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1vdueh
|
how do websites, such as _url_0_, that have no advertisements and provide a free service stay in operation and even grow larger?
|
[
{
"answer": "The overhead to run craigslist is pretty minimal, meaning much of it is automated and web hosting is pretty cheap these days.\n\nSomeone, somewhere, is running craigslist as a business expense, and using the cost to run as a tax deduction for their other business.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Businesses and car dealerships pay to post ads. I think other groups pay as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Craigslist specifically operates by charging for certain posts. Here is a list of postings that have a charge and the associated fees:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > 1. Job postings in SF Bay Area—$75 per job per category (e.g. 1 job in 2 categories is $150).\n > \n > 2. Job postings in the following areas—$25 per job per category (e.g. 1 job in 2 categories is $50):\n > Atlanta, Austin, Baltimore, Boston, Central NJ, Charlotte, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dallas, Denver,\n > Detroit, Houston, Inland Empire, Jacksonville, Kansas City, Las Vegas, Long Island, Los Angeles, Minneapolis,\n > Nashville, New York City, North Jersey, Orange County, Orlando, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Pittsburgh, Portland, Raleigh,\n > Sacramento, St. Louis , San Antonio, San Diego, Seattle, South Florida, Tampa, Washington DC.\n > \n > 3. Brokered apartment rentals in New York City—$10.\n > \n > 4. Therapeutic services in the United States—$10 (reposting of live ads $5).\n > \n > 5. Tickets by-dealer in the United States—$5.\n > \n > 6. Cars/trucks by-dealer in the United States—$5.\n\nMany companies start out operating at a loss with whatever investment money they have in the early years to build up a user base, then change to another model later on to generate revenue. Facebook is a good example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1693035",
"title": "File hosting service",
"section": "Section::::One-click hosting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The sites make money through advertising or charging for premium services such as increased downloading capacity, removing any wait restrictions the site may have or prolonging how long uploaded files remain on the site. Premium services include facilities like unlimited downloading, no waiting, maximum download speed etc. Many such sites implement a CAPTCHA to prevent automated downloading. Several programs aid in downloading files from these one-click hosts; examples are JDownloader, FreeRapid, Mipony, Tucan Manager and CryptLoad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636248",
"title": "Lurker",
"section": "Section::::Potential costs.:Costs for others.:Free-riding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Lurking can also cost site holders money if they do not use advertising to generate revenue. The bandwidth costs of lurkers visiting a site may outstrip the value that donors or contributors provide to a community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34059213",
"title": "Mass media in Canada",
"section": "Section::::The Mass Media Business Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Consumers do not need advertising - If users need a product or service, they have their own sources on the Internet and prefer to use these as opposed to advertisements on websites which are not solely dedicated to the product or service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2861",
"title": "Advertising",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Other approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions and microtransactions. Websites and applications are \"ad-free\" when not using ads at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopaedia Wikipedia provides free access to its content by receiving funding from charitable donations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12815454",
"title": "Incentive program",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Online programs.:Incentive websites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "A website which pays people in gifts or cash for completing provided offers and referring other people and frequently use an [Affiliate marketing|affiliate] model. These sites are typically sponsored by companies in order to advertise their products. The sites are in turn paid for advertising and attracting new clients. By collecting user data that the user submits, companies can target certain areas of clientele and offer products accordingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29668247",
"title": "Dudesnude",
"section": "Section::::Interface and users.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The site is almost completely free of advertising, with the exception of some promotion to visitors (people who come to look at the site without creating a profile of their own). Promotion of members own commercial activities is also heavily restricted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242568",
"title": "Personalized marketing",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Customers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Consumers face an overwhelming variety and volume of products and services available to purchase. A single retail website can offer thousands of different products, and few have the time or are willing to make the effort to browse through everything retailers have to offer. At the same time, customers expect ease and convenience in their shopping experience. In a recent survey, 74% of consumers said they get frustrated when websites have content, offers, ads, and promotions that have nothing to do with them. Many even expressed that they would leave a site if the marketing on the site was the opposite of their tastes, such as prompts to donate to a political party they dislike, or ads for a dating service when the visitor to the site is married. In addition, the top two reasons customers unsubscribe from marketing emailing lists are 1) they receive too many emails and 2) the content of the emails is not relevant to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1056j8
|
Why is mathematics -- something humans develop in their own heads -- so effective when it comes to describing the external, physical world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Perhaps the question can be phrased differently:\n\nHow can humans be so effective at perceiving at describing mathematical patterns inherent to the external, physical world?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is sort of like asking why language is so good at describing the physical world—it's because **we develop the mathematics we need**. Mathematics is a formal tool for studying anything that obeys rules; physics obeys rules, so math is useful for studying it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The other answers are good. It's mysterious. It's beautiful. It's marvellous. We don't know, but we're damn glad it is.\n\nBut on the other hand, it's not THAT mysterious. Humans don't develop mathematics the way they develop, say, a painting. You don't write down an equation, say, or a theorem, and say \"let it be!\". Mathematics is discovered rather than invented. In that way mathematics is much more like a science than an art, and so it's not entirely surprising the two are related. Of course, there's a lot of creativity in mathematics too, a lot of playfulness and a lot of personality, more like art than like sitting in a lab writing down numbers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it is, in itself a description of the physical world.\n\nIf I am holding two apples, it is not a construct of my mind that I have two separate objects (without getting into philosophy), and that if I get rid of one, I will have only one. That is a reality of nature. We just made up words to describe it. Math is a collection and application of the terms we use to describe the physical world.\n\nPlus, we invent a lot of it as needed, just like any other tool. For example, there is no inherent \"length\" of an object. We quantify it with largely arbitrary numbering systems that we invent. Once quantified, we can use math to describe that object, and its interactions with other objects. Because the *relationships* between objects are constant, the units we use to measure them remain constant as well. This is the most important reason math works. Because the physical world behaves in predictable ways, the units we use to measure it do as well.\n\nOf course, math doesn't seem to be able to explain everything. There is a lot of randomness in reality that can affect outcomes, and reality rarely exactly matches the math. But that isn't because we \"made math up,\"\nbut because reality is so incredibly complex that we lack the understanding and capability to apply the appropriate math.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This article by Wigner (mathematician/quantum physicist, mainly) tries to answer this very question:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Another unique aspect of human culture and thought is the development of complex methods for acquiring knowledge through observation, quantification, and verification. The scientific method has been developed to acquire knowledge of the physical world and the rules, processes and principles of which it consists, and combined with mathematics it enables the prediction of complex patterns of causality and consequence. An understanding of mathematics is unique to humans, although other species of animal have some numerical cognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171377",
"title": "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences",
"section": "Section::::Responses to Wigner's original paper.:Richard Hamming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "3. \"Mathematics addresses only a part of human experience\". Much of human experience does not fall under science or mathematics but under the philosophy of value, including ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy. To assert that the world can be explained via mathematics amounts to an act of faith.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46135",
"title": "George Lakoff",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "According to Lakoff, even mathematics is subjective to the human species and its cultures: thus \"any question of math's being inherent in physical reality is moot, since there is no way to know whether or not it is.\" By this, he is saying that there is nothing outside of the thought structures we derive from our embodied minds that we can use to \"prove\" that mathematics is somehow beyond biology. Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez (2000) argue at length that mathematical and philosophical ideas are best understood in light of the embodied mind. The philosophy of mathematics ought therefore to look to the current scientific understanding of the human body as a foundation ontology, and abandon self-referential attempts to ground the operational components of mathematics in anything other than \"meat\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42877569",
"title": "Relationship between mathematics and physics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "BULLET::::- Explain the effectiveness of mathematics in the study of the physical world: \"At this point an enigma presents itself which in all ages has agitated inquiring minds. How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?\" —Albert Einstein, in \"Geometry and Experience\" (1921).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45754",
"title": "Where Mathematics Comes From",
"section": "Section::::Summing up.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "\"WMCF\" (pp. 378–79) concludes with some key points, a number of which follow. Mathematics arises from our bodies and brains, our everyday experiences, and the concerns of human societies and cultures. It is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46439",
"title": "Philosophy of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary schools of thought.:Embodied mind theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Embodied mind theories hold that mathematical thought is a natural outgrowth of the human cognitive apparatus which finds itself in our physical universe. For example, the abstract concept of number springs from the experience of counting discrete objects. It is held that mathematics is not universal and does not exist in any real sense, other than in human brains. Humans construct, but do not discover, mathematics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12476035",
"title": "Moravec's paradox",
"section": "Section::::The biological basis of human skills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Some examples of skills that have appeared more recently: mathematics, engineering, human games, logic and scientific reasoning. These are hard for us because they are not what our bodies and brains were primarily evolved to do. These are skills and techniques that were acquired recently, in historical time, and have had at most a few thousand years to be refined, mostly by cultural evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
73h2yy
|
why is "w" pronounced "double u" and not "wee"?
|
[
{
"answer": "At a very basic level, it's because W literally came from two Us, hence \"double U\". Hundreds of years ago, there was no distinction between U and V. U was written as a V and so two Vs made W. Later, when the distinction between U and V came about, the name for W still carried over, despite V now not being a U anymore.\n\nAlso, this may be why writing W with a curly bottom (so literally two Us) is also acceptable handwriting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because historically it was a ligature (single graphics shape combining two or more letters) of two U/V. And U and V was the same letter in ancient Latin. Let's start with the classical Latin alphabet:\n\n ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTVXYZ\n\nThere are no J as I and J were just graphical variants of the same letter. There is also no U or W as U was just different graphical variant of V and W is just double U. Then in middle ages the Latin alphabet started being used to write other European languages. It was needed to somehow distinguish sound \"U\" from \"V\" and therefore latin U/V evolved into three separate letters \"U\", \"V\" and \"W\" (\"I\" and \"J\" separated too). Also some of the other ligatures eventually became letters on their own. Following ones made it to present times:\n\n* V + V = W\n* E + T = & *(\"et\" is latin for \"and\")*\n* A + D = @ *(\"ad\" is latin for \"at\")*\n* /100 = %\n* S + S = § *(also: ſ + s = ß in german; where \"ſ\" is the long s, a letter not used nowadays)*\n\nAnd many other not used in english, like \"Œ\" or \"IJ\" (this one may render as \"IJ\" or as non-continuous \"U\" depending on font).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "U and V used to be pronounced similarly and were used depending on where it was in the word Us being in word and Vs at the beginning of the word. Sort of like V was a capital u. Likewise uu /VV were used similarly. They started to become distinct sounds in 1300s but wasn't fully accepted as separate for a few hundred years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38621053",
"title": "List of English words of French origin (S–Z)",
"section": "Section::::W.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Many imported words beginning with \"w\" in English have cognates in French that start with a \"g\" or \"gu\". This is because the English word was not borrowed directly from French or Old French, but from some of the northern langue d'oïl dialects such as Picard and Norman, where the original \"w\" sound was preserved (the majority of these words are words of Germanic origin, and stem mainly from either the Frankish language, or other ancient Germanic languages, like Burgundian). In Old French, the initial \"w\" sound was prefixed by the letter \"g\" as \"gw\" and then the \"w\" sound was later lost. The \"w\" survives in orthography as \"u\" in \"gu\", but only to produce a hard \"g\" sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347594",
"title": "Belgian French",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- The letter \"w\" is almost always pronounced as , like in English, which also approximates the Flemish \"w\". In France, it is often pronounced , as in German. For example, the word \"wagon\" (train car) is pronounced in France but in Belgium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318778",
"title": "W Juliet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The title comes from the Japanese adoption of the letter \"W\" as a character meaning \"double\", so the title \"W Juliet\" means \"Two Juliets\". Two Juliets is the theme and conflict in the first chapter, during which the drama club puts on a production of \"Romeo and Juliet\" with Ito and Makoto in the title roles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33180",
"title": "W",
"section": "Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The Japanese language uses \"W\", pronounced , as an ideogram meaning \"double\". It is also a short form of an Internet slang term for \"www\", used to denote laughter, which is derived from the word \"warau\" (笑う, meaning \"to laugh\"). Variations of this slang include \"kusa\" (草, meaning \"grass\"), which have originated from how \"www\" looks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20626363",
"title": "Old Georgian",
"section": "Section::::Orthography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The semivowel \"w\" is written in two ways, depending on its position within the word. When it occurs directly after a consonant, it is written with the digraph ႭჃ 〈oü〉, for example ႹႭჃႤႬ 〈choüen〉 \"chwen\" \"we\", ႢႭჃႰႨႲႨ 〈goürit’i〉 \"gwrit’i\" \"turtledove\". The digraph ႭჃ 〈oü〉 thus represents both \"w\" and \"u\", without differentiation in the spelling, for example ႵႭჃႧႨ 〈khoüti〉 \"khuti\" \"five\" vs. ႤႵႭჃႱႨ 〈ekoüsi〉 \"ekwsi\" \"six\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22469831",
"title": "List of Latin-script digraphs",
"section": "Section::::W.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 817,
"text": " is used in English to represent Proto-Germanic , the continuation of the PIE labiovelar (which became in Latin and the Romance languages). Most English question words begin with this digraph, hence the terms \"wh-word\" and \"wh-question\". The spelling changed from to in Middle English. In most dialects it is now pronounced , but some (especially in Scotland) retain the distinct pronunciation /hw/, realized as a voiceless w sound. In a few words (\"who\", \"whole\", etc.) the pronunciation is /h/. For details, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩. In the Māori language, represents or more commonly , with some regional variations approaching or . In the Taranaki region, for some speakers, this represents a glottalized . In Xhosa, it represents , a murmured variant of found in loan words. In Cornish, it represents .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18789453",
"title": "Gothic language",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Vowels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "BULLET::::- (pronounced like German \"ü\" and French \"u\") is a Greek sound used only in borrowed words. It is transliterated as \"w\" (as it uses the same letter that otherwise denoted the consonant ): \"azwmus\" \"unleavened bread\" ( Gk. ). It represents an υ (y) or the diphthong οι (oi), both of which were pronounced in the Greek of the time. Since the sound was foreign to Gothic, it was perhaps pronounced .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6xnn3s
|
How correct is it to say that the IRA practically invented modern urban guerrilla warfare? How did the lessons learned by their struggle against the British affect other urban insurrections around the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Adapted from an old answer of mine:\n\nThe influence of Michael Collins and the pre-Irish Civil War IRA on post-1920s guerrilla campaigns is low and reached its peak in the late 1940s. Yitzhak Shamir, the leader of the Stern gang (or more officially, Lehi) and Vladimir Jabotinsky (who founded Irgun) were both influenced by Michael Collins in their campaigns against the British. However, this made perfect sense for Shamir and Jabotinsky (and, without any solid confirmation, Menachem Begin) since he too was fighting a war of anti-British colonialism. Shamir and Jabotinsky are not the only examples. Subhas Chandra Bose urged his followers to study the IRA. Irish texts were even translated into Burmese during the 1930s and were read by men like Ba Maw.\n\nThe truth of the matter is that there was nothing that particularly special or groundbreaking about the campaign carried out by the IRA. Collins himself was a student of and clearly influenced by the Boer commandos during the Second Boer War (1899-1902) and in particularly of the Boer general Christiaan de Wet, which he based the IRA flying columns on. There are some who claim that he 'invented' urban guerrilla warfare, overlooking the fact that theories had been printed on this since the late 19th century. The main reason for his influence, as we can see above, is that he fought a relatively successful guerrilla war against the British and was involved in anti-British activities. This clearly brought him and his methods to the attention of those also looking to combat the British, but certainly not all of them. It is interesting to note that the guerrilla campaigns during the Irish War of Independence also influenced the creation of the Special Operation Executive during WWII, which makes sense since this would have been the most accessible and recent guerrilla warfare campaign to be studied by the British. \n\nBy the 1950s, his influence appears to have vanished as insurgents the world over searched for and adapted to new theories. These theories, ranging from Mao Zedong's theory on guerilla warfare to the Guevara Foco theory, were only the basics for insurgents who adapted their strategies to a world of mass media and international discourses that the IRA of the late 1910s and early 1920s wouldn't have been able to predict.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23299",
"title": "Provisional Irish Republican Army",
"section": "Section::::Overview of strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1115,
"text": "The IRA's initial strategy was to use guerrilla tactics to cause the collapse of the government of Northern Ireland and to inflict enough casualties on British forces that the British government would be forced by public opinion in Britain to withdraw from the region. This policy involved recruitment of volunteers, increasing after the 1972 Bloody Sunday incident in which the British armed forces killed unarmed protesters, and launching attacks against British military and economic targets. The campaign was supported by arms and funding from Libya and from some Irish American groups. The IRA agreed to a ceasefire in February 1975, which lasted nearly a year before the IRA concluded that the British were drawing them away from military action without offering any guarantees in relation to the IRA's goals (as well as launching an intelligence offensive), and hopes of a quick victory receded. As a result, the IRA launched a new strategy known as \"the Long War\". This saw them conduct a war of attrition against the British and increased emphasis on political activity, via the political party Sinn Féin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999780",
"title": "History of terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Early 20th century.:Irish independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The IRA are considered by some the innovators of modern terrorism as the British would replicate and build upon the tactics used against by the IRA in World War II. Tony Geraghty in \"The Irish War: The Hidden Conflict Between the IRA and British Intelligence\" wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4261414",
"title": "Provisional Irish Republican Army arms importation",
"section": "Section::::American arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "To continue and escalate their armed campaign, the IRA needed to be better equipped, which meant securing modern small arms. In previous campaigns weapons had been secured before hostilities commenced via raids on British Army and even Irish Army weapons depots. In the 1969–1971 period this was no longer feasible. By 1972, the IRA had large quantities of modern small arms, particularly Armalite rifles, manufactured and purchased in the United States. The AR-18 rifle in particular was found to be very well suited for guerrilla warfare as its small size and folding stock meant that it was easy to conceal. Moreover, it was capable of rapid fire and fired a high velocity round which provided great \"stopping power\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14732",
"title": "Irish Republican Army (1919–1922)",
"section": "Section::::Irish War of Independence.:Violent exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "Assessments of the effectiveness of the IRA's campaign vary. They were never in a position to engage in conventional warfare. IRA Chief-of-Staff Richard Mulcahy bemoaned the fact that they had not been able to drive the British \"out of anything bigger than a fairly good size police barracks\". On the other hand, the guerrilla warfare of 1919–21 had made Ireland ungovernable except by military means. The political, military and financial costs of remaining in Ireland were higher than the British government was prepared to pay and this in a sense forced them into negotiations with the Irish political leaders. According to historian Michael Hopkinson, the guerrilla warfare \"was often courageous and effective\". Historian David Fitzpatrick observes, \"The guerrilla fighters...were vastly outnumbered by the forces of the Crown... The success of the Irish Volunteers in surviving so long is therefore noteworthy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485037",
"title": "Urban guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Theory and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Michael Collins, a commander of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) is often considered to be the father of modern urban guerrilla warfare. In April 1919 an elite assassination unit, known as The Squad or \"Twelve Apostles\" was created in Dublin. The unit was tasked with hunting down and executing British Intelligence operatives in the city, they can be considered one of the first true urban guerrilla units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842471",
"title": "Spanish Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.:1939.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s, gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population. In 1944, a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4333462",
"title": "Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign",
"section": "Section::::Assessments.:British Army official report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "The paper divides the IRA activity and tactics in two main periods: The \"insurgency\" phase (1971–1972), and the \"terrorist\" phase (1972–1997). The British Army claims to have curbed the IRA insurgency by 1972, after Operation Motorman. The IRA then reemerged as a cell-structured organisation. The report also asserts that the government efforts by the 1980s were aimed to destroy the IRA, rather than negotiate a political solution, and that the British campaign produced no final victory \"in any recognisable way\". One of the conclusions from the paper reveals the failure of the British Army to engage the IRA at strategic level and the lack of a single campaign authority and plan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3o56n6
|
Could we deplete the earth's core of heat?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Could we deplete the earth's core of heat?\n\nNo. Not in any realistic scenario. We are too puny. Also, the geothermal energy is slowly dissipating in space even without our help.\n\nThe equation you are using is about *ideal* gases, and the Earth core is neither of those.\n\nMore importantly, pressure by itself does not sustain heat.\n\nIt is the change in pressure that produces heat. So if you had some air and compressed it, it would heat up, but it would start cooling down as soon as you started compressing it (usually slower than you are heating it up. So, once it is compressed and some times has passed the air would have cooled down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41077022",
"title": "Earth's internal heat budget",
"section": "Section::::Primordial heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The early formation of the Earth's dense core could have caused superheating and rapid heat loss, and the heat loss rate would slow once the mantle solidified. Heat flow from the core is necessary for maintaining the convecting outer core and the geodynamo and Earth's magnetic field, therefore primordial heat from the core enabled Earth's atmosphere and thus helped retain Earth's liquid water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46528307",
"title": "Comparative planetary science",
"section": "Section::::Geology and geochemistry.:Differentiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "As a large body, Earth can efficiently retain its internal heat (from its initial formation plus decay of its radioisotopes) over the long timescale of the Solar System. It thus retains a molten core, and has differentiated- dense materials have sunk to the core, while light materials float to form a crust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37923625",
"title": "Geoneutrino",
"section": "Section::::Geological motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1239,
"text": "The Earth's interior radiates heat at a rate of about 47 TW (terawatts), which is less than 0.1% of the incoming solar energy. Part of this heat loss is accounted for by the heat generated upon decay of radioactive isotopes in the Earth interior. The remaining heat loss is due to the secular cooling of the Earth, growth of the Earth's inner core (gravitational energy and latent heat contributions), and other processes. The most important heat-producing elements are uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K). The debate about their abundances in the Earth has not concluded. Various compositional estimates exist where the total Earth's internal radiogenic heating rate ranges from as low as ~10 TW to as high as ~30 TW. About 7 TW worth of heat-producing elements reside in the Earth's crust, the remaining power is distributed in the Earth mantle; the amount of U, Th, and K in the Earth core is probably negligible. Radioactivity in the Earth mantle provides internal heating to power mantle convection, which is the driver of plate tectonics. The amount of mantle radioactivity and its spatial distribution—is the mantle compositionally uniform at large scale or composed of distinct reservoirs?—is of importance to geophysics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13021878",
"title": "Geothermal power",
"section": "Section::::Resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The Earth's heat content is about . This heat naturally flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 TW and is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW. These power rates are more than double humanity's current energy consumption from primary sources, but most of this power is too diffuse (approximately 0.1 W/m on average) to be recoverable. The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) to release the heat underneath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geodynamics.:Solidification of the outer core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "The growth of the inner core may be expected to consume most of the outer core by some 3–4 billion years from now, resulting in a nearly solid core composed of iron and other heavy elements. The surviving liquid envelope will mainly consist of lighter elements that will undergo less mixing. Alternatively, if at some point plate tectonics comes to an end, the interior will cool less efficiently, which may end the growth of the inner core. In either case, this can result in the loss of the magnetic dynamo. Without a functioning dynamo, the magnetic field of the Earth will decay in a geologically short time period of roughly 10,000 years. The loss of the magnetosphere will cause an increase in erosion of light elements, particularly hydrogen, from the Earth's outer atmosphere into space, resulting in less favorable conditions for life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The mean heat loss from Earth is , for a global heat loss of . A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41077022",
"title": "Earth's internal heat budget",
"section": "Section::::Primordial heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Primordial heat is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its original formation, and this is in contrast to its still actively-produced radiogenic heat. The Earth core's heat flow—heat leaving the core and flowing into the overlying mantle—is thought to be due to primordial heat, and is estimated at 5–15 TW. Estimates of mantle primordial heat loss range between 7 and 15 TW, which is calculated as the remainder of heat after removal of core heat flow and bulk-Earth radiogenic heat production from the observed surface heat flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37v4sg
|
what happens when someone declares bankrupcy in us.
|
[
{
"answer": "Don't know about people. When companies go bankrupt, it actually can help. This is an ELI5 of what happens:\n\n0.) **why does it exist?** - the issue in bankruptcy is that there's not enough money left (in terms of assets) to pay off all of the debts the company has or is about to have at 100% of their value. So, since everyone is going to sue to get their share, they created a system to try and distribute what is left as fairly as possible. \n\n1.) **company files for bankruptcy** - Company goes to a bankruptcy court and submits a paper. Instantly they get bankruptcy protection, meaning no one can sue them to collect debts individually. \n\nSometimes the company will go into *chapter 7* bankruptcy, which is just a liquidation of the company. Assets are sold, the money is collected, and then divided up. Different kinds of debtors (people the company owes money to) get money in a different order, depending on the type of claim they have. After that, the company disappears. \n\n2.) **Make a plan** - the company comes up with a bankruptcy plan. This is when the company is going for *chapter 11.* The idea of chapter 11 is that the company can pay of all its debtors more if it stays in business then if it liquidates. But, it needs to convince the debtors that this is true. So it makes a plan, explaining what it will do, and how much different classes of debtors will get paid. \n\nSo, for example, imagine if Amtrak went bankrupt. They don't have many assets, since they just own the trains and the track, which won't sell for much. So they come up with a plan saying that rather than everyone getting say, 1% of their debts, everyone will get 50% of the profits of the company for the next 10 years, which will be way more than 1% of the debts.\n\n3.) **have a vote** - all the different debtors look at the plan, and then they vote. If every class of debtors agrees, then the plan goes forward. If some groups of debtors disagree, than you can have a *cramdown*, where if at least one other group agrees, and the judge decides that everyone is better off than if there's liquidation, the plan happens anyway. \n\n4.) **the judge approves** - the judge hears objections, and may or may not send the plan back for revisions. \n\n5.) **the end** - If the plan isn't approved then the company liquidates. If the plan is approved, the plan gets followed. Usually when a company is in bankruptcy---like with a person---it will become much harder for them to borrow. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39326876",
"title": "Foreign Trade Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "On March 11, 2013, the United States designated the bank as falling under US executive order 13382, which applies to \"proliferators of weapons of mass destruction and their supporters\". The order freezes all assets, and prohibits any transactions between US entities and the bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8048689",
"title": "Central Bank of Paraguay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In 1998, the Bank ordered the liquidation of one of the country's banks due to a severe lack of liquidity. The government sent emergency legislation to Congress to try to guarantee bank deposits and prevent a run on savings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36388316",
"title": "Wegelin & Co.",
"section": "Section::::Court case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "After pleading guilty in a New York court to helping Americans evade their taxes, the bank announced that it would close permanently. It was the first non-American bank to plead guilty to tax evasion charges in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21735005",
"title": "Timeline of the Great Depression",
"section": "Section::::1933.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "March 6th - Executive Order 2009 suspends all banking activity for one week, in response to renewed stress on major New York City banks that threatened another round of bank failures and further deepening of the Depression. By this time, 38 states had declared bank holidays. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "750170",
"title": "William H. Woodin",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "On March 4, 1933, when Roosevelt first took the oath of office, banks were closing their doors all over the United States as waves of panic led depositors to demand immediate payment of their money. Woodin was the point man in the administration's declaration of a \"Bank Holiday\" which closed every bank in the U.S. until bank examiners could determine which were sound enough to re-open. With \"seals of approval\" from the examiners, depositors regained confidence, and the vast majority left their money in bank deposits. This preceded the creation of deposit insurance and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation with the passage of the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1882153",
"title": "Amercement",
"section": "Section::::Modern usage.:In the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Since 2006, US banks have been amerced large amounts under prosecution of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, or the Trading with the Enemy Act. The civil nature of the asset forfeiture laws allows the banks not to be declared criminally guilty. The asset forfeiture wiki lists a number of cases of recent note.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "561448",
"title": "Emergency Banking Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1258,
"text": "The Emergency Banking Act (the official title of which was the Emergency Banking Relief Act), Public Law 1, 48 Stat. 1 (March 9, 1933), was an act passed by the United States Congress in March 1933 in an attempt to stabilize the banking system. Beginning on February 14, 1933, Michigan, an industrial state which had been hit particularly hard by the Great Depression in the United States, declared an eight-day bank holiday. Fears of other bank closures spread from state to state as people rushed to withdraw their deposits while they still could do so. Within weeks, all other states held their own bank holidays in an attempt to stem the bank runs (on March 4, Delaware became the 48th and last state to close its banks). Following his inauguration on March 4, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt set out to rebuild confidence in the nation's banking system. On March 6 he declared a four-day \"national\" banking holiday that kept all banks shut until Congress could act. A draft law, prepared by the Treasury staff during Herbert Hoover's administration, was passed on March 9, 1933. The new law allowed the twelve Federal Reserve Banks to issue additional currency on good assets so that banks that reopened would be able to meet every legitimate call. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3e8efn
|
Did armies ever send out one champion from each side to battle it out and winner takes all, instead of having everyone fight?
|
[
{
"answer": "Judicial duels in Russia known for a long time. According said the Arab writers, X century Amin Razi and Mukaddezi depicting tradition Russes, \"when the king decides to dispute between two litigants, and they remain unhappy with his decision, then he says to them sort it out with their swords - whose sharp, that and win.\" The Slavs duel was called \"field\".\n\nThe first mention of the field in the Russian sources refer to XI-XII century. According to one version of the chronicle evidence of war sometimes, resolved single combat of two elected from different parties. The competition is going to mean both enemy armies. Outcome it was taken to be an immutable verdict of the divine will, which is equal to obeyed and those on whose share remained victory, and those that had to has pleaded convicted.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Japan, never. Possibly before the Muromachi period, but I've never seen any account of it happening. Duels happened, but something where 'champions' were sent out from rival armies to settle a large scale conflict (we're talking tens of thousands of soldiers on each side), never. It would have been a huge gamble to take, especially during the Sengoku period, where you had so many soldiers on each side - remember as well that, during this period of civil conflict, daimyo were raising armies from peasant conscripts, so a justification to save many lives just wasn't logical. \n\nIt could be possible that minor conflicts, such as small land disputes between small retainers, could be resolved (should the ruling daimyo wish) by a duel, though these duels would have been relegated to non-lethal fights.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not a historian by any means, but there is an example from Livy that I read while studying Latin about a battle between Rome and Alba Longa where this occurred. According to Livy, the Horatii (Rome) and the Curiatii (Alba Longa) were sent forth, each a set of triplets, to battle each other to decide the outcome of the battle. There might be a classicist here that can give you some better background, but here's a link to a translation of Livy. I hope that's helpful!\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe in Ancient Greece, Sparta and Argos were at war and instead of going to a full blown war they each sent 100 champions to fight it out and decide the outcome. At the end, 2 champions from Argos left the field thinking all the Spartans were dead. However some of them were only wounded and on these grounds Sparta contested Argos' claimed victory. So then they went to all out war anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10032789",
"title": "Single combat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Instances of single combat are known from Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The champions were often combatants who represented larger, spectator groups. Such representative contests and stories thereof are known worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10032789",
"title": "Single combat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Typically, it takes place in the no-man's-land between the opposing armies, with other warriors watching and themselves refraining from fighting until one of the two single combatants has won. Often, it is champion warfare, with the two considered the champions of their respective sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10032789",
"title": "Single combat",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Sometimes however, such single combat would merely initiate a battle rather than prevent it. The most famous example of this was the duel between Russian monk Alexander Peresvet and the Golden Horde champion Chelubey or Temir-Murza at the beginning of the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The champions killed each other in the first run, though according to Russian legend, Peresvet did not fall from the saddle, while Temir-murza did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6989838",
"title": "Starship Girl Yamamoto Yohko",
"section": "Section::::OVA introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "A thousand years from now, the great battles between civilizations have been reduced to the shoulders of a handful of chosen champions. When a war is waged, each side picks its representatives, gives them spaceships and the fight is on! Of course if their champion loses, they must admit defeat and give in to the wishes of the other. Very handy, very civilized—unless you don't happen to have any good fighters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10675891",
"title": "Battle of the 300 Champions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The Battle of the 300 Champions, known since Herodotus' day as the Battle of the Champions, was a battle fought in roughly 546 BC between Argos and Sparta. Rather than commit full armies both sides agreed to pitting 300 of their best men against each other. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10032789",
"title": "Single combat",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "In Russia, single combat is known as \"bash na bash\" (an old Russian expression meaning \"one-on-one\"), substituting a fight between champions for a full-scale battle was a traditional way to avoid the bloodshed of an internecine war. The leaders of the opposing \"druzhinas\" or other armed groups either rode towards the centre of the battlefield or sent messengers to negotiate whether the two most skilled fighters or the leaders themselves would engage in single combat, usually to the death. The outcome of the champions' fight would then be taken as a sign of which side the higher powers favoured, and could have political consequences similar to the result of a full battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "393278",
"title": "FightBox",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "As well as battling each other, the fighters would face one of six \"Sentients\", warriors who had won previous (unseen) tournaments and achieved this honour. The Sentients were: Banshee, Big George, Kodiak, Nail, Pearl and Vesuvius. Although immortal, they did have certain weaknesses which a fighter could use against them. After winning the first series, competitor warrior Kill Frenzy, created by Usman Arshad, achieved sentience and joined the current six. These seven Sentients featured in the video game mentioned below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3htwvq
|
How come Ireland adopted the language of England, but not its religion, while Finland adopted the religion of Sweden, but not its language?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't speak to Finland and Sweden, but in Ireland, English was pretty heavily enforced as a language by the British colonists. Irish was prohibited in British National Schools, and the famines hit the rural areas, where Irish was a majority language, much harder than urban areas where English was more popular. There's also the fact that English naturally presented more opportunities as a high-esteem language. \n\nReligion pretty much was adopted from Britain in Ireland. Roman Catholics brought it over in the 5th century. The English reformation was just much harder to enforce later on, as Catholicism had become a large part of the Irish identity. It's much harder to convert people when they don't speak your language, and while many English speakers in Dublin (and obviously Ulster) were Protestants, Irish speakers remained Catholic. \n\nDaniel O'Connell is a pretty famous Irish historical figure who championed Catholic Emancipation during the 19th century. He founded the Catholic Association which campaigned for and succeeded in getting the Catholic Relief Act passed in 1829. The act allowed Roman Catholics to sit in Westminster and generally signalled the turn of public opinion against the persecution of Catholics in previous centuries. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a Finn, I am going to have to point out that we did in fact adopt the swedish language. Of course, the common peasant would still speak finnish, but the language used in government, legislation and such was exclusively swedish for several hundred years. To this day it remains by law our second domestic language, which means every child has to learn it in school and all government services have to also be available in swedish. Even today over 5% of the population of Finland (mostly on the southwest coast) speak swedish as their primary language. \n\nAlso, any attempts from Sweden to further solidify their language's position in Finland were thwarted in 1809 when what is today Finland was taken over by the Russian Empire. They in turn later attempted to assimilate Finland and force Finland to adopt their language and religion, but these attempts weren't very effective, in no small part because at that time Russia was already heading into the October revolution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Michael C. Coleman examines this very question in an article titled \"‘You Might All Be Speaking Swedish Today’: language change in 19th century Finland and Ireland\" in the Scandinavian Journal of History.\n\nIn it, he makes the case that these two factors are indeed linked. A central idea in Lutheranism is that everyone should be able to read the Bible, and in the Swedish Realm, the clergy would routinely inspect that their parishioners were able to read the Bible. He notes that thanks to the religious literature widely available in Finnish, even ordinary peasants were able to read in Finnish by the 18th century, although Swedish had the status of the language of the elite, of the bureaucracy, and of higher education.\n\nHe contrasts this situation to Ireland where the language used for Catholic liturgy was Latin. Although half of the island's population spoke Irish by the beginning of the 19th century, only a very small percentage of the speakers were literate in it. The national schools that were established in Ireland to teach the peasants only taught in English, which was also crucial for literature in Irish never becoming widespread. When Irish nationalist movements arose, even they would use English to publish their views.\n\nFinnish-language literature and newspapers on the other hand played important roles in spreading the ideas of the Fennoman movement that tried to elevate the position of Finnish from a \"language of the peasants\" to a language of higher learning. The 1835 publication of \"Kalevala\" in Finnish is regarded as an important milestone in firmly establishing Finnish as part of the Finnish cultural identity. The movement was successful, and by the time of Finland's independence, Finnish had supplanted Swedish as the dominant language in higher learning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The relationship between Sweden and Finland has its roots in the Christianization of Northern Europe during the 12th century. As the Kingdom of Sweden began to form a distinct common cultural identity, the early Swedish kings embarked on a number of regional conquests ostensibly in the name of a crusade. By the late 14th century, Finland had become entrenched in the Swedish Realm with its own nobility, representation and government. After the fall of the Kalmar Union under Gustav Vasa, Finland began to drift closer to Sweden by mirroring its cultural and religious practices.\n\nThe real change in culture came during the Finnish War of 1809 when Gustav IV was forced to cede Finland to Alexander I of Russia. Alexander I used Finland as a testing ground of sorts and called the Diet of Porvoo in order to summon the Finns to pledge their allegiance. At Porvoo, Alexander I promised to allow the Finns the right to worship freely thereby resulting in a Lutheran Finland.\n\nAfter the annexation of Finland into Russia, the language of administration became German in an attempt to culturally shift Finland away from Sweden and to avoid using the language of their enemy. Translators were soon employed and the number of Russian civil servants grew as St. Petersburg tried to consolidate its conquest. Since German wasn't the local tongue and Russian too hard to teach in such a short time, the administration eventually decided to encourage the use of Finnish -- then a peasant language -- throughout the country. Finnish was therefore arguably revived and standardized in Finland while the religion of the people remained the same.\n\nEdit: For a source, please see this post [here.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One major difference that shouldn't be overlooked is that Christianity was introduced to Ireland already in the 5th century, whereas in Finland the earliest Christian items can be placed to the 9th century from grave sites at that time and on historical records it can be said to have been introduced earliest at the 11th century.\n\nFrom this it could be said that Ireland didn't adopt Anglican Protestantism because Catholicism already had strong roots, whereas the time period of Catholicism being the major religion in the whole of Finland was relatively short as Kingdom of Sweden ruled only the Southern parts of Finland. Most of the Northern Finland wasn't part of the Swedish rule, for instance Northern Karelia started to have significant habitation only in the 16th century and by that time Sweden also became Lutheran.\n\nBeing the one of the last countries Continental Europe to be converted into Christianity old pre-Christian religious habits in Finland were difficult to get rid of completely. Pagan beliefs and rites in one form or another remained relatively strong in one form or another still in the 16th century during and after Lutheran reform, Mikael Agricola the Bishop of Turku publishing a list of pagan deities the people in Häme and Karelia still worshiped at that time.\n\nSo in one way, Finland didn't exactly adopt the religion of Sweden or the language, both were practiced more by the Swedish people who had settled into Southern Finland, but as both belonged to the customs of the ruling class, they were learned to a degree. Even still, religious practices were partially only paid lip-service, and the majority of the common people never adopted the language enough to forget Finnish.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "England too was Catholic when it took over Ireland. Irish missionaries had even been engaged in restoring Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England centuries before. So some northern parts of England adopted the religion of Ireland while the south took its lead directly from Rome. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if anyone has noted this or not but the English outlawed the Irish language which certainly didn't help the native tongue. In the Western parts of Ireland one can find areas where it is used almost exclusively. \n\nSorry if I'm late to the party.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1651210",
"title": "Standard Swedish",
"section": "Section::::Official status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Swedish became Sweden's main official language on July 1, 2009, when a new language law was implemented. The issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language has been raised in the past, and the parliament voted on the matter in 2005 but the proposal narrowly failed. The Swedish language also has official status in Finland (including the autonomous region of Åland), but no officially sanctioned standard actually exists. However, the Research Institute for the Languages of Finland has the purpose of language planning and dictionary compilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5058739",
"title": "Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Along with Finnish, four other minority languages are also recognised: Meänkieli, Sami, Romani, and Yiddish. Swedish became Sweden's official language on 1 July 2009, when a new language law was implemented. The issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language had been raised in the past, and the Riksdag voted on the matter in 2005, but the proposal narrowly failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162977",
"title": "Finland Swedish",
"section": "Section::::Official status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Swedish is one of the two national languages of the republic of Finland, the other being Finnish. These two languages have formally equal status in nearly all legislation, though the status of Swedish in Finland has long been a subject of sociopolitical debate. The other minority languages (such as Sami) are regulated separately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205789",
"title": "Mandatory Swedish",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The status of Swedish as a national language in Finland is defined by the Finnish constitution. There was migration of Swedish-speaking peasants to some Finnish coastal areas during the Middle Ages. During this period, when Finland was ruled by Sweden, Swedish language became part of the culture in the coastal areas. Swedish was also the language of the ruling class. The Finnish language was forbidden an official status alongside Swedish until the period of Russian rule (1809–1917), in 1860. The autonomous Åland Islands (pop. 26,000, 95% Swedish, 5% Finnish) has only one official language, Swedish, and the speaking of Finnish between employees is forbidden in some public services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26689",
"title": "Swedish language",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.:Official status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Swedish is the official main language of Sweden. Swedish is also one of two official languages of Finland. In Sweden, it has long been used in local and state government, and most of the educational system, but remained only a \"de facto\" primary language with no official status in law until 2009. A bill was proposed in 2005 that would have made Swedish an official language, but failed to pass by the narrowest possible margin (145–147) due to a pairing-off failure. A proposal for a broader language law, designating Swedish as the main language of the country and bolstering the status of the minority languages, was submitted by an expert committee to the Swedish Ministry of Culture in March 2008. It was subsequently enacted by the Riksdag, and entered into effect on 1 July 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "437905",
"title": "Politics of England",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-devolution politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "While Scotland and Northern Ireland have always had separate legal systems to England (see Scots law and Northern Ireland law), this has not been the case with Wales (see English law, Welsh law and Contemporary Welsh Law). However, laws concerning the Welsh language, and also the National Assembly for Wales, have created differences between the law in Wales, and the law in England, as they apply in Wales and not in England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26689",
"title": "Swedish language",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.:Official status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Swedish is the sole official language of Åland (an autonomous province under the sovereignty of Finland), where the vast majority of the 26,000 inhabitants speak Swedish as a first language. In Finland as a whole, Swedish is one of the two \"national\" languages, with the same official status as Finnish (spoken by the majority) at the state level and an official language in some municipalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7e1at2
|
how do music/video editing programs isolate vocals, frequency, pitch, etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "It’s pretty complex but I think what you don’t understand is that the editing softwares are not meant to isolate anything, they’re meant to take the isolated vocals and turn them into a final product. So with each recording you can edit its pitch and frequencies and do whatever other mixing you wish to do, and then you mix everything together so it’s one big composition. Basically like a puzzle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think there's a good ELI5 answer to this, but basically it's math. Sound is a waveform, you can add multiple sounds together to get a new one. It's just like adding two numbers together.\n\nBasically if you want to isolate vocals you just do the opposite. You look for parts of the signal that look like vocals and subtract them out.\n\nThe hard part is finding vocals. Typically programs will look for frequencies that correspond to vocals to find them but there are many tricks that involve very advanced mathematical techniques. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "in audio editing programs, you usually have a lot of tracks. each instrument or vocal will go on a track, ideally recorded in such a way as to not have a lot of sound from other instruments that would go on other tracks. \n\nin this way, you can target your adjustments to exactly which instrument / vocal you want. \n\nif you don't have a multitrack recording but are already using a stereo or surround mix it is a LOT tougher to make fine adjustments to specific instruments in the mix. however, if the instruments are separated from other ones in terms of when they play, what frequency they occupy, or where in the stereo / surround field (pan) they are, or if they are very fast and dynamic compared to the rest of the instruments (in terms of transient sounds) or very stable in dynamics (don't change in volume or dynamics much) - in these cases some wonders can be worked on whole mixes to change them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2421675",
"title": "Transcription (music)",
"section": "Section::::Transcription aids.:Pitch tracking software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "As mentioned in the Automatic music transcription section, some commercial software can roughly track the pitch of dominant melodies in polyphonic musical recordings. The note scans are not exact, and often need to be manually edited by the user before saving to file in either a proprietary file format or in Standard MIDI File Format. Some pitch tracking software also allows the scanned note lists to be animated during audio playback.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34658245",
"title": "Multi-image",
"section": "Section::::Multi-image production technologies.:Audio production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Audio editing of the music or voice-over was done manually to create a scratch track, usually with a cutting block and tape. Once the audio edits were completed, the final version would be copied onto another tape; either to inch, cassette or other format so that there tape used to run the presentation would be a fresh uncut tape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9874889",
"title": "De-essing",
"section": "Section::::Process of de-essing.:De-essing without automation or with manual equalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Audio editing software, whether professional or amateur software such as Audacity, can use the built-in equalization effects to reduce or eliminate sibilance ess sounds that interfere with a recording. Described here is a common method with Audacity. The process is in two phases: 1) analyze the frequency of the voice's ess sound by sampling several instances and calculating the range of ess frequencies, which most likely fall between 4,000-10,000 Hz depending on the speaker, then 2) apply an equalization effect to quiet the determined frequency band by -4 dB to -11db during ess frequency events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "437887",
"title": "Audio editing software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Audio editing software is software which allows editing and generating of audio data. Audio editing software can be implemented completely or partly as library, as computer application, as Web application or as a loadable kernel module. Wave Editors are digital audio editors and there are many sources of software available to perform this function. Most can edit music, apply effects and filters, adjust stereo channels etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9874889",
"title": "De-essing",
"section": "Section::::Process of de-essing.:De-essing with automation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "This method is made feasible by editing automation points directly, as opposed to programming by manipulating gain sliders in a write-mode. An audio engineer would not be able to react fast enough to precisely reduce and restore vocal levels for the brief duration of sibilants during real-time playback.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46943",
"title": "Audio time stretching and pitch scaling",
"section": "Section::::Pitch scaling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "A process that preserves the formants and character of a voice involves analyzing the signal with a channel vocoder or LPC vocoder plus any of several pitch detection algorithms and then resynthesizing it at a different fundamental frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369770",
"title": "Stereophonic sound",
"section": "Section::::Common usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "Most two-channel recordings are stereo recordings only in this weaker sense. Pop music, in particular, is usually recorded using close miking techniques, which artificially separate signals into several tracks. The individual tracks (of which there may be hundreds) are then \"mixed down\" into a two-channel recording. The audio engineers determine where each track will be placed in the stereo \"image\", by using various techniques that may vary from very simple (such as \"left-right\" panning controls) to more sophisticated and extensively based on psychoacoustic research (such as channel equalization, compression and ). The end product using this process often bears little or no resemblance to the actual physical and spatial relationship of the musicians at the time of the original performance; indeed, it is not uncommon for different tracks of the same song to be recorded at different times (and even in different studios) and then mixed into a final two-channel recording for commercial release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3biv3t
|
Why does happy instrumental music sound happy to us?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because you have seen similar music used in contexts that were happy or meant to evoke happiness, like in movies where the protagonists experience joy. You now subconsciously associate those instrumental features with positive emotions. This sounds like a circular argument, but the process is self-amplifying, and so it could have started with a single composition used to accompany a joyful dance many hundreds of years ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I understand the popular opinion is that it's a societal thing but this is a topic for debate. There is strong evidence that most primitive cultures lean towards the 4/4 time signature and major chords for a reason. There is a reason a 1,2,3,4 beat makes you dance and a major chord makes you happy. Mathematically speaking one octave is exactly one particular frequency doubled. Assuming A above middle C is 440hz, the next A is 880hz. It isn't just some socially contrived sound. Following the harmonic series (think military taps on a trumpet without buttons) this mathematically leads to a major chord. Many believe our brains are tuned to recognize the harmonic series based on what is easiest for the voice to reproduce. When sound waves are made at specific frequencies, and are allowed to \"compile\" or \"stack\" naturally, they create overtones. Overtones follow the harmonic series. A, A, E, A, C#. This is a major chord. It \"makes sense\" and \"feels good\" not because movies and radio associate major chords with happy moments, but because it strikes us in a very deep mathematical sense. I'm on mobile and can't really provide links but if this gets any traction it's a topic I love to discuss and will be more than happy to dive into later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is most certainly not purely societal. There are reasons why different cultures all around the world develop very similar music systems. As /u/dalton05 mentioned, there is this thing called the overtone series. Have you ever seen a visual representation of a sound wave? Since sound is a wave, it's characterized by periodic behavior and is often shown as a sine wave, like this. _URL_1_\n\nImagine that within that first crest, you have 2 crests. This is twice the frequency, meaning that whatever source object makes the sounds vibrates twice as much. Now imagine that within that first crest, you have 3. Then 4, then 5, and so on. All of these kind of elementary frequencies form the overtone series, which are the notes of the major scale. \n\nThe reason why these notes sound good to us is because most things in nature don't produce single frequencies. The reason why a B flat on a trombone sounds different than a B flat on a violin is because the frequency is not a B flat frequency. It's a B flat frequency in addition to a bunch of overtones, since the vibrating source object has tendencies to vibrate in small integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. \n\nAs a result, our brains interpret any major chord as a single frequency. When you listen to a trombone, you don't hear all the individual frequencies that make up the sound. That would be too difficult. A single frequency sounds like a soft hum. Almost nothing in nature is like that - they all have a bunch of overtones. To make this mix of frequencies easier to process, our brain interprets major chords as single, unified sounds. This is called a consonance, and this is why major chords sound \"right\" to us. They just sound good, because our brains have evolved to interpret them that way for every day life.\n\nThere's also a bit to do with how the ear drum interprets sounds, but it's along the same principles - integer multiples of fundamental frequency - > one sound.\n\nEDIT for clarity: A summary:\n\n- Objects in nature tend to produce frequencies in small integer multiples\n\n- Our brains interpret these as single sounds - you can't really hear the individual notes of a C chord\n\n- Thus, they sound good\n\nHere's a good diagram: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50445472",
"title": "Charles Limb",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Limb also investigated the relation of emotion to creativity. He asked jazz musicians in the fMRI to improvise music they felt corresponded to the emotions in photos of a sad, neutral, and happy woman. He found that when musicians responded to happy photos, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex deactivated much more than in the other conditions. The study also asked why we feel pleasure in sad music, and found that while musicians showed more frontal deactivation and deeper flow states when responding to the happy photos, the creation of sad music elicited a stronger visceral experience and greater activity in the brain's reward centers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22212295",
"title": "Paula M. Niedenthal",
"section": "Section::::Emotion congruence and selective perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Niedenthal and Setterlund found that music can induce happy or sad moods. They also found that when in a happy mood, participants were quicker at identifying happy words than sad words. Such findings are in line with the emotion-congruence thesis. This research also makes the conclusion that our existing moods and emotions lead us to selectively perceive emotion-congruent objects and events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41170737",
"title": "Happy (Pharrell Williams song)",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Jody Rosen of \"Rolling Stone\" gave it 3.5 stars and deemed it \"an instant contender for 2013's Song of the Summer\". In a 4/5 review, Renowned for Sound's Huw Woodward said, \"Happy is a rather… well… happy affair with a cheerful beat and exuberant vocal that would indicate that the former N.E.R.D singer is finding a lot of lighthearted fun to be had in both music and life. 'Because I'm happy, clap along if you feel like happiness is the truth' sings Williams as the jaunty rhythm gets your head nodding.\" Holly Williams of Contactmusic.com gave it four stars, praising it for being \"unbelievably catchy\" and \"the kind of song that makes you want to dance and sing along\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24188609",
"title": "Happy (Leona Lewis song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "\"Happy\" is a pop and R&B ballad, song written in C major; Lewis' vocal range extends from G to C. It moves at 76 beats per minute and is set in common time. Lewis explained the lyrics and interpretation of \"Happy\" in an interview with the Associated Press, saying, \"It's a contradiction of song because, yes, it's named 'Happy', but the song's kind of dark, a bit sad, sombre. In my songs, I want people to go on a journey, and [to get to] happiness, you go through a lot of pain and sadness to get there sometimes and that's what we wanted to convey on the song.\" Nick Levine, from Digital Spy, commented about the lyrics that the song talks about a protagonist, that, regardless of what happens, wants to be happy, while the message of the song is \"seize the day\". According to Gordon Smart of \"The Sun\", the song is about a relationship breakup and features \"distorted drums\" and \"groaning keyboards\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2320993",
"title": "Happiness... Is Not a Fish That You Can Catch",
"section": "Section::::Music and lyrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The songs on \"Happiness...\" focus on a lighter melody, often following vocalist Raine Maida's extreme range of octaves sung in a falsetto-like manner. He could travel from one octave to another with ease and very smoothly. This created a very surreal effect to the songs, best shown on songs like \"Happiness & the Fish\", \"Blister\" and \"Lying Awake\", much like \"Big Dumb Rocket\" from \"Clumsy\". The overall sound was quite a departure from their first album, \"Naveed\", featuring very toned-down guitars and the addition of synthesizers and other instruments, typical in most alternative rock albums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29434246",
"title": "Happiness (Alexis Jordan song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "\"Happiness\" is an upbeat dance-pop song, influenced by house music. The song has a \"simple, pleasant melody\" and has been described as an \"upbeat track tinged with full good electronica\". The music used was deadmau5's \"Brazil (2nd Edit)\", which was re-edited for the vocals by Stargate. In explaining the song, Jordan revealed it is about \"finding love in yourself before you find it in someone else, because a lot of people lose themselves when they fall in love, and they forget who they are, and that's what you've gotta do. You've gotta find someone who loves you for you\". Songwriter Autumn Rowe has said in an interview that \"Happiness\" has an African influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41170737",
"title": "Happy (Pharrell Williams song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "\"Happy\" is a mid-tempo soul and neo soul song. According to music journalist Paul Tingen, \"Happy\" is \"a mid-tempo ... song in a faux-Motown style, with an arrangement that is, by modern standards, very sparse: programmed drums, one bass and one keyboard part, and handclaps both programmed and played, all topped off by Williams's lead vocals and a whole posse of backing vocals\". Jody Rosen viewed the song as a \"standout\" with a \"sprightly neosoul funk groove\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
98pfb5
|
In the early days of firearms (16th and 17th centuries) how did one go about treating gunshot and cannon wounds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, not discouraging other contributions here, but you might be interested in some earlier answers\n\n* /u/xRathke provides an overview of medical thought in [What did pre-germ theory people think was going on when a cut got infected?](_URL_2_)\n\n\n* /u/staples11 in [During the buccaneering era of piracy (1650-1680), was pistol use commonplace for pirates? If one was shot during a seabattle, could the ship surgeon really do much to heal you back to full health after, or would you generally be considered a goner?](_URL_0_)\n\n\n* /u/jhd3nm steps through later advances in battlefield treatment in [US Military History: I made it back alive, but I've been shot in the thigh. What sort of medical attention do I receive and what are my chances for survival in 1862, 1917, 1944, 1968, and 1991?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "482938",
"title": "Medieval medicine of Western Europe",
"section": "Section::::Battlefield medicine.:Wound treatment.:Arrow extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1612,
"text": "Treating a wound was and remains the most crucial part of any battlefield medicine, as this is what keeps soldiers alive. As remains true on the modern battlefield, hemorrhaging and shock were the number one killers. Thus, the initial control of these two things were of the utmost importance in medieval medicine. Items such as the long bow were used widely throughout the medieval period, thus making arrow extracting a common practice among the armies of Medieval Europe. When extracting an arrow, there were three guidelines that were to be followed. The physicians should first examine the position of the arrow and the degree to which its parts are visible, the possibility of it being poisoned, the location of the wound, and the possibility of contamination with dirt and other debris. The second rule was to extract it delicately and swiftly. The third rule was to stop the flow of blood from the wound. The arrowheads that were used against troops were typically not barbed or hooked, but were slim and designed to penetrate armor such as chain mail. Although this design may be useful as wounds were smaller, these arrows were more likely to embed in bone making them harder to extract. If the arrow happened to be barbed or hooked it made the removal more challenging. Physicians would then let the wound putrify, thus making the tissue softer and easier for arrow extraction. After a soldier was wounded he was taken to a field hospital where the wound was assessed and cleaned, then if time permitted the soldier was sent to a camp hospital where his wound was closed for good and allowed to heal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "381359",
"title": "Battlefield medicine",
"section": "Section::::Chronology of medical advances on the battlefield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "BULLET::::- French military surgeon Ambroise Paré (1510–90) pioneered modern battlefield wound treatment. His two main contributions to battlefield medicine are the use of dressing to treat wounds and the use of ligature to stop bleeding during amputation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10725984",
"title": "Gunshot wound",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Until the 1880s, the standard practice for treating a gunshot wound called for physicians to insert their unsterilized fingers into the wound to probe and locate the path of the bullet. Surgically opening abdominal cavities to repair gunshot wounds, germ theory, and Joseph Lister's technique for antiseptic surgery using diluted carbolic acid, first demonstrated in 1865, had not yet been accepted as standard practice. For example, sixteen doctors attended to President James A. Garfield after he was shot in 1881, and most probed the wound with their fingers or dirty instruments. Historians agree that massive infection was a significant factor in Garfield's death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8861532",
"title": "Combination weapons",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "According to the book \"Weaponry: An Illustrated History\", by Chuck Wills, between the late 16th century and the advances in repeating firearms in the mid 19th century, blades or clubs were often fitted onto guns, because only one shot could be fired from the gun. Without an alternative weapon attachment, they became useless at close range. Some of the first included the German Axe-Pistol, made in the central European region of Silesia. This weapon combined a flintlock pistol with a battleaxe. Later, a Pistol-Sword combination formed in the mid 18th century, which was apparently used mainly by marines and naval officers in boarding engagements at sea. Additionally, Dumonthier & Sons produced several knife pistol combinations. Pocket knives with zip guns inside were made by Unwin & Rodgers, and an Indian gunsmith fitted a percussion cap gun to a mace in the 19th century. Even some shields were fitted with barrels, sometimes designed to look like a spike, and other times placed in cleverly concealed holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50934850",
"title": "Queraltó S.A Group",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Queraltó was the director of Navarra and Guipúzcoa Hospitals. In 1793, he found a way to cure firearms wounds rapidly, covering the wound with lints, bandage, and using sedative when it was necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8110214",
"title": "Hammer (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Firearms, initially known as \"hand cannons\", first became a viable weapon in 1364 through the advancement of chemical technologies to create a gunpowder efficient enough to launch a projectile at high velocities in a hand-held weapon. The issue quickly arose of how to effectively ignite the gunpowder while maintaining the weapon’s aim at the target. Initially, the problem was solved by using a “slow match”: a chemically treated piece of rope that would stay lit for an extended period of time. The smoldering end of the rope would then be manually brought into contact with the gunpowder through a touch hole in the barrel of the weapon when the user was ready to shoot. It proved difficult for the shooter to both keep the weapon aimed and level as well as ignite the gunpowder with the slow match.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21281502",
"title": "Gun",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Around the late 14th century in Europe, smaller and portable hand-held cannons were developed, creating in effect the first smooth-bore personal firearm. In the late 15th century the Ottoman empire used firearms as part of its regular infantry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uxu58
|
if your pouring molten steel into a cast, what prevent the cast from melting or distorting?
|
[
{
"answer": "By having a different melting temperature than the metal that is being poured into it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "sand and plaster in a container to hold them in place. internal distortion is controlled with binders in the sand. Bentonite and horsehair come to mind although there are lots of others. Basically anything that will hold the sand grains in place, especially when the mold is preheated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21586164",
"title": "Shell molding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal from the feed system and any sand from the mold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1143008",
"title": "Steel mill",
"section": "Section::::Integrated mill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Molten steel is cast into large blocks called \"blooms\". During the casting process various methods are used, such as addition of aluminum, so that impurities in the steel float to the surface where they can be cut off the finished bloom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "132784",
"title": "Cast iron",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Cast iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola, but in modern applications, it is more often melted in electric induction furnaces or electric arc furnaces. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1082009",
"title": "Sand casting",
"section": "Section::::Basic process.:Components.:Cores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from the initial cooling and to add hardness—in the case of steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened by surface compression treatment—like shot peening—that adds resistance to tensile cracking and smooths the rough surface. And when high precision is required, various machining operations (such as milling or boring) are made to finish critical areas of the casting. Examples of this would include the boring of cylinders and milling of the deck on a cast engine block.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6861318",
"title": "Fusible core injection molding",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "One key in casting metal cores is to make sure they do not contain any porosity as it will induce flaws into the molded part. In order to minimize porosity the metal may be gravity cast or the molding cavity may be pressurized. Another system slowly rocks the casting dies as the molding cavity fills to \"shake\" the air bubbles out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347759",
"title": "Bronze sculpture",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Lost wax method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Students of bronze casting will usually work in direct wax, where the model is made in wax, possibly formed over a core, or with a core cast in place, if the piece is to be hollow. If no mould is made and the casting process fails, the artwork will also be lost. After the metal has cooled, the external ceramic or clay is chipped away, revealing an image of the wax form, including core pins, sprues, vents, and risers. All of these are removed with a saw and tool marks are polished away, and interior core material is removed to reduce the likelihood of interior corrosion. Incomplete voids created by gas pockets or investment inclusions are then corrected by welding and carving. Small defects where sprues and vents were attached are filed or ground down and polished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "975309",
"title": "Cementation process",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Alternatively they could be broken up and melted in a crucible using a crucible furnace with a flux to become \"crucible steel\" or \"cast steel\", a process devised by Benjamin Huntsman in Sheffield in the 1740s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zwc9s
|
how do they get the caramel in the caramilk?
|
[
{
"answer": "First they form the top of the bar. Looks like an ice cube tray. They then turn it over and fill the depressions with caramel. Then they place a chocolate slab on top (and that is the bottom). \nLook at the bar and you can see the seam\n\nYou owe me a carmilk now because I now crave one",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "395677",
"title": "Crème caramel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Crème caramel (), flan, caramel dessert, or pudim (in Portuguese speaking countries) is a custard dessert with a layer of clear caramel sauce, as opposed to crème brûlée which is custard with an added hard clear caramel layer on top.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64085",
"title": "Caramel",
"section": "Section::::Salted caramel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Salted caramel is a noticeably salty variant. It was invented in 1977 by the French pastry chef in Quiberon, Brittany, in the form of a salted butter caramel with crushed nuts (\"caramel au beurre salé\"), using the famous Breton \"demi-sel\" butter. It was named the \"Best Candy in France\" (\"Meilleur Bonbon de France\") at the Paris \"Salon International de la Confiserie\" in 1980.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987492",
"title": "Food browning",
"section": "Section::::Non-enzymatic browning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Caramelization is a process involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in cooking for the desired nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64085",
"title": "Caramel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Caramel ( or ) is a medium to dark-orange confectionery product made by heating a variety of sugars. It can be used as a flavoring in puddings and desserts, as a filling in bonbons, or as a topping for ice cream and custard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18978668",
"title": "Pickled cucumber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "A pickled cucumber (commonly known as a pickle in the United States and Canada and a gherkin in Britain, Ireland, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand) is a cucumber that has been pickled in a brine, vinegar, or other solution and left to ferment for a period of time, by either immersing the cucumbers in an acidic solution or through souring by lacto-fermentation. Pickled cucumbers are often part of mixed pickles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44760",
"title": "Confectionery",
"section": "Section::::Sugar confectionery.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- Toffee: A confection made by caramelizing sugar or molasses along with butter. Toffee has a glossy surface and textures ranging from soft and sticky to a hard, brittle material. Its brown color and smoky taste arise from the caramelization of the sugars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20927336",
"title": "Pane ticinese",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "\"Pane ticinese\" is made of a dough of water, white flour, \"biga\" (a mixture of flour, yeast and water), salt, and (in the contemporary recipe only) some oil. After being kneaded, the dough is divided into round pieces of about 2 kg, which are left to rise for a few minutes before being re-kneaded, flattened and formed into small individual loaves, or \"michette\" (plural of \"michetta\"). Each \"michetta\" is shaped by hand into an oval shape of about 10 cm in length, and attached to other \"michette\" to form a complete loaf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6phxcj
|
In whaling times, how were organic products preserved on board long enough to make it to market?
