appears as a disembodied hand and wears a watch with an eye on it (perhaps used to see) in some scenes, he is also shown to have a [foot fetish](/wiki/Foot_fetishism \"Foot fetishism\"). Thing also appears in the [2021 animated film sequel](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_2 \"The Addams Family 2\"), again with a \"watch\" with an eye, which is used at various times to express Thing's feelings, such as exasperation with an [eye roll](/wiki/Eye-rolling \"Eye-rolling\").", "Thing appears in the 2022 live\\-action [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") original series *[Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_%28TV_series%29 \"Wednesday (TV series)\")*, portrayed by Victor Dorobantu. Makeup was used to enhance Thing's appearance with stitches and marks.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gibbons \\|first1\\=Ben \\|title\\=Whose Hand Is That? Wednesday's Thing Actor Explained \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-thing\\-hand\\-actor\\-explained/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828024947/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-thing\\-hand\\-actor\\-explained/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 28, 2023 \\|date\\=December 1, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} During filming, Dorobantu would be hidden while wearing a blue suit. Thing's language was made up on the day of filming. A stand\\-in hand was used instead of Dorobantu for certain times.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Halloran \\|first1\\=Amy \\|title\\=Jenna Ortega Shares How The Wednesday Team Made Up Thing Language \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-show\\-thing\\-language\\-creation\\-ortega/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141204/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-show\\-thing\\-language\\-creation\\-ortega/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2022 \\|date\\=November 30, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} After each take, [CGI](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery \"Computer-generated imagery\") was added to Thing and editors removed Dorobantu's body and created a skin to cover the top of Thing's wrist. [Gomez](/wiki/Gomez_Addams \"Gomez Addams\") puts him in charge of watching over Wednesday while she attends Nevermore Academy, only for Wednesday to force him to help her with solving the mysteries of the school and the town of Jericho.", "### In other media", "In December 2021, Thing appeared in advertisements for British furniture retailer [DFS](/wiki/DFS_Furniture \"DFS Furniture\"), as part of their \"find your thing\" campaign.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/pablo\\-reveals\\-first\\-dfs\\-creative\\-help\\-nation\\-find\\-thing/1735571\\|title\\=Pablo reveals first DFS creative to help nation find their 'thing'\\|last\\=Small\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|date\\=December 13, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[Campaign (magazine)\\|Campaign]]\\|accessdate\\=December 30, 2021}}", "" ]
### In *The Addams Family* media {{quote\|"The Thing is often observed watching the family through the balustrades of the balcony over the living room. We don't know quite who or what he is, but, whatever, he's the soul of good nature—at least, he grins perpetually and may occasionally whimper." — Charles Addams{{Cite web\|last\=Miserocchi\|first\=H. Kevin\|date\=March 31, 2010\|title\=''The Addams Family: An Evilution''\|url\=https://www.pomegranate.com/products/the\-addams\-family\-an\-evilution\|publisher\=\[\[Pomegranate (publisher)\|Pomegranate]]}}}} (The) Thing was the creation of [Charles Addams](/wiki/Charles_Addams "Charles Addams"), who drew the Addams Family cartoons in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker "The New Yorker")* magazine, beginning in the 1930s. The Thing first appeared in Addams's 1954 book *Homebodies*. According to Phil Hore, Addams was inspired by Phil Harris's 1950 novelty song "The Thing". One of Addams' cartoons introduced a mysterious entity known only as The Thing, who was said to be too horrifying to be seen by human eyes. Compared to the adaptations, The Thing is actually a person of unknown origin, observing the household through slightly\-opened doors and the balustrades, from around corners, and even beneath window sills with his face and hands clearly seen by the reader. The [1964 television series](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%281964_TV_series%29 "The Addams Family (1964 TV series)") greatly expanded Thing's role compared to the cartoons.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sauer \|first\=Patrick J. \|date\=2019\-10\-11 \|title\=The Cultural History of 'The Addams Family' \|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts\-culture/cultural\-history\-addams\-family\-180973315/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-28 \|magazine\=Smithsonian \|language\=en}} Thing was [retconned](/wiki/Retroactive_continuity "Retroactive continuity") as a disembodied forearm, since he occasionally emerged from his box at near\-elbow length, and was usually played by [Ted Cassidy](/wiki/Ted_Cassidy "Ted Cassidy"), who also played the lugubrious butler [Lurch](/wiki/Lurch_%28The_Addams_Family%29 "Lurch (The Addams Family)").