|
[
{
"answer": "Whale oil itself will not mold or rot and even is fairly resistant to rancidity (more so even than most vegetable oils). This shouldn't be too surprising as it exists naturally in large volumes inside the whale and if it required a lot of upkeep or immune activity to maintain it would be very biologically costly. Typically a whaling vessel would process whales not long after they were killed and either extract the oil (from sperm wales) or butcher the whale and render the blubber into oil where it was then stored in a vessel in the ship. For blue whales the whalebone was kept as well as the oil, otherwise the rest of the carcass was left abandoned. One of the major selling points of whale oil was precisely its incredible stability in a variety of temperatures and its resistance to spoilage.\n\nFor other kinds of organic products from other sources the typical methods of preservation were used: salting, drying, and curing meat; use of stable foods like olive oil and honey; use of fermented or preserved foods like cheese, wine, dried fruits, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "640764",
"title": "Barrel",
"section": "Section::::Uses today.:Oil storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Wooden casks of various sizes were used to store whale oil on ships in the age of sail. Its viscous nature made sperm whale oil a particularly difficult substance to contain in staved containers and oil coopers were probably the most skilled coopers in pre-industrial cooperage. Olive oil, seed oils and other organic oils were also placed in wooden casks for storage or transport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33557",
"title": "Whaling",
"section": "Section::::Modernity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Whale oil is used little today and modern whaling is primarily done for food: for pets, fur farms, sled dogs and humans, and for making carvings of tusks, teeth and vertebrae. Both meat and blubber (muktuk) are eaten from narwhals, belugas and bowheads. From commercially hunted minkes, meat is eaten by humans or animals, and blubber is rendered down mostly to cheap industrial products such as animal feed or, in Iceland, as a fuel supplement for whaling ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1010202",
"title": "Trywork",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In the 18th and 19th century New England whaling industry, the use of tryworks on whaling ships allowed them to stay at sea longer. Since they could boil out their oil during the voyage, they did not have to carry unprocessed blubber home. Slices of blubber were cut as thinly as possible for the process, and on New England whaling ships, these slices were known as \"bible leaves\" by the sailors. The ability to use tryworks at sea thus enabled the Yankee whaling industry to flourish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23195",
"title": "Petroleum",
"section": "Section::::Environmental effects.:Whales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60411",
"title": "Steller's sea cow",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with humans.:Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Towards the end of the 19th century, bones and fossils from the extinct animal were valuable and often sold to museums at high prices. Most were collected during this time, limiting trade after 1900. Some are still sold commercially, as the highly dense cortical bone is well-suited for making items such as knife handles and decorative carvings. Because the sea cow is extinct, native artisan products made in Alaska from this \"mermaid ivory\" are legal to sell in the United States and do not fall under the jurisdiction of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which restrict the trade of marine mammal products. Although the distribution is legal, the sale of unfossilized bones is generally prohibited and trade in products made of the bones is regulated because some of the material is unlikely to be authentic and probably comes from arctic cetaceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3703284",
"title": "Whaler",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "As compared to whaling before and during the 19th century, which was executed with handheld harpoons thrown from oar-powered whaleboats (depicted most famously in Herman Melville's \"Moby Dick)\", whaling since the 1900s is quite different. Whale oil, which fossil-fuel based alternatives has supplanted, is no longer the primary commercial product of whaling. Whaling is now done for whale meat for the relatively small culinary market. (Norwegian whalers account for about 20% of whales caught and Japanese whalers for about 60%.) Harpoon cannons, fired from harpoon ships with displacement in the hundreds of tons, are now universally used for commercial whaling operations. These motorized ships are able to keep up with the sleeker and fast-swimming rorquals such as the fin whale, that would have been impossible for the muscle-powered rowboats to chase, and allow whaling to be done more safely for the crews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231030",
"title": "Baleen whale",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Conservation and management issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1197,
"text": "Commercial whaling was historically important for the world economy. All species were exploited, and as one type's stock depleted, another type was targeted. The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially through the 1960s as all whale stocks had been depleted, and practically stopped in 1988 after the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium which banned whaling for commercial use. Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers; for example, gray whales may be as numerous as they were prior to whaling, making it the first marine mammal to be taken off the endangered species list. The Southern right whale was hunted to near extinction in the mid-to-late 20th century, with only a small (unknown) population around Antarctica. Because of international protection, the Southern right whale's population has been growing 7% annually since 1970. Conversely, the eastern stock of North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range, which stretched from the coast of North Africa to the North Sea and Iceland; it is thought that the entire stock consists of only ten individuals, making the eastern stock functionally extinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
148xef
|
Did all land-dwelling creatures evolve from one, the first and only, amphibious creatures?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer is no. Tetrapods, insects, crustations (several times), arachnids, meriopods, velvet worms, molluscs (several times), etc all invaded land separately.\n\n > But I find it hard to believe that one amphibious creature gave rise to every land-dwelling creatures, especially when other species of fish were faced with the same problem of poorly oxygenated water. \n\nMany species of fish have evolved to deal with low O2 by gulping air (gar, bowfins, electric eels, *Betta* fish, lungfish, arapaima, etc). There would have been several species of 'amphibious' fish during the early evolution of tetrapods - there certainly are several now (for example walking catfish and snakeheads can move overland during rainy nights, Reedfish can actually hunt on land, and mudskippers and Pacific Leapiing Blennies move around on land on the shore of tidal areas). Anyway, once one lineage diversified onto land it made it much less likely that other less well adapted groups could move into niches they already occupy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25961971",
"title": "Protocetidae",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1186,
"text": "There were many genera, and some of these are very well known (e.g., \"Rodhocetus\"). Known protocetids had large fore- and hindlimbs that could support the body on land, and it is likely that they lived amphibiously: in the sea and on land. It is unclear at present whether protocetids had flukes (the horizontal tail fin of modern cetaceans). However, what is clear is that they are adapted even further to an aquatic life-style. In \"Rodhocetus\", for example, the sacrum – a bone that in land-mammals is a fusion of five vertebrae that connects the pelvis with the rest of the vertebral column – was divided into loose vertebrae. However, the pelvis was still connected to one of the sacral vertebrae. Furthermore, the nasal openings are now halfway up the snout; a first step towards the telescoped condition in modern whales. Their supposed amphibious nature is supported by the discovery of a pregnant \"Maiacetus\", in which the fossilised fetus was positioned for a head-first delivery, suggesting that \"Maiacetus\" gave birth on land. The ungulate ancestry of these early whales is still underlined by characteristics like the presence of hooves at the ends of toes in \"Rodhocetus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37824359",
"title": "Evolution of fish",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Fish to tetrapods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Research by Jennifer A. Clack and her colleagues showed that the very earliest tetrapods, animals similar to \"Acanthostega\", were wholly aquatic and quite unsuited to life on land. This is in contrast to the earlier view that fish had first invaded the land — either in search of prey (like modern mudskippers) or to find water when the pond they lived in dried out — and later evolved legs, lungs, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38046595",
"title": "Evolution of tetrapods",
"section": "Section::::Palaeozoic tetrapods.:Devonian tetrapods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Research by Jennifer A. Clack and her colleagues showed that the very earliest tetrapods, animals similar to \"Acanthostega\", were wholly aquatic and quite unsuited to life on land. This is in contrast to the earlier view that fish had first invaded the land — either in search of prey (like modern mudskippers) or to find water when the pond they lived in dried out — and later evolved legs, lungs, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22210655",
"title": "Aquatic locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Secondary evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Primarily or exclusively aquatic animals have re-evolved from terrestrial tetrapods multiple times: examples include amphibians such as newts, reptiles such as crocodiles, sea turtles, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, marine mammals such as whales, seals and otters, and birds such as penguins. Many species of snakes are also aquatic and live their entire lives in the water. Among invertebrates, a number of insect species have adaptations for aquatic life and locomotion. Examples of aquatic insects include dragonfly larvae, water boatmen, and diving beetles. There are also aquatic spiders, although they tend to prefer other modes of locomotion under water than swimming proper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "875148",
"title": "Evolution of cetaceans",
"section": "Section::::Early evolution.:Ambulocetidae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Recent studies showcase that ambulocetids were fully aquatic like modern cetaceans, possessing a similar thoracic morphology and being unable to support their weight on land. This suggests that complete abandonment of the land evolved much earlier among cetaceans than previously thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14556494",
"title": "Gill-man",
"section": "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Gill-Man trilogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The last known surviving member of a race of amphibious humanoids which flourished during the Devonian age, the Gill-Man (as christened by Dr. Thompson) dwelled in a lagoon located in a largely unexplored area of the Amazon rainforest. The creature was apparently known to the natives, as the captain of the boat \"Rita\" mentioned local legends of a \"man-fish\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50018412",
"title": "List of semiaquatic tetrapods",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "All extant fully aquatic mammals except the sea otter are found in two clades of exclusively aquatic species, Cetacea and Sirenia; the extinct desmostylians are also thought to have been fully aquatic (these groups are thought to have become fully aquatic about 45, 40 and 30 Ma ago, respectively). In contrast, semiaquatic mammals are widely distributed throughout the class. However, extant semiaquatic swimming marine mammals are restricted to Carnivora (among which, pinnipeds apparently appeared about 20 Ma ago). Semiaquatic (carnivorous) rodents have been noted as having larger than normal brains for their size, possibly as a consequence of using their vibrissae for acoustic detection of prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gemn1
|
why do all animals, even insects, seem to go nuts over the red dot?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Felidae (all kinds of cats from large to small) brains and eyes are geared to a) notice motion and b) play with their prey. Playing with prey is the best way to kill possibly dangerous animals... especially things like venomous snakes. Dodge in, bat the hell out of it before it can strike, dodge out. After 5 or 6 repetitions of this, the snake is bleeding to death and/or has massive internal injuries. The same thing goes for any other animal that might fight back, like a cornered rat or mouse.\n\n > Lasers are BRIGHT. You don't think of the little red dot as very bright because it's so small... but if you measure its brightness, it's usually much brighter than the average lightbulb. \n\n > So laser light is a intensely bright spot of color (despite the fact that cats don't see red well. It looks mostly green to them) and motion, much brighter and more intense than anything it would be exposed to in nature. It hits all those feline eyes and brain cells like a ton of bricks and kicks their 'play with the prey' instincts and emotions into full gear.\n\n > The cat will happily exhaust itself chasing the laser dot in circles.\n\n > Imagine yourself watching a really good, suspenseful, action movie that gets your emotions up and makes you want to cheer. It's probably more intense than anything you'd experience in real life.\n\n > Same exact emotions and feelings, but kitteh gets it from running itself ragged chasing the dot.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hadn't heard about insects going crazy over a laser dot. Anyone has anecdotes?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the laser pointer definitely works on cats, dogs, some fish, and birds. There's got to be something to this. Anyone know if it works on reptiles, too? I feel like that's an important part of the question that got missed; ALL animals seem to delight in the red dot (apparently even insects)! Is it always the hunting instinct like top comment mentioned with cats?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are not going crazy over only the red dot. It is also a combination of the erratic movements that indicate it is some sort of prey that triggers them. The brains are probably tuned to a \"attack\" response when it sees a simulated \"flee\" response. It is somewhat the same way that people can go into wild lion dens, by not \"behaving\" like prey.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The clear red dot is what biologists call a superstimuli or supernormal stimulus. It is appears not only be to be a distinct entity, but also it is maximally distinguible from the surrounding environment. Other prey normally camouflages itself at least to a very small extent. The cat decision threshold to attack normal prey is building up slowly in most cases ('Is this a mouse or a rock?'). Then at some point it's 'attack time'- when the cat is absolutely sure it's a mouse. With the red dot, it's in this attack mode all the time.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThen it's highly likely that it has to do with you moving the laser and not a machine, giving it the features of biological motion: directional change and nonlinear acceleration properties.\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This will be buried, but I have to mention, that laser pointers are extremely dangerous to dogs and cats. They can cause serious OCD, reflection obsession/fixation, shadow obsession/fixation, etc. So be careful, and do not use laser pointers to exercise your animal as it may only cause issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15320273",
"title": "Mermithergate",
"section": "Section::::Infection cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Up to 5% of some populations of \"Cephalotes atratus\" suffer from an infection by the tetradonematid nematode \"Myrmeconema neotropicum\". It causes the ant's abdomen to turn from black to bright red, strikingly resembling a red berry. In addition, the ant then holds it up most of the time, and it is easily ripped off. Birds easily mistake these for real fruit and pick them, while they avoid eating normal ants. The nematodes pass through the bird's digestive system as eggs without harming it. The circle closes when \"C. atratus\" workers feed on the bird droppings, thus getting infected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422247",
"title": "Self-awareness",
"section": "Section::::Neurobiological basis.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Among ants, 23 of 24 adult ants, from three species, scratched at small blue dots painted on their fronts when they were able to see the dot in a mirror. None of the ants scratched their fronts when they had no mirror to see the dot. None tried to scratch the blue dot on the mirror. When they had a mirror and a brown dot similar to their own color, only one of thirty ants scratched the brown dot; researchers said she was darker than average so the dot was visible. They also reacted to the mirror itself. Even without dots, 30 out of 30 ants touched the mirror with legs, antennae and mouths, while 0 of 30 ants touched a clear glass divider, with ants on the other side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2215386",
"title": "Deilephila elpenor",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.:Eyespots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Many Lepidoptera species have evolved eye spots either on their body (when they are caterpillars) or on their wings (as fully grown adults). This dark, circular marking is generally thought to resemble the eyes of a predator and deter attacks from birds that feed on insects. This mimicry is effective because the caterpillar is usually somewhat concealed, and because the predators must respond to the signals quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10830230",
"title": "Cabela's Big Game Hunter 2006 Trophy Season",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Like the previous two games, legal game mammals are marked. However, instead of being marked with dots, they are marked with cones. Red cones for game that is alive and legal, blue cones for dead came, and purple cones for wounded game. Upon scoping in on an animal, information will appear on the bottom of the screen: spcies, scoring, and gender. Animals with antlers will have point values based on their horns/antlers. If the player scopes in on a dot and information appears, it indicates that the sights are on the animal with nothing hindering it, even if the animals is hidden behind trees and brush. If no information appears, then the animal is behind structures or land. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "420046",
"title": "American redstart",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "The redstarts feed almost exclusively on insects which are usually caught by flycatching. American redstarts also have been known to catch their insect prey by gleaning it from leaves. This is a very active species. The tail is often held partly fanned out. These birds have been observed flashing the orange and yellow of their tails on and off to startle and chase insects from the underbrush. Overall, this species is a very flexible, opportunistic feeder that can easily adapt to varying habitat, season, insect community, vegetation structure, and time of day. The diet consists largely of caterpillars, moths, flies, leafhoppers and planthoppers, small wasps, beetles, aphids, stoneflies and spiders. Few berries and seeds are consumed, but are most often from barberry, serviceberry, and magnolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13455478",
"title": "Animal coloration",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration.:Distraction.:Startle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Some animals such as many moths, mantises and grasshoppers, have a repertory of threatening or startling behaviour, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous eyespots or patches of bright and contrasting colors, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator. This gives the prey animal an opportunity to escape. The behaviour is deimatic (startling) rather than aposematic as these insects are palatable to predators, so the warning colors are a bluff, not an honest signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "976335",
"title": "Mirror test",
"section": "Section::::Animals that have passed.:Ants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "BULLET::::- In a Belgian study from 2015, 23 out of 24 adult ants scratched at small blue dots painted on their clypeus (part of their \"face\") when they were able to see the dot in a mirror. According to the published results, the ants were individually tested and were from three species, \"Myrmica sabuleti\", \"Myrmica rubra\" and \"Myrmica ruginodis\". None of the ants scratched the clypeus when they had no mirror to see the dot. None tried to scratch the blue dot on the mirror. When they had a mirror and a brown dot similar to their own color, only one of thirty ants scratched the brown dot; researchers said she was darker than average so the dot was visible. They also reacted to the mirror itself. Even without dots, 30 out of 30 ants touched the mirror with legs, antennae and mouths, while 0 of 30 ants touched a clear glass divider, with ants on the other side. Ants a few days old did not react to the dots. These three species have limited eyesight, with 109–169 facets per eye, and the authors suggest doing tests on ants with more facets (some have 3,000) and on bees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12kn6e
|
Are Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells as advantageous as Embryonic Stem Cells, research wise?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer is no. While iPS cells have a lot of potential, they simply are not as undifferentiated as ES cells. This means ES cells can be used for a wider variety of purposes more effectively. Potentially we could find a way to program them like ES cells, but it's kind of a ridiculous step when ES cells are merely a moral problem to fundamentalists. There are other issues, including that some of the hacks we use to reprogram the cells can sometimes make them oncogenic. Needless to say, they're useful, but they really don't hold a candle to ES cells yet.\n\nInteresting review\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, personally I think that each type has its own advantages and disadvantages.\n\n1. IPS cells can be patient specific, which ES cells generally cannot be.\n\n2. IPS cells are similar, but not identical to ES cells and depending on the method of pluripotency induction, could have problems with becoming cancerous.\n\nPersonally, because of reason#1, I think the induction of pluripotency in somatic cells has more potential for therapies. More research into methods that are more efficient and can lead to the supression of the epigenetic memory of the parent cell is needed, but I think we're making progress...the field is barely 6 years old.\n\nFinally, some people have been able to directly reprogram one type of somatic cell into another type - leading to the possibility that the intermediate step of induction of pluripotentcy might not even be neccesary.\n\nSo IPSCs are not as \"good as\" ESCs in some ways, but they definitely have a lot to offer that ESCs don't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "zk3's response to Xinlitik has the most comprehensive answer, although bluegreensunrise brings up absolutely relevant points.\n\nRemember that all cells of a single organism contain the same (or *extremely similar*) DNA. The only difference between iPS cells and ESC cells and fully differentiated cells are the epigenetic programs activated in those cells. It is, of course, far more complex to control the activation of these programs than it is to state that they exist, but there is not yet evidence that even the most fully differentiated cells **cannot** dedifferentiate under the correct assortment of stimulations. As others have said, more research is required in this brand new field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.:Stem cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1502,
"text": "The ethical debate about use of embryonic stem cells has stirred controversy both in the United States and abroad; although more recently these debates have lessened due to modern advances in creating induced pluripotent stem cells from adult cells. The greatest advantage for use of embryonic stem cells is the fact that they can differentiate (become) nearly any type of cell provided the right conditions and signals. However, recent advances by Shinya Yamanaka et al. have found ways to create pluripotent cells without the use of such controversial cell cultures. Using the patient's own cells and re-differentiating them into the desired cell type bypasses both possible patient rejection of the embryonic stem cells and any ethical concerns associated with using them, while also providing researchers a larger supply of available cells. However, induced pluripotent cells have the potential to form benign (though potentially malignant) tumors, and tend to have poor survivability \"in vivo\" (in the living body) on damaged tissue. Much of the ethics concerning use of stem cells has subsided from the embryonic/adult stem cell debate due to its rendered moot, but now societies find themselves debating whether or not this technology can be ethically used. Enhancements of traits, use of animals for tissue scaffolding, and even arguments for moral degeneration have been made with the fears that if this technology reaches its full potential a new paradigm shift will occur in human behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27783",
"title": "Stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Induced pluripotent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Furthermore, induced pluripotent stem cells provide several therapeutic advantages. Like ESCs, they are pluripotent. They thus have great differentiation potential; theoretically, they could produce any cell within the human body (if reprogramming to pluripotency was \"complete\"). Moreover, unlike ESCs, they potentially could allow doctors to create a pluripotent stem cell line for each individual patient. Frozen blood samples can be used as a valuable source of induced pluripotent stem cells. Patient specific stem cells allow for the screening for side effects before drug treatment, as well as the reduced risk of transplantation rejection. Despite their current limited use therapeutically, iPSCs hold create potential for future use in medical treatment and research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3831284",
"title": "Stem cell controversy",
"section": "Section::::Viewpoints.:Objection.:Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Pro-life supporters often claim that the use of adult stem cells from sources such as the umbilical cord blood has consistently produced more promising results than the use of embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, adult stem cell research may be able to make greater advances if less money and resources were channeled into embryonic stem cell research. Stem cell research is highly frowned upon in many ethnic and religious groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12223532",
"title": "Induced pluripotent stem cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The most well-known type of pluripotent stem cell is the embryonic stem cell. However, since the generation of embryonic stem cells involves destruction (or at least manipulation) of the pre-implantation stage embryo, there has been much controversy surrounding their use. Further, because embryonic stem cells can only be derived from embryos, it has so far not been feasible to create patient-matched embryonic stem cell lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1686272",
"title": "Chemical biology",
"section": "Section::::Systems of interest.:Chemical approaches to stem-cell biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Because of the ethical issues surrounding ESC research, the generation of pluripotent cells by reprogramming existing somatic cells into a more \"stem-like\" state is a promising alternative to the use of standard ESCs. By genetic approaches, this has recently been achieved in the creation of ESCs by somatic cell nuclear transfer and the generation of induced pluripotent stem-cells by viral transduction of specific genes. From a therapeutic perspective, reprogramming by chemical means would be safer than genetic methods because induced stem-cells would be free of potentially dangerous transgenes. Several examples of small molecules that can de-differentiate somatic cells have been identified. In one report, lineage-committed myoblasts were treated with a compound, named reversine, and observed to revert to a more stem-like phenotype. These cells were then shown to be capable of differentiating into osteoblasts and adipocytes under appropriate conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14178795",
"title": "SOX2",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neural stem cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Induced pluripotency is possible using adult neural stem cells, which express higher levels of Sox2 and c-Myc than embryonic stem cells. Therefore, only two exogenous factors, one of which is necessarily Oct4, are sufficient for inducing pluripotent cells from neural stem cells, lessening the complications and risks associated with introducing multiple factors to induce pluripotency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12223532",
"title": "Induced pluripotent stem cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Pluripotent stem cells hold promise in the field of regenerative medicine. Because they can propagate indefinitely, as well as give rise to every other cell type in the body (such as neurons, heart, pancreatic, and liver cells), they represent a single source of cells that could be used to replace those lost to damage or disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lb5bi
|
How effective would a stirling engine that is orbiting the sun be?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is possible. The main problems are that stuff with moving parts generally need a lot of maintenance, and that stirling engines involve gas, which is hard to keep hold of in space. It would also have to radiate the heat away from the heat sink, which isn't a fast process, but this is a problem with heat pumps in general and it's not like you could get around it by using solar panels.\n\nThat said, the massive temperature difference isn't as helpful as you might expect. The low temperature people quote is how low it would get if you waited long enough without heating it. But it only cools through radiation, which happens at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the temperature. So as it cools down, cooling further gets drastically slower. You could produce an extremely efficient heat pump, but only by processing very little heat. Since light is free, this is pointless. You're better off running the heat sink at a higher temperature and absorbing all you can. And in any case, having a low-temperature heat sink is only so helpful. The maximum efficiency is 1-T*_C_*/T*_H_*. If the heat sink is at half the temperature of the source, it will run at 50% efficiency.\n\nSo, long story short, you could run a heat pump at high efficiency. But the limiting factor is how much solar power you can get, and how long your pump will last. You could make something that's several times more efficient than solar panels, but it won't last long, and it will be much heavier. It's not really worth it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its commonly stated that space is cold, but outer space does not make a very good cold reservoir of the type that heat engines require. \n\nA good cold reservoir needs to be able to absorb a lot of heat rapidly without changing its temperature. In space, the dominant mechanism for emitting heat is blackbody radiation, which is very slow unless the object becomes quite hot ~ 1000K. So space, though cold, doesn't make a good sink for heat energy. An operating Stirling engine would quickly heat up the cold plate and ruin the efficiency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13998811",
"title": "Advanced Stirling radioisotope generator",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The higher conversion efficiency of the Stirling cycle compared with that of radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) used in previous missions (Viking, Pioneer, Voyager, Galileo, Ulysses, Cassini, New Horizons, and Mars Science Laboratory) would have offered an advantage of a fourfold reduction in PuO fuel, at half the mass of an RTG. It would have produced 140 watts of electricity using a quarter of the plutonium an RTG or MMRTG needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229178",
"title": "Robert Stirling",
"section": "Section::::Engineering and science.:Hot air engine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Robert Stirling's development of the hot air engine was in part motivated by safety. His engine was designed to fail far less catastrophically than the steam engines of the time while obtaining greater efficiency. Though the Stirling engine is rarely used today, its seemingly perpetual motion capability continues to draw the interest of research institutions like Los Alamos National Laboratory and NASA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5882940",
"title": "Saturn INT-20",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Without the S-II stage, which made up a large fraction of the mass of the Saturn V, a version of the INT-20 using an unmodified five-engine version of the S-IC booster would be greatly overpowered and accelerate substantially faster than the Saturn V. This would create excessive aerodynamic stress in the low atmosphere. Several solutions to this problem were considered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57539",
"title": "Ulysses (spacecraft)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "To study the Sun at all latitudes, the probe needed to change its orbital inclination and leave the plane of the Solar System. To change the orbital inclination of a spacecraft to about 80° requires a large change in heliocentric velocity, the energy to achieve which far exceeded the capabilities of any launch vehicle. To reach the desired orbit around the Sun, the mission's planners chose a gravity assist maneuver around Jupiter, but this Jupiter encounter meant that \"Ulysses\" could not be powered by solar cells. The probe was powered instead by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1538451",
"title": "AMC Spirit",
"section": "Section::::Stirling experimental engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The experiments showed the Stirling engine could be better to power an extended-range electric vehicle rather than serving as the primary power for an automobile. The Spirit with the Stirling engine was better suited to run at a constant power setting, in contrast to the internal combustion engine with its easy throttle regulation over a wide range. Although successful in the MOD 1 and MOD 2 phases of the experiments, cutbacks in funding further research and lack of interest by automakers ended possible commercialization of the Automotive Stirling Engine Program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19281445",
"title": "Atmospheric satellite",
"section": "Section::::Design principles.:Airplanes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Luminati Aerospace claims its Substrata solar-powered aircraft could remain aloft indefinitely up to a latitude of 50° through formation flight like migratory geese, reducing by 79% the power required for the trailing aircraft and allowing smaller airframes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3057806",
"title": "Observations and explorations of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Timeline of Venus exploration.:Proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "To overcome the high pressure and temperature at the surface, a team led by Geoffrey Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center produced a concept in 2007 of a solar-powered aircraft that would to control a resistant surface rover on the ground. The aircraft would carry the mission's sensitive electronics in the relatively mild temperatures of Venus' upper atmosphere. Another concept from 2007 suggests to equip a rover with a Stirling cooler powered by a nuclear power source to keep an electronics package at an operational temperature of about 200 °C (392 °F).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nxj47
|
why are there so many atheists on reddit?
|
[
{
"answer": "The site is generally full of younger people more likely to be Atheist, and a lot of the popular reddit sections are based on learning things, science, world events etc... that's going to skew towards people who want to be more educated. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reddit appeals to a younger demographic, and younger people tend to be less religious (a trend which has been ongoing for many decades). For example, 20% of Millennials (those born in 1981 or later) are not religious. [[source](_URL_0_)]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Theists are frequently turned off by the comments they hear, and leave.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People don't have to pretend they are something they are not on the internet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* The internet in general, and reddit in particular, skew young, liberal, and technically savvy. That demographic runs towards atheism.\n* /r/atheism is probably the largest and most active atheism forum in the world. It attracts atheists to reddit.\n* Between the two, reddit has attracted enough of a critical mass of atheists and near atheists, that they are comfortable enough to express their beliefs openly in a way they often can't in other places.\n* Conversely, people of faith may find the atmosphere hostile to their beliefs, and be less likely to express them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reddit is hivemind, and also a lot of younger people. People often come to different conclusions based on stuff but it's it feels good to be in a group host makes more fun of others especially if it's less popular to the masses but popular within your secret club. \n\nPeople saying anything regarding intelligence are being silly. Being religious or atheist has nothing to do with your intelligence level. There are as many dumb and uniformed Christians as there are immensely trivial and stupid atheists as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6207243",
"title": "Demographics of atheism",
"section": "Section::::Studies and statistics.:Diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1434,
"text": "Globally, some atheists also consider themselves Agnostic, Buddhist, Hindu, Jains, Taoist, or hold other related philosophical beliefs. Some, like Secular Jews and Shintoists, may indulge in some religious activities as a way of connecting with their culture, all the while being atheist. Therefore, given limited poll options, some may use other terms to describe their identity. Some politically motivated organizations that report or gather population statistics may, intentionally or unintentionally, misrepresent atheists. Survey designs may bias results due to the nature of elements such as the wording of questions and the available response options. Statistics are generally collected on the assumption that religion is a categorical variable. Instruments have been designed to measure attitudes toward religion, including one that was used by L. L. Thurstone. This may be a particularly important consideration among people who have neutral attitudes, as it is more likely that prevailing social norms will influence the responses of such people on survey questions that effectively force respondents to categorize themselves either as belonging to a particular religion or belonging to no religion. A negative perception of atheists and pressure from family and peers may also cause some atheists to disassociate themselves from atheism. Misunderstanding of the term may also be a reason some label themselves differently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20005615",
"title": "Atheism in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "According to the Pew Research Center in a 2014 survey, self-identified \"atheists\" make up 3.1% of the US population, even though 9% of Americans agreed with the statement \"Do not believe in God\" while 2% agreed with the statement \"Do not know if they believe in God\". According to the 2014 General Sociological Survey, the number of atheists and agnostics in the U.S. had remained relatively flat in the previous 23 years. In 1991, only 2% identified as atheist, and 4% identified as agnostic. In 2014, only 3.1% identified as atheists, and 5% identified as agnostics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "412865",
"title": "American Atheists",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "American Atheists is a non-profit organization in the United States dedicated to defending the civil liberties of atheists and advocating complete separation of church and state. It provides speakers for colleges, universities, clubs, and the news media. It also publishes books and the quarterly \"American Atheist Magazine\", edited by Pamela Whissel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41969028",
"title": "Why I Am an Atheist",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Why I am an Atheist is an essay written by Indian revolutionary Bhagat Singh in 1930 in Lahore Central Jail. The essay was a reply to his religious friends who thought Bhagat Singh became an atheist because of his vanity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17635464",
"title": "List of atheist activists and educators",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "There have been many atheists who have been active in advocacy or education. This is a list of atheist activists and educators. Living persons in this list are people whose atheism is relevant to their notable activities or public life, and who have publicly identified themselves as atheists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60258210",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Africa by country",
"section": "Section::::Egypt.:Treatment of atheists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The number of atheists is reportedly on the rise among the country's youth, many of whom organize and communicate with each other on the internet. In 2013 an Egyptian newspaper reported that 3 million out of 84 million Egyptians are atheists. While the government has acknowledged this trend, it has dealt with it as a problem that needs to be confronted, comparing it to religious extremism. Despite hostile sentiments towards them atheists in Egypt have become increasingly vocal on internet platforms like YouTube and Facebook since the Egyptian revolution of 2011, with some videos discussing atheist ideas receiving millions of views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6207243",
"title": "Demographics of atheism",
"section": "Section::::Studies and statistics.:Methodological issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "Because some governments have strongly promoted atheism and others have strongly condemned it, atheism may be either over-reported or under-reported for different countries. There is a great deal of room for debate as to the accuracy of any method of estimation, as the opportunity for misreporting (intentionally or not) a category of people without an organizational structure is high. Also, many surveys on religious identification ask people to identify themselves as \"agnostics\" or \"atheists\", which is potentially confusing, since these terms are interpreted differently, with some identifying themselves as being agnostic atheists. Additionally, many of these surveys only gauge the number of irreligious people, not the number of actual atheists, or group the two together. For example, research indicates that the fastest growing religious status may be \"no religion\" in the United States, but this includes all kinds of atheists, agnostics, and theists. According to the World Factbook, Non-religious people make up 9.66%, while one fifth of them are atheists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
72l9m2
|
Why do some scientist think that in multiverse theory, the laws of physics would be different to our own universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are many multiverse theories, but the most popular one right now is eternal inflation.\n\nIn eternal inflation the inflaton field, which is postulated to have driven the postulated inflation in the very early universe, a period of extremely rapid expansion, has spontaneously decayed to its current vacuum value. This decay ends up producing all the fields which make up the universe in quantum field theory: Electron, photon, quark etc.\n\nBut the decay ends up defining the value of the fundamental constants in physics. These values could be randomly assigned, and so will be different if other parts of the pre-decay universe has decayed into their own universe bubble. This leads to radical changes in the laws of physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What scientists do you think think that?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Multiverse theory\" is not a thing. There are some ideas that would imply the existence of something you could call multiverse. Different ideas lead to completely different models how this multiverse would look like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In string theory, there are always 11 dimensions, but the particular way these dimensions are arranged and knotted up can produce regions where it looks like there are fewer dimensions with different particles and forces. There can be transitions between these \"string vacuum\" states that would be similar to a big bang, so eventually there would be a wide variety of large regions with their own dimension, particles, and forces, each of which could be called a universe. This idea is called the \"String Landscape\", and it's the most well studied way that a multiverse like that could occur, but there's still much that isn't known. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22776",
"title": "Omnipotence",
"section": "Section::::Uncertainty and other views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Since the current laws of physics are only known to be valid in this universe, it is possible that the laws of physics are different in parallel universes, giving a God-like entity more power. If the number of universes is unlimited, then the power of a certain God-like entity is also unlimited, since the laws of physics may be different in other universes, and accordingly making this entity omnipotent. Unfortunately concerning a multiverse there is a lack of empirical correlation. To the extreme there are theories about realms beyond this multiverse (Nirvana, Chaos, Nothingness).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573880",
"title": "Fine-tuned Universe",
"section": "Section::::Possible naturalistic explanations.:Multiverse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Critics of the multiverse-related explanations argue that there is no independent evidence that other universes exist. Some criticize the inference from fine-tuning for life to a multiverse as fallacious, whereas others defend it against that challenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573880",
"title": "Fine-tuned Universe",
"section": "Section::::Possible naturalistic explanations.:Multiverse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "The multiverse idea has led to considerable research into the anthropic principle and has been of particular interest to particle physicists, because theories of everything do apparently generate large numbers of universes in which the physical constants vary widely. As yet, there is no evidence for the existence of a multiverse, but some versions of the theory do make predictions that some researchers studying M-theory and gravity leaks hope to see some evidence of soon. Some multiverse theories are not falsifiable, thus scientists may be reluctant to call any multiverse theory \"scientific\". UNC-Chapel Hill professor Laura Mersini-Houghton claims that the WMAP cold spot may provide testable empirical evidence for a parallel universe, although this claim was recently refuted as the WMAP cold spot was found to be nothing more than a statistical artifact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573880",
"title": "Fine-tuned Universe",
"section": "Section::::Possible naturalistic explanations.:Multiverse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The Multiverse hypothesis proposes the existence of many universes with different physical constants, some of which are hospitable to intelligent life (see multiverse: anthropic principle). Because we are intelligent beings, it is unsurprising that we find ourselves in a hospitable universe if there is such a multiverse. The Multiverse hypothesis is therefore thought to provide an elegant explanation of the finding that we exist despite the required fine-tuning. (See for a detailed discussion of the arguments for and against this suggested explanation.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20911",
"title": "Multiverse",
"section": "Section::::Brief explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Some physicists say the multiverse is not a legitimate topic of scientific inquiry. Concerns have been raised about whether attempts to exempt the multiverse from experimental verification could erode public confidence in science and ultimately damage the study of fundamental physics. Some have argued that the multiverse is a philosophical notion rather than a scientific hypothesis because it cannot be empirically falsified. The ability to disprove a theory by means of scientific experiment has always been part of the accepted scientific method. Paul Steinhardt has famously argued that no experiment can rule out a theory if the theory provides for all possible outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20911",
"title": "Multiverse",
"section": "Section::::Arguments against Multiverse Theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Ellis says that scientists have proposed the idea of the multiverse as a way of explaining the nature of existence. He points out that it ultimately leaves those questions unresolved because it is a metaphysical issue that cannot be resolved by empirical science. He argues that observational testing is at the core of science and should not be abandoned: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52912473",
"title": "Multiverse (set theory)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "A typical difference between the universe and multiverse views is the attitude to the continuum hypothesis. In the universe view the continuum hypothesis is a meaningful question that is either true or false though we have not yet been able to decide which. In the multiverse view it is meaningless to ask whether the continuum hypothesis is true or false before selecting a model of set theory. Another difference is that the statement \"For every transitive model of ZFC there is a larger model of ZFC in which it is countable\" is true in some versions of the multiverse view of mathematics but is false in the universe view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
1pbdev
|
what (if any) is the practical biological purpose of my beard?
|
[
{
"answer": "To keep you warm. \n\nTo keep dirt from you face, mouth, nose. \n\nTo act as a social signifier of post-pubescent\n\nTo make you look cool. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bear repellent.\n\nAlso, women have probably sexually selected for beards over time, but mostly:\n\nBear repellent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Panty-dropping capabilities and Pansy repellant to ensure optimal virility",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To attract a mate",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A full and healthy beard is a good sign of a health man. Think of a beard as being very similar to a peacocks feathers. It shows potential mates and potential rivals that we are healthy and strong. On top of that it does have its practical uses like keeping your face warm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "SOME women love them. SOME hate them. Many are indifferent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Male lions grow a mane after puberty, gorillas backs turn silver. I believe it is to signal females that you are capable of mating and to signal males that you are a competitor. It does not work like that anymore because we have become so disconnected with our hunter-gatherer animal instinct. Females are no longer looking for signs of breedability and (most) men don't find beards intimidating. So now its just an evolutionary bi-product that may someday be phased out as future generations react to evolutionary needs. In fact it may serve a reverse purpose now and actually be seen as a sign of a man who is behind in human evolution and be very unattractive to women, as their inner instinct would drive them to mate with the best human possible (human 2.0), because evolution defeats disease and genetic defects, and with evolution man is growing less hair, so hair is a subliminal signal of possible genetic defects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Beards can provide warmth and UV protection for your face, but the best theory is that beards evolved as a secondary sexual characteristic. They send signals to both potential mates and rival males. A beard creates the illusion of a larger jaw, which seems more dominant. To mates, a beard signals not only that your are sexually mature, but also that your testosterone levels are high enough to grow a full beard, since testosterone is what controls the growth of facial hair. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To catch cornflakes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Excessive testosterone causes baldness and beard, which is a visual cue for dominance, violence tendency and chemistry proficiency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same reason a male lion has a mane. It Protects your neck from attacks while not diminishing its motion range. Try to cut something through a thick cloth and see how that works out. Women don't have them because they didn't go out to hunt and fight but were protected by males.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**Your true answer: Soup straining.**\n\n1- Just because evolution selects for favorable traits, doesn't mean the reverse is true -- that all the traits we have must have some sort of evolutionary benefit. (This would be a logical error in thinking.) Some traits exist simply as genetic drift. Probably most of them. After all, a LOT of people don't have a lot of facial hair at all. The existence of the beard trait may not confer any particular advatnage or disadvantage *at this point in time* but in the future it may always prove beneficial/harmful if and when the environment changes because evolution acts on all traits.\n\n2- No one can ever really give you a definite answer anyway. Is there is a reason why you have two, rather than six, nostrils? One can speculate endlessly because we can't be sure of the many many variables that acted in combination with each other over a few million or so years...so isolating a cause-effect (\"we have beards because xyz\") relationship is simply impossible.\n\nFYI The evolutionary biologists who do engage in this sort of speculation are fun! They're usually sex-mad and influenced by a very 50's view of the world which combines a good dose of sexism and pop psych with a view of evolution that emphasized conflict and selfishness rather than cooperation and community bonds. So, they would speculate that beards are for proving dominance over other men, and getting chicks, naturally. For example, Desmond Morris' claim that men are attracted to boobs because they remind us of asses. One track mind!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Girls like beards. You'll understand when you stop thinking girls have cooties.\n\n*I know that not all girls like beards.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Clearly you dont live above 8000 ft in the dead of winter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I learned in my human evolution class that aside from head covering hair, the hair on human bodies is strategically placed in places that produce pheromones or identifying smells. Like your arm pits and pubic area. \nWe produce pheromones on our face (which is why we kiss) so I think that's why.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It helps larger people distinguish boundaries between their faces and neck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be awesome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know the real answer here, but want to add something for perspective. We didn't get beards as an additional feature as humans. We just didn't lose that hair like we did elsewhere. So the question shouldn't be necessarily be why we have beards, but rather why we lost our other hair, and why men's faces were treated differently.\n\nThis could have been sexual selection, or simply that face hair didn't matter enough to effect selection. Such that losing hair elsewhere gave those humans an advantage, but losing facial hair didn't matter. This would also suggest that hair on the face may actually be controlled by different sets of genes than other hairs we did lose. This on it's own could explain why we didn't lose it.\n\nThose passive possibilities aside, there seems to be a general pattern for us to have kept hair near our orifices - eyes, ears, genitals, in or noses, doesn't seem out of place that we have it around out mouths. Specifically why we have this hair, idk. Why the sexual dimorphism? Idk\n\nIdk much, just my 3 cents\n\nEdits: spelling, answered this on my android.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because I find facial hair attractive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "She keeps your friends from finding out you're gay!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It strains microorganisms from the air for you to feed on, much as whale baleen strains seawater for krill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The beard, like our eyebrows, or the antlers on deer, is a social organ.\n\nIt's purpose is to make the jaw appear larger and more intimidating.\n\nOur biological predecessors would fight with their mouths, so the appearance of large mandibles implied a powerful bite.\n\nIn more recent epocs, the ancient adaptation to make the jaw look more dangerous has been re-purposed to make it appear tougher and more resistant to striking attacks, which became the norm in fights.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To store food for later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "162110",
"title": "Beard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "A beard is the unshaven hair that grows on the chin, upper lip, cheeks and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. Some women with hirsutism, a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness, may develop a beard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "986909",
"title": "Bearded lady",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 632,
"text": "A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. It is usually the result of a fairly common condition: polycystic ovary syndrome, which causes excess testosterone, and also an over-sensitivity to testosterone, and thus (to a greater or lesser extent) results in male pattern hair growth, among other symptoms. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. In some cases a woman’s ability to grow a beard can be due to hereditary reasons without anything medically being wrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162110",
"title": "Beard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Throughout the course of history, societal attitudes toward male beards have varied widely depending on factors such as prevailing cultural-religious traditions and the current era's fashion trends. Some religions (such as Islam, Traditional Christianity, Orthdox Judaism and Sikhism) have considered a full beard to be absolutely essential for all males able to grow one and mandate it as part of their official dogma. Other cultures, even while not officially mandating it, view a beard as central to a man's virility, exemplifying such virtues as wisdom, strength, sexual prowess and high social status. In cultures where facial hair is uncommon (or currently out of fashion), beards may be associated with poor hygiene or an uncivilized, dangerous demeanor. In countries with colder climates, beards help protect the wearer's face from the elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608085",
"title": "Pseudofolliculitis barbae",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The most efficient prevention is to grow a beard. For men who are required to, or simply prefer to shave, studies show the optimal length to be about 0.5 mm to 1 mm to prevent the hair growing back into the skin. Using a beard trimmer at the lowest setting (0.5mm or 1mm) instead of shaving is an efficient alternative. The resulting faint stubble can be shaped using a standard electric razor on non-problematic areas (cheeks, lower neck). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29014788",
"title": "Facial hair in the military",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The present-day regulations of the \"Bundeswehr\" allow soldiers to grow a beard on condition that it be not long, unobtrusive and well-kept. Beards must not impact the proper use of any military equipment, such as a gas mask. Moreover, stubble may not be shown; thus a clean-shaven soldier who wants to start growing a beard must do so during his furlough.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155154",
"title": "Shaving",
"section": "Section::::Shaving methods.:Beard trimmer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The mechanics of a beard trimmer involves rotatory mechanics, crafted with a mini size motor, which rounds at a very fast speed. This motor causes two sets of hinged blades to move back and forth past one another allowing for the hair cuticles to be cut. The main advantage of a beard trimmer, unlike other shaving tools is that you can trim longer beards to a short length efficiently and effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44847172",
"title": "Beard oil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Beard oil is a cosmetic product that is used to nourish the skin under the beard, as well as the beard itself in order to keep it \"soft, shiny, and smooth\". Beard oil mimics the natural oils produced by skin, such as sebum, and is composed mainly of carrier oils and essential oils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14qa3j
|
Why is Nicolas II of Imperial Russia perceived as an incompetent ruler?
|
[
{
"answer": "Editing to not be an asshole to the OP. \n\nYou noted that he was perceived as incompetent. His competency or lack thereof is difficult to gauge from outside historical context. What we do know is the result of his reign. The Russian Empire and Monarchy collapsed under his management. Despite the fact that he saw the British and American systems at work, he never entertained the notion to transfer governance to his subjects, but he did not plunge himself into work either. Another of his biggest failures was failing to understand how he and his rule are perceived by his people, and failing to manage these perceptions. \n\nA horrible stampede occurred during his coronation and related festivities. The coronation festivities for the people took place in a field in Moscow. Massive crowds gathered for the free food and drink, without enough police for crowd control. A stampede occurred, killing about 2000 people. Nicholas was scheduled to attend a diplomatic dinner. Back to failing to gauge and manage perceptions, he did attend the dinner instead of publicly mourning the stampede (he did spend time visiting the victims and the Crown took care of the families, but it was not enough). So, not a good way to start off your reign. \n\nThe next big failure was the Russo-Japanese war. Russia was the first Western Power to be defeated by an Asian power in some time, which greatly reduced the international standing of Russia and negatively impacted the image of the Emperor at home. Also, the nearly complete loss of the Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Tsushima completely destroyed any prestige of the Russian Navy and severely hampered any force projection that the Russian Empire had. \n\nDuring the war, there was unrest at home. On Sunday, January 22 1905, a peaceful demonstration to petition the Emperor at his palace was fired upon by the Imperial Guards. Depending on estimates there were around a 1000 casualties. Again, not something that resulted from Nicholas's policies of governance, but something that was blamed on him. The resulting social unrest and the military failures forced Nicholas to seek peace with Japan. \n\nDuring all this, nationwide unrest and violence are taking place. This became known as the Revolution of 1905. The results were a constitution and a sort of a representative government, while Nicholas retained absolute veto power and control of all military matters. So, he gave up some power, but not enough to be absolved of blame for governance and domestic problems. He was still on the hook for anything that went wrong. \n\nAnd finally, we come to World War I, which was disastrous for Russia. No need for me to go into the gory details, but the war resulted in food shortages and inflation of the Russian currency, while the social issues that were not resolved by the changes in 1905 continues to fester. The government weakened further while support for the various revolutionary factions grew. Nicholas went off to the front to nominally manage the war effort, but it didn't help. And then the collapse happened in March of 1917, when the provisional government assumed power and Nicholas abdicated. A few months later, in November, because the provisional government was determined to continue the war effort, the Bolsheviks managed to overthrow the provisional government. \n\nNicholas and his family were executed about a year later. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like most topics in history, its a multi-faceted issue:\n\nAs /u/RyanGlavin stated below, he was seen as an incompetent military ruler. Not only was there the debacle with the Russo-Japanese war, but there was also his insistence to join the war effort personally as grand marshal of the troops.This was a horrible idea for two reasons: first, good ol' Nick was lacking as a strategist. Secondly, but arguably more importantly, by joining the war effort, he made himself personally responsible for the outcome of battles. Whereas other heads of state could simply scapegoat generals for the failures of a war, Nicolas II was now liable for every set back.\n\nAlso, there is the private nature of his lifestyle. Whereas other monarchs understood that one of the many roles as head of state was to fraternize with the public, Tsar Nic and his wife the Grand Duchess Alexandra led very private lives. The heir to the throne was extremely sick with hemophilia and yet the Tsarist family tried their best to hide this issue.\n\nHowever, this is not to say that there havent been incompetent rulers in Russia`s past at all.. Monarchist Russia has survived poor rulers before. However, the case with Tsar Nicolas II is one that is a bad mix of a incompetent ruler, poor advisers and a time of turmoil and anxiety where Russia needed neither of the above two..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is an extensive amount of research and historians opinions out there on this subject, one of the biggest reasons was that he took command of the Imperial Army in the first world war as it was getting battered to improve the moral of his men, it did not work and many blamed him for the military failures. His wife was left in charge, she was a German and was not trusted by the people. Other than that you are going to have to research it, I did this question for my A levels and sounds suspiciously like an essay question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2789545",
"title": "Ivan Ilyin",
"section": "Section::::Doctrine.:Attitude towards monarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "However he was critical of the monarchy in Russia. He believed that Nicholas II was to a large degree the one responsible for the collapse of Imperial Russia in 1917. His abdication and the subsequent abdication of his brother Mikhail Alexandrovich were crucial mistakes which led to the abolition of monarchy and consequent troubles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147431",
"title": "October Manifesto",
"section": "Section::::Nicholas II's opposition to reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Although Russia was at a major standstill with violent revolts terrorizing the nation, Nicholas II still opposed any reforms that involved limiting the autocracy. Nicholas felt that it was not his place to limit a system created by his ancestors and is quoted as saying \"I cannot squander a legacy that is not mine to squander.\" Nicholas could not bring himself to understand that the Russian people wished to limit his power, which he had increasingly used against them. This opposition towards the reform is of course argued to be due to his upbringing of autocratic beliefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1150105",
"title": "Alexander Palace",
"section": "Section::::Romanovs under house arrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Nicholas II abdicated the throne of Russia on 2 March 1917. Thirteen days later, he returned to the Alexander Palace not as Emperor of Russia, but as Colonel Romanov. The Imperial Family were now held under house arrest and confined to a few rooms of the palace and watched over by a guard with fixed bayonets. The regime of their captivity, worked out by Alexander Kerensky himself, envisaged strict limitations in the life of the Imperial Family: an isolation from the outer world, a guard during their promenades in the park, prohibition of any contacts and correspondence apart from approved letters. Gillard noted, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37056619",
"title": "Emperor of All Russia",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Article 1 of the \"Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire\" stated that \"the Emperor of All Russia is an autocratic and unrestricted monarch. To obey his supreme authority, not only out of fear but out of conscience as well, God himself commands\". The article points to the fact that Russia had an unrestricted monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48738",
"title": "1905 Russian Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Results.:October Manifesto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Even after Bloody Sunday and defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, Nicholas II had been slow to offer a meaningful solution to the social and political crisis. At this point, he became more concerned with his personal affairs such as the illness of his son, whose struggle with haemophilia was overseen by Rasputin. Nicholas also refused to believe that the population was demanding changes in the autocratic regime, seeing \"public opinion\" as mainly the \"intelligentsia\" and believing himself to be the patronly 'father figure' to the Russian people. Sergei Witte, the minister of Russia, frustratingly argued with the Tsar that an immediate implementation of reforms was needed to retain order in the country. It was only after the Revolution started picking up steam that Nicholas was forced to make concessions by writing the October Manifesto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30172853",
"title": "Nicholas II of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "In Russia, Nicholas II faced widespread criticism after the victory of the Revolution. Pavel Bykov, who in Russia wrote the first full account about the downfall of the Tsar, denounced Nicholas as a \"tyrant, who paid with his life for the age-old repression and arbitrary rule of his ancestors over the Russian people, over the impoverished and blood-soaked country\". Soviet-era historians noted that Nicholas II was not fit to be a statesman. It has been argued that he had a weak will and was manipulated by adventurist forces. His regime was condemned for extensive use of the army, police, and courts to destroy the revolutionary movement. He was criticised for fanning nationalism and chauvinism. With the punitive expeditions and courts-martial during the 1905 Revolution, the monarch became known as \"Nicholas the Bloody\". Nicholas's reign was seen as a time of suffering for Russians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1211527",
"title": "History of the United Kingdom during the First World War",
"section": "Section::::Monarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Developments in Russia posed another set of issues for the monarchy. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia was King George's first cousin and the two monarchs looked very much alike. When Nicholas was overthrown in the Russian Revolution of 1917, the liberal Russian Government asked that the tsar and his family be given asylum in Britain. The cabinet agreed but the king was worried that public opinion was hostile and said no. It is likely the tsar would have refused to leave Russia in any case. He remained and in 1918 he and his family were ordered killed by Lenin, the Bolshevik leader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w3h1m
|
"Spin" of elementary particles
|
[
{
"answer": "[Searched](_URL_2_)\n\nRelevant [discussion](_URL_0_)\n\nOriginal question by [pryomancer](_URL_1_)\n\n > What is meant by the spin of an elementary particle?\n\nTop comment courtesy [mufusisrad](_URL_4_)\n\n > Spin, at least with respect to elementary particles, has no simple classical counterpart. Classically, the intrinsic angular momentum of a body is found by considering the angular momentum it has due to rotation about an axis that passes through it. This is 'like' spin, but in so far as an elementary particle has no internal structure (as far as we know it is point-like), an elementary particle cannot rotate about an axis passing through it. However, in some sense, elementary particles will still interact with something like a magnetic field as if they had such a motion. A charged body spinning on its own axis will have a magnetic moment that can be tugged on by a magnetic field, so will a spinning elementary particle. There isn't really a nice, convenient classical picture, for the spin of elementary particles, though - so a lot of this analogizing is partially incorrect. It is fundamentally a quantum mechanical property.\n\n > Spin must be quantized in integer or half integer multiples of Planck's constant (i.e., it can only take on these values). Further, the 'total' spin of an elementary particle is a fixed quantity, which has tremendous consequences for many-body quantum systems behave. What I am referencing is the spin statistics theorem - the basic idea is that particles with half integer spin have wave functions that are constrained to behave in one way, and particles with integer spin have wave functions that are constrained to behave in another. The physics of magnetic materials, Bose-Einstein condensates, superfluids, and superconductors are all very much influenced by this. In high energy/nuclear physics, it places serious constraints on the manner in which identical particles collide with one another. These are just a handful of the reasons that it is \"important\".\n\nRelevant follow-up courtesy [dantastical](_URL_3_)\n\n > In Quantum Mechanics, the fundamental particles are described by wavefunctions - if you want to know where a particle is likely to be, or its probable energy, the wavefunction will tell you the probability of the particle being in such a state.\n\n\n > There is a very fundamental divide between the basic particles - particles with half integral spin (1/2, 1 1/2 etc) (called fermions) have antisymetric wavefunctions, whilst those with integral spin (0 1 2 etc) (called bosons) have symmetric wavefunctions. The impact of this, is that if you want to find the probability of 2 identical fermions in the same place, because their wavefunctions are antisymetric, they cancel out and the probability is 0. Thus you cannot have 2 identical fermions in the same state - this is the pauli exclusion principle, and is massively important! Bosons are not subject to this restriction though.\n\n > Spin has other important qualities of course but this is one major one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Spin\" means intrinsic angular momentum. They aren't literally spinning. It looks like angular momentum and acts like angular momentum, but it doesn't arise from a literal spin.\n\nHere's a fun exercise: Suppose the electron's spin angular momentum arose because it was literally spinning. What would its rotation speed be, assuming its radius is the classical electron radius? You should find its more than 100 times the speed of light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Relevant Abstruse Goose](_URL_0_)\n\nMy advice: don't get caught up in the terms and take them as literal descriptions of the phenomenon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Forget trying to think of particles as spinning around some axis - in quantum mechanics it makes no sense to think of a particle as having a geometry (can you tell me what an electron looks like?). Spin is just a property particles possess that happens to have units of angular momentum. Particles have properties such as mass, which allows for gravitational interaction, and charge, which allows for electromagnetic interaction. Spin is just another such property which happens gives a particle the ability to generate and react to a magnetic field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4644081",
"title": "Spin magnetic moment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "\"Spin\" is a non-classical property of elementary particles, since classically the \"spin angular momentum\" of a material object is really just the total \"orbital\" angular momenta of the object's constituents about the rotation axis. Elementary particles are conceived as concepts which have no axis to \"spin\" around (see wave–particle duality).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25179",
"title": "Quark",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Spin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important degree of freedom. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name \"\"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be point-like.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593829",
"title": "Spin (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In some ways, spin is like a vector quantity; it has a definite magnitude, and it has a \"direction\" (but quantization makes this \"direction\" different from the direction of an ordinary vector). All elementary particles of a given kind have the same magnitude of spin angular momentum, which is indicated by assigning the particle a spin quantum number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3017092",
"title": "Spin-½",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, spin is an intrinsic property of all elementary particles. All known fermions, the particles that constitute ordinary matter, have a spin of . The spin number describes how many symmetrical facets a particle has in one full rotation; a spin of means that the particle must be fully rotated twice (through 720°) before it has the same configuration as when it started.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2839",
"title": "Angular momentum",
"section": "Section::::In quantum mechanics.:Spin, orbital, and total angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular momentum, called \"spin angular momentum\", represented by the spin operator S. Almost all elementary particles have spin. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is a misleading and inaccurate picture: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space and fundamentally different from orbital angular momentum. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin, for example electrons have \"spin 1/2\" (this actually means \"spin ħ/2\") while photons have \"spin 1\" (this actually means \"spin ħ\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3797203",
"title": "Angular momentum operator",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Spin angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "There is another type of angular momentum, called \"spin angular momentum\" (more often shortened to \"spin\"), represented by the spin operator S. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is only a metaphor: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin, which is usually nonzero. For example, electrons always have \"spin 1/2\" while photons always have \"spin 1\" (details below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Magnetic moment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ, or \"spin-½\". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3h90k1
|
how come people in america need $15/hr jobs if people from asia can apparently live off ridiculous wages like $2/hr?
|
[
{
"answer": "Accepted standards of living, and societal expectations of what you will be capable of doing. \n\nOur standard of living requires that everyone have enough food for 3 meals a day, electricity in our homes, running water in our homes, plumbing in our homes, air conditioning, entertainments (books, tv, cable, internet, video games, etc), communication devices (e-mail, physical mail, telephone, instant messaging, texting, skype, etc), personal transportation, medications, and many other things. The reason people in Asia can pay so little is that they do not have these same basic standards of living. To them those things are luxuries. \n\nWe also require people to be accessible. Many jobs require you to be able to transport yourself to your work or to travel fairly significant distances on your own. Many jobs require you to have a cell phone or at minimum a landline phone. Many jobs require you to have regular access to e-mail. Without these things it can be difficult to get a job or keep one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[like this](_URL_0_)\n\nthis is going to get removed because it's just a link, right?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The cost of living is also different. Thing are much cheaper in a lot of poorer countries then in say, LA or NYC.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of it is supply and demand. The more popular a place is to live the more expensive it is to live there. In Asia, not every place is cheaper than the US. It's actually more expensive to live in Hong Kong or Tokyo vs some American cities. Similar if you look within the US itself. $15/hr is okay for Los Angeles but that money would go further if you lived in a small mid-western town.\n\nThe US also benefits from cheaper products than most countries. So not everything in America is more expensive than elsewhere. Food in Thailand is cheap but electronics, clothes and make-up can be 30% to 100% more expensive depending on the brand. \n\nLast, you should consider that lots of governments around the world view income disparity as a societal problem and work hard to close the income gap between the rich and the poor. A worker in China might get by on $2/hr but he or she lives in squalor compared to other Chinese who probably makes almost as much as an American and enjoys all the benefits and luxuries as you do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of this has to do with a concept called [Purchasing Power Parity](_URL_0_). Basically, it looks at a country's currency in terms of, how much does one unit of the currency buy? It's complicated, as the price of everything is going to vary greatly depending on the location, and what things are people actually buying. But what it shows is that often wages that look really small to us when converted to American dollars, are actually capable of buying more for those people than Americans can afford on $15/hour.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33421387",
"title": "Racial wage gap in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Specific groups.:Asian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "However, not all Asian groups in the United States have such high wages; certain Asian groups have fared better than others in the United States labor market. East Asians from Hong Kong,Taiwan, China, Japan, and Korea have higher median wages and household income than Southeast Asian refugees from Laos and Vietnam, though all these groups still have median income above non-Hispanic whites. Cambodians and Hmong, on the other hand, do not, though their median income is still quite close to the national average and above that of blacks and Hispanics. Indian Americans currently have the highest median household income of any ethnic group in the United States, while Bhutanese Americans have the lowest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46393834",
"title": "Overwork",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Annual average work hours for Americans have risen from 1,679 in 1973 to 1,878 in 2000. This represents an increase of 199 hours—or approximately five additional weeks of work per year. This total work effort represents an average of nine weeks more than European workers. Therefore, it is within this logic of working more to gain more that workers are living a very hectic and tiring time to provide their families. The result in reality is an excess that does not often translate into high salaries. There are categories of workers where the work and the environments are unhealthy turning the most vulnerable workers and sentenced to fatigue and even living less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32028",
"title": "Standard of living in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Changing over the past.:Current.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "In 2015 a report was done that showed that 71 percent of all workers in America made less than $50,000 in 2014. For a family of four to live a middle class lifestyle, it was estimated that they would need $50,000 a year. For workers that make less than that, their standard of living is lacking. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985287",
"title": "Culture of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Social class and work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "In 2000 the average American worked 1,978 hours per year, 500 hours more than the average German, yet 100 hours less than the average Czech. Overall the U.S. labor force is one of the most productive in the world, largely due to its workers working more than those in any other post-industrial country (excluding South Korea). Americans generally hold working and being productive in high regard; being busy and working extensively may also serve as the means to obtain esteem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "484030",
"title": "Freelancer",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In 2016, the Freelancers Union estimated that 35% of the workforce in the United States was self-employed (approximately 55 million). This workforce earned an estimated $1 trillion from freelancing in 2016—a significant share of the U.S. economy. In 2017, a study by MBO Partners estimated the total number of self-employed Americans aged 21 and above to be 40.9 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56332725",
"title": "Teaching English as a second or foreign language",
"section": "Section::::Pay and conditions worldwide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "As in most fields, the pay depends greatly on education, training, experience, seniority, and expertise. As with much expatriate work, employment conditions vary among countries, depending on the level of economic development and how much people want to live there. In relatively poor countries, even a low wage may equate to a comfortable middle class lifestyle. EFL Teachers who wish to earn money often target countries in East Asia such as China, South Korea and Japan where demand is high. The Middle East is also often named as one of the best paying areas, although usually better qualifications are needed: at least a CELTA and one or two years' experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18717037",
"title": "Society of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Social class and work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Overall Americans worked more than their counterparts in other developed post-industrial nations. While the average worker in Denmark enjoyed 30 days of vacation annually, the average American only had 16 annual vacation days. In 2000 the average American worked 1,978 hours per year, 500 hours more than the average German, yet 100 hours less than the average Czech. Overall the US labor force was the most productive in the world (overall, not by hour worked), largely due to its workers working more than those in any other post-industrial country (excluding South Korea). Americans generally hold working and being productive in high regard; being busy and working extensively may also serve as the means to obtain esteem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6muwx
|
what is the difference between disk capacity and density with a ssd?
|
[
{
"answer": "Capacity is what you really want, that's how much total storage the drive provides\n\nDensity is about how much storage we can fit in one flash chip. Higher density chips enable higher capacity drives in the same size, or drives with the same capacity but fewer chips\n\nDensity matters in the long run, it's what has enabled us to go from 256 GB 2.5\" SSDs to 2 TB 2.5\" SSDs; but when you're building a machine you only care about what you can get right now and that's capacity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "759360",
"title": "Area density",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Data storage media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Areal density is used to quantify and compare different types media used in data storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical disc drives and tape drives. The current unit of measure is typically gigabits per square inch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235955",
"title": "Disk density",
"section": "Section::::8-inch media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "\"Single density\" (SD or 1D) describes the first generation of floppy disks that use an iron oxide coating. Floppy drives utilize 300-oersted write heads, FM encoding, and a track width of for a density of 48 tracks-per-inch (tpi) and 5876 bits-per-inch (bpi).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235955",
"title": "Disk density",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Disk density is a capacity designation on magnetic storage, usually floppy disks. Each designation describes a set of characteristics that can affect the areal density of a disk or the efficiency of the encoded data. Such characteristics include modulation method, track width, coercivity, and magnetic field direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455719",
"title": "Mass storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "There are two broad classes of mass storage: local data in devices such as smartphones or computers, and enterprise servers and data centers for the cloud. For local storage, SSDs are on the way to replacing HDDs. Considering the mobile segment from phones to notebooks, the majority of systems today is based on NAND Flash. As for Enterprise and data centers, storage tiers have established using a mix of SSD and HDD. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13777",
"title": "Hard disk drive",
"section": "Section::::Competition from solid-state drives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The maximum areal storage density for flash memory used in solid state drives (SSDs) is 2.8 Tbit/in in laboratory demonstrations as of 2016, and the maximum for HDDs is 1.5 Tbit/in. The areal density of flash memory is doubling every two years, similar to Moore's law (40% per year) and faster than the 10–20% per year for HDDs. As of 2018, the maximum possible capacity was 16 terabytes for an HDD, and 100 terabytes for an SSD. HDDs were used in 70% of the desktop and notebook computers produced in 2016, and SSDs were used in 30%. The usage share of HDDs is declining and could drop below 50% in 2018–2019 according to one forecast, because SSDs are replacing smaller-capacity (less than one-terabyte) HDDs in desktop and notebook computers and MP3 players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147000",
"title": "Gibibyte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Hard drive and SSD manufacturers use the gigabyte to mean bytes. Therefore, the capacity of a 128 GB SSD is bytes. Expressed in gibibytes this is about 119.2 GiB. Some operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, display such a drive capacity as 119 GB, using the SI prefix G with the binary meaning. No space is missing: the size is simply being expressed in a different unit, even though the same prefix (G) is used in both cases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8922",
"title": "DDR SDRAM",
"section": "Section::::Specification standards.:High-density RAM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "High-density RAM devices were designed to be used in registered memory modules for servers. JEDEC standards do not apply to high-density DDR RAM in desktop implementations. JEDEC's technical documentation, however, supports 128M×4 semiconductors . As such, \"high density\" is a relative term, which can be used to describe memory that is not supported by a particular motherboard's memory controller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22rxps
|
Why have Argentine and Chilean political cultures been different?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would say Chile's geographic isolation had a key role. Have a desert in the north and a frozen wasteland to the south tends to place the heart of the populace in the center. That eliminates the problem of regionalism that other countries at the time had. Chile never really had a caudillo problem because of that too. That allowed a more \"conservative\" regime to have more control by the 1830s and for decades afterward. Argentina was one of the more wealthy colonies, Chile never shined 'til after independence, so less attention was placed on them during the colonial times. \n\nI'm not sure what you mean by an \"inferiority complex\" though?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "148279",
"title": "Culture of Chile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The culture of Chile reflects the population and the geographic isolation of the country in relation to the rest of South America. Since colonial times, the Chilean culture has been a mix of Spanish colonial elements with elements of indigenous (mostly Mapuche) culture, as well that of other immigrant cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5489",
"title": "Chile",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Folklore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The folklore of Chile, cultural and demographic characteristics of the country, is the result of mixture of Spanish and Amerindian elements that occurred during the colonial period. Due to cultural and historical reasons, they are classified and distinguished four major areas in the country: northern areas, central, southern and south. Most of the traditions of the culture of Chile have a festive purpose, but some, such as dances and ceremonies, have religious components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17805779",
"title": "Direct negotiations between Chile and Argentina in 1977–78",
"section": "Section::::Internal politics of both countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Argentina and Chile were both ruled by military governments at the time of the negotiations. The Chilean and Argentine governments shared common interests: internal war against subversion, annihilating the opposition; external war against communism, remaining nonetheless part of the non-aligned movement; modernisation and liberalisation of the economy; a conservative approach towards social and class relations. By the end of 1977, the war against subversion and opposition was substantially over in both countries, as the Operation Condor had lost momentum and détente had improved East-West relations. The two countries maintained good economic relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10002382",
"title": "Argentina–Chile relations",
"section": "Section::::Recent relations (1990–present).:Border issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "In the 1990s, relations improved dramatically. The dictator and last president of the Argentine Military Junta, General Reynaldo Bignone, called for democratic elections in 1983, and Augusto Pinochet of Chile did the same in 1989. As a consequence, militaristic tendencies faded in Argentina. The Argentine presidents Carlos Menem and Fernando de la Rúa had particularly good relations with Chile. In a bilateral manner, both countries settled all the remaining disputes except \"Laguna del Desierto\", which was decided by International Arbitration in 1994. That decision favoured Argentine claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67345",
"title": "Foreign relations of Argentina",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.:A stray from precedent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Since the return of civilian rule to Argentina in 1983, relations with Chile, the United Kingdom and the international community in general improved and Argentine officials have since publicly ruled out interpreting neighboring countries' policies as any potential threat; but Argentina still does not enjoy the full trust of the Chilean political class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10002382",
"title": "Argentina–Chile relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "Argentina–Chile relations refers to international relations between the Republic of Chile and the Argentine Republic. Argentina and Chile share the world's third-longest international border, which is long and runs from north to the south along the Andes mountains. Although gaining their independence during the South American wars of liberation, during much of the 19th and the 20th century relations between the countries were chilled as a result of disputes over the border in Patagonia, although Chile and Argentina have never engaged in a war. In recent years relations have improved dramatically. Despite increased trade between the two countries, Argentina and Chile have followed quite different economic policies. Chile has signed free trade agreements with countries such as China, the US, Canada, South Korea and the EU and is an active member of the APEC, while Argentina belongs to the Mercosur regional free trade area. In April 2018, both countries suspended membership of the Union of South American Nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10002382",
"title": "Argentina–Chile relations",
"section": "Section::::Historical relations (1550–1989).:Rule under Spain and Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The relationship between the two countries can be traced back to an alliance during Spanish colonial times. Both colonies were offshoots of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (which Argentina was a part of) being broken off in 1776, and Chile not being broken off until independence. Argentina and Chile were colonized by different processes. Chile was conquered as a southward extension of the original conquest of Peru, while Argentina was colonized from Peru, Chile and from the Atlantic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7p0y89
|
If the M14 was readily available and known to be a good weapon then why was the M16 used in Vietnam?
|
[
{
"answer": "The development and testing of the m16 is one fraught with bureaucracy and was generally mishandled by people who either: 1) had little experience with small arms design (ie generals) and 2)Those that simply wanted a rifle similar to the m1 garand with full power rifle ammo. Much of this story goes back to the initial trials and the formation of NATO. The idea was that this newly formed cooperative military organization would have a standard rifle with standard ammo for all nations involved. Many were hoping to see an intermediate caliber rifle fielded after noting the effectiveness of the \"Sturmgewehr\" assault rifle the German's developed toward the end of WWII. \n\nThis was an opinion held in Europe, but many in the US also saw this as the way forward. The majority (or perhaps, those with the most internal authority) within the US military, however, still wanted a full rifle caliber rifle, particularly one that was very similar to the m1 garand. This sets the tone of the environment the m16 was to be birthed in. Rifles of the time were still steel and wood, firing something that's very similar to a typical hunting caliber. The m16 was made of aluminum and plastics and was also very light, with the m16a1 weighing about 6lbs, so it's toy like feel and appearance likely didn't help. An early prototype's barrel also blew up in a an officer's hands, but essentially it was a very new and radical design. One of the earliest adopters of the rifle was the us airforce, which allowed the design to get it's foot in the door for further military procurement. The earliest adopters of the m16 were military advisers and other special forces troops who enjoyed the lighter weight and better ergonomics of the m16 along with its lighter and lighter recoiling ammo. \n\nOk, so lets get into the issues now that we have the backstory. The main cause of the m16's issues was the army's switch to a different powder type. Not to get into too much technical detail, but a gas operated firearm needs the proper mount of force when cycling the weapon to ensure proper feeding and, more importantly to this topic, must not be so intense that it causes premature wear on parts. This is essentially what occurred with the m16 as is discussed by it's lead designer, [James Sullivan](_URL_0_) . In addition, there were other reasons for less than reliable initial performance, namely a lack of chrome plating on the internal parts. Many soldiers in the field were also not properly instructed on the new weapon when the army replaced the m14 and cleaning kits were often not issued. Chrome is very slick and corrosion resistant which would help immensely in a jungle environment. The m16 was, and is a precision made, modern firearm. I sourced this information from an author and expert on the subject, [Chris Bartocci](_URL_1_) . \n\nYour second assertion I would have to disagree with simply on a technical point. A firearm with an open action, like the m14, will be inherently more exposed to the elements than one that is sealed, such as the m16. This open action often makes them less reliable. The m16 family as a whole tends to be more inherently reliable than the m14 family. \n\n*edits for bad content and grammar and added small additional bits of info on it's reception/development ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off, the M16 was not a bad rifle. It was a competently designed gun, with space age materials like aluminium and polymers that made the gun lighter. The fact that the US army and many of its allies use some variant of the M16 50 years later after dozens of attempts to replace it is a testament to this. The reasons why the M16 had such a poor reputation include: \n\na) The gun was incorrectly labelled as \"self-cleaning\", when it needed regular maintenance just like any other gun\n\nb) The ammunition that was issued was not to the same spec as was first given to the manufacturers who designed the trials guns\n\nc) Troops in general are pretty poor judges of their own equipment, especially firearms. \n\nThe reason why the US switched to the M16 in the first place goes back to late WWII. The Germans designed the MP-43/MP-44/Stg-44, which were the first mass-fielded assault rifles and the basis for every standard infantry rifle in modern armies. Indeed, it gave us the word assault rifle (sturm: to storm, as in to assault a trench, gewehr: rifle). The assault rifle was a select-fire infantry rifle that fired intermediate cartridges, because the Germans (and basically everyone except the Americans soon after WWII) realised that most combat took place in under 400m, and the battle rifles of the day were too powerful; the recoil made battle rifles inaccurate and impractical in full auto, training times were longer, and the targets weren't far enough to justify rounds that big. The Russians followed suit by designing the Kalashnikov line of rifles which are still in use today. \n\nAs an aside, the 7.62x39mm round that the AK used at the time was not more energetic than the 5.56 either. It used a heavier bullet at a lower velocity, but in the gun world, they are both considered the same class of cartridge. Additionally, the Russians switched from 7.62 to 5.45mm in 1974, which is very similar in specs to the M16's 5.56mm. \n\nThe Americans, on the other hand, stuck with the full-sized.308 because of army culture, and basically strong-armed the fledgling NATO into adopting it too, even though most of the other major players such as the British were coming up with intermediate cartridge rifles. The M16 was pretty much when the US military complex realised that they needed to get on with the times and design an actually modern rifle. It is claimed that the M16's poor performance early on was no less than sabotage by the more conservative elements in the army sabotaging the new program. \n\nSo, in summation, the M14 was outdated the day it was conceived, the M16 was better than its reputation and was possibly sabotaged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The background for the weapons have already been discussed fairly well. I'm just going to include some more context:\n\nJust to recap, the M16 was ultimately a good weapon undercut by a poor fielding and teething issues. It's worth keeping in mind the Vietnam field trials with the AR-15 went very well with rave reviews for the weapon, and the 5.56 round. \n\nThe early run M16s (or more broadly, the XM16E1s) did not go well, again for reasons listed by other posters (namely the lack of chrome coating for the chamber, the choice in ammo, and the frankly astounding failure to include maintenance and care training in the initial fielding). When these issues were ironed out in the M16A1, and an improved training regime instituted for the weapon, the weapon became quite reliable.\n\nWhile not \"proof\" as someone who's put a few thousand rounds through M16A2s and M4s, the only reliability issues I had related to worn out magazines, and blank rounds do not work as well on the M4.\n\nSome other factors to consider too:\n\n1. The M14 is heavy, and so are it's rounds. For a dismounted soldier, weight is a very big consideration. With the lighter M16, a solider could carry more rounds or more equipment at the same sized load. \n\n2. For mounted soldiers (air cavalry, mechanized troops, cavalry scouts, truck drives etc) the M14 is large and unwieldy in tight quarters. The M16 did not suffer this problem.\n\n3. Much like all 7.62X51 rifles, the full automatic option was of dubious utility (it's a lot of recoil for a fairly small package). The 5.56 was much better suited for rapid/accurate fire. \n\nBasically in summary, the XM16E1 was a bad gun paired with a very poor fielding plan and training. The M16A1 was a solid rifle and there's a reason the M16 family is still going strong decades later vs the M14 which had the shortest service life of any combat rifle in US use (for it's intended use, specialist marksmen or ceremonial use notwithstanding) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "319543",
"title": "M14 rifle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Replacement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1300,
"text": "The M14 remained the primary infantry rifle in Vietnam until it was replaced by the M16 in 1967, though combat engineer units kept them several years longer. Further procurement of the M14 was abruptly halted in early 1978 due to the U.S. Department of Defense report which had also stated that the AR-15 (soon to be M16) was superior to the M14. (The DOD did not cancel FY 1963 orders not yet delivered.) After the report, a series of tests and reports by the U.S. Department of the Army followed that resulted in the decision to cancel the M14. The M16 was ordered as a replacement for the M14 by direction of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara in 1964, over the objection of the U.S. Army officers who had backed the M14. (Other factions within the Army research and development community had opposed the M14 and the 7.62×51mm round from the start.) Though production of the M14 was officially discontinued, some disgruntled troops managed to hang on to them while deriding the early model M16 as a frail and under-powered \"Mattel toy\" that was prone to jam. In late 1967, the U.S. Army designated the M16 as the \"Standard A\" rifle, and the M14 became a \"Limited Standard\" weapon. The M14 rifle remained the standard rifle for U.S. Army Basic Training and troops stationed in Europe until 1970.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871355",
"title": "7.62×51mm NATO",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "When the M14 arrived in Vietnam, it was found to have a few disadvantages. The rifle's overall length was not well suited for jungle warfare. Also, the weight of 7.62×51mm cartridges limited the total amount of ammunition that could be carried in comparison with the 7.62×39mm cartridge of the Type 56 and AK-47 rifles, with which the Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army soldiers were equipped. In addition, the originally issued wooden-stocked versions of the M14 were susceptible to warping from moisture in tropical environments, producing \"wandering zeroes\" and other accuracy problems, which caused the adoption of fiberglass stocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1315744",
"title": "M67 recoilless rifle",
"section": "Section::::History and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "Adopted in 1959 in Army service, the M67 was used in the Vietnam War together with the much larger 105 mm M40. The M67 proved an effective weapon, though it was primarily used against personnel in combat, and saw little or no use against armor and even against fortifications. While troops praised its effectiveness, the M67 came under heavy criticism due to the weapon's weight and length as well as its backblast, which often precluded its use in offensive operations. Because of these disadvantages, the Marine Corps units continued to use the old M20 \"Super Bazooka\" in preference to the M67. It was largely replaced in Army service by the M47 Dragon anti-tank missile system starting in 1975. The M67 was also issued to anti-armour platoons of 1 ATF (Australian/New Zealand Task Force) during the Vietnam war, being used near the perimeter of the defense bases due to its weight. The M67 was issued in lieu of the standard issue Carl Gustav for these armies. This may have been to simplify logistics, or it may be that ammunition for the Carl Gustav could not be sourced due to Swedish opposition to the war in Vietnam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19901",
"title": "M16 rifle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "In 1964, the M16 entered US military service and the following year was deployed for jungle warfare operations during the Vietnam War. In 1969, the M16A1 replaced the M14 rifle to become the US military's standard service rifle. The M16A1 improvements include a bolt-assist, chrome-plated bore and a 30-round magazine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173428",
"title": "M1 carbine",
"section": "Section::::U.S. combat use.:Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "At least 793,994 M1 and M2 carbines were given to the South Vietnamese and were widely used throughout the Vietnam War. A number were captured during the war by Vietcong with some made compact by shortening the barrel and/or stock. \"While the carbine's lighter weight and high rate of fire made it an excellent weapon for small-statured Asians, these guns lacked sufficient hitting power and penetration, and they were eventually outclassed by the AK-47 assault rifle.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95006",
"title": "Thompson submachine gun",
"section": "Section::::History and service.:After World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "During the Vietnam War, some South Vietnamese army units and defense militia were armed with Thompson submachine guns, and a few of these weapons were used by reconnaissance units, advisors, and other American troops. It was later replaced by the M16. Not only did some U.S. soldiers have use of them in Vietnam, but they encountered them as well. The Viet Cong liked the weapon and used both captured models as well as manufacturing their own copies in small jungle workshops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321957",
"title": "M4 carbine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "The M4 was officially accepted into service by the U.S. military in 1994, and first saw action in the hands of U.S. troops deployed to Kosovo in 1999 in support of the NATO-led KFOR peacekeeping force. It would subsequently be used heavily by U.S. forces during the Global War on Terrorism, including Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. In the U.S. Army, the M4 had largely replaced M16A2s as the primary weapon of forward deployed personnel by 2005. The M4 carbine also replaced most submachine guns and selected handguns in U.S. military service, as it fires more effective rifle ammunition that offers superior stopping power and is better able to penetrate modern body armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2klv9y
|
eli:5 - what is with the giant outrage of texas demanding id for voting?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know how many Texans are commenting here but as one I'd like to believe that Americans are the only ones determining the outcome of American elections. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because some people argue that as these IDs require money and time to acquire, it constitutes a poll tax, which is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause as determined by the case of Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Texas wants every voter to provide government issued proof that the voter is who they say they are in order to vote. Interestingly, this ID requirement does not apply to votes by mail. There has recently been strong evidence that votes have been cast by people who are not eligible to vote and this is a means of preventing that from happening.\n\nVoters who do not have an ID can pick up an election identification certificate from any Texas driver's license office at no charge.\n\nYou are misremembering the Bush-Gore contest. The Bush campaign did not request a recount because they had won the election day count, and the following mandatory machine recount. The Gore campaign attempted to have a quartet of Gore friendly counties hand re-counted and was quashed 7-2 by the Supreme Court on equal protection grounds--you can't cherry pick counties to recount in a state wide election.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Every time I voted I had to show my ID and they ticked my name off of a list of registered voters. So when did you just get to walk up and vote willy nilly? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The outrage is because the type of voter fraud these laws *allegedly* prevent just about doesn't happen at all (and CERTAINLY not enough to make even the faintest detectable dent in even a county election), so one must wonder why the \"party of smaller government\" is so keen on passing them.\n\nAnd the answer to that is because the laws were designed by Republicans to make it just a little harder for poor and elderly people to vote, and by an incredible coincidence, they are groups that overwhelmingly vote Democratic.\n\nThis is not partisan speculation. At least three Republican party officials have admitted it on camera:\n\nHere's one:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n > > “cut Obama by 5 percent” in 2012... “probably Voter ID had helped a bit in that.”\n\nHere's another:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > > \"Voter ID, which is gonna allow Governor Romney to win the state of Pennsylvania, done.”\n\nAdmitting on camera that you passed a law specifically to favor a particular party or candidate...done!\n\nNow how this can be even in the same time zone as legal, I cannot explain. But courts have begun to strike down these laws.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's no problem with voter ID laws in and of themselves. The problem is that these laws are being created specifically to suppress the vote of people who historically tend to vote for Democratic candidates. If you don't see this, then you haven't been affected by this or know someone that has been affected by this...and that's not your fault. It is, however, the truth.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41609161",
"title": "Voter suppression in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.:2016 presidential election.:Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In July 2016, a federal appeals court found that Texas's voter ID law discriminated against black and Hispanic voters because only a few types of ID were allowed; for example, military IDs and concealed carry permits were allowed, but state employee photo IDs and university photo IDs were not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37179209",
"title": "Voter ID laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Studies and analysis.:Turnout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "A 2014 Rice University study reported that Texas's voter ID law decreased turnout mainly among people who incorrectly thought they did not have the type of ID needed to comply with the law. The authors of this study also suggested that an education campaign aimed at clearly communicating what types of ID are acceptable in Texas would be beneficial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1125781",
"title": "Voter suppression",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "In Texas, a voter ID law requiring a driver's license, passport, military identification, or gun permit, was repeatedly found to be intentionally discriminatory. The state's election laws could be put back under the control of the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). Under Attorney General Jeff Sessions, however, the DOJ has expressed support for Texas's ID law. Sessions was accused by Coretta Scott King in 1986 of trying to suppress the black vote. A similar ID law in North Dakota, which would have disenfranchised large numbers of Native Americans, was also overturned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17568685",
"title": "Eric Holder",
"section": "Section::::Tenure as Attorney General of the United States.:Civil rights.:Voting rights and redistricting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In a speech before the NAACP in July 2012, Holder went on to say that the Texas voter ID laws were a \"political pretext to disenfranchise American citizens of their most precious right.\" Holder compared the practices of these states to those in the era of Jim Crow segregation. Holder said, \"Many of those without IDs would have to travel great distances to get them – and some would struggle to pay for the documents they might need to obtain them. We call those poll taxes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30663999",
"title": "Nelva Gonzales Ramos",
"section": "Section::::Notable rulings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "On April 10, 2017, Judge Ramos ruled that Texas' voter ID law was passed in 2011 with the intent to discriminate against minority voters. On April 27, 2018, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Ramos' ruling, upholding the Texas voter ID law in a 2–1 vote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41609161",
"title": "Voter suppression in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.:Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In Texas, a voter ID law requiring a driver's license, passport, military identification, or gun permit, was repeatedly found to be intentionally discriminatory. The state's election laws could be put back under the control of the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). Under Attorney General Jeff Sessions, however, the DOJ has expressed support for Texas's ID law. (Sessions was accused by Coretta Scott King in 1986 of trying to suppress the black vote.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1025235",
"title": "NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund",
"section": "Section::::Well-known cases.:2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "BULLET::::- 2016: \"Veasey v. Abbott (2016)\", The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, sitting en banc, held that Texas's 2011 voter photo identification law violated the Voting Rights Act and that there was sufficient evidence to find that the Texas Legislature might have passed the law for the purpose of discriminating against Black and Latino voters. LDF presented oral argument in the Fifth Circuit on behalf of Black students and the Texas League of Young Voters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
28zcjp
|
How accurate is Da Vinci's painting of the Last Supper from what people at the time would have visualized the Last Supper as?
|
[
{
"answer": "Da Vinci's The Last Supper is a special portrayal of the biblical event because it was commissioned by Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan, to be placed in the dining hall of the Santa Maria delle Grazie monastery, which the Duke had recently had renovated. The reason this makes it special is because Sforza requested that the scene be painted as if the monks, whom would be eating beneath this painting daily, were dining with Jesus and his apostles, which is why they are all portrayed to be sitting on the same side of the table. \n\nIn real life, this would be a very awkward way to set a dining table, as it would be hard to make conversation with those at the far end of the tables. In portraying the dinner in this awkward way, Da Vinci was able to make the monks feel as if they were truly dining with Jesus and his apostles, as well as easily paint every member of the dinner with such striking detail that, even after the painting fell to ruin in ten years due to a failed experiment by Leonardo, who, instead of painting in the fresco method of painting on wet plaster, painted directly onto the wall, the details were still sharp and discernible, allowing them to survive to this day. \n\nHow this differs from what people at the time would have visualized the last supper as being, of course depends on the person. The bible provides little detail as to the setting of the supper, and rather focuses on the dialogue and intrigue of the dinner. However, as we can see by [other](_URL_5_) [representations](_URL_1_) [of](_URL_3_) [the](_URL_4_) [event](_URL_2_), there are many different artistic portrayals of this famous biblical scene. While we will never know how this looked exactly, any of these works can be a guess as to how it actually looked. \n\nSources: \n\n* Kenneth Clark.Leonardo da Vinci, Penguin Books 1939, 1993, p144\n* \"The Last Supper\". _URL_0_. Retrieved 2014-06-24\n* \"DaVinci\". The Mark Steel Lectures. Series 2. Episode 2. The Open University. 7 October 2003. BBC. Retrieved 2014-06-24\n* \"Leonardo's Last Supper\". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved 2014-06-24\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/explicit_snark already answered your question, but I wanted to provide you with this link:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nYou can search for \"The Last Supper\" here to see how different artists depicted it. \"Same side of the table\" is actually fairly common.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "73190",
"title": "The Last Supper (Leonardo)",
"section": "Section::::Other speculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "\"The Last Supper\" has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, especially since the publication of Dan Brown's novel \"The Da Vinci Code\" (2003), in which one of the characters suggests that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective) is actually Mary Magdalene. It also states that there was a letter ‘glaring in the center of the painting’ (M) standing for Matrimonio or Mary Magdalene. This speculation originated in earlier books \"The Templar Revelation\" (1997) by Lynn Picknett and \"The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail\" by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh (1982). Art historians hold that the figure is the Apostle John, who only appears feminine due to Leonardo's characteristic fascination with blurring the lines between the sexes, a quality which is found in his other paintings, such as \"St. John the Baptist\" (painted 1513–1516). Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon comment \"If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73190",
"title": "The Last Supper (Leonardo)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 259,
"text": "The Last Supper ( or \"L'Ultima Cena\" ) is a late 15th-century mural painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci housed by the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. It is one of the Western world's most recognizable paintings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31576563",
"title": "Last Supper (del Castagno)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The Last Supper (1445–1450) is a fresco by the Italian Renaissance artist Andrea del Castagno, located in the refectory of the convent of Sant'Apollonia, now the \"Museo di Cenacolo di Sant'Apollonia\", and accessed through a door on Via Ventisette Aprile at the corner with Santa Reparata, in Florence, region of Tuscany. The painting depicts Jesus and the Apostles during the Last Supper, with Judas, unlike all the other apostles, sitting separately on the near side of the table, as is common in depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31548616",
"title": "Last Supper (Perugino)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The fresco depicts Jesus and the Apostles during the Last Supper, with Judas sitting separately on the near side of the table, as is common in depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art. It is considered one of Perugino's best works. As in some other cases, Perugino reused the details of the delicate figures here in other works, drawing later complaints from Giorgio Vasari.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18079",
"title": "Leonardo da Vinci",
"section": "Section::::Painting.:Paintings of the 1490s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is \"The Last Supper\", commissioned for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. It represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death, and shows the moment when Jesus has just said \"one of you will betray me\", and the consternation that this statement caused.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20010469",
"title": "The Secret Supper",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "It is set while Leonardo da Vinci is painting \"The Last Supper\". The story is told in Agostino Leyre's words, as mysterious letters come in to Rome. He is a chief inquisitor, and so he decides to investigate who had sent these mysterious letters, hinting at heresy. He goes to Santa Maria delle Grazie, where he meets various monks, priests and nuns. But while he is there, various suspicious deaths and rumours takes him into a search for truth- the meaning of \"The Last Supper\". Intrigued, he finds yet another mystery - a blue leather-bound book, portrayed in tarot cards left by the killer of several pilgrims, known as 'The Soothsayer'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22572066",
"title": "Last Supper (Tintoretto)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The Last Supper is a painting by the Italian Renaissance artist Jacopo Tintoretto. An oil painting on canvas executed in 1592–1594, it is housed in the Basilica di San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, northern Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9hcitw
|
how can the fbi seize a website?
|
[
{
"answer": "The website is stored on a server which is physically located somewhere. If it's located in the United States then the FBI can get a warrant to take possession of it (or at least the section of it that the website is on) to shut the service down. If it's located in another country then they have to cooperate with the local authorities and come up with an agreement to take the site down. In some cases the authorities in the other country won't cooperate because they don't care. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are different ways.\n\nSometimes they can do little more than size the DNS entry and simply have the name of the website now direct at their servers.\n\nOn the other hand of the scale is them getting their hands on the physical server that actually host the website and taking possession of it.\n\nA lot fo that depends on the way the website is set up and on jurisdiction.\n\nUS law enforcement will have trouble getting a hold of a computer stuck in some criminals basement in a foreign country, but they can more easily get warrants to compel US companies hosting websites on servers in the US to give them full access.\n\nJust because you see a FBI notice when you visit a bookmarked site does not mean that the FBI has actually gotten to the data that used to be on that site (and more importantly the users data that visited it).\n\nSometimes they can however get full control, like when they arrest someone they think trades in child porn or something and they can get warrants and or cooperation to take over his website. Mostly by making a copy of the original data, putting the original into evidence and running the copy on some infrastructure they control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For foreign websites on servers in someone's basement, they can direct (via international agreements) the companies that run the domain name system to stop directing requests to see that site to the actual server, and instead direct them to a landing page run by the FBI (with the logo and the seizure message).\n\nThe website is still up, but the foreign agent has lost control of their domain name and routing information to their website, which will significantly lower traffic. \n\nOf course there's not just one domain name system in the world, but there's only one that Joe Average uses, so this method is fairly effective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46504",
"title": "DARPA TIDES program",
"section": "Section::::Investigative Data Warehouse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The FBI's Investigative Data Warehouse contains an \"Open Source News Library\". This library contains news gathered by the TIDES program. The information is collected from dozens of public websites all over the world, such as Ha'aretz, Pravda, the Jordan Times, The People's Daily, \"The Washington Post\", and others. It uses the MiTAP (Mitre Text and Audio Processing) system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1752246",
"title": "Live Free or Die Hard",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The FBI responds to a brief computer outage at its Cyber-Security Division by tracking down top computer hackers. The FBI asks New York City Police Department detective John McClane to bring in hacker Matthew \"Matt\" Farrell. McClane arrives at Farrell's residence just in time to save Farrell from assassins. The assassins were sent by Mai Linh; Linh works for her love interest, later revealed to be one Thomas Gabriel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38049209",
"title": "FBI Cyber Division",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The FBI Cyber Division is a Federal Bureau of Investigation division which heads the national effort to investigate and prosecute internet crimes, including \"cyber based terrorism, espionage, computer intrusions, and major cyber fraud.\" This division of the FBI uses the information it gathers during investigation to inform the public of current trends in cyber crime.Federal Bureau of Investigation It focuses around three main priorities: computer intrusion, identity theft, and cyber fraud. It was created in 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42107658",
"title": "Operation In Our Sites",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Operation In Our Sites is an ongoing effort by the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center in the U.S. government, to detect and hinder intellectual property violations on the Internet. Pursuant to this operation, governmental agencies arrest suspects affiliated with the targeted websites and seize their assets including websites' domain names. Web users intending to access targeted websites are directed to the server operated by the U.S. government, and greeted with a graphic bearing the seals of the United States Department of Justice (DOJ), the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center (NIPRCC), and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127",
"title": "Federal Bureau of Investigation",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "The FBI is headquartered at the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C., with 56 field offices in major cities across the United States. The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United States embassies and consulates. Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities in Quantico, Virginia, as well as a \"data campus\" in Clarksburg, West Virginia, where 96 million sets of fingerprints \"from across the United States are stored, along with others collected by American authorities from prisoners in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Iraq and Afghanistan.\" The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, to Winchester, Virginia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162600",
"title": "Hacktivism",
"section": "Section::::Notable hacktivist events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- On June 3, 2011, LulzSec took down a website of the FBI. This was the first time they had targeted a website that was not part of the private sector. That week, the FBI was able to track the leader of LulzSec, Hector Xavier Monsegur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34925633",
"title": "United States v. Ivanov",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Unlawful access and FBI capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "When the FBI accessed Ivanov's machines, they found folders with data corresponding to the companies he had remotely attacked. Over 2.3 GB of data was recovered from Ivanov's machines, including the tools used to gain illegal access and scripts that referenced companies that had been attacked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qagj9
|
What would a explosion look like in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "im by no means an expert on the subject, but I have a couple links that may interest you. look into [Starfish Prime.](_URL_1_) it was part of a series of High Altitude Nuclear Tests carried out by the US. This one in particular was conducted 400km above Earth. The highest ever recorded nuclear test was also conducted by the US during Operation Argus at an altitude of 540km. Also, for [your viewing pleasure.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Catastrophic failure of the ISS wouldn't necessarily be an \"explosion\" in the sense we think of with special effects like a gas tanker blowing up; unless the [propulsion module](_URL_8_) (which uses [MMH](_URL_5_) and [N2O4](_URL_3_)) were struck, it would just be a pressure leak. MMH + N2O4 are hypergolic, meaning they react upon contact. [This](_URL_6_) is a Draco engine (which IIRC uses MMH + N2O4) firing in vacuum. Shuttle thrusters (for steering) use the same stuff; [here's video of STS-133 thrusters in vacuum.](_URL_0_) And [here](_URL_7_) is another video. So, there is some emission of light with these reactions. Whether such a reaction would be evident during a catastrophic failure would depend upon many factors, such as mixing of the compounds, particularly in vacuum, in comparison to a nice, tidy nozzle.\n\nThere are, of course, other types of explosives, including pyrotechnic devices (an intimate mixture of fuel and oxidizer, pressed together into a device such as an explosive bolt), and video of LEMs from the Apollo era will show these. [This video](_URL_1_) shows the explosive bolts popping right at separation. Same deal with [Apollo 15.](_URL_4_) Skip to about :45 to save yourself some time.\n\nThe [various compositions](_URL_2_) employed in explosive bolts would also emit heat and light energy, and therefore also be visible.\n\nI'm not sure what a monomolecular explosive without metal (such as TNT, RDX, nitroglycerin, etc.) would look like in a vacuum explosion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an expert, but here's my thoughts:\n\nSpace is 1) Cold and 2) Lacking oxygen. Fire will definitely dissipate quickly. Any explosion will be determined by the physical fragments' radiative abilities. If it can radiate heat quickly, the glow will dissipate quickly. \n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is a matchstick in microgravity. Notice the flame is spherical because lack of air weight effects. Any explosion will continue in the direction that it started in, so if it were disc shaped, it would continue out as a disc. If it were a complete and utter explosion, it'd probably be spherical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a follow-up question, let's talk about nukes in space (which has kind of been mentioned here already).\n\nWithout an atmosphere to turn into a blast wave (the most damaging part of a nuclear blast), how effective would a nuclear weapon actually *be* in space? Ignoring the high energy particles affecting crew, but would pretty much the only outcome be concussive shock (assuming a direct impact) and heat damage from the fireball? How large would the fireball even get compared to an atmospheric detonation?\n\nIt would seem to me that if you had materials strong enough to withstand the heat and didn't suffer a direct impact, there'd be quite little damage from the weapon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We'll all know when Betelgeuse goes super nova. \n\nWhenever that happens, we will find out about 400 years later, because it's around 400 light-years away. May have happened in the last couple hundred years, and we just don't know it yet. \n\n\nThree things for certain. \n1) It WILL happen in less than 1 million years\n\n2) When it DOES happen, we will need about 400 years to see it. \n\n3) At it's peak, there will be several days when it is visible in the daytime before it slowly fades. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3071743",
"title": "Star Trek (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Carolyn Porco of NASA was consulted on the planetary science and imagery. The animators realistically recreated what an explosion would look like in space: short blasts, which suck inward and leave debris from a ship floating. For shots of an imploding planet, the same explosion program was used to simulate it breaking up, while the animators could manually composite multiple layers of rocks and wind sucking into the planet. Unlike other \"Star Trek\" films and series, the transporter beam effects swirl rather than speckle. Abrams conceived the redesign to emphasize the notion of transporters as beams that can pick up and move people, rather than a signal composed of scrambled atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19480418",
"title": "Praxis effect",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "Astronomer Philip Plait has described the explosion and resultant shock wave as \"the most dramatic effect ever filmed\", but states that in reality it would be more likely for the explosion seen in \"Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country\" to generate a spherical shock wave. He finds the effect to be more plausible when appearing in the Special Edition of \"\" during the explosion of the first Death Star, as an explosion traveling from the core of the space station would reach the equatorial trench before the surface of the station and find no resistance at this point. However, the Praxis effect was perpendicular to the trench in this shot, instead of on the same plane. When the second Death Star explodes at the end of the Special Edition of \"Return of the Jedi\", the Praxis effect is on the same plane as the equatorial trench.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3973438",
"title": "High-altitude nuclear explosion",
"section": "Section::::Differences from atmospheric tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "In general, nuclear effects in space (or very high altitudes) have a qualitatively different display. While an atmospheric nuclear explosion has a characteristic mushroom-shaped cloud, high-altitude and space explosions tend to manifest a spherical 'cloud,' reminiscent of other space-based explosions until distorted by Earth's magnetic field, and the charged particles resulting from the blast can cross hemispheres to create an auroral display which has led documentary maker Peter Kuran to characterize these detonations as 'the rainbow bombs'. The visual effects of a high-altitude or space-based explosion may last longer than atmospheric tests, sometimes in excess of 30 minutes. Heat from the \"Bluegill Triple Prime\" shot, at an altitude of 50 kilometers (31 mi), was felt by personnel on the ground at Johnston Atoll, and this test caused retina burns to two personnel at ground zero who were not wearing their safety goggles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57744417",
"title": "AT2018cow",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "According to astronomers at the time of its discovery, the explosion, with a surface temperature of over and traveling , may have been a cataclysmic variable star (CV), gamma-ray burst (GRB), gravitational wave (GW), supernova (SN), or something else. According to astronomer Kate Maguire of Queen's University Belfast: \"It really just appeared out of nowhere. There are other objects that have been discovered that are as fast, but the fastness and the brightness, that's quite unusual.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19480418",
"title": "Praxis effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The Praxis effect (also known as the Praxis explosion or Praxis ring) is a special effect sometimes used in science fiction films and other visual media. The effect is most commonly seen following the explosion of a large object in space—a ring or disc of matter or energy expanding out from the destroyed object. It is named after the explosion of the fictional Klingon moon Praxis at the start of the 1991 science fiction film \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60033",
"title": "Trinity (nuclear test)",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.:100-ton test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "The fireball of the conventional explosion was visible from Alamogordo Army Air Field away, but there was little shock at the base camp away. Shields thought that the explosion looked \"beautiful\", but it was hardly felt at . Herbert L. Anderson practiced using a converted M4 Sherman tank lined with lead to approach the deep and wide blast crater and take a sample of dirt, although the radioactivity was low enough to allow several hours of unprotected exposure. An electrical signal of unknown origin caused the explosion to go off 0.25 seconds early, ruining experiments that required split-second timing. The piezoelectric gauges developed by Anderson's team correctly indicated an explosion of , but Luis Alvarez and Waldman's airborne condenser gauges were far less accurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25234819",
"title": "Gene Sherman (reporter)",
"section": "Section::::Eyewitness reporter of first A-Bomb tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "One of the first historic explosions code-named Annie sparked this eyewitness dispatch: \"The murky dawn light was suddenly gone from our trench, washed out by the indefinable, unbelievable brilliance of the atomic flash. Under my nose the dull powdered sand of the trench turned an unworldly white. Simultaneously, the earth we embraced so dependently convulsed in violent paroxysm. We were shaken like dice in a cup for brief, fleeting moments of terror.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lzvi2
|
Does plastic deteriorate/lose integrity over time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, and it really depends on the plastic.\n\nSome plastics react to moisture or oxygen in the atmosphere and will break down over time. These are fairly rare and not used as commodity plastics yet, but occasionally you'll come across that biodegradable cup where this applies.\n\nMost plastics will degrade upon exposure to UV light. Over time the bonds in the actual polymer chains will break and the mechanical integrity of the plastic will slowly become compromised.\n\nAdditionally, many plastics contain small molecules along with the long chains as part of their design. These can be added to promote flexibility or other desired material properties. However, over time they can break down, evaporate/sublimate out, or be leached out of the plastic. When enough of these small molecules are gone the plastic can also lose its mechanical integrity and become brittle or other bad things.\n\nThe 5 year safety rating probably has a hefty safety margin. but yes the plastics in a car seat would lose some structural integrity over the years. Things like the foam inside the seat (likely also a polymer) could also become compressed to the point of not offering shock protection anymore, which would not be a chemical degradation but a physical one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42962805",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of plastic objects",
"section": "Section::::Deterioration.:Causes of deterioration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The cause of deterioration regarding plastics can be linked to age, chemical composition, storage, and improper handling of the objects. Conservators are in place to slow down the processes of deterioration by considering the 4 leading caused of deterioration:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42962805",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of plastic objects",
"section": "Section::::Common plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Biodegradable plastics have become an issue because as plastic is used in many everyday objects the push to create biodegradable plastics has been on the rise. This causes an issue for conservators because these object will ultimately degrade as their composition is designed to as there is an increase in plastic waste. It is these biodegradable plastics that can be prove to be difficult and museums will need to provide research for these items quickly to slow done their deterioration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42962805",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of plastic objects",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Recent changes in plastic manufacturing, as a result of environmental concerns, towards biodegradable plastics, have a potentially negative effect upon the long term stability of such objects within museum collections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37499830",
"title": "Biodegradable additives",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Because of the substantial growth in plastic consumption, biodegradable additives are becomingly increasingly necessary to increase the rate of degradability of common plastics. Current research is focused on finding new biodegradable additives that will shorten the degradation process from taking decades to centuries to taking only a few months to a few years. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37201518",
"title": "Plastic pollution",
"section": "Section::::Reduction efforts.:Biodegradable and degradable plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Although biodegradable and degradable plastics have helped reduce plastic pollution, there are some drawbacks. One issue concerning both types of plastics is that they do not break down very efficiently in natural environments. There, degradable plastics that are oil-based may break down into smaller fractions, at which point they do not degrade further.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24458",
"title": "Polyvinyl chloride",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Degradation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Degradation during service life, or after careless disposal, is a chemical change that drastically reduces the average molecular weight of the polyvinyl chloride polymer. Since the mechanical integrity of a plastic depends on its high average molecular weight, wear and tear inevitably weakens the material. Weathering degradation of plastics results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that continue on in the environment. Also known as microplastics, these particles act like sponges and soak up persistent organic pollutants (POPs) around them. Thus laden with high levels of POPs, the microparticles are often ingested by organisms in the biosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42962805",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of plastic objects",
"section": "Section::::Deterioration.:Causes of deterioration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Age- when plastics were first manufactured in the 19th century they were composed of semi-organic material, thus these over the years these objects have deteriorated due to lack of research and improper handling of these plastics. Without enough time to care for objects the older objects have deteriorated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tqmb6
|
does it rain over all the oceans and seas? are any areas over an ocean or a sea classified as deserts?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are definitely bodies of water which get rained on more or less depending on where they are. The amount of precipitation which falls in the arctic is very small compared to that which falls in a tropical region. Areas of ocean which are downwind from deserts also get very little direct precipitation.\n\nOceans and seas which can accept ocean water can maintain their water levels because the water will slosh around to roughly even things out. If a body of water gets cut off from oceans, then the area which it can draw water from becomes a lot smaller and this sea is now going to be much more affected by local weather than the larger oceans. All surface water bodies evaporate and most seep into groundwater as well and many lose water to creatures (particularly humans in recent timse), but if the water isn't being replenished fast enough, then the water level will drop and eventually disappear, but many water bodies surrounded by land are able to find a balance point for a long time where their levels stay within a particular range across the seasons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/eideid is correct. There really are regions over the oceans where it doesn't rain at all or does so only very rarely. There is a large area in the Pacific west off of Chile where so far no rainfall has ever been observed. Off the coast of Namibia, where the sand desert immediately meets the ocean, rainfall is also extremely rare or absent. \n \nHowever, land deserts are not only characterized by their lack of rainfall. They are also empty places where living things are rare and far between; of course this is a consequence of the lack of water. \nIn an ocean, that is not an issue; so you can argue that there is a different definition of 'desert' for oceans that concentrates on the availability of nutrients in the water. \nAnd in fact, such places exist, too. There are areas like large swathes of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans that are blue, 'pure' water - water with little nutrient content where primary production (Algae & Cyanobacteria photosynthetising) is very low. Other spaces, often near coasts, are 'green' water full of life. Both regions exist independently of rainfall; the region off Chile is really empty while the Namibian coast is anything but. Here cold, deep nutrient-rich water is pushed up from below and together with the intense sun makes for a very productive area and huge amounts of fish live there. Rain doesn't concern them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "484254",
"title": "Köppen climate classification",
"section": "Section::::Group B: Dry (desert and semi-arid) climates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by frequent fog and low clouds, despite the fact that these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received are labelled \"BWn\" with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog. The \"BSn\" category can be found in foggy coastal steppes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39065779",
"title": "List of locations with a subtropical climate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "A great portion of the world's deserts are located within the subtropics, due to the development of the subtropical ridge. Within the humid monsoon regimes in the subtropics, a wet season is seen annually during the summer, which is when most of the yearly rainfall falls. Within the Mediterranean climate regime, the wet season occurs during the winter. Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to locally heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones, which can contribute a significant percentage of the annual rainfall. Plants such as date palms, citrus, mango, litchi, and avocado are grown within the subtropical zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60739676",
"title": "Tropical desert",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "Tropical deserts are located in regions between 5 and 30 degrees latitude. Environment is very extreme. they have the highest average monthly temperature on Earth. Rainfall is sporadic; precipitation may not be observed at all in a few years. In addition to these extreme environmental and climate conditions, most tropical deserts are covered with sand and rocks, and thus too flat and lacking in vegetation to block out the wind. Wind may erode and transport sand, rocks and other materials; these are known as eolian processes. Landforms caused by wind erosion vary greatly in characteristics and size. Representative landforms include depressions and pans, Yardangs, inverted topography and ventifacts. No significant populations can survive in tropical deserts due to extreme aridity, heat and the paucity of vegetation; only specific flora and fauna with special behavioral and physical mechanisms are supported. Although tropical deserts are considered to be harsh and barren, they are in fact hotbeds of natural resources and plays a significant role in economic development. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402679",
"title": "Subtropics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "A great portion of the world's deserts are located within the subtropics, due to the development of the subtropical ridge. Within savanna regimes in the subtropics, a wet season is seen annually during the summer, which is when most of the yearly rainfall falls. Within Mediterranean climate regimes, the wet season occurs during the winter. Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to locally heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones, which can contribute a significant percentage of the annual rainfall. Plants such as palms, citrus, mango, pistachio, lychee, and avocado are grown within the subtropics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1843913",
"title": "Desert ecology",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Deserts occupy one-fifth of the Earth's land surface and occur in two belts: between 15° and 35° latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres. These bands are associated with the high solar intensities that all areas in the tropics receive, and with the dry air brought down by the descending arms of both the Hadley and Ferell atmospheric circulation cells. Dry winds hold little moisture for these areas, and also tend to evaporate any water present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60739676",
"title": "Tropical desert",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.:Geographical distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Tropical deserts are located in both continental interiors and coastal areas between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Representative deserts include the Sahara Desert in North Africa, the Australian Desert, Arabian Desert and Syrian Desert in Western Asia, the Kalahari Desert in Southern Africa, Sonoran Desert in the United States and Mexico, Mojave Desert in the United States, Thar Desert in India and Pakistan, Dasht-e Margo and Registan Desert in Afghanistan and Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Loot in Iran.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18955999",
"title": "Desert",
"section": "Section::::Physical geography.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Coastal deserts are mostly found on the western edges of continental land masses in regions where cold currents approach the land or cold water upwellings rise from the ocean depths. The cool winds crossing this water pick up little moisture and the coastal regions have low temperatures and very low rainfall, the main precipitation being in the form of fog and dew. The range of temperatures on a daily and annual scale is relatively low, being and respectively in the Atacama Desert. Deserts of this type are often long and narrow and bounded to the east by mountain ranges. They occur in Namibia, Chile, southern California and Baja California. Other coastal deserts influenced by cold currents are found in Western Australia, the Arabian Peninsula and Horn of Africa, and the western fringes of the Sahara.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20lml3
|
How do NASA scientists take such clear long exposure photographs of Nebulas and galaxies, if the Earth is constantly rotating itself and around the sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "Telescopes are motorized to track a location in the sky as the Earth rotates under them.\n\nThe [Wikipedia article on equatorial mounts](_URL_0_) has a bunch of examples and pictures of telescope mounts.\n\nEven relatively small backyard telescopes can have motorized mounts, for amateur astronomers who want to take long duration photographs.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Galaxies are extremely far away from us, so far in fact, that for the purposes of taking a photograph of them from an orbiting telescope, they don't move. There is a very tiny amount of relative movement of the telescope along its orbital path however, so gyroscopes and and reaction wheels are used to keep the telescope pointed at the target. Often times images are actually composites, collected over many orbital periods. \n\nEdit:words",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Telescopes counter-rotate to cancel the rotation of whatever platform supports them (*e.g.*, the Earth). They use auxiliary \"guide cameras\" to maintain this pointing by keeping star images stable on the image plane.\n\nThe orbit of the Earth around the Sun is not an issue when looking at objects far outside the Solar System. The distances are too great for it to have a significant effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "653006",
"title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon",
"section": "Section::::Detection and optical properties.:Origins of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope includes instruments for obtaining both images and spectra of light emitted by PAHs associated with star formation. These images can trace the surface of star-forming clouds in our own galaxy or identify star forming galaxies in the distant universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12765670",
"title": "Gould Belt Survey",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The astronomers use observations and data captured by the Spitzer Space Telescope and other telescopes to create a complete picture of the star forming regions within an approximately 1600 light-year radius centered on the Solar System. These regions are partly or completely clouded by interstellar dust and therefore cannot be observed by telescopes using visible light, like the Hubble Space Telescope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319141",
"title": "Eagle Nebula",
"section": "Section::::\"Pillars of Creation\" region.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Images taken by Jeff Hester and Paul Scowen using the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995 greatly improved scientific understanding of processes inside the nebula. One of these photographs became famous as the \"Pillars of Creation\", depicting a large region of star formation. The small dark areas in the photograph are believed to be protostars (Bok globules). The pillar structure of the region resembles that of a much larger star formation region in the Soul Nebula of Cassiopeia, imaged with the Spitzer Space Telescope in 2005 and characterized as \"Pillars of Star Creation\". or \"Pillars of Star Formation\". These columns – which resemble stalagmites protruding from the floor of a cavern – are composed of interstellar hydrogen gas and dust, which act as incubators for new stars. Inside the columns and on their surface astronomers have found knots or globules of denser gas, called EGGs (\"Evaporating Gaseous Globules\"). Stars are being formed inside some of these EGGs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7290120",
"title": "Methods of detecting exoplanets",
"section": "Section::::Established detection methods.:Direct imaging.:Imaging instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In 2010, a team from NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated that a vortex coronagraph could enable small scopes to directly image planets. They did this by imaging the previously imaged HR 8799 planets, using just a 1.5 meter-wide portion of the Hale Telescope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "749810",
"title": "VISTA (telescope)",
"section": "Section::::Selection of VISTA Images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Other stunning nebula images include the VISTA views of the Orion Nebula and the Lagoon Nebula. The picture on the right is a wide-field view of the Orion Nebula (Messier 42), lying about 1350 light-years from Earth, taken with the VISTA infrared survey telescope at ESO's Paranal Observatory in Chile. The telescope's huge field of view allows the whole nebula and its surroundings to be imaged in a single picture and its infrared vision also means that it can peer deep into the normally hidden dusty regions and reveal the curious antics of the very active young stars buried there. An image of the \"Blue Lagoon\" is seen on the left (below the Flame Nebula picture) — it is an infrared image taken as part of the VVV survey. It shows the stellar nursery called the Lagoon Nebula (also known as Messier 8), which lies about 4000–5000 light-years away in the constellation of Sagittarius (the Archer).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34870536",
"title": "Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The spacecraft concept proposed to use a 70 centimeter diameter telescope-mounted coronagraph called \"PIAA (Phase Induced Amplitude Apodized Coronagraph)\" to suppress starlight in order to be able to detect fainter radiation of circumstellar dust. Characterizing constitution of such disks would provide clues for planetary formation (mostly in habitable zones), while already existing exoplanets can be detected through their interaction with dust disk. The project's Principal Investigator is Glenn Schneider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9299479",
"title": "Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings",
"section": "Section::::Independent research consistent with NASA claims.:Photographs.:Ultraviolet photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Long-exposure photos were taken with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph by Apollo 16 on April 21, 1972, from the surface of the Moon. Some of these photos show the Earth with stars from the Capricornus and Aquarius constellations in the background. The European Space Research Organisation's TD-1A satellite later scanned the sky for stars that are bright in ultraviolet light. The TD-1A data obtained with the shortest passband is a close match for the Apollo 16 photographs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dagje4
|
How does cocaine get into the hair structure through use and environmental exposure?
|
[
{
"answer": " > is water soluble, why isn't it coming out in the water? Why is permeating the hair further?\n\nI can't answer your other questions, but keep in mind there is a lot of water in the human body, inside cells and tissue and bodily fluids etc. Just googling it hair is apparently 10 - 13% water. Might be wrong but I think anything water soluble that enters your bloodstream is liable to be transported to other areas of your body as your blood does its thing, transporting oxygen and nutrients and such.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I can't offer you any solid answers, but just to touch on one point (and this is still basically speculation), crack cocaine (or freebase cocaine) and cocaine hydrochloride are going to behave mostly the same once they have entered the body and become dissolved in blood or other aqueous fluid.\n\nIn that case, the lipophilicity of the cocaine molecules and their tendency to partition into aqueous solution vs. non-polar things like cell membranes or possibly hair is dictated by the pH of the environment which dictates the ionization of cocaine at its tertiary amine. \n\nCocaine has a pKa of about 8.6 at its tertiary amine / nitrogen atom, so at physiologic pH of ~7.4, more than 90% of cocaine molecules will exist as the ionized R3-NH+ form which is more water soluble and is less lipophillic. \n\nI imagine that cocaine molecules are permeating deep enough into the hair that the solvent and water washes aren't reaching them.\n\nWhether the cocaine was originally crack or cocaine HCl, it should be highly soluble in an acidic (or even pH 7) wash solution since hydrogen ions from the wash will convert molecules of cocaine base into the more water soluble cocaine ion with a salt counterion. So assume the water wash is acidic or neutral pH, I would assume it isn't removing cocaine because the wash isn't able to penetrate fully into the hair.\n\nEDIT: Also, have you read this? Lots of good stuff in here although it is a bit dated.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSome data about washing on pages 51-55.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16831007",
"title": "Stain removal",
"section": "Section::::Hair dye stains.:Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Human hair is composed largely of keratin protein, which has a negative ionic charge, giving hair a negative ionic charge as well. As chemistry dictates, oppositely charged compounds attract and compounds with the same charge repel each other. Most hair dyes are positively charged, helping them attach to the negative sites in hair and contributing to a better bond between the dye and the hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13700509",
"title": "Norcocaine",
"section": "Section::::Role in hair drug testing controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "Some researchers have suggested that hair drug testing for cocaine use should include testing for metabolites like norcocaine. The basis for this suggestion is the potential for external contamination of hair during testing. There is considerable debate about whether current means of washing hair samples are sufficient for removing external contamination. Some researchers state the methods are sufficient, while others state the residual contamination may result in a false positive test. Metabolites of cocaine, like norcocaine, in addition to cocaine, should be present in samples from drug users. Authors have stated that the metabolites should be present in any samples declared positive. Issues arise because the metabolites are present in only low concentrations. If the metabolites are present, it is possible for them to be from other contamination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Depending on liver and kidney function, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine intake and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 150 ng/mL typically for up to eight days after cocaine is used. Detection of cocaine metabolites in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28332061",
"title": "Prenatal cocaine exposure",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Cocaine, a small molecule, is able to cross the placenta into the bloodstream of the fetus. In fact it may be present in a higher concentration in the amniotic fluid than it is in the mother's bloodstream. The skin of the fetus is able to absorb the chemical directly from the amniotic fluid until the 24th week of pregnancy. Cocaine can also show up in breast milk and affect the nursing baby. The severity of effects depends on how much of the drug is used, how often, and the stage in the development of the fetus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "986871",
"title": "Drug test",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Hair testing.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "However, there is one major difference between most drugs and alcohol metabolites in the way in which they enter into the hair: on the one hand like other drugs FAEEs enter into the hair via the keratinocytes, the cells responsible for hair growth. These cells form the hair in the root and then grow through the skin surface taking any substances with them. On the other hand, the sebaceous glands produce FAEEs in the scalp and these migrate together with the sebum along the hair shaft (Auwärter et al., 2001, Pragst et al., 2004). So these glands lubricate not only the part of the hair that is just growing at 0.3 mm per day on the skin surface, but also the more mature hair growth, providing it with a protective layer of fat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21749970",
"title": "Hairstyling product",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Hair spray.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Some hair sprays use natural polymers and solvents like vegetable gums dissolved in alcohol. One popular ingredient in natural hair sprays is gum arabic, which is made from the sap of various species of the acacia tree. Gum tragacanth is another herbal gum that is used to stiffen calico and crepe, as well as hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "692304",
"title": "Hair analysis",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "BULLET::::- Henderson, G.L., Harkey, M.R., Jones, R.T., \"Analysis of Hair for Cocaine\", in (eds. Edward. J. Cone, Ph.D., Michael. J. Welch, Ph.D., and M. Beth Grigson Babecki, M.A.), \"Hair Testing for Drugs of Abuse: International Research on Standards and Technology\", 1995, p. 91-120. NIH Publication No. 95-3727.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13czbs
|
Could a hydrogen car have a water dispenser inside the car?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, that is in the world of \"could.\" I doubt that the hardware required to store a meaningful reservoir of water would be worthwhile for most vehicles, though.\n\nA more practical example would be a household or neighborhood level hydrogen power cell, that uses provided hydrogen to generate both electricity and drinking water.\n\n[Accoring to NASA](_URL_0_), the fuel cells in the space shuttle helped provided drinking water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The water produced by this process would be pure, and would need to have minerals added to it to make it safe for regular human consumption _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hydrogen fuel cells actually *consume* hydrogen gas and produce water as a byproduct. This is usually done in fuel cells by the process of elctrolytic ion solution, so no flames are produced as when the gases are burned normally. This process results in several things. Since the process does not impart excess energy in the form of heat to the water as combustion does, this energy can be utilized by the fuel cell's electrical system. Secondly, this would mean that the water would not be unreasonably hot, and should not come out of the cell at anything hotter than above ambient temperatures. Furthermore, since the process is done through an electrolytic solution (which acts as a semi-permeable mediator of the H^2/ 2O^2 reaction), excess gases can be recycled into the system, with the hydrogen reused and the oxygen + H20 returned to the surrounding environment. Therefore there would be no diffusion of the gases between each other, and only water would be produced as a result.\n\n\nSo to answer your question! Theoretically, we could harvest the water that is produced, but the process would still be too expensive/energy inefficient/slow for feasibility and use in everyday cars, although dedicated systems already exist for things such as the space systems and the ISS.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "Section::::Claims of functioning water-fuelled cars.:Genepax Water Energy System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "In June 2008, Japanese company Genepax unveiled a car it claimed ran on only water and air, and many news outlets dubbed the vehicle a \"water-fuel car\". The company said it \"cannot [reveal] the core part of this invention\" yet, but it disclosed that the system used an onboard energy generator, which it called a \"membrane electrode assembly\", to extract the hydrogen using a \"mechanism which is similar to the method in which hydrogen is produced by a reaction of metal hydride and water\". The hydrogen was then used to generate energy to run the car. This led to speculation that the metal hydride is consumed in the process and is the ultimate source of the car's energy, making it a hydride-fuelled \"hydrogen on demand\" vehicle rather than water-fuelled as claimed. On the company's website the energy source is explained only with the words \"Chemical reaction\". The science and technology magazine Popular Mechanics described Genepax's claims as \"rubbish\". The vehicle Genepax demonstrated to the press in 2008 was a REVAi electric car, which was manufactured in India and sold in the UK as the G-Wiz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "Section::::Extracting energy from water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Most proposed water-fuelled cars rely on some form of electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen and then recombine them to release energy; however, because the energy required to separate the elements will always be at least as great as the useful energy released, this cannot be used to produce net energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "Section::::Claims of functioning water-fuelled cars.:Dennis Klein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "At present, the company no longer claims it can run a car exclusively on water, and is instead marketing \"Aquygen\" production as a technique to increase fuel efficiency, thus making it Hydrogen fuel enhancement rather than a water-fuelled car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "A water-fuelled car is an automobile that hypothetically derives its energy directly from water. Water-fuelled cars have been the subject of numerous international patents, newspaper and popular science magazine articles, local television news coverage, and websites. The claims for these devices have been found to be pseudoscience and some were found to be tied to investment frauds. These vehicles may be claimed to produce fuel from water on board with no other energy input, or may be a hybrid claiming to derive some of its energy from water in addition to a conventional source (such as gasoline).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "Section::::Hydrogen as a supplement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "In addition to claims of cars that run exclusively on water, there have also been claims that burning hydrogen or oxyhydrogen together with petrol or diesel increases mileage and efficiency; these claims are debated. A number of websites promote the use of oxyhydrogen, also called \"HHO\", selling plans for do-it-yourself electrolysers or kits with the promise of large improvements in fuel efficiency. According to a spokesman for the American Automobile Association, \"All of these devices look like they could probably work for you, but let me tell you they don't\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "Section::::Claims of functioning water-fuelled cars.:Garrett electrolytic carburetor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Charles H. Garrett allegedly demonstrated a water-fuelled car \"for several minutes\", which was reported on September 8, 1935, in The Dallas Morning News. The car generated hydrogen by electrolysis as can be seen by examining Garrett's patent, issued that same year. This patent includes drawings which show a carburetor similar to an ordinary float-type carburetor but with electrolysis plates in the lower portion, and where the float is used to maintain the level of the water. Garrett's patent fails to identify a new source of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091330",
"title": "Water-fuelled car",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "A water-powered car was depicted in a 1997 episode of Team Knight Rider (a spinoff of the original Knight Rider TV series) entitled \"Oil and Water\". In the episode, the vehicle explodes after a character sabotages it by putting seltzer tablets in the fuel tank. The car shown was actually a Bricklin SV-1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
97gkpo
|
Why can't herbivores eat meat, and why can't carnivores eat plants?