{{cite book \|last1\=Clute \|first1\=John \|last2\=Grant \|first2\=John \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \|date\=February 1999 \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|location\=United Kingdom \|isbn\=0312198698 \|page\=6 \|edition\=First \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mfjAjibERF0C\&dq\=ted\+cassidy\+addams\+family\&pg\=PA6 \|access\-date\=11 January 2024}} The two characters occasionally appeared in the same scene (in which case Thing would be played by a crew member, notably assistant director Jack Voglin). Thing customarily emerged from a series of boxes, one in each room in the Addams' mansion, and the mailbox outside. He occasionally emerged from behind a curtain, within a plant pot, the family wall safe, or elsewhere. Since Cassidy was {{convert\|6\|ft\|9\|in\|m}} tall,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0144252/bio\|title\=Ted Cassidy\|website\=IMDb\|accessdate\=October 13, 2020}} using him to depict Thing caused great technical difficulties on the set of *The Addams Family*. In many scenes he lay on his back on a wheeled trolley, below the line of sight of the cameras, and inserted his arm through the bottom of the box. Thing was usually a right hand, but Cassidy sometimes played him as left, simply to see if anyone would notice. Thing is credited as "Itself" at the end of each episode. In the later films, thanks to advances in [special effects](/wiki/Special_effects "Special effects"), Thing (played by [Christopher Hart](/wiki/Christopher_Hart_%28actor%29 "Christopher Hart (actor)")'s hand) is able to emerge and run on his fingertips, much like a [spider](/wiki/Spider "Spider"). In *Addams Family Values*, Thing is shown driving a car into Debbie in order to rescue [Uncle Fester](/wiki/Uncle_Fester "Uncle Fester"). After this, Fester gets into the car and Thing drives them off to the Addams Family Mansion, albeit erratically, frightening Fester in the process. This is also true for the 1998 series *The New Addams Family* where Thing was played by the hand of Canadian magician/actor Steven Fox. His classic box only appears in one episode of the series (the remake of "Thing's Romance"); in others, he lives in a closet that has been modified as his own "house\-within\-a\-house". In the [musical](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29 "The Addams Family (musical)"), Thing only appears in the beginning, when he opens the curtain. He is played by a member of the ensemble. In the tour version, [Pugsley](/wiki/Pugsley_Addams "Pugsley Addams") carries Thing on a pillow at [Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_Addams "Wednesday Addams") and Lucas's wedding while Thing holds the ring. Thing appears in the [2019 animated film](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%282019_film%29 "The Addams Family (2019 film)"). He appears as a disembodied hand and wears a watch with an eye on it (perhaps used to see) in some scenes, he is also shown to have a [foot fetish](/wiki/Foot_fetishism "Foot fetishism"). Thing also appears in the [2021 animated film sequel](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_2 "The Addams Family 2"), again with a "watch" with an eye, which is used at various times to express Thing's feelings, such as exasperation with an [eye roll](/wiki/Eye-rolling "Eye-rolling"). Thing appears in the 2022 live\-action [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") original series *[Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_%28TV_series%29 "Wednesday (TV series)")*, portrayed by Victor Dorobantu. Makeup was used to enhance Thing's appearance with stitches and marks.{{cite web \|last1\=Gibbons \|first1\=Ben \|title\=Whose Hand Is That? Wednesday's Thing Actor Explained \|url\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-thing\-hand\-actor\-explained/ \|website\=\[\[Screen Rant]] \|access\-date\=October 28, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828024947/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-thing\-hand\-actor\-explained/ \|archive\-date\=August 28, 2023 \|date\=December 1, 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} During filming, Dorobantu would be hidden while wearing a blue suit. Thing's language was made up on the day of filming. A stand\-in hand was used instead of Dorobantu for certain times.{{cite web \|last1\=Halloran \|first1\=Amy \|title\=Jenna Ortega Shares How The Wednesday Team Made Up Thing Language \|url\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-show\-thing\-language\-creation\-ortega/ \|website\=\[\[Screen Rant]] \|access\-date\=October 28, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141204/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\-show\-thing\-language\-creation\-ortega/ \|archive\-date\=December 13, 2022 \|date\=November 30, 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} After each take, [CGI](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery "Computer-generated imagery") was added to Thing and editors removed Dorobantu's body and created a skin to cover the top of Thing's wrist. [Gomez](/wiki/Gomez_Addams "Gomez Addams") puts him in charge of watching over Wednesday while she attends Nevermore Academy, only for Wednesday to force him to help her with solving the mysteries of the school and the town of Jericho.