|
[
{
"answer": "Carnivores stomaches have an extremely low PH allowing them to process raw meat without harmful parasites thriving. Many herbivores have several stomaches in order to digest the very tough cell walls of plants. Dietary needs as well as digestion Is vastly different between the two types of animals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends. The difference is very rarely psychological. The main difference is the digestive systems in place and the energy demands of the animal.\n\nDeriving energy from plants is hard work thanks to cellulose and a whole heap of other barriers including poisons. Herbivores therefore either need to be specialists and focus on a handful of specific vegetation, or have most of their body devoted to processing nutrient poor but numerically plentiful food. The first strategy you can apply to, for example, squirrels, and the former to cows. In order for these systems to work they need specific enzymes to break down the food they are eating, and in the cow’s case several stomach portions and a whole regurgitating system for further breakdown. To further drive their food needs, their physiology has evolved to need energy and vitamins in proportions to what they typically eat. Even if meat is nutritionally more dense, a cow wouldn’t receive a great deal of benefit from it because a)\nWrong enzymes to break down the food and b) the meat will have vitamins and minerals in wrong forms and proportions.\n\nTo add a further hurdles, having a multi-chambered, enormous digestive system, or other herbivore digestive demands such as grinding teeth, mean that you are poorly suited to catching prey.\n\nSame goes for carnivores. They lack the enzymes or indeed the sheer length of digestive tract needed to break down plant matter, and their bodies require nutrients and minerals that can be obtained from prey. For example, cats have practically all their dietary demands in near perfect proportions in the form of mice.\n\nWhat about omnivores? Well they have a grab bag of enzymes that can eat *some* plant matter but this is usually very easily digestible, such as berries or nectar. One of the earliest pre-requisites for civilisation was the design and harvesting of easily digested plant matter in the form of fruits, vegetables, and grain. Omnivores\ncan also exploit meat thanks to enzymes, and their bodies are not so devoted to eating vegetables that they are hampered by the digestive systems. Omnivores tend to either need a heap of energy due to behaviour and size (such as overland migration) and be in areas where both plant and meat isn’t particularly plentiful. Occasionally you have omnivorous scavengers who simply exploit what they can. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44568",
"title": "Herbivore",
"section": "Section::::Food chain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Herbivores form an important link in the food chain because they consume plants in order to digest the carbohydrates photosynthetically produced by a plant. Carnivores in turn consume herbivores for the same reason, while omnivores can obtain their nutrients from either plants or animals. Due to a herbivore's ability to survive solely on tough and fibrous plant matter, they are termed the primary consumers in the food cycle (chain). Herbivory, carnivory, and omnivory can be regarded as special cases of Consumer-Resource Systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44568",
"title": "Herbivore",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4570692",
"title": "Herbivore adaptations to plant defense",
"section": "Section::::Microbial symbionts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Herbivores are unable to digest complex cellulose and rely on mutualistic, internal symbiotic bacteria, fungi, or protozoa to break down cellulose so it can be used by the herbivore. Microbial symbionts also allow herbivores to eat plants that would otherwise be inedible by detoxifying plant secondary metabolites. For example, fungal symbionts of cigarette beetles (\"Lasioderma serricorne\") use certain plant allelochemicals as their source of carbon, in addition to producing detoxification enzymes (esterases) to get rid of other toxins. Microbial symbionts also assist in the acquisition of plant material by weakening a host plant's defenses. Some herbivores are more successful at feeding on damaged hosts. As an example, several species of bark beetle introduce blue stain fungi of the genera \"Ceratocystis\" and \"Ophiostoma\" into trees before feeding. The blue stain fungi cause lesions that reduce the trees' defensive mechanisms and allow the bark beetles to feed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18838",
"title": "Mammal",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Some physiological carnivores consume plant matter and some physiological herbivores consume meat. From a behavioral aspect, this would make them omnivores, but from the physiological standpoint, this may be due to zoopharmacognosy. Physiologically, animals must be able to obtain both energy and nutrients from plant and animal materials to be considered omnivorous. Thus, such animals are still able to be classified as carnivores and herbivores when they are just obtaining nutrients from materials originating from sources that do not seemingly complement their classification. For example, it is well documented that some ungulates such as giraffes, camels, and cattle, will gnaw on bones to consume particular minerals and nutrients. Also, cats, which are generally regarded as obligate carnivores, occasionally eat grass to regurgitate indigestible material (such as hairballs), aid with hemoglobin production, and as a laxative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4183",
"title": "Botany",
"section": "Section::::Plant ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Herbivores eat plants, but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous. Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants. For example, mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food, ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection, honey bees, bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32350363",
"title": "Ipomoea lacunosa",
"section": "Section::::Food usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Other animals usually avoid eating \"Ipomoea\" due to the high alkaloid content which makes it unpalatable. In some cases the amount of alkaloid in the plant can make it toxic. However certain caterpillars are capable of digesting the plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "871297",
"title": "Heliamphora",
"section": "Section::::Morphology.:Carnivory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1639,
"text": "Though often counted among the various carnivorous plants, with the exception of \"Heliamphora tatei\", the vast majority of plants in the genus \"Heliamphora\" do not produce their own digestive enzymes (i.e. proteases, ribonucleases, phosphatases, \"etc.\"), relying instead on the enzymes of symbiotic bacteria to break down their prey. They do, however, attract prey through special visual and chemical signals and trap and kill the prey through a typical pitfall trap. Field studies of \"H. nutans\", \"H. heterodoxa\", \"H. minor\", and \"H. ionasi\" have determined that none of these species produce their own proteolytic enzymes. If production of these enzymes was used as a strict demarcation of what is and what is not a carnivorous plant, many of the \"Heliamphora\" species would not meet the requirement. \"H. tatei\" is one of the few species observed to produce both digestive enzymes and wax scales, which also aid in prey capture. The pattern of carnivory among \"Heliamphora\" species, combined with habitat data, indicates that carnivory in this genus evolved in nutrient-poor locations as a means to improve absorption of available nutrients. Most \"Heliamphora\" typically capture ants, while \"H. tatei\"'s improvements on the design allow it to capture and absorb nutrients from more flying insects. The carnivorous habit among these species is lost in low light conditions, which suggests that certain nutrient concentrations (specifically nitrogen and phosphorus) are only limiting during periods of fast growth under normal light conditions, thus rendering most of the carnivorous adaptations inefficient and not energy cost effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ljfta
|
How did elite Westerners entertain long-term visitors before the twentieth century?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing elaborate, and not an answer to your question, but one thing I will point out just for some reference is that prior to the late 19th century, the entire idea of a hotel did not exist. Sure you had inns and taverns, but those were not places the wealthy would stay. Instead if the wealthy traveled, they would be staying at the houses of friends or other people they knew.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "This is right at the end of the 19th century, in the Gilded Age in America, but [The Biltmore Estate](_URL_0_) gives you a good idea of how the tippiest-top of the elite would entertain. I visited about a year ago so it's on my mind. \n\nWhile you were staying with the Vanderbilts you could expect: \n\n- formal dining every night, including dressing for dinner, all in all you'd have to change your clothes several times a day while a guest\n- walking their estate (a relatively common entertainment) \n- looking around the greenhouse \n- riding their estate\n- outdoor sports like tennis, croquet\n- partaking of their state of the art gym\n- reading in the library \n- swimming in their indoor swimming pool (pretty uncommon) \n\nYou'd have a fair amount of free time to do these things, but you'd be expected to dine with your host/ess every night. You might find some fruitful reading in [*Manners and social usages* by Mrs. John Sherwood](_URL_1_) (1877) especially Chapter 50 on house guests (which is stubbornly not letting me link directly to it). It's written by a lady for ladies, but it lays down the expectations that both host and guest would have around that time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Check out \"The Sorrows of a Summer Guest\" in[ this collection](_URL_0_), which is from 1918 but still has a Victorian flavor. If nothing else, it's entertaining reading.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Musical evenings, handcrafts, dances, parties w/ neighbors, fishing, hunting, outings to local points of interest and other estates, church. \n\nIf a male guest had an inclination or ability to assist w/ work on the estate, any real help would be welcomed and they may spend days with his male host, then evenings at home together. If a guest didn't have those skills, a male host would take some time away to entertain him, but would still have to tend to his own business. Major social visits were planned for the slowest times of the year. A visitor or guest of necessity wouldn't expect to be babysat when a man must obviously do his job. Women were a lot more flexible. \n\n > was the ability to travel in this way largely limited to elite men, perhaps accompanied by their wives and families?\n\nEasier for elite men. A poorer man who was traveling was more suspect in most regions unless well outfitted (w/ wagons, horses, equipment, family) or showing other signs of prosperity (cash). Lone indigent men are percieved to be on the move because they *must* be. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In her prologue to the second edition of Frankenstein, Mary Shelley writes about how she come up with the idea: her husband and her were visiting Lord Byron, and the three of them would often get into storytelling sessions every night. \n\nShe couldn't come up with anything, until one night she had a nightmare that was the basis for a story, that later became the book.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1409359",
"title": "Guest ranch",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The Western adventures of famous figures, like Theodore Roosevelt, were made available to paying guests from cities of the East, called \"dudes\" in the West. In the early years, the transcontinental railroad network brought paying visitors to a local depot, where a wagon or buggy would be waiting to transport people to a ranch. Experiences varied. Some guest ranch visitors expected a somewhat edited and more luxurious version of the \"cowboy life\", while others were more tolerant of the odors and timetable of a working ranch. While there were guest ranches prior to the 20th century, the trend grew considerably after the end of World War I, when postwar prosperity, the invention of the automobile and the appearance of Western movies all increased popular interest in the west. In 1926 the Dude Ranchers Association was founded in Cody, Wyoming, to represent the needs of this rapidly growing industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11054648",
"title": "West Baden Springs Hotel",
"section": "Section::::Eighth Wonder.:Notable guests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Over the years the West Baden hotel attracted many notable guests. Beginning in the late 1880s, when southern Indiana became a favorite destination of the wealthy, the famous, infamous, and near-famous came to relax, play golf, gamble, enjoy fine dining, and be entertained. As Chris Bundy, author of \"West Baden Springs: Legacy of Dreams\", explained, \"These hotels were the Disney World of their time. In those days, it was assumed that if you could afford to come to America [for vacation], you would go to French Lick. It was that well-known overseas.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1409359",
"title": "Guest ranch",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Guest ranches arose in response to the romanticization of the American West that began to occur in the late 19th century. In 1893, historian Frederick Jackson Turner stated that the United States frontier was demographically \"closed\". This in turn led many people to have feelings of nostalgia for bygone days, but also, given that the risks of a true frontier were gone, allowed for nostalgia to be indulged in relative safety. Thus, the person referred to as a \"tenderfoot\" or a \"greenhorn\" by westerners was finally able to visit and enjoy the advantages of western life for a short period of time without needing to risk life and limb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51515254",
"title": "Hotel Corones",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1576,
"text": "For over thirty years the Hotel Corones (\"The Leading Hotel of the West\") flourished as a tourist, pastoral and CTA (Commercial Travellers Association) House. Harry Corones' advertisements and stationery proclaimed vice-regal patronage; and in addition to wealthy local graziers, celebrities such as Amy Johnson, Gracie Fields, and the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester were guests at the hotel. In 1936 there were on average 133 guests per week and during World War II when American servicemen occupied the local aerodrome and hospital, \"Poppa\" Corones did a roaring trade with dances held \"every night\" in Corones Hall. In 1959, the state's centenary year, Charleville's civic welcome to its Royal visitor, HRH Princess Alexandra took place in front of the hotel and Corones' advertisement in the town's centenary souvenir book could still proclaim that:Charleville Means CORONES because Corones is the centre of Charleville's social activities and the rendezvous where business agreements can be made in surroundings which, by their comfort and restfulness, provide the perfect setting for quiet consideration. People who insist on the best in fine living invariably made Corones their home while in Charleville.Just a few years later, however, a Licensing Commission Report described the Hotel Corones as being overtaken by a new type of hospitality accommodation, the motel in the shape of the newly rebuilt Victoria Hotel-Motel. Drought in the 1960s was also to severely impact on the local (including Corones') economy; the heyday of both the town and the Hotel was over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725719",
"title": "Best Western",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Best Western began in the years following World War II. At the time, most hotels were either large urban properties or smaller family-owned roadside hotels. In California, a network of independent hotel operators began making referrals of each other to travelers. This \"referral system\" consisted of phone calls between one desk operator and another. This small and informal network eventually grew into the modern Best Western hotel chain founded by M.K. Guertin in 1946.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56040931",
"title": "To the Western World",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "To the Western World is a documentary film directed by Margy Kinmonth. Narrated by John Huston and starring Niall Tóibín, Patrick Laffan, Tom Hickey (actor) & Brendan Cauldwell, the film charts the journey of John Millington Synge and Irish artist Jack Butler Yeats through Connemara in 1905. The two men were sent by the Manchester Guardian to report on the 'Congested Districts', the most poverty-stricken and over populated parts of the West of Ireland. The film is the first dramatisation of the original articles, which disappeared for decades after their publication. On their journey they described the economic conditions, poverty, unemployment, dress and lie-stock. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37767",
"title": "Patch collecting",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The growth in the 19th century of travel for ordinary people saw a huge increase in the souvenir industry, as these new secular pilgrims - like their medieval counterparts - wanted to bring back reminders of their holidays/vacations and sightseeing, ranging from china plates to postcards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
2sm36r
|
why is it ok to insult religion in name of freedom of speech, yet not ok to be a racist?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because no-one is responsible for the colour of their skin, but they are ultimately responsible for their own belief system.....\n\nYou can only ridicule someone based on the stupid choices they have made (such as believing in imaginary friends as adults) & the things they have done, & not on things they have no control over, such as race, sex, or handicap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neither is ok. Both are forms of protected speech.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being racist is also protected by free speech. \n\nIt is illegal to discriminate based on race or ethnicity, but you are fully allowed to think, speak, draw or do anything you like that is racist so long as you do not directly harm or call other to harm someone. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insults to race and insults to religion are the same as far as \"freedom of speech\" goes. \"Freedom of speech\" just means the government won't punish you for the idea you are expressing. \n\nInsulting religion and insulting a race will still make people mad, depending on how they feel about the insulted race or the insulted religion. These concepts aren't necessarily related.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a difference between \"legally OK\" and \"socially OK\". It is legally OK (in the United States) to say or write things that are racially or religiously bigoted. It is not, however, socially OK to do either, in general.\n\nSometimes you will find a group of people within society who think it is OK to express bigotry of one kind or another. You will generally find those people are, in fact, bigots. Unfortunately, society isn't always polite, and sometimes it's a *very large* group.\n\nThat said, the distinction between legal/social can be summed up as \"I don't think you *should* do this, but I think you should be *allowed* to.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Religion is a choice, race is not. Its perfectly fine to criticize and ridicule someone's choices. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can choose your religion. You can't choose your race ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its not really OK to do either. You are free to do so, as in you wont be jailed, but that doesnt mean you *should*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People have rights. Ideas don't. \n\nSimple as that, I can talk shit about whatever idea (wich includes religion) I want to and mock them. They are not people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably has something to do with religion being a threat to humanity as a whole. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "607813",
"title": "Censorship in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Blasphemy law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Critics claimed the Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 could hinder freedom of speech. Leaders of major religions as well as non-religious groups such as the National Secular Society and English PEN spoke out in order to campaign against the Bill. Comedians and satirists also fear prosecution for their work. However, a late amendment to the Act as a result of these campaigns reads: \"Nothing in this Part shall be read or given effect in a way which prohibits or restricts discussion, criticism or expressions of antipathy, dislike, ridicule, insult or abuse of particular religions or the beliefs or practices of their adherents, or of any other belief system or the beliefs or practices of its adherents, or proselytising or urging adherents of a different religion or belief system to cease practising their religion or belief system.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23524353",
"title": "Blasphemy law in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Religion and hate speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "In some jurisdictions, such as Tasmania, Queensland, and Victoria, someone who is offended by someone else's attitude toward religion or toward one religion can seek redress under legislation which prohibits hate speech.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483260",
"title": "Religious discrimination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Even in societies where freedom of religion is a constitutional right, adherents of religious minorities sometimes voice concerns about religious discrimination against them. Insofar as legal policies are concerned, cases that are perceived as religious discrimination might be the result of an interference of the religious sphere with other spheres of the public that are regulated by law (and not aimed specifically against a religious minority).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13798365",
"title": "History of Icelandic nationality",
"section": "Section::::Freedom of speech and religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Freedom of speech is provided for by law, but public slander based on religion, race, nationality, sexual orientation or skin color is illegal and punishable by fines and imprisonment. Citizens, therefore, are provided the right to free speech, as long as it does not endanger or demean other people. The right to peaceful assembly and associations are also protected by the constitution, as well as freedom of religion. However, Lutheranism, the state religion, is provided with more funding than other religions and more priority in school curricula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671343",
"title": "Criticism of religion",
"section": "Section::::Morality.:Racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Religion has been used by some as justification for advocating racism. The Christian Identity movement has been associated with racism. However, there are arguments that these positions may be as much reflections of contemporary social views as of what has been called scientific racism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37579315",
"title": "Religious offense",
"section": "Section::::More recently.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "More recently the term is used in modern laws which aim to promote religious tolerance by forbidding 'hate crime' such as the British Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006. To allow 'outsiders' to criticize a religion or its practice might appear to serve to weaken or break the chain of intergenerational \"truth-telling\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57738699",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and status quo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Others have highlighted that religion and religious freedoms are already well-protected, including with exemptions to anti-discrimination legislation. Frequently highlighted examples include religious schools having rights not extended to other institutions, including the ability to fire teachers who do not align with the institution's religious beliefs for any reason. This occurred in the case of the Perth South Coast Baptist College and teacher Craig Campbell who was sacked for coming out as homosexual in 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fx2pno
|
Historians who read languages for which there is no known pronunciation, or for which there are large gaps in pronunciation, how do you do it?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is exactly what I work on (and I mean *exactly*). Most Egyptian texts are written in a phase of the language called Middle Egyptian. Middle Egyptian was only spoken until the mid second millennium BCE, but the written language continued to be used for formal writing for the remainder of Egyptian pharaonic history. Because most Middle Egyptian texts were written during a state of diglossia (the formal and vernacular languages did not match), it's difficult to say much about how this language was pronounced. By the time we get good information about pronunciation in Coptic, 2000 years passed. Most words do not survive into Coptic. Even when they do, the specific grammatical form is not attested, because the grammar of the language changed as well. \n\nAdd to that the fact that many Egyptologists never learn Coptic at all, and the result is that we almost never know how to read a hieroglyphic word aloud. The solution generally adopted is to put e's (phonetic [ɛ]) between the known consonants, and to treat some consonants as though they represented vowels. This is done to deliberately mark the fact that we don't know how it would have been pronounced.\n\nYou've probably seen this happening in practice without realizing it. The name \"Ra\" is known from Coptic as ⲣⲏ ([re]), so his name should always be rendered as \"Re\", but people pronounce it as \"ra\" because the hieroglyphic spelling is 𓂋𓂝𓇳 (*rꜥ* in Egyptian transliteration, [r_ʕ] phonetically). Names like 𓇋𓏠𓈖𓊵𓏏𓊪, \"Amun is satisfied\", may be rendered as \"Amunhotep\" from Coptic ⲁⲙⲟⲩⲛ+Ϩⲱⲧⲡ or Imenhetep based on Egyptological convention.\n\nThe key thing to recognize there is that \"Imenhetep\" is *deliberately* wrong. It couldn't possibly be the word's true ancient pronunciation. If you ever see a piece of pop culture where people speak Egyptian, they've probably misunderstood what Egyptologists are trying to accomplish by pronouncing things this way. The list includes [Philip Glass's Akhenaten](_URL_2_) and [Assassin's Creed: Origins](_URL_3_).\n\nSo this is what we do when we read for the most part, we mispronounce things on purpose to show that we don't know. People who are obsessed with vocalization, like me, tend to use the Coptic pronunciation or the various Coptic-based vocalizations. That's a minority practice to be sure. I always read [Demotic](_URL_0_) with Coptic pronunciation in my head, but I know many highly-competent Demotists who don't know any Coptic whatsoever. It's pretty flexible in practice.\n\nI've been arguing forever that the absence of this crucial component of language learning hamstrings our understanding. Many people disagree. That's more of a personality thing. There are plenty of Egyptologists who are more interested in extracting meaning than they are in revivifying the spoken language of ancient Egypt. For them, being able to read the text seems separate from being able to hear it. I think they're incorrect. I did an experiment a few years ago with a Late Egyptian class where I taught one class Coptic alongside the hieroglyphs. The students who had Coptic vocalizations performed better on vocabulary quizzes, but my sample sizes were too small to be confident in the results (p = 0.54 😕). I'm hoping to try the experiment again on a larger scale.\n\nSources available at r/AncientEgyptian. See especially the [thread on Allen's *Middle Egyptian*](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "182480",
"title": "Indigenous languages of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Unattested languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 334,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 334,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3110015",
"title": "Ancient Greek phonology",
"section": "Section::::Reconstruction.:External evidence.:Orthoepic descriptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 279,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 279,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Some ancient grammarians attempt to give systematic descriptions of the sounds of the language. In other authors one can sometimes find occasional remarks about correct pronunciation of certain sounds. However, both types of evidence are often difficult to interpret, because the phonetic terminology of the time was often vague, and it is often not clear in what relation the described forms of the language stand to those which were actually spoken by different groups of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "899930",
"title": "Language interpretation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Considering the amount of interpreting activities that is assumed to have occurred for thousands of years, historical records are limited. Moreover, interpreters and their work have usually not found their way into the history books. One of the reasons for that is the dominance of the written text over the spoken word (in the sense that those who have left written texts are more likely to be recorded by historians). Another problem is the tendency to view it as an ordinary support activity which does not require any special attention, and the social status of interpreters, who were sometimes treated unfairly by scribes, chroniclers and historians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2207203",
"title": "Historical language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Historical languages (also known as historic languages) are languages that were spoken in a historical period, but that are distinct from their modern form; that is, they are forms of languages historically attested to from the past which have evolved into more modern forms. Thus, historical languages contrast with dead languages (languages which have become extinct, or undergone language death). Also, historical languages contrast with reconstructed languages (that is, the proto-languages) of theoretical linguistics. One of the approaches to defining and using the concept of historical languages is implemented in the ISO 639 standards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "939578",
"title": "List of eponymous laws",
"section": "Section::::T–Z.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 272,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 272,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- Teeter's law: \"The language of the family you know best always turns out to be the most archaic.\" A wry observation about the biases of historical linguists, explaining how different investigators can arrive at radically divergent conceptions of the proto-language of a family. Named after the American linguist Karl V. Teeter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14848",
"title": "Indo-European languages",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Important languages for reconstruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the Proto-Indo-European language, some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly linguistically conservative (most notably, Lithuanian). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid poetic meter normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g. vowel length) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written manuscripts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48854",
"title": "Linguistic typology",
"section": "Section::::Qualitative typology.:Typological systems.:Subject–verb–object positioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "An additional problem is that in languages without living speech communities, such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Old Church Slavonic, linguists have only written evidence, perhaps written in a poetic, formalizing, or archaic style that mischaracterizes the actual daily use of the language. The daily spoken language of Sophocles or Cicero might have exhibited a different or much more regular syntax than their written legacy indicates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rorcg
|
was fighting in ice hockey allowed since the beginning of this sport, or was it introduced later - and if so how that happened.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not allowed. That's why there are penalties for fighting. \n\nFighting is a result, usually, of three things. \n\n1. Get your team to raise their game. I'm willing to drop gloves and get into a fight. What are you willing to do to get our team back into the game?\n\n2. Defend a team mate. That little a-hole just unloaded a dirty hit on my guy, I'm going to make sure he doesn't think about doing that again. \n\n3. To pay the price. I need to fight him to atone for a bad play that hurt someone or nearly hurt. This one is a rare one. \n\nHockey is a sport of passion and grit. Players are tough as nails and don't like having their ice disrespected. If you allow a player from the opposing side to disrespect your team once what's to stop him from doing it again? Even worse if the ref keeps missing it or doesn't think it's a penalty.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read a book on this once and it talked about how the fights could extend up into the crowd like in Slap Shot. I have no idea what the name of the book was since this was decades ago. Wikipedia has a decent primer on how it evolved in the rules and some theories as to why.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fighting in most sports will get you ejected from the game. \n\nIt will only get you a penalty in some hockey leagues, the NHL being the most famous. Many other hockey leagues (especially youth and amateur leagues) won't allow any sort of fighting. \n\nThe origins vary since people fight for all sorts of reasons. If you see a hockey fight today it might be because one team is playing too recklessly (or focuses that recklessness on one player) and so a fight breaks out to show the opposing team you aren't going to take it lying down even if the referees aren't calling other penalties. \n\nAnd many in the audience like the fights. Hockey already suffers in being an underrated sport and if people go to games because of the prospect of a fight then why get rid of it? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ice Hockey is brutal. Much more so than it seems. Ice is hard, the boards are rock solid, the puck is solid, heavy, frozen rubber. Everyone has a piece of hooked lumber and they all have sharp metal blades on their feet. The players move fast and there is body contact and it's crowded. \nSo players take tremendous abuse, hockey is painful all the time, teeth knocked out, cuts stitched up and you keep playing. \nNow you get big men playing a painful, brutal sport and there is a broad range of ways to inflict extra pain, called a cheap shot. An elbow to the face can damage a person for life, but may be penalized in a minor fashion (2 minutes penalty) or not penalized at all. \nFighting occurs in hockey, generally, when a player is playing over the edge and is hurting players regularly and certain players will take it upon themselves to curtail this behaviour. So if a player throws out a few cheap shots he may find himself in a fight. Or a player causes pain to a player who's having a rough night and suddenly he's in a fight. Or a player tries to injure a star player, more so if this star player is known as a sportsmanlike player or is known to shun playing to hurt others. In this case a player may fight this person as retribution. Or two players known for fighting fight just to see who wins, but that generally is a lot harder to explain. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "568048",
"title": "Fighting in ice hockey",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Fighting has been a part of ice hockey since the sport's rise in popularity in 19th century Canada. There are a number of theories behind the integration of fighting into the game; the most common is that the relative lack of rules in the early history of hockey encouraged physical intimidation and control. Other theories include the poverty and high crime rates of local Canada in the 19th century. The implementation of some features, such as the blue lines in 1918, actually encouraged fighting due to the increased level of physical play. Creation of the blue lines allowed forward passing, but only in the neutral zone. Therefore, puck handlers played at close quarters and were subject to a great deal of physical play. The emergence of enforcers, who protected the puck handlers and fought when necessary, followed shortly thereafter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61104720",
"title": "Ice hockey in Latvia",
"section": "Section::::History.:postwar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Before the Second World War in the Soviet Union not hockey, but Bandy was played. After the war, the sporting leadership decided instead of introducing Bandy ice hockey, since this was recognized as Olympic sport. For the implementation of this plan, a Soviet delegation from Moscow drove to Riga, which returned there with a handwritten Russian translation of the Canadian ice hockey rules. It can therefore be said that one of the origins of the Russian hockey tradition lies in Latvia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568048",
"title": "Fighting in ice hockey",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Fighting in ice hockey is an established tradition of the sport in North America, with a long history that involves many levels of amateur and professional play and includes some notable individual fights. Fighting may be performed by enforcers, or \"goons\" ()—players whose role is to fight and intimidate—on a given team, and is governed by a system of unwritten rules that players, coaches, officials, and the media refer to as \"the code\". Some fights are spontaneous, while others are premeditated by the participants. While officials tolerate fighting during hockey games, they impose a variety of penalties on players who engage in fights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848317",
"title": "Violence in sports",
"section": "Section::::Athlete violence.:Ice hockey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The debate over allowing fighting in ice hockey games is ongoing. Despite its potentially negative consequences, such as heavier enforcers (or \"heavyweights\") knocking each other out, some administrators are not considering eliminating fighting from the game, as some players consider it essential. Additionally, the majority of fans oppose eliminating fights from professional hockey games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38051431",
"title": "History of Canadian sports",
"section": "Section::::Ice hockey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "Informal stick-and-ball games on ice had been played for years, especially in the Maritime provinces and at military garrisons. In its modern form hockey was standardized by students at McGill University in 1875. The game rapidly spread nationwide; recognition came in 1893 when Lord Stanley, Canada's governor general, established the Stanley Cup. Ice hockey was distinctly Canadian; it was a winter sport with vague rules, played on conveniently available outside ice. There were few spectators. Professional teams appeared around 1900; in 1904, five cities in the United States and Ontario formed the International Hockey League (IHL). The American-based league paid salaries that attracted many Canadian stars. Canadian amateur teams were forced to secretly pay their players, even as they proclaimed the principles of amateurism. The IHL collapsed in 1907. in 1908 came the first Canadian-based professional league, the Ontario Professional Hockey League. The Timiskaming League, fuelled by gambling and mining profits, started paying players and raiding amateur and professional senior teams for players\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34177197",
"title": "List of National Hockey League players born in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "The modern form of ice hockey is generally considered to have begun in the mid-19th century. One of the first games to use a puck was played by a group of Englishmen from the Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment in Kingston, Ontario. In the United Kingdom, a five team league was established in 1903, while Great Britain was one of the founding members of the International Ice Hockey Federation five years later. The game was first administrated by the British Ice Hockey Association, from 1914 until 1999, when Ice Hockey UK took over. In the early part of the 20th century the Great Britain national team enjoyed some success: they won gold at the 1936 Olympics, improving on their result of bronze twelve years earlier; won medals at three World Championships (bronze in 1935, and silver in 1937 and 1938), and won the first European Championships in 1910. The British team's heavy reliance on Canadian-trained players during its 1936 Olympic run was especially controversial, and prompted a protest from Canadian hockey officials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33577964",
"title": "Victorian Ice Hockey Association",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Great War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "As the Great War began, plans for the abandonment of ice hockey until the end of the war were considered. The rink management would go on to organise speed contests in the absence of a hockey season. No cup was to be contested in the 1915 season\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d7buc3
|
Why did germanic migrants lose more of their language in favour of Latin?
|
[
{
"answer": "An answer ([Why are the spanish and french not considered Germanic](_URL_0_); u/Libertat) I posted some time ago might provide with some elements of response. \nBasically, it's doubtful that each Barbarian coalition had its own \"national\" language, being made up from the IInd century of various (indigenous or migrating peoples) and being growingly Romanized due to their relations with Romania and the influx of slaves, fiscal refugees and deserters among them from the IIIrd century to the Vth, especially as Barbarians entered the empire. A good part of Goths, Franks, Vandals, etc. probably didn't really spoke a Germanic language at this point, while Germanophone Barbarians were more or less importantly Latinized \n\nSo, it's both a result of the resilience of Late Roman society (or its collapse in Britain and Illyricum) and the appearance of Barbarians as \"peoples of the limes\" then as Roman armies/groups since the IVth century. \nNot that they didn't had an influence on the development of Romance language (although this is especially the case for northern Gallo-Romance and Retho-Romance languages), neither that the Germanization of the Rhineland couldn't be attributed to a stronger Germanophone presence : but we're talking of an evolution that took centuries and didn't really stabilized before the Xth century. Apart from that, actual evidences for an everyday use of Germanic speech in former western provinces are quite rare, and generally assumed to have died out as such (although preserved in ceremonial and institutional terms) by the Vth or VIth century.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21389619",
"title": "British Latin",
"section": "Section::::Extinction as a vernacular.:Lowland zone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The demise of Vulgar Latin in the face of Anglo-Saxon settlement is very different from the fate of the language in other areas of Western Europe which were subject to Germanic migration, like France, Italy and Spain, where Latin and the Romance languages continued. The likely reason is that in Britain there was a greater collapse in Roman institutions and infrastructure, leading to a much greater reduction in the status and prestige of the indigenous Romanised culture; and so the indigenous people were more likely to abandon their languages, in favour of the higher-status language of the Anglo-Saxons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12446",
"title": "Germanic peoples",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-migration ethnogeneses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "The various Germanic peoples of the Migrations period eventually spread out over a vast expanse stretching from contemporary European Russia to Iceland and from Norway to North Africa. The migrants had varying impacts in different regions. In many cases, the newcomers set themselves up as overlords of the pre-existing population. Over time, such groups underwent ethnogenesis, resulting in the creation of new cultural and ethnic identities (e.g., the Franks and Gallo-Romans becoming the French). Thus, many of the descendants of the ancient Germanic peoples do not speak Germanic languages, as they were to a greater or lesser degree assimilated into the cosmopolitan, literate culture of the Roman world. Even where the descendants of Germanic peoples maintained greater continuity with their common ancestors, significant cultural and linguistic differences arose over time, as is strikingly illustrated by the different identities of Christianized Saxon subjects of the Carolingian Empire and pagan Scandinavian Vikings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11791821",
"title": "Raumbach",
"section": "Section::::History.:Migration Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "The Migration Period and the attendant threat to the city of Rome itself by the Germanic tribes in AD 410 underlay the Roman military and civil administration’s pullout from the Rhineland and the Province of Gaul. The power vacuum was at first filled by the Alemanni, and then after the 496 Battle of Tolbiac by the Franks (both Germanic peoples). Latin then ceased to be either the official or the vernacular language. The new one was now Frankish. Just as the original Celts had mingled with the Romans, the remaining Romans now became part of the Frankish population. Stretching from the heights of the Hunsrück far into the Palatinate in Frankish times was the Nahegau. Over time, this county was partitioned, giving rise to the Waldgraves, the \"Gaugrafen\" (“Gau Counts”), the Rhinegraves, the Counts of Veldenz and the Kyrburg and Dhaun lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51962",
"title": "Vulgar Latin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "The vulgar Latin language that continued to evolve after the establishment of the successor kingdoms of the Roman State incorporated Germanic vocabulary, but with minimal influences from Germanic grammar (Germanic languages did not displace Latin except in northern Belgium, England, the Rhineland Moselle region and north of the Alps). For a few centuries this language remained relatively common across most of Western Europe (as a result, Italian, Spanish, French, etc. are far more similar to each other than to Classical Latin), though regional dialects were already developing. As early as 722, in a face to face meeting between Pope Gregory II, born and raised in Rome, and Saint Boniface, an Anglo-Saxon, Boniface complained that he found Pope Gregory's Latin speech difficult to understand, a clear sign of the transformation of Vulgar Latin in two regions of western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26757",
"title": "Slavic languages",
"section": "Section::::Influence on neighboring languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1906,
"text": "Although also spoken in neighbouring lands, the Germanic languages show less significant Slavic influence, partly because Slavic migrations were mostly headed south rather than west. Slavic tribes did push westwards into Germanic territory, but borrowing for the most part seems to have been from Germanic to Slavic rather than the other way: for instance, the now-extinct Polabian language was heavily influenced by German, far more than any living Slavic language today. The Slavic contributions to Germanic languages remains a moot question, though Max Vasmer, a specialist in Slavic etymology, has claimed that there were no Slavic loans into Proto-Germanic. The only Germanic languages that shows significant Slavic influence are Yiddish and the historical colonial dialects of German that were spoken East of the Oder–Neisse line, such as Silesian German (formerly spoken in Silesia and South of East Prussia) and the Eastern varieties of East Low German, with the exception of Low Prussian, which had a strong Baltic substratum. Modern Dutch slang, especially the Amsterdam dialect, borrowed much from Yiddish in turn. However, there are isolated Slavic loans (mostly recent) into other Germanic languages. For example, the word for \"border\" (in modern German \"Grenze\", Dutch \"grens\") was borrowed from the Common Slavic \"granica\". There are, however, many cities and villages of Slavic origin in Eastern Germany, the largest of which are Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. English derives \"quark\" (a kind of cheese, not the subatomic particle) from the German \"Quark\", which in turn is derived from the Slavic \"tvarog\", which means \"curd\". Many German surnames, particularly in Eastern Germany and Austria, are Slavic in origin. Swedish also has \"torg\" (market place) from Old Russian \"tъrgъ\" or Polish \"targ\", \"tolk\" (interpreter) from Old Slavic \"tlŭkŭ\", and \"pråm\" (barge) from West Slavonic \"pramŭ\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67301",
"title": "Politics of Belgium",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In the 3rd century AD, Germanic Franks migrated into what is now Belgium. The less populated northern areas became Germanic, while in the southern part, where the Roman presence had been much stronger, Latin persisted despite the migrations of the Franks. This linguistic frontier has more or less endured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11883",
"title": "Germanic languages",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The Burgundians, Goths, and Vandals became linguistically assimilated by their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only Crimean Gothic lingering on until the 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6v8so3
|
why does damage to eyes not become apparent immediately and takes time ranging from a night's sleep to years to show up?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's like a sunburn. At first, it's just all red and painful (but your retina has no pain receptors, so it doesn't hurt). The next day, your skin is literally falling off your body. In that time, the damaged cells were figuring out that irreparable damage had occurred and that they might be cancerous. When they do, they enter mass suicide mode.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "88042",
"title": "Near-sightedness",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Visual environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Normal eyes grow during the day and shrink during the night, but occluded eyes are shown to grow both during the day and the night. Because of this, FDM is a result of the lack of growth inhibition at night rather than the expected excessive growth during the day, when the actual light deprivation occurred. Elevated levels of retinal dopamine transporter (which is directly involved in controlling retinal dopamine levels) in the RPE have been shown to be associated with FDM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "554130",
"title": "Adaptation (eye)",
"section": "Section::::Insufficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Night blindness can be caused by a number of factors the most common of which being vitamin A deficiency. If detected early enough nyctalopia can be reversed and visual function can be regained; however; prolonged vitamin A deficiency can lead to permanent visual loss if left untreated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1556918",
"title": "Phase response curve",
"section": "Section::::In circadian rhythms.:Light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Starting about two hours before an individual's regular bedtime, exposure of the eyes to light will delay the circadian phase, causing later wake-up time and later sleep onset. The delaying effect gets stronger as evening progresses; it is also dependent on the wavelength and illuminance (\"brightness\") of the light. The effect is small in dim indoor lighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56533",
"title": "Diabetic retinopathy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "These spots are often followed within a few days or weeks by a much greater leakage of blood, which blurs the vision. In extreme cases, a person may only be able to tell light from dark in that eye. It may take the blood anywhere from a few days to months or even years to clear from the inside of the eye, and in some cases the blood will not clear. These types of large hemorrhages tend to happen more than once, often during sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1070221",
"title": "Human eye",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Eye disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "As the eye ages, certain changes occur that can be attributed solely to the aging process. Most of these anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual decline. With aging, the quality of vision worsens due to reasons independent of diseases of the aging eye. While there are many changes of significance in the non-diseased eye, the most functionally important changes seem to be a reduction in pupil size and the loss of accommodation or focusing capability (presbyopia). The area of the pupil governs the amount of light that can reach the retina. The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age, leading to a substantial decrease in light received at the retina. In comparison to younger people, it is as though older persons are constantly wearing medium-density sunglasses. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided tasks on which performance varies with illumination, older persons require extra lighting. Certain ocular diseases can come from sexually transmitted diseases such as herpes and genital warts. If contact between the eye and area of infection occurs, the STD can be transmitted to the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1653184",
"title": "Computer vision syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had simply obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the strain would not have built up .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1527537",
"title": "Bevacizumab",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Eye disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Many diseases of the eye, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and diabetic retinopathy, damage the retina and cause blindness when blood vessels around the retina grow abnormally and leak fluid, causing the layers of the retina to separate. This abnormal growth is caused by VEGF, so bevacizumab has been successfully used to inhibit VEGF and slow this growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3v9uwj
|
why does the us senate always seem so empty?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most of them are doing their jobs. Their jobs just have very little to do with the debate floor. Think about it, how inefficient is it to have one guy speak to a room of a hundred about some issue while everyone else has to feign attention. During that time a politician could be meeting with lobbyist, working on acquiring new votes for a bill, discussing the matter with his staff, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many senators defer the decisions and voting to the committees and sub-committees as they are likely more knowledgeable of the details in the proposed legislation. Outside of a few key bills, there is usually far less debate necessary than, say, in the House, as the senate is less adherent to party lines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24909346",
"title": "United States Senate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative and more prestigious body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere. The presiding officer of the Senate is the vice president of the United States, who is president of the Senate. In the vice president's absence, the president pro tempore, who is customarily the senior member of the party holding a majority of seats, presides over the Senate. In the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299521",
"title": "Senate of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The composition of the Senate is smaller in number as compared to the House of Representatives. The members of this chamber are elected at large by the entire electorate. The rationale for this rule intends to make the Senate a training ground for national leaders and possibly a springboard for the presidency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2653665",
"title": "Federalist No. 62",
"section": "Section::::The equality of representation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1099,
"text": "The Senate is meant to regulate the power of the House of Representatives by giving equal power to every state in the Senate. This is accomplished by allowing each state two senators with one vote each, which counteracts the fact that the number of representatives per state is based on the size and population of the state. As James Madison said, \"the government ought to be founded on a mixture of the principles of proportional and equal representation\". Due to this, each state has equal power in the Senate, which in turn protects smaller states from being overpowered by larger states. Representatives are elected with the people's interests in mind, while senators are elected with the state's interests in mind. What this means is that when the House of Representatives votes to pass a law or bill it is then voted for in the Senate which leads to the passing of laws that cater to both the state and the people. This type of two-stage voting system keeps the House of Representatives from passing too many laws or from passing laws that possibly serve the interests of the representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302298",
"title": "Parliament of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Role of the Senate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "One of the functions of the Senate, both directly and through its committees, is to scrutinise government activity. The vigour of this scrutiny has been fuelled for many years by the fact that the party in government has seldom had a majority in the Senate. Whereas in the House of Representatives the government's majority has sometimes limited that chamber's capacity to implement executive scrutiny, the opposition and minor parties have been able to use their Senate numbers as a basis for conducting inquiries into government operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123498",
"title": "Senate of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Legislative functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The Senate tends to be less partisan and confrontational than the Commons and is more likely to come to a consensus on issues. It also often has more opportunity to study proposed bills in detail either as a whole or in committees. This careful review process is why the Senate is still today called the chamber of \"sober second thought\", though the term has a slightly different meaning than it did when used by John A. Macdonald. The format of the Senate allows it to make many small improvements to legislation before its final reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165705",
"title": "Australian Senate",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Work.:Holding governments to account.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1164,
"text": "One of the functions of the Senate, both directly and through its committees, is to scrutinise government activity. The vigour of this scrutiny has been fuelled for many years by the fact that the party in government has seldom had a majority in the Senate. Whereas in the House of Representatives the government's majority has sometimes limited that chamber's capacity to implement executive scrutiny, the opposition and minor parties have been able to use their Senate numbers as a basis for conducting inquiries into government operations. When the Howard Government won control of the Senate in 2005, it sparked a debate about the effectiveness of the Senate in holding the government of the day accountable for its actions. Government members argued that the Senate continued to be a forum of vigorous debate, and its committees continued to be active. The Opposition leader in the Senate suggested that the government had attenuated the scrutinising activities of the Senate. The Australian Democrats, a minor party which frequently played mediating and negotiating roles in the Senate, expressed concern about a diminished role for the Senate's committees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1356955",
"title": "History of the United States Senate",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The U.S. Senate, named after the ancient Roman Senate, was designed as a more deliberative body than the U.S. House. Edmund Randolph called for its members to be \"less than the House of Commons ... to restrain, if possible, the fury of democracy.\" According to James Madison, \"The use of the Senate is to consist in proceeding with more coolness, with more system, and with more wisdom, than the popular branch.\" Instead of two-year terms as in the House, senators serve six-year terms, giving them more authority to ignore mass sentiment in favor of the country's broad interests. The smaller number of members and staggered terms also give the Senate a greater sense of community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jz5ey
|
can someone explain the difference between a university and a technical school?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the US, technical schools focus mainly on job training and associates degrees in specific fields. They're great if you want to be a plumber, electrician, automotive tech, or some other sort of skilled trade.\n\nThere may be a stigma against the sort of jobs you'll likely be training for. You wouldn't be able to train as a physicist, doctor, or get your MBA at a trade school (and maybe those as the aspirations those other people have for you), but the world will always need plumbers and electricians, it doesn't need another twenty something with a liberal arts or philosophy degree.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9252",
"title": "Education",
"section": "Section::::Formal education.:Tertiary (higher).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Some universities are composed of several colleges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1302426",
"title": "Changwon National University",
"section": "Section::::Academics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The university's graduate schools are divided into schools of education, administration, management, business and information, and labor. Undergraduate offerings are divided between colleges of humanities, social science, natural science, engineering, and art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346628",
"title": "Graduate school",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "school) is a school that awards advanced academic degrees (i.e. master's and doctoral degrees) with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate (bachelor's) degree with a high grade point average. A distinction is typically made between graduate schools (where courses of study vary in the degree to which they provide training for a particular profession) and professional schools, which offer specialized advanced degrees in professional fields such as medicine, nursing, business, engineering, speech-language pathology, or law. The distinction between graduate schools and professional schools is not absolute, as various professional schools offer graduate degrees and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8060",
"title": "Dominican Republic",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The higher education system consists of institutes and universities. The institutes offer courses of a higher technical level. The universities offer technical careers, undergraduate and graduate; these are regulated by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548451",
"title": "List of universities and colleges in Latvia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Institutions are divided into 'first-level vocational schools or colleges' (\"pirmā līmeņa profesionālās izglītības iestādes jeb koledžas\") and \"Augstskola\", a Latvian language term roughly translated as 'high school' or 'higher school', which covers institutions generally referred to as universities or tertiary colleges in English. Each category is further subdivided as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22121089",
"title": "Clemson University Graduate School",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The University-including the Graduate School-is academically divided into seven colleges: Architecture, Arts and Humanities; Business; Behavioral, Social and Health Sciences; Engineering, Computing and Applied Science; Science; Education; and Agriculture, Forestry and Life Sciences. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3854124",
"title": "Education in Venezuela",
"section": "Section::::Educational stages.:Higher education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Higher education institutions are traditionally divided into Technical Schools and Universities. Technical schools award the student with the title of \"Técnico Superior Universitario\" (University Higher Technician) after completing a three-year program. Universities award the student with the title of \"Licenciado\" (Bachelor) or \"Ingeniero\" (Engineer), among many others, according to a student's career choice after completing, in most cases, a five-year program. Some higher education institutions may award \"Diplomados\" (Specializations) but the time necessary to obtain one varies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
typsw
|
hare krishna
|
[
{
"answer": "They are a branch of Hinduism that started in New York in the 1960's. Sort of.\n\nSpiritually they try to grow closer to the Supreme Lord Krishna, through various methods.\n\nThey require members to be vegetarians and abstain from 'illicit' sex, gambling and intoxicants. They highly regard four virtues: self-control, mercy, truthfulness and cleanliness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Hare Krishna\" is a chant used and promoted by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). They're called the Hare Krishnas because of that, but it might be pejorative. The rest is as TasfromTAS said.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26759151",
"title": "Neramu Siksha",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "Krishna is the son of a rich business couple (Kanta Rao and Pandari Bai). Bharathi is also a daughter of another rich man (Rao Gopal Rao). Krishna has grown up without knowing or facing any problems and gets a new car. While driving in competition with his friend Satyam (Satyanarayana), he accidentally kills Balaiah's brother and blinds Balaiah. Somehow this incident comes to the knowledge of Kanta Rao and he confronts Krishna and throws him out of house. Krishna then ends up as one of the servants at Rao Gopal Rao's home. He also gets to know Balaiah and his family. He realizes the intensity of his mistake and vows to make Balaiah and his family's life better. Balaiah on the other hand, vows to kill the person responsible for his brother's death and his blindness. Knowing about his fate in the hands of Balaiah, Krishna keeps helping them. Finally, Balaiah learns about Krishna and forgives him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55170973",
"title": "Vitthala Shappath",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Krishna is a son of his parents but he forgets the main object of life. He enjoys his own way by disobeying the guidelines of his parents who are devotee of Lord Vitthala. Krishna goes on wrong path and result of which he faces a drastic problem and after realizing his mistakes, he overcomes from his bad nature. He started to full fill motive of his father and Naina help him in his work. During the period Krishna and Naina fall in love of each other. At one instance situation came before him is that he has to choose any one out of two things, one is motive of his father and second is Naina's love. What he will choose? Vijay is the hero. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19286375",
"title": "Vaanmathi",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Krishna (Ajith) belongs to a middle-class family, where his father is a womanizer and brought up Krishna as a good for nothing fellow. Krishna is also a youngster who likes to waste time his time, by hanging out with his friends and roaming behind girls. Vaanmathi (Swathi) is the daughter of a rich business woman who is very arrogant and does anything for money. For example, she even abandoned her husband when Vaanmathi was a baby for money. Vaanmathi is a girl who grew up to be a bully, by bringing a bunch of friends in her vehicle and making fun of every guy they come across. Krishna and Vaanmathi play tricks on each other and fight after they met but eventually fall in love, but Vaanmathi's mother is not happy with that. She dislikes Krishna as sees him as her enemy number 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34389216",
"title": "Qahar",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Krishna is the adopted son of a woman who found him on the streets. He grows up to hate the environment he lives in, as it is filled with crime and corruption. Krishna is determined to fight this menace. He is joined by Raja, a Robin Hood like character, who robs the rich and feeds the poor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24307914",
"title": "Krishna (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Krishna (also called Shri Krishna) is an Indian television series created, written and directed by Ramanand Sagar. The series originally aired weekly on Doordarshan. It is an adaptation of the stories of the life of Krishna, based on Bhagavata Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Harivamsa, Vishnu Purana, Padma Purana, Garga Samhita, Bhagavad Gita & Mahabharat. The TV series was first broadcast on Doordarshan's Metro Channel (DD 2) from 1993. In 1996, the show was broadcast from the beginning on DD National. In 1999, the show moved to Zee where the remaining episodes were broadcast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7866009",
"title": "Vaishnavism",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Theism with many varieties.:Krishna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism—perhaps the earliest krishaite movement was Bhagavatism with the cult of Krishna-Vasudeva (about 2nd century BCE)—after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is \"Bhagavan Himself,\" and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3470163",
"title": "Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "In Vaishnava etymology the word \"Hare\" refers to \"Hara\" (literally, captivating, carrying away), personifying goddess Radha who is the Shakti of Krishna (\"nada shakti\") and remembers her as the one who stole the mind of Krishna. The word \"Hare\", or Radha, is repeated eight times in the Kali-Santaraṇa mantra and is a reminder of her love for the divine Krishna. Popular in Gaudiya Vaishnavism denomination of Hinduism, its devotees assert that the effect of reciting this mantra in Kali-Santaraṇa text is to imbue the pleasure principle emanating from the very innermost part of one's being, feel transcendental ecstasy and revive deep consciousness, remembering the love of God, and to getting rid of the harmful influence of the Kali Yuga. The Gaudiya Vaishnava have traditionally asserted that this mantra should be recited audibly because the sound liberates the reciter and the listener.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
338xpk
|
why has no one crossed a dandelion with a carrot or parsnip, thus creating a nutritious vegetable that grows wild as a weed?
|
[
{
"answer": "A few things. First, dandelions *are* nutritious vegetables that you can eat lots of ways.\n\nSecond, a weed is just any unwanted plant - they typically grow more aggressively than cultivated plants because they are evolved specifically for the environment in which they are found and because they don't waste any energy producing something extra for humans. For example, there are wild carrots, they just don't produce as large and tasty a root as cultivated carrots. Cultivated carrots need more support, because we've bred them to be *inefficient* as plants in order to be efficient as food. It's hard to get the weedy-ness of a weed and the wasteful extravagance of cultivated plant.\n\n(Also, it's typically only possible to cross plant varieties of the same species or at least the same genus. Otherwise you're crossing wildly different species - it's like trying to get a chicken and a pig to successfully mate. Maybe it would produce delicious bacon flavored wings, but too bad cuz it ain't gonna happen.)\n\nYou might be interested in heirloom plants varieties, though - these are older varieties of cultivated crops that typically offer a lot more variety than more modern versions and tend to be more adapted to specific areas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Carrots do grow wild as a weed; they're extremely common in North America, although they aren't native. [Wild carrots are Queen Anne's Lace](_URL_0_) and they grow in almost every vacant lot. People seldom eat them, because they have reverted to wild genetics, which makes the root smaller and more fiborous. Also, growing in rough conditions makes the root much tougher. Finally, there are a few lookalike plants that are toxic, including deadly water hemlock. \n\nBut your dream of widespread wild carrots is already a reality. The fact that they aren't widely eaten throws a spotlight on how farmed crops differ from wild foods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the question you are asking might be better phrased like \"Why are there no plants that are edible that act like an invasive species, and just grow like crazy?\" \n\nThere are may of these plants actually. The wild parsnip is one that is currently spreading across Ontario and other places. The dandelion, as mentioned previously here, is also edible. \n\nThen the question might be \"Why aren't we eating them?\"\n\nI think the main issue is twofold. First, invasive species often don't have the same history as native species do with local populations. A meal of dandelion salad, nutria chops and wild parsnips doesn't sound too inviting to most people, but how would it sound of you grew up eating such things?\n\nSecond, we are used to the lush/plump/mild tasting food, made available to us at the local supermarket. Wild plants and animals often have a taste/look about them that is not as appealing as these store bought alternatives, not to mention the work often required by the end consumer to gather them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "a few plants that might be interesting to you, as they are all edible and generally considered weeds.\n\ndandelions, plantain ([not the banana looking thing](_URL_0_)), clover and kudzu \n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they aren't even slightly related. It's the equivalent of asking why no one has bred a pig and a blue whale to create a more efficient Bacon source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cow parsnips or queen annes lace can cross with carrots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What the fuck is a parsnip?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Genetics just don't work that way. It's much more complex than taking A plant and B plant and getting half of the properties of each. Even assuming you successfully cross a strain, you'll likely end up with a plant that's more weed like than a vegetable but not as weedy as weeds and more nutritious than dandelions but less so than a vegetable. So it's all about careful, slow selection for the optimal plant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few people are telling you that wild carrots are abundant. Please DO NOT indiscriminately eat something you think -might- be a wild carrot. There are a few plants that are difficult to tell apart from wild grown carrots (they even kinda smell the same) that will make you very sick, maybe even kill you. Poison hemlock is the most famous.\n\nIf you wish to start foraging for food I recommend doing some thorough research first, and if possible take a class locally. This will let you know what your particular area has to offer and mitigate some of the risk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985739",
"title": "Carrot",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Cultivation problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "There are several diseases that can reduce the yield and market value of carrots. The most devastating carrot disease is \"Alternaria\" leaf blight, which has been known to eradicate entire crops. A bacterial leaf blight caused by \"Xanthomonas campestris\" can also be destructive in warm, humid areas. Root knot nematodes (\"Meloidogyne\" species) can cause stubby or forked roots, or galls. Cavity spot, caused by the oomycetes \"Pythium violae\" and \"Pythium sulcatum\", results in irregularly shaped, depressed lesions on the taproots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301030",
"title": "Daucus carota",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Extra caution should be used when collecting \"D. carota\" because it bears a close resemblance to poison hemlock. In addition, the leaves of the wild carrot may cause phytophotodermatitis, so caution should also be used when handling the plant. It has been used as a method of contraception and an abortifacient for centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985739",
"title": "Carrot",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Both written history and molecular genetic studies indicate that the domestic carrot has a single origin in Central Asia. Its wild ancestors probably originated in Persia (regions of which are now Iran and Afghanistan), which remains the centre of diversity for the wild carrot \"Daucus carota\". A naturally occurring subspecies of the wild carrot was presumably bred selectively over the centuries to reduce bitterness, increase sweetness and minimise the woody core; this process produced the familiar garden vegetable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221167",
"title": "Pied currawong",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The species has been implicated in the spread of weeds by consuming and dispersing fruit and seed. In the first half of the twentieth century, pied currawongs were shot as they were considered pests of corn and strawberry crops, as well as assisting in the spread of the prickly pear. They were also shot on Lord Howe Island for attacking chickens. However, they are seen as beneficial in forestry as they consume phasmids, and also in agriculture for eating cocoons of the codling moth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985739",
"title": "Carrot",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Companion planting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Carrots benefit from strongly scented companion plants. The pungent odour of onions, leeks and chives help repel the carrot root fly, and other vegetables that team well with carrots include lettuce, tomatoes and radishes, as well as the herbs rosemary and sage. Carrots thrive in the presence of caraway, coriander, chamomile, marigold and Swan River daisy. They can also be good companions for other plants; if left to flower, the carrot, like any umbellifer, attracts predatory wasps that kill many garden pests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11459944",
"title": "Alternaria dauci",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "\"Alternaria dauci\" is one of two leading pathogens affecting carrots around the world. Most often found in temperate climates, the disease has been found in North America, the Netherlands, the Middle East, and even parts of Southern Asia and India. Carrot leaf blight is especially damaging in that its leaf lesions not only reduce photosynthetic area, but also weaken the leaves and petioles structurally. This makes mechanical harvesting of the carrot crop less efficient, and yields are even worse when blighted leaves have been exposed to heavy frosts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985739",
"title": "Carrot",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "When they were first cultivated, carrots were grown for their aromatic leaves and seeds rather than their roots. Carrot seeds have been found in Switzerland and Southern Germany dating back to 2000–3000 BC. Some close relatives of the carrot are still grown for their leaves and seeds, such as parsley, cilantro, coriander, fennel, anise, dill and cumin. The first mention of the root in classical sources is from the 1st century AD; the Romans ate a root vegetable called \"pastinaca\", which may have been either the carrot or the closely related parsnip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cn21v
|
Why does the Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall baffle cosmologists, but not its namesake constellations?
|
[
{
"answer": "The constellations are merely local stars visible from earth and have no relation to the galaxy structure other than direction. The galaxy structure is behind the stars that make up the constellations and hence from our observational point of view \"in\" those constellations the same way a distant lighthouse is in a window when you look outside.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20826",
"title": "Mithraism",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations of the bull-slaying scene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Michael Speidel associates Mithras with the constellation of Orion because of the proximity to Taurus, and the consistent nature of the depiction of the figure as having wide shoulders, a garment flared at the hem, and narrowed at the waist with a belt, thus taking on the form of the constellation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163895",
"title": "Orion (mythology)",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "There was a movement in the late nineteenth century to interpret all the Boeotian heroes as merely personifications of the constellations; there has since come to be wide agreement that the myth of Orion existed before there was a constellation named for him. Homer, for example, mentions Orion, the Hunter, and Orion, the constellation, but never confuses the two. Once Orion was recognized as a constellation, astronomy in turn affected the myth. The story of Side may well be a piece of astronomical mythology. The Greek word \"side\" means pomegranate, which bears fruit while Orion, the constellation, can be seen in the night sky. Rose suggests she is connected with Sidae in Boeotia, and that the pomegranate, as a sign of the Underworld, is connected with her descent there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362594",
"title": "Hercules (constellation)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Hercules is bordered by Draco to the north; Boötes, Corona Borealis, and Serpens Caput to the east; Ophiuchus to the south; Aquila to the southwest; and Sagitta, Vulpecula, and Lyra to the west. Covering 1225.1 square degrees and 2.970% of the night sky, it ranks fifth among the 88 constellations in size. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is 'Her'. The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 32 segments (\"illustrated in infobox\"). In the equatorial coordinate system, epoch 2000, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between +3.67° and +51.32°. In mid-northern latitudes, Hercules is best observed from mid-spring until early autumn, culminating at midnight on June 13.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213454",
"title": "Corvus (constellation)",
"section": "Section::::History and mythology.:In other cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Corvus was recognized as a constellation by several Polynesian cultures. In the Marquesas Islands, it was called \"Mee\"; in Pukapuka, it was called \"Te Manu\", and in the Society Islands, it was called \"Metua-ai-papa\". To Torres Strait Islanders, Corvus was the right hand (holding \"kupa\" fruit) of the huge constellation Tagai, a man fishing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362594",
"title": "Hercules (constellation)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "According to Gavin White, the Greek constellation of Hercules is a distorted version of the Babylonian constellation known as the \"Standing Gods\" (MUL.DINGIR.GUB.BA.MESH). White argues that this figure was, like the similarly named \"Sitting Gods\", depicted as a man with a serpent's body instead of legs (the serpent element now being represented on the Greek star map by the figure of Draco that Hercules crushes beneath his feet). He further argues that the original name of Hercules – the 'Kneeler' (see below) – is a conflation of the two Babylonian constellations of the Sitting and Standing Gods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7630504",
"title": "Walter Berg (astrologer)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Western tropical astrology has long been detached from the constellations eponymous of the signs, due to the axial precession of the equinoxes over the centuries since the introduction of the zodiac by the Chaldeans. By contrast, in sidereal astrology the astrological signs remain attached to the constellations, while the vernal equinox has moved away from Aries over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25599293",
"title": "Constellation family",
"section": "Section::::Menzel's families.:Hercules Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The Hercules Family is a group of constellations connected mainly by their adjacency on the celestial sphere. It is Menzel's largest grouping, and extends from declination +60° to −70°, mostly in the western hemisphere. It includes Hercules, Sagitta, Aquila, Lyra, Cygnus, Vulpecula, Hydra, Sextans, Crater, Corvus, Ophiuchus, Serpens, Scutum, Centaurus, Lupus, Corona Australis, Ara, Triangulum Australe, and Crux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6vyfzf
|
How does the fact that energy is quantized explain blackbody radiation?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you assume that EM radiation at thermal equilibrium can have arbitrary energy in each mode, you run into an ultraviolet divergence (call the ultraviolet catastrophe). The total energy goes like ω^(2), integrated from zero to infinity, which is divergent.\n\nIf you assume that radiation can only be absorbed and emitted in quanta, implying that the amount of energy in each mode can only come in integer steps of ~~h~~ω, then you resolve the issue. Instead you're integrating ω^(3)/[exp[~~h~~ω/kT) - 1] from zero to infinity, which is convergent.\n\n[Here's](_URL_0_) some more on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "At the same time, investigations of blackbody radiation carried out over four decades (1860–1900) by various researchers culminated in Max Planck's hypothesis that the energy of \"any\" system that absorbs or emits electromagnetic radiation of frequency \"ν\" is an integer multiple of an energy quantum . As shown by Albert Einstein, some form of energy quantization \"must\" be assumed to account for the thermal equilibrium observed between matter and electromagnetic radiation; for this explanation of the photoelectric effect, Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20646064",
"title": "Quantum",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "The concept of quantization of radiation was discovered in 1900 by Max Planck, who had been trying to understand the emission of radiation from heated objects, known as black-body radiation. By assuming that energy can be absorbed or released only in tiny, differential, discrete packets (which he called \"bundles\", or \"energy elements\"), Planck accounted for certain objects changing colour when heated. On December 14, 1900, Planck reported his findings to the German Physical Society, and introduced the idea of quantization for the first time as a part of his research on black-body radiation. As a result of his experiments, Planck deduced the numerical value of \"h\", known as the Planck constant, and reported more precise values for the unit of electrical charge and the Avogadro–Loschmidt number, the number of real molecules in a mole, to the German Physical Society. After his theory was validated, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery in 1918.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "658955",
"title": "Quantum optics",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1477,
"text": "Light propagating in a vacuum has its energy and momentum quantized according to an integer number of particles known as photons. Quantum optics studies the nature and effects of light as quantized photons. The first major development leading to that understanding was the correct modeling of the blackbody radiation spectrum by Max Planck in 1899 under the hypothesis of light being emitted in discrete units of energy. The photoelectric effect was further evidence of this quantization as explained by Einstein in a 1905 paper, a discovery for which he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. Niels Bohr showed that the hypothesis of optical radiation being quantized corresponded to his theory of the quantized energy levels of atoms, and the spectrum of discharge emission from hydrogen in particular. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter following these developments was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. However, the subfields of quantum mechanics dealing with matter-light interaction were principally regarded as research into matter rather than into light; hence one rather spoke of atom physics and quantum electronics in 1960. Laser science—i.e., research into principles, design and application of these devices—became an important field, and the quantum mechanics underlying the laser's principles was studied now with more emphasis on the properties of light, and the name \"quantum optics\" became customary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9067941",
"title": "History of quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck reluctantly introduced the idea that energy is \"quantized\" in order to derive a formula for the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a black body, called Planck's law, that included a Boltzmann distribution (applicable in the classical limit). Planck's law can be stated as follows: formula_2 where:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2038941",
"title": "Annus Mirabilis papers",
"section": "Section::::Papers.:Photoelectric effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The article \"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\" received March 18 and published June 9, proposed the idea of \"energy quanta\". This idea, motivated by Max Planck's earlier derivation of the law of black-body radiation, assumes that luminous energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete amounts, called \"quanta\". Einstein states,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23579",
"title": "Photoelectric effect",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1395,
"text": "The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck's published law of black-body radiation (\"\"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\"\") by assuming that Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies \"E\" proportional to the frequency \"f\" of the oscillator by \"E\" = \"hf\", where \"h\" is Planck's constant. By assuming that light actually consisted of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the photoelectric effect that agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only on the \"frequency\" of the incident light and not on its \"intensity\": at low-intensity, the high-frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-intensity, the low-frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient individual energy to dislodge any electrons. This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments showed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, resistance to the idea of photons continued since it appeared to contradict Maxwell's equations, which were well understood and verified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24084197",
"title": "Timeline of quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:1900–1909.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1900 – To explain black-body radiation (1862), Max Planck suggests that electromagnetic energy could only be emitted in quantized form, i.e. the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit \"E = hν\", where \"h\" is Planck's constant and \"ν\" is the frequency of the radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ahsb8
|
how does a barometer actually measure air pressure?
|
[
{
"answer": "Inside a barometer is a sealed can, containing air. This makes it a bit like a metal balloon in that air is trapped, and can neither flow in or out of the can.\n\nIf the air pressure outside of the can changes, it'll squash the can slightly. If the air pressure drops, the can will expand. It's these changes in shape that drive the needle on a barometer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you [look at a barometer](_URL_0_) one of the unit of measurement it uses is mmHg.\n\nmillimeters of mercury. What this means is if you fill a glass tube with mercury. Turn it upside down. The distance between the glass bottom and the mercury. The weight of the mercury is pulling it down but the air pressure is pushing it up. The higher the pressure, the higher the distance. Lower the pressure, the lower the distance.\n\n[Example Image](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3281057",
"title": "Thermodynamic instruments",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamic meters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- Barometer - a device which measures pressure. An ideal gas barometer may be constructed by mechanically connecting an ideal gas to the system being measured, while thermally insulating it. The volume will then measure pressure, by the ideal gas equation \"P=NkT/V\" .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7180591",
"title": "Pressure head",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Static.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "A mercury barometer is one of the classic uses of static pressure head. Such barometers are an enclosed column of mercury standing vertically with gradations on the tube. The lower end of the tube is bathed in a pool of mercury open to the ambient to measure the local atmospheric pressure. The reading of a mercury barometer (in mm of Hg, for example) can be converted into an absolute pressure using the above equations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Barometers and pressure altimeters (the most basic and common type of altimeter) are essentially the same instrument, but used for different purposes. An altimeter is intended to be used at different levels matching the corresponding atmospheric pressure to the altitude, while a barometer is kept at the same level and measures subtle pressure changes caused by weather and elements of weather.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Aneroid barometers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "An aneroid barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. This type of barometer is common in homes and in recreational boats. It is also used in meteorology, mostly in barographs and as a pressure instrument in radiosondes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31070915",
"title": "Principles of Motion Sensing",
"section": "Section::::Motion Sensors.:Barometers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Pressure Sensors, also known as barometers measure relative and absolute altitude through the analysis of changing atmospheric pressure. Pressure sensors can be used in consumer devices for sports and fitness or location-based applications where information on elevation can be valuable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19951",
"title": "Pressure measurement",
"section": "Section::::Absolute, gauge and differential pressures — zero reference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "A vented-gauge pressure transmitter, for example, allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure-sensing diaphragm, through a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented-gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4234fq
|
Does special relativity preclude multiple time dimensions?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it doesn't. Special relativity admits a simple generalization to p time dimensions and q space dimensions by replacing the Lorentz group with SO(p,q), the group of transformations that preserve the line element:\n\nds^2 = (dt^1 )^2 + ... + (dt^p )^2 - (dx^2 )^2 - ... - (dx^q )^2\n\nThe real problem is that multiple time dimensions allow CTCs, and so timetravel; or seen from a completely different mathematical angle partial diff equations become ultrahyperbolic and so lose existence and uniqueness. Translated in human multiple time dimensions have a botched causal structure and cannot sustain any meaningful physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It allows multiple time dimensions, but it doesn't work like you think. There aren't multiple pasts. An object would still move along a single path through space-time. It's just that instead of heading towards one future, it could go in multiple directions. And just like how you can't go from 1 to -1 without passing through zero but you can go around if you add another dimension, adding an extra time dimension means something can go from moving forwards along the t axis to backwards along it. So the whole idea of causality pretty much stops working at all.\n\nThat being said, the Many Worlds Interpretation of quantum physics is pretty clear that there *are* multiple futures and multiple pasts. It's not just that it allows it. That's pretty much what it is. The multiple pasts thing doesn't generally come up much in practice, but it still can. The double slit experiment works because of the histories where the photon went through the left and right slit resulting in the same present and interfering with each other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Special relativity does not explicitly rule out extra time dimensions, but there are nevertheless a lot of problems with that idea.\n\nTo expand on the answer of /u/rantonais, multiple time dimensions change the equations of physics in a highly problematic way. With one time dimension, it is possible to use some knowledge of the current state of the universe (with finite error), to predict the future state of the universe (with finite error). With two or more time dimensions, this is no longer possible, and you can no longer make any predictions whatsoever about the future. But the ability to predict things about the world is necessary for life to exist (otherwise, there's no way to be sure reproduction will occur). It's even worse with intelligence - what use is it if you can't use your current knowledge to make any decisions at all? \n\nFor these reasons, there is a strong [anthropic argument](_URL_0_) that intelligent life can only exist in a universe with exactly one time dimension.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Technical discussion of spacetime.:Geometry of spacetime.:Comparison between flat Euclidean space and Minkowski space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 193,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 193,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "where are the differentials of the four spacetime dimensions. This suggests a deep theoretical insight: special relativity is simply a rotational symmetry of our spacetime, analogous to the rotational symmetry of Euclidean space (see Fig. 10‑1). Just as Euclidean space uses a Euclidean metric, so spacetime uses a Minkowski metric. Basically, special relativity can be stated as the \"invariance of any spacetime interval\" (that is the 4D distance between any two events) when viewed from \"any inertial reference frame\". All equations and effects of special relativity can be derived from this rotational symmetry (the Poincaré group) of Minkowski spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Spacetime in special relativity.:Spacetime interval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "In four-dimensional spacetime, the analog to distance is the \"interval\". Although time comes in as a fourth dimension, it is treated differently than the spatial dimensions. Minkowski space hence differs in important respects from four-dimensional Euclidean space. The fundamental reason for merging space and time into spacetime is that space and time are separately not invariant, which is to say that, under the proper conditions, different observers will disagree on the length of time between two \"events\" (because of time dilation) or the distance between the two events (because of length contraction). But special relativity provides a new invariant, called the \"spacetime interval\", which combines distances in space and in time. All observers who measure time and distance carefully will find the same spacetime interval between any two events. Suppose an observer measures two events as being separated in time by formula_4 and a spatial distance formula_5. Then the spacetime interval formula_6 between the two events that are separated by a distance formula_7 in space and by formula_8 in the formula_9-coordinate is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "862898",
"title": "Absolute space and time",
"section": "Section::::General relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Special relativity eliminates absolute time (although Gödel and others suspect absolute time may be valid for some forms of general relativity) and general relativity further reduces the physical scope of absolute space and time through the concept of geodesics. There appears to be absolute space in relation to the distant stars because the local geodesics eventually channel information from these stars, but it is not necessary to invoke absolute space with respect to any system's physics, as its local geodesics are sufficient to describe its spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241291",
"title": "Hyperbolic geometry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Geometry of the universe (special relativity).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Special relativity places space and time on equal footing, so that one considers the geometry of a unified spacetime instead of considering space and time separately. Minkowski geometry replaces Galilean geometry (which is the three-dimensional Euclidean space with time of Galilean relativity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Special relativity has a wide range of consequences. These have been experimentally verified, and include length contraction, time dilation, relativistic mass, mass–energy equivalence, a universal speed limit, the speed of causality and relativity of simultaneity. It has, for example, replaced the conventional notion of an absolute universal time with the notion of a time that is dependent on reference frame and spatial position. Rather than an invariant time interval between two events, there is an invariant spacetime interval. Combined with other laws of physics, the two postulates of special relativity predict the equivalence of mass and energy, as expressed in the mass–energy equivalence formula \"E\" = \"mc\" (\"c\" is the speed of light in a vacuum).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54316088",
"title": "Non-relativistic spacetime",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In physics, a non-relativistic spacetime is any mathematical model that fuses \"n\"–dimensional space and \"m\"–dimensional time into a single continuum other than the (3+1) model used in relativity theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "In the context of special relativity, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space, because the observed rate at which time passes for an object depends on the object's velocity relative to the observer. General relativity, in addition, provides an explanation of how gravitational fields can slow the passage of time for an object as seen by an observer outside the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
59qowq
|
how did all matter fit into an area less than an atom at the beginning of time?
|
[
{
"answer": "We don't know! But it probably wasn't really what we would consider to be \"matter\" at that point anyway as even subatomic particles wouldn't have been precipitated out yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "anything before t=1 is useless to theorize about. The rules that govern the universe where non existence before then. you might as well ask how many chess pieces is a touchdown worth. there simply no way to know if what rules if any governed the time before t=1.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others said: we dont realy know. We just can see the universe is expanding and therefore it was very smal in the past. So sientists apply the known formulas, like how strong an electron pushes another one, to very small space and see what should happen if this space comes closer to zero space. These results are strange for some formulas, like infinit force or something becomes negative. So we experiment (like in CERN) what happens with particles pressed together in small areas, but this way we will always just come closer to the big bang/the begining/t=1 but never reach it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "281260",
"title": "Protogalaxy",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:From the early universe....\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1418,
"text": "It is thought that the early universe began with a nearly uniform distribution (each particle an equal distance from the next) of matter and dark matter. The dark matter then began to clump together under gravitational attraction due to the initial density perturbation spectrum caused by quantum fluctuations. This derives from Heisenberg's uncertainty principle which shows that there can be tiny temporary changes in the amount of energy in empty space. Particle/antiparticle pairs can form from this energy through mass–energy equivalence, and gravitational pull causes other nearby particles to move towards it, disturbing the even distribution and creating a centre of gravity, pulling nearby particles closer. When this happens at the universe's present size it is negligible, but the state of these tiny fluctuations as the universe began expanding from a single point left an impression which scaled up as the universe expanded, resulting in large areas of increased density. The gravity of these denser clumps of dark matter then caused nearby matter to start falling into the denser region. This sort of process was reportedly observed and analysed by Nilsson et al. in 2006. This resulted in the formation of clouds of gas, predominantly hydrogen, and the first stars began to form within these clouds. These clouds of gas and early stars, many times smaller than our galaxy, were the first protogalaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Everyday matter is composed of atoms, once presumed to be matter's elementary particles—\"atom\" meaning \"unable to cut\" in Greek—although the atom's existence remained controversial until about 1910, as some leading physicists regarded molecules as mathematical illusions, and matter as ultimately composed of energy. Soon, subatomic constituents of the atom were identified. As the 1930s opened, the electron and the proton had been discovered, along with the photon, the particle of electromagnetic radiation. At that time, the recent advent of quantum mechanics was radically altering the conception of particles, as a single particle could seemingly span a field as would a wave, a paradox still eluding satisfactory explanation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31553456",
"title": "Cold Big Bang",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "In an attempt to understand the origin of atoms, Georges Lemaître proposed (by 1927) that before the expansion of the universe started all the matter in the universe, it formed a gigantic ball of nuclear liquid at very low temperature. This low temperature was required to provide an adequate cohesion within the Lemaître's primeval atom. In 1966, David Layzer proposed a variant on Lemaître's cosmology in which the initial state of the universe was near absolute zero. Layzer argued that, rather than in an initial high entropy state, the primordial universe was in a very low entropy state near absolute zero. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5615980",
"title": "Tree of knowledge system",
"section": "Section::::Tree of knowledge.:Matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology, matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang. Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy) describe the behavior of material objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2794117",
"title": "History of the Big Bang theory",
"section": "Section::::Ancient philosophy and medieval temporal finitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "According to Poe, the initial state of matter was a single \"Primordial Particle\". \"Divine Volition\", manifesting itself as a repulsive force, fragmented the Primordial Particle into atoms. Atoms spread evenly throughout space, until the repulsive force stops, and attraction appears as a reaction: then matter begins to clump together forming stars and star systems, while the material universe is drawn back together by gravity, finally collapsing and ending eventually returning to the Primordial Particle stage in order to begin the process of repulsion and attraction once again. This part of Eureka describes a Newtonian evolving universe which shares a number of properties with relativistic models, and for this reason Poe anticipates some themes of modern cosmology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331852",
"title": "Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Philosophers.:Anaxagoras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Originally, before \"nous\" moved the first particle of matter, there was a complete mixture which was composed of infinitely small components of things. Each of these was a homoeomeria, the small parts being the same as the large whole. For example, a tooth is made of small teeth. This is the result of the thought that like must come from like. After the movement began, individual objects became separated from this mixture when like combined with like. When one substance finally predominated, the accumulation became a particular thing. This process is called \"coming to be\" or \"becoming.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39393",
"title": "Epicureanism",
"section": "Section::::Epicurean physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void. Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight. Atoms were felt to be unchanging because the Epicureans believed that the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42drou
|
Is there a historical reason why, in regards to U.S. currency, the coin denominations are 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 while the dollar denominations are 1, 5, 10, *20*, 50?
|
[
{
"answer": "The 25c denomination is historically derived from the usage of the Spanish colonial 8 reale or \"Spanish Dollar\" coin in British colonial America. The Spanish Dollar (and smaller denominations such as the 4 reale, 2 reale or quarter dollar, 1 reale, and half reale) is estimated by some to have comprised half the coinage in colonial America so it's importance cannot be understated. As well as being minted in smaller denominations the the 8 reale coin was cut into halves, quarters, and eights to provide smaller change. The tradition of the \"quarter\" continued in 1796 when the first was minted for the US and has continued to date. Interestingly the USA toyed with a 20 cent coin from 1875 to 1878 but it failed to take off. A further point of interest is that a reale was known colloquially as a \"bit\" and a quarter \"two bits\", a term the quarter is sometimes known by.\n\nAs to the denominations of the notes, the 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 notes follow the 1-2-5-10-20-50 number series. The US does have $2 note but it is not generally used. This number series uses prime factors of 10 (1x10, 2x5, 5x2, 10x1, 10x2, 10x5) which makes arithmetic easier. \n\nA lot of other countries use this same numbering system for both their coins and notes, for example Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and the Euro circulating countries. Countries such as Canada and Panama still have a 25c coin but use the 1-2-5 numbering system for their bank notes.\n\n**References**\n\nJordan, Lewis - Colonial Coins - Section Contents. 2016. Colonial Coins - Section Contents. [ONLINE] Available at: _URL_0_. [Accessed 24 January 2016]\n\nColin Bruce, 2007. Standard Catalog of World Coins 1701-1800. 4 Edition. Krause Publications\n\nColin Bruce, 2010. 2011 Standard Catalog of World Coins 1901-2000. Thirty-eighth Edition Edition. Krause Publications\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53761076",
"title": "United States two-dollar bill",
"section": "Section::::Denomination overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1443,
"text": "The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first issued in March 1862. The denomination was continuously used until 1966; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two-dollar bill was assigned to. In August 1966, the Treasury Department discontinued production of the $2 and $5 denominations of United States Notes. While the $5 denomination had long been issued simultaneously as both a Federal Reserve Note and United States Note, the $2 denomination was not immediately reassigned to the Federal Reserve Note class of United States currency and was thus fully discontinued. the Treasury cited the two-dollar note's low use as the reason for not immediately resuming use of the denomination. In 1976, production of the two-dollar denomination was resumed and the two-dollar bill was finally assigned as a Federal Reserve Note, with a new reverse design featuring John Trumbull's depiction of the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence replacing the previous design of Monticello. It has remained a current denomination since that time. It was estimated that if two-dollar notes replaced approximately half of the one-dollar notes in circulation, the federal government would be able to save about $26 million in 1976 dollars ($ adjusted for inflation) over the period from 1976 to 1981, due to reduced production, storage, and shipping costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477372",
"title": "Large denominations of United States currency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Large denominations of United States currency greater than $100 were circulated by the United States Treasury until 1969. Since then, U.S. dollar banknotes have only been issued in seven denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1469133",
"title": "Preferred number",
"section": "Section::::1–2–5 series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The denominations of most modern currencies, notably the euro and British pound, follow a 1–2–5 series. The United States and Canada follow the approximate 1–2–5 series 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 (cents), $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100. The ––1 series (… 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2.5 5 10 …) is also used by currencies derived from the former Dutch gulden (Aruban florin, Netherlands Antillean gulden, Surinamese dollar), some Middle Eastern currencies (Iraqi and Jordanian dinars, Lebanese pound, Syrian pound), and the Seychellois rupee. However, newer notes introduced in Lebanon and Syria due to inflation follow the standard 1–2–5 series instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161585",
"title": "New Zealand dollar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Introduced in 1967, the dollar is subdivided into 100 cents. Altogether there are ten denominations—five coins and five banknotes—with the smallest being the 10-cent coin. Formerly there were lower denominations, but those were discontinued due to inflation and production costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2508262",
"title": "Canadian Tire money",
"section": "Section::::Denominations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In 1958, five different denominations (composed of 5 cents, 10 cents, 25 cents, 50 cents, and $1) were issued. The revision of 1962 included the introduction of four lower values (1 to 4 cents), and 12 higher denominations, including 35 and 60 cents. A sequence of six denominations was introduced in 1985 including the 3 cents, 5 cents, 10 cents, 25 cents, 40 cents, 50 cents, and $1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2011",
"title": "Comparison of American and British English",
"section": "Section::::Numerical expressions.:Monetary amounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Monetary amounts in the range of one to two major currency units are often spoken differently. In AmE one may say \"a dollar fifty\" or \"a pound eighty\", whereas in BrE these amounts would be expressed \"one dollar fifty\" and \"one pound eighty\". For amounts over a dollar an American will generally either drop denominations or give both dollars and cents, as in \"two-twenty\" or \"two dollars and twenty cents\" for $2.20. An American would not say \"two dollars twenty\". On the other hand, in BrE, \"two-twenty\" or \"two pounds twenty\" would be most common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477355",
"title": "United States one hundred-dollar bill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "The United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) is a denomination of United States currency. The first United States Note with this value was issued in 1862 and the Federal Reserve Note version was launched in 1914, alongside other denominations. Statesman, inventor, diplomat, and American founding father Benjamin Franklin has been featured on the obverse of the bill since 1914. On the reverse of the banknote is an image of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, which has been used since 1928. The $100 bill is the largest denomination that has been printed and circulated since July 13, 1969, when the denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 were retired. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $100 bill in circulation is 90 months (7.5 years) before it is replaced due to wear and tear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xfucu
|
why gas mileage goes up the slower you go
|
[
{
"answer": "Your gas mileage depends more on the RPMs (rotations per minute) than anything. Have you ever noticed when the pedal is pushed down, the RPM meter goes up? Well, that's when more gas is spent. Because not only is gas being spent on making the wheels turn, but it's being spent on how fast the wheels turn. That's why when you put larger tires on a vehicle, it gets less gas mileage. It takes more work to get a higher RPM, because the tire is larger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How much fuel is used is directly related to how much energy it costs to move the vehicle forward. The two main forces that influence how much it energy it costs to move a vehicle forward are rollingresistance and air resistance. \n\nRolling resistance exists because gravity is pulling the car down, the car wants to move over the ground but it costs energy to do this. This is why we use wheels, they minimize rolling resistance. As long as there is gravity on earth there will be rolling resistance, no matter how smooth the road and the tires are. \n\nAir resistance is caused by the air that you are pushing as you drive. In the vacuum of space where there are almost no particles in the air and there is no gravity to pull you down, something can keep moving for a long time. Down here on earth, the air that you are pushing away slows the car down. This costs a lot of energy. \n\n\nSo, here is the kicker. It turns out that when you measure air resistance, it goes up exponentially the faster you go. This is counter-intuitive because it feels like going twice as fast would cost twice as much energy. However, it's closer to something like four times more energy to go twice as fast. Rolling resistance goes up almost linearly, but air resistance goes up exponentially as you speed up. \n\nThat means that the faster you go, the worse your mileage gets. You probably would get the best mileage if you drive very slowly. \n\nEdit: Small corrections.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Each car is a little different but there are two things to consider: Air resistance and RPM.\n\nAir resistance doesn't go up at a constant pace, the resistance going 20 mph is not double the resistance going 10 mph, it much higher. And the faster you go, the more air tries to stop you moving. So the difference between going 55 mph and 65 mph looks small from inside the car, but it makes a big big difference to the air hitting the car.\n\nRPM is how fast your engine is spinning, not how fast your wheels are spinning. When you change gears as you go faster, the engine can start spinning more slowly because the gear connecting the engine to the wheels changed. The amount of gas the engine uses is mostly based on how much the engine is spinning so when the gear changes and the engine slows down you get more mileage. \n\nEach car is a little bit different, some are affected by wind more because they are boxy, and not all cars have the same kind of engine or gear. But, **the statistical average is that the most efficient speed for a car is 53 mph**. For some cars it's more, some it's less, but that is the rough average. \n\nThis is because **53 mph is around when most cars hit the most efficient part of their last gear**, which is the most efficient gear for maintaining speed. In the last gear, the car covers the most distance per rotation of the engine, making MPG higher by covering more miles. To make the car go faster in it's last gear you have to make the engine go faster and that uses more gas. \n\nAnd 53 mph is also about the time most cars start have **wind resistance increase dramatically**. The difference between 53 and 58 mph is huge compared to say 33 and 38. More wind means more energy needed means the engine works harder.\n\nEach car is different, but most are within a few miles of that target. Unless you have a specialty car (BMW has a much higher \"peak efficiency\" speed for example) it might be different but chances are it's around 53 mph and it's for the two reasons above. Hope that was like-you're-five enough.\n\nEdit: On a side note if you want to increase fuel economy, drive calmly and avoid sudden anything. Sudden stops slow you down more than gradual stops (which means more acceleration), sudden turns slow you down more than gradual turns, and gradual acceleration uses less gas than sudden acceleration. Also try whenever safe and possible to not accelerate up hills, it uses so much more gas than accelerating before the hill and maintaining the speed up the hill. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54560065",
"title": "Traffic in Metro Manila",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Environmental effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The more cars there are on the road, the more pollution is emitted into the air. This is because motor vehicles are one of the main sources of pollution in the world. On the other hand, there is an inverse relationship between the moving speed of traffic and air pollution. The slower the traffic moves, the more pollution is emitted into the air. This is due to the fact that cars burn the most fuel when accelerating to get up to speed. More gas is used up whenever there is an on and off pressing on the gas and break pedals during traffic jams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "35833553",
"title": "Air pollution in India",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Traffic congestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Traffic congestion reduces average traffic speed. At low speeds, scientific studies reveal, vehicles burn fuel inefficiently and pollute more per trip. For example, a study in the United States found that for the same trip, cars consumed more fuel and polluted more if the traffic was congested, than when traffic flowed freely. At average trip speeds between 20 and 40 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emission was twice as much as when the average speed was 55 to 75 kilometers per hour. At average trip speeds between 5 and 20 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emissions were 4 to 8 times as much as when the average speed was 55 to 70 kilometers per hour. Fuel efficiencies similarly were much worse with traffic congestion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23714374",
"title": "Energy conservation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Fuel economy-maximizing behaviors also help reduce fuel consumption. Among the most effective are moderate (as opposed to aggressive) driving, driving at lower speeds, using cruise control, and turning off a vehicle's engine at stops rather than idling. A vehicle's gas mileage decreases rapidly with increasing highway speeds, normally above 55 miles per hour (though the exact number varies by vehicle), because aerodynamic forces are proportionally related to the square of an object's speed (when the speed is doubled, drag quadruples). According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), as a rule of thumb, each one drives over is similar to paying an additional $0.30 per gallon for gas. The exact speed at which a vehicle achieves its highest efficiency varies based on the vehicle's drag coefficient, frontal area, surrounding air speed, and the efficiency and gearing of a vehicle's drive train and transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39144485",
"title": "Slow steaming",
"section": "Section::::Cost and benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Lowering speed reduces fuel consumption because the drag imparted by a fluid increases quadratically with increase in speed. Thus traveling twice as fast requires four times as much energy (and therefore fuel) for a given distance, which is why driving an automobile at requires less than 85% of the power required by the same automobile driving at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42997120",
"title": "Isentropic nozzle flow",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "Whenever a gas is forced through a tube, the gaseous molecules are deflected by the tube’s walls. If the speed of the gas is much less than the speed of sound, the gas density will remain constant and the velocity of the flow will increase. However, as the speed of the flow approximates the speed of sound, compressibility effects on the gas are to be considered. The density of the gas becomes position dependent. While considering flow through a tube, if the flow is very gradually compressed (i.e. area decreases) and then gradually expanded (i.e. area increases), the flow conditions are restored (i.e. return to its initial position). So, such a process is a reversible process. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, whenever there is a reversible and adiabatic flow, constant value of entropy is maintained. Engineers classify this type of flow as an \"isentropic\" flow of fluids. Isentropic is the combination of the Greek word \"iso\" (which means - same) and entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264875",
"title": "1979 oil crisis",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "As the average vehicle of the time consumed between two and three liters (about 0.5–0.8 gallons) of gasoline (petrol) an hour while idling, it was estimated that Americans wasted up to of oil per day idling their engines in the lines at gas stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37584762",
"title": "Nii Tackie Tawiah III",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "He had indicated that although every child developed by learning how to sit, crawl, walk and run, the situation in which the Gas found themselves demanded, that \"we run immediately because we are lagging behind\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
84p4gw
|
Why is the fall of the Mississippi River considered a great blow to the Confederacy?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are correct in the assertion that geographically, the Confederacy wasn't split in \"half,\" but it was irreparably split. Think of the consequences had the British been successful in controlling the entire Hudson River and split New England from the other colonies. Geographically it wasn't half, but would have been a decisive blow. \n\nVicksburg was vital for two reasons. One, it was a southern bastion that had to be taken to effectively control the River. The Union could not simply bypass it, and they couldn't ignore it, so it had to fall. Two, the Mississippi was vitally important to the transport of goods and materiel for around ten states. The Ohio, Missouri, Tennessee, and Cumberland Rivers, plus the Red River all flow into the Mississippi. Granted several parts of these were in seceded states, but goods moved to and from Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri all needed the Mississippi to move and obtain goods. Railroads were in place, but much of the midwest did not have easy access to the Great Lakes, mainly since the MS River was there to use (until it wasn't). Vicksburg was on a high bluff at a hairpin turn, and after New Orleans, Memphis, and Island No. 10 fell, Vicksburg was the last blockage to allowing Union forces and gunboats to move men and supplies to other vital areas much faster. And with complete control of the River, Richmond no longer had any real control over anything in a large section of the Confederacy. Texas did supply a large number of soldiers in the Confederate Armies, as well as being a vital route to funnel (i.e. smuggle) goods from ports in Mexico. \n\nIt's also important to remember the Mississippi River wasn't the only valuable objective. By July 1863, The Union controlled the entire Cumberland River, and the majority of the Tennessee (which is why the Emancipation Proclamation didn't cover Tennessee, as it was technically under Union control then), New Orleans, parts of North Carolina, West Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri (which had remained in the Union officially but had many occupying Confederate forces early on). In other words, Vicksburg was one of the last major waterways the Union needed to seal the fate of the Confederacy. On its own, it wasn't quite THAT important, but taken as a whole, the Confederacy was doomed by losing its rivers, the Mississippi being one of them.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4963039",
"title": "St. Louis in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "No major battles were fought in or near the city, but the Mississippi River was a vital highway during the war. Divided loyalties to the Union and Confederacy caused rifts in some families in St. Louis. This divide remained consistent throughout the entirety of the war. Though many believed in the cause of abolition, others were concerned about the economic response and potential destruction of critical infrastructure in the blossoming city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10837416",
"title": "Russian Amerika",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "The reasons for this different political environment is only hinted here and there in the story, but apparently the Point of divergence is that the Civil War started in the 1850s and resulted in a victory by the Confederacy. As a post-war consequence, the US loses all ground west of the Mississippi River as American-claimed western lands secede from the Union and create their own sovereign countries in the wake of the victorious South. With the dissolution of most of its territories and influence, the United States is reduced to a struggling collective of the Great Lake and Northeastern states surrounded by hostile and powerful neighboring countries. With its economy devastated in the aftermath of the war, the US is unable to buy Alaska from Russia, so it remains a commonwealth colony throughout the 19th and 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612097",
"title": "Battle of Island Number Ten",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The Union victory marked the first time the Confederate Army lost a position on the Mississippi River in battle. The river was now open to the Union Navy as far as Fort Pillow, a short distance above Memphis. Only three weeks later, New Orleans fell to a Union fleet led by David G. Farragut, and the Confederacy was in danger of being cut in two along the line of the river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7023",
"title": "Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::History.:Confederacy at war.:Anaconda: 1863–64.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Without an effective answer to Federal gunboats, river transport and supply, the Confederacy lost the Mississippi River following the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson in July, ending Southern access to the trans-Mississippi West. July brought short-lived counters, Morgan's Raid into Ohio and the New York City draft riots. Robert E. Lee's strike into Pennsylvania was repulsed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania despite Pickett's famous charge and other acts of valor. Southern newspapers assessed the campaign as \"The Confederates did not gain a victory, neither did the enemy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8968660",
"title": "Louisiana in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Politics and strategy in Louisiana.:Union plans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "The Union's response to Moore's leveraged secession was embodied in U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's realization that the Mississippi River was the \"backbone of the Rebellion.\" If control of the river were accomplished, the largest city in the Confederacy would be taken back for the Union, and the Confederacy would be split in half. Lincoln moved rapidly to back Admiral David Dixon Porter's idea of a naval advance up the river to both capture New Orleans and maintain Lincoln's political support; by supplying cotton to northern textile manufacturers and renewing trade and exports from the port of New Orleans. The U.S. Navy would become both a formidable invasion force and a means of transporting Union forces, along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. This strategic vision would prove victorious in Louisiana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "752072",
"title": "History of the United States (1849–1865)",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.:War in the West.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "While the Confederacy fought the Union to a bloody stalemate in the East, the Union army was much more successful in the West. Confederate insurrections in Missouri were put down by the federal government by 1863, despite the initial Confederate victory at Wilson's Creek near Springfield, Missouri. After the Battle of Perryville, the Confederates were also driven from Kentucky, resulting in a major Union victory. Lincoln once wrote of Kentucky, \"I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.\" The fall of Vicksburg gave the Union control of the Mississippi River and cut the Confederacy in two. Sherman's successes in Chattanooga and then Atlanta left few Confederate forces to resist his destruction of Georgia and the Carolinas. The so-called Dakota War broke out in Minnesota in 1862.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1615875",
"title": "Battle of Fort Davidson",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "In April 1864, the Confederacy found itself in an increasingly desperate military situation. Unable to win any decisive victories or to obtain foreign recognition, its main strategy by this point was merely to hold on and hope that enormous Union casualties might result in a war-weary Northern public voting Abraham Lincoln out of office in November. The Democratic nominee, General George B. McClellan, had seen his party adopt a plank to make peace with the South if the party were successful—a plank McClellan was forced to repudiate after the Union met with military successes that summer. However, despite the many recent Union triumphs, just one significant military disaster in that shaky autumn of 1864 could still politically embarrass Lincoln and potentially doom his reelection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
180rzy
|
the usps is struggling financially and therefore eliminating saturday deliveries, while ups and fedex are doing just fine. why doesn't the usps try and model itself after them?
|
[
{
"answer": "The USPS has a government-mandated monopoly on letter delivery, granted on the condition that they deliver to every single valid address in the country. Private carriers like FedEx and UPS can refuse to deliver to specific locations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Got it backwards, kind of. UPS, Fedex and other carriers were modeled after the USPS.\n\nAs for why the USPS is struggling, the answer is that the USPS has an albatross around its neck that nobody else has: In 2006, the Congress — *God* knows why — passed a law requiring the USPS to shovel *vast* sums of money into a fund set aside for paying retirement benefits to workers who haven't yet retired. This is the *only* reason why the USPS is losing money. If it weren't required by law to stuff all this cash under its mattress — a requirement no other enterprise *on the planet* has, and which no sane person would ever choose to do — the USPS would be back to operating close to break-even, as is appropriate for a publicly owned enterprise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something else I haven't seen mentioned yet is that FedEx and UPS also charge more for Saturday delivery. USPS would be doing great if they could convince millions of Americans to pay a dollar a week to keep getting mail on Saturday.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The USPS is also financially struggling because it is the only government agency required to prefund pensions for each employee. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. FedEx and UPS don't offer regular delivery service on Saturdays.\n2. FedEx and UPS are not obligated (by the US Federal Government) to deliver letters to rural/residential addresses at the lowest imaginable prices. Their minimums start around $8 for most rural deliveries, and usually hit double that amount for even the smallest parcels.\n3. The USPS is being forced (again by the Gub'ment) to pre-fund the retirement pensions for ALL employees, for the next 75 years. The USPS is the *(edit:) second* largest employer in the United States, and this burdon to prefund those accounts at an accelerated rate has broken their backs. They would be solvent if it weren't for this pre-funding requirement.\n4. The volume of mailings have gone *down* exponentially, over time, with the advent of electronic documentation, signatures, and even advertising.\n\n*edit: my claim the USPS is largest employer is disputed. Wiki and other articles cite 574,000 employees. While USPS says 546,000. This places them at second, right after Walmart.* ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "its illegal for the USPS to compete in the market in many ways because it is run by the government, changing this would have to ultimately be passed by congress who have been at a near standstill for years",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It should be mentioned that the USPS will continue package deliveries on Saturday because that is still profitable. It is only shutting down Saturday mail deliveries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All this, also:\n\n > Other Innovative Foreign Postal Programs: In addition to offering hybrid mail services, the foreign postal services studied by the GAO have partnered with retail facilities like grocery and drug stores to offer postal services, including parcel pickup. Along with being more numerous and more conveniently located than post offices, the retail facilities are open longer hours. In many cases, the postal services are owned and operated by the retail partners, thus reducing costs for the postal services. From 12% (Switzerland) to 98% (Germany) of the foreign postal services' facilities are now owned and staffed by their private retail partners.\n\nUSPS has all these awesome locations where people flock to every single day. Why not take advantage of this? Sell other items-- prepaid phone cards, etc.\n\nHOWEVER, we do have something to be proud of:\n\n > Efficiency may not be the first word that comes to mind when Americans think of the USPS, but U.S. mail carriers are better at using their limited resources than any of their counterparts, according to OSC's study. In one year, America's mailmen and women delivered 268,894 letters and 2,633 parcels per carrier -- more than any other country -- to 151 million addresses. All told, the USPS accounts for 40 percent of the world's mail volume (yes, that figure counts your Victoria's Secret catalogues). And despite complaints about customer service, when researchers in a different study tested 159 countries' post offices on how fast an average letter sent to a fake address would be returned, the United States also came in first.\n\nSupporting sources:\n_URL_0_\n_URL_2_\n_URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a The Economist story on how the post office is unique in that it charges a flat rate no matter the distance (within US, charges are by weight) and that was something private enterprise just wouldn't be able to do. I can't be arsed to find it though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Don't FEDEX and UPS use the USPS for faster delivery of many of their parcels????????????/\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's struggling because it's been under attack via \"oversight\" since the 70's and every few years some chucklehead gets it into his politically driven noggin that he's going to \"fix\" it's issues. This usually means that someone notices that the independent arm of the government has alot of money tied up in pensions/benefits and they want to soak it for whatever they can. \n\nThe easiest way to explain why the USPS is having financial issues is the PAEA which has been noted but the second easiest is how the mail carriers get paid. \n\nYour average mail-man/women/alien gets paid against a chart scale. That scale is defined by mail volume per route against costs of delivery per route. Each route is designated, metered and logged for mileage, time and whether or not it's rural or urban. \nSounds simple right?\n\nWrong. \n\nHere's why... Mail volume is estimated in \"counts\" these counts used to happen when you would get a good median; a high volume like December against a lower volume like July. This got changed a few years back and now they happen in May and October (IIRC) both lower months. Now, that would shift the ledger a little if that was the only thing that happened during counts but every mail carrier I know will tell you 'plain as day', that during Counts, mail(particularly pre-paid and bulk mail like catalogues and adverts but just about anything if there's a goal in mind) is held at the distribution centers to be delivered after the Count. That is unless there is a national conspiracy of retailers to not send bulk mail during count events which is really tin foil hat territory.\n \nChanging the counts and holding bulk mail lowers the overall mail volume and shows a lower expense on your USPS costs ledger which means the cost of sending a piece of paper from Maine to Hawaii stays low rather than inflating to cover the actual costs. \n\nThe other way they cut corners is in the way rural route carriers are paid. Most rural carriers use their own vehicles and are reimbursed a portion of their costs. *A portion* not all of them, because when a route is Metered by a guy that drives it once in a Honda Civic he's not going to get the same results as the guy who actually delivers it. Most rural carriers need a 4x4 SUV to deal with the terrain/weather and have enough cargo space to carry everything. That means that the carrier actually has higher costs than the projected costs done by the Metering. This again shifts the numbers in the ledger to show lower overhead but it negatively affects the people actually doing the work and costs them money out of pocket to deliver your mail. \n\nFor every Mail carrier there are two Substitutes who get paid on a per run basis. Don't worry...they don't' affect the bottom line...or didn't until someone decided that Saturday was meant for fighting and they dropped the pay rates for Subs. They not only dropped the rates for subs, they changed how they classified subs and the ones that made more were given a choice to run mandatory routes 2 or 3 days a week at a lower wage or be let go. While the ones that were paid less, or were only available certain days, were told to kick bricks. This has led to a huge issue between the regular carriers and the subs because they're currently losing tons of Substitute Carriers. This means if your mail man is sick you might not get mail until he's better. If it's something serious like cancer you might not get Gramma's brithday card with $5 in it for a month or two. That's until they can trick someone into delivering it or you trot your happy ass down to the post office to pick it up. \n\nThe big issue is the bottom line. The people in charge of oversight want smaller costs and the people directly under them are responsible for destroying a fantastic institutional means of communication by purposefully altering costs analysis to meet a political demand instead of raising the costs to the consumers and re-obtaining solvency. \nNeither wind nor rain nor sleet nor commonsense can overcome bureaucratic confunglery.\n\nEdit: IF you find something I'm incorrect on let me know. My info is all from chatting up Carriers I've known. \nEdit 2: Formatting & Such ;)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FedEx sends around 1/3 of their shipments by USPS so that's a hard business model for the USPS to follow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FedEx and UPS are for-profit institutions. USPS is not. When funding gets cut for the USPS, they can't simply raise the prices on other aspects of their business model to compensate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "UPS and FedEx raise rates yearly....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The USPS is like a 20-year old Chinese guy. He moved out and has to make his own money, but at the same time, he can't make any decisions without his parents agreement (Congress).\n\nHis parents do not give him allowance, so he has to make money working. He can't do his work well, cause his parents are basically poopooheads.\n\nAlso he's way too nice and afraid to lose his friends, so he has a piggy bank with way too much money in it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of it is that fedex & UPS are not required, by law, to deliver to the middle of bloody nowhere. The USPS, on the other hand? If your mail box meets federal regulations, they have to deliver mail/packages to you 6 (5?) days a week, or as often as it comes, whichever is less frequent.\n\nOn the other hand, UPS and FedEx can, theoretically, wait until there are enough deliveries in your area to make it worth spending the money to drive out to your area. What's more, I have seen packages that are nominally delivered by FedEx/UPS which were actually dropped off at my house (easily within a major metropolitan area) by the USPS. Apparently the shipping company handed the package off to the Post Office, and paid them to do the final delivery. USPS don't have that option.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also because the USPS is not allowed to make a profit. They are so cheap that UPS and Fedex often have USPS transit their shipments as much as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591",
"title": "United States Postal Service",
"section": "Section::::Universal service obligation and monopoly status.:Competitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages. Due to the postal monopoly, they are not allowed to deliver non-urgent letters and may not directly ship to U.S. Mail boxes at residential and commercial destinations. However, both companies have transit agreements with the USPS in which an item can be dropped off with either FedEx or UPS who will then provide shipment up to the destination post office serving the intended recipient where it will be transferred for delivery to the U.S. Mail destination, including Post Office Box destinations. These services also deliver packages which are larger and heavier than USPS will accept. DHL Express was the third major competitor until February 2009, when it ceased domestic delivery operations in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591",
"title": "United States Postal Service",
"section": "Section::::Budget.:Revenue decline and planned cuts.:Internal streamlining and delivery slowdown.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "On December 5, 2011, the USPS announced it would close more than half of its mail processing centers, eliminate 28,000 jobs and reduce overnight delivery of First-Class Mail. This will close down 252 of its 461 processing centers. (At peak mail volume in 2006, the USPS operated 673 facilities.) As of May 2012, the plan was to start the first round of consolidation in summer 2012, pause from September to December, and begin a second round in February 2014; 80% of first-class mail would still be delivered overnight through the end of 2013. New delivery standards were issued in January 2015, and the majority of single-piece (not presorted) first-class mail is now being delivered in two days instead of one. Large commercial mailers can still have first-class mail delivered overnight if delivered directly to a processing center in the early morning, though as of 2014 this represented only 11% of first-class mail. Unsorted first-class mail will continued to be delivered anywhere in the contiguous United States within three days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591",
"title": "United States Postal Service",
"section": "Section::::Employment in the USPS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 303,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 303,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Though the USPS employs many individuals, as more Americans send information via email, fewer postal workers are needed to work dwindling amounts of mail. Post offices and mail facilities are constantly downsizing, replacing craft positions with new machines and consolidating mail routes through the MIARAP (Modified Interim Alternate Route Adjustment Process) agreement. A major round of job cuts, early retirements, and a construction freeze were announced on March 20, 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77543",
"title": "FedEx",
"section": "Section::::Political donations and lobbying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "According to the Center for Responsive Politics, FedEx Corp is the 21st largest campaign contributor in the United States. The company has donated over $21 million since 1990, 45% of which went to Democrats and 55% to Republicans. Strong ties to the White House and members of Congress allow access to international trade and tax cut rebates as well as the rules of the business practices of the United States Postal Service. In 2001, FedEx sealed a $9 billion deal with the USPS to transport all of the post office's overnight and express deliveries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591",
"title": "United States Postal Service",
"section": "Section::::Governance and organization.:Privatization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "On December 17, 2017, President Donald Trump criticized the postal service's relationship with Amazon. In a post on Twitter, he stated: \"Why is the United States Post Office, which is losing many billions of dollars a year, while charging Amazon and others so little to deliver their packages, making Amazon richer and the Post Office dumber and poorer? Should be charging MUCH MORE!\" (Although according to Amazon, the Postal Service makes a profit from its contract with the company and, according to a New York Times fact-checking report, parcel shipping is a growth area for the Postal Service and not a factor in the agency's overall lack of profitability.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17786265",
"title": "National Rural Letter Carriers' Association",
"section": "Section::::NRLCA-PAC.:Privatization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "On December 17, 2017, President Donald Trump criticized the postal service's relationship with Amazon. In a post on Twitter, the President state: “Why is the United States Post Office, which is losing many billions of dollars a year, while charging Amazon and others so little to deliver their packages, making Amazon richer and the Post Office dumber and poorer? Should be charging MUCH MORE!” On June 21, 2018, the President proposed a sweeping government reorganization that would sharpen the focus on workforce training, consolidate government-assistance programs and shrink federal agencies. As part of this proposal, he recommended restructuring the postal service with an eye toward privatization. According to his proposal, privatization would cut costs and give the financially burdened agency greater flexibility in adjusting to the digital age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591",
"title": "United States Postal Service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The USPS as of 2017 has 644,124 active employees and operated 211,264 vehicles in 2014. The USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price and quality. The USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked \"U.S. Mail\" and personal letterboxes in the United States, but now has to compete against private package delivery services, such as United Parcel Service and FedEx.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
642def
|
how can someone open a credit card under my name.
|
[
{
"answer": "Did he actually open it under your name? If he did, you would see the bank summary and transactions as far as I know. He probably added you as an authorized card holder to one of his accounts. I have cards from my parents that are like that",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you are describing sounds your uncle opened a credit card account for himself, then added you as an authorized user.\n\nIt's his card and his credit, you just get to use it. That's a pretty generous uncle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "A credit card issuing company, such as a bank or credit union, enters into agreements with merchants for them to accept their credit cards. Merchants often advertise which cards they accept by displaying acceptance marks – generally derived from logos – or this may be communicated in signage in the establishment or in company material (e.g., a restaurant's menu may indicate which credit cards are accepted). Merchants may also communicate this orally, as in \"We take (brands X, Y, and Z)\" or \"We don't take credit cards\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The credit card issuer issues a credit card to a customer at the time or after an account has been approved by the credit provider, which need not be the same entity as the card issuer. The cardholders can then use it to make purchases at merchants accepting that card. When a purchase is made, the cardholder agrees to pay the card issuer. The cardholder indicates consent to pay by signing a receipt with a record of the card details and indicating the amount to be paid or by entering a personal identification number (PIN). Also, many merchants now accept verbal authorizations via telephone and electronic authorization using the Internet, known as a card not present transaction (CNP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364578",
"title": "Identity document",
"section": "Section::::National policies.:Asia.:Taiwan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The Identification Card contains the holder's photo, ID number, Chinese name, and (Minguo calendar) date of birth. The back of the card also contains the person's registered address where official correspondence is sent, place of birth, and the name of legal ascendant(s) and spouse (if any).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1953222",
"title": "Cash advance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Under card scheme rules, a credit card holder presenting an accepted form of identification must be issued a cash advance over the counter at any bank which issues that type of credit card, even if the cardholder cannot give their PIN.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23984599",
"title": "Bulgarian identity card",
"section": "Section::::Physical appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The back side of the identity card contains the cardholder's family name, place of birth, permanent address, height, and eye colour, as well as the place where the card was issued together with the date of issue. At the bottom there is a machine-readable zone according to ICAO specifications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3708321",
"title": "3-D Secure",
"section": "Section::::General criticism.:Verifiability of site identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Some card issuers also use activation-during-shopping (ADS), in which cardholders who are not registered with the scheme are offered the opportunity of signing up (or forced into signing up) during the purchase process. This will typically take them to a form in which they are expected to confirm their identity by answering security questions which should be known to their card issuer. Again, this is done within the iframe where they cannot easily verify the site they are providing this information to—a cracked site or illegitimate merchant could in this way gather all the details they need to pose as the customer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4297321",
"title": "Bank card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Physically, a bank card will usually have the client's name, the issuer's name, and a unique card number printed on it. It will have a magnetic strip on the back enabling various machines to read and access information. Depending on the issuing bank and the preferences of the client, this may allow the card to be used as an ATM card, enabling transactions at automatic teller machines; as debit card, linked to the client's bank account and able to be used for making purchases at the point of sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dx15q
|
How did Werner Van Braun feel about being taken to the US?
|
[
{
"answer": "German scientists were taken to some sanatorium at Gorodomlya island at Seligyor lake, they lived there much more comfortably than most of Soviet scientists. They actually had made a contract to work there and were allowed to take with them wives (or mistresses) and children. German engineers were paid quite well and worked in USSR till 1951-1953.\n\nThese 150 German persons helped a lot in copying V-2 rocket and building Kapustin Yar launch site. Impression of V-2 made Soviet researchers change priorities from cruise rockets to ballistic rockets (even Korolyov worked on winged cruise missiles before the war).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13921852",
"title": "Redstone Test Stand",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Von Braun and members of his team decided to surrender to the United States military to ensure they were not captured by the advancing Soviets or shot by the Nazis to prevent their capture. They came to the United States via Operation Paperclip. The Army first assigned the Germans to teach German missile technology, assist with the launching of captured V-2's, and continue rocket research as part of the Hermes project at Fort Bliss, Texas and White Sands Proving Grounds\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33783",
"title": "Wernher von Braun",
"section": "Section::::American career.:U.S. Army career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "On June 20, 1945, the U.S. Secretary of State approved the transfer of von Braun and his specialists to the United States; however, this was not announced to the public until October 1, 1945. Von Braun was among those scientists for whom the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA) arguably falsified employment histories and expunged NSDAP memberships. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33783",
"title": "Wernher von Braun",
"section": "Section::::Career in Germany.:Arrest and release by the Nazi regime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Von Braun had been under SD surveillance since October 1943. A report stated that he and his colleagues Riedel and Gröttrup were said to have expressed regret at an engineer's house one evening that they were not working on a spaceship and that they felt the war was not going well; this was considered a \"defeatist\" attitude. A young female dentist who was an SS spy reported their comments. Combined with Himmler's false charges that von Braun was a communist sympathizer and had attempted to sabotage the V-2 program, and considering that von Braun regularly piloted his government-provided airplane that might allow him to escape to England, this led to his arrest by the Gestapo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11130373",
"title": "Otto Braun (communist)",
"section": "Section::::Soviet period in the 1940s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "In 1939 Braun arrived in the Soviet Union. At the time, that was a very dangerous place for foreign Communists, many of whom – including German Communists – were imprisoned, tortured or killed by Joseph Stalin's secret police (NKVD), despite being completely loyal to the revolutionary cause and having often undergone persecution for its sake in their own countries. Braun managed to avoid such a fate, though he did face some political difficulties immediately upon his arrival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11786129",
"title": "Magnus von Braun",
"section": "Section::::Operation Paperclip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Von Braun arrived in New York on 16 November 1945 aboard the SS \"Argentina\" and was soon at work at Fort Bliss, Texas and later at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. Von Braun was interrogated as a witness for the \"Andrae\" war crimes trial in which Mittelwerk general manager Georg Rickhey was acquitted. Fort Bliss Army CIC agents believed Magnus von Braun was a \"dangerous German Nazi\", with one agent remarking, \"his type is a worse threat to security than a half a dozen discredited SS Generals.\" Soon after his arrival, he was caught trying to sell a brick of platinum he'd stolen from the base to a jeweler in El Paso. The incident was quickly hushed up, though he was informally punished by means of a terrible beating given by his brother Wernher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33783",
"title": "Wernher von Braun",
"section": "Section::::Career in Germany.:Surrender to the Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "Von Braun was briefly detained at the \"Dustbin\" interrogation center at Kransberg Castle, where the elite of the Third Reich's economy, science and technology were debriefed by U.S. and British intelligence officials. Initially, he was recruited to the U.S. under a program called Operation Overcast, subsequently known as Operation Paperclip. There is evidence, however, that British intelligence and scientists were the first to interview him in depth, eager to gain information that they knew U.S. officials would deny them. The team included the young L.S. Snell, then the leading British rocket engineer, later chief designer of Rolls-Royce Limited and inventor of the Concorde's engines. The specific information the British gleaned remained top secret, both from the Americans and other allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33783",
"title": "Wernher von Braun",
"section": "Section::::Career in Germany.:Surrender to the Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "The American high command was well aware of how important their catch was: von Braun had been at the top of the \"Black List\", the code name for the list of German scientists and engineers targeted for immediate interrogation by U.S. military experts. On June 9, 1945, two days before the scheduled handover of the Nordhausen area to the Soviets, U.S. Army Major Robert B. Staver, Chief of the Jet Propulsion Section of the Research and Intelligence Branch of the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps in London, and Lt Col R. L. Williams took von Braun and his department chiefs by Jeep from Garmisch to Munich, from where they were flown to Nordhausen; on the next day, the group was evacuated southwest to Witzenhausen, a small town in the American Zone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abpj4t
|
Is it possible to culture healthy gut bacteria outside of the body with the intention of reintroducing it?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's actually a technique called \"[poop transplant](_URL_0_)\" where they transfer poop from a na healthy person to the patient, they do this to restore the microbic biome in the patient's guts, usually is done after something nasty happened to the patient's bacteria (example: chemotherapy). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! But it is difficult to replicate the human gut in vitro. It's anaerobic, so you have to deal with that, and then a lot of the gut bacteria is dependent on the other bacteria in that community, so you have to get the balance right, and then the folds of the intestines (the tiny, tiny ones) are hard to replicate but necessary for a good replication of the conditions. However, it is possible. Just difficult!\n\nI could find some sources later, I am at work, but for now, my source is just being a microbiologist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7719976",
"title": "Lactobacillus brevis",
"section": "Section::::Biotherapies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "In addition to surviving within the gut of an organism, \"L.Brevis\" can also act to inhibit the pathogenic effects of certain gut pathogens and can also proliferate in the presence of additional bacteria. Some strains are resistant to certain antibiotics, specifically erythromycin and clindamycin. This antibiotic resistance may be helpful in maintaining a healthy gut microbiome when taking prescribed antibiotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407814",
"title": "Hygiene hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Current research suggests that manipulating the intestinal microbiota may be able to treat or prevent allergies and other immune-related conditions. Various approaches are under investigation. Probiotics (drinks or foods) have never been shown to reintroduce microbes to the gut. As yet, therapeutically relevant microbes have not been specifically identified. However, probiotic bacteria have been found to reduce allergic symptoms in some studies. Other approaches being researched include prebiotics, which promote the growth of gut flora, and synbiotics, the use of prebiotics and probiotics at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12339",
"title": "Genetically modified organism",
"section": "Section::::Bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "With greater understanding of the role that the microbiome plays in human health, there is the potential to treat diseases by genetically altering the bacteria to, themselves, be therapeutic agents. Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins. One research focus is to modify \"Lactobacillus\", bacteria that naturally provide some protection against HIV, with genes that will further enhance this protection. If the bacteria do not form colonies inside the patient, the person must repeatedly ingest the modified bacteria in order to get the required doses. Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs. There are concerns that horizontal gene transfer to other bacteria could have unknown effects. As of 2018 there are clinical trials underway testing the efficacy and safety of these treatments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14177167",
"title": "Lactobacillus fermentum",
"section": "Section::::Probiotic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The use of gut microbes as probiotics in food is aimed towards preventing and treating various health problems. Among these health problems allergies, neoplastic growth, and inflammatory bowel disease are included. Recent areas of study have focused on the influence of probiotics on metabolic functions of their host. One area has been the metabolism of cholesterol by LABs acting as probiotics. Research has shown that \"Lactobacillus\" species have been proven to remove cholesterol in vitro through various ways such as assimilation, binding to the surface cells, and incorporation into cellular membranes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21115942",
"title": "Multidrug tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Medical importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Bacterial multidrug or antibiotic tolerance poses medically important challenges. It is largely responsible for the inability to eradicate bacterial infections with antibiotic treatment. Persister cells are highly enriched in biofilms, and it has been suggested that this is the reason that makes biofilm-related diseases so hard to treat. Examples are chronic infections of implanted medical devices such as catheters and artificial joints, urinary tract infections, middle ear infections and fatal lung disease .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3135637",
"title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Direct inhibition of pathogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The gut flora community plays a direct role in defending against pathogens by fully colonizing the space, making use of all available nutrients, and by secreting compounds that kill or inhibit unwelcome organisms that would compete for nutrients with it. Disruption of the gut flora allows competing organisms like \"Clostridium difficile\" to become established that otherwise are kept in abeyance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40079354",
"title": "Lactobacillus paracasei",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The manipulation of the gut microbiota is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics are considered safe, when they are used by oral administration there is a risk of passage of viable bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract to the internal organs (bacterial translocation) and subsequent bacteremia, which can cause adverse health consequences. Some people, such as those with immune compromise, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, cardiac valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7phbwc
|
how did the notion of sharing blood with family members came about in ancient and medieval times?
|
[
{
"answer": "Even before our understanding of DNA, there was still a conception and understanding of inherited traits. At the time, the blood was considered the essence of a person's life and contained your personality.\n\nSince offspring inherited a parent's physical and behavioral traits, it is not a big leap to suggest they inherited the \"blood\" of their parents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it was pretty clear when one human being gave birth to another human being that they were related... Tracking family trees isn't super hard, and they did it for royal families pretty rigorously.\n\nIts not about dna (though in modern times we can tell it is) its purely about family relation through birth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idea of inheritance of traits are not a new thing. The understanding exactly how it works it quite new.\n\nSelective breeding of animals and plants gave been know since prehistory times. The roman had treatises written of how to selective breed animals for different purposes.\n\nThat it is the case is quite easy to observe if you have animals with short development times. Especially when the difference is the color of the fur. They also know that the same was the case for plants and humans. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "920487",
"title": "Blood brother",
"section": "Section::::Cultures.:Southeastern Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Blood brothers among larger groups were common in ancient Southeastern Europe where, for example, whole companies of soldiers would become one family through the ceremony. It was perhaps most prevalent in the Balkans during the Ottoman era, as it helped the oppressed people to fight the enemy more effectively; blood brotherhoods were common in what is today Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Republic of North Macedonia. Christianity also recognized sworn brotherhood in a ceremony (known as , in the Eastern Orthodox churches; known as in the Roman Catholic church). The tradition of intertwining arms and drinking wine is also believed to be a representation of becoming blood brothers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6970425",
"title": "Order of succession",
"section": "Section::::Monarchies and nobility.:Proximity of blood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Proximity of blood is a system wherein the person closest in degree of kinship to the sovereign succeeds, preferring males over females and elder over younger siblings. This is sometimes used as a gloss for \"pragmatic\" successions in Europe; it had somewhat more standing during the Middle Ages everywhere in Europe. In Outremer it was often used to choose regents, and it figured in some of the succession disputes over the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was also recognized in that kingdom for the succession of fiefs, under special circumstances: if a fief was lost to the Saracens and subsequently re-conquered, it was to be assigned to the heir in proximity of blood of the last fief-holder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "920487",
"title": "Blood brother",
"section": "Section::::Cultures.:Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In Asian cultures, the act and ceremony of becoming blood brothers is generally seen as a tribal relationship, that is, to bring about alliance between tribes. It was practiced for this reason most notably among the Mongols and early Chinese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4696820",
"title": "Blood is thicker than water",
"section": "Section::::Other interpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The use of the word \"blood\" to refer to kin or familial relations has roots dating back to Greek and Roman traditions. This usage of the term was seen in the English-speaking world from the late 1300s. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3997",
"title": "Blood",
"section": "Section::::Culture and religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Due to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be \"related by blood\" is to be related by ancestry or descendence, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as \"blood is thicker than water\" and \"bad blood\", as well as \"Blood brother\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633842",
"title": "Blood ritual",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "A common blood ritual is the blood brother ritual, which started in ancient Europe and Asia. Two or more people, typically male, intermingle their blood in some way. This symbolically brings the participants together into one family. This can be an unsafe practice where blood-borne pathogens are concerned; the use of safe, sterilized equipment such as a lancet can mitigate this problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1921026",
"title": "Proximity of blood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In some feudal entities, proximity of blood was a generally accepted principle. For example, according to the \"ancient custom\" () in the Duchy of Burgundy, a grandson could not take precedence over a son, and it was not even clear whether the ruler's grandson could claim precedence over the ruler's brother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ei0fs
|
Would Jesus have been educated or familiar with the teachings of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle? What do we know about the education of young Jews of his time period?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up: would Plato or Aristotle have been familiar with Genesis or Jewish thought?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the simple answer to this would be: probably not. The longer answer is, in order for Jesus to have studied these philosophers, even on a basic level, he would have had to have learned how to speak, read, and write ancient Greek, and while there is a legitimate chance he could have spoken greek, he likely didn't learn to read and write it. However, at the heart of this question is asking what Jesus' educational level, which Bart Ehrman addressed in his book, [Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium](_URL_0_) where he says: \n\n > There are multiply attested traditions that Jesus spoke Aramaic. Sometimes, for example, the Gospels quote his words directly without translating them into Greek (see Mark 5:41; 7:34; John 1:42). This would make sense contextually, since Aramaic was the normal spoken language of Jews in Palestine in the first century. Moreover, there would be no reason for anyone to make up the tradition... It is also indicated in the Gospels that Jesus could read the Scriptures in Hebrew (e.g., Luke 4:16–20; see also Mark 12:10, 26), and that he eventually became known as an interpreter of them. He is sometimes, for example, called “rabbi,” that is, “teacher” (see Mark 9:5; John 3:2). At the same time, there are independently attested traditions that those who knew about Jesus’ background were surprised by his learning (Mark 6:2; John 7:15). \n\n > **Together, these data suggest that he did learn to read as a child—that is, that he had some modicum of education—but that he was not considered an intellectual superstar by the people who knew him as he was growing up.** There are no traditions that specifically indicate that Jesus spoke Greek, although some historianshave surmised that living in Galilee, where Greek was widely known, he may have learned some. Moreover, some have suspected that he communicated with Pontius Pilate in Greek at his trial—although we will see later that it is very difficult to know exactly what happened then. At best we can say that it is at least possible that Jesus was trilingual—that he normally spoke Aramaic, that he could at least read the Hebrew Scriptures, and that he may have surmised that living in Galilee, where Greek was widely known, he may have learned some. Moreover, some have suspected that he communicated with Pontius Pilate in Greek at his trial—although we will see later that it is very difficult to know exactly what happened then. At best we can say that it is at least possible that Jesus was trilingual—that he normally spoke Aramaic, that he could at least read the Hebrew Scriptures, and that he may have been able to communicate a bit in Greek. The final point is, in my judgment, the least assured. (P. 99-100)\n\nSo we've established that he was likely literate in at least one language (which already made him elite since about 90% of the Roman occupied population during this time period was illiterate), but it was most likely primarily directed at learning and teaching about the Torah. Also, in all my studies of of the New Testament (and also classical Greece from my undergraduate degree) I've never seen anything to suggest that Jesus learned or incorporated these ideals into his teachings.\n\nAnd to answer your final question, most Jews during this time period were illiterate. We know that at least two (probably most) of Jesus' followers were illiterate and uneducated as well. Next I'd like to pull in a quote from the bible, specifically the book of Acts, where it talks about two of Jesus' most important followers.\n\n > When they saw the courage of Peter and John and realized that they were unschooled, ordinary men, they were astonished and they took note that these men had been with Jesus. (New International Version)\n\nNow the word \"unschooled\" here in the majority of ancient manuscripts is: ἀγράμματοί (agrámmatoí). This word is often translated to \"unschooled\" or \"uneducated\" but typically it directly implies that they are illiterate. That said, it would then suggest that these men didn't know how to read or write, making it likely they were never taught anything of significance about Greek Philosophers.\n\nIt's also worth noting that philosophy wouldn't have generally mattered to peasants, especially for middle of no-where towns like Nazareth. These men and women of this time period were preoccupied with following Mosaic Law and following it's teachings, so learning about other philosophies could have been sacrilegious during this time period.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5305234",
"title": "Clearchus of Soli",
"section": "Section::::Writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In another text, Josephus the first-century Romano-Jewish scholar claimed that Clearchus has reported a dialogue with Aristotle, where the philosopher states that the Hebrews were descendants of the Indian philosophers:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "914259",
"title": "George Pell",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Interfaith issues.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "In responding to a series of questions by Jones as to why God would \"randomly decide to provide proof of his existence to a small group of Jews 2,000 years ago\", Pell said that, while the intellectual life of the ancient Jews was not the equal of the surrounding great powers like Egypt, Persia and Chaldea, \"Jesus came not as a philosopher to the elite. He came to the poor and the battlers\". Jones cross examined Pell over his use of the word \"intellectual\" and Pell said (in reference to Biblical times) that \"the little Jewish people, they were originally shepherds. They were stuck. They're still stuck between these great powers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19577",
"title": "Moses",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.:Baha'i Faith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Furthermore, through the law, Moses is believed to have led the Hebrews 'to the highest possible degree of civilization at that period.’ Abdul’l-Baha asserts that the ancient Greek philosophers regarded \"the illustrious men of Israel as models of perfection.\" Chief among these philosophers, he says, was Socrates who \"visited Syria, and took from the children of Israel the teachings of the Unity of God and of the immortality of the soul.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42083642",
"title": "Israel the Grammarian",
"section": "Section::::Scholarship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "Mechthild Gretsch describes Israel as \"one of the most learned men in Europe\", and Lapidge says that he was \"an accomplished grammarian and poet, and one of the few scholars of his time to have first-hand knowledge of Greek\". Greek scholarship was so rare in western Europe during this period that in the 870s Anastasius the Librarian was unable to find anyone competent to edit his translation of a text from Greek, and had to do it himself. Israel wrote on theology and collected works of medicine. In the 940s he became interested in the Irish philosopher John Scottus Eriugena, and commented on his works in a manuscript which survives in Saint Petersburg. In a manuscript glossing Porphyry's \"Isagoge\", he recommended John's \"Periphyseon\". His redaction of a commentary on Donatus's \"Ars Minor\" was a major teaching text in the Middle Ages, and still in print in the twentieth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142703",
"title": "Torah study",
"section": "Section::::Torah study by Jewish religious movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1293,
"text": "Before the Enlightenment, virtually all Jews believed that the Torah was dictated to Moses by God. Since many parts of the Torah, specifically the laws and commandments, are written in unspecific terms, they also believed that Moses received an interpretation of the Torah that was transmitted through the generations in oral form till it was finally put in writing in the Mishnah and later, in greater detail, the Talmud. After the Enlightenment, many Jews began to participate in wider European society, where they engaged in study related to critical methods of textual analysis, including both lower and higher criticism, the modern historical method, hermeneutics, and fields relevant to Bible study such as Near Eastern archaeology and linguistics. In time the documentary hypothesis emerged from these studies. The documentary hypothesis holds that the Torah was not written by Moses, but was simply written by different people who lived during different periods of Israelite history. Some Jews adapted the findings of these disciplines. Consequently, biblical study primarily focused on the intentions of these people, and the circumstances in which they lived. This type of study depends on evidence external to the text, especially archeological evidence and comparative literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28703544",
"title": "Jesus in the Talmud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1338,
"text": "In the modern era there has been a variance of views among scholars of the possible references to Jesus in the Talmud, depending partly on presuppositions as to the extent to which the ancient rabbis were preoccupied with Jesus and Christianity. This range of views among modern scholars on the subject has been described as a range from \"minimalists\" who see few passages with reference to Jesus, to \"maximalists\" who see many passages having reference to Jesus. These terms \"minimalist\" and \"maximalist\" are not unique to discussion of the Talmud text; they are also used in discussion of academic debate on other aspects of Jewish vs. Christian and Christian vs. Jewish contact and polemic in the early centuries of Christianity, such as the \"Adversus Iudaeos\" genre. \"Minimalists\" include Jacob Z. Lauterbach (1951) (\"who recognize[d] only relatively few passages that actually have Jesus in mind\"), while \"maximalists\" include Herford (1903), (who concluded that most of the references related to Jesus, but were non-historical oral traditions which circulated among Jews), and Schäfer (2007) (who concluded that the passages were parodies of parallel stories about Jesus in the New Testament incorporated into the Talmud in the 3rd and 4th centuries that illustrate the inter-sect rivalry between Judaism and nascent Christianity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4788296",
"title": "Plato's Problem",
"section": "Section::::Plato (427 B.C. – 347 B.C.).:Socrates (470 B.C. – 399 B.C.).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "Most of Plato's philosophical ideas were communicated through his beloved teacher Socrates as a presence in the dialogues. Though there are no extant writings of Socrates known, it is evident through Plato's works that Socrates had an incredible ability to explore the most intense analytical discussions. However, for some there is controversy regarding how much historical fact can be derived from Plato's Socrates (Russell). Some doubt Socrates ever existed. Others are skeptical as to the accuracy of some of Plato's dialogues but nonetheless maintain that we can learn a substantial amount of historical information about Socrates from the dialogues. Still others take practically everything Plato wrote about Socrates as veridical history. Regardless, it may be safe to say that Plato never meant to record Socrates verbatim and it may plausibly be concluded that his general ideas were communicated in the dialogues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16sk08
|
Is it true that Kruschev wrote in his memoirs that during the Cuban Missile Crisis, JFK told him that the military might overthrow him?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi. I'm not a historian but I am reading [Tim Weiner's *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA*](_URL_1_). Here are a few thoughts.\n\n* Weiner writes about an Oval Office conversation on October 27, the day before the crisis was resolved, in which Robert McNamara burst into the office to report that the U2 was shot down over Cuba. Subsequently, the Joint Chiefs \"now strongly recommended that a full scale attack on Cuba should begin in thirty-six hours\" (chapter 19, no page on my kindle). Weiner writes of no threats of a coup or other plans to act without Kennedy's orders.\n* Kennedy may have been playing good cop (if that's an okay analogy) and trying to bluff. The goal might have been to surprise Kruschev and force him to act or else believe that the big bad US military would usurp control and strike first.\n* Kennedy may have been advised by [Allen Dulles](_URL_4_) that the Soviet intelligence on the US military wasn't very good, with the goal to mislead Kruschev and persuade him to abandon any ideas of military action. (I think [Willie Fisher](_URL_3_) was the last resident Soviet agent until the late 1960s. The Wikipedia entry for the [KGB during the Cold War](_URL_2_) depicts a depleted Soviet intelligence network in the US because of McCarthyism and other internal spy hunting in the 1950s.)\n\nEdit:\n\n* For some more context, [here](_URL_0_) is a taped telephone recording of a conversation in which JFK called Eisenhower for advice during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Neither man mentions the possibility of the military acting out of order.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6827",
"title": "Cuban Missile Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Crisis ends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Kennedy's Oval Office telephone conversation with Eisenhower soon after Khrushchev's message arrived revealed that the President was planning to use the Cuban Missile Crisis to escalate tensions with Khrushchev and in the long run, Cuba as well. The President also claimed that he thought the crisis would result in direct military confrontations in Berlin by the end of the next month. He also claimed in his conversation with Eisenhower that the Soviet leader had offered to withdraw from Cuba in exchange for the withdrawal of missiles from Turkey and that while the Kennedy Administration had agreed not to invade Cuba, they were only in process of determining Khrushchev's offer to withdraw from Turkey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3878230",
"title": "Llewellyn Thompson",
"section": "Section::::Diplomatic career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "During the Cuban Missile Crisis, he served on Kennedy's Ex-Comm (Executive Committee of the National Security Council) when the US received two messages from Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, one quite conciliatory and the other much more hawkish. Thompson advised Kennedy to react to the first message and said that the second had probably been written with Politburo input. Thompson's belief was that Khrushchev would be willing to withdraw the Soviet missiles as long as he could portray the avoidance of a US invasion of Cuba as a strategic success. He also testified before the Warren Commission, which was investigating the assassination of President Kennedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1696576",
"title": "Cuban Project",
"section": "Section::::Execution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Dominguez writes that Kennedy put a hold on Mongoose's actions as the Cuban Missile Crisis escalated (as pictures of Soviet nuclear weapons stationed on the North shore of Cuba were obtained by American intelligence via satellite reconnaissance), but \"returned to its policy of sponsoring terrorism against Cuba as the confrontation with the Soviet Union lessened.\" However, Noam Chomsky has argued that \"terrorist operations continued through the tensest moments of the missile crisis\", remarking that \"they were formally canceled on October 30, several days after the Kennedy and Khrushchev agreement, but went on nonetheless\". Accordingly, \"the Executive Committee of the National Security Council recommended various courses of action, \"including ‘using selected Cuban exiles to sabotage key Cuban installations in such a manner that the action could plausibly be attributed to Cubans in Cuba’ as well as ‘sabotaging Cuban cargo and shipping, and [Soviet] Bloc cargo and shipping to Cuba.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21131695",
"title": "Robert F. Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Attorney General of the United States (1961–1964).:Cuba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy proved himself to be a gifted politician with an ability to obtain compromises, tempering aggressive positions of key figures in the hawk camp. The trust the President placed in him on matters of negotiation was such that his role in the crisis is today seen as having been of vital importance in securing a blockade, which averted a full military engagement between the United States and Soviet Russia. His clandestine meetings with members of the Soviet Government continued to provide a key link to Nikita Khrushchev during even the darkest moments of the Crisis, in which the threat of nuclear strikes was considered a very present reality. On the last night of the crisis, President Kennedy was so grateful for his brother's work in averting nuclear war that he summed it up by saying, \"Thank God for Bobby.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211767",
"title": "Operation Anadyr",
"section": "Section::::Soviet denial and deception.:Diplomatic deception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Kennedy was not the only president whom the Soviets attempted to deceive. They also fed false information to the Communist Party of Cuba, overstating the American threat to Cuba, to persuade Cuban leaders to allow Soviet nuclear weapons to be deployed to the island. Cuban political leaders, Castro send Che Guevara to a secret meeting with Khrustev on how to proceed with the placement of the military installations and missiles. Contrary to the report the Cuban political leader knew what the Soviets were going to place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3376345",
"title": "Trollope ploy",
"section": "Section::::Examples of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "The term is sometimes used to denote President John F. Kennedy's response to Soviet Chairman Khrushchev's offers during the final days of the Cuban Missile Crisis. On October 26, 1962, Kennedy received an offer from Khrushchev in which Khrushchev offered to remove Soviet missiles from Cuba in return for a pledge from the U.S. not to invade the island. The next morning, another offer was received, this one made publicly (the first one was private), conditioning removal of the missiles from Cuba on the removal of NATO nuclear missiles in Turkey. After much discussion with his advisers (and particularly at the urging of adviser McGeorge Bundy and brother Robert Kennedy), Kennedy accepted Khrushchev's first offer while just barely acknowledging the receipt of the second one. (This was the Trollope ploy component.) Behind the scenes, however, Kennedy communicated to Khrushchev a promise to remove the Turkish missiles soon after the peaceful resolution of the crisis. The combination of offers worked, and Khrushchev, eager to end a crisis that threatened to get out of control, backed down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325329",
"title": "Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Crisis and escalation (1953–1962).:Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev's ouster.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions. He ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade, and he presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for an American pledge not to invade Cuba again. Castro later admitted that \"I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons. ... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hx8an
|
Why is a dust particle floating upward in my room?