[ "### In *The Addams Family* media", "{{quote\\|\"The Thing is often observed watching the family through the balustrades of the balcony over the living room. We don't know quite who or what he is, but, whatever, he's the soul of good nature—at least, he grins perpetually and may occasionally whimper.\"", "— Charles Addams{{Cite web\\|last\\=Miserocchi\\|first\\=H. Kevin\\|date\\=March 31, 2010\\|title\\=''The Addams Family: An Evilution''\\|url\\=https://www.pomegranate.com/products/the\\-addams\\-family\\-an\\-evilution\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Pomegranate (publisher)\\|Pomegranate]]}}}}", "(The) Thing was the creation of [Charles Addams](/wiki/Charles_Addams \"Charles Addams\"), who drew the Addams Family cartoons in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")* magazine, beginning in the 1930s. The Thing first appeared in Addams's 1954 book *Homebodies*. According to Phil Hore, Addams was inspired by Phil Harris's 1950 novelty song \"The Thing\". One of Addams' cartoons introduced a mysterious entity known only as The Thing, who was said to be too horrifying to be seen by human eyes. Compared to the adaptations, The Thing is actually a person of unknown origin, observing the household through slightly\\-opened doors and the balustrades, from around corners, and even beneath window sills with his face and hands clearly seen by the reader.", "The [1964 television series](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%281964_TV_series%29 \"The Addams Family (1964 TV series)\") greatly expanded Thing's role compared to the cartoons.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sauer \\|first\\=Patrick J. \\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-11 \\|title\\=The Cultural History of 'The Addams Family' \\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts\\-culture/cultural\\-history\\-addams\\-family\\-180973315/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-28 \\|magazine\\=Smithsonian \\|language\\=en}} Thing was [retconned](/wiki/Retroactive_continuity \"Retroactive continuity\") as a disembodied forearm, since he occasionally emerged from his box at near\\-elbow length, and was usually played by [Ted Cassidy](/wiki/Ted_Cassidy \"Ted Cassidy\"), who also played the lugubrious butler [Lurch](/wiki/Lurch_%28The_Addams_Family%29 \"Lurch (The Addams Family)\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Clute \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Grant \\|first2\\=John \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \\|date\\=February 1999 \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|location\\=United Kingdom \\|isbn\\=0312198698 \\|page\\=6 \\|edition\\=First \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mfjAjibERF0C\\&dq\\=ted\\+cassidy\\+addams\\+family\\&pg\\=PA6 \\|access\\-date\\=11 January 2024}} The two characters occasionally appeared in the same scene (in which case Thing would be played by a crew member, notably assistant director Jack Voglin). Thing customarily emerged from a series of boxes, one in each room in the Addams' mansion, and the mailbox outside. He occasionally emerged from behind a curtain, within a plant pot, the family wall safe, or elsewhere.", "Since Cassidy was {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|9\\|in\\|m}} tall,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0144252/bio\\|title\\=Ted Cassidy\\|website\\=IMDb\\|accessdate\\=October 13, 2020}} using him to depict Thing caused great technical difficulties on the set of *The Addams Family*. In many scenes he lay on his back on a wheeled trolley, below the line of sight of the cameras, and inserted his arm through the bottom of the box. Thing was usually a right hand, but Cassidy sometimes played him as left, simply to see if anyone would notice. Thing is credited as \"Itself\" at the end of each episode.", "In the later films, thanks to advances in [special effects](/wiki/Special_effects \"Special effects\"), Thing (played by [Christopher Hart](/wiki/Christopher_Hart_%28actor%29 \"Christopher Hart (actor)\")'s hand) is able to emerge and run on his fingertips, much like a [spider](/wiki/Spider \"Spider\"). In *Addams Family Values*, Thing is shown driving a car into Debbie in order to rescue [Uncle Fester](/wiki/Uncle_Fester \"Uncle Fester\"). After this, Fester gets into the car and Thing drives them off to the Addams Family Mansion, albeit erratically, frightening