|
[
{
"answer": "Air is still circulating in the room. If it weren't, then all of the air molecules would collect around the ground and there would be big troubles for us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2844",
"title": "Atomic theory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Brownian Motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a hypothetical mathematical model to describe it. This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, thus providing additional validation for particle theory (and by extension atomic theory).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47863549",
"title": "Powder",
"section": "Section::::Powder transport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 996,
"text": "Also, if powder particles are sufficiently small, they may become suspended in the atmosphere for a very long time. Random motion of the air molecules and turbulence provide upward forces that may counteract the downward force of gravity. Coarse granulars, on the other hand, are so heavy that they fall immediately back to the ground. Once disturbed, dust may form huge dust storms that cross continents and oceans before settling back to the surface. This explains why there is relatively little hazardous dust in the natural environment. Once aloft, the dust is very likely to stay aloft until it meets water in the form of rain or a body of water. Then it sticks and is washed downstream to settle as mud deposits in a quiet lake or sea. When geological changes later re-expose these deposits to the atmosphere, they may have already cemented together to become mudstone, a type of rock. For comparison, the Moon has neither wind nor water, and so its regolith contains dust but no mudstone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7764228",
"title": "Spinning dust",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Small dust grains are likely to have a permanent electric dipole moment μ due to the intrinsic dipole moment of molecules within the grain and uneven charge distribution. Interactions with the ambient gas and radiation field cause the grains to spin. Denoting by ω their (vector) angular velocity, and assuming the grains to be spherical for simplicity (so they are not wobbling), Larmor's formula gives the power radiated by such a rotating dipole:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52286616",
"title": "Occupational dust exposure",
"section": "Section::::Occupational Dust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Dust particles are generated by the disturbance/agitation of rock/mineral, dry grain, timber, or fiber material. The particles generated can range in size from 1μm to 100μm, and can \"become airborne depending on their origin, physical characteristics and ambient conditions.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79603",
"title": "Giotto (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Scientific results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The dust ejected was mostly only the size of cigarette smoke particles, with masses ranging from 10 ag to 0.4 g. (See Orders of magnitude (mass).) The mass of the particle that impacted \"Giotto\" and sent it spinning was not measured, but from its effects—it also probably broke off a piece of \"Giotto\"—the mass has been estimated to lie between 0.1 g and 1 g.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64204",
"title": "Kinetic theory of gases",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Under an optical microscope, the molecules making up a liquid are too small to be visible. However, the jittery motion of pollen grains or dust particles in liquid are visible. Known as Brownian motion, the motion of the pollen or dust results from their collisions with the liquid's molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633241",
"title": "Silicosis",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "When small silica dust particles are inhaled, they can embed themselves deeply into the tiny alveolar sacs and ducts in the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are exchanged. There, the lungs cannot clear out the dust by mucous or coughing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ps3sv
|
how come if a car sits for an extended period outside, the tires get dry rot, but the tires on my daily driver which sits outside all the time don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because tyres work via friction on the road. Friction generates heat. Heat cycling a tyre causes chemicals used in the curing of the tyre to be released which stops them from cracking/rotting. Tyres that do not get heat cycled by driving the chemicals in the tyre remain in one place.\n\nYou can see this on motorbikes especially well. You go out for a ride and scrub the tyres in. That is to remove slippery waxy white layer that covers a tyre when it is new from the factory.\n\nYou can go hit some corners and ride like crazy and scrub your tyres down to the edge (what bikers call chicken strips). You heat cycle your tyres. Within a few days the the edges of your tyres (the bit you do not ride on) turn blue from the curing chemicals coming out from the heat cycling. Because motorbikes don't always ride up to the limit on the bit which contacts the road you can see the blueing. \n\nCar tyres are designed to go through many heat cycles as a balance between life and grip. Racing cars and motorbikes are designed to go through limited heat cycled as they want grip.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19529508",
"title": "Flat spot",
"section": "Section::::Automobile use.:Car tires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "A literal flat spot can occur on car tires if the vehicle is parked without moving for some time (generally longer than a week), and the tire deformation at the bottom of the wheel becomes semi-permanent. The flat spot gradually relieves itself when the car is driven but can temporarily give similar symptoms to an unbalanced wheel. Cars being laid up for extended periods, or intermittently-used caravans and trailers, should be kept on axle stands (tyres not in contact with the ground) or have the tires over-inflated to eliminate or reduce this problem. \"Tire savers\", curved wheel stands, are also available for use during storage. These reduce or avoid the problem by cradling the lower part of the tire tread and preventing the usual deformation where it rests on the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "954465",
"title": "Rumble strip",
"section": "Section::::Opposition and removal.:Tire damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Motor vehicle tires can become permanently damaged if a flat occurs in the traffic lane and the driver pulls over onto the shoulder with the flat tire passing over the rumble strip. This may cause the flat tire's sidewalls to be crushed or abraded between the metal wheel rim and rumble strip high-points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10689228",
"title": "Tire maintenance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Tire maintenance for motor vehicles is based on several factors. The chief reason for tire replacement is friction from moving contact with road surfaces, causing the tread on the outer perimeter of tires to eventually wear away. When the tread depth becomes too shallow (less than 4/32 in, or 3.2 mm), the tire is worn out and should be replaced. The same wheels can usually be used throughout the lifetime of the car. Other problems encountered in tire maintenance include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3545630",
"title": "Run-flat tire",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Self-supporting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Self-supporting run-flat tires are now common on light trucks and passenger cars and typically provide for the vehicle to drive for at around . However, if the tires are subject to this kind of misuse, wheels may become damaged in the process, and repair may be impossible or unsafe, especially if the tire is punctured in the sidewall or at the edge of the tread. These tires carry a 20 to 40 percent weight penalty over similar standard tires and the thicker sidewall also means higher rolling resistance, which reduces the vehicle's fuel economy. However, the weight penalty of the individual tire is usually more than compensated by the fact that the vehicle need no longer carry a spare, as well as the equipment needed to swap in the spare. The thicker sidewall however results in more road imperfections filtering through the tire to the rim and hence to the car, which results in a harsher ride.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12990259",
"title": "Mudplaning (tires)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "To avoid mudplaning, a driver has to check whether the road is taking its first rain after a prolonged drought. This can be done by looking at weather reports of that specific area and evaluating its geographic structure. If the driver is suspicious of the hazard, it would be an option to stop the vehicle and check the tires for artifacts of dust. If the tires are getting dirty with no visible sign of the road being so, then the road may pose a mudplaning hazard. It is advisable to wait for the rain to totally remove the greasy dust on the pavement before resuming the trip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6270265",
"title": "Flat tire",
"section": "Section::::Driving or riding with a flat tire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Where a flat tire occurs, drivers are advised to slow gradually and pull off the road. Continuing to drive may damage the wheel, the hub or other parts of the vehicle. Driving with a flat tire, especially at high speeds, may result in a loss of control and an accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10689228",
"title": "Tire maintenance",
"section": "Section::::Spare tires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Some cars and trucks are equipped with run flat tires that may be driven with a puncture over a distance of 80 km to 100 km. This eliminates the need for an immediate stop and tire change or calling for roadside assistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9m1llr
|
How and why did so many of the Buddhist monastic orders and sects that took root in Asia become divorced from meditation as a cornerstone of the religion/practice?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was not the 'cornerstone' for many. There are other parts of the Noble Eightfold Path, after all. And there are many 'Dharma doors': devotion, faith, charity, compassion, ethical behavior, the path of study, the path of shamanism, the path of work, the path of yoga, lay and monastic paths, social and hermetic paths.\n\nBut one historical factor was that in the effort to establish, preserve, and study a ratified canon of scriptures, focus on the letter rather than the spirit of the teaching sometimes took precedence. Some radically meditative schools arose in response.\n\nMillennia later, Zen set root in America before most other Buddhist sects, in part because western Buddhism is made in the image of the Western mind: heavy on the intellectual, light on the empathetic and physical, and always with the question \"what's in it *for me*\" resounding Western individualism. The vernacular by which Asian language and concepts were conveyed was, back then in the 1930s to 1960s, the terminology of psychology and to a lesser degree of atomic science.\n\nBecause Westerners are head-heavy, our concept of Buddhism is head-heavy. The common person generally thinks it's about meditation, but more fundamental concepts like compassion and faith are not widely embraced, largely because that's not what our culture recognized and glommed onto when Buddhism arrived here.\n\nBut outside of pop Buddhism, there are vibrant and authentic practice centers, and second and third generations of Western Buddhist masters unfolding a uniquely Western Buddhism without losing the grounding and lifeblood of lineage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "304975",
"title": "East Asian Buddhism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "East Asian Buddhist monastics generally follow the monastic rule known as the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. One major exception is some schools of Japanese Buddhism where Buddhist clergy sometimes marry, without following the traditional monastic code or Vinaya. This developed during the Meiji Restoration, when a nationwide campaign against Buddhism forced certain Japanese Buddhist sects to change their practices. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8108570",
"title": "History of Buddhism in India",
"section": "Section::::Decline of Buddhism in India.:Causes within the Buddhist tradition of the time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Some scholars suggest that a part of the decline of Buddhist monasteries was because it was detached from everyday life in India and did not participate in the ritual social aspects such as the rites of passage (marriage, funeral, birth of child) like other religions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30994",
"title": "Theravada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modernisation and spread to the West.:Reaction against Western colonialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Buddhist revivalism has also reacted against changes in Buddhism caused by colonialist regimes. Western colonialists and Christian missionaries deliberately imposed a particular type of Christian monasticism on Buddhist clergy in Sri Lanka and colonies in Southeast Asia, restricting monks' activities to individual purification and temple ministries. Prior to British colonial control, monks in both Sri Lanka and Burma had been responsible for the education of the children of lay people, and had produced large bodies of literature. After the British takeover, Buddhist temples were strictly administered and were only permitted to use their funds on strictly religious activities. Christian ministers were given control of the education system and their pay became state funding for missions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44553440",
"title": "Religion in Inner Mongolia",
"section": "Section::::Main religions.:Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Many lamas and lay Buddhists continued to practice in secret, until the 1980s when the principle of freedom of religion was instituted in China. A slow revival began, with the reconstruction of some of the old monasteries and the establishment of new smaller temples. The revival of Buddhism has been less powerful among Southern Mongols than that among Outer Mongols (of Mongolia proper) which started in the 1990s, partly because the latter was linked to a self-conscious national-spiritual reawakening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45856",
"title": "Monastery",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In India, Buddhist monasteries gradually developed into centres of learning where philosophical principles were developed and debated; this tradition is currently preserved by monastic universities of Vajrayana Buddhists, as well as religious schools and universities founded by religious orders across the Buddhist world. In modern times, living a settled life in a monastery setting has become the most common lifestyle for Buddhist monks and nuns across the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297136",
"title": "Korean Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Suppression under the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "One of the most important reasons for the restoration of Buddhism to a position of minimal acceptance was the role of Buddhist monks in repelling the Japanese invasions of Korea, which occurred between 1592 and 1598. At that time, the government was weak from internal squabbles, and was not initially able to muster strong resistance to the incursion. The plight of the country encouraged some leaders of the sangha to organize monks into guerrilla units, which enjoyed some instrumental successes. The \"righteous monk\" (義士; \"uisa\") movement spread during this eight-year war, finally including several thousand monks, led by the aging Seosan Hyujeong (서산대사, 西山休靜; 1520–1604), a first-rate Seon master and the author of a number of important religious texts. The presence of the monks' army was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571944",
"title": "Buddhism in Bangladesh",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Buddhism in various forms appears to have been prevalent at the time of the Turkish conquest in 1202. The invading armies apparently found numerous monasteries, which they destroyed. With the destruction of centers of Buddhist learning, such as Nalanda University, Buddhism rapidly disintegrated. In subsequent centuries and up through the 1980s nearly all the remaining Buddhists lived in the region around Chittagong, which had not been entirely conquered until the time of the British Raj (1858–1947). During the 19th century, a revival movement developed that led to the development of two orders of Theravada monks, the Sangharaj Nikaya and the Mahasthabir Nikaya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8hd2y5
|
How did CollegeBoard manage to get its SAT and AP tests to be such important steps in getting into most universities in the US?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer to your question is that the College Board is the Old Boys Club in education made tangible. \n\nThe College Board (originally called the College Entrance Examination Board) is basically one of the first educational think-tanks in this country, founded in 1899 by educational leaders including Nicholas Murray Butler, future president of Columbia, with the explicit purpose of strengthening the connection between secondary and tertiary education. The Board would be joined in the educational landscape by others including The Carnegie Foundation, The Ford Foundation, and American Council on Education, all focused on \"improving\" education. Due the early leadership of Henry Chauncey, the Board gave some of their tests over to Educational Testing Services (ETS) and became a major player in the assessment of Americans - when scientific management became all the rage for schoolmen, they advocated for the new invention that was the multiple choice test. As public high schools advocated for courses for their students that would earn them college credit, similar to what some private schools did, the Board made Advanced Placement courses available to more schools. And when the gap between college acceptance criteria and high school exit skills became noticeably large, they were instrumental in making the SAT part of school culture.\n\nAP has been around since the late 1950's when it was started by a group of private schools in partnership with Harvard, Princeton, and Yale. In effect, the AP exams were about giving young men from families of means an extra leg up on their path to college. AP would expand beyond private schools and Ivy League colleges and is now a way for High School students to earn college credit. In some cases, high schools give extra weight to AP courses on a student's HS transcript, which can elevate their Grade Point Average (GPA). In addition, college admissions offices may view students who've successfully completed AP courses more favorably as it suggests they can handle college-level reading demands and rigor. \n\nThe College Board not only shepherded the Advanced Placement exams, they were also part of the evolution of the mental tests like the Army Alpha test, IQ tests, and the GRE. Chauncey, who was responsible for the College Boards' networking prowess and eventually the founding of Educational Testing Services (ETS) was deeply committed to the idea of meritocracy. Informed by the work of men like Alfred Binet and Edward Thorndike, he believed it was possible to create a test that would measure a learner's true ability and that test could help make America a true meritocracy. \n\nHe wasn't alone in this sentiment. American public schools began to adopt a philosophy of increasingly secular, liberal arts in the mid-1800's. The general goal was to provide all children (all never means all, though - mostly white children, mostly boys) could best be prepared for citizenship through a broad curriculum that touched on a variety of topics in a variety of ways, without requiring a young person commit to any particular future. This vision contrasted with the then reality of college - most East Coast colleges and universities had their own admissions exams, often very specific to the professors who worked there. By the late-1800's, the gap between college admissions criteria and high school exit skills was becoming an explicit source of frustration for schoolmen. One of the clearer examples of this involved a man who would eventually become a college president. He wanted to attend a particular university but when he arrived for the entrance exam and interview, realized his high school curriculum didn't align to what was expected and he had to spend at least a year studying with a tutor before taking their particular entrance exam. His personal experiences would be a recurring talking point at educational conferences in the early 1900's and is a compelling example of how personal a great deal of educational reform has been. This gap explicitly challenged the notion that America was a place where anyone (mostly white, mostly boys) could succeed, provided they worked hard enough. \n\nThe evolution of the SATs was the result of relationships between eugenicists and educators and there was a feedback loop between colleges, the US Army, and high schools as they developed, what they felt, were better and better tools for assessing things that were previously unknowable. Most of the leaders involved in the College Board's work were exposed to formal education from childhood, were from families with the means to provide their son with advanced education, and were white. None of the them were women. College presidents, private school headmasters, district superintendents, and leaders of groups like the College Board generally came from the same pool of East Coast educated of men, meaning those who advocated for change were typically viewing that change through a particular lens and pool of experience. That the College Board members' philosophy that tests can distinguish levels of thinking and abilities is so widely accepted today speaks to the networking that happened. \n\n\n\n___\nFurther Reading:\n[This](_URL_0_) is a pretty solid timeline of the SAT's evolution over time \n\nLemann, N. (2000). *The big test: The secret history of the American meritocracy.* Macmillan.\n\nRiccards, M. (2009). *College Board and American Higher Education*, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42816461",
"title": "SAT Subject Tests",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "Many colleges use the SAT Subject Tests for admission, course placement, and to advise students about course selection. Some colleges specify the SAT Subject Tests that they require for admission or placement; others allow applicants to choose which tests to take. Students typically choose which tests to take depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools to which they plan to apply. From their introduction in 1937 until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests, and until January 2005, they were known as SAT II: Subject Tests. They are still commonly known by these names. Every test is now a one-hour timed test. Historically, the exception to the one-hour time was the writing test, which was divided into a 20-minute essay question and a 40-minute multiple-choice section. The writing test was discontinued in January 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "225971",
"title": "Standardized test",
"section": "Section::::Educational decisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Other applications include tracking (deciding whether a student should be enrolled in the \"fast\" or \"slow\" version of a course) and awarding scholarships. In the United States, many colleges and universities automatically translate scores on Advanced Placement tests into college credit, satisfaction of graduation requirements, or placement in more advanced courses. Generalized tests such as the SAT or GRE are more often used as one measure among several, when making admissions decisions. Some public institutions have cutoff scores for the SAT, GPA, or class rank, for creating classes of applicants to automatically accept or reject.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144716",
"title": "SAT",
"section": "Section::::History.:2016 changes, including the return to a 1600-point score.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "On March 5, 2014, the College Board announced its plan to redesign the SAT in order to link the exam more closely to the work high school students encounter in the classroom. The new exam was administered for the first time in March 2016. Some of the major changes are: an emphasis on the use of evidence to support answers, a shift away from obscure vocabulary to words that students are more likely to encounter in college and career, a math section that is focused on fewer areas, a return to the 1600-point score scale, an optional essay, and the removal of penalty for wrong answers (rights-only scoring). To combat the perceived advantage of costly test preparation courses, the College Board announced a new partnership with Khan Academy to offer free online practice problems and instructional videos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144716",
"title": "SAT",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Many college entrance exams in the early 20th century were specific to each school and required candidates to travel to the school to take the tests. The College Board, a consortium of colleges in the northeastern United States, was formed in 1900 to establish a nationally administered, uniform set of essay tests based on the curricula of the boarding schools that typically provided graduates to the colleges of the Ivy League and Seven Sisters, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51036377",
"title": "U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The question of college rankings and their impact on admissions gained greater attention in March 2007, when Dr. Michele Tolela Myers (the former President of Sarah Lawrence College) shared in an op-ed that the \"U.S. News & World Report\", when not given SAT scores for a university, chooses to simply rank the college with an invented SAT score of approximately one standard deviation (roughly 200 SAT points) behind those of peer colleges, with the reasoning being that SAT-optional universities will, because of their test-optional nature, accept higher numbers of less academically capable students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449826",
"title": "U.S. News & World Report",
"section": "Section::::Rankings.:Best colleges.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The question of college rankings and their impact on admissions gained greater attention in March 2007, when Dr. Michele Tolela Myers (the former President of Sarah Lawrence College) shared in an op-ed that the \"U.S. News & World Report\", when not given SAT scores for a university, chooses to simply rank the college with an invented SAT score of approximately one standard deviation (roughly 200 SAT points) behind those of peer colleges, with the reasoning being that SAT-optional universities will, because of their test-optional nature, accept higher numbers of less academically capable students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300325",
"title": "Sarah Lawrence College",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Rankings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1497,
"text": "In 2007, some educators in the United States began to question the impact of rankings on the college admissions process, due in part to the 11 March 2007 \"The Washington Post\" article \"The Cost of Bucking College Rankings\" by Dr. Michele Tolela Myers, a former president of Sarah Lawrence College. As Sarah Lawrence College dropped its SAT test score submission requirement for its undergraduate applicants in 2003, thus joining the SAT optional movement for undergraduate admission, SLC does not have SAT data to send to \"U.S. News\" for its national survey. Of this decision, Myers states, \"We are a writing-intensive school, and the information produced by SAT scores added little to our ability to predict how a student would do at our college; it did, however, do much to bias admission in favor of those who could afford expensive coaching sessions.\" At the time, Sarah Lawrence was the only American college that completely disregarded SAT scores in its admission process. As a result of this policy, in the same \"The Washington Post\" article, Dr. Myers stated that she was informed by the \"U.S. News & World Report\" that if no SAT scores were submitted, \"U.S. News\" would \"make up a number\" to use in its magazines. She further argues that if SLC were to decide to stop sending all data to \"U.S. News & World Report\", their ranking would be artificially decreased. Sarah Lawrence College now maintains a test-optional policy, with typically over half of applicants submitting their scores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vpx6l
|
How surprising was the American military's dominance over Iraq in the Gulf War?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well for one thing, observers were looking at what seemed to be building up to a massive scale conflict and Iraq's military was certainly nothing to sneeze at. \n\nWe have the gift of hindsight and many today seem to consider Iraq's military forces as weak, incompetent or 'not standing a chance' against US/UN coalition forces both during the Gulf War and the subsequent invasion several years later.\n\nThis can be compared to the disingenuous but fairly popular idea that French military forces or Polish military forces were 'weak' because of the results of World War II. \n\nAdmittedly, I am not expert on Iraq's military forces but I have some information that can provide some insight for you while we wait for someone more qualified to answer. In all honesty, I wrestled with whether or not I should post since my limited knowledge might not be able to fully answer all your questions, but since there hasn't been an answer yet, I'll try to fill the gap for now!\n\nSo what made Iraq's military seem a dangerous and capable enemy for the UN coalition forces??\n\n**Well, for one thing Iraq had one of the largest standing armies in the world at the time of the conflict.** They theoretically could field upwards of a million personnel in their standing army and half again that many in various paramilitary groups. Of course, this was mainly on paper but it still stands that they drastically ramped up their conscription numbers and investment into the military, focusing on using any and all manpower they could find. \n\nAnd of course numbers don't mean everything, especially in a modern conflict, but the ability to maintain, supply, equip, and sustain an army of this size certainly meant something. If nothing else, Iraq had the sophistication of doctrine and infrastructure as well as command & control capability necessary to make such a large military work smoothly. \n\n**Iraq had also just come out of a long drawn out war with Iran.** There was no shortage of veterans and many of the officer corps leading Iraqi forces had cut their teeth in real actions during the Iran-Iraq War. Having a competent officer corps is essential for smooth operations. \n\nThe special forces and paramilitary units were considered fairly significant shock units that were deeply loyal to the Ba'ath Party and had seen action during the Iran-Iraq War. They had been expanded and given better equipment and apparently US military analysts expected to fight them to fight fiercely and inflict casualties even in the face of their own probable horrendous casualties. \n\nAnd of course Iraq had tons of equipment. They had over 5000 tanks, close to 1000 combat aircraft, thousands of artillery pieces and thousands more of other various AFVs. Many of their vehicles were purchased from Chinese or Russia arms makers and they were not lacking in spare parts, ammunition, maintenance crews, or fuel. The Iraqi air force was not something they could just disregard as they had proven themselves more than capable flying many missions in previous conflicts and being well trained. \n\n**The key worry coalition forces probably had was the vast array of effective anti air weaponry that the Iraqi military had.** The Iraqi forces had plenty of anti aircraft artillery (AAA), SAMs, MANPADs, etc. and the extensive AA network posed major threats. \n\n**The other major worry for coalition forces was Iraq's notorious use of chemical weapons and SCUD missiles.** There was constant worry that Iraq would use one or both, the worst case scenario being SCUDs with chemical warheads. Iraqi SCUD launchers were incredibly difficult to locate and neutralize because they would operate mostly at night, 'shoot and scoot' and during the day would be hidden in extremely effective camouflage, under bridges, inside hardened bunkers, etc. \n\nAll these things added together meant that coalition forces were expecting significant casualties, especially in losing air assets as well as fears of mass chemical attacks. \n\nSo how did coalition forces inflict such a one sided loss on the Iraqi forces?\n\nIt can be summed up in three main things. \n\n**Air superiority** \n\nThe initial air strikes that vastly reduced Iraqi ability to respond directly in the air paved the way for total aerial superiority over the skies in Kuwait. And because of the technology that the USAF fielded in stand off weaponry, it was able to negate much of the risk of flying into the extensive network of Iraqi AA defense. The effect of this cannot be overstated. Coalition air packages basically flew round the clock missions to constantly interdict Iraqi convoys, supply lines, command structures, and key infrastructure. \n\nBy the end of the conflict, many Iraqi forces simply routed because of the effect of nonstop air bombardment on morale. Many had no personal way to strike back at the aircraft and it must have felt terrifying to feel so powerless against an enemy that could blow you away with almost certainty. \n\n**Information control**\n\nCoalition forces had a massive advantage in battle intelligence over the Iraqis. Firstly, after air superiority was achieved, **air strikes immediately began to target known elements of the Iraqi command structure**. While the Iraqi military had a solid officer corps of upper ranking decision makers and generals, their lower rank officers were doctrinally inflexible and not prone to taking initiative. \n\nThis meant targeting communications and command units a priority for coalition forces, so as to 'chop off the head' of the Iraqi forces. They predicted that without clear, effective coordination from above, many Iraqi units would have their combat effectiveness drop drastically. \n\nThe other part of this was the integration of **GPS** as a standard for situational awareness and movement across the battlefield. This gave the coalition forces the ability to know in real time where their allies were and where Iraqi forces were situated, giving them the ability to track and engage enemy units at will. \n\nMeanwhile, Iraqi forces had to operate by maps, landmarks, and high command's coordination to figure out where they were and the location of enemy forces. \n\nAnd while we talk about GPS, the final big advantage for coalition forces was **technology**.\n\nAlong with GPS, US air force weaponry, avionics, and comms were simply much better than Iraqi technology. Laser guided munitions, radar missiles that eliminated SAMs, better radar, etc. \n\nCoalition tanks outclassed Iraqi tanks by a wide margin, which was more about the electronics than the thickness of armor or size of their barrels. \n\nFor example, M1 Abrams had excellent sights and gun stabilizers, along with GPS and their comms net allowed them to engage Iraqi tanks at distance and speed. Iraqi armor brigades were overwhelmed. \n\nSo yes, people were very surprised that there weren't a great deal more coalition casualties and they seemed to beat the Iraqis 'easily'. \n\nHopefully someone more informed than I comes along soon!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28618580",
"title": "Arab–American relations",
"section": "Section::::Second Persian Gulf War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The US role in the Gulf War was very significant. When Iraq decided to invade another Arab country, Kuwait, several Arab states decided to enter to free Kuwait; the US adopted these States, and headed the coalition forces, which gave the US the image of a liberator, especially among the rich Arab states of Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait. The US currently has several Military bases in these states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1041070",
"title": "Rumsfeld Doctrine",
"section": "Section::::Opposition and support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "That said, the war plan for the Iraq War led to a quick and decisive victory over one of the region's largest and best equipped military forces. Using tactics honed from those used during first Gulf War, the Balkans and Afghanistan, the U.S. led coalition's integrated forces strategy overwhelmed the Iraqi defenses using rapid deployment and engagement of military \"power\" rather than overwhelming them with overwhelming forces, or overwhelming numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29490",
"title": "Saddam Hussein",
"section": "Section::::Post-Gulf war period.:International relations and sanctions on Iraq.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "Relations between the United States and Iraq remained tense following the Gulf War. The U.S. launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad 26 June 1993, citing evidence of repeated Iraqi violations of the \"no fly zones\" imposed after the Gulf War and for incursions into Kuwait. U.S. officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the terms of the Gulf War's cease fire, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weaponry, and violating the UN-imposed sanctions. Also during the 1990s, President Bill Clinton maintained sanctions and ordered air strikes in the \"Iraqi no-fly zones\" (Operation Desert Fox), in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by political enemies inside Iraq. Western charges of Iraqi resistance to UN access to suspected weapons were the pretext for crises between 1997 and 1998, culminating in intensive U.S. and British missile strikes on Iraq, 16–19 December 1998. After two years of intermittent activity, U.S. and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001. Former CIA case officer Robert Baer reports that he \"tried to assassinate\" Saddam in 1995, amid \"a decade-long effort to encourage a military coup in Iraq.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "500609",
"title": "Al-Faw Peninsula",
"section": "Section::::British and American Occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The 1991 Gulf War was fought to the south and west of al-Faw, but the peninsula's military installations were heavily bombed by Allied forces during the conflict. The Allied forces effectively closed down all of Iraq's shipping activities, thus rendering its access to the Shatt al-Arab and the Persian Gulf useless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "598620",
"title": "Revolution in Military Affairs",
"section": "Section::::History.:Renewed interest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The United States' victory in the 1991 Gulf War renewed interest in RMA theory. In the view of RMA proponents, American dominance through superior technology emphasized how the United States' technological advances reduced the relative power of the Iraqi military, by no means a lightweight rival, to insignificance. According to Stephen Biddle, part of the growth in popularity of the RMA theory after the Gulf War was that virtually all American military experts drastically over-estimated the coalition casualty count. This led many experts to assume that their models of war were wrong—that a revolution of sorts had occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34556",
"title": "1990s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:Wars.:International wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Gulf War – Iraq was left in severe debt after the 1980s war with Iran. President Saddam Hussein accused Kuwait of flooding the market with oil and driving down prices. As a result, on 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and conquered Kuwait. The UN immediately condemned the action, and a coalition force led by the United States was sent to the Persian Gulf. Aerial bombing of Iraq began in January 1991 (see also Gulf War), and a month later, the UN forces drove the Iraqi army from Kuwait in just four days. In the aftermath of the war, the Kurds in the north of Iraq and the Shiites in the south rose up in revolt, and Saddam Hussein barely managed to hold onto power. Until the US invasion in 2003, Iraq was cut off from much of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32087",
"title": "United States Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "In 1990, Iraq invaded its smaller neighbor, Kuwait, and U.S. land forces quickly deployed to assure the protection of Saudi Arabia. In January 1991 Operation Desert Storm commenced, a U.S.-led coalition which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces. The campaign ended in total victory, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army. Some of the largest tank battles in history were fought during the Gulf war. The Battle of Medina Ridge, Battle of Norfolk and the Battle of 73 Easting were tank battles of historical significance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n1nnu
|
If I smashed my hand with a hammer, and someone cut my hand off instantly after, would I still feel the pain from the broken hand?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, you would not feel the pain from the broken hand because the pain receptors that were sending the signal that you perceive as pain are no longer attached. The signal that they send to the brain is very very fast and once they are gone that signal is terminated immediately. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Put your hand on a hot stove. Or smarter still imagine putting your hand on a hot stove. There's a looney toonesque lag between hand placement and your comical over-the-top \"OUCH!\" isn't there? Its not just that your flesh has to warm up, your pain fibers send signals over uninsulated \"unmyelinated\" nerves meaning they travel slower than the body's max of about 60 mph (which is still far from instantaneous). That being said, they still travel pretty quickly. So make sure its a friend with a sharp sword and a fast arm. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question doesn't have anything to do with Phantom Pains. I'm not sure why it's the top voted comment right now. It has everything to do with how neurons conduct impulses.\n\nWhen you smash your finger, the sensory neurons in that [dermatome](_URL_0_) are stimulated and send a signal of pain to your brain. You brain interprets the signal as pain and that's how you get the response. What you're asking is if you cut off your hand immediately after, would you still feel the pain from smashing your hand.\n\nThe answer is that it depends on if you cut off the hand before or after the signal has passed the point that you're cutting at. If the signal hasn't yet reached the point that you cut off, then it will not get to the brain, and will not be interpreted as pain. If it passes the point before you cut off the hand, it will still be interpreted.\n\nIt all depends on if you allow the signal to be sent to the brain. Hope this clears things up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, you would not feel the pain from the broken hand because the pain receptors that were sending the signal that you perceive as pain are no longer attached. The signal that they send to the brain is very very fast and once they are gone that signal is terminated immediately. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Put your hand on a hot stove. Or smarter still imagine putting your hand on a hot stove. There's a looney toonesque lag between hand placement and your comical over-the-top \"OUCH!\" isn't there? Its not just that your flesh has to warm up, your pain fibers send signals over uninsulated \"unmyelinated\" nerves meaning they travel slower than the body's max of about 60 mph (which is still far from instantaneous). That being said, they still travel pretty quickly. So make sure its a friend with a sharp sword and a fast arm. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question doesn't have anything to do with Phantom Pains. I'm not sure why it's the top voted comment right now. It has everything to do with how neurons conduct impulses.\n\nWhen you smash your finger, the sensory neurons in that [dermatome](_URL_0_) are stimulated and send a signal of pain to your brain. You brain interprets the signal as pain and that's how you get the response. What you're asking is if you cut off your hand immediately after, would you still feel the pain from smashing your hand.\n\nThe answer is that it depends on if you cut off the hand before or after the signal has passed the point that you're cutting at. If the signal hasn't yet reached the point that you cut off, then it will not get to the brain, and will not be interpreted as pain. If it passes the point before you cut off the hand, it will still be interpreted.\n\nIt all depends on if you allow the signal to be sent to the brain. Hope this clears things up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13802",
"title": "Hammer",
"section": "Section::::Ergonomics and injury risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "A hammer may cause significant injury if it strikes the body. Both manual and powered hammers can cause peripheral neuropathy or a variety of other ailments when used improperly. Awkward handles can cause repetitive stress injury (RSI) to hand and arm joints, and uncontrolled shock waves from repeated impacts can injure nerves and the skeleton. Additionally, striking metal objects with a hammer may produce small metallic projectiles which can become lodged in the eye. It is therefore recommended to wear safety glasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "522185",
"title": "Mordecai Brown",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "According to his biography, he suffered two separate injuries to his right hand. The first and most famous trauma came when he was feeding material into the farm's feed chopper. He slipped and his hand was mangled by the knives, severing much of his index finger and damaging the others. A doctor repaired the rest of his hand as best he could. While it was still healing, the injury was further aggravated by a fall he took, which broke several finger bones. They were not reset properly, especially the middle finger (see photo).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25897574",
"title": "Hand injury",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Most hand injuries are minor and can heal without difficulty. However, any time the hand or finger is cut, crushed or the pain is ongoing, it is best to see a physician. Hand injuries when not treated on time can result in long term morbidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30017281",
"title": "It Hit Me Like a Hammer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "\"It Hit Me Like a Hammer\" is a song recorded by Huey Lewis and the News and released as the second single from their album, \"Hard at Play\", in 1991. The song was co-written by band leader Huey Lewis and the songwriter/producer, Robert John \"Mutt\" Lange. Lange had previously written the band's breakthrough hit, \"Do You Believe in Love\", nearly 10 years earlier. The song peaked at No. 21 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart, and No. 10 on the Adult Contemporary chart. It was Huey Lewis and the News' last Top 40 hit in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574095",
"title": "Strike (attack)",
"section": "Section::::Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The human hand is made up of many small bones which may be damaged by heavy impact. If a hard part of the opponent's body or other hard object is inadvertently struck, the metacarpals may splay on impact and break. Boxers tape their hands so as to hold the metacarpals together and keep them from splaying. One can toughen one's bones by striking objects to induce osteoclasts (cells which remove bone) and osteoblasts (which form bone) to remodel the bone over the struck area increasing the density of bone at the striking surface. For more information on bone remodeling, see Wolff's law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3076836",
"title": "Hammer Smashed Face",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Hammer Smashed Face is the first single by Cannibal Corpse, released in 1993 through Metal Blade Records. There are two versions of the release, a single version that features the title song \"Hammer Smashed Face\" with two covers of songs by Black Sabbath and Possessed, and the EP version which includes the three tracks of the single version along with two original Cannibal Corpse tracks. The single version and the EP version both have different cover artwork.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3076836",
"title": "Hammer Smashed Face",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "\"Hammer Smashed Face\" is one of the band's most popular songs, mainly due to a shortened version appearing in the 1994 comedy film \"\". Since it is included on \"Tomb of the Mutilated\", it was banned from Germany until June 2006, when it was played at a 2006 performance at Essen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yo1gk
|
why was it a trend to add 2000 and 3000 to the end of products?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was a time when year 2000 was the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10249042",
"title": "Coaxial power connector",
"section": "Section::::Connector sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "It is quite possible that new sizes will continue to appear and disappear. One possible reason that a particular manufacturer may use a new size is to discourage use of third-party power supplies, either for technical reasons or to force use of their own accessories, or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6688374",
"title": "United States Consumer Price Index",
"section": "Section::::Perceived errors in estimation.:Perceived overestimation of inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "The Commission concluded that more than half of the overestimation was due to slow adjustments in the index to new products or changes in product quality. At that time, the weights for indices like CPI-U and CPI-W were updated only once per decade; today, they are updated in January of even-numbered years. However, even with this more frequent updates, the CPI-U and CPI-W might still be excessively slow in responding to new technologies. For example, by 1996 there were over 47 million cellular phone users in the United States, but the weights for the CPI did not account for this new product until 1998. This new product lowered costs of communication when away from the home. The commission recommended that the BLS update weights more frequently to prevent upward bias in the index from a failure to properly account for the benefits of new products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65684",
"title": "Mini",
"section": "Section::::Sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "At its peak, the Mini was a strong seller in most of the countries where it was sold, with the United Kingdom inevitably receiving the highest volumes. The 1,000,000th Mini came off the production line in 1965, with the 2,000,000th in 1969. The 3,000,000th Mini came off the production line in 1972, with the 4,000,000th in 1976.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "920901",
"title": "Software versioning",
"section": "Section::::Political and cultural significance of version numbers.:Version numbers as marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "A relatively common practice is to make major jumps in version numbers for marketing reasons. Sometimes, as in the case of dBase II, a product is launched with a version number that implies that it is more mature than it is; but other times version numbers are increased to match those of competitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36044102",
"title": "The Innovator's Dilemma",
"section": "Section::::Subject matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "For this reason, the next generation product is not being built for the incumbent's customer set and this large customer set is not interested in the new innovation and keeps demanding more innovation with the incumbent product. Unfortunately this incumbent innovation is limited to the overall value of the product as it is at the later end of the S-curve. Meanwhile, the new entrant is deep into the S-curve and providing significant value to the new product. By the time the new product becomes interesting to the incumbent's customers it is too late for the incumbent to react to the new product. At this point it is too late for the incumbent to keep up with the new entrant's rate of improvement, which by then is on the near-vertical portion of its S-curve trajectory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14564013",
"title": "16:10 aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::History.:Computer displays.:Industry moves towards 16:9 from 2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Around 2008–2010, there was a rapid shift by computer display manufacturers to the aspect ratio and by 2011 16:10 had almost disappeared from new mass market products. According to Net Applications, by October 2012 the market share of 16:10 displays had dropped to less than 23 percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "597564",
"title": "Just-noticeable difference",
"section": "Section::::Marketing applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "When it comes to product improvements, marketers very much want to meet or exceed the consumer’s differential threshold; that is, they want consumers to readily perceive any improvements made in the original products. Marketers use the JND to determine the amount of improvement they should make in their products. Less than the JND is wasted effort because the improvement will not be perceived; more than the JND is again wasteful because it reduces the level of repeat sales. On the other hand, when it comes to price increases, less than the JND is desirable because consumers are unlikely to notice it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
r8yob
|
Can electromagnetic radiation create sound?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your definitions are a little hazy. On one end of the spectrum you have radio waves (which you can't hear directly...try listening now) on the other end you have gamma rays (which silently irradiate you). However if radio waves travel through the medium of a crystal radio you can definitely hear them. There is also radiation pressure which is one of the ways it interacts with matter.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interestingly enough, you can actually achieve the opposite.\nThey've started using electromagnetic radiation (specifically TMS - noninvasively inducting a current in the brain with a magnetic field) to treat tinnitus (where you hear a persistant phantom noise) by stimulating the auditory cortex. I know you were looking more for a literal, physical world answer, but I thought it was a pretty neat, slightly relevant tangent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the Energy density is high enough, the radiation will ionized the air and you will hear and see the bang. as you will need a pulsed laser it will not be a constant sound but correlated to the frequency of the laser pulses.\n\n- > video: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "63793",
"title": "Meteoroid",
"section": "Section::::Meteors.:Effect on atmosphere.:Acoustic manifestations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Theories on the generation of these sounds may partially explain them. For example, scientists at NASA suggested that the turbulent ionized wake of a meteor interacts with Earth's magnetic field, generating pulses of radio waves. As the trail dissipates, megawatts of electromagnetic power could be released, with a peak in the power spectrum at audio frequencies. Physical vibrations induced by the electromagnetic impulses would then be heard if they are powerful enough to make grasses, plants, eyeglass frames, and other conductive materials vibrate. This proposed mechanism, although proven to be plausible by laboratory work, remains unsupported by corresponding measurements in the field. Sound recordings made under controlled conditions in Mongolia in 1998 support the contention that the sounds are real. \"(Also see Bolide.)\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41812",
"title": "Transmission medium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Electromagnetic radiation can be transmitted through an optical medium, such as optical fiber, or through twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, or dielectric-slab waveguides. It may also pass through any physical material that is transparent to the specific wavelength, such as water, air, glass, or concrete. Sound is, by definition, the vibration of matter, so it requires a physical medium for transmission, as do other kinds of mechanical waves and heat energy. Historically, science incorporated various aether theories to explain the transmission medium. However, it is now known that electromagnetic waves do not require a physical transmission medium, and so can travel through the \"vacuum\" of free space. Regions of the insulative vacuum can become conductive for electrical conduction through the presence of free electrons, holes, or ions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19820084",
"title": "Thermoacoustic imaging",
"section": "Section::::Thermoacoustic wave production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Sound, which propagates as a pressure wave, can be induced in virtually any material, including biologic tissue, whenever time-varying electromagnetic energy is absorbed. The stimulating radiation that induces these thermally generated acoustic waves may lie anywhere in the electromagnetic spectrum, from high-energy ionizing particles to low-energy radio waves. The term \"photoacoustic\" (see photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine) applies to this phenomenon when the stimulating radiation is optical, while \"thermoacoustic\" is the more general term and refers to \"all\" radiating sources, including optical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6101054",
"title": "Acoustic levitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Sometimes sound waves at ultrasonic frequencies can be used to levitate objects, thus creating no sound heard by the human ear, such as was demonstrated at Otsuka Lab, while others use audible frequencies. There are various ways of emitting the sound wave, from creating a wave underneath the object and reflecting it back to its source, to using a (transparent) tank to create a large acoustic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50265069",
"title": "Electromagnetic attack",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Electromagnetic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Electromagnetic waves are a type of wave that originate from charged particles, are characterized by varying wavelength and are categorized along the electromagnetic spectrum. Any device that uses electricity will emit electromagnetic radiation due to the magnetic field created by charged particles moving along a medium. For example, radio waves are emitted by electricity moving along a radio transmitter, or even from a satellite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7206727",
"title": "Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Acoustic radiation (sound waves) can be emitted by using the process of sound amplification based on stimulated emission of phonons. Sound (or lattice vibration) can be described by a phonon just as light can be considered as photons, and therefore one can state that SASER is the acoustic analogue of the laser.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2408",
"title": "Analytical chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Signals and noise.:Environmental noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Environmental noise arises from the surroundings of the analytical instrument. Sources of electromagnetic noise are power lines, radio and television stations, wireless devices, Compact fluorescent lamps and electric motors. Many of these noise sources are narrow bandwidth and therefore can be avoided. Temperature and vibration isolation may be required for some instruments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ycr8e
|
with websites using shortened links(reddit, youtube, twitter ect), why do they still use the full link at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's just semantic. With the long URL, you can tell what subreddit it's in and what the title of the post is. You only need the thread ID to grab the thread's data, but it doesn't mean anything to any of us because we aren't relational databases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short URL are very useful when you share them on Twitter. I think that micro blogging is the main reason why shortened URL are so common. But the long version help people to know before visiting the links.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One tells you what the link points to, the other doesn't. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has to do with search engine rankings.\n\n\nSee this for more information: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another reason I don't see mentioned is search engine optimization (SEO). You get a higher ranking for terms that are in your URL, so having a name that is meaningful to humans is going to increase your ranking when people search for those terms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24408333",
"title": "Bitly",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The company uses HTTP 301 redirects for its links. The shortcuts are intended to be permanent and cannot be changed once they are created. URLs that are shortened with the bitly service use the codice_3 domain or any other generic domain that the service offers. Information about any short bitly URL codice_4 is available at codice_5 (that is, the URL with a plus sign appended), for example codice_6.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Shortcomings.:Privacy and security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Another privacy problem is that many services' shortened URL format is small enough that it is vulnerable to brute-force search. Many people use URL shorteners when they share links to private content, and in fact many web services like Google Maps have offered automatic generation of shortened links for driving directions that reveal personal information like home addresses and sensitive destinations like \"clinics for specific diseases (including cancer and mental diseases), addiction treatment centers, abortion providers, correctional and juvenile detention facilities, payday and car-title lenders, gentlemen’s clubs, etc.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "There are several reasons to use URL shortening. Often regular unshortened links may be aesthetically unpleasing. Many web developers pass descriptive attributes in the URL to represent data hierarchies, command structures, transaction paths or session information. This can result in URLs that are hundreds of characters long and that contain complex character patterns. Such URLs are difficult to memorize, type-out or distribute. As a result, long URLs must be copied-and-pasted for reliability. Thus, short URLs may be more convenient for websites or hard copy publications (e.g. a printed magazine or a book), the latter often requiring that very long strings be broken into multiple lines (as is the case with some e-mail software or internet forums) or truncated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "On Twitter and some instant-messaging services, there is a limit to the number of characters a message can carry however, Twitter now shortens links automatically using its own URL shortening service, , so there is no need to use a separate URL shortening service just to shorten URLs in a tweet. On other such services, using a URL shortener can allow linking to web pages which would otherwise violate this constraint. Some shortening services, such as , , and can generate URLs that are human-readable, although the resulting strings are longer than those generated by a length-optimized service. Finally, URL shortening sites provide detailed information on the clicks a link receives, which can be simpler than setting up an equally powerful server-side analytics engine, and unlike the latter, does not require any access to the server.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Expiry and time-limited services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "A permanent URL is not necessarily a good thing. There are security implications, and obsolete short URLs remain in existence and may be circulated long after they cease to point to a relevant or even extant destination. Sometimes a short URL is useful simply to give someone over a telephone conversation for a one-off access or file download, and no longer needed within a couple of minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2003680",
"title": "TinyURL",
"section": "Section::::Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Short URL aliases are seen as useful because they are easier to be written down, remembered or distributed. They also fit in text boxes with a limited number of characters allowed. Some examples of limited text boxes are IRC channel topics, email signatures, microblogs, certain printed newspapers (such as \".net\" magazine or even \"Nature\"), and email clients that impose line breaks on messages at a certain length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4142564",
"title": "HTML email",
"section": "Section::::Security vulnerabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "HTML allows a link to be displayed as arbitrary text, so that rather than displaying the full URL, a link may show only part of it or simply a user-friendly target name. This can be used in phishing attacks, in which users are fooled into believing that a link points to the website of an authoritative source (such as a bank), visiting it, and unintentionally revealing personal details (like bank account numbers) to a scammer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r3y2y
|
From an infantryman's perspective, what war from the beginning of the 20th century to the present has been the most horrific?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this will be almost a matter of taste. In chronological order, and taking no stance on which one is worst:\n\n* The Boer war is notoriously the last in which the British Army suffered more casualties from disease than from combat. Also where concentration camps were invented, although this perhaps didn't bother the average infantryman too much. \n\n* The Great War is perhaps not quite as bad as its reputation, but still, it was genuinely awful. Mud, rats, charging into machine guns, living in the trenches for months on end waiting for the shell that would finish you - perhaps it has been exaggerated, but still, it's all *true*. Also of note for the near impossibility of getting medical help if you were wounded between the trench lines. NB: No antibiotics, lots of muddy battlefields. Widespread use of chemical weapons by both sides.\n\n* WWII, well, what can one say? You asked about infantrymen, so I'll leave the Holocaust out of it. But at least on the Eastern Front, things were pretty grim all around. Being taken prisoner - and let's note, neither side was that keen on prisoners - meant death by slow starvation. For the Russians, even those who survived captivity could expect some years in the Gulag. Something on the order of 80% of the Russian men born in 1923 died. \n\n* Korean War: I can't think of any area in which this one was plausibly the worst. \n\n* Vietnam: No support from home, or at least, none that was very obvious in the media. Perhaps the first unpopular war in which the soldiers could really *feel* that the home front didn't have their back. \n\n* Iran-Iraq war: Unarmed teenagers charging into minefields. 'Nuff said. \n\nOf course this is only a selection. No doubt I've missed some little hellhole in an obscure corner of Africa that's notorious for 50% of its veterans having PTSD, or something of the sort. All in all, I think I would put my money on the Great War; but there are a lot of strong contenders out there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll go for WWI, not only the living conditions in trenches were horrible but the tactics were suicidal. In \"The price of glory: Verdun 1916\" Alistair Home describes how entire French regiments were placed in trenches, whose previous occupants had been wiped out hours earlier by German artillery bombardment, just to avoid having any positions unmanned, but it was pure slaughter with no purpose. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60961312",
"title": "Treadmill of destruction",
"section": "Section::::Historical treadmill of destruction.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 2906,
"text": "World War II is a prime example of paramount number of military operations with a long history of military conflict involving 30 countries, lasting from 1939 to 1945 and being the deadliest wars, killing over 70 million people across the globe. There are many factors that contributed to World War II which were the World War I, the Great Depression, militarism, nationalism, expansionism and fascism. During the years of violence, significant amounts of physical capital were destroyed through the years of bombing and ground battles, hunger was common within Western Europe, families were separated from each other, children lost their fathers as they were sent to the army to fight the war, horrendous acts of violations were committed and because of that, political and economic systems were permanently modified. Militarisation activities in World War II changed the long term economic growth of many countries, affecting capital stock through the bombing of the environment, productive capacity which resulted in the reallocation of food and other production into military resources. The development and production of new weaponry during the war had many environmental consequences, as aircraft were used to drop highly advanced bombs such as the Fat man, which was dropped onto Hiroshima, killing 70000 people, buildings,trees, paths and contaminating the air, water, soil and food sources causing Japan to immediately surrender and ending World War II. The use of chemical weapons, aerial warfare and conflict had significant environmental impacts which caused to the depletion of global flora and fauna, as well as a reduction in species diversity, these effects of chemical weapons eventually became more deadly as more were developed and deposited in the oceans which run the risk of the corroding and leaching of harmful chemical properties they contain. In ground battles many forests were destroyed from fighting during the war as trees were cut down and blown up to clear the path for combative and strategic purposes, thus exploiting many trees. The length and the magnitude of the war had adverse effects on the environment across the globe with the mass of destructive weapons eroding the lands, buildings, pollution of the air and waters of chemical and nuclear weapons, forest, wildlife and animal habitats were ruined and alterations into atmospheric disturbances caused by the weapons of mass destruction led to climate change and weather changes. Although the war was the most horrific historical event, it played an end in the Great Depression. The unemployment rate fell from 1.9% by 1945 towards 20% of the population employed into the workforce, levels of GDP and consumption significantly increased over time due to government spending, the substantial amounts of military operations and debt financed resulted in gross debt reaching 120% of GDP and the end to excess capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849750",
"title": "List of war crimes",
"section": "Section::::1914–1918: World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "World War I was the first major international conflict to take place following the codification of war crimes at the Hague Convention of 1907, including derived war crimes, such as the use of poisons as weapons, as well as crimes against humanity, and derivative crimes against humanity, such as torture, and genocide. Before, the Second Boer War took place after the Hague Convention of 1899. The Second Boer War (1899 until 1902) is known for the first concentration camps (1900 until 1902) for civilians in the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1211527",
"title": "History of the United Kingdom during the First World War",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The horrors of the Western Front as well as Gallipoli and Mesopotamia were seared into the collective consciousness of the twentieth century. To a large extent the understanding of the war in popular culture focused on the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Historian A. J. P. Taylor argued, \"The Somme set the picture by which future generations saw the First World War: brave helpless soldiers; blundering obstinate generals; nothing achieved.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142735",
"title": "World war",
"section": "Section::::Other global conflicts.:Wars with higher death tolls than the First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The two world wars of the 20th century had caused unprecedented casualties and destruction across the theaters of conflict. There have been several wars that occurred with as many or more deaths than in the First World War (16,563,868–40,000,000), including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494870",
"title": "Historikerstreit",
"section": "Section::::The \"Historkerstreit\" in the Winter of 1986–87.:\"Der europäische Bürgerkrieg\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "BULLET::::- There were other equally horrible acts of violence in the 20th century. Some of the examples Nolte cited were the Armenian genocide, Soviet deportation of the so-called “traitor nations” like the Crimean Tatars and the Volga Germans, British “area bombing” in World War II, and American violence in the Vietnam War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18678016",
"title": "List of battles fought in Indiana",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "There have been several wars that have directly affected the region, including Beaver Wars (c 1590–1701), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), King George's War (1744–1748), French and Indian War (1754–1763), American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), Tecumseh's War (1811–1812), War of 1812 (1812–1814), and the American Civil War (1860–1865). Later wars, including World War I and World War II led to the death of tens of thousands of Hoosiers overseas, but the American Civil War was the last war in which an actual battle occurred within Indiana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2317493",
"title": "Ernst Nolte",
"section": "Section::::The \"Historikerstreit\".:\"Der europäische Bürgerkrieg\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- There were other equally horrible acts of violence in the 20th century. Some of the examples Nolte cited were the Armenian genocide; Soviet deportations of the so-called “traitor nations,” such as the Crimean Tatars and the Volga Germans; British “area bombing” in World War II; and American violence in the Vietnam War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7zaiwr
|
Do wild animals get physical addictions to substances?
|
[
{
"answer": "They certainly *can*, though I have no benchmark for how common this is in most species.\n\nThere is plenty of documentation for various animals seeking out psychoactive substances on the semi-regular. Common ones include preferential selection of fermented fruit over newly fallen material for the purpose of getting drunk. (Or at least, that's a common conclusion for why they do it.) My understanding is that goats are especially likely to seek out anything psychoactive they can find, including hallucinogens and the like.\n\nBut these examples of drug *use* doesn't necessarily give us usable data on how many of these animals are **addicted** per se. I don't actually know of any studies that looked into that specific aspect of drug use within the animal kingdom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had a friend who did research into the genetics of addiction using mice and cocaine. The results seemed similar to human behavior: some could take it or leave it, and others would do nothing else until they wasted away and died.\n\n\nHe was heavy into cocaine himself that summer, and had a lot of guilt-filled mornings empathizing with the addicted ones ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dolphins intentionally seek out pufferfish to get high from the venom, and elephants in South Africa apparently seek out alcohol. If you want an example of the dolphins watch the documentary Spy in the Pod by BBC. It's very interesting. Are these animals addicted? I really don't know, but we do know that we're not the only species that likes to get wrecked sometimes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some most certainly do! Koalas mainly eat eucalyptus leaves and other animals don't because eucalyptus is toxic/poisonous, so the koalas are getting high from the toxins in the leaves and are so addicted they only eat eucalyptus. Dolphins will iritate pufferfish so that it inflates and will play with it, intentionally letting the pufferfish spines poke its nose to get high from the toxins produced by pufferfish. Deer, moose, and caribou will eat psychelic mushrooms. Monkeys, hares, birds, and bees well wait for fruit to over ripen and ferment to get drunk. Wallabies eat poppies, the plant thay heroin is made from, and will wander in circles and pass out. All cats, from your house cat to lions and tigers, become hyperactive after inhaling or ingesting catnip. I'm sure there's many more, but that's all I can think of right now",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37691875",
"title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity",
"section": "Section::::Research methodologies.:Animal models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Animal models, especially rats and mice, are used for many types of biological research. The animal models of addiction are particularly useful because animals that are addicted to a substance show behaviors similar to human addicts. This implies that the structural changes that can be observed after the animal ingests a drug can be correlated with an animal’s behavioral changes, as well as with similar changes occurring in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33632441",
"title": "Psychoactive drug",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34071094",
"title": "Wildlife forensic science",
"section": "Section::::Scope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "While animals and plants are the victims in the crimes of illegal wildlife trade and animal abuse, society also pays a heavy price when those crimes are used to fund illegal drugs, weapons and terrorism. Links between human trafficking, public corruption and illegal fishing have also been reported. The continued development and integration of wildlife forensic science as a field will be critical for successful management of the many significant social and conservation issues related to the illegal wildlife trade and wildlife law enforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49123213",
"title": "Commodity status of animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The commodity status of animals refers to the legal status as property of most non-human animals, particularly farmed animals, working animals and animals in sport, and their use as objects of trade. In the United States, Free-roaming animals (\"ferae naturae\") are (broadly) held in trust by the state; only if captured can be claimed as personal property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49123213",
"title": "Commodity status of animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "In commodity markets, animals and animal products are classified as soft commodities, along with goods such as coffee and sugar, because they are grown, as opposed to hard commodities, such as gold and copper, which are mined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12389604",
"title": "University of Minnesota primate research",
"section": "Section::::Drug addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Carroll's research involves training monkeys and rats — for example by restricting food intake — to self-administer drugs that humans misuse. In the experiments, the animals drink alcohol, smoke, and are given cocaine, heroin, caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol intravenously (only rats self-administer intravenously). She writes that \"several phases of the addiction process are modeled, such as acquisition, maintenance, withdrawal, craving, and relapse.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49123213",
"title": "Commodity status of animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Researchers identify viewing animals as commodities by humans as a manifestation of speciesism. The vegan and animal rights movements, chiefly the abolitionist approach, of the twentieth century calls for eliminating the commodity or property status of animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6zjmz3
|
In the 1800s in "wild west" America were there neighborhoods that people lived in similar to today? Or were there singular houses spread out randomly?
|
[
{
"answer": "The West is an enormous place so generalizations are difficult to make. That said, the majority of the region was and continues to be largely urban in its settlement. Since most people in the nineteenth century did not have a horse (contrary to the Hollywood-based stereotype), people had to be able to walk to work, shopping, places of worship, places of leisure, etc. This often resulted in tightly-packed houses. There was often room in the back (for an outhouse and also for a place for chickens or growing vegetables, etc., but the idea of a large yard surrounding a house and setting it away from the road is a fairly late ideal for the West.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9302708",
"title": "Neighborhoods of Hartford, Connecticut",
"section": "Section::::Southwest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "While there are houses on Fairfield Avenue that date from the nineteenth century, the majority of the single and multi-family houses in the South West neighborhood were built between the 1940s-1960s. Recognizable patterns of American vernacular architecture predominate in the South West, including small colonial revival and cape cop designs, and there is a large degree of variability in house and lot size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "116853",
"title": "Natick, Massachusetts",
"section": "Section::::Communities and neighborhoods.:Neighborhoods.:Sherwood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "One of the earliest post World War II developments in West Natick, the homes are colonial in style, with street names reminiscent of the Robin Hood legend. The homes were built in 1948 and the neighborhood remains popular due to the fact that there's no through traffic, and most of the houses have been enlarged with additions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50310081",
"title": "Architecture of Aarhus",
"section": "Section::::Districts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The oldest neighborhood is the Latin Quarter; a low, dense area with narrow, curved streets and buildings hailing back as far as the 1500s. The Latin Quarter and areas south of it delimits much of the city up to the 19th century. When the city walls were removed in 1851 the city expanded in all directions. Northwards into what became the Nørre Stenbro quarter, initially small-scale industry and small houses but in the late 1800s larger 4-5 story perimeter blocks with rental units. North-west became Vesterbro; at first villas but after 1870 many 2-3 story houses and by 1920 the first 4-5 story city blocks were built around Vesterbro Torv.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19868057",
"title": "History of Winnipeg",
"section": "Section::::Early post-Confederation Winnipeg (1870–1913).:Urban structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "With a rapidly growing population, enlarged urban area, and growing economic importance, a neighbourhood class structure began to form in the 1880s. This structure's most notable character was a general divide based on class and ethnicity between the north and south parts of the city. This began with a real estate boom in 1881 and early 1882, which resulted in the expansion of commercial uses in the centre of the city near Main Street, and significant outward expansion of residential districts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24540635",
"title": "West Side Historic District (Saratoga Springs, New York)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The development of the West Side was forged in the early years by divisions and subdivisions of the land, which created lot lines still followed by streets today. Later on, the railroad created a clear social dividing line which made the West Side the village's working-class neighborhood. The resort era also impacted the district on its fringes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1599499",
"title": "Downtown Phoenix",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Downtown.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "With the first survey of the new town, streets were laid out in a grid, with Washington Street as the main east-west thoroughfare. The north-south streets originally bore Native American tribal names, but were changed to more easily remembered numbers, with everything east of Center Street (later Central Avenue) named as streets and everything west as avenues. The town continued to grow, and was eventually incorporated as a city on February 28, 1881, centered around downtown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59770981",
"title": "La Puente Historic District",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "According to its NRHP nomination,The village of La Puente is one the best- preserved examples of a linear village—the most common village type of Hispanic settlement in New Mexico in the nineteenth century. Although the houses respond to Anglo-American attitudes by being free-standing, set back from and facing the street with ornamented porches, they are built of traditional Hispanic materials and most are composed of long files of self-contained rooms. The private courtyard spaces defined by the houses, barns and fences also continue the Hispanic tradition of combining the house and farm buildings in one unit, sometimes called the casa- corral. Among the outbuildings are some of the most outstanding and best-preserved examples of Hispanic barns in New Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ajzhw
|
Can someone elaborate on the natural gas pipelines of the Han dynasty?
|
[
{
"answer": "[You might find this interesting.](_URL_1_) Can't say I know much more than that, but I recall Needham mentioning the same thing in one of his books on China. You can download his books [here](_URL_0_) if you're interested. Sorry for the short answer and I haven't read RKG's book, but this is something right? Maybe /u/Asiaexpert can help out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22131",
"title": "Natural gas",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Natural gas was discovered accidentally in ancient China, as it resulted from the drilling for brines. Natural gas was first used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE (possibly even 1000 BCE). They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt, in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17018476",
"title": "Sichuan–Shanghai gas pipeline",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Sichuan–Shanghai gas pipeline () is a long natural gas pipeline in China. The pipeline runs from Pugang gas field in Dazhou, Sichuan Province, to Qingpu District of Shanghai. An long branch line connects Yichang in Hubei with Puyang in Henan Province. Two shorter branches are located near the Puguang gas field and one in the east near Shanghai.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8750146",
"title": "List of Chinese inventions",
"section": "Section::::Shang and later.:P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 198,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 198,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pipeline transport: The ancient Chinese made use of channels and pipe systems for public works. The Han Dynasty court eunuch Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) ordered the engineer Bi Lan to construct a series of square-pallet chain pumps outside the capital city of Luoyang. These chain pumps serviced the imperial palaces and living quarters of the capital city as the water lifted by the chain pumps was brought in by a stoneware pipe system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7634211",
"title": "Central Asia–China gas pipeline",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The Central Asia–China gas pipeline (known also as Turkmenistan–China gas pipeline) is a natural gas pipeline system from Central Asia to Xinjiang in the People's Republic of China. By connecting Turkmenistan to China’s domestic grid, this pipeline makes it possible to transport gas some 7000 km from Turkmenistan to Shanghai. More than half of Turkmen natural gas exports are delivered to China through the pipeline. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7678255",
"title": "West–East Gas Pipeline",
"section": "Section::::PetroChina Pipelines.:West–East Gas Pipeline I.:Technical features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The long pipeline runs from Lunnan in Xinjiang to Shanghai. The pipeline passes through 66 cities in the 10 provinces in China. Natural gas transported by the pipeline is used for electricity production in the Yangtze River Delta area. There is a plan to replace coal with gas in Shanghai by 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43455",
"title": "Tang dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Alchemy, gas cylinders, and air conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Ever since the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), the Chinese had drilled deep boreholes to transport natural gas from bamboo pipelines to stoves where cast iron evaporation pans boiled brine to extract salt. During the Tang dynasty, a gazetteer of Sichuan province stated that at one of these 182 m (600 ft) 'fire wells', men collected natural gas into portable bamboo tubes which could be carried around for dozens of km (mi) and still produce a flame. These were essentially the first gas cylinders; Robert Temple assumes some sort of tap was used for this device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31641740",
"title": "Science and technology of the Tang dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Alchemy, gas cylinders, and air conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Ever since the Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD), the Chinese had drilled deep boreholes to transport natural gas from bamboo pipelines to stoves where cast iron evaporation pans boiled brine to extract salt. During the Tang dynasty, a gazetteer of Sichuan province stated that at one of these 182 m (600 ft) 'fire wells', men collected natural gas into portable bamboo tubes which could be carried around for dozens of km (mi) and still produce a flame. These were essentially the first gas cylinders; Robert Temple assumes some sort of tap was used for this device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ee5ki
|
What is Mitochondrial Decay? Is this real?
|
[
{
"answer": " > His claim is that DNA decays over long periods of time and the same DNA can only be folded so many times because it deteriorates too badly.\n\nsounds like he pulled that one out of thin air. DNA in synthesized/repackaged de novo every time a cell divides.",
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{
"answer": " > I'll preface the rest of this by noting that I only have a rudimentary or intermediate understanding of genetics, which is why this is difficult for me to debate him on. His claim is that DNA decays over long periods of time and the same DNA can only be folded so many times because it deteriorates too badly. This is why he thinks that we couldn't have evolved from something else, our DNA would be too badly decayed.\n\nNo, DNA doesn't deteriorate over generations. Perhaps he was confused with telomeres on the end of chromosomes that do deteriorate leading to splices on the end of DNA. However, this deterioration occurs in individuals and is not connected at all to generations of DNA or evolution. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mitochondrial DNA decay is a weak argument against evolution. Creationists are still looking at developing sciences and demanding immediate proof for \"gaps\" in scientific knowledge. \n\nThe primary role of mitochondria is to increase the energy extraction from glucose with cellular respiration by about 16 times over anaerobic respiration. There are ~1,000 mitochondria in each cell. Each mitochondrion has its own set of DNA, which is distinct from the cell's nuclear DNA. The mitochondrial DNA is arranged in a single loop and has 180,000 times less DNA than the nuclear DNA. The mitochondria reproduce asexually, most likely by binary fission. Its DNA will change over time, just like in bacteria, and it is subject to intracellular evolution. Like some bacteria, there is evidence that mitochondria are also able to repair their DNA with DNA recombination.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis is mostly edited, since I initially didn't answer the question in order to address some misconceptions (which I am leaving below).\n\nIt took several biology courses before I had a thorough and continuous understanding of evolution from base pair and codon, to proteins and traits, to the biosphere. I'll try to be as concise as possible.\n\nDuring mitosis (eukaryotic cell division for growth and cell replacement), after initial corrections during DNA synthesis, DNA deteriorates (mutates) at a rate of about 1 in a billion base pairs per replication. With somatic cells, if the mutation is significant enough and is caught by the G2 checkpoint, the cell will initiate autolysis (self destruct), otherwise, it could lead to a cancer cell. \n\nGenerally, the mutations do not cause any significant impact on the function of the cell (genes not expressed, or mutation doesn't affect protein). DNA synthesis truncates the chromosome each time in most somatic cells by initially cutting off the telomeres (extra non-coding DNA). Eventually, the telomeres are cut off completely, and coding DNA is damaged, which leads to loss of function.\n\n\nDuring meiosis (creation of sex cells for reproduction), gametes form from stem cells that add the lost pieces of telomeres to the ends of the chromosomes, but there is still the same 1 in a billion base pair error rate.\n\nThis, as well as other sources of mutation, is the root cause for both positive and negative additions of alleles to the population/species. The significant negative additions, as judged by fitness to the environment, are eliminated by natural selection. Most new alleles cause no change in fitness, but many result in lower fitness.\n\nOn rare occurrences, positive mutations are introduced (rare), which contribute to a greater fitness to the organism with the new allele compared to the existing population. This organism with the new allele is then selected for by natural selection, and this increases the frequency of the allele in future populations. This is what is referred to as \"macroevolution\". I use quotation marks because there are differences in how this word is interpreted. I am not a creationist, but creationists have argued that the rate of additions of beneficial alleles to a species is not consistent with the result of the proposed ~2 billion years of evolution.\n\nAdditional note: microevolution is generally referred to as the change in pre-existing allele frequency (traits) in a population.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "605501",
"title": "Free-radical theory of aging",
"section": "Section::::Modifications of the free radical theory of aging.:Mitochondrial theory of aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "Mitochondrial theory of aging was first proposed in 1978, and shortly thereafter the Mitochondrial free radical theory of aging was introduced in 1980. The theory implicates the mitochondria as the chief target of radical damage, since there is a known chemical mechanism by which mitochondria can produce Reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial components such as mtDNA are not as well protected as nuclear DNA, and by studies comparing damage to nuclear and mtDNA that demonstrate higher levels of radical damage on the mitochondrial molecules. Electrons may escape from metabolic processes in the mitochondria like the Electron transport chain, and these electrons may in turn react with water to form ROS such as the superoxide radical, or via an indirect route the hydroxyl radical. These radicals then damage the mitochondria's DNA and proteins, and these damage components in turn are more liable to produce ROS byproducts. Thus a positive feedback loop of oxidative stress is established that, over time, can lead to the deterioration of cells and later organs and the entire body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32706791",
"title": "Genome instability",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Genome instability (also genetic instability or genomic instability) refers to a high frequency of mutations within the genome of a cellular lineage. These mutations can include changes in nucleic acid sequences, chromosomal rearrangements or aneuploidy. Genome instability does occur in bacteria. In multicellular organisms genome instability is central to carcinogenesis, and in humans it is also a factor in some neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or the neuromuscular disease myotonic dystrophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1401727",
"title": "Human mitochondrial genetics",
"section": "Section::::Replication, repair, transcription, and translation.:Damage and transcription error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "Mitochondrial DNA is susceptible to damage from free oxygen radicals from mistakes that occur during the production of ATP through the electron transport chain. These mistakes can be caused by genetic disorders, cancer, and temperature variations. These radicals can damage mtDNA molecules or change them, making it hard for mitochondrial polymerase to replicate them. Both cases can lead to deletions, rearrangements, and other mutations. Recent evidence has suggested that mitochondria have enzymes that proofread mtDNA and fix mutations that may occur due to free radicals. It is believed that a DNA recombinase found in mammalian cells is also involved in a repairing recombination process. Deletions and mutations due to free radicals have been associated with the aging process. It is believed that radicals cause mutations which lead to mutant proteins, which in turn led to more radicals. This process takes many years and is associated with some aging processes involved in oxygen-dependent tissues such as brain, heart, muscle, and kidney. Auto-enhancing processes such as these are possible causes of degenerative diseases including Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and coronary artery disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1401727",
"title": "Human mitochondrial genetics",
"section": "Section::::Replication, repair, transcription, and translation.:Chromosomally mediated mtDNA replication errors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "Because mitochondrial growth and fission are mediated by the nuclear DNA, mutations in nuclear DNA can have a wide array of effects on mtDNA replication. Despite the fact that the loci for some of these mutations have been found on human chromosomes, specific genes and proteins involved have not yet been isolated. Mitochondria need a certain protein to undergo fission. If this protein (generated by the nucleus) is not present, the mitochondria grow but they do not divide. This leads to giant, inefficient mitochondria. Mistakes in chromosomal genes or their products can also affect mitochondrial replication more directly by inhibiting mitochondrial polymerase and can even cause mutations in the mtDNA directly and indirectly. Indirect mutations are most often caused by radicals created by defective proteins made from nuclear DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89796",
"title": "Mitochondrial DNA",
"section": "Section::::Mutations and disease.:Relationship with aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1981,
"text": "Though the idea is controversial, some evidence suggests a link between aging and mitochondrial genome dysfunction. In essence, mutations in mtDNA upset a careful balance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and enzymatic ROS scavenging (by enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and others). However, some mutations that increase ROS production (e.g., by reducing antioxidant defenses) in worms increase, rather than decrease, their longevity. Also, naked mole rats, rodents about the size of mice, live about eight times longer than mice despite having reduced, compared to mice, antioxidant defenses and increased oxidative damage to biomolecules. Once, there was thought to be a positive feedback loop at work (a 'Vicious Cycle'); as mitochondrial DNA accumulates genetic damage caused by free radicals, the mitochondria lose function and leak free radicals into the cytosol. A decrease in mitochondrial function reduces overall metabolic efficiency. However, this concept was conclusively disproved when it was demonstrated that mice, which were genetically altered to accumulate mtDNA mutations at accelerated rate do age prematurely, but their tissues do not produce more ROS as predicted by the 'Vicious Cycle' hypothesis. Supporting a link between longevity and mitochondrial DNA, some studies have found correlations between biochemical properties of the mitochondrial DNA and the longevity of species. Extensive research is being conducted to further investigate this link and methods to combat aging. Presently, gene therapy and nutraceutical supplementation are popular areas of ongoing research. Bjelakovic et al. analyzed the results of 78 studies between 1977 and 2012, involving a total of 296,707 participants, and concluded that antioxidant supplements do not reduce all-cause mortality nor extend lifespan, while some of them, such as beta carotene, vitamin E, and higher doses of vitamin A, may actually increase mortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38828080",
"title": "Antineoplastic resistance",
"section": "Section::::Acquired resistance.:Genetic causes.:Genome alterations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Genomic instability can occur when the replication fork is disturbed or stalled in its migration. This can occur with replication fork barriers, proteins such as PTIP, CHD4 and PARP1, which are normally cleared by the cell´s DNA damage sensors, surveyors, and responders BRCA1 and BRCA2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3285684",
"title": "Ancient DNA",
"section": "Section::::Problems and errors.:Degradation processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Research into the decay of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA in Moa bones has modelled mitochondrial DNA degradation to an average length of 1 base pair after 6,830,000 years at −5 °C. The decay kinetics have been measured by accelerated aging experiments further displaying the strong influence of storage temperature and humidity on DNA decay. Nuclear DNA degrades at least twice as fast as mtDNA. As such, early studies that reported recovery of much older DNA, for example from Cretaceous dinosaur remains, may have stemmed from contamination of the sample.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
dy7fos
|
how does a website know i mistyped my card number before i even click “place order”?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of the card number identifies the type of card so it can tell immediately if you have tried to put a debit card instead of a credit card (or vice versa) or if that part of the number doesn't match any type of card.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are calculations that can be done to determine if it's valid before you submit. There is a pattern that they all follow - without going into too much depth. Similar to how it knows an email address needs to have characters followed by \"@something.something\" which all emails follow. Anything that doesn't follow that pattern at least is invalid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Credit card numbers are not random. They have information that identifies the type of card and even a \"check\" digit that helps ensure that the rest of the digits were received correctly. \"Good\" payment pages will include some code that will check/validate the card number before it's even transmitted to the server to not waste the time processing a bad number.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two quick and easy ways. The first digit usually indicates what kind of card it is: Visas always start with \"4\". If you have indicated you are entering a Visa, but the first number is a \"3\", they know you've made a mistake.\n\nThe other way is the last number is a check digit. You can look up the exact formula, but the idea is you take the first number, multiply by the second number, take the rightmost digit from that and add the 3rd digit, and so on down the line. If the last digit doesn't make what the formula says it should be, you have a problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* the first one or two numbers identify the type of card (Visa, MC, Amex, etc), it is obvious if you don't have a valid value for those\n* the next few digits identify the bank (Chase, Citibank, BoA), and again only certain values are valid\n* most cards have 16 digits, but Amex only has 15 and Diner's Club and Carte Blanche have 14\n* the last digit of the card is a usually checksum, a digit computed from the other numbers, if you get a digit wrong, the checksum won't match up...this is probably the most common way bad numbers are rejected",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75710",
"title": "Cheating in poker",
"section": "Section::::Skilled methods.:Marked cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Marked cards are printed or altered so that the cheater can know the value of specific cards while only looking at the back. Ways of marking are too numerous to mention, but there are certain broad types. A common way of marking cards involves marks on a round design on the card so as to be read like a clock (an ace is marked at one o'clock, and so on until the king, which is not marked). Shading a card by putting it in the sun or scratching the surface with a razor are ways to mark an already printed deck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29382312",
"title": "Place card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Place cards also serve the function of identification of those who may otherwise be unknown to one another. Once taken by the respective guests, they are placed at the assigned seat, and once there, this enables others to identify the person sitting in that seat by name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24879",
"title": "Telephone card",
"section": "Section::::Stored-value phone cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Once connected to the access number, the account is identified by keying in a PIN (the most popular method) or by swiping a card with embedded chip or magnetic stripe. After validation the balance remaining on the card may be announced, and the desired number may be keyed in. The available minutes may be announced, and the call is connected. Many cards make a verbal announcement if credit is running out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849185",
"title": "Wizard (card game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "After looking at their cards, starting with the player to the dealer's left, each player states how many tricks he believes he will take, from zero to the number of cards dealt. This is recorded on a score pad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2370017",
"title": "Self-working magic",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Now, put the 1st card face up, the 2nd face down. They will find no cards. Say that is OK, we will keep going. Pick up the face-down deck and keep going. Do it again, and again. They will never see their card. Stop when only 3 cards are left. And say, gee—only 3 cards left. Turn them over, and there are their 3 cards. It works every single time. Sometimes, you can arrange it so that they do not know that they had to memorize the cards after writing them down. They may pick the wrong cards. Show them that they picked the wrong cards by looking at their paper. They will think the trick is over. Then, reveal the correct 3 cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39852019",
"title": "Key Ring (software)",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Cards are stored by either scanning the barcode on the back of the card or manually typing in the UPC number. The app alerts users when one of the loyalty programs they are a member of has an offer or coupon available. Rewards points earned by the user are kept track of within the loyalty card feature as well. Users can share loyalty and membership cards with other users as long as they are registered in Key Ring. Weekly Sales Circulars are digitized, allowing users to view what they would normally find in a newspaper on their smartphone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1183874",
"title": "Rummy",
"section": "Section::::Basic rummy.:Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In other variations, such as rummy 500 and treppenrommé, discards are placed so that all the cards are visible. At the beginning of his or her turn, a player may take any card from the discard pile, so long as they also pick up all the cards that are on top of it, and the last card picked up is played immediately. If only picking up the top card, the player must keep it and discard a different card from their hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
164oie
|
How do molecules such as ATP, mRNA and proteins, transport around the cell?
|
[
{
"answer": "The simple answer is [diffusion](_URL_1_). An easy, somewhat intuitive, non-thermodynamics way to think about it is to take some food coloring and put a drop of it in a glass of water. After a while the entire glass will be that color. The molecules of the food coloring spread throughout the water.\n\nThe way things get to \"where they are supposed to go\" is that they get 'stuck' there once they get there. Going back to the food coloring analogy, if the food coloring was \"supposed to go to the surface of the glass\" then molecules in the coloring would stick to the glass. Eventually the water would be mostly clear and the glass would become colored.\n\nDiffusion is sometimes also called \"random walk\" or [\"brownian motion\"](_URL_2_). The idea of random walk until being captured (binding to a target) and then trapped in a new space is sometimes called brownian ratcheting (I don't like the wikipedia page on this, so here's a different link that I think is a bit more clear: _URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Proteins bind a host of other proteins that both direct their transport and physically move them throughout the cell. Freshly translated proteins are loaded into little structures known as vesicles, these vesicles are bound by 'motor' proteins that physically walk up and down long polymerised tracks known as microtubules that extend throughout the cell. In this manner proteins can be delivered to the area of the cell in which they are required. Each protein normally contains a short sequence of its amino acid sequence that acts a barcode, letting the transport machinery know where it's supposed to go. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "529974",
"title": "Mediated transport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Mechanism of transport. A molecule will bind to a transporter protein, altering its shape. The change of shape or other added substances such as ATP will, in turn, cause the transport protein to alter its shape and release the molecule onto the other side of the cell membrane. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8714830",
"title": "Mitochondrial membrane transport protein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Mitochondrial membrane transport proteins are proteins which exist in the membranes of mitochondria and which serve to transport molecules and other factors such as ions into or out of the organelles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14131321",
"title": "KPNA3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "The transport of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells is mediated by the nuclear pore complex (NPC) which consists of 60–100 proteins and is probably 120 million daltons in molecular size. Small molecules (up to 70 kD) can pass through the nuclear pore by nonselective diffusion; larger molecules are transported by an active process. Most nuclear proteins contain short basic amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals (NLSs). KPNA3, encodes a protein similar to certain nuclear transport proteins of Xenopus and human. The predicted amino acid sequence shows similarity to Xenopus importin, yeast SRP1, and human RCH1 (KPNA2), respectively. The similarities among these proteins suggests that karyopherin alpha-3 may be involved in the nuclear transport system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "609808",
"title": "Kinesin",
"section": "Section::::Cargo transport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "In the cell, small molecules, such as gases and glucose, diffuse to where they are needed. Large molecules synthesised in the cell body, intracellular components such as vesicles and organelles such as mitochondria are too large (and the cytosol too crowded) to be able to diffuse to their destinations. Motor proteins fulfill the role of transporting large cargo about the cell to their required destinations. Kinesins are motor proteins that transport such cargo by walking unidirectionally along microtubule tracks hydrolysing one molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) at each step. It was thought that ATP hydrolysis powered each step, the energy released propelling the head forwards to the next binding site. However, it has been proposed that the head diffuses forward and the force of binding to the microtubule is what pulls the cargo along. In addition viruses, HIV for example, exploit kinesins to allow virus particle shuttling after assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14149205",
"title": "KPNA5",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The transport of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells is mediated by the nuclear pore complex (NPC) which consists of 60-100 proteins and is probably 120 million daltons in molecular size. Small molecules (up to 70 kD) can pass through the nuclear pore by nonselective diffusion; larger molecules are transported by an active process. Most nuclear proteins contain short basic amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals (NLSs). KPNA5 protein belongs to the importin alpha protein family and is thought to be involved in NLS-dependent protein import into the nucleus\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158011",
"title": "Lipid bilayer",
"section": "Section::::Transport across the bilayer.:Endocytosis and exocytosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1293,
"text": "Some molecules or particles are too large or too hydrophilic to pass through a lipid bilayer. Other molecules could pass through the bilayer but must be transported rapidly in such large numbers that channel-type transport is impractical. In both cases, these types of cargo can be moved across the cell membrane through fusion or budding of vesicles. When a vesicle is produced inside the cell and fuses with the plasma membrane to release its contents into the extracellular space, this process is known as exocytosis. In the reverse process, a region of the cell membrane will dimple inwards and eventually pinch off, enclosing a portion of the extracellular fluid to transport it into the cell. Endocytosis and exocytosis rely on very different molecular machinery to function, but the two processes are intimately linked and could not work without each other. The primary mechanism of this interdependence is the large amount of lipid material involved. In a typical cell, an area of bilayer equivalent to the entire plasma membrane will travel through the endocytosis/exocytosis cycle in about half an hour. If these two processes were not balancing each other, the cell would either balloon outward to an unmanageable size or completely deplete its plasma membrane within a short time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529981",
"title": "Membrane transport protein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "A membrane transport protein (or simply transporter) is a membrane protein involved in the movement of ions, small molecules, or macromolecules, such as another protein, across a biological membrane. Transport proteins are integral transmembrane proteins; that is they exist permanently within and span the membrane across which they transport substances. The proteins may assist in the movement of substances by facilitated diffusion or active transport. The two main types of proteins involved in such transport are broadly categorized as either \"channels\" or \"carriers\". The solute carriers and atypical SLCs are secondary active or facilitative transporters in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
iw3or
|
The need for air conditioners to have a solid barrier between inside and outside...
|
[
{
"answer": "An AC doesn't make \"cold\" out of nothing. In reality there is no such thing as making cold. What it does is separate hot from cold. So cold air comes out one side, and hot air comes out the other. If there is no barrier. the inefficiencies of the whole process would actually make the room hotter.\n\nTL;DR - It would be like pooping on the floor instead of in the toilet - the waste has to go somewhere",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "AC units don't \"make cold,\" they pull warm air out of the room. The hot air comes out the back leaving the room colder. Unless the back is not in the room the net effect would be to warm the room up!\n\nTell her to put her hand round the back of a fridge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(someone much better then I in thermodynamics can give a scientific response)\n\nSimple explanation:\n\nImagine you have a bucket filled with water and a pump. If you wanted to pump the water out of the bucket you'd want the output to be *outside* of the bucket not inside. Otherwise your spending a lot of energy to move the water around inside the bucket. Now imagine the AC is the pump and the water is \"heat\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1683711",
"title": "Hermetic seal",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Some buildings designed with sustainable architecture principles may use airtight technologies to conserve energy. Under some low energy building, passive house, low-energy house, self-sufficient homes, zero energy building, and superinsulation standards, structures must be more air-tight than other lesser standards. Air barriers are not effective if construction joints or service penetrations (holes for pipes, etc.) are not sealed. Airtightness is a measure of the amount of warm (or cool) air that can pass through a structure. Mechanical ventilation system can recover heat before discharging air externally. Green buildings may include windows that combine triple-pane insulated glazing with argon or krypton gas to reduce thermal conductivity and increase efficiency. In landscape and exterior construction projects, airtight seals may be used to protect general services and landscape lighting electrical connections/splices. Airtight implies both waterproof and vapor-proof.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57169",
"title": "Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Air conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and humidity control for all or part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would work against the system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions. Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into the indoor heat exchanger section, creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can usually be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about 10%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4655742",
"title": "Economizer",
"section": "Section::::HVAC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "A building's HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) system can make use of an air-side economizer to save energy in buildings by using cool outside air as a means of cooling the indoor space. When the temperature of the outside air is less than the temperature of the recirculated air, conditioning with the outside air is more energy efficient than conditioning with recirculated air. When the outside air is both sufficiently cool and sufficiently dry (depending on the climate) the amount of enthalpy in the air is acceptable and no additional conditioning of it is needed; this portion of the air-side economizer control scheme is called \"free cooling\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3457359",
"title": "Superinsulation",
"section": "Section::::Retrofits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "A vapor permeable building wrap on the outside of the original wall helps keep the wind out, yet allows the wall assembly to dry to the exterior. Asphalt felt and other products such as permeable polymer based products are available for this purpose, and usually double as the Water Resistant Barrier / drainage plane as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31387682",
"title": "Dynamic insulation",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "As air flows inwards through the insulation it picks up, via the insulation fibres, the heat that is being conducted to the outside. Dynamic insulation is thus able to achieve the dual function of reducing the heat loss through the walls and/or roof whilst at the same time supplying pre-warmed air to the indoor spaces. Dynamic insulation would appear, therefore, to overcome the major disadvantage of airtight envelopes which is that the quality of the indoor air will deteriorate unless there is natural or mechanical ventilation. However, dynamic insulation also requires mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) in order to recover the heat in the exhaust air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21779320",
"title": "Rainscreen",
"section": "Section::::The rainscreen system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "In a rainscreen the air gap allows the circulation of air on the moisture barrier. (These may or may not serve as a vapour barrier, which can be installed on the interior or exterior side of the insulation depending on the climate). This helps direct water away from the main exterior wall which in many climates is insulated. Keeping the insulation dry helps prevent problems such as mold formation and water leakage. The vapour-permeable air/weather barrier prevents water molecules from entering the insulated cavity but allows the passage of vapour, thus reducing the trapping of moisture within the main wall assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6900318",
"title": "Building insulation",
"section": "Section::::Materials.:Conductive and convective insulators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Bulk insulators block conductive heat transfer and convective flow either into or out of a building. The denser a material is, the better it will conduct heat. Because air has such low density, air is a very poor conductor and therefore makes a good insulator. Insulation to resist conductive heat transfer uses air spaces between fibers, inside foam or plastic bubbles and in building cavities like the attic. This is beneficial in an actively cooled or heated building, but can be a liability in a passively cooled building; adequate provisions for cooling by ventilation or radiation are needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bfekp4
|
why iron is considered the most 'stable' element. wouldnt helium or the inert gases be it?
|
[
{
"answer": "It’s a different kind of stable. Helium is stable since it doesn’t react with other elements, while iron is stable in the way that if you have a single iron atom, it isn’t going to fall apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Helium and the noble gases are stable in that they don't want to make friends with other atoms and form molecules because their electron shells are already full and perfect\n\nIron is stable in that it takes the most amount of energy to change its nucleus out of all the atoms.\n\nYou get energy out of fusing atoms together until they get up to Iron at which point it takes more energy to ram the extra parts into the nucleus than you'll get back out. The same goes for fission, splitting things larger than iron will give off energy because they move to a more stable state and don't need all that energy anymore, but once you hit iron it'll take more energy to split it than you'll get back out.\n\nThe electrons around an iron nucleus want to make friends, but the protons and neutrons in the iron nucleus have the perfect amount of friends and don't want any more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35544208",
"title": "Iron hydride",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Because of the common occurrence of those two elements in the universe, possible compounds of hydrogen and iron have attracted attention. A few molecular compounds have been detected in extreme environments (such as stellar atmospheres) or detected in small amounts at very low temperatures. The two elements form a metallic alloy above 35000 atmospheres of pressure, that has been advanced as a possible explanation for the low density of Earth's \"iron\" core. However those compounds are unstable when brought to ambient conditions, and eventually decompose into the separate elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392828",
"title": "Abundance of the chemical elements",
"section": "Section::::Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "In general, elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1012996",
"title": "Helium-4",
"section": "Section::::Stability of the He-4 nucleus and electron shell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "All heavier elements - including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or other life - have thus had to be produced, since the Big Bang, in stars which were hot enough to fuse not just hydrogen (for this produces only more helium), but to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe's ordinary matter — nearly all the ordinary matter that isn't hydrogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11960507",
"title": "Iron peak",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "For elements lighter than iron on the periodic table, nuclear fusion releases energy. For iron, and for all of the heavier elements, nuclear fusion consumes energy. Chemical elements up to the iron peak are produced in ordinary stellar nucleosynthesis, with the alpha elements being particular abundant. Some heavier elements are produced by less efficient processes such as the r-process and s-process. Elements with atomic numbers close to iron are produced in large quantities in supernova due to explosive oxygen and silicon fusion, followed by radioactive decay of nuclei such as Nickel-56. On average, heavier elements are less abundant in the universe, but some of those near iron are comparatively more abundant than would be expected from this trend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21140",
"title": "Noble gas",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.:Configuration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45452439",
"title": "Helium compounds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Helium is the most unreactive element, so it was commonly believed that helium compounds do not exist at all. Helium's first ionization energy of 24.57 eV is the highest of any element. Helium has a complete shell of electrons, and in this form the atom does not readily accept any extra electrons or join with anything to make covalent compounds. The electron affinity is 0.080 eV, which is very close to zero. The helium atom is small with the radius of the outer electron shell at 0.29 Å. The atom is very hard with a Pearson's hardness of 12.3 eV. It has the lowest polarizability of any kind of atom. However very weak van der Waals forces exist between helium and other atoms. This force may exceed repulsive forces. So at extremely low temperatures helium may form van der Waals molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961303",
"title": "Messier 34",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The average proportion of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium is termed the metallicity by astronomers. This is expressed by the logarithm of the ratio of iron to hydrogen, compared to the same proportion in the Sun. For M34, the metallicity has a value of [Fe/H] = +0.07 ± 0.04. This is equivalent to a 17% higher proportion of iron compared to the Sun. Other elements show a similar abundance, with the exception of nickel which is underabundant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dr9lx
|
is there an actual law stating that the opposite genders aren't allowed to go into the other's restroom in a public space, or is it just a common courtesy being practiced?
|
[
{
"answer": "AFAIK, there are no existing laws at the federal level that make it illegal for a man to use the women's restroom, or vice versa. It could theoretically open you up to charges of sexual harassment or something similar, but that's not really the same issue.\n\nSome members of the Florida House of Representatives did try to pass a bill earlier this year, but it failed in April. [House Bill 583](_URL_0_) would have made it a first-degree misdemeanor, with up to $1,000 in fines and a year in jail. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I dont think there's any law. I was at Belmont a few years ago to see Smarty Jones, there was a record breaking crowd there. I am in the mens room taking a pee as some nice looking well dressed girl walks right past me, as I am standing in the urinal. Jeezus that freaked me out. I told her what the hell! and she's like \"the women's room is filled\" \n\nJeezus, just try this as a man. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It would surely depend on the jurisdiction, but I am not aware of any specific laws on that. It would generally fall under the catch-all provisions of the \"disorderly conduct\" laws. Which basically means \"does the judge and/or jury think you ought not have done that\".\n\nNow if you were being lewd and lascivious, or trying to be a peeper, that could fall under other more specific laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While not the norm, there are places that simply offer \"unisex\" restrooms/locker rooms. Universities and cities with a sort of hippie/liberal/libertarian bent will tend to have more of these. They are NOT required, but do exist in some restaurants/gyms/schools/whatever. I don't mean the little one-person rooms, but the general large restrooms.\n\nYou might be taken up on a lewd/misconduct charge as it is fairly unusual for someone to use the opposite sex restroom, but afaik there is no law (unless local) against just walking into one.\n\nThat said, using the wrong public restroom in a moment of desperation is really unlikely to get you anything resembling legal trouble--perhaps someone will yell at you, but as long as you mind yourself in a stall and don't loiter the worst you'll get is some uncomfortable stares/comments, and possibly be asked to leave if the other party really pushes things. There are far easier ways to get in trouble--there was just a news article recently about someone leaving their camera phone on 'video' in a Starbucks restroom, for example. Or looking over the stalls, urinating in public, flashing in public, lewd and suggestive behavior in any number of situations...using the wrong bathroom on accident is so far down the list as to be negligible :S.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22721992",
"title": "Transgender rights in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Restroom access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "An area of legal concern for transgender people is access to restrooms which are segregated by gender. Transgender people have, in the past, been asked for legal identification while entering or using a gendered restroom. Recent legislation has moved in contradictory directions. On one hand, non-discrimination laws have included restrooms as public accommodations, indicating a right to use gendered facilities which conform with a person's gender identity. On the other, some efforts have been made to insist that individuals use restrooms that match their biological sex, regardless of an individual's gender identity or expression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5048086",
"title": "Unisex public toilet",
"section": "Section::::Legislation and country examples.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "There are unisex toilets in some public spaces in the United States. Despite this, transgender and non-conforming gendered people are still sometimes subject to visual or verbal scrutiny; this is reinforced by the architectural design and heteronormative gendered codes of conduct that are still present within the US. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35757193",
"title": "Gender policing",
"section": "Section::::Transgender, androgynous, and gender non-conforming individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "As of March 2017, 19 states (California, Nevada, Hawaii, New York, etc.), the District of Columbia and over 200 cities have enforced the anti-discrimination law toward transgender people allowing them to use any public restroom that corresponds to their gender. Also, most public accommodations changed their restroom signs where there are both genders and the text “Gender Neutral Restroom” or “Inclusive Restroom”. This law was passed because of the March 2016 “Bathroom Bill” in North Carolina. The bill argued that banning people from using public restrooms of their choice due to the biological sex listed on their birth certificates (genitals vs. gender) was unreasonable, therefore, it launched transgender rights into the national spotlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22721992",
"title": "Transgender rights in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Restroom access.:Workplace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Rights to restrooms that match one's gender identity have also been recognized in the workplace and are actively being asserted in public accommodations. In Iowa, for example, discrimination in public accommodations on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity has been prohibited by law since 2007 through the Iowa Civil Rights Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3672887",
"title": "Pangender",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "A current issue for individuals of non-binary genders is which bathroom to use in public; either the one matching society’s expectations (appearing/dressing masculine must use the male restroom; appearing/dressing feminine must use the female restroom) or the one matching their internal feelings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11352140",
"title": "North Carolina Republican Party",
"section": "Section::::Party platform.:Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "North Carolina Republicans passed laws in 2016 to order the transgender people to use their bathrooms according to their original sex. On March 23, 2016, Governor McCrory signed the Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act (commonly known as House Bill 2 or HB2), which has been described as the most anti-LGBT legislation in the United States. One contentious element of the law eliminates and forbids cities to re-establish anti-discrimination protections for gay, transgender, and intersex people. The law also legislates that in government buildings, people may only use restrooms that correspond to the sex on their birth certificates, which has been criticized because it prevents transgender people who do not or cannot alter their birth certificates from using the restroom consistent with their gender identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50078015",
"title": "Bathroom bill",
"section": "Section::::Situation in United States.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "State legislatures in Arizona, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas have proposed bills that would restrict public toilet access to access on the basis of sex as biologically defined. Some of these laws allow the establishment of single stall separate toilets that can be used by all genders/both sexes. The National Center for Transgender Equality, an LGBTQ advocacy group, calls these bills discriminatory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2grkut
|
why is it i feel more comfortable walking around while im on phone? am i alone in this?
|
[
{
"answer": "I do the same thing and have always wondered why. I always guessed that it was because it's a habit to move away from other people while talking on the phone as to not be rude. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recall this answer being helpful when this question was asked previously:\n\n > You do your best thinking when you walk. \n\n > It's well known that your mind is stimulated when you are active and upright. Many scientists and composers adopt this method for idea generation and some of the greatest artists and thinkers from Darwin to Britten were at work whilst walking:\n_URL_0_[1]\nWhen you are on the phone and focused on the conversation your mind switches to focus on the 'place' where the phone call is happening. If you watch people who are deep in conversation they will also be facing downwards and very slightly huddled. As a result you become far less aware of your surroundings and subconsciously your body is telling you to go for a wonder so you can do some thinking - as a sort of coping mechanism. It's the same as people rubbing their chin or wringing their hands in a meeting (although this is a stress relief). Stress balls also perform this task.\n\n > In the UK driving whilst on the phone causes more crashes that drink driving and is banned.\n\nCredit goes to /u/orwellsocietyguy\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My boyfriend walks when he talks on the phone, sometimes not even noticing how far he has walked. One time, he talked to his mom for half an hour, and had walked around the neighborhood, bare-footed, and hadn't even noticed. \n\nHe says that walking while on the phone is just a habit. He likes to take his conversations elsewhere, so as not to disrupt the people around him. He also feels that walking away and being by himself while on the phone allows him to give all of his attention to whomever is on the phone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're not alone. \n\nGenerally when I make a call I start walking in a circle around my apartment with my cat chasing me and grabbing at my feet (it's a game to her) for the entire call. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305854",
"title": "Text messaging",
"section": "Section::::Social effects.:Texting while walking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "Due to the proliferation of smart phone applications performed while walking, \"texting while walking\" or \"wexting\" is the increasing practice of people being transfixed to their mobile device without looking in any direction but their personal screen while walking. First coined reference in 2015 in New York from Rentrak's chief client officer when discussing time spent with media and various media usage metrics. Text messaging among pedestrians leads to increased cognitive distraction and reduced situation awareness, and may lead to increases in unsafe behavior leading to injury and death. Recent studies conducted on cell phone use while walking showed that cell phone users recall fewer objects when conversing, walk slower, have altered gait and are more unsafe when crossing a street. Additionally, some gait analyses showed that stance phase during overstepping motion, longitudinal and lateral deviation increased during cell phone operation but step length and clearance did not; a different analysis did find increased step clearance and reduced step length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8256512",
"title": "Matt Labash",
"section": "Section::::Views on journalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "On not being a TV talking head he has said “I have friends who go on TV a lot and say, 'You ought to be on TV.' I don't do it partly because of performance anxiety. I'm pretty sure I'm going to screw it up. Second, it just makes me feel like a fraud. Popping off about issues of the day that I'm considered an expert on simply because I read the paper that morning doesn't feel right to me, which is surprising because I pop off a lot in real life. You take me out to lunch and put a few beers in me and I'll pop off all you want. Going on TV sort of formalizes it. It makes me feel like a dork and that's my rule of thumb public behavior-wise: try not to be a dork.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27529715",
"title": "I am lonely will anyone speak to me",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Mark Griffiths, a researcher in internet psychology at Nottingham Trent University in the UK, also addressed this question, stating: \"There are a lot of lonely people out there. Some people rely heavily on technology and end up treating it as an electronic friend, a sounding board—just writing it down can make you feel better... That doesn't change their psychological world at that moment, but creating a kinship with like-minded people can help. You're all in this virtual space together.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37829036",
"title": "Problematic smartphone use",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "A survey done by a group of independent opticians reviled that 43% of people under the age of 25 experienced anxiety or even irritation when they were not able to access their phone whenever they wanted. This survey shows the psychological effect that cell phones have on people, specifically young people. Checking a cell phone has become a normal daily event for many people over the years just as getting dressed in the morning is, people don't feel right when they don't do it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59194382",
"title": "The Man. The Music. The Show.",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "He later clarified, \"I want every night to feel like those people saw something that only happened that night [...] I've been on stage a lot over my life and I probably feel more at home there than anywhere.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30072373",
"title": "Etiquette in technology",
"section": "Section::::Cell phone etiquette in the education system.:Cell phone etiquette in the public sphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1111,
"text": "Talking or texting on a cell phone in public may seem a distraction for many individuals. When in public there are two times when one uses a phone. The first is when someone is alone and the other is when he/she is in a group. The main issue for most people is when they are in a group, and the cell phone becomes a distraction or a barrier for successful socialization among family and friends. In the past few years, society has become less tolerant of cell phone use in public areas for example, public transportation, restaurants and much more. This is exemplified by the widespread recognition of campaigns such as Stop Phubbing, which prompted global discussion as to how mobile phones should be used in the presence of others. \"Some have suggested that mobile phones 'affect every aspect of our personal and professional lives either directly or indirectly'\" (Humphrey). Every culture's tolerance of cell phone usage varies, for instance in Western society cell phones are permissible during free time at schools, whereas in the eastern countries, cell phones are strictly prohibited on school property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16802074",
"title": "She Don't Want Nobody Near",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Duritz said: It’s just about people who are uncomfortable in the company of other people and also tired of being alone and they are trying to juggle those two opposing feelings. They are trying to figure out how to live that way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ctdrk
|
What two ethnic groups are genetically farthest from each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know which specific groups, but at least one of them, and maybe both, would be associated with sub-Saharan Africa. All of the populations associated with other parts of the world would have diverged more recently, ie. after having migrated farther away, and are therefore more closely related to each other. [Here's a diagram of pre-modern migrations based on mitochondrial DNA](_URL_0_). I can't guarantee it's up to date or exactly correct (Wikipedia, after all), but it generally conveys the out-of-Africa model.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This sounds like a question for the new r/askanthropology subreddit ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supplementary table 1 in [this paper](_URL_0_) has some good info. The usual measure for this stuff is the F statistic (F*_ST_*), which partitions the total variation in a population into an individual- and between-subpopulation component. The latter allows us to compare two different subpopulations to see how different they are. If the two sub-populations are highly diverged, F*_ST_* will be close to 1. On the other hand, if the sub-populations are basically the same, F*_ST_* will be close to 0.\n\nIn general, humans have pretty low genetic differentiation between groups. That is, most of the genetic variation that exists in the human population exists between individuals. I.e., two Africans are about as different from each other as they are from a European, genetically speaking. Only 3-5% of genetic difference is due to between-group differences (although, obviously these may be significant differences since they're more likely to have been selected for).\n\nThe full table from that paper, recapitulated here:\n\n| | Africa | Europe | Middle East | Central/ South Asia | East Asia | Oceania |\n|-------|-------|--------|------------|-------------------|----------|---------|\n|Europe | 0.040 | | | | | |\n|Middle East | 0.033 | 0.005 | | | | |\n|Central/South Asia |0.037 | 0.008 | 0.008 | | | |\n|East Asia | 0.054 | 0.038 | 0.038 | 0.026 | | |\n|Oceania | 0.068 | 0.061 | 0.059 | 0.049 | 0.047 | |\n|America | 0.101 | 0.079 | 0.081 | 0.068 | 0.060 | 0.102 |\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23219544",
"title": "Human genetic clustering",
"section": "Section::::Blood polymorphism study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "A 1994 study by Cavalli-Sforza and colleagues evaluated genetic distances among 42 native populations based on 120 blood polymorphisms. The populations were grouped into nine clusters: African (sub-Saharan), Caucasoid (European), Caucasoid (extra-European), northern Mongoloid (excluding Arctic populations), northeast Asian Arctic, southern Mongoloid (mainland and insular Southeast Asia), Pacific islander, New Guinean and Australian, and American (Amerindian). Although the clusters demonstrate varying degrees of homogeneity, the nine-cluster model represents a majority (80 out of 120) of single-trait trees and is useful in demonstrating the phenetic relationship among these populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4816754",
"title": "Human genetic variation",
"section": "Section::::Categorization of the world population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based \"biogeographical ancestry\" assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff \"et al.\" 2004).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18855594",
"title": "Asian people",
"section": "Section::::Definition by non-government sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Michael Bamshad et al. of the Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, found that \"107 sub-Saharan African, 67 East Asian and 81 Western European\" individuals genetically clustered with \"ancestry from a single population\" at levels of \"almost 100%\", but among \"263 individuals from South India\" the \"proportion of ancestry shared with Europeans and Asians varies widely\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7297672",
"title": "Native Indonesians",
"section": "Section::::Genetic research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Most Native Indonesians are genetically close to Asians while the more eastern one goes the more people show Melanesian affinity. Geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza claims that there is a genetic division between East and Southeast Asians. In a similar manner, Zhou Jixu agrees that there is a physical difference between these two populations. Other geneticists have found evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining Y chromosome lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Japanese and Southeast Asians. The complexity of genetic data has led to doubt about the usefulness of the concept of a Mongoloid race itself, since distinctive East Asian features may represent separate lineages and arise from environmental adaptations or retention of common proto-Eurasian ancestral characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2072213",
"title": "Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy",
"section": "Section::::Response to Edwards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "In the 2007 paper \"Genetic Similarities Within and Between Human Populations\", Witherspoon \"et al.\" attempt to answer the question, \"How often is a pair of individuals from one population genetically more dissimilar than two individuals chosen from two different populations?\". The answer depends on the number of polymorphisms used to define that dissimilarity, and the populations being compared. When they analysed three geographically distinct populations (European, African and East Asian) and measured genetic similarity over many thousands of loci, the answer to their question was \"never\". However, measuring similarity using smaller numbers of loci yielded substantial overlap between these populations. Rates of between-population similarity also increased when geographically intermediate and admixed populations were included in the analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Biological variation.:Structure of variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Humans of the same sex are 99.9% genetically identical. There is extremely little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that does occur is at the personal level within local areas, and not between populations. Of the 0.1% of human genetic differentiation, 85% exists within any randomly chosen local population, be they Italians, Koreans, or Kurds. Two randomly chosen Koreans may be genetically as different as a Korean and an Italian. Any ethnic group contains 85% of the human genetic diversity of the world. Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are about as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1483646",
"title": "Race and genetics",
"section": "Section::::Research methods.:Self-identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Correspondence between genetic clusters in a population (such as the current US population) and self-identified race or ethnic groups does not mean that such a cluster (or group) corresponds to only one ethnic group. African Americans have an estimated 10–20-percent European genetic admixture; Hispanics have European, Native American and African ancestry. In Brazil there has been extensive admixture between Europeans, Amerindians and Africans. As a result, skin color differences within the population are not gradual, and there's relatively weak associations between self-reported race and African ancestry. Ethnoracial self- classification in Brazilians is certainly not random with respect to genome individual ancestry, but the strength of the association between the phenotype and median proportion of African ancestry varies largely across population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jdhgy
|
why are spray bottles cold, instead of hot, to the touch?
|
[
{
"answer": "1. they aren't hot or cold when resting. If they stayed hot while under pressure then you'd have just discovered infinite energy! The bottle may _feel_ cold because it absorbs heat readily (e.g. it's made of aluminum).\n\n2. you may be feeling the bottle after it has lowered its pressure. The bottle will become - as you mention in your post - colder when the pressure is released. (e.g. spray an aerosol can for a while and it will be cold).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5941851",
"title": "Spray bottle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "A spray bottle is a bottle that can squirt, spray or mist fluids. A common use for spray bottles is dispensing cool cleaners, cosmetics, and chemical specialties. Another wide use of spray bottles is mixing down concentrates such as pine oil with water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2007779",
"title": "Water bottle",
"section": "Section::::Types of water bottles.:Glass water bottles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Heavier than plastic, stainless steel or aluminum bottles, they are easier to damage and break. Glass bottles have a high level of temperature transfer, so they are not ideal for very hot or cold liquids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3015816",
"title": "Hot water bottle",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Hot-water bottles are meant to contain very hot fluids and also supposed to be in contact with human skin. It is therefore of the utmost importance to ensure, mainly through standards and regulations, that the closing and welding is stable enough to prevent burns, but also to make sure that the bottle’s chemical components are not dangerous for human health. More generally, it is crucial to certify and assure that hot-water bottles, whether manufactured, sold or imported, are safe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1735557",
"title": "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Aerosol cans containing 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, when inverted, become effective freeze sprays. Under pressure, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is compressed into a liquid, which upon vaporization absorbs a significant amount of thermal energy. As a result, it will greatly lower the temperature of any object it contacts as it evaporates. This can result in frostbite when it contacts skin, as well as blindness upon eye contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48895903",
"title": "Freeze spray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Freeze spray (cold spray or vapocoolant) is a type of aerosol spray product containing a liquified gas used for rapidly cooling surfaces, in medical and industrial applications. It is usually sold in hand-held spray cans. It may consist of various substances, which produce different temperatures, depending on the application. With the exception of tetrafluoroethane, many of them are highly flammable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48895903",
"title": "Freeze spray",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Medical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In medical applications, spray cans containing dimethyl ether or tetrafluoroethane may also be used to freeze and destroy tissue, for removal of warts and skin tags, or other uses in cryosurgery. Liquified petroleum gas including propane and butane is sometimes used. These all may also be used as a topical anesthetic, due to the numbing effect of cold, though there is risk of frostbite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11237703",
"title": "Sigg",
"section": "Section::::Aluminum Bottles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "The disadvantage of thin aluminum is that it does not offer much insulation, which means that condensation can build on the outside of the bottle when cold drinks are transported, and hot drinks will result in a bottle which cannot be comfortably touched. Sigg sells insulating sleeves that protect the bottle from dents, help insulate the beverages inside them and eliminate the condensation issue. The limited size of the opening also makes it difficult to fill or clean the bottle or to use it for purposes other than drinking, though Sigg now makes wide-mouth bottles, and adapters that allow the use of the standard-size caps. Aluminum bottles are also more prone to dents than stainless steel bottles. Another disadvantage is that the bottles are unsuitable for freezing its contents, as freezing liquids expand in volume and cause the bottle to crack. Therefore, it is advisable not to keep fluids in the container during extended periods below freezing temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fzhk4
|
why do we have to go through us customs in canada, but not the canadian customs in the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "It used to be that you went though US customs in the US, and Canadian customs in Canada. Some smaller airports continue to work this way.\n\nBut then the US introduced customs pre-clearing, so instead of checking after you've arrived in the USA, the check everything before you get there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the Airport? When flying from Canada to the US?\n\nIt's called US Preclearance and you do it in Canada (or in other countries like Ireland) then you land like your flight originated in the US\n\nIf you didn't do that then you would have to go through Immigration and Customs in the USA\n\nIn the other direction you just go in Canada, they usually have less issues",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You always have to go through customs...somewhere.\n\nAs a matter of convenience, US customs has a presence in larger Canadian airports. It is much easier to show up a little earlier and clear customs before your depart than to try to do so on a layover.\n\nAlso, the US, unlike most other countries, does not have a \"in transit\" customs status...everyone who enters the US has to clear customs, usually at the first US airport they reach. Have US customs in major Canadian airports makes it easier for Canadians who fly through the US to another destination. The reverse isn't true, because Americans who just have a layover in Canada don't have to go through customs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5199",
"title": "Canada–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "630260",
"title": "Canada–United States border",
"section": "Section::::Crossings and border straddling.:Other border crossings (airports, seaports, rail stations).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The U.S. maintains immigration offices, called pre-clearance facilities, in eight Canadian airports with international air service to the United States (Calgary, Edmonton, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto-Pearson, Vancouver, and Winnipeg). This expedites travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U.S. airport without being processed as an international arrival. Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U.S. airports due to the sheer number of U.S. departure locations with Canada-bound flights and the limited number of flights compared to the number of U.S.-bound flights that depart major Canadian airports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44956233",
"title": "Frontier-Paterson Border Crossing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Canada has had a Customs office at the border at this location since 1898, but for many years, the US did not. Prior to 1965, travelers entering from Canada at both this crossing and at the Boundary-Waneta border crossing were directed to proceed to the Customs office in Northport, Washington, several miles away. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59214",
"title": "Customs",
"section": "Section::::Customs as a Public Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Customs are a public service provided by the government of the respective country that collects the duties levied on imported goods as well as providing security measures through which people enter and exit the country. A public good/service is defined by being non-rival and non-excludable. Once cannot avoid customs when exiting or entering a country thus making it non-excludable. There is some congestion when going through airports, with the average wait time in customs in American Domestic airports being 75.1 minutes, however, the congestion doesn't discriminate based on rival-consumption thus making it a public service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4319287",
"title": "Immigration to Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Also during this period, Canada became a port of entry for many Europeans seeking to gain entry into the U.S. Canadian transportation companies advertised Canadian ports as a hassle-free way to enter the U.S. especially as the U.S. began barring entry to certain ethnicities. The U.S. and Canada mitigated this situation in 1894 with the Canadian Agreement which allowed for U.S. immigration officials to inspect ships landing at Canadian ports for immigrants excluded from the U.S. If found, the transporting companies were responsible for shipping the persons back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17206485",
"title": "Canada–United States trade relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The trade relationship of the United States with Canada was the second largest in the world after China and the United States. In 2016, the goods and services trade between the two countries totaled $627.8 billion. U.S. exports were $320.1 billion, while imports were $307.6 billion. The United States has a $12.5 billion trade surplus with Canada in 2016. Canada has historically held a trade deficit with the United States in every year since 1985 in net trade of goods, excluding services. The trade relationship between the two countries crosses all industries and is vitally important to both nations' success as each country is one of the largest trade partners of the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4135999",
"title": "Canadian passport",
"section": "Section::::Visa requirements.:Visa free access to the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "In most circumstances, Canadian citizens do not require visitor, business, transit or other visas to enter the United States, either from Canada or from other countries. Moreover, Canadian citizens are generally granted a stay in the U.S. for up to six months at the time of entry. Visa requirements only apply to Canadians who fall under visa categories E (investors), K (fiancé(e)s or spouses and their children of U.S. citizens), V (spouses and children of Lawful Permanent Residents), S (informants), A (Canadian government officials travelling on official business), G (Canadian diplomats working for international organizations in the U.S.) and NATO (Canadians working specifically for the NATO), and they must apply for a visa before entry in the same manner as other nationalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vycop
|
ocams razor and the burden of proof
|
[
{
"answer": "**Occam's razor:** The original, from William of Occam, is: *\"plurality should not be posited without necessity.\"* This means that you shouldn't add assumptions that are not needed to explain something.\n\nNowadays it is used to say that, of several possible explanations, the simpler one should be preferred, because it is most likely to be true. Note that it's not true all the time, but in an argument it puts the holder of a more complex explanation in a weaker position, and puts the burden of proof on them.\n\n**Burden of proof:** If the burden of proof is on you, it means that it's up to you to prove something, not up to other people to prove you wrong. This happens when you make a claim that strays for the default position (sometimes called the null hypothesis). \n\nFor example the default position of the existence of things is that they don't exist. If you make the claim that something exists, it's up to you to prove that it does. If I claim that there's a teapot on my desk, I can get proof: I can see it, touch it, I can take a picture of it and show it to you, etc. If I claim that there's a teapot orbiting the sun somewhere between Earth and Mars orbits, I can't prove it. You can't disprove it either, but the burden of proof is on me. In the absence of proof of its existence, we shouldn't consider that it exists.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "Section::::Controversial aspects of the razor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Occam's razor is not an embargo against the positing of any kind of entity, or a recommendation of the simplest theory come what may. Occam's razor is used to adjudicate between theories that have already passed \"theoretical scrutiny\" tests and are equally well-supported by evidence. Furthermore, it may be used to prioritize empirical testing between two equally plausible but unequally testable hypotheses; thereby minimizing costs and wastes while increasing chances of falsification of the simpler-to-test hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "939578",
"title": "List of eponymous laws",
"section": "Section::::H–K.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hitchens's razor is an epistemological principle maintaining that the burden of evidence in a debate rests on the claim-maker, and that the opponent can dismiss the claim if this burden is not met: \"That which can be asserted without evidence can be dismissed without evidence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Probability theory and statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "One of the problems with the original formulation of the razor is that it only applies to models with the same explanatory power (i.e., it only tells us to prefer the simplest of equally good models). A more general form of the razor can be derived from Bayesian model comparison, which is based on Bayes factors and can be used to compare models that don't fit the observations equally well. These methods can sometimes optimally balance the complexity and power of a model. Generally, the exact Occam factor is intractable, but approximations such as Akaike information criterion, Bayesian information criterion, Variational Bayesian methods, false discovery rate, and Laplace's method are used. Many artificial intelligence researchers are now employing such techniques, for instance through work on Occam Learning or more generally on the Free energy principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37519566",
"title": "Hitchens's razor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Hitchens's razor is an epistemological razor asserting that the burden of proof regarding the truthfulness of a claim lies with the one who makes the claim; if this burden is not met, then the claim is unfounded, and its opponents need not argue further in order to dismiss it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In science, Occam's razor is used as an abductive heuristic in the development of theoretical models, rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models. In the scientific method, Occam's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion. For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since one can always burden failing explanations with \"ad hoc\" hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405562",
"title": "Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference",
"section": "Section::::Origin.:Mathematical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The proof of the \"razor\" is based on the known mathematical properties of a probability distribution over a countable set. These properties are relevant because the infinite set of all programs is a denumerable set. The sum S of the probabilities of all programs must be exactly equal to one (as per the definition of probability) thus the probabilities must roughly decrease as we enumerate the infinite set of all programs, otherwise S will be strictly greater than one. To be more precise, for every formula_1 0, there is some length \"l\" such that the probability of all programs longer than \"l\" is at most formula_1. This does not, however, preclude very long programs from having very high probability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "Section::::Justifications.:Mathematical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "One justification of Occam's razor is a direct result of basic probability theory. By definition, all assumptions introduce possibilities for error; if an assumption does not improve the accuracy of a theory, its only effect is to increase the probability that the overall theory is wrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12vixj
|
From your period of expertise, what is a human trait that was revered, held in high regard or even just generally accepted that would typically be looked down upon today?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is absolutely no way that the media would have given FDR the same consideration of his disability that they did in the 1930's and 40's. Even when he was \"walking\" you could tell something was wrong. Many people knew he had problems, but the full extent of his disability was relatively well hidden. Also, the media ignored many sex scandals or, rather, people didn't contact the media about them (Grover Cleveland's illegitimate child being an exception). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Roman word \"obnoxium\" means, rather than to puff yourself up, to make your self humble before someone. It still had the negative connotations that we have today for the word obnoxious, but meant the complete opposite. Being humble was as socially unacceptable as boasting is today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Bully\" used to be a term of approbation for someone strong and aggressive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being overweight used to be a sign of wealth, power, and in some cases beauty. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Blind obedience by the warrior class to their lords. While not always a bad thing, it often led to civilian massacres, futile last stands, and more famously, the seppuku ritual. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's known that for a period in European history fair-skinned woman were considered far more attractive than those who had tanned. Having fair, creamy skin was a sign of status and beauty for many early Europeans. This trend was not unique in nature to any one specific country; it expressed the social opinion of Europe as a collective rather than characterizing one particular group of people.\n\nWhile not *generally* frowned upon, having pale skin represents the exact opposite in modern society; attractiveness began to shift over to how tan/bronzed you were, and pale skin began to be seen as an undesirable trait.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Raping a slave child was fair game. After all, they were only property. Sometimes I feel I'm not disgusted enough by the stuff I read day in day out. Jokes about this are all over Roman satire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a historian but ancient Greeks and Romans sometimes took boys as lovers. _URL_0_\n\nEDIT: For example, Roman Emperor Claudius was viewed as weird in his day because he *didn't* engage in sexual behavior with boys or men.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ability to produce thousands of handaxes or respect for labor jobs and their workforce.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Russians in their Christian Orthodox tradition revered a type of madman called a юродивый (yurodivy), or in English a \"Holy Fool\". That person was believed to be doing all those weird, unstable things because they were inspired by the Holy Spirit; they functioned rather like a court jester in that they could speak frankly to anyone without being punished. They were quite highly regarded - St Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is named after a Holy Fool, for instance.\n\nNow, it's a bit of a pickle to know if all of these men and women were genuinely mad or if some of them were feigning: the ideal was that these men \"voluntarily take up the guise of insanity in order to conceal their perfection from the world, and thus avoid praise.\" But speaking now from memory, the Professor who taught me about Russian religious practices seemed to believe that most of the Holy Fools were genuinely mentally ill - he believed that the sources supported an interpretation which suggested that Basil especially probably had some sort of Autism. \n\n((If the Byzantine expert would like to jump in, I would be interested to see if this idea of a Holy Fool is organic to Russia, or if it was acquired from their tradition.))\n\nOn the same Eastern European vein; the minstrels of the Ukraine that sing their truly epic били́ни (Byliny) used to be blind. Teaching them to sing these songs was a form of trade for them - it allowed them to earn money and gave them a place in society which prevented them from being a \"burden\" on society. Best source for this is [And The Blind Shall Sing](_URL_0_) by Natalie Kononenko.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recall that, for the greeks, having a small manhood was considered best.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest thing of all: Paganism. It was as universal and normal and as entrenched and self-evident as sex, and it wasn't going away. \n\nThat it would eventually die off in the West and mostly around the world so quickly is completely unthinkable, and the closest thing in history that I can describe as a miracle. So next time one of you /r/atheists see a Christian, thank them for their philosophical bombshell on the world, because without that enormous movement in the early millennia science wouldn't have had a chance. After all, the Christian tradition was a largely secular movement that didn't treat nature as sacred and put the divine object *outside* of reality and treated reality as fair game to control and manipulate and probe, thus opening the door for the sciences. So when you think Christian superstition and science suppression, you're usually thinking about remnants of European mysticism and their political structures infiltrating/associating with Christendom.\n\nI am not a Christian.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Lincoln's Melancholy](_URL_0_) - this man's history would not be tolerated in the presidency today.\n\nThere's a part in it discussing where people viewed as melancholic (depression is the wrong word, I think) were highly valued by society - as deep thinkers who ruminated on life and the difficulties of being human.\n\nSee also Churchill's 'black dog'.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That massacres of enemies was an excellent way to make them fear Rome, and for them to come to terms.\n\nHostage taking (It was more formalized, in the sense that 'allied' leaders would be expected to come with cavalry and light infantry auxilia so that the Roman promagistrate could keep them in his power).\n\nOne of the major benefits to being a legionary was the ability to rape and pillage after a successful siege. \n\nDisturbing to the modern eyes, but Roman citizens would have no issue with any of this, and would be supportive of most of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Feudal Japan, especially during what is known now as the Warring States (Sengoku) Period, a warrior was expected to kill himself in the most painful manner possible if he did something to tarnish his honor. War tales of this era (usually written in the Tokugawa era, after the end of the Sengoku period) idolized men who committed suicide rather than face their own failures. This isn't exactly uncommon knowledge, though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It really depends on who you are asking. I study medieval history and I would say many people would criticize the extremism of many of the saints, specifically their asceticism. Many female saints were praised for their ability to fast extreme amounts, where today they would probably be considered to be anorexic. An interesting side note of fasting and anorexia is that a lot of the language to describe fasting in the middle ages is similar to the language anorexics use today.\n\nedit: for more on the subject of fasting by women in the middle ages see Holy Feast and Holy Fast by Caroline Bynum, it is really a fascinating read if you are interested in the subject.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Ancient Greece, having a small penis was thought to be the greatest thing ever, whilst \"Long, thick penises were considered -- at least in the highbrow view -- grotesque, comic or both ...\".\n\n[source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In late medieval Western Europe, it was considered beautiful/fashionable for a woman to have a high hairline or forehead, sometimes with shaved eyebrows. \n\nYou hardly ever see it in movies or modern depictions because it's just so unappealing to modern eyes.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In many Native American nations, tribes, and groups, being someone who would currently identify as LGBTQ was nearly always accepted and often revered. The current pan-Indian moniker for such peoples are two-spirits.\n\nGiven the wide diversity of languages and cultures indigenous to North America, LGBTQ treatment was not uniform throughout. However, it is widely agreed upon by historians and modern Natives that the concept of two-spirit people was pervasive and accepted across the continent. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In medieval times getting together and burning cats alive, etc was considered great fun. Today if you saw someone doing that you'd think they were training to be a serial killer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Around 1650-1750 in Europe, too much evidence of hard work in order to achieve results was frowned upon in performing arts and conversation. There were a lot of learned skills people were expected to possess, but when the time came to present them, they were supposed to pretend it was nothing and never admit it if they had worked hard to make it happen. So in performing arts, those who acted like perfectionists were unpopular, while those who acted like it was a lazy, easy, offhand thing were applauded. This attitude of sponteneity and ease was known as sprezzatura. While it can still be found today, in fashion, for example, and in the concept of \"untrained talent\" that seems to captivate people, today we publicly applaud hard work and discipline. Back then hard work and discipline were sometimes encouraged privately but when it came time for performance, they were a secret. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Self flagellation and mutilation by pious members of the nobility throughout the medieval period in Europe. I cannot count the number of lives of saints I have read that revere the subject for their devotion to whipping themselves. Nowadays we'd send them to a therapist instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4172748",
"title": "De Oratore",
"section": "Section::::Book I.:Several eminent men in all fields, except oratory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cicero questions why, despite the fact that many people have exceptional abilities, there are so few exceptional orators. Many are the examples of war leaders, and will continue to be throughout history, but only a handful of great orators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7630074",
"title": "James Robertson (psychoanalyst)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "'(He) was a remarkable person who achieved great things. His sensitive observations and brilliant observations made history, and the courage with which he disseminated – often in the face of ignorant and prejudiced criticism – what were then very unpopular findings, was legendary. He will always be remembered as the man who revolutionised children's hospitals, though he accomplished much else besides. I am personally deeply grateful for all that he did.' – John Bowlby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "752558",
"title": "Irwin Corey",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "At one time there really was a man known as \"the World's Greatest Authority.\" I ran across him in trying to nail down one of the many silly questions that kept coming at me from odd sources. Like this: Set your terminal to \"research.\" Punch parameters in succession \"North American culture,\" \"English-speaking,\" \"mid-twentieth century,\" \"comedians,\" \"the World's Greatest Authority.\" The answer you can expect is \"Professor Irwin Corey.\" You'll find his routines timeless humor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8158173",
"title": "Jazzar Pasha",
"section": "Section::::Ruler of Acre.:Death and succession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "He was a man famous for his personal strength, his ferocious courage, his cruelty, and his insatiable avarice, as well as for the great power which the active exertion of all these qualities together procured for him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "935160",
"title": "Perfectionism (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Positive aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Other highly celebrated figures who were perfectionists include Filippo Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Ludwig van Beethoven, Gustave Flaubert, Johannes Brahms, Franz Kafka, Stanley Kubrick, Andrei Tarkovsky, Brian Wilson, and Steve Jobs, all of whom have been considered to be among the most central figures in their respective fields' histories. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1217460",
"title": "Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Eminent personalities from the world of science, literature and politics have studied at the Normale, among them Giosuè Carducci, Carlo Rubbia, Enrico Fermi and Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, as well as Alessio Figalli, in more recent times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23642478",
"title": "Charles B. Morrey Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Tracts of his personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 396,
"text": " describe him as really very gifted for friendship, having a charming sense of humor and being continuously attentive for people, mathematics and musics. His human qualities are described as the complement to his ability in administrative duties and in scientific research: as a confirmation of his skills in scientific research, also states that he was one of the strongest workers in analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2re1zi
|
what happens to a copyright when the company that holds it goes out of business?