Fester in the process. This is also true for the 1998 series *The New Addams Family* where Thing was played by the hand of Canadian magician/actor Steven Fox. His classic box only appears in one episode of the series (the remake of \"Thing's Romance\"); in others, he lives in a closet that has been modified as his own \"house\\-within\\-a\\-house\".", "In the [musical](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29 \"The Addams Family (musical)\"), Thing only appears in the beginning, when he opens the curtain. He is played by a member of the ensemble. In the tour version, [Pugsley](/wiki/Pugsley_Addams \"Pugsley Addams\") carries Thing on a pillow at [Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_Addams \"Wednesday Addams\") and Lucas's wedding while Thing holds the ring.", "Thing appears in the [2019 animated film](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%282019_film%29 \"The Addams Family (2019 film)\"). He appears as a disembodied hand and wears a watch with an eye on it (perhaps used to see) in some scenes, he is also shown to have a [foot fetish](/wiki/Foot_fetishism \"Foot fetishism\"). Thing also appears in the [2021 animated film sequel](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_2 \"The Addams Family 2\"), again with a \"watch\" with an eye, which is used at various times to express Thing's feelings, such as exasperation with an [eye roll](/wiki/Eye-rolling \"Eye-rolling\").", "Thing appears in the 2022 live\\-action [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") original series *[Wednesday](/wiki/Wednesday_%28TV_series%29 \"Wednesday (TV series)\")*, portrayed by Victor Dorobantu. Makeup was used to enhance Thing's appearance with stitches and marks.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gibbons \\|first1\\=Ben \\|title\\=Whose Hand Is That? Wednesday's Thing Actor Explained \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-thing\\-hand\\-actor\\-explained/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828024947/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-thing\\-hand\\-actor\\-explained/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 28, 2023 \\|date\\=December 1, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} During filming, Dorobantu would be hidden while wearing a blue suit. Thing's language was made up on the day of filming. A stand\\-in hand was used instead of Dorobantu for certain times.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Halloran \\|first1\\=Amy \\|title\\=Jenna Ortega Shares How The Wednesday Team Made Up Thing Language \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-show\\-thing\\-language\\-creation\\-ortega/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141204/https://screenrant.com/wednesday\\-show\\-thing\\-language\\-creation\\-ortega/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2022 \\|date\\=November 30, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} After each take, [CGI](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery \"Computer-generated imagery\") was added to Thing and editors removed Dorobantu's body and created a skin to cover the top of Thing's wrist. [Gomez](/wiki/Gomez_Addams \"Gomez Addams\") puts him in charge of watching over Wednesday while she attends Nevermore Academy, only for Wednesday to force him to help her with solving the mysteries of the school and the town of Jericho.", "" ]
Journalism career ----------------- {{BLP unsourced section\|date\=April 2019}} Alon Ben\-David began his journalistic career as a military reporter at [IDF Radio \- Galey Tzahal](/wiki/Army_Radio "Army Radio") \- where he covered the [First Intifada](/wiki/First_Intifada "First Intifada"). After his discharge in 1988, he worked at Israel's national radio \- [Kol Israel](/wiki/Kol_Yisrael "Kol Yisrael") \- as a police affairs correspondent. In 1989 he joined Israel's Channel 1 [Israel Broadcasting Authority](/wiki/Israel_Broadcasting_Authority "Israel Broadcasting Authority") (IBA) as a reporter in southern Israel and later as police affairs correspondent. In 1993 he was appointed military correspondent for Israel's [Channel 1](/wiki/Channel_1_%28Israel%29 "Channel 1 (Israel)"). Ben\-David covered the [Lebanon War](/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War "1982 Lebanon War"), where he frequently joined IDF operations. He also covered Israel's 2000 withdrawal from Lebanon and the [Second Intifada](/wiki/Second_Intifada "Second Intifada"), which erupted soon after. In 2006, he covered the [Second Lebanon War](/wiki/Second_Lebanon_War "Second Lebanon War"). In 2001, during a year of studies in the US, Ben\-David reported from NY during the 9/11 attacks. In 2003 he joined Israel 10 as senior defense correspondent. In 2003 he joined the London\-based *[Jane's Defence Weekly](/wiki/Jane%27s_Defence_Weekly "Jane's Defence Weekly")* as Middle East correspondent, and later became a contributor for *[Aviation Week](/wiki/Aviation_Week_%26_Space_Technology "Aviation Week & Space Technology")* and *[Maariv](/wiki/Maariv_%28newspaper%29 "Maariv (newspaper)")*. He also used to anchor the defense magazine at *[i24News](/wiki/I24NEWS "I24NEWS")* international TV network. In 2019 he released the docu\-action series "Israel's Hitlist" ([Reshimat Hisul](https://13tv.co.il/documentary/hit-list/)), depicting and revealing Israel's [secret assassination operations](/wiki/Targeted_killings_by_the_Israel_Defense_Forces "Targeted killings by the Israel Defense Forces"). In 2022 he created and released the docu\-series "War at your doorstep" [https://13tv.co.il/news/war\-for\-home/](https://13tv.co.il/news/war-for-home/), describing Israel's "[Defensive Shield](/wiki/Operation_Defensive_Shield "Operation Defensive Shield")" campaign that suppressed Palestinian suicide terrorism in 2002\. He serves as a senior fellow at the center for international communications at [Bar\-Ilan University](/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University "Bar-Ilan University") and frequently lectures throughout the world on topics relating to the Middle East.
[ "Journalism career\n-----------------", "{{BLP unsourced section\\|date\\=April 2019}}\nAlon Ben\\-David began his journalistic career as a military reporter at [IDF Radio \\- Galey Tzahal](/wiki/Army_Radio \"Army Radio\") \\- where he covered the [First Intifada](/wiki/First_Intifada \"First Intifada\"). After his discharge in 1988, he worked at Israel's national radio \\- [Kol Israel](/wiki/Kol_Yisrael \"Kol Yisrael\") \\- as a police affairs correspondent. In 1989 he joined Israel's Channel 1 [Israel Broadcasting Authority](/wiki/Israel_Broadcasting_Authority \"Israel Broadcasting Authority\") (IBA) as a reporter in southern Israel and later as police affairs correspondent. In 1993 he was appointed military correspondent for Israel's [Channel 1](/wiki/Channel_1_%28Israel%29 \"Channel 1 (Israel)\").", "Ben\\-David covered the [Lebanon War](/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War \"1982 Lebanon War\"), where he frequently joined IDF operations. He also covered Israel's 2000 withdrawal from Lebanon and the [Second Intifada](/wiki/Second_Intifada \"Second Intifada\"), which erupted soon after. In 2006, he covered the [Second Lebanon War](/wiki/Second_Lebanon_War \"Second Lebanon War\").", "In 2001, during a year of studies in the US, Ben\\-David reported from NY during the 9/11 attacks. In 2003 he joined Israel 10 as senior defense correspondent.", "In 2003 he joined the London\\-based *[Jane's Defence Weekly](/wiki/Jane%27s_Defence_Weekly \"Jane's Defence Weekly\")* as Middle East correspondent, and later became a contributor for *[Aviation Week](/wiki/Aviation_Week_%26_Space_Technology \"Aviation Week & Space Technology\")* and *[Maariv](/wiki/Maariv_%28newspaper%29 \"Maariv (newspaper)\")*. He also used to anchor the defense magazine at *[i24News](/wiki/I24NEWS \"I24NEWS\")* international TV network.", "In 2019 he released the docu\\-action series \"Israel's Hitlist\" ([Reshimat Hisul](https://13tv.co.il/documentary/hit-list/)), depicting and revealing Israel's [secret assassination operations](/wiki/Targeted_killings_by_the_Israel_Defense_Forces \"Targeted killings by the Israel Defense Forces\"). In 2022 he created and released the docu\\-series \"War at your doorstep\" [https://13tv.co.il/news/war\\-for\\-home/](https://13tv.co.il/news/war-for-home/), describing Israel's \"[Defensive Shield](/wiki/Operation_Defensive_Shield \"Operation Defensive Shield\")\" campaign that suppressed Palestinian suicide terrorism in 2002\\.", "He serves as a senior fellow at the center for international communications at [Bar\\-Ilan University](/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University \"Bar-Ilan University\") and frequently lectures throughout the world on topics relating to the Middle East.", "" ]