|
[
{
"answer": "The rights would be considered an asset by the liquidators and sold in order to pay creditors",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33656039",
"title": "Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena",
"section": "Section::::Copyright Infringement.:The Copyright Act of 1976.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The Copyright Act of 1976 gives copyright owners control over most, if not all, activities of conceivable commercial value. The statute provides that the owner of a copyright has the exclusive rights to do and to authorize any of the following: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5102097",
"title": "Copyright law of Pakistan",
"section": "Section::::Copyright Ordinance, 1962.:Owner of copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The owner of copyright may assign the copyright (s. 14) or grant any interest in the copyright by license (s. 35). Licenses may also be granted by the Copyright Board to republish a work withheld from the public (s. 36).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18933176",
"title": "Abandonware",
"section": "Section::::Law.:Enforcement of copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Old copyrights are usually left undefended. This can be due to intentional non-enforcement by owners due to software age or obsolescence, but sometimes results from a corporate copyright holder going out of business without explicitly transferring ownership, leaving no one aware of the right to defend the copyright.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21138726",
"title": "Copyright law of New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Scope of copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The Copyright Act 1994 provides owners of original work with a monopoly to control the use and dissemination of their work. The owner of the copyright in a work has the exclusive right to exploit the economic rights. A person infringes copyright in a work when he or she, other than pursuant to a copyright licence, does any of the following “restricted acts”, either in relation to the work as a whole or any “substantial part” of it: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38488130",
"title": "Software copyright in China",
"section": "Section::::Significance of registration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Copyright is considered as “invisible asset”, and the invisible asset will not disappear when corporation goes into bankruptcy, the vitality and value of invisible asset is still in existence, and tangible fund be obtain in the process of transference or auction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1575101",
"title": "Perpetual copyright",
"section": "Section::::Copyright philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In an op-ed published in \"The New York Times\", author Mark Helprin argues that it is unjust for a government to strip copyright holders of their exclusive rights after a set period of time. He also writes that copyright expiration transfers wealth from private copyright holders to corporations:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3319102",
"title": "Beneficial owner",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Under United States copyright law, an author may transfer some rights to the copyright owner (often an employer) while retaining a future \"reversionary interest,\" such as that of copyright renewal. For example, \"[t]he legal or beneficial owner of an exclusive right under a copyright . . . to institute an action for any infringement of that particular right committed while he or she is the owner of it.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
84av3k
|
Where did Western Europe get its natural gas during the Cold War?
|
[
{
"answer": "If I may add a few supplementary points to u/kieslowskifan 's answer... \n\nAt the beginning of the Cold War period, natural gas was not in wide usage as a fuel in Western Europe. Coal gas was made in gasworks local to many towns and cities, then piped to homes. The USA moved from coal gas to natural gas earlier than European countries, due to domestic discoveries. \n\nStern: \n > The modern history of natural gas in Europe began in 1959 with the discovery of the Groningen field in \nthe Netherlands, followed a few years later by the first discoveries in the UK sector of the North Sea. This was followed by equally substantial discoveries of gas in the Norwegian sector starting in the 1970s. But while the UK had a huge domestic market, Norway did not and created a huge export business with a number of pipelines delivering gas to both Continental Europe and the UK. \n\n\nNatural gas was already known in smaller quantities from the North Sea area - it was the scale of the discoveries which was new. There were also some smaller onshore discoveries, including in France in the late 1950s. Natural gas discoveries led to infrastructure conversions (although France also strongly favoured nuclear power in its energy policy). \n\nIn Britain, the change from town/coal gas to natural gas began in 1958, and by 1971, 69% of domestic gas supplies were via natural gas (Kreitman, 1976). Major discoveries were made in the North Sea in 1965-7, showing it was a significant gas bearing area, and the change was accelerated. Dodds & Desmoullin state \"In the 1960s, large deposits of natural gas were discovered under the North Sea and the UK Gas Council decided to switch the entire country from manufactured town gas to natural gas in a national program over a 10 year period.\" \nSo, alongside the import of natural gas from North Africa, Western European countries were supplying much of their own natural gas in the 1970s and 1980s than they do now. \n\nStern: \n > Even before Dutch pipeline gas exports started to flow, the first LNG ships were arriving in the UK and France from Algeria. Over long distances or across water too deep for pipelines to be laid, LNG can be a very convenient alternative to pipeline gas. However, in the early 1960s the technology of liquefying gas to minus 161 degrees Celsius, loading it on to ships to be regasified on arrival, was both demanding and expensive. LNG-receiving terminals were built in the UK, France, Italy, Spain and Belgium, and later in Turkey and Greece, but the rate of growth of LNG in Europe was modest until the early 1990s when new developments in technology made LNG more competitive.\n \n \n\nHis paper shows the following figures for European OECD (pre-1991 member countries) gas production and demand, in billions of cubic metres: \n1960: 10.4 | 10.4 \n1970: 79.7 | 82.2 \n1980: 199.1 | 235.4 \n1990: 196.7 | 290.1 \n\n% imports from non-OECD countries: \n1960 0 \n1970 1.0 \n1980 15.3 \n1990 31.7 \n \nETA (Adding this quote from p.1. Now deleted: totals figures from Stern's Table 2 which include Russian gas exports to some East European countries as well as some of Western Europe.) \n > Between 1970 and 1980 deliveries of Soviet gas to Western Europe increased from 3.4 BCM to 26 BCM. By 1990 gas exports had risen to 109 BCM and Western Europe, with 63 BCM of imports, was the largest customer for Soviet gas. \n\nUnfortunately there isn't a breakdown showing how much of the 1980s increase in imports to Western Europe occurred after Gorbachev announced reforms. \n \n\n**References** \n\nPaul E. Dodds & Stéphanie Demoullin, 'Conversion of the UK gas system to transport hydrogen', International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 38, Issue 18, 18 June 2013, Pages 7189-7200. \n\nNorman Kreitman, 'The coal gas story', British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine, 30, 86-93 (1976). \n\nJonathan Stern, Natural Gas in Europe: the Importance of Russia \nAvailable from: _URL_0_ \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5709979",
"title": "Foreign trade of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Trade with Western industrialized countries.:Western Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Although oil and gas were the primary Soviet exports to Western Europe, they represented only a small percentage of Western Europe's substantial fuel imports: Soviet oil provided 3 percent and natural gas 2 percent of the energy consumed in Western Europe. The completion of the Urengoy-Uzhgorod export pipeline project increased the importance of Soviet natural gas to Western Europe in the second half of the 1980s. In 1984 France, Austria, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and Italy began receiving natural gas from western Siberia through the pipeline, for which the Soviet Union was paid in hard currency, pumping equipment, and large-diameter pipe. By 1990 the Soviet Union expected to supply 3 percent of all natural gas imported by Western Europe, including 30 percent of West Germany's gas imports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5709979",
"title": "Foreign trade of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Trade with Western industrialized countries.:Western Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "In the mid-1980s, West European exports to the Soviet Union were marginal, less than 0.5 percent of the combined gross national product of countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD countries provided the Soviet Union with high-technology and industrial equipment, chemicals, metals, and agricultural products. In return, Western Europe received oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320489",
"title": "Gazprom",
"section": "Section::::History.:Inception (1989 - 1992).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In 1943, during World War II, the government of the Soviet Union developed a domestic gas industry. In 1965, it centralized gas exploration, development, and distribution within the Ministry of Gas Industry. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Ministry of Gas Industry found large natural gas reserves in Siberia, the Ural region and the Volga region. The Soviet Union became a major gas producer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34556",
"title": "1990s",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "BULLET::::- Oil and gas were discovered in many countries in the former Soviet bloc, leading to economic growth and wider adoption of trade between nations. These trends were also fueled by inexpensive fossil energy, with low petroleum prices caused by a glut of oil. Political stability and decreased militarization due to the winding down of the Cold War led to economic development and higher standards of living for many citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57088905",
"title": "Mineral industry of Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Before World War II, the economy of Europe remained largely on coal as its source as primary energy, with very little of the diversification into oil and gas that has already occurred on United States. The mining and quarrying industry which extracts these minerals is very important to industrial, social and technological process in the European Union. Industrial minerals such as barytes, kaolinite, or salt are extracted within the European Union to supply a wide range of industries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58568",
"title": "Suez Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "At the time, Western Europe imported two million barrels per day from the Middle East, 1,200,000 by tanker through the canal, and another 800,000 via pipeline from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, where tankers received it. The US imported another 300,000 barrels daily from the Middle East. Though pipelines linked the oil fields of Iraq and the Persian Gulf states to the Mediterranean, these routes were prone to suffer from instability, which led British leaders to prefer to use the sea route through the Suez Canal. As it was, the rise of super-tankers for shipping Middle East oil to Europe, which were too big to use the Suez Canal meant that British policy-makers greatly overestimated the importance of the canal. By 2000, only 8 percent of the imported oil in Britain arrived via the Suez canal with the rest coming via the Cape route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9554182",
"title": "Walter C. Teagle",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Despite the settlement, for the duration of the Second World War, Standard Oil, under deals Teagle had overseen, continued to supply Nazi Germany with oil. The shipments went through Spain, Vichy France's colonies in the West Indies, and Switzerland. Standard's oil shipments from the United States to Spain were briefly halted in January 1944 due to American public pressure, then began again in May 1944. Spain, meanwhile, was shipping 48,000 tons a month of American oil to Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dq33ya
|
why do objects that are the same temperature as our average body temperature feel hotter than our hand when we touch them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because 37 degrees is the body core temperature. Your fingertips are often colder than that, especially the skin, where your thermoceptors are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can not feel \"temperature\", our senses measure \"heat loss\".\nBecause of that, we also sense iron \"cold\" and wood \"warm\" although both materials were at the same temperature; metals can take away our heat production faster and in consequence we feel it colder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047067",
"title": "Withdrawal reflex",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20580",
"title": "Motion",
"section": "Section::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301928",
"title": "Lumped element model",
"section": "Section::::Thermal systems.:Method.:Newton's law of cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "An object at a different temperature from its surroundings will ultimately come to a common temperature with its surroundings. A relatively hot object cools as it warms its surroundings; a cool object is warmed by its surroundings. When considering how quickly (or slowly) something cools, we speak of its \"rate\" of cooling - how many degrees' change in temperature per unit of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496755",
"title": "Yakitate!! Japan",
"section": "Section::::Techniques and special terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Normally, extremities such as the hands are lower in temperature than the rest of the body, but if one can increase blood flow to the hands, that difference decreases. In France, those that possess this ability are said to have \"Solar Hands\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29805136",
"title": "Sensory stimulation therapy",
"section": "Section::::Somatosensory system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The Somatosensory systemis the part of our sensory system that deals with touch. We wouldn’t be able to feel things like temperatures, pain, pressure, vibration, and skin rash without the unwavering help of our somatosensory system. The peripheral nervous system has the ability to understand touch, pressure, vibration, limb position, heat, Cold, and Pain. This information is sent through the peripheral nervous system, to the spinal cord where it is finally processed by the brain. One of the key structures in processing this information is the primary somatosensory cortex, which is located in the parietal lobe. The primary somatosensory cortex is known to have subsections that process information from different sections, and the area of the cortex for each section is related to its acuity. This observation is often shown symbolically through a Homunculus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamic approach.:Local thermodynamic equilibrium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Thus, when local thermodynamic equilibrium prevails in a body, temperature can be regarded as a spatially varying local property in that body, and this is because temperature is an intensive variable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2886158",
"title": "Hand warmer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Hand warmers are small (mostly disposable) packets which are held in the hand and produce heat on demand to warm cold hands. They are commonly used in outdoor activities. Other types of warmers are available to provide soothing heat for muscular or joint aches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ndawj
|
Sleeping with music playing
|
[
{
"answer": "To add onto his question: does listening to an audiobook while asleep provide better recollection of it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In general, noise throughout the night is disruptive to sleep, especially if the noise level is highly variable, e.g., occasional loud noises. However, a steady background noise (e.g., white noise) can be beneficial to sleep quality if the environment is inherently noisy, e.g., [the ICU of a hospital](_URL_0_). Of course, if the white noise itself is very loud, [sleep quality is adversely affected](_URL_1_).\n\nThere have been several studies assessing the use of music to fall asleep. Most of these have involved listening to music for ~45 minutes around bedtime. For example, [this study](_URL_5_) in students with sleep complaints found that listening to classical music around bedtime could improve sleep, relative to listening to an audiobook or to nothing. [This meta-analysis](_URL_4_) found some beneficial effect of bedtime music interventions on sleep quality. However, it was based on only 5 studies in different populations, and found a relatively small effect. Many sleep/music studies have unfortunately been poorly designed, as discussed [here](_URL_3_). Note also that most studies involving music as a sleep-aid have naturally been targeted at groups that have sleep problems. [This study](_URL_2_) found no effect of listening to classical music for 45 minutes at bedtime in healthy sleepers.\n\nI am not aware of *any* studies where participants listened continuously to music throughout the night. Based on prior results, one could reasonably expect that sleep quality would be reduced if the sound level or quality changed frequently during the night (e.g., a playlist with many different types of music or high-tempo music). It is plausible that listening to calm relaxing music (e.g., classical music) throughout the night could be beneficial if there are already noise problems in the environment or if the individual has sleep problems. But without an appropriate study, it's not possible to say for sure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "60 dB (normal conversation) is fine for all-night listening and won't cause hearing loss. Sounds over 85dB start to be problematic. OSHA limits 90dB sounds to 8 hours a day.\n\nThere is one study on listening to Binaural beats during sleep, where they played music for 6 hours I think (rather than the entire duration of the sleep). It showed that binaural beats can enhance your memory during sleep. (_URL_1_)\n\nHere is some free binaural beat music. _URL_0_\n\nDr. Oz quotes a study that said 40% of light sleepers (which includes tinnitus sufferers like you) sleep better with background sounds. I can't find the reference to that though.\n\nI run a small business selling headphones for sleeping, and all of our 100,000+ customers listen to music for sleep. About a third of them listen all night to music to block out snoring and apartment-living noises. I receive testimonials all of the time saying that it helps with their sleep, and therefore productivity. So you're definitely not alone.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38977527",
"title": "Sleeping (The Band song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "\"Sleeping\" is a song by The Band, first released on their 1970 album \"Stage Fright\". It was also released as the B-side to the \"Stage Fright\" single. It was co-written by Robbie Robertson and Richard Manuel. This and “Just Another Whistle Stop” are the only two songs Manuel receives credit for on the album. Music critic Barney Hoskyns rates it as \"one of Richard [Manuel's] liveliest performances\" and \"one of The Band's most intricate arrangements.\" The Band never featured the song on a live album.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197808",
"title": "Sleep-learning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Sleep-learning (also known as hypnopædia, or hypnopedia) is an attempt to convey information to a sleeping person, typically by playing a sound recording to them while they sleep. Although often used in pop culture as a way to introduce new information (see 'In Fiction'), sleep is considered an important period for memory consolidation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5962318",
"title": "The Sleeping",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The Sleeping was an American post-hardcore band from Long Island, New York, formed in 2003. The band was founded by Cameron Keym, Sal Mignano, and Joe Zizzo from the remains of Skycamefalling, after auditioning twenty-two potential singers, they came across Doug Robinson, former singer/guitarist of the band Stillwelle. Their music has been featured in video games including \" Tony Hawk's Downhill Jam\" for the \"Wii\", \"Madden NFL 07\", \"\" (\"Don't Hold Back\"), \"\" (\"Bomb the World\"), and \"\" (\"Listen Close\"). They released their fourth studio album, \"The Big Deep\", on September 28, 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30159935",
"title": "Music Room (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Music Room is an innovative British television music series that presents classical musicians and the pieces they play in a manner normally associated with popular music programming. Filmed in a bare studio with only a scaffold cube for a set, the programme strips away the glamour that often marks classical music as an elitist art form. The series has also been broadcast in Canada (on Knowledge) and across South America (on Film&Arts).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21325855",
"title": "Sleep Room",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Sleep Room are an English alternative rock band from Reading, Berkshire who have attracted attention from Berkshire's music community Josaka and the BBC who have noted them for their original sound, epic soundscapes and emotive style.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15773779",
"title": "Sleeping (Rick Astley song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "\"Sleeping\" is a dance song performed by English singer Rick Astley. It was written and produced by Chris Braide and Astley in 2001. The song was Astley's first single in almost eight years, released in Germany only. Its first UK appearance was on the 2002 \"Greatest Hits\" compilation. The song is also the first single, taken from his fifth studio album, Keep It Turned On.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38977527",
"title": "Sleeping (The Band song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "\"Sleeping\" uses a waltz time signature. Following the style of “King Harvest (Has Surely Come),” the song has no true chorus. Instead, the verses that are sung softly are given greater importance. However, Robertson’s guitar solo comes in the middle of the song, rather than the end. Hoskyns rates this solo, played along with Hudson's \"pitch-bending\" organ, as \"one of the most ecstatic passages on any Band record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ydwvu
|
Why are creatures more energy efficient the larger they become?
|
[
{
"answer": "At least for warm-blooded animals, surface area to volume, and heat loss are significant factors. Mammals, for example, keep a body temperature that is almost always warmer than their surroundings. \n\nImagine you have a cube mouse, 1 meter x 1 meter x 1 meter. This mouse has a volume of 1m^3, and a total surface area of 6m^2. It has a surface area to volume ratio of (6m^2 )/(1m^3 ), which works out to be equal to **6:1** (m^2 /m^3 ). It has 6 square meters to lose heat from for every 1 cubic meter of body tissue.\n \n Now we make the mouse bigger, increasing its size to 2m x 2m x 2m. The mouse has a volume of 8 m^3, and a surface area 24 m^2. The mouse now only has to deal with 3 m^2 of heat loss for every 1 m^3 of volume, it has a SA/V ratio of only **3:1** (m^2 / m^3). Since producing heat requires burning metabolic energy, the larger mouse will be able to expend proportionally less energy in order to maintain the same body temperature, making it more efficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1039033",
"title": "Cope's rule",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Effects of growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "For example, larger organisms find it easier to avoid or fight off predators and capture prey, to reproduce, to kill competitors, to survive temporary lean times, and to resist rapid climatic changes. They may also potentially benefit from better thermal efficiency, increased intelligence, and a longer lifespan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "662349",
"title": "Metabolic theory of ecology",
"section": "Section::::Controversy over mechanisms and the allometric constant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Smaller organisms tend to have higher surface area to volume ratios, causing them to gain resources at a proportionally higher rate than large organisms. As a consequence, small organisms can have higher volume-specific metabolic rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50078940",
"title": "Cyclorotor",
"section": "Section::::Design advantages and challenges.:Unsteady aerodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "It is otherwise evident that many living beings are still much more efficient, because they can change not only the pitch but also the shape of their wings, such as birds, and some insects or they can change the property of the boundary layer such as sharkskin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161296",
"title": "Colony (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Life history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Modular organisms save energy by using asexual reproduction during their life. Energy reserved in this way allows them to put more energy towards colony growth, regenerating lost modules (due to predation or other cause of death), or response to environmental conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20975650",
"title": "Deep-sea gigantism",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:Food scarcity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "According to Kleiber's rule, the larger an animal gets, the more efficient its metabolism becomes; i.e., an animal's metabolic rate scales to roughly the ¾ power of its mass. Under conditions of limited food supply, this may provide additional benefit to large size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22403915",
"title": "Body size and species richness",
"section": "Section::::Possible mechanisms.:Energetic constraints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Larger organisms require more food overall (Blackburn and Gaston, 1997), however they require less energy per unit of body mass. As a result, larger species are able to survive on a lower quality diet than smaller species. For example, grazing animals make up for their poor quality diet by digesting food longer and are able to extract more energy from it (Maurer et al. 1992). Smaller species tend to specialize in a habitat that can provide them with a high quality diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214993",
"title": "Macropodidae",
"section": "Section::::Physical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The ability of larger macropods to survive on poor-quality, low-energy feed, and to travel long distances at high speed without great energy expenditure (to reach fresh food supplies or waterholes, and to escape predators) has been crucial to their evolutionary success on a continent that, because of poor soil fertility and low, unpredictable average rainfall, offers only very limited primary plant productivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1in0pk
|
How did the armies of Genghis Khan handle logistics?
|
[
{
"answer": "First I would recommend looking at Mongol culture and lifestyle. The Mongols come from a harsh steppe, and had a strong nomadic culture. It's cold at night, and hot during the day. The land is generally pretty terrible for farming, and there aren't many forests or trees around to cut up to build stuff with. Water is pretty rare, but not quite as rare as your typical desert. \n\nAs you can predict, Mongol society around the time of Genghis Khan was based around herding livestock (goats mostly) on the Mongol plateau. Without livestock, it was practically impossible to survive on the steppe. \n\nThus, the nomadic Mongols traveled in nomadic clans and subclans to protect their livestock and people from raiders of enemy clans. A clan chieftain was typically responsible for politicking and providing protection for his entire clan. Regardless, all boys from a very young age learned to ride and travel by [horse](_URL_0_). \n\nBTW, the Mongolian Domesticated Horse is one hell of a horse (especially the way they trained it). Definitely check out the link above if you have time.\n\n They also made and practiced with their famous recurve bows from a very young age. \n\n**Traveling and living off the land**\n\nThis harsh lifestyle made it easy for them to live off rich lands, like medieval Persia, northern India, China, and eastern Europe. \n\nWhen traveling for war, each Mongol soldier had about 3-5 horses, all mares (the Mongols preferred mares for various reasons). One great utility the mares provided was milk on the go. If necessary, a mare could be slaughtered for her meat. When things got really rough, there are stories that claim the Mongols would drink the blood of their mares mixed with milk for nourishment, and survive like this for weeks. \n\nDuring the time of Ghenghis Khan's conquests, conquering a nation usually involved the pillage of cities, execution of fighting-aged men, and enslavement of women, children, engineers, and other \"useful\" people. Sometimes slaves were also used as fodder at the beginning of battles. \n\nUsually siege weapons, small weapons stockpiles (arrows mostly), came by supply train. The animals pulling the train needed water and food, so it wasn't a huge deal to move that stuff around as long as a route was scouted before hand (which the Mongols were masters at). \n\n**Communication**\n\nThe Mongols created a pan-empire horse-post-relay system to send written messages around the empire, but I think you were asking about communicating during war? Coordination between multiple armies was done through horse messengers (mentioned previously). During combat, the Mongols used any combination of the following based on what most practical given the environment, geography and weather, or what the commander preferred: beating kettles, horns, flags, smoke signals, and signal arrows. \n\nI wrote a set of rather lengthy papers a while back on the effectiveness of the Horse-mounted archer and recurve bow and its role in the rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire, so there are a LOT of sources that I'm not going to remember. I'll try to list some. \n\nA lot of this stuff could also be wrong since it's primarily from memory of my research, and the paper is not accessible right now. \n\nSources: \n\n* **[Primary Resource]:** The fall of the Jurchen Chin: Wang E's memoir on Ts'ai-chou under the Mongol siege (1233-1234)\n\n* The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe - J. Chambers\n\n* Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700 - E. Hildinger\n\n* Mounted Archers of the Steppe 600 BC-AD 1300 - A. Karasulas\n\n* The Mongols - D. Morgan\n\n* The Mongol Art of War - T. May\n\n* The Rise and Fall of the Second Largest Empire in History: How Genghis Khan's Mongols Almost Conquered the World - T. Craughwell\n\n\nThere are many others, including primary documents that I can't remember right now. I'll check my papers once I get home from work and will update. In the meantime, please correct or point out any errors I've made.\n\n\n**EDIT 1**: Thanks /u/screwyoushadowban for correcting me on the type of horse.\n\n**EDIT 2**: Full list of relevant sources added",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Middle Ages.:Genghis Khan and the Mongols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Each archer had at least one extra horse – there was an average five horses per man – thus the entire army could move with astounding rapidity. Moreover, since horse milk and horse blood were the staples of the Mongolian diet, Genghis' horse-herds functioned not just as his means of movement but as his logistical sustainment. All other necessities would be foraged and plundered. Khan's marauders also brought with them mobile shelters, concubines, butchers, and cooks. Through maneuver and continuous assault, Chinese, Persian, Arab and Eastern European armies could be stressed until they collapsed, and were then annihilated in pursuit and encirclement.\n",
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"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig, the imperial guard, was founded and divided into day (khorchin torghuds) and night (khevtuul) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23540084",
"title": "Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia",
"section": "Section::::Planning and dispositions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "After compiling information from many intelligence sources, primarily from spies along the Silk Road, Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was organized differently from his earlier campaigns. The changes had come in adding supporting units to his dreaded cavalry, both heavy and light. While still relying on the traditional advantages of his mobile nomadic cavalry, Genghis incorporated many aspects of warfare from China, particularly in siege warfare. His baggage train included such siege equipment as battering rams, gunpowder, and enormous siege bows capable of throwing 20-foot arrows into siege works. Also, the Mongol intelligence network was formidable. The Mongols never invaded an opponent whose military and economic will and ability to resist had not been thoroughly and completely scouted. For instance, Subutai and Batu Khan spent a year scouting central Europe, before destroying the armies of Hungary and Poland in two separate battles, two days apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Mongol Empire.:Military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or \"Yam\", adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1130618",
"title": "Subutai",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Subutai (Classical Mongolian: \"Sübügätäi\" or \"Sübü'ätäi\"; ; Modern Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, \"Sübedei\"; 1175–1248) was an Uriankhai general, and the primary military strategist of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directed more than 20 campaigns in which he conquered 32 nations and won 65 pitched battles, during which he conquered or overran more territory than any other commander in history. He gained victory by means of imaginative and sophisticated strategies and routinely coordinated movements of armies that were hundreds of kilometers away from each other. He is also remembered for devising the campaign that destroyed the armies of Hungary and Poland within two days of each other, by forces over 500 kilometers apart. By any metric, he is one of the most successful commanders in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1156082",
"title": "Tumen (unit)",
"section": "Section::::Genghis Khan's organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In Genghis Khan's military system, a tumen was recursively built from units of 10 (aravt), 100 (zuut) and 1,000 (mingghan), each with a leader reporting to the next higher level. Tumens were considered a practical size, neither too small for an effective campaign nor too big for efficient transport and supply. The military strategy was based on the use of tumens as a useful building block causing reasonable shock and attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22554971",
"title": "Battle of Yehuling",
"section": "Section::::Stages.:Battle of Yehuling and Huan'erzui.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Genghis Khan sent his general Muqali to lead the Balu Unit (八魯營) to launch a surprise cavalry charge on the enemy via a passage at Huan'erzui (獾兒嘴; lit. \"Badger Mouth\"). Before the battle, Muqali promised Genghis Khan, \"I will not return alive if I do not defeat the Jin army!\" The Mongol army's morale surged. Because of the mountainous terrain, the Mongols were unable to deploy their superior cavalry to its full advantage, hence they dismounted and fought on foot. High on morale, the Mongols defeated the central Jin forces and fought their way towards Wanyan Chengyu's main camp. Due to poor communications the Jin forces on the sides weren't able to reinforce the central Jin positions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
8v2itq
|
how are deisel-electric engines more energy efficient than direct-drive deisel engines?
|
[
{
"answer": "It comes down to being able to run a diesel electric engine at the optimum efficency while a straight diesel engine is responding to the load of the train. ",
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},
{
"answer": "The diesel motor can run constantly at its most efficient rpm to charge the battery, rather than having to scale up and down as the vehicle accellerates. You can also get benefits from regenerative braking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It eliminates the need for a mechanical transmission, which for a train would be massive, complicated, and inefficient. The engine can run at its optimal rpm, and the electric motors it powers serve as the transmission. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So all engines have a power band, and within that band is a precise set of operational conditions (so, speed and fuel flow rate) where you maximize your fuel energy efficiency.\n\nHybrid powertrain engines (not just diesels, but Spark Ignited engines as well) are able to sit *right on that precise spot* for maximum efficiency, whereas direct-drive engines have to rev up and down by user input, dependent on what precise speed the user wants at the wheels (which correlates to your vehicle's speed).",
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},
{
"answer": "Don’t think of it as an “extra step”. There has got to be *something* getting the energy from the engine to the wheels. Drive trains and transmissions don’t have perfect efficiency either. \n\nA big factor for diesel efficiency is the speed of the engine. With diesel electric you can always run the engine at the exact most efficient speed, and that’s a big factor in making it better. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3699152",
"title": "Rotary phase converter",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to rotary converters.:Three-phase inverters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "When poor efficiency in a VFD powered motor has been investigated, in every case documented to date, the root cause for the loss in efficiency was either improper installation or a failure to adhere to best practices. Almost universally, a VFD increases the efficiency of a system and reduces operating costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57752892",
"title": "Daihatsu Mira e:S",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The engine improves combustion efficiency by improving the compression ratio and the injector spray atomization, etc., and by using the \"\"i-EGR\" system\", the mechanical loss is reduced to the utmost by making improvements over details. Furthermore, by adopting cooperative control by the electronic throttle, the most efficient state is maintained according to the driving situation. The CVT also reduces emissions by increasing the efficiency of the oil pump and improves the power transmission efficiency by lowering the CVT control pressure. As a result, the engine load was also reduced by optimizing the transmission gear ratio (high gearing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17465325",
"title": "Powerplus supercharger",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to Roots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Secondly, studies by NACA revealed that the Powerplus was less efficient than the Roots, i.e., more power was required to drive it. This was most pronounced at low-pressure differences. Where out-and-out performance was crucial, the Powerplus was competitive. However it was not likely to be preferred where efficiency or reduced fuel consumption were the deciding factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "624260",
"title": "Mercedes-Benz W201",
"section": "Section::::Evolution models.:Evolution I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The Evo I's power output is similar to the of the \"regular\" 2.5-16. However, it had a redesigned engine of similar capacity but most importantly, a shorter stroke and bigger bore which would allow for a higher rev limit and improved generation of power. Additional changes stretch to improved rotating mass, improved lubrication system along with improved cam timing. Cosworth also list a project code \"WAC\" for the development of the short-stroke Evolution engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28344162",
"title": "Energy Efficient Engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The Energy Efficient Engine was a program funded by NASA in the 1970s to develop technologies suitable for energy efficient turbofans, its goal was to improve thrust specific fuel consumption by 12% compared to a GE CF6-50C. Both General Electric and Pratt & Whitney produced turbofans for the program. The GE core featured a 23:1 high-pressure (HP) ratio ten-stage HP compressor, later used in the GE90 and GEnx. P&W had a nine-stage HP compressor in their core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605024",
"title": "Gasoline direct injection",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The major advantages of a GDI engine are increased fuel efficiency and high power output. Emissions levels can also be more accurately controlled with the GDI system. GDI engine operates into two modes 1) overall lean equivalence ratio composition during low load and low speed operation. 2) Homogeneous stoichiometric mode at higher loads and at all loads and higher speed. At medium load region charge is lean or stoichiometric. The combustion systems are classified into air guided, wall guided and spray guided system. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27597500",
"title": "Protean Electric",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Since Protean Electric’s motors fit behind the wheels of a vehicle, they can be used as part of a drive system that does not require a gearbox, differential, or drive shafts. This creates an energy-efficient drivetrain that potentially saves cost, reduces weight and frees up space on board the vehicle that was previously dedicated to drivetrain components. According to Protean Electric, its in-wheel motors can increase fuel economy by over 30 percent depending on the battery size and driving cycle in a hybrid or plug-in hybrid vehicle. It is also capable of enabling torque vectoring by applying individual torque at optimal levels to each wheel to improve vehicle safety and handling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
24pxho
|
why do i find it so hard to change my eating habits? how do i get myself to like eating something?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way I see it is that the keyword is habit. It's amazing how closely related food and smells are to conditioning, think Pavlovian conditioning and the salivating dogs. When we eat or smell something high in fat or sugar our brain releases chemicals, most of them feel good. Seeing many of us have a choice in our food and they usually tend to be high in these we tend to get conditioned to feel good when eating them and bad when eating something else, hence we are conditioned to eat them more often. In this way a person could become a \"chocoholic\", but not to that extreme. Also food and smells are very closely connected to memories, this is why nostalgic food exists. This also leads back into the conditioning where you remember and associate foods. To my knowledge there is no way that you can force yourself to like another food, accept for dong exactly that. Studies have shown that if you lie to your self and generally have a good reason to you may start to believe that lie to an extent. Also if you can form a positive association with that food, eat a carrot when ever you do something you like.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "44472220",
"title": "Food choice of older adults",
"section": "Section::::Influences on food preference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "There are multiple parts of an elderly person's life that can affect their preferences in foods. Aspects like the environment, mental & physical health, and lifestyle choices are all contributing to the way a person decides on what foods they happen to like or dislike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "461462",
"title": "Overeating",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Cognitive behavioural therapy, individual therapy, and group therapy are often beneficial in helping people keep track of their eating habits and changing the way they cope with difficult situations. Often overeating and the related binge eating are related to dieting, body image issues, as well as social pressures. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11475025",
"title": "Montreal–Philippines cutlery controversy",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "I don't necessarily want students to eat with one hand or with only one instrument, I want them to eat intelligently at the table ... I want them to eat correctly with respect for others who are eating with them. That's all I ask. Personally, I don’t have any problems with it, but it is not the way you see people eat every day. I have never seen somebody eat with a spoon and a fork at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93827",
"title": "Human nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Malnutrition.:Mental agility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing long-term habits of healthy eating has a positive effect on a cognitive and spatial memory capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29265347",
"title": "Food choice",
"section": "Section::::Social influences.:Presence and behavior of others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Awareness Although the presence and behavior of others can have a strong impact on eating behavior, many individuals are not aware of these effects, and instead tend to attribute their eating behavior primarily to other factors such as hunger and taste. Relatedly, people tend to perceive factors like cost and health effects as significantly more influential than social norms in determining their own fruit and vegetable consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22569186",
"title": "Eating recovery",
"section": "Section::::Mindfulness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "By practicing mindful self-awareness, eating recovery learn to examine their thoughts, feelings, memories and bodily sensations from an objective point of view. Patients are encouraged to let go of self-centered thinking to achieve a state wherein individuals are able to observe their thoughts and understand their subconscious motivations—sexual, material, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual. This comprehension builds calmness and patience, minimizing the need to rely on an eating disorder as a coping mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11684015",
"title": "Overeaters Anonymous",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Abstinence in OA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The program suggests that members identify the foods that \"trigger\" overeating. Since individuals are responsible to define their own plan of eating, they are able to change their plan of eating if their needs and understanding of their compulsions change, without that change constituting a breach of abstinence. Members are encouraged to seek counsel with other individuals before making such changes, generally including a member or members of the OA fellowship, to validate that the reasons are sound and not unwittingly a decision based on underlying compulsion.\n",
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6454bw
|
Was there a period in the 19th century when Portugal was essentially governed from Brazil?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are correct. But as you might guess the situation was far more complicated than that.\n\nIn 1803 the UK and France went back to war. Portugal was a long standing ally of England, but wanted no part of war with Napoleon. So the regent João (later João VI) tried to walk a line of neutrality between them. João was in a precarious position as he was ruling on behalf of his insane mother Maria I, and not by his own authority.\n\nIn 1807 Napoleon demanded that Portugual join the continental system, close their ports to the British, and seize British property. João not wanting to piss off his British allies only did part of what Napoleon wanted, stoping short of seizing property. He hoped that would be enough to appease Napoleon while stil not upsetting the British too much. It wasn't enough and by November Napoleon had troops marching on Lisbon.\n\nOn November 29th, some 15,000 Portuguese royalty, nobility, and attendants boarded Portuguese and British ships and sailed for Brazil. On December 1st general Jean-Andoche Junot entered Portugal. Portugal was divided into three zones of occupation and the Spanish and French took over rule of the country.\n\nThe Portuguese populous didn't take too kindly to the occupation. In 1808 the locals joined in popular uprisings in both Spain and Portugal kicking off the Peninsular war. In 1809 the future Duke of Wellington arrived and drove the French out of Portugal. The French were back in country shortly after, and especially the north of Portugal was invaded and liberated several times. In 1811 Wellington was able to push out of Portugal for good, and the rest of the Peninsular war was fought exclusively in Spain. During these first few years it's hard to say anyone was ruling Portugal, let alone the Portuguese court in distant Rio. Rule either fell to whatever local politicians could hold, or to whichever military officer happened to be closest. \n\nBefore long the British officer, William Beresford was made Marshal and commander in chief of the Portuguese army, in March of 1809. He also acted more or less as the military governor of Portugal throughout the rest of the Napoleonic wars. As time passed this role was made more and more official, but it was largely just the Brazilian court recognizing the power he had already just simply seized. As the years passed, even after the war ended, he made trips every couple of years to Rio where he was consistently invested with more and more power.\n\nThe Portuguese were very unhappy with this turn of events. Once the war was over they had expected to see the court return to Lisbon. They wanted a return to preeminent status in the empire, and they wanted their British overlord to go away. So in 1820 when Beresford returned from a visit to the Court in Rio, he found a revolution in progress, and the locals didn't even let him off his ship. The revolutionaries demanded a return of the crown, that Brazil be downgraded back to a colony, and a constitution. By 1822 got everything they wanted. \n\nSo while nominally Portugal was ruled by Brazil for 15 years or so, in practice war and insurrection greatly limited the court's practical control. Functionally Portugal was ruled by no one or everyone depending on local conditions. Little thought was given to the opinions of the far away court in Rio. Most of all it was ruled by a British general who's authority was half appointed and half seized. It's hard to say that there was ever a point that Portugal was essentially ruled from Brazil.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "269408",
"title": "Colonial Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Administrative evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In 1808, the Portuguese Court was transferred to Brazil as direct consequence of the invasion of Portugal during the Napoleonic Wars. The office of Viceroy of Brazil ceased to exist upon the arrival of the Royal Family in Rio de Janeiro, since the Prince Regent, the future King Jonh VI, assumed personal control of the government of the colony, that became the provisional seat of the whole Portuguese Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4160235",
"title": "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed in 1815, following the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil during the Napoleonic invasions of Portugal, and it continued to exist for about one year after the return of the Court to Europe, being \"de facto\" dissolved in 1822, when Brazil proclaimed its independence. The dissolution of the United Kingdom was accepted by Portugal and formalized \"de jure\" in 1825, when Portugal recognized the independent Empire of Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44531",
"title": "History of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::1580 succession crisis, Iberian Union and decline of the Empire.:Decline of the Portuguese Empire under the Philippine Dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "After the 16th century, Portugal gradually saw its wealth and influence decrease. Portugal was officially an autonomous state, but in actuality, the country was in a personal union with the Spanish crown from 1580 to 1640. The \"Council of Portugal\" remained independent inasmuch as it was one of the key administrative units of the Castilian monarchy, legally on equal terms with the Council of the Indies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21915713",
"title": "Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1300,
"text": "The transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil occurred with the strategic retreat of Queen Maria I of Portugal, Prince Regent John, also referred to as Dom João or Dom João VI, and the Braganza royal family and its court of nearly 15,000 people from Lisbon on November 29, 1807. The Braganza royal family departed for the Portuguese colony of Brazil just days before Napoleonic forces invaded Lisbon on December 1. The Portuguese crown remained in Brazil from 1808 until the Liberal Revolution of 1820 led to the return of John VI of Portugal on April 26, 1821. For thirteen years, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, functioned as the capital of the Kingdom of Portugal in what some historians call a \"metropolitan reversal\", i.e., a colony exercising governance over the entirety of the (in this case Portuguese) empire. The period in which the court was located in Rio brought significant changes to the city and its residents, and can be interpreted through several perspectives. It had profound impacts on Brazilian society, economics, infrastructure, and politics. The transfer of the king and the royal court \"represented the first step toward Brazilian independence, since the king immediately opened the ports of Brazil to foreign shipping and turned the colonial capital into the seat of government.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "639342",
"title": "Brazilian Portuguese",
"section": "Section::::History.:Portuguese language in Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Beginning in the early 18th century, Portugal's government made efforts to expand the use of Portuguese throughout the colony, particularly because its consolidation in Brazil would help guarantee to Portugal the lands in dispute with Spain (according to various treaties signed in the 18th century, those lands would be ceded to the people who effectively occupied them). Under the administration of the Marquis of Pombal (1750–1777), Brazilians started to favour the use of Portuguese, as the Marquis expelled the Jesuit missionares (who had taught Língua Geral) and prohibited the use of Nhengatu, or Lingua Franca.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9352542",
"title": "Kingdom of Portugal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "After the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640–1668, the kingdom passed to the House of Braganza and thereafter to the House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. From this time, the influence of Portugal declined, but it remained a major power due to its most valuable colony, Brazil. After the independence of Brazil, Portugal sought to establish itself in Africa, but was ultimately forced to yield to the British interests, leading to the collapse of the monarchy in the 5 October 1910 revolution and the establishment of the First Portuguese Republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "269408",
"title": "Colonial Brazil",
"section": "Section::::The Royal Court in Brazil (1808–1821).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "In March 1808, the court arrived in Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, during the Congress of Vienna, Prince João created the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (\"Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves\"), elevating Brazil to the rank of Portugal and increasing its administrative independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1n3b8y
|
why does steam/valve insist that linux is the future of gaming?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a variety of reasons, I'm probably not the best person to try and answer this, but I'll give it a shot.\n\nFirstly Linux is highly optimized and can be dedicated to running just steam whereas with windows, you will have to run heaps of their applications.\n\nWith Linux being so streamlined, a player can have cheaper components and have a game run amazingly.\n\nWith steam making the big move towards Linux, it will force the GPU produces to be more open with their driver creation and to create better drivers.\n\nWith more than Microsoft as an OS, developers are more likely to use an open source encoder which will allow more platforms to play and thus more money for the creator.\n\nUltimately, it will be cheaper for the gamer as they wont have to buy an OS also. It will be better for the industry as more people can play great games.\n\n\nThis is just things I have picked up about it from reading around, though it could be a bit off with stuff there.\n\nEDIT: simple spelling errors and some grammar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several reasons for Valve pushing Linux or specifically SteamOS.\n\nFirst reason is streamlined PC gaming, providing a more console like experience where everything just (usually) works. I.e. by taking all the weird crap people often have installed on their Windows machines out of the loop and instead just provide a gaming focused OS with good driver support there should be far less of the compatibility issues often associated with PC gaming.\n\nSecond, is Valve trying to optimize graphics and audio performance, although to be honest I doubt they can really do it that much better than Microsoft. You can say a lot about MS but DirectX is actually pretty good. I think the whole L4D2 working better on Linux is more about Valve wanting to create a good story for their Linux support than any inherent Linux performance edge.\n\nThird, what I believe is the most important reason and the reason Valve don't talk about is, platform control. Valve sees what Microsoft is doing with the Windows Store in Windows 8 as a major threat. On Windows 8 RT devices, the only way to install apps is the Windows Store. Valve fears that Microsoft will eventually move in the same direction with non-RT devices, this would be a deathblow to the Steam platform. Such a move from Microsoft will take time, but Windows 8 is the first step and Valve recognized that they would need to move early to counter it.\n\nBy creating their own platform, SteamOS, Valve gains complete control. They can kiss competition from Origin and other digital game pushers’ goodbye. I can promise you that in SteamOS you only buy from the Steam platform. Using the trusted platform technology already built into many PCs today, they could also make SteamOS more resistant to game piracy, a huge incentive for game publishers to support SteamOS.\n\nSo yeah, I’m excited about SteamOS as much as most here on reddit, but I doubt it will be a huge gaming revolution for Linux distros that aren't SteamOS and don't think that Valve is doing this out of the goodness of their hearts. This is a business decision, plain and simple. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe the most important factor seems to be that Microsoft have started moving towards windows no longer being an open operating system (with the introduction of the windows 8 store)\n\nIf this happened (it hasn't yet any software can be run on windows with no problems) then Microsoft could start asking steam for a cut of the money from all sales, which steam don't want.\n\nWith large companies motivation is almost always money, right now steam can sell on to windows with no fees being paid to Microsoft. With windows 8 Microsoft laid the groundwork for windows to become a lot less open, requiring a fee to publish software for the OS, much like the IoS store or Xbox. In response to this it seems steam are laying the groundwork to fully transition its service to free (for them) open platforms, Steam OS and Linux.\n\nThe reason i believe this is a larger factor than anything else is that before Microsoft made these moves towards a more closed system i saw very little from steam that indicated they cared at all about linux as an OS for gaming.\n\nI also don't believe that Linux will ever be a widely used home/office operating system without a complete rethink of its user interface systems (or unless programming and computer science become compulsory)\n\nalso where i say linux read Ubuntu as that is the linux version i have most experience with",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Microsoft really is the gatekeeper on PC gaming. And let's face it, they have a conflict of interest in helping PC gaming flourish. They have sunk tens of millions into their proprietary gaming platform. Others here have already touched on Windows 8 so I won't repeat that, but combine that with the increase in tablet/laptop sales and declining desktop sales the writing is on the wall if we stay current course. Valve is diversifying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of companies have pegged linux as the future of a lot of industries. It's attractive because it is open and easy to customize to the needs of a specific idea. For example, android is linux based and in a short 5 years has revolutionized the mobile phone industry. We are now using android to game both on consoles like ouya and phones and tablets.\n\nValve is putting a lot of money into optimizing linux for gaming. With increased interest you will see better hardware drivers. The most recent builds of valves source run just as well under linux as they do on windows.\n\nAs for game availability, I believe \"If you build it, they will come.\" is appropriate here. With Valve dedicating so much effort to the platform, their ability to work with game developers to not only convince them of their ideas but help them accomplish them...its just a matter of time before this blows up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dev: \"Hey Sony, can I make a game for PS4?\"\n\nSony: \"Sure, for a huge platform licensing fee.\"\n\nDev: \"Hey Microsoft, can I make a game for XB1?\"\n\nMicrosoft: \"Sure, for a huge platform licensing fee\"\n\nDev: \"Hey Valve, can I make a game for SteamOS?\"\n\nValve: \"Sure.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few reasons.\n\n1) From a business standpoint Valve doesn't like relying on Microsofts good graces to continue to exist. Valve started Steam when Windows was considered an \"open\" operating system. You can install any program you want from anywhere with no approval process. Lately in Windows 8 Microsoft has started to close down the OS. Valve is concerned about its long term viability if the dominant OS is closed. Valve wants PC Gaming to remain on an open operating system, it's good for not only their business but for the whole industry.\n\n2) From a consumer standpoint Valve thinks it can provide a better experience for its customers if it has its own OS. Valve can fix a lot of issues that plague PC gaming (compatibility, drivers, ease of installation). An operating system designed for gaming will be inherently better for gaming than one that isn't.\n\n3) Another potential reason is because of PC industry trends. People aren't buying desktops anymore. Large PCs are starting to trend towards a niche market of gamers and a/v professionals. Regular consumers are preferring laptops, tablets and phones. Microsoft is beginning to target the smaller, touch based form factors which has a completely different set of priorities than a gaming computer. Essentially Valve is trying to keep PC Gaming in its current form alive.\n\nWhen it comes to market share, the existing Linux installation base doesn't really matter to Valve. Its best to think of SteamOS as a new console platform that happens to run on basically any machine imaginable. It already has 200+ games and supports streaming of games that aren't compatible with it. Compared to other consoles, that is a huge starting lineup of titles with a MASSIVE catalog of streaming titles. All in all its a pretty attractive proposition for Valve, consumers, developers and hardware manufacturers. It's pretty much a win for everyone but Microsoft (who kind of did this to themselves).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40629237",
"title": "SteamOS",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "During a panel at LinuxCon in 2013, Valve co-founder and executive director Gabe Newell stated that he believed \"Linux and open source are the future of gaming\", going on to say that the company is aiding game developers who want to make games compatible with Linux, and that they would be making an announcement the following week related to introducing Linux into the living room. On September 20, 2013, Valve posted a statement on its website titled \"The Steam Universe is Expanding in 2014\" which teased three new announcements from them related to \"even more ways to connect the dots for customers who want Steam in the living-room\". The first announcement was revealed on September 23 as SteamOS, with Valve saying they had \"come to the conclusion that the environment best suited to delivering value to customers is an operating system built around Steam itself\". A large focus of the reveal was the openness of the operating system, with it being announced that users would be able to alter or replace any part of the software, and that it would be free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36924601",
"title": "McPixel",
"section": "Section::::Release and reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "As of October 2013, a Linux version exists, but is not yet available on Steam. Kamiński has stated on the Steam Forums that this is because the Adobe Air run-time can not be distributed via Steam. To fix this and other issues, Kamiński has stated that he intended to rewrite the game engine to not use Adobe Air. Kamiński announced the rewrite in June 2013, writing that he hoped to be done by September 2013, though there as been no news as of September 2014. As of June 2019, the Linux version is not on Steam, however Proton can be used to run the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8761262",
"title": "Criticism of Linux",
"section": "Section::::Desktop use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Critics of Linux on the desktop have frequently argued that a lack of top-selling video games on the platform holds adoption back. As of September 2015, the Steam gaming service has 1,500 games available on Linux, compared to 2,323 games for Mac and 6,500 Windows games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40629144",
"title": "Steam Machine (hardware platform)",
"section": "Section::::Software.:Games and applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "Games will be developed to run natively on Linux and SteamOS. Linux compatibility is already a feature offered through the Steamworks application programming interface (API), and according to Paradox Interactive, all of their recent games that have been designed to work with Steam under Linux will also run under SteamOS without additional modifications. Valve will not make games that are exclusive to SteamOS or Steam Machines, and has cautioned third-party developers against making games exclusive to the platform. However, Valve will not stop developers from making SteamOS-exclusive games, particularly those that are best suited for playing from the living room. Players will also be able to stream games from regular PCs running Steam to Steam Machines, allowing access to games that are only available for Windows or OS X. Through SteamPlay, users can play games available on SteamOS that they already own on Windows or OS X and will not need to repurchase the title. Also, games running on a Steam Machine can be streamed to a Steam Link device via a wireless LAN connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "898503",
"title": "Steam (software)",
"section": "Section::::Platforms.:Linux.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Valve announced in July 2012 that it was developing a Steam client for Linux and modifying the Source engine to work natively on Linux, based on the Ubuntu distribution. This announcement followed months of speculation, primarily from the website Phoronix that had discovered evidence of Linux developing in recent builds of Steam and other Valve software. Newell stated that getting Steam and games to work on Linux is a key strategy for Valve; Newell called the closed nature of Microsoft Windows 8, \"a catastrophe for everyone in the PC space\", and that Linux would maintain \"the openness of the platform\". Valve is extending support to any developers that want to bring their games to Linux, by \"making it as easy as possible for anybody who's engaged with usputting their games on Steam and getting those running on Linux\", according to Newell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9914431",
"title": "Linux gaming",
"section": "Section::::Adoption by video games.:Proprietary games.:Available on Steam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Valve officially released Steam for Linux on February 14, 2013. the number of Linux-compatible games on Steam exceeds 5,000. With the launch of SteamOS, a distribution of Linux made by Valve intended to be used for HTPC gaming, that number is quickly growing. Listed below are some notable games available on Steam for Linux:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40629237",
"title": "SteamOS",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "SteamOS is designed primarily for playing video games away from a PC (such as from the couch in one's living room) by providing a console-like experience using generic PC hardware that can connect directly to a television. It can run games natively that have been developed for Linux and purchased from the Steam store. Users are also able to stream games from their Windows, Mac or Linux computers to one running SteamOS, and it incorporates the same family sharing and restrictions as Steam on the desktop. Valve claims that it has \"achieved significant performance increases in graphics processing\" through SteamOS. The operating system is open source, allowing users to build on or adapt the source code, though the actual Steam client is closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67t1ld
|
title ll of net neutrality. how could isp's benefit from having control of internet speed on certain websites and apps?
|
[
{
"answer": "They would get the power to censor as they see fit (we don't want you to visit site X, so we'll just restrict all data flow to and from it) and they would get the opportunity to add extra fees - an example would be to limit data speeds to the point where streaming becomes impossible, and then they'd charge you extra to raise the limit so you can watch Netflix, or have Netflix pay them extra not to do that so their customers can access their service.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "100245",
"title": "Internet service provider",
"section": "Section::::History.:Net neutrality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1640,
"text": "On 23 April 2014, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was reported to be considering a new rule that will permit ISPs to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier net neutrality position. A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 15 May 2014, the FCC decided to consider two options regarding Internet services: first, permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving net neutrality. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 16 January 2015, Republicans presented legislation, in the form of a U.S. Congress H.R. discussion draft bill, that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation affecting Internet service providers. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying (\"with some caveats\") Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 to the Internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify Internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, ensure net neutrality. The FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to \"The New York Times\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8426122",
"title": "Net neutrality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Regulatory history.:FCC Open Internet Order (2010).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The net neutrality rule did not keep ISPs from charging more for faster access. The measure was denounced by net neutrality advocates as a capitulation to telecommunication companies such as allowing them to discriminate on transmission speed for their profit, especially on mobile devices like the iPad, while pro-business advocates complained about any regulation of the Internet at all. Republicans in Congress announced to reverse the rule through legislation. Advocates of net neutrality criticized the changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41222249",
"title": "2014 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Federal Communications Commission announces that it will consider a new rule that will allow Internet service providers to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier net neutrality position. A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38767094",
"title": "2014 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "BULLET::::- 23 April – The Federal Communications Commission announces that it will consider a new rule that will allow Internet service providers to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier net neutrality position. A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41275532",
"title": "Tom Wheeler",
"section": "Section::::Net neutrality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "In late April 2014, the contours of a document leaked that indicated that the FCC under Wheeler would consider announcing rules that would violate net neutrality principles by making it easier for companies to pay ISPs (including cable companies and wireless ISPs) to provide faster \"lanes\" for delivering their content to Internet users. These plans received substantial backlash from activists, the mainstream press, and some other FCC commissioners. In May 2014, over 100 Internet companies—including Google, Microsoft, eBay, and Facebook—signed a letter to Wheeler voicing their disagreement with his plans, saying they represented a \"grave threat to the Internet\". As of May 15, 2014, the \"Internet fast lane\" rules passed with a 3–2 vote. They were then open to public discussion that ended July 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1398166",
"title": "Net neutrality",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Favoring private networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Proponents of net neutrality argue that without new regulations, Internet service providers would be able to profit from and favor their own private protocols over others. ISPs are able to encourage the use of specific services by using private networks to discriminate what data is counted against bandwidth caps. For example, Comcast struck a deal with Microsoft that allowed users to stream television through the Xfinity app on their Xbox 360s without it affecting their bandwidth limit. However, utilizing other television streaming apps, such as Netflix, HBO Go, and Hulu, counted towards the limit. Comcast denied that this infringed on net neutrality principles since \"it runs its Xfinity for Xbox service on its own, private Internet protocol network\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44677927",
"title": "Net neutrality law",
"section": "Section::::Degrees of enforcement.:Individual prioritization without throttling or blocking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Some ISPs, such as Comcast, oppose blocking or throttling, but have argued that they are allowed to charge websites for faster data delivery. AT&T has made a broad commitment to net neutrality, but has also argued for their right to offer websites paid prioritization and in favor of its current sponsored data agreements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9dc72a
|
how do arms deals work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The deal is between the UK government and the Saudi government. Regulations prevent BAE Systems (or anybody else) from just selling dangerous weapons on a retail basis. They sell them to the UK government, deliver them in Saudi Arabia, and get paid by the UK government with money they got from the Saudi government.\n\nIf you just set up your own munitions factory and sell to anybody - you're a terrorist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57233472",
"title": "Glossary of medicine",
"section": "Section::::A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "BULLET::::- Arm – is the part of the upper limb between the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the elbow joint. In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the forearm which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the hand. Anatomically the shoulder girdle with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term \"brachium\" may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3466604",
"title": "Ground warfare",
"section": "Section::::Combined arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Combined arms is an approach to warfare which seeks to integrate different arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects, such as, self-propelled artillery, mechanized infantry and so forth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8849119",
"title": "Humeroulnar joint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "When the forearm is extended and supinated, the axis of the arm and forearm are not in the same line; the arm forms an obtuse angle with the forearm, known as the carrying angle. During flexion, however, the forearm and the hand tend to approach the middle line of the body, and thus enable the hand to be easily carried to the face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19525",
"title": "Muay Thai",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Clinch and neck wrestling (\"Chap kho\").\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "BULLET::::- arm clinch: One or both hands controls the inside of the defender's arm(s) and where the second hand if free is in the front clinch position. This clinch is used to briefly control the opponent before applying a knee strike or throw\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55908907",
"title": "Coastal Troops of the Russian Navy",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Each Arm achieves certain objectives on its own and in conjunction with the other Arms of the Coastal Troops and Forces of the Navy, as well as formations and units of the other Services and Arms of the Armed Forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52854347",
"title": "Arms (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1383,
"text": "\"Arms\" is a 3D fighting sports game in which up to four players can control one of a variety of fighters, with the player able to perform basic fighting actions using extendable arms such as punching, throwing, blocking, and dodging. \"Arms\" features fifteen playable fighters, with some of them being released as downloadable content. Each fighter starts with three unique Arms that can be selected in battle, but the use of all other fighters' Arms can be unlocked in the Get Arms mode. All fighters also have unique attributes in combat. When the attack meter is fully charged, players are able to unleash a high-damage \"rush attack\" against their opponents. Players can also charge their attacks to temporarily increase damage and utilize elemental effects. Each character has a different set of abilities and unique Arms for different strategies. Players are able to use the system's Joy-Con motion controls or standard button inputs with controllers such as the Pro Controller to operate each Arm individually. Players are also able to customize their Arm load outs, with each Arm being able to be selected independently. Every Arm is different with elemental attributes and varying weights that affect gameplay. Up to four players are able to play in a single match, either in a three or four-way free-for-all, or in a two-on-two mode in which teammates are tethered together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24959708",
"title": "Zumanity",
"section": "Section::::Acts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "BULLET::::- Only if Hand to Hand is out; different from Hand to Hand in that this act uses many maneuvers that require holding the bodies together in different shapes, whereas hand to hand involves many maneuvers in which the partner is lifted up using the hands and feet\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
78ncwf
|
Was the collapse of Rome felt/realised in China?
|
[
{
"answer": "I asked this question a few years ago\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe top comment by /u/Ambarenya states that the Chinese were at least vaguely aware of the Roman Empire's existence and had at least some limited communication. After a while the Chinese noticed that the limited communication had faded down to barely a whisper, giving the impression that something had happened to the Romans. By the 7th century the Chinese are at least aware of the Byzantine empire, which they identify as a successor to the now defunct Roman Empire",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "923406",
"title": "Fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Historical approaches.:Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since. Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory (and, as a subsidiary theme, the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire). Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty, which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12216807",
"title": "Nguyễn Trường Tộ",
"section": "Section::::Advocacy.:Power imbalance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Tộ related this hypothesis for the explanation of the collapse of Rome to the contemporary power imbalance between East and West by asserting that European states had learned from Rome's fall and replaced literary studies with the scientific study of natural phenomena: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40863234",
"title": "The Coming Collapse of China",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The Coming Collapse of China is a book by Gordon G. Chang, published in 2001, in which he argues that the Communist Party of China is the root cause of many of the People's Republic of China's problems and will cause its collapse in the near future. He claimed that the hidden nonperforming loans of the \"Big Four\" Chinese State banks would likely bring down China's financial system and its communist government in 2006, 2011, 2012, 2016, and 2017. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29240061",
"title": "Spirit way",
"section": "Section::::History.:Southern Dynasties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "The fall of the Han Empire was followed by a period of upheaval, when China was divided between a number of short-lived Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Wei and Western Jin rulers (3rd century AD) seemed to have frowned upon funeral art extravagance of the fallen Han Dynasty, generally shunning above-ground statuary at their tomb sites. Literary sources attest to the resumption of the spirit way construction already by the time of the Eastern Jin (4th century AD), but the surviving spirit way statuary from the \"period of disunion\" pertains almost exclusively to the last four of the six Southern Dynasties: Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and Chen, which were usually centered around Jiankang (today's Nanjing). Around thirty of their tomb statuary groups, in various degrees of preservation, are known to modern researchers. They are located primarily in the eastern and southeastern suburbs of Nanjing (Qixia and Jiangning Districts) and in Danyang, farther east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34476548",
"title": "History of the Great Wall of China",
"section": "Section::::Modern China (1911–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China's future trajectory from its past. Naturally, the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past. For example, an influential writer of this period, Lu Xun, harshly criticized the \"mighty and accursed Great Wall\" in a short essay: \"In reality, it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain ... [It] surrounds everyone.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38005076",
"title": "History of Western civilization before AD 500",
"section": "Section::::The fall of Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In 476 the western Roman Empire, which had ruled modern-day Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and England for centuries, collapsed due to a combination of economic decline, and drastically reduced military strength which allowed invasion by barbarian tribes originating in southern Scandinavia and modern-day northern Germany. Historical opinion is divided as to the reasons for the fall of Rome, but the societal collapse encompassed both the gradual disintegration of the political, economic, military, and other social institutions of Rome as well as the barbarian invasions of Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49824",
"title": "Grand Canal (China)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Tang to Yuan dynasties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "After the An Shi Rebellion (755–763), the economy of northern China was greatly damaged and never recovered due to wars and to constant flooding of the Yellow River. Such a case occurred in the year 858 when an enormous flood along the Grand Canal inundated thousands of acres of farmland and killed tens of thousands of people in the North China Plain. Such an unfortunate event could reduce the legitimacy of a ruling dynasty by causing others to perceive it as having lost the Mandate of Heaven; this was a good reason for dynastic authorities to maintain a smooth and efficient canal